Secondary education in the European Union : structures, organisation and administration.
Date: 2010-06-24
Institutions: Eurydice
Subjects: democratisation of education, educational system, planning of the school year, schooling, secondary education, teacher, teacher training, teaching curriculum

EURYDICE 

Secondary  Education 
in the European Union: 
Structures, Organisation  and 
Administration 

E D U C A TI 
T R A I N I NG 
Y O U TH 

E U R O P E AN 
C O M M I S S I ON 

EURYDICE 
The Information  Network 
on Education  in  Europe 

EURYDICE 

Secondary Education 
in the European Union:* 
Structures, Organisation and 
Administration 

1997 

* This study also covers the EFTA/EEA countries. 

EURYDICE 
The Information Network on Education in Europe 

This document  is published  by the  European  Unit of EURYDICE  with  financial  support  from the  European 
Commission  (DG  XXII:  Education, Training and Youth). 

Available  ¡n DE-EN-FR 
D/1997/4008/10 
ISBN  2-87116-263-8 

The  contents  of  this  publication  may  be  reproduced  in  part,  except  for  commercial  purposes,  provided  that  the 
extract  is preceded  by  a  complete  reference  to  'EURYDICE,  the  Information  Network  on  Education  in  Europe', 
followed  by the date of the edition  of the  document. 

Requests for  permission  to reproduce the entire document must be made to the  European  Unit. 

European  Unit of  EURYDICE 
Rued'Arlon  15 
B-1050  Brussels 
Tel.:32-2-238.30.11 
Fax : 32-2-230.65.62 
E-mail:  EURYDICE.UEE@euronet.be 

Table of contents 

Foreword 

Introduction 

I. Structural  organisation 

1.  The place of secondary  education  within the education  system 
2.  Educational  guidance 
3.  Pupil mobility in lower secondary  education 
4.  Distribution  of the school population  among the various  secondary 

education  structures 

5.  Conclusions 
6.  Glossary 

II. Organisation  of education 

1.  Organisation  of school time 
2.  Subjects  taught 
3.  Assessment  and certification 
4.  Educational  measures to combat  school failure 

III. Secondary  teacher training 

1.  Structures  of initial teacher training 
2.  Pedagogical  and practical  training in initial teacher education 
3.  Importance  of in-service teacher training 

IV. Administration 

Introduction 
1.  Organisation 
2.  Content  and distribution  of teaching 
3.  Pedagogical  arrangements  and certification 
4.  Management  of teaching  staff 
5.  Summary 

V. Index to Maps, Graphs and Tables 

5 

7 

9 

9 
58 
62 

63 
66 
68 

73 
73 
83 
88 
97 

99 
100 
I ll 
117 

119 
119 
121 
125 
131 
134 
137 

139 

Foreword 

At  the  end  of the  twentieth  century,  secondary  education  in  Europe  is  still  confronted  with  some  very 
basic challenges  in relation to the education  and development  of young people. At the present time, this 
is  no  longer  so  much  a  matter  of  democratising  access  to  this  level  of  education  as  of  adapting  its 
content  and  the methods  used  in schools.  Since the development  of mass  secondary  education  in  many 
European  countries  from  the  beginning  of  the  1970s,  the  groups  involved  have  never  been  so 
heterogeneous and the education  systems have had to face  the need to find  the means to ensure  equality 
of opportunity  and  of  success  for  all young  people.  Moreover,  technological  change  brings  new  needs 
and  new  demands  for  qualifications  which  put  schools  under  increasing  pressure,  more  particularly  at 
secondary  level. These problems  are at the  centre of the many  discussions taking place  in the world  of 
education  at both  national  and  European  level. 

So as to  produce  a reliable  comparative  study  on the way  this  education  is organised,  the  EURYDICE 
network  has taken  the  existing  literature  on the  subject  as  its  starting point,  in particular  the  first  draft 
of an analysis  carried  out  for the  European  Commission  in  1995 by the  Lumière  University  of  Lyon  in 
France.  Using  this  analysis  as  a  basis,  the  network  has  done  considerable  work  to  guarantee  the 
accuracy  and  reliability  of the data, fill  in missing  information  and  especially  enrich the report with  as 
much  relevant  information  as possible. The  aspects  studied  cover the  existing education  structures, the 
organisation  of  education,  teacher  training,  and  finally  the  way  in  which  secondary  education  is 
managed  in Europe nowadays. The three EFTA/EEA'  countries have also been  included  in the study. 

An  analysis  of the  same type  dealing  with  primary  education  was  carried  out  by  EURYDICE  in  1994. 
The  task  proved  much  more  complex  for  the  secondary  level.  With  the  multiplicity  of  branches  and 
optional  subjects  as well  as the various patterns  of administration  found  in education  at this  level,  it  is 
not  easy  to  describe  each  national  situation  and  put  it  into  a  comparative  context  both  reliably  and 
without oversimplification.  We hope we have been  equal to this challenge and trust that the reader  will 
find  this  study  useful  in helping to  identify  the place  of  secondary  education  in each  education  system 
and to provide a better understanding of how it works. 

We  should  like  to  thank  the National  Units  in the  EURYDICE  network  for  the  essential  contribution 
they  have  made towards  the  reliability  of the  national  information  used  and  the  overall  quality  of  this 
study. 

Luce Pépin 
Head of the European  Unit 
of  EURYDICE 

June  1997 

Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway are participating in the Eurydice Network under Agreement on the European Economic Area. 

Introduction 

Introduction 

At the  beginning  of this  century, the task  of describing  the  institutional  and  educational  functioning  of 
secondary  education  structures  in  Europe  would  undoubtedly  have  been  less  complex  and  less 
redoubtable  than  today.  At  that  time,  secondary  education  consisted  primarily  of  a  collection  of 
institutions  whose  aim  was  to  prepare  pupils  for  universities  and  which  provided  an  essentially  arts 
education  reserved  for  a  social  elite.  Secondary  education  was  an  easy  subject  to  tackle  for  any 
researcher  in  comparative  education,  for  two  reasons.  First,  it  had  an  educational  and  social  function 
that could  be identified  clearly within each  country  and, second, the systems in different  countries  were 
largely  similar. 

How can we today use the same terms of reference  to study educational  structures which not only  differ 
sharply  from  one  country  to  the  next  but  are  also  liable  to  changes  in  boundaries  within  a  single 
country, depending on which government  is in power and which  educational  reform  is adopted?  How is 
it possible to fully  grasp a concept  of secondary  education  that  is evolving  in line with  the  construction 
of  Europe?  Formerly,  in  the  Europe  of  the  Twelve,  primary  schooling  was  clearly  separate  from 
secondary  schooling  that  was  divided  into  lower  and  upper  stages.  The  accession  of  Austria,  Finland 
and  Sweden -  and the  influence  of EFTA countries  such as Iceland  and Norway -  have  served  to make 
less  of  an  exception  of  the  structure  of  the  Danish  folkeskole,  a  single  school  which  provides 
continuous education  for children  from  age 7 to  16 or  17. The initially very marked distinction  between 
primary and secondary education  has today become rather  blurred. 

Any  attempt  to  define  secondary  education  and  identify  its  structures  thus  implies  making  certain 
choices.  For  example,  should  we  include  those  short  post-primary  structures  which  do  not  lead  to 
education  for  pupils  up to the  age  of  18 as  part  of  secondary  schooling?  In  countries  where  pupils  are 
streamed  into different  types of education  at the end of the primary  school, transition  mechanisms  have 
been  provided  to  postpone  final  selection  and  encourage  pupil  mobility  between  the  various  types  of 
education.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  exclude  post-primary  and  pre-vocational  education  from  the 
secondary  sector because this would  fail  to take  into account the widespread  efforts  made to bridge the 
gaps  between  the  separate  school  career  paths  and  to  cater  for  the  needs  of  socially  and  educationally 
diverse groups. 

Finally,  virtually  all  countries  have  introduced  measures  to  raise  the  status  of  vocational  education. 
These  often  take  the  form  of  establishing  equivalence  between  technical  and  general  qualifications  or 
the  accreditation  of  work  experience  for  those  wishing  to  resume  their  studies.  These  efforts  are 
bringing  down  the  final  barrier  which  once  clearly  separated  vocational  training  from  more  general 
education. 

Over  the  past  century  everything  has  become  more  complex.  Compulsory  schooling  was  introduced 
and has been  extended almost everywhere  in Europe, so that  it no  longer means primary  education  plus 
supplementary  courses.  Now  pupils  cannot  legally  leave  school  until  they  have  completed  lower 
secondary  education  or  even  part  of  upper  secondary  education.  Secondly,  the  démocratisation  of 
education  which  has become  so pronounced  during the second  half of this century  has opened  the  door 
to  secondary  education  for  social  classes  which  had  previously  been  excluded.  Finally,  technological 
changes and the growth  in the service sector now require a higher  level of education, and people can no 
longer content themselves  as they  once did with  a more rudimentary  vocational  education.  In this way, 
demographic,  social,  economic  and  political  changes  have  combined  to  make  new  demands  on 
secondary  education.  No  area  of  secondary  education  -  whether  it  be  structures,  the  organisation  of 
education  or teacher training -  is left  untouched. 

Introduction 

Indeed, the  past  three  decades  have  radically  transformed  the  definition  of  secondary  education  which 
had  gradually  evolved  over a period  of time. Today  secondary  schooling  involves the great majority  of 
young people. What  impact will this development  have on the administration  and  funding  of  secondary 
education?  How will  its  structure  enable  it to  respond  to the  new  demands  being  imposed  on  it?  What 
changes  will  there  be  in the way  education  is run?  In  short,  how  will  the  secondary  education  systems 
in each country rise to these new  challenges? 

The following  four  chapters aim to facilitate  an approach  to these various  issues. 

The  first  chapter  addresses  the  structure  of  secondary  education,  situates  it  within  the  education 
systems as a whole, and  looks at the various branches and pupil mobility within the systems. 

The  second  chapter  deals  with  the  internal  organisation  of  secondary  schools.  It  aims  to  describe  and 
compare the situation  in the various countries  in terms of the way school time  is organised, the  subjects 
taught  and  the  types  of  assessment  and  certification  used.  This  chapter  also  deals  with  pedagogical 
approaches to combating school  failure. 

The third  chapter focuses  specifically  on initial teacher training for  secondary  education. 

The final  chapter  on administration  addresses  decision-making  and  gauges the extent to which  this  has 
been  devolved  to regional  and  local  levels, as well as to  individual  schools themselves,  in areas  such  as 
the  planning,  structure  and  educational  organisation  of  secondary  education  and  the  management  of 
teaching  staff. 

Structural  organisation 

I -  Structural organisation 

1. The place of secondary education within 
the education system 

In  this  chapter,  diagrams  will  help  to  illustrate  secondary  education  structures  in  each  of  the  15 
Member  States  of the  European  Union2 and  the  three  EFTA/EEA  countries  which  are  participating  in 
the  activities  of  Eurydice  under the Agreement  on the  European  Economic  Area.  In these  diagrams,  a 
distinction  is drawn  as far  as possible  between  upper and  lower  secondary  education, the various  types 
of  education,  the  transition  from  one  type  or  stage  of  education  to  another  and  further  education  and 
career  options.  Primary  education  and  higher  education  are  represented  in  white  on  the  diagrams  in 
order to clarify  the position  of secondary education  within the system  as a whole. 

A first  reading of these diagrams  allows  us to group countries together  according to how they  organise 
lower secondary  schooling and the transition  from  lower to upper secondary  education. 

In  Denmark,  Portugal,  Finland,  Sweden,  Iceland  and  Norway,  the  term  'secondary  education'  covers 
only  that  part  of  schooling  which  in  the  other  countries  is  considered  as  upper  secondary  education. 
Lower  secondary  education  does  not  exist  as  such.  Indeed,  in  these  six  countries,  basic  education  is 
organised  in  a  single  structure.  Consequently,  throughout  this  study,  the  last  phase  of  the  single 
educational  structure in these six countries is considered  as lower secondary  education.3 

In  Greece,  France  and  Italy,  the  two  stages  of  secondary  education  are  provided  in  separate  schools. 
The  first  stage  is said  to be  'integrated'  in that  all  pupils  follow  an  identical  general  curriculum  at  the 
Gymnasio,  Collège or Scuola  Media  respectively. At  upper  secondary  level, various types  of  education 
are on offer  to pupils who choose their school according to the type of education they wish to  follow. 

A  third  group  of  countries  share  the  same  aim  of  giving  all  pupils  basic  education  during  lower 
secondary  schooling.  These  core  skills  are  known  as socles  de  compétence  for  pupils  up  to  age  14 in 
the French  Community  of Belgium,  as, gemeenschappelijke  basisvorming  in the Flemish  Community  of 
Belgium,  compulsory  secondary  education  in  Spain,  the  Junior  Cycle  Curriculum  in  Ireland,  the 
National  Curriculum  in  England  and  Wales  and  the Northern  Ireland  Curriculum  in Northern  Ireland. 
Pupils  switching  to  vocational  education  may  be  required  to  change  institutions  at  the  end  of  lower 
secondary  education. 

In  Germany,  Austria  and  the  Netherlands,  all  pupils  also  receive  a  general  education  at  the  lower 
secondary  stage and there are common programmes  in the early years across different  types of school  -
the  Orientierungsstufe  in  Germany  and  Basisvorming  in  the  Netherlands.  Some  types  of  school  are 
restricted  to the lower secondary  stage while others provide both  lower and upper  secondary  education. 
Luxembourg  defines  two  types  of  education  from  the  beginning  of  secondary  education,  the  lycée 
général  and the lycée  technique. 

With  respect  to  mobility  between  general  and  vocational  education,  indicated  by  arrows  on  the 

The Belgian education  system  is represented  by two diagrams (one for the French and German-speaking  Communities  and the other  for 
the  Flemish  Community).  It  is likely  that  in  the  coming  years  the  education  system  of  the  German-speaking  Community  will  tend  to 
diverge  from  that  of  the  French  Community.  The  United  Kingdom  has  three  separate  education  systems,  in  England  and  Wales, 
Scotland  and Northern  Ireland, each of which has its own  diagram. 
In order to facilitate  comparison  between  countries, the various  types of national  education  system have been  grouped  according  to the 
levels defined  in the International  Standard  Classification  for  Education  (ISCED). However, when making  international  comparisons, it 
is  important  to  consider the  numerous  differences  that  exist  between  the  national  systems  of education  and  training.  Furthermore,  the 
ISCED no  longer  appears  to  cover  adequately  structural  changes  in  the  various  systems.  The  ISCED  is  currently  being  reviewed  and 
should  be  available  in  its  new  form  within  the  next  few  years.  Meanwhile,  we  follow  Eurostat  (1995),  taking  the  beginning  of  lower 
secondary  education  (ISCED 2) in the single structure to be the year in which the majority  of pupils reach  age  13 in Denmark,  Finland, 
Sweden, Iceland  and Norway, and the beginning of the  'third  stage' oí ensino  básico  in Portugal. 

Structural  organisation 

diagrams,  in  most  countries  it  is  possible  to  switch  between  types  of  education  during  the  course  of 
secondary  schooling.  The  diagrams  only  indicate  opportunities  for  switching  between  types  of 
education  and  the  reader  should  consult  the  tables  accompanying  each  diagram  in  order  to  discover 
under what conditions this  is possible (Tables 9 to 29). 

These tables  are drawn  up on  a country-by-country  basis  and  for  each  type of school, referred  to  in the 
language  of the  country.  They  specify  the  levels  of  education,  the  objectives  pursued,  the  duration  of 
compulsory  schooling, the theoretical  starting and finishing  ages, the certificates  awarded, the  available 
career and further  education  options, and whether education  is full- or part-time. 

1.1.  Objectives 
Objectives  can  be divided  into two major  categories  according  to whether the  secondary  school  system 
offers  general  or vocational  education. 

During  the  lower  secondary  stage,  the  objective  of  general  education  in  all  countries  is  to  provide 
broad-based  education  that  is  wide-ranging  and  balanced  and  enables  pupils  to  make  considered 
decisions  regarding  their  future.  Compulsory  education  in  Spain  sets  itself  the  additional  objective  of 
preparing pupils to enter  employment. 

In most  countries, the  upper  secondary  stage  of general  education  is aimed  mainly  at further  studies  in 
higher  education. 

The objective  of vocational  education  generally  is to prepare young people to enter employment  and to 
practise  an  occupation.  However,  most  countries  also  mention  in  their  objectives  the  importance  of 
general  education  in parallel  to technical  education  in order to  give  skilled  young  people the  option  of 
continuing their studies. 

1.2.  Duration 
The  duration  of  lower  secondary  education  ranges  from  two  years  in  Belgium4  to  five  or  six years  in 
Germany.  In most countries, the  lower secondary stage  lasts three or four years. 

Table  Ί.  Duration  of  lower  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

years 
3 years 

Belgium 
Denmark  (from  the  7th  to the 9th year of'folkeskole  +  a possible  10th year), Greece,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg, 
Netherlands 
ensino  básico), 
Finland  (Pemskouhi/gnmdskola  upper  stage),  Sweden  (last  three  years  of  the  Grundskola),  England,  Wales, 
and Northern  Ireland  (ages  11-14). Iceland  (years 8 to  10 of Grunnskoli), Norway (years 7 to 9  oïGrunnskole') 

level  VWO),  Portugal 

level  HAVO, 

stage  of 

(third 

(first 

first 

4 years 

3 years 
6 years 

Spain. France. Netherlands (VBO, MAVO), Austria,  Scotland.  Liechtenstein 
Germany (courses of education  leading to the Hauptschulabschluß  qualification) 
Germany  (courses of education  leading to the  Realschulabschluß  certificate  and  the  upper  secondary  gymnasiale 
Oberstufe) 

In  upper  secondary  education,  there  is also  a wide  variation  in the  duration  of  courses  in  both  general 
and  vocational  education.  A  possible  explanation  for  such  variations  may  be  that  countries  wish  to 
offer  pupils the opportunity  of gaining extra qualifications  within  secondary education  itself. 

In Belgium there are three stages of secondary education,  each of two years. The first stage  is considered  as lower secondary  education. 
From  Ï997, years 8 to  10. 

10 

Structural  organisation 

Table  2.  Duration  of  upper  secondary  general  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Denmark  (HF  course  based  on  10'  year  of  the  folkeskole),  Germany  (some  Länder),  Spain.  Ireland, 
Netherlands (HAVO), England,  Wales, Northern  Ireland (GCSE), Scotland 
Denmark  (Gymnasium, HHX, HTX), Germany (most Länder6),  Greece,  France, Ireland  (with  a transition  year), 
Italy (Scuola magistrale), Netherlands (VWO), Portugal, Finland  (±  1  year), Sweden, Norway 
Belgium  (+  a  possible  extra  year),  Italy  (Istituto  magistrale,  Liceo  artistico  -  both  +  a  possible  extra  year). 
Luxembourg,  Austria  (the  Polytechnischer  Lehrgang  lasts  only  one  year),  England,  Wales,  Northern  Ireland 
(GCE A level/AS examinations), Iceland  (stúdentspróf),  Liechtenstein  (Gymnasium) 
Italy (Liceo classico, Liceo  scientifico) 

Table  3.  Duration  of  upper  secondary  vocational  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Germany  (Berufsfachschule  between  1 and  3 years,  Fachoberschule),  Spain  (between  1 and  2  years),  Greece 
(TES),  France  (+ 2 possible  extra years),  Ireland,  Netherlands  (short  MBO,  first  level  apprenticeship).  Finland 
(from  2 to  3 years  depending  on  the  occupational  field),  the  United  Kingdom7  (England,  Wales  and  Northern 
Ireland: follows  2 years in upper secondary general  education;  and Scotland: +  1  possible extra year) 

Denmark  (vocational  education  and  training),  Germany  (vocational  education  in  the  Berufsschule  and  on-the-
job  training:  'dual  system'),  Greece  (TEL),  Ireland  (with  transition  year),  Italy  (Istituto  professionale 
+  2  possible  extra  years),  Luxembourg  (vocational  scheme),  Netherlands  (MBO),  Portugal,  Iceland 
(Skipstjórnarpróf  3.stig,  Sjúkralidapróf,  Liechtenstein  (Berufslehre  and  Berufsschule/Berufsmittelschule) 
(possibly 4 years), Norway (possibly 4 years) 

Belgium  (possibly  +  1  year),  Luxembourg,  Netherlands  (long  MBO,  second 
level  apprenticeship). 
Austria  (Berufsschule:  2  to  4  years;  berufsbildende  mittlere  Schule:  1  to  4  years),  Iceland  (Sveinspróf), 
Liechtenstein  (Kindergartenseminar) 

(Istituto 

tecnico),  Luxembourg 

Italy 
Iceland  (Vélstjórnarpróf'4.stig) 
Netherlands (third  level  apprenticeship) 

(2 

training  streams),  Austria 

(berufsbildende  höhere  Schule), 

2 years 

3 years 

4 years 

5 years 

2 years 

3 years 

4 years 

5 years 

6 years 

1.3. Age 
The  theoretical  age  for  pupils  entering  lower  secondary  education  in the  countries  under  study  varies 
between  10 and  13. 

Table  4.  Theoretical  age  of  entering  lower  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Age  10 
Age 11 
Age 12 

Age 13 

Germany (most of the Länder),  Austria 
France, Italy, England,  Wales, Northern  Ireland 
Belgium,  Greece,  Spain,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  Portugal  (third  stage  of  ensino  básico),  Scotland. 
Liechtenstein 
Denmark (7th year of folkeskole),  Finland (beginning of the upper stage oi  Peruskoulu/grundskola),  Sweden (7th 
year of the Grundskola),  Iceland (8th year of Grunnskóli), Norway (years 7 to 9 of Grunnskole") 

Entry into the second  stage takes place between the ages of  14 and  16. 

Pupils  finish  upper  secondary  education  between  the  ages  of  15 and  21, depending  on the  country  and 
on  the  type  of  institution.  Three  countries  account  for  this  wide  variation:  at  one  end  of  the  scale  is 
Austria, where certain  pupils  leave secondary education  at age  15 or  16 after  a pre-vocational  year or at 
the  end  of a course  lasting one  or two years  in a berufsbildende  mittlere  Schule; at the other  end  is the 
Netherlands,  where a long-term  apprenticeship  leads pupils to remain  in  secondary  education  up to the 
age  of  20  or  21, and  Iceland  where  most  secondary  education  courses  last  until  pupils  reach  the  age 
of 20. 

Pupils are required to attend school for  13 years to obtain the general  higher education  entrance qualification.  However there is an 
agreement between the Länder that schooling of  12 years will be accepted  provided  that  it can be shown that a certain  number of 
teaching periods have been covered. 
This refers to further education which offers vocational courses but is not designated as upper secondary education. 
From 1997, years 8 to 10. 

11 

Structural  organisation 

Age  14 

Age  15 

Age  16 

Age  15 

Age  16 

Age  17 

Age  18 

Age  19 

Table  5.  Theoretical  age  of  entering  upper  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Belgium.  Italy. Austria. England.  Wales, Northern  Ireland 
Germany  (Berufsfachschule  and  Berufsschule  after  9 years  full-time  compulsory  general  education  up  to  the 
end  of  lower  secondary  level),  Greece,  France,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands  (HAVO,  VWO),  Austria 
(Berufsschule),  Portugal 
Denmark.  Germany.  Spain.  Netherlands  (apprenticeship,  MBO),  Finland.  Sweden,  Scotland,  Iceland, 
Liechtenstein. Norway 

Table  6.  Theoretical  age  of  leaving  upper  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Austria (end  of compulsory  schooling  Polytechnischer  Lehrgang,  end  of a one-year  course  in a  berufsbildende 
mittlere Seinde) 
Austria  (end  of a two-year  phase  in  a berufsbildende  mittlere Scinde),  Germany  (Berufsfachschule  -  one year), 
England.  Wales. Northern  Ireland  (GCSE) 
Ireland,  Italy (Scuola magistrale),  Germany  (Berufsfachschule -  two years), Netherlands (HAVO), Austria  (end 
of a two-year course  in a Berufsschule  or end of a three-year course  in a berufsbildende  mittlere Schule) 
Belgium.  Germany  (for  vocational  education  -  Berufsfachschule  and  Berufsschule  3 years, Fachoberschule  2 
years: for general  education -gymnasiale  Oberstufe 2 years  in some Länder),  Greece,  Spain, France, Ireland  (if 
transition  year).  Italy  (Istituto  magistrale,  Liceo  artistico),  Netherlands  (VWO,  short  MBO,  first-level 
apprenticeship).  Austria  (end  of  a  three-year  course  in  a  Berufsschule  or  end  of  a  four-year  course  in  a 
berufsbildende  mittlere  Scinde,  or  successful  passing  of  the  secondary  school 
leaving  examination 
(Reifeprüfung)  at  academic  secondary  school  (allgemeinbildende  höhere  Scinde)),  Portugal,  England,  Wales, 
Northern  Ireland  (GCE A level/AS examinations. GNVQs).  Scotland 

Denmark.  Germany  (gymnasiale  Oberstufe  in  most  Länder),  France  (baccalauréat  professionnel),  Italy, 
Luxembourg.  Netherlands  (MBO),  Austria  (end  of  a  four-year  course  in  a  Berufsschule  or  end  of  a  five-year 
course  in  a berufsbildende  höhere  Schule  and  successful  passing  of the  Reifeprüfung,  or  successful  passing  of 
the  Reife-  und  Befähigungsprüfung  in  a Bildungsanstalt für  Kindergartenpädagogik  or  a Bildungsanstalt  für 
Sozialpcklagogik).  Finland.  Sweden, Liechtenstein  (Berufslehre and Berufsschule,  Berufsmittelschule),  Norway 

Age 20 
Age 21 

Netherlands (long MBO. second-level  apprenticeship),  Iceland.  Liechtenstein  (Gymnasium) 
Netherlands  (third-level  apprenticeship) 

1.4.  Conditions of access 
In  most  of  the  countries  under  study,  lower  secondary  education  is open  to  all  pupils  without  any  specific 
conditions. For countries with a single structure (Denmark, Portugal, Finland,  Sweden, Iceland, Norway), it is 
simply a continuation of their education. In the other countries, the transition  from  primary education to lower 
secondary education  involves a change of school. 

However, some countries do stipulate certain  restrictions. For instance  in Italy and  in most cases  in  Belgium' 
entry  into lower secondary education  is subject to pupils obtaining a primary school  leaving certificate.  In the 
Netherlands,  access  to  some  types  of  school  depends  on  pupil  assessment  which,  most  commonly,  occurs 
through centrally organised tests in the final year of primary school. In a minority of schools in England and in 
Northern  Ireland, pupils have to pass an entrance examination, as was the case for all primary school pupils in 
Luxembourg until September 1996."' 

In Austria the prerequisite for admission to an allgemeinbildende höhere Schule is the successful  completion of 
the  fourth  year  of  primary  school  plus  an  assessment  of  'Excellent'  or  'Good'  in  German,  reading  and 
mathematics.  In  addition,  the  staff  council  of  the  Volteschule  may  approve  a  pupil's  transfer  to  an 
allgemeinbildende höhere Schule, even if the assessment is only 'Satisfactory'.  If the pupil is not automatically 
entitled to enter the allgemeinbildende höhere Schule, there is a possibility of taking an admission examination. 

In Germany, there are differences  between Länder.  The recommendation of a pupil's primary school is taken as 
a basis for  decision  or as guidance about the future  school  career.  In all cases this  is combined  with  detailed 
consultations with the parents. The final decision is  taken by parents or by the receiving school or by the school 
supervisory  authority.  For  certain  school  types, admission  is dependent  on  pupils  demonstrating  a  certain 
level of ability and/or the capacity  of the chosen  school. 

Pupils who have reached  the age of  12 but do not hold the certificate  of basic education may enter first secondary  class B to acquire 
this certificate  after one or two years. A special procedure exists which allows, in exceptional  cases, immediate access to secondary A 
classes. 
The admission examination in Luxembourg is being replaced by new procedures which have yet to be finalised. 

12 

Table  7.  Access  conditions  for  lower  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Structural  organisation 

No  conditions 

Decision  of an  admission  council  or  'class 
council' 
Primary school  leaving  certificate 

Entrance  examination 

Denmark,  Spain,  Greece,  France, 
(Hauptschule), Portugal, Finland,  Sweden. United  Kingdom. Iceland. Norway 
Luxembourg (from  1996), Liechtenstein  (Oberschule, Realschule,  Gymnasium) 

Ireland,  Netherlands 

(VBO).  Austria 

Belgium,  Italy 

Ireland  (certain  secondary  schools);  Netherlands  (MAVO.  HAVO,  VWO  -
usually  through  central  assessment  tests  in  the  primary  school):  Austria 
(allgemeinbildende  höhere Schule:  in  case  of bad  marks  in  German,  reading  or 
mathematics); England  and Northern  Ireland (grammar  schools) 

In order to gain  access to  upper  secondary  general  education,  most countries  stipulate  that  pupils  must 
have  successfully  completed  lower  secondary  education  either  upon  completion  of the  single  structure 
(Denmark,  Portugal,  Finland,  Sweden, Norway)  or at the  end  of  lower  secondary  education  (Germany, 
Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Austria).  For  some  schools,  Austria  requires  an  entrance 
examination.  In  Belgium,"  France  and  Luxembourg,  whether  pupils  move  on  to  upper  secondary 
education  is  subject  to  a  decision  by  a  'class  council'.  In  Ireland  and  Iceland,  pupils  automatically 
move  up  from  one  level  to  the  next.  However,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  on  completion  of  compulsory 
education  at  age  16,  pupils  who  wish  to  continue  their  studies,  and  who  meet  any  relevant  course 
requirements,  may  do  so  either  in  the  'sixth  form'  of  a  secondary  school  (not  in  Scotland)  or  at  a 
further  education  institution. 

Table  8.  Access  conditions  for  upper  secondary  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

No  conditions 
Decision  by  a  'class  council'  or 
guidance  council 
Successful  completion  of  lower 
secondary  schooling 

Entrance  examination 

Ireland. Austria  (Berufsschule),  United Kingdom,  Iceland'" 
Belgium, France,  Luxembourg 

Denmark,  Germany  (with  the  exception  of  vocational  training  in  the  dual  system  in  the 
Berufsschule  and  the  workplace  for  which  there  are  no  admission  prerequisites),  Greece, 
Spain,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Austria  (Oberstufe  of  the  allgemeinbildende  höhere  Schule), 
Portugal. Finland.  Sweden. Norway,  Liechtenstein 

Austria  (berufsbildende  mittlere  Schule,  berufsbildende  höhere  Scinde  and  entry  into  a 
Bildungsanstalt für  Kindergartenpädagogik  or  a  Bildungsanstalt  für  Sozialpädagogik), 
Liechtenstein  (Berufsmittelschule) 

1.5. Allocation to individual schools 
Pupils  may  be  admitted  to  particular  lower  secondary  schools  according  to  the  location  of  the 
applicant's  residence;  through  selection  by the  receiving  schools  or  other  education  authorities;  or  by 
parental  choice.  In  some  countries,  only  one  of these  principles  applies  while  in  others  more  than  one 
procedure  is  used.  In  the  latter  countries,  different  schemes  have  been  developed  to  reconcile 
conflicting  demands when  more than one criterion  for admission  is adopted. 

Geographical  catchment  areas operate  in most countries. Except  in Belgium, Luxembourg,  Sweden  and 
England,  Wales  and  Northern  Ireland,  pupils  are  expected  normally  to  attend  a  school  close  to  their 
home.  In  Germany,  catchment  areas  exist  in  some  cases  but  not  in  others.13  In  Finland,  France  and 
Portugal,  school  districts  or  sectors  have  been  abolished  recently  in  some  regions.  The  definition  of 
catchment  areas  is  not  standard.  Residence  in  a  particular  educational  district  or  attendance  at  a 
specific  primary  school  may  determine  the  secondary  school  that  a new  pupil  enters, as  in Greece  and 
Spain. Parents may choose between  schools within a larger region, as in Denmark or Spain. 

Geographical  criteria may apply in other ways. Parental  choice may only prevail  if the desired  school  is 
within  reasonable  distance  (as  in  the  cases  of  Ireland  and  Spain)  or  where  transport  or  other  costs  to 

In Belgium, pupils aged  15 who have not successfully  completed  lower secondary education  may be admitted  into the upper stage of 
vocational secondary education. 
In Iceland,  pupils  are admitted  into  upper secondary  education  after  having finished compulsory  schooling  but there are admission 
requirements for different  programmes of study. 
Pupils in compulsory education wishing to attend a primary school, Hauptschule or Berufsschule must always attend the establishment 
closest to their home. This rule applies to other types of secondary school where catchment areas apply. Where catchment areas do not 
operate for  particular kinds of secondary  school, parents are always  able to choose the school  for  their  children,  providing that this 
school has places. 

13 

Structural  organisation 

public authorities are moderate (Sweden  and  Denmark). In Spain, Sweden and the United  Kingdom, the 
selection  criteria  of  schools  that  are  oversubscribed  may  include  proximity  of the  home.  Distance  and 
transport  may restrict  choice,  as  in  Scotland  and  Iceland,  where  pupils  from  inaccessible  areas need  to 
attend  boarding schools. 

While  the  rationale  for  catchment  areas  in  the  past  may  have  been  to  equalise  educational 
opportunities,  it  is now  more  frequent  for  localities  with  their  own  budgets  and  school  management  to 
be  protected  from  the  financial  loss  or  organisational  inefficiency  that  complete  freedom  of  parental 
geographical  choice  of  school  may  bring.  In  England  and  Wales,  it  is accepted  that  schools  which  do 
not attract  enough  pupils may have to close, as  it  is in Belgium  where, however,  the  school  in  question 
may be absorbed  by another. 
Parents'  rights  to  choose  a  school  for  their  children  are  assured  by  law  in  many  countries.14  In  some 
cases, it is confined  to their right to choose a school  according to the mother tongue (Finland), religious 
orientation  in  those  countries  where  grant-aided  schools  form  a  high  proportion  of  all  establishments 
(Ireland  and  the  Netherlands)  or  differences 
in  curricula,  especially  foreign  languages  (France). 
Parental  choice  is  a  fundamental  principle  in  Belgium  and  Scotland.  In  England  and  Wales,  parents' 
choice of school  must be respected  provided that their child  meets the admission  criteria and the school 
is  not  oversubscribed.  In  Germany,  parental  choice  is  a  legal  right  in  some Länder  but  not  others.  In 
most  countries  where  normally  children  are  expected  to  attend  a  local  school,  there  are  opportunities 
for  parents  to  request  schools  outside  the  district.  Decisions  are  made  by  local  education  authorities. 
These  authorities  also  commonly  decide  on  requests  for  a  type  of  school  by  parents  whose  children 
have special  educational  needs. 

Limits  on  the  number  of  pupils  a  school  may  take  are  the  main  obstacle  to  free  parental  choice,  apart 
from  selection  on  grounds  of  aptitude  where  there  are  different  kinds  of  secondary  school.  When 
demand  exceeds  supply,  then  the  school  or  other  authorities  choose  rather  than  the  parents.  In  some 
countries,  notably  Spain,  there  are  national  criteria  (including  parental  income)  but  the  most  common 
basis  for  admission  is the  attendance  of  other  siblings  at the  school.  In  Ireland  and  Italy, the  admitting 
school  makes  its own decisions. In England  and  Wales, admission  policies  are determined  either by the 
local authority (LEA) or by the individual  school. 

In France,  in public education  parents  are as a rule required  to enrol their  children  in the collège  of the 
school  catchment  area  in which  they  live  (geographical  sector  of  recruitment  for  a given collège).  If a 
collège does not offer  certain  courses, exceptions can be granted  allowing parents to send their  children 
to another collège  which  does. 

Pupils  generally  move  on  from  collège  to  a  lycée  in  their  school  district  (geographical  zone  covering 
several  school  catchment  areas),  unless  their  chosen  option  or  specialisation  requires  attending  an 
institution  further  away.  There  are  several  exceptions  to  the  school  district  assignment  rules.  Limited 
experiments have been  set up allowing families  to choose from  several  schools. 

Conflicts  between  parental  wishes  and  school  or higher  authority  decisions  may  be resolved  by  appeal 
legal  processes  as  in  Austria,  Germany,15 
procedures.  These  appeals  may  be  settled  through 
Liechtenstein  and  Scotland. Most  common  is for  appeals to be decided  by educational  agencies, by the 
administration  (such  as  the  inspector  of  the  académie  in  France)  or  by  the  provincial  director  of 
education  in  Spain.  In England  and  Wales,  local  appeals  panels must  have a balanced  membership  and 
include a lay member to ensure  impartiality. 

While  similar  procedures  apply  to  admissions  to  upper  secondary  institutions,  there  is  usually  wider 
pupil  and  parent  choice,  especially  where  some  courses  are  not  available  in  all  institutions.16 
Assessment  of pupil attainment  and aptitude has a more significant  role at this level  in most countries. 

As in laws in  Belgium  (1959), Denmark  (1995), Spain  (1985), Italy (Constitution  1948), Austria (1955), Sweden  (1992), England  and 
Wales (1980) and  Scotland  (1980). 
Normally,  in Germany,  parents  wishing to choose  a school  outside  their  local  area may  apply  to the school  authority  which  decides  on 
each  case, after  consultation  with the parents, with the well-being of the pupil  being the deciding  factor. 
In Finland,  for  instance, pupils completing compulsory education  have the right to apply to any upper secondary  institution -  general  or 
vocational -  anywhere  in the country. 

14 

Structural  organisation 

1.6. Further educational and career options 
Further  educational  and  career  options  at  the  end  of  the  various  types  of  education  should  be  seen  in 
relation  to the objectives  set. 

The  logical  next  step  after  lower  secondary  education  is  further  studies  at  upper  secondary  level. 
Nonetheless,  in  countries  where  the  end  of  compulsory  schooling  coincides  with  the  end  of  lower 
secondary  education  (Greece,  Spain,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Scotland)  or  of  the  single  structure 
(Denmark,  Portugal,  Finland,  Sweden,  Iceland,  Norway),  pupils  are  also  able  to  choose  whether  they 
wish  to  enter  employment.  As  the  exact  timing  of  the  end  of  compulsory  schooling  depends  on  their 
date  of  birth,  pupils  in  some  countries  may  be  required  to  start  the  first  year  of  upper  secondary 
schooling. 

Again,  general  education  acquired  at  upper  secondary  level  generally  leads to further  studies,  whereas 
vocational  education  generally  leads to a job, although  it can permit access to higher education  and  this 
is increasingly the case. 

1.7. Full-time/part-time education 
Generally  speaking,  secondary  education  is provided  on a full-time  basis. Many countries  do, however, 
offer  part-time vocational  education  for  certain  ages (Belgium,  Germany, Greece,  Ireland,  Netherlands, 
Austria,"  United  Kingdom,18  Norway),  'alternating'  education  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  Spain, 
France,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands),  or  evening  classes  for  pupils  who  have  dropped  out  of  school 
(Italy,  Portugal).  In  Greece  and  Portugal,  evening  classes  are  open  to  young  people  aged  15 who  are 
already  working,  as  well  as  to  adults  who  left  school  early.  In  Portugal,  'second  chance'  education 
takes  'recurrent'  and  'alternating'  forms.  In Belgium,  Finland,  Sweden  and  Iceland,  adults  are  allowed 
to  complete  their  general  or  vocational  education  at  evening  classes.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  further 
education  institutions offer  students over compulsory  school  age the opportunity to  study for  nationally 
recognised  qualifications  on  a  full-  or  part-time  basis.  In  Belgium  and  Germany,  where  education  is 
compulsory  until  the  age  of  18, students  may  leave  school  earlier  but,  for  them,  part-time  vocational 
education  is obligatory.19 

17 
18 
19 

In Austria, the part-time vocational  school  is compulsory  for all apprentices. 
In the United  Kingdom, after  the completion  of compulsory  education. 
In Germany, compulsory full-time  schooling lasts nine or ten years but those not continuing  in full-time  general  or vocational  education 
must attend vocational  schools for three years on a part-time basis. 

15 

Table 9. Structures of secondary education in the French and German-speaking Communities of BELGIUM,20 1 9 9 5 / 9 6. 

Enseignement technique et 
arti'stique de transition 

Upper secondar}', organised in 2 degrés of 
2 years each. 

Prepare pupils for higher education, while 
leaving them the option of entering 
employment. 

Enseignement technique et artistique de 
qualification 

Enseignement professionnel 

Upper secondar}', organised in 2 degrés of 2 years each. 

Lower and upper secondar}'. 

Prepare pupils for employment while leaving them the 
option of entering higher education. 

Prepare pupils for employment while leaving them the option of 
entering higher education. 

Lower or upper 
secondary 

General objectives 

Duration 

Theoretical starting 
and finishing ages 
Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 

Certificates 
awarded 

Enseignement general 

3 stages called 'degrés ' of 2 years each. Lower 
secondar)' education has 1 degré, upper secondar}' 
education consists of the 2 following degrés. 
Lower secondary: 
Reveal pupils' aptitudes by offering a common 
programme including experimental and optional activities 
(observation degré). 
Upper secondary: 
Prepare for higher education, keeping open the option to 
enter working life (guidance degré and determination 
degré). 
Lower secondary: 2 years. 
Upper secondar^': 4 years (+ possibility of 1 year of 
preparation for higher education). 

Lower secondary: ages 12­14. 
Upper secondary: ages 14­18, 

Lower secondary: 
A basic education certificate. 
Upper secondary: 
Successful completion of the 2nd year of lower secondary. 

Lower secondary: none. 
Upper secondary: 
After 1 year, certificat de l'enseignement secondaire 
inférieur. 
After 4 years, certificat de l'enseignement secondaire 
supérieur (CESS). 

Further educational 
and career options 

After lower secondary: 
Upper secondary education. 
After upper secondar}': 
Higher education. 

4 years (+ I optional year of preparation 
for higher education). 

4 years (+ 1 optional advanced year or specialisation). 

Ages 14­18 or 19. 

Ages 14­18 or 19. 

Successful completion of the 2nd year of 
lower secondary. 

Successful completion of the 2"'1 year of lower secondar}'. 

After one year, certificat de 
1'enseignement secondaire inférieur. 
After 4 years, certificat de l'enseignement 
secondaire supérieur (CESS). 

Higher education. 

After 1 year, certificat de ¡'enseignement secondaire 
inférieur. 
After 2 years, certificat de qualification courie (short 
qualification), 
After 4 years, certificat de 1'enseignement secondatre 
supérieur (CESS) and certificat de qualification longue 
(long qualification). 
Employment. 
Higher education or optional 1 year specialisation to obtain 
a new qualification or 1 year of preparation for higher 
education. 

Lower secondar}': 2 years (first class Β and 2"J year of vocational 
education). 
Upper secondar}': 4 years (+ 1 optional advanced year or 
specialisation). 
Lower secondar}': ages 12­14. 
Upper secondary: ages 14­18 or 19, 

Lower secondar}': 
Minimum age of 12 without necessarily having obtained a primar}' 
education certificate. 
Upper secondar}': 
Successful completion of the 2I!li year of lower secondar}' or the 2"'1 
year of vocational education. 
Lower secondary: none. 
Upper secondary: 
After 1 year, certificat de l'enseignement secondaire inférieur. 
Atter 4 years, certificat d'études and/or certificat de qualification 
longue (long qualification). 
After 5 years, certificat de l'enseignement secondaire supérieur 
(CESS) and/or certificat de qualification. 
Employment. 
After the 6th year of vocational education, 1 optional year of 
specialisation or a 7th type A vocational year which leads to a new 
qualification. 
After the 7th year of type Β or C, short higher education. 
Lower secondar}': full­time. 

Upper secondary: full­time or part­time. 

21 

Full­time or part­
time 

Full­time for the two levels. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

A reform is in progress in the French Community which will change some of the conditions described in the table. 
As of age 15 if the pupil has completed lower secondary school; if not, as of age 16. 
Part­time = 40 weeks of 15 lessons lasting 50 minutes each (more or less equal proportions of vocational and general education), leading to a certificate equivalent to that awarded at the end of long or short type vocational education. 

Secondary education in the Belgian education system (French and German-speaking  Communities),  1995/96 

Lower  secondary 
education 

¡Upper  secondary 
I  education 

Options  and  possible 
transfers 

Source: Eurydice. 

A  small  proportion  of  pupils  (±  3%)  attend  type  II  "traditional"  education  which  preceded  the  current  reformed  system  (type  I). Type  II consists  of  2 stages  of  3  years  and  is  not  shown  here. 

Table 10. Structures of secondary education in the Flemish Community of BELGIUM, 1995/96. 

m 

Algemeen secundair 
onderwijs 
Upper secondar}' (2"dand 3,d stages). 

Kunstsecundair onderwijs 

Upper secondar}'(2nd and 3rd 
stages). 

Technisch secundair 
onderwijs 

Upper secondar}' (2llü and 3rd 
stages). 

Beroepssecundair onderwijs 

Upper secondary vocational (2nd and 3rd stages). 

1st stage 

Lower or upper 
secondary 

General objectives 

Lower secondary ( 1sl stage). 
Streams are integrated, although there is a first year Β 
for those who have no certificate of primary 
education and a pre-vocational class. 
Provide a broad basic education, allowing pupils to 
become acquainted with a large number of subject 
areas and be able to decide for themselves which 
ones they wish to pursue further. 

Duration 

2 years. 

Theoretical starting 
and finishing ages 
Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 

Certificates 
awarded 

Ages 12-14. 

First year A: hold the certificate of primar}' education 
or have completed the 6lh year of primar}' education 
and receive a favourable opinion from the 
Toe lat i η gs raad (admissions board). 
First year B: hold a certificate of primar}' education or 
have reached the age of 12 without necessarily having 
obtained a certificate of primary education. 
After 1 year: primary education certificate for those 
pupils who have not yet received one and who 
successfully compete the first year. 
After 2 years: first stage diploma van secundair 
onderwijs, certificate of primary education for those 
pupils who have not yet received one and who 
successfully complete the vocational education class. 

Further educational 
and career options 

After the Is' stage: 
After the 2"d year: 2nd stage of general, technical, 
artistic or vocational secondary education. 
After the pre-vocational year: 
2nd year of the lsl or 2nd stage of vocational education. 

After the 2nd stage: 
3rd stage of general, technical, artistic or 
vocational secondary education. 
After the 3rd stage: 
higher education. 

Provide broad theoretical education 
which can serve as a solid foundation 
for higher education. 

2nd stage: 2 years. 
3rd stage: 2 years. 

2,lJ stage: ages 14 to 16. 
3rd stage: lóto 18. 

Combine a broad general education 
with practical and active work in 
the arts. Art is studied and 
practised with a view to general 
educational objectives. 

Offer an education comprised of 
general classes and technical-
theoretical and practical classes. 

2nd stage: 2 years. 
3rd stage: 2 years (and 1 year of 
specialisation or advanced studies). 
2lld stage: ages 14 to 16. 
3rd stage: ages 16 to 18 or 19. 

2nd stage: 2 years. 
3rd stage: 2 years (and 1 year of 
specialisation or advanced studies). 
2nd stage: ages 14 to 16. 
3rd stage: ages 16 to 18 or 19. 

2nd stage: 
Successful completion of the Is' stage 
of secondary education. 
3Td stage: 
Successful completion of the 2"d stage 
of secondar}' education. 

2"d stage: 
Successful completion of the 1st 
stage of secondary education. 
3td stage: 
Successful completion of the 2nd 
stage of secondary education. 

2nd stage: 
Successful completion of the Is' 
stage of secondary education. 
3rd stage: 
Successful completion of the 2Ild 
stage of secondary education. 

2n stage: 
After 2 years: 2nd stage diploma van 
secundair onderwijs. 
3rd stage: 
After 2 years: diploma van secundair 
onderwijs. 

2"d stage: 
After 2 years: 2nd stage diploma 
van secundair onderwijs. 
3,d stage: 
After 2 years: diploma van 
secundair onderwijs. 
After 3 years: diploma van 
secundair onderwijs of the third 
year of the 3rd stage. 

2Ild stage: 
After 2 years: 2nd stage diploma 
van secundair onderwijs. 
3td stage: 
After 2 years: diploma van 
secundair onderwijs. 
After 3 years: diploma van 
secundair onderwijs of the third 
year of the 3rd stage. 

After the 2,ld stage: 
3rd stage of general, technical, 
artistic or vocational secondary 
education. 
After the 3rd stage: 
higher education or employment. 

After the 2nd stage: 
3td stage of general, technical, 
artistic or vocational secondary 
education. 
After the 3rd stage: 
higher education or employment. 

Prepare pupils for a full and active life in society. 
Teach pupils a trade, taking into account their 
possibilities, limitations and difficulties. 
Give pupils an education which enables them to 
develop their personalities and to become active 
and responsible members of society. 
2,ld stage: 2 years + 1 optional year. 
3rd stage: 2 years + 1 year (to obtain the diploma 
van secundair onderwijs). 
2nd stage: ages 14 to 16 or 17. 
3rd stage: ages 16 to 18 or 19. 

2nd stage: 
Successful completion of the 2nd year of the lsl 
stage or the pre-vocational class or have reached 
the age of 16; approval of the admissions board. 
3rd stage: 
Successful completion of the 2nd year of the 2"d 
stage. 
2nd stage: 
After 2 years: 2nd stage diploma van secundair 
onderwijs. 
3rd stage: 
After 2 years: diploma van secundair onderwijs of 
the second year of the 3,d stage. 
After 3 years: diploma van secundair onderwijs, 
or diploma van secundair onderwijs of the third 
year of the 3rd stage if conditions for the diploma 
van secundair onderwijs have not been met. 
After the 2nd stage: 
3rd stage of vocational education. After each year 
in this stage: possibility of rejoining general, 
technical or artistic secondar}' education (e.g. from 
the end of the first year of 2nd stage vocational 
education to the first year of the 2"d stage of 
technical education). 
After the 3rd stage: 
after the 2nd or the 3rd year of the 3,d stage: 
possibility of rejoining general, technical or artistic 
secondary education (e.g. from the end of the 2" 
year of the 3rd stage of vocational education to the 
P' year of the 3rd stage of technical education); 
higher education or employment. 
Full-time or part-time for pupils aged 16, or 15 if 
they have not completed the Is' stage. 

Full-time or part-
time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Secondary education in the Belgian education system (Flemish Community),  1995/96 

University education 

Long higher education 

1 

t 

Preparatory year for higher 
I 

education 

Short higher education 

i 

Specialisation and 
reinforcement 

Specialisation and 
reinforcement 

Award of 
a certificate 

3de graad 

ALGEMEEN SECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (ASO) 

KUNSTSECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (KSO) 

TECHNISCH SECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (TSO) 

BEROEPSSECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (BSO) 

„ALGEMEEN SECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (ASO) 

KUNSTSECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (KSO) 

TECHNISCH SECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (TSO) 

BEROEPSSECUNDAIR 
ONDERWIJS (BSO) 

2* LEERJAAR 
1"  LEERJAAR A 

Lager onderwijs 

1 

BEROEPSVOORBEREIDEND  LEERJAAR 
1ste LEERJAAR B 

Lower  secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
|  education 

/ /> 

Part-time 
education 

Options and possible 
transiere 

Part-time education is offered to young people aged 16, or 15 if they have completed their 1st stage level (graad), even if they have failed. 

Source: Eurydice. 

2de graad 

1 ste graad 

GO 
Ξ 
o 
c 
-t 

rrq 

Ι. 

en 
Ρ 
δ' 

GO 
2 
o 
c 
EL 
o 
-ι 
Oq 
B3 
3. 
r/5 
Ρ 
r+ 
5' 
D 

Award vocational qualifications 
which facilitate access to 
employment. 
Provide the basic education 
necessary to pursue further 
technical and commercial studies. 
3 to AVz years. 

IO 
o 

Table 11. Structures of secondary education in DENMARK, 1995/96. 
Hojere handelseksamen 
(HHX) 

Gymnasium 

Højere 
forberedelseseksamen 
(HF) 

Folkeskole 

Hojere teknisk eksamen 
(HTX) 

Vocational education 
and training courses 
(EU) 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondar)'. 

Lower or upper 
secondary 

General objectives 

Lower secondary (end of common 
structure). 

Acquire knowledge, skills and 
working methods which assist 
individual pupils in their 
development. Prepare pupils for 
life in a democratic society. 

Duration 

3 or 4 years. 

Theoretical starting 
and finishing ages 

Ages 13-16 or 17. 

3 years 
There is an alternative to 
Gymnasium called the 
Studenterkurser, which can be 
completed in two years following 
the 10th year of basic education. 
These courses (same branches, 
levels and subject areas as the 
Gymnasium) are intended for 
older pupils. 
Ages 16/17-19/20. 

Prepare for higher education. 

Prepare for higher education. 

Grant access to higher education. 
Prepare for professional activities 
in the private sector. 

Grant access to higher education. 
Prepare for professional activities 
in the private sector. 

2 years following the 10 year of 
basic education. 

3 years or 1 year if the pupil holds 
a diploma from gymnasium or HF 
courses. 

3 years. 

Ages 17-19. 

Ages 16-19. 

Ages 16-19. 

Ages 16-19 (20l/2). 

Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 

Certificates 
awarded 

Further educational 
and career options 

Full-time or part-
time 

As the folkeskole is a unified 
structure, there is no selection 
between its lower and upper levels 
(considered here as the lower 
level of secondary education). 
Folkeskolens afsluttende prover. 
School leaving examinations are 
not compulsory, but those who 
leave school receive a certificate. 
Choice of upper secondary 
courses. 

Completion of the 9lh year of 
folkeskole + recommendation of 
teaching staff. 

Completion of the 10 year of 
folkeskole. 
Recommendation of the preceding 
school. 

Completion of the 9 year of 
folkeskole. 

Completion of the 9th year of 
folkeskole. 

Completion of the 9 year of 
folkeskole. 

Studentereksamen. 

Hojereforberedelseseksamen. 

Hojerehandelseksamen. 

Hojeretekniskeksamen. 

Vocational qualification for a 
specific trade. 

Access to higher education. 

Access to higher education. 

Access to higher education. 
Exercise of certain professional 
activities. 

Access to higher education. 
Exercise of certain professional 
activities. 

Employment. Commercial or 
technical studies. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Dual system with: 
Practical training (2/3) 
Theoretical training (1/3). 

Secondary education  in the Danish education system,  1995/96 

Long higher education  (LVU) 

Middle  level higher education  (MVU) 

Short  higher education  (KVU) 

I 

1 

HØJERE 
HANDELSEKSAMEN (HHX) 

HOJERE TEKNISK 
EKSAMEN (HTX) 

ERHVERVSUDDANNELSERNE 

t 

t 

i 

17 

FOLKESKOLE 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
¡education 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

*  There is an alternative to the  Gymnasium  called the  Studentereksamen  which can be completed in two years after  leaving the  10'" year of the  Folkeskole.  This course, In the same sections, levels and subjects 

as the  Gymnasium,  Is aimed at students who are considerably  older than normal. 

H^ 

Source: Eurydice. 

GO 

O E* 

-s 

EL 
o 
o3 
¡a 
j5_ 
c« 

ι-

Ο' 
3 

00 
I—*■ 

s 
n 
r-t-c 
"-i 
EL 
o 
-s 
OQ 
pa 
D^ 
r/3 
Ρ 
δ' 
3 

ro 
io 

Table 12. Structures of secondary education in GERMANY, 1995/96. 

Gesamtschule 

Gymnasium 

Realschule 

Hauptschule 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Gymnasiale 
Oberstufe 
Upper secondary. 

Fachoberschule 

Berufsfachschule 

Berufsschule + on­the­job 
training 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondar)·. 

An extended general 
education which 
goes beyond that 
offered by the 
Hauptschule. 

A basic general 
education leading up 
to the end of 
compulsory 
schooling. 

Build on in­depth lower 
secondary education to 
prepare pupils for higher 
education. 

Technical secondary 
school specialised in 
different subject areas 
and preparing for 
Fachhochschulen. 

Vocational school offering 
vocational training and 
preparing for various 
technical occupations, while 
providing a general 
education. 

Part­time vocational school leading to a 
qualification in a state­recognised 
occupation (anerkannter 
Ausbildungsberuf). 
In the courses offered at the 
Berufsschule, special attention is paid to 
the requirements of training in the Dual 
System. 

Lower or upper 
secondary 
General 
objectives 

Gymnasien offer an 
advanced general 
secondary education 
and prepare pupils for 
higher education (see 
description of the 
Gymnasiale 
Oberstufe). 

a) The cooperative type combines 
the three schools in the 
traditional system in one unit 
(see descriptions of the 
Hauptschule, Realschule, 
Gymnasium). 

b) The integrated type constitutes 

an educational and 
organisational entity. In some 
subjects pupils are taught in 
groups on different levels (at 
least two) which are defined 
with reference to the curriculum 
of the chosen course. 

Duration 

5 or 6 years. 

In lower secondary: 
6 years. 

6 years. 

Theoretical 
starting and 
finishing ages 
Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 
Certificates 
awarded 

Ages 10­15 or 10­16. 

Ages 10­16. 

Ages 10­16. 

Completion of primary school. 

Depending on the chosen course of 
education: 
Haupt seh ulabschluß; 
Mittlerer Schulabschluß 
Realsch ulabschluß: 
Entitlement to proceed to the upper 
level of Gymnasium. 

Completion of year 
4 and on the 
recommendation of 
the primary school. 
Entitlement to proceed 
to the upper level of 
Gymnasium. 

Completion of year 
4 and on the 
recommendation of 
the primary school. 
Realschulabsch luß 
Mittlerer 
Schulabschluß. 

Further 
educational and 
career options 
Full­time or 
part­time 

(see description of the Hauptschule. 
Realschule, Gymnasium). 

Gymnasiale 
Oberstufe. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Upper secondary 
education, e.g. 
Berufsfachschulen, 
Fachob erschufen. 
Full­time. 

5 years. 
The Hauptschule 
comprises years 5 to 
10 in some of the 
¡.under. 
Ages 10­15. 

22 

3 years. 

2 years. 

1 to 3 years. 

3 years in general. 

12 lus a week at the Berufsschule (= 2 
days) 3 days in the company. 

Ages 16­19. 

Ages 16­18. 

Ages 15/16­19. 

Ages 15­18 or 16­19. 

Completion of 
primary school. 

Entitlement to proceed 
to the upper level of 
Gymnasium. 

Mittlerer 
Schulabschluß 
Realschulabschluß. 

Hauptschulabschluß or 
Mittlerer Schulabschluß 
Realsch ulabschluß. 

Completion of full­time compulsory 
general education (allgemeine 
Schulpflicht). 

Hauptschulabschluß. 

Allgemeine 
Hochschulreife. 

Fachhochschulreife. 

Vocational training 
in the dual system 
Berufsfachschulen. 

Access to all higher 
education institutions in 
all subject areas. 

Access to 
Fachhochsch ufen. 

School­leaving certificates 
depending on the duration. 
Basic vocational training 
certificate after one year; 
after two years, state­
recognised qualification as 
a technical assistant 
(Staatlich geprüfter 
technischer oder 
kaufmännischer Assistent). 
Access to employment after 
two years of training. 

School­leaving certificate of the 
Berufsschule. Examinations for on­the­
job training are organised by the relevant 
authorities (e.g. the Chambers of 
Commerce) and lead to certificates of 
proficiency (Facharbeiterbrief 
Gesellenbrief Gehilfenbrief). 

Access to employment. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Part­time (1st year). 
Full­time (2nd year). 

Full­time. 

Part­time schooling and on­the­job­
training (dual system). 

In general, pupils are required to attend school for 13 years to obtain the general higher education entrance qualification. There is agreement between the Länder that schooling of 12 years will be recognised if it is shown that a certain total value 
of teaching periods has been achieved. 

Secondary education in the German education system, 1995/96 

Universities and equivalent higher education institutions 

Colleges of art and music 

FACHHOCHSCHULEN 
Higher education institutions offering practical preparation 
for employment including public administration 

GYMNASIALE OBERSTUFE 
Gymnasium, Berufliches 
Gymnasium/Fachgymnasium, 
Gesamtschule 

' OBERSCHULE /" /I 

BERUFSFACH­
SCHULE 

15/16 

K T y e ar 

GESAMTSCHULE (e) 

GYMNASIUM 

REALSCHULE (f) 

HAUPTSCHULE (f) 

ORIENTIERUNGSSTUFE (d) 

15/161 

15 

10 

Lower secondary education 

I Upper secondary education 

Part­time education 

Options and possible transfers (a) 

a) Arrows have not been used in this diagram due to the differences between the Länder. Table 12 gives information on the possibilities of transferring from one school to another. 
b) The duration of full­time compulsory schooling (compulsory general education) is 9 years in 12 Länder and 10 years in four Länder. The subsequent period of part­time compulsory education is three years (compulsory vocation­

al education). 

c) The duration of primary school in Berlin and Brandenburg is 6 years. 
d) Irrespective of school type, years 5 and 6 constitute a phase of particular support, observation and guidance. In some Lander, the guidance phase is established as a separate organisational unit independent of the standard school 

types. 

e) Secondary school which has two different forms: the cooperative type brings schools within in the traditional system (Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium) under a single roof and harmonises their curricula to facilitate transfers 

from one school type to another; the integrated type admits all pupils of a certain age without distinguishing between the traditional school types. 

f) Some Länder have lower secondary schools which offer two educational paths — Hauptschule and Realschule courses — which prepare pupils to obtain their respective school­leaving certificates. These schools have different 

names depending on the Land. 

Source: Eurydice. 

to 

in 
r­* 
-t 
c 
η 
c 
-! 
Ρ 

Ρ 
3_ 
ΪΛ 
Ρ 
o' 
3 

ΧΛ 
—. 
C 
O 
E 
Ρ 

Ρ 
;/: 
Ρ 
δ' 

to 
-ρ 

Table  13. Structures of secondary education in GREECE, 1995/96. 

Gymnasio 

Geniko lykeio 

Eniaio polykladiko lykeio 
(EPL) 

Techniko epaggelmatiko 
lykeio (TEL) 

Tech nihi epaggelmatiki schalt (TES,) 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondaiy. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary, 

Lower or  upper 
secondary 

General  objectives 

Provide a general basic education in 
order to help general development 
of pupils in the field of knowledge 
and of aptitudes, in order to prepare 
them for life. 

Shape the character of pupils to 
enable them to take an active part in 
the social, economic and cultural 
development  of the country, 
understand  society and choose their 
further  studies and a career. 

Offer  pupils general as well as 
technical education. Apart  from the 
common curriculum  for all, pupils 
are free to choose their type of 
course, either vocational or general 
education giving them entry to 
higher education. 
3 or 4 years. 

In addition to the objectives  of the 
Geniko lykeio, give pupils the 
necessary technical and vocational 
knowledge to enable them to 
develop their skills and  successfully 
work in a specific technical or 
vocational  field. 
3 years. 

Transmit  technical and vocational knowledge and 
develop pupils'aptitudes in order to pennit them to 
have a technical or vocational activity; in this way 
contribute to the qualitative and quantitative 
development  of production. 

2 years (3 years in part-time evening courses). 

Duration 

3 years. 

3 years. 

Theoretical  starting  and 
finishing  ages 

Access conditions and 
admission  criteria 

Ages 12-15. 

Ages 15-18. 

Ages 15-18. 

Ages 15-18. 

Ages  15-17(18). 

Primary education  certificate. 

Leaving certificate  of the Gymnasio 
(Apolytirio Gymnasiou). 

Leaving certificate  of the Gymnasio 
(Apolytirio Gymnasiou). 

Leaving certificate  of the Gymnasio 
(Apolytirio Gymnasiou). 

Leaving certificate  of the Gymnasio (Apolytirio 
Gymnasiou). 

Certificates  awarded 

Apolytirio Gymnasiou. 

Apolytirio Lykeiou. 

Apolytirio Lykeiou or Ptychio. 

23 

24 
Apolytirio Lykeiou or Ptychio. 

Ptychio  TES. 

Further  educational  and 
career  options 

All Lykeia and  Technikes 
epaggelmat ikes scholes. 

University education. 
Non-university higher education. 
Employment. 

University education. 
Non-university higher education. 
Employment. 

University education. 
Non-university higher education. 
Employment. 

Full-time or  part-time 

Full-time (day courses). 
Full-time (evening courses). 

Full-time (day courses). 
Part-time (evening courses). 

Full-time (day courses). 
Part-time (evening courses). 

Full-time (day courses). 
Part-time (evening courses). 

With or without obtaining the Apolytirio  TES: 
employment. 
With the Apolytirio TES:  possibility of entering the 
first  year of a Geniko lykeio or the second year of a 
Eniaio polykladiko lykeio or a  'Techniko 
epaggelmatiko lykeio. 
Full-time (day courses). 
Part-time (evening courses). 

After  3 years at the EPL, the pupils obtain  the Apolytirio  Lykeiou. After  the  fourth  year of EPL, called  the specialisation  year, pupils obtain  the Ptychio  eidikotitas. 
Pupils  having  finished  3 years of TEL obtain  a) Ptychio  TEL if they have  followed  specialisation  studies; b) Apolytirio  Lykeiou if they have followed  normal  studies. 

Secondary education in the Greek education system, 1995/96 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
I education 

Part­time 
education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

a) There are also religious and musical Gymnasia and Gymnasia with sports departments. Evening Gymnasia provide equivalent education for those aged 14 or over and who are already in employment. 
b) The duration of part­time education is 3 years. 
c) There are also classical, religious and musical Lykeia and some with sports departments. 
d) The duration of part­time education is 4 years. 

Κ) 
Lii 

Source: Eurydice. 

00 

c 
Ρ 

Ρ 
3 
in' 
Ρ 

Õ' 

IO 

Table 14. Structures of secondary education in SPAIN (post-reform), 1995/96. 

Educación secundaria obligatoria 

Bachillerato 

Formación profesional específica 
de grado medio 

Lower or upper secondary 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

General objectives 

Transmit the fundamental aspects of culture, teach pupils to 
fulfil their duties and to exercise their rights, as well as prepare 
them for employment and for specific vocational training at 
intermediate level. 

Foster intellectual and emotional maturity, as well as 
provide the knowledge and skills which allow pupils to 
fulfil their social functions competently and responsibly. To 
prepare them to follow higher studies, whether academic or 
vocational. 

Duration 

4 years. 

2 years. 

Prepare pupils for employment by providing a varied 
training which enables them to adapt to the changing 
vocational requirements they are likely to encounter during 
their careers. 
Facilitate integration into working life; contribute towards 
continuing training for all citizens to meet the demands of 
the productive sector for skills and qualifications. 
1 to 2 years. 

Theoretical starting and finishing 
ages 

Ages 12-16. 

Ages 16-18. 

Ages 16-17 or 18. 

Access conditions and admission 
criteria 

Access to this compulsory level of education is automatic at 
the end of primary school. 

Graduado en Educación Secundaria 
(Certificate of secondary education). 

Graduado en Educación Secundaria 
(Certificate of secondary education). Pupils of at least 18 
years may also enrol if they pass a specially designed 
entrance examination. 

Certificates awarded 

Graduado en Educación Secundaria 
(Certificate of secondary education). 

Bachiller certificate. 

Technician's certificate ('Técnico). 

Further educational and career 
options 

Bachillerato or intermediate level vocational training. 

Higher education or higher level vocational training. 

Employment or Bachillerato. 

Full-time or part-time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time and sandwich courses. 

00 
r—f· 

Ξ 
o 
<^-
c 
-ι 
EL 
o 
-ι 
era 
Ρ 
5, 
Ρ 
δ' 

Secondary education in the Spanish education system (post-reform), 1995/96 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
I education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

PAAU (Pruebas de Aptitud para el Acceso a la Universidad): to enter university education, the pupil must succeed in a series of aptitude tests to demonstrate maturity and knowledge. 

ro 

Source: Eurydice. 

00 
I—t 

Ξ 
o 
c 

i ­l 
Ρ 

era 
Ρ 
3 
c«' 
Ρ 
õ' 
3 

to 
GO 

Table 15. Structures of secondary education in FRANCE, 1995/96. 

Lower or upper 
secondary 
General objectives 

College 

Lycée d'enseignement general et/ou 
technologique (LEGT) 

Lycée professionnel 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondary'. 

Upper secondary. 

Assure that a maximum number of pupils achieve the level of 
general education necessary at the end of the 3rd class (4l year) to 
move on to the Lycée (LEGT or LP). Otherwise, give each pupil at 
least a general basic education and an initial vocational training 
preparing for 5th year certificates: Certificat d'aptitude 
professionnelle (CAP) or Brevet d'études professionnelles (BEP). 

Provide education leading to the general Baccalauréat, the 
technological Baccalauréat, or to the Brevet de technicien 
(technical certificate). 

Allow Í 'allege leavers to obtain a general, technological and 
vocational education leading to qualifications which allow direct 
access to employment in a specific occupation. 

GO 
•-Γ 
c 
r. 
Β 
EL 
c 
(ra 
Ρ 

o 

Duration 

4 years. 

Theoretical starting and 
finishing ages 

Ages 11­15. 

3 years. 

Ages 15­18. 

All children who complete the consolidation stage of primary 
school are admitted to the 6lh class (lsl year) by the age of 12 at the 

Admission is based on: 
the direction of studies chosen and the wishes of the family; 

Access conditions and 
admission criteria 

Certificates awarded 

25 

latest. 

The majority of pupils obtain a general education certificate, the 
Brevet, which is awarded upon completion of the 3rd class (4th 
year) (but which does not determine promotion to the 2"d class). 

enrolment of the pupil in the school by the family. 

26 

General Baccalauréat, technological Baccalauréat, or Brevet de 

. .. 27 
technicien. 
Otherwise, a Certificat de fin d'éludés secondaires for those pupils 
who receive average marks equivalent to at least 8/20 in the 
Baccalauréat examinations. 
Access to higher education is granted to those who obtain the 
Baccalauréat. 
The Certificat defin d'études secondaires does not entitle the 
pupil to enter higher education. 

Further educational and 
career options 

The 2"d general or technological class. 
The 2nd vocational class (first year of preparation for the BEP). 
The first year of preparation for the CAP. 

Full­time or part­time 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

2 years or (for the vocational Baccalauréat) 4 years. 

Ages 15­17(19). 

Admission is based on: 
the direction of studies chosen and the wishes of the family; 
enrolment of the pupil in the school by the family. 

Certificat d'aptitude professionnelle (CAP). 
Brevet d'études professionnelles (BEP). 
Vocational Baccalauréat. 
Mentions complémentaires for the CAP and the BEP. 

Employment for holders of a CAP, a BEP or a vocational 
Baccalauréat. 
Further studies for a vocational Baccalauréat (or technological 
Baccalauréat by entering the Γ' adaptation class of the LEGT), for 
holders of a BEP. 
Possibility of higher studies for holders of a vocational 
Baccalauréat. 
Full­time, but 'school/in­cornpany' sandwich course training in 
preparation for vocational certificates. 

In public sector education, parents are as a rule required to enrol their children in the collège of the school area in which they live (geographical catchment area for a given collège). If a collège does not offer certain courses, 

especially in choice of first foreign language, exceptions can be granted allowing parents to send their children to another collège which does. 

Pupils generally move on from collège to a lycée in their school district (geographical zone covering several catchment areas), unless their chosen option or specialisation requires attending an institution further away. There are 

several exceptions to the school district assignment rules. Limited experiments have been set up allowing families the opportunity to choose from several schools. 

In the medium term, it is intended that the Brevets de technicien will be converted into technological or vocational Baccalauréats. 

Secondary education in the French education system, 1995/96 

Higher education institutions * 

Higher technical sections 

< ^ _ _ _ _^ S E L E C T I O N ~ _ [ !^ 

j 

LYCÉE PROFESSIONNEL 
Classes préparant au baccalauréat professionnel 

Î 

Î 

_ LYCEE PROFESSIONNEL 

Classes préparant au ■ Classes préparant au 

BEP ! CAP 

t 

t 

LYCEE D'ENSEIGNEMENT 
GÉNÉRAL ET TECHNOLOGIQUE 

t 

voie technologique 

t 

3ème générale 

3e"™ technologique 

3e™* d'insertion 

Cycle d'orientation 

4èm" générale 

I . 
COLLEGE 

5*™ 

6*™ 

1 

Ecole élémentaire 

4™'" à option technologique 

Cycle central 

Cycle d'adaptation 

Lower secondary education 

I Upper secondary education 

Options and possible transfers 

* This category includes very diverse establishments which select students at entry, The most prestigious — the Grandes Écoles — recruit, through competitive examinations, students who have completed one or two years of 

classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles (CPGE). 

to 

Source: Eurydice. 

■^ 

o 

Table 16. Structures of secondary education in IRELAND, 1995/96. 

Secondary school 

Vocational school 

Community school 

Comprehensive school 

Lower or upper secondary 

Lower and upper secondary. 

Lower and upper secondary' 

Lower and upper secondary. 

Lower and upper secondary. 

General objectives 

Duration 

Theoretical starting and finishing ages 

Offer a broad curriculum, including both academic and technical subjects. 

Lower secondary: 3 years (Junior Cycle). 
Upper secondary: 1 optional transition year + 2 years (Senior Cycle). 

Lower secondary: ages 12­15. 
Upper secondary: ages 15­17 or 18 (with or without transition year). 

Access conditions and admission criteria 

Pupils can enter the second level of schools when they have completed primary education, which usually means at age 12. 
Some secondary schools organise entrance examinations. 

Certificates awarded 

At the end of lower secondary, pupils who have completed the Junior Cycle may sit the examination for a Junior Certificate. 
At the end of upper secondary, pupils may sit examinations for a Leaving Certificate, or a Senior Certificate in certain regions. 

Further educational and career options 

Universities and higher education institutions (at the end of upper secondary). 
Employment (access possible as of age 15). 

Full-time or part-time 

Full­time. 

Full­time (lower and upper 
secondary). 
Part­time (upper secondary). 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

oo 

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Secondary education in the Irish education system,  1995/96 

Non-university  higher  education 

University  education 

ΐ 

17-18 

SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS (a) 

VOCATIONAL 
SCHOOLS (a) 

COMMUNITY 
SCHOOLS (a) 

COMPREHENSIVE 
SCHOOLS (a) 

Primary  ("national")  schools 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 

I  education 

Part-time education 

/

// 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

a)  While traditionally  the secondary  schools provided  an academic  education  and the vocational schools a vocational  education, the four  school types  now  aim to offer  a varied curriculum  which  assures 

a balance  between  academic and vocational  subjects. 

b)  Not all schools offer  a transition year.  Moreover  where  it does  exist, it is not  compulsory. 

Source: Eurydice. 

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Table 17. Structures of secondary education in ITALY, 1995/96. 

Scuola Media 

Liceo 
classico 

Liceo 
scientißco 

Istituto 
magistrale 

Scuola magistrale 

Liceo artistico 

Istituto d'Arte 

Istituto tecnico 

Istituto professionale 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondar}·. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondar)'. 

Upper secondar)'. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Lower or upper 
secondary 

General objectives 

Offer pupils a common 
curriculum of general 
education at lower 
secondary level, training, 
preparation for working 
life, and guidance. 

Prepare pupils for 
university and 
higher education. 

Prepare pupils for 
university and 
higher education. 

Train primary 
school teachers. 

Train nursery school 
teachers. 

Prepare pupils for 
specialised study in 
painting, stage design and 
architecture. 

Prepare pupils for 
traditional types of 
work and artistic ouput 
in industry, using the 
resources of the region. 

Prepare pupils for 
work in particular 
occupations or to 
undertake technical 
and administrative 
duties in the areas of 
agriculture, industry 
and commerce. 
5 years. 

Train skilled workers whose 
professional profile responds to the 
socio­economic demands of the local 
labour market. 

3 years + 2 optional years. 

Duration 

3 years. 

5 years. 

5 years. 

4 years + 1 year to 
qualify for 
university faculties. 

3 years. 

4 years + 1 optional year. 

3 years + 2 optional 
years.:ii 

Theoretical starting 
and finishing ages 

Ages 11­14. 

Ages 14­19. 

Ages 14­19. 

Ages 14­18/19. 

Ages 14­17. 

Ages 14­18/19. 

Ages 14­17/19. 

Ages 14­19. 

Ages 14­17/19. 

Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 

Primary education 
certificate. 

Certificates awarded 

Diploma di licenza media 
(Certificate giving access to 
upper secondary 
education). 

Diploma di 
licenza media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
Diploma di 
maturità classica 
(Upper secondary 
school leaving 
certifícate of the 
Classical Liceo). 

Diploma di 
licenza media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
Diploma di 
Maturità 
scientifica 
(Upper secondary 
school leaving 
certificate of the 
Scientific Liceo). 

Diploma di licenza 
media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
Diploma di 
maturità magistrale 
(Primary school 
teaching 
certificate ­ upper 
secondary school 
leaving certificate 
of the Istituto 
magistrale). 

Diploma di licenza 
media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
Diploma di abilitazione 
all 'insegnamento nelle 
scuole materne. 

Diploma di licenza media 
(Lower secondary school 
leaving certifícate). 

Diploma di maturità 
artistica. 
Upper secondary school 
leaving certificate of" the 
Artistic Liceo. 

Further educational 
and career options 

Transition to employment 
without a qualification. 
Apprenticeships. 
Enrolment in one of the 
types of upper secondary 
school. 

All types of 
university 
education. Higher 
education. 

All types of 
university 
education. Higher 
education. 

Primary school 
teacher. University 
faculties, after the 
additional year. 

Nursery school teacher. 

Advanced courses at the 
Academy of Fine Arts. 
Architecture courses. 
University faculties, after 
the additional year. 

Diploma di licenza 
media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
After 3 years: Arts 
qualification certificate. 
After 5 years: Diploma 
di maturità d 'arte 
applicata (Applied arts 
upper secondary school 
leaving certificate for 
the Istituti d'arte). 
After 2 further years, 
Diploma di Maturità 
Professionale. 

Employment. 
After 5 years, all types 
of university courses, 
higher education. 

Diploma di licenza 
media 
(Lower secondary 
school leaving 
certificate). 
Diploma di maturila 
tecnica 
(Upper secondary 
school leaving 
certificate for the 
Istituto tecnico). 

Diploma di licenza media 
(Lower secondary school leaving 
certificate). 

After 3 years: qualification certifícate. 
After 2 more years: Upper secondary 
school leaving certificate for the 
Vocational School (Diploma di 
maturila professionale). 

Public or private 
sector employment. 
Independent 
professional activity. 
Enrolment in higher­
level schools or 
university faculties. 

Employment. 
After 3 years: two­year post­graduate 
courses in a Vocational School. 
Participate in other vocational training 
modules for a second qualification. 
After 5 years, all types of university 
courses, higher education. 

Full­time or part­
time 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time and part­time 
evening courses. 

Full­time. 

Full­time and part­
time evening courses. 

Full­time and part­time evening 
courses. \ 

Some schools have introduced experimental two­year courses. Pupils who successfully complete these courses receive school­leaving certificates for the applied arts which allow them to continue studying at higher­level art schools or at university. 
The istituti magistrali and the scuole magistrali will no longer train candidates for the leaching profession. The university system is currently undergoing reform and, in future, nursery and primary school teachers will be required to complete a 
special four­ to six­year university course. 

Secondary education in the Italian education system, 1995/96 

University or 

university level education 

Non­university higher education 

Fine arts academies 

SCUOLA MEDIA 

Scuola elementare 

Lower secondary 

education 

I Upper secondary 

¡education 

Options and possible 

transfers 

a) These two types of schools will no longer lead to teaching careers. A reform of the university system not yet implemented provides for a specific four­ to six­year training course for future nursery and primary school teachers. 

b) An extra year after 4 years in an Istituto magistrale or a Liceo artistico gives access to certain university faculties. 
c) Entrance examination or aptitude test. Holders of an upper secondary school leaving certificate in the arts are exempted from the entrance examinations for fine arts academies. 

Source: Eurydice. 

GO 

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I—t 

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in 
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3 

4-

Table 18. Structures of secondary education in LUXEMBOURG,  1995/96. 

Lycée générai 

Lycée technique 

Lower secondar;'. 

Upper secondar)'. 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Régime préparatoire'" 

Cursus normal 

Régime de formation de technicien et 
régime technique 
Upper secondary*. 

Régime professionnel 

Upper secondar.'. 

Lower or upper 
secondarv 
General  objectives 

Prepare pupils primarily for 
university-level higher 
education on the basis of an 
intensive general education. 

Prepare pupils primarily for 
university-level higher education 
on the basis of an intensive 
general education. 

Encourage young people to obtain 
vocational qualifications  by focusing on 
the achievements and potential of each 
pupil and/or allow pupils to enter 
cursus normal of Lycée technique. 

Expand on the basic education 
received. 
Guide pupils towards their later 
training and prepare them for 
studies in the different  branches of 
the intermediate stage. 
Facilitate integration into working 
life. 

GO 

3 
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3^ 
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Õ' 
3 

Duration 

3 years. 

Theoretical starting and 
finishing ages 
Access conditions and 
admission  criteria32 

Certificates  awarded 

Ages 12-15. 

Up to 1996, entrance 
examination including language 
tests for French and German 
(dictation and practical skills). 
From  1996, guidance 
procedures in the last year of 
primary school. 
None. 

4 years with: 
General stage (2 years); 
Specialisation stage (2 years). 
Ages 15-19. 

The 'class council' takes the 
decision to promote a pupil to 
the intermediate stage on the 
basis of guidelines it prepares. 

3 years. 

3 years. 

Ages 12-15. 

Ages 12-15. 

Up to 1996, pupils must have 
completed 6 years of primary school 
and must be at least  12 years old. From 
1996, guidance procedures in the last 
year of primary school. 

Diplôme de fin d'études 
secondaires (Final secondary 
school leaving certificate). 

Certificat de fin de scolarité 
(Leaving certificate at the end of 
compulsory education). 

Further educational and 
career options 

Access to the upper stage of 
secondary education. 

Access to higher education in 
all subject areas. 

Full-time or part-time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Transfer to the lower stage of technical 
secondary education. 
Transfer within the intermediate stage 
to the vocational branch (ordinary or 
two-stage apprenticeship) of technical 
secondary education. 
Employment. 
Full-time. 

Intermediate stage: 
Prepare pupils for upper-stage studies. 
Intermediate and upper stage: 
a) The technician's training branch aims 
to train highly skilled workers through 
intensive vocational training: also otiers 
access to higher-level studies in technical 

b) The technical branch aims to train 
pupils for relatively high-level 
administrative and technical duties; 
offers  generalised access to higher 
education. 
Usually 4 to 5 years (the duration of a 
given stage depends on the chosen 
branch and profession). 
Ages 15-18/19/20. 

Intermediate stage: 
Teach pupils a trade or an occupation.'1 

As a rule, 3 years. 

Ages 15-18. 

Up to 1996, entrance examination 
including language tests for French 
and Gemían (dictation and 
practical skills) and an arithmetic 
test. From  1996, guidance 
procedures in the last year of 
primary school. 
Certificat de fin de scolarité 
(Leaving certificate  at the end of 
compulsory education). 

Access to the intermediate and 
upper stage with its three branches: 
technical branch; 
technician's training branch; 
vocational branch. 

Full-time. 

The 'class council' takes the decision to 
promote a pupil to the intermediate stage 
on the basis of guidelines it prepares. 

The 'class council' takes the decision to 
promote a pupil to the intermediate stage 
on the basis of guidelines it prepares. 

Technician's training branch: 
Diplôme de technicien. 
Technical branch: 
Diplôme defili d'éludés secondaires 
techniques. 
Technician's training branch: 
Employment; 
Higher-level technical studies. 
Technical branch: 
General higher education; 
Employment; 
University courses in general. 
Full-time. 

Certificat d'aptitude technique et 
professionnelle (CATP). 
Certificat d'initiation technique et 
professionnelle {CM?). 
Certificai de capacité manuelle (CCM). 
Employment. 

Concomitant system: 
Theoretical training at school (8hrs/week) 
+ practical training in a firm. 
Mixed system: 
I year full-time + 2 years in concomitant 
courses. 
or 2 years of courses full-time + 1  year of 
concomitant courses. 
Full-time system: 
3 years full-time. 

The preparatory branch was introduced by a reform implemented at the beginning of the 1994/95 school year. It replaces the former supplementary courses and will pay special attention to children experiencing difficulties in assimilating 
course content and keeping up with the standard pace of education. 
The reform of technical secondary education takes into account that some pupils are able to learn the practical aspects of a profession but are unable to assimilate theoretical subjects at the same pace. For these children, a two­stage training 
course called apprentissage à deux degrés has been introduced allowing pupils to complete theoretical training at their own pace (leading to a Certificat d'initiation technique et professionnelle). 
New procedures for entry to lower secondary education from 1996 have still to be finalised. 

Secondary education in the Luxembourg education system, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

University course (b) 

ik 

Non­university higher education (c) 

n 

19 

18 

15 

— 

12 

2 

1 V 

• « 3 ^ M Ï T 3 7 T a * T » TH 

ι v r cc T C f UM 

irti ic 

/

// 

RÉGIME RÉGIME DE 
TECHNIQUE LA FORMATION 

REGIME 
PROFESSIONNEL 

DE TECHNICIEN 

Cycles 
moyen et 
supérieur 

CYCLE INFÉRIEUR 

REGIME 
PRÉPARATOIRE 

Cycle inférieur 

' 1 
^^entrance examination (a)~J^ 

: k 
(Rentrance examination (a) J~^ 

Lower secondary 
education 

École primaire 

I Upper secondary 
■ education 

Part­time education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

a) Up to 1996, pupils had to pass an entrance examination to transfer to general secondary education, This examination was abolished in 1996 and replaced by a guidance procedure. 
b) After this one­year university­level course, students can continue their studies at certain universities abroad. 
c) This level of education is offered at several institutions: Institut supérieur de technologie, Institut supérieur d'études et de recherches pédagogiques, Institut d'études éducatives et sociales, short 

courses of study in management In the Département de droit et d'économie du Centre universitaire de Luxembourg; some secondary schools offer the brevet de technicien supérieur. 

Lo 

Source: Eurydice. 

in 
Ξ 
o 
E* 
EL 
o 

in 

H ­· 

O 
3 

LO 
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Table  19.  Structures  of  secondary  education  in the  NETHERLANDS,  1995/96. 

Voorbereidend 
Wetenschappelijk 
Onderwijs (VWO) 
Lower and upper secondary. 

Hoger Algemeen 
Voortgezet Onderwijs 
(HAVO) 

Middelbaar Algemeen 
Voortgezet Onderwijs 
(MAVO) 

Voorbereidend 
Beroepsonderwijs 
(VBO) 

Middelbaar Beroepsonderwijs 
(MBO) 

Apprenticeship 

Lower and upper secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondar)' 

Lower  J or  upper  secondary 

General  objectives 

The objective of Basisvorming (lower secondary) is to provide broad-based  general education in which no strict distinction is made between 
general and technical subjects. 
Prepare pupils for university 
education. 

Prepare pupils for higher 
education. 

Primarily prepare pupils for upper 
secondary vocational education 
(MBO). 

Provide basic vocational 
education, preparing pupils for 
their fiiture direction of study. 

Duration 

Lower secondary: 3 years. 
Upper secondary: 3 years. 

Lower secondary: 3 years. 
Upper secondary: 2 years. 

4 years. 

4 years including 960 hours of 
vocational  subjects. 

Provide general education and training in 
specific vocational sectors; prepare pupils for 
higher vocational training and to take up 
intermediate level positions in the 
administrative, industrial and service sectors. 
2, 3 or 4 years. 

Prepare for a trade. 

2 to 6 years. 

Theoretical  starting  and 
finishing ages 

Access conditions and 
admission  criteria 

Lower secondary: ages 12-15. 
Upper secondary: ages 15-18. 

Lower secondary: ages 12-15. 
Upper secondary: ages 15-17. 

Ages 12-16. 

Ages 12-16. 

Ages 15/16-17/18. 

Ages  16-18/21. 

An admissions board uses the report issued at the end of primary schooling to determine which pupils should 
attend which schools. 

No conditions. 

A certificate  is awarded upon completion of the Basisvorming. 

VBO certificate,  MAVO certificate with 
special conditions for long courses (4 years), 
or intermediate courses (3 years). 
Proof of entitlement to enter the 4th year of 
HAVO or VWO. 
The Ministry decides on all qualifications. 

VBO and MBO 
certificates. The Ministry 
decides on all 
qualifications. 

Certificates  awarded 

VWO leaving certificate. 

HAVO leaving certificate. 

MAVO leaving certificate. 

VBO leaving certificate. 

National diploma. 

Further  educational  and 
career  options 

After lower secondary: MBO. 
After upper secondary: 
university education or higher 
vocational training. 

After lower secondary': MBO. 
After upper secondary: 5,h year of 
VWO or higher vocational training. 

MBO or 4,h year of HAVO or an 
apprenticeship. 

MBO or apprenticeship. 

Full-time or  part-time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

After a two-year MBO, option to start a long 
MBO course. 
After a four-year  MBO, higher vocational 
training. 
Employment. 
Full-time. 
Part-time. 

Employment. 

Sandwich course training in 
school and on-the-job. 

Lower  secondary  comprises  the  first  three  years  of  the VWO, HAVO, MAVO and VBO  and  is covered  by  the  term Basisvorming.  After  the  completion  of  the  second  school  year every  pupil  receives  an  advice  from  the school  which  stream  is most 
appropriate  for  the pupil. 

Secondary education  in the Netherlands education system,  1995/96 

o 

O  O 

_  ω 

VOORBEREIDEND 
WETENSCHAPPELIJK 
ONDERWIJS  (a), (b) 

12 

HOGER 
ALGEMEEN 
VOORTGEZET 
ONDERWIJS (a) 

MIDDELBAAR 
ALGEMEEN 
VOORTGEZET 
ONDERWIJS  (a) 

VOORBEREIDEND 
BEROEPSONDERWIJS  (a) 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
I  education 

Part-time education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

a) Most schools offer three or four branches of education. 
b) The VWO consists of three types of school: the  Gymnasium  (where classical  languages  are compulsory), the  Lyceum  (where classical  languages  are optional)  and the Atheneum  (no classical  languages). 
c) The part-time  MBO course  is governed  by the law on vocational training. The full-time  MBO course  Is governed by the  law on secondary education. 

Source: Eurydice. 

GO 

C 

EL 
o 
«3 

Β. 
o 
3 

cc 

Table 20. Structures of secondary education  in AUSTRIA,  1995/96. 

Lower or  upper 
secondary 
General  objectives 

Duration 
Theoretical  starting 
and  finishing  ages 
Access conditions 
and  admission 
criteria 

Hauptschute 

Allgemeinbildende 
höhere Schule 

Oberstufen 
realgymnasium 

Polytechnischer 
Lehrgang 

Berufsbildende 
Pflichtschule 
(Berufsschule) 

Berufsbildende 
mittlere Schule 

Berufsbildende 
höhere  Schute 

Lower  secondary. 

Lower  and  upper 
secondary. 

Upper  secondary. 

Upper  secondary' 

Upper  secondary. 

Upper  secondary'. 

Upper  secondary. 

Bildungsanstalt 
für 
Kindergarten 
pädagogik 
Upper  secondar)'. 

Bitdungsanstalt 
für  Sozial 
pädagogik 

Upper  secondary. 

Give pupils a  basic 
general  education  and 
prepare  them  for 
employment  or  for an 
intermediate  or  higher-
level  college. 

Offer  pupils a  full  and 
intensified  general  education 
leading to the 
Hochschulreife. 

Give pupils a full  and 
intensified  general 
education  leading to the 
Hochschulreife. 

Give pupils a  specialised 
technical  and  vocational 
education  with  a view  to 
providing a  basic 
theoretical  understanding, 
initial  vocational  training 
and  general  knowledge. 

Provide pupils with  basic 
general  practical  training 
focused  on  facilitating 
their early entry  into 
employment  and 
preparing  their choice  of 
career. 

A pre-vocational  year is 
intended  for  pupils in 
their 9th year  of 
compulsory  schooling. 

Provide  initial  training  for 
certain  occupations  as 
well  as general  education. 

Specialised  vocational 
training and  general 
training leading to the 
Hochschulreife. 

Specialised  vocational 
training and  general 
training leading to the 
Hochschulreife. 

Specialised  vocational 
training and  general 
training leading to the 
Hochschulreife. 

4  years. 

8  years. 

4  years. 

1  year. 

2 to  4  years. 

1 to  4  years 

5  years. 

5  years. 

Ages  10-14. 

Ages  10-18. 

Ages  14-18. 

Ages  14-15. 

Ages  15-17/19. 

Ages  14-15/18. 

Ages  14-19. 

Ages  14-19. 

5  years. 

Aye  14-19 

Successful  completion 
of year 4 of primary 
school  (Volksschule). 

Successful  completion  of 
year 4 of primary  school 
(Volksschule),  receiving 
marks of'very  good'  or 
'good'  in German,  reading 
and  maths. 

The  'teachers'  council'  can 
still decide to admit  a pupil 
with  'satisfactory'  marks. 
Pupils can also sit an 
entrance  examination. 

This  school  is open  to  all 
who  successfully 
complete  year  8 (year 4  of 
the  allgemeinbildende 
höhere  Schule)  and  to 
Hauptschule-lçavers  who 
obtain  good  results.  An 
entrance  examination  is 
required  for  those  whose 
results  fail  to  meet  the 
required  level. 

All pupils  in year 9 of 
compulsory  schooling 
can take a  pre-vocational 
year. 

Completion  of year 9 of 
compulsory  schooling 
and  be in an 
apprenticeship. 

Successful  completion  of 
year 8 of schooling  and, 
in general, an  entrance 
exaini nation. 

Successful  completion 
of year  8 of  schooling 
and  an  entrance 
examination. 

Successful  completion 
of year 8 of schooling 
and  an  entrance 
examination. 

Successful  completion  of 
year 8 of schooling  and 
an  entrance  examination. 

Certificates 
awarded 

Jahres-  und 
Abschlußzeugnis  of the 
Hauptschule. 

Reifeprüfungszeugnis  after 
passing the  school-leaving 
examination  at the end  of the 
8-year course. 

Reifeprüfungszeugnis  after 
passing the  school-leaving 
examination  at the end  of 
the four-year  course. 

Jahres-  und 
A  bschlußzeugnis 
mentioning the end  of 
compulsory  schooling. 

Lehrabschlußprüfung. 

A  bschlußzeugnis. 

Reifeprüfungszeugnis. 

Reife-  und 
Befah  igungspríifungs-
zeugnis. 

Reife-  und 
Bejähigungspnijungs-
zeugnis. 

Further  educational 
and career  options 

Extra year (9ϋι) as a 
pre-vocational  year  and 
initial  training 
placement  or  admission 
to an  intermediate  or 
higher-level  college. 

At  the end  of the  first  4 
years,  pupils  can  move  on 
to  a berufsbildende  mittlere 
Schule  or  a  berufsbildende 
höhere  Schule. 

After  passing  the 
Reifeprüfung,  entry  into 
university  or other  higher 
education  institutions. 

After  passing  the 
Reifeprüfung,  entry  into 
university  or other  higher 
education  institutions. 

Entry into  apprenticeship 
or admission  to an 
intermediate  or  higher-
level college. 

Entry  into employment  as 
a  skilled  worker. 

Entry  into working  life, 
entrance  examination  for 
higher  education 
institutions. 

Entry into university  or 
other higher  education 
institutions 
(Fachhochschule,  etc.), 
or  employment. 

Entry  into  working 
life,  entry  into 
university  or  other 
higher  education 
institutions. 

Entry  into working  life, 
entry  into university  or 
other higher  education 
institutions. 

Full-time or  part-
time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Part-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Secondary education  in the Austrian education system,  1995/96 

Lower secondary 
education 

/

// 

Part-lime education 

Options and possible 
iransfers 

w 

*  The upper level of primary  school  (Volksschule  Oberstufe)  provides education comparable to lower secondary  schools, but only a very few pupils attend such schools today. 

vo 

Source: Eurydice. 

-μ-
ο 

Table 21. Structures of secondary education in PORTUGAL, 1995/96. 

Ensino básico (3° ciclo) 

Cursos de carácter geral 

Cursos tecnológicos 

Cursos das Escolas Profissionais 

Lower or upper secondary 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondar)'. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

General objectives 

Duration 

Theoretical starting and 
finishing ages 

Access conditions and 
admissions criteria 

Certificates awarded 

Further educational and 
career options 

Full-time or part-time 

Provide a modern education that meets, in a 
systematic and differentiated way, the demands of 
working life and further studies and facilitates 
academic and vocational orientation to assist pupils 
in seeking further training or employment. Offer the 
individual pupil more options and greater autonomy. 
3 years. 

Build on the education offered in Ensino bàsico and 
prepare pupils for higher education. 

Build on the education offered in Ensino básico and 
prepare pupils for entry to the world of work and for 
higher education. 

Give young people a general education and provide 
technological and practical training in specific areas 
leading to a vocational qualification. 

3 years. 

3 years. 

3 years. 

Ages 12-15. 

Ages 15-18. 

Ages 15-18. 

Ages 15-18. 

Successful completion of the second level of Ensino 
.' ■ 34 basico. 
j
Pupils between 11 and 15 years old who have 
completed a level of schooling equivalent to the end 
of the second level. 
Certificate of Ensino básico. 

Successful completion οι Ensino básico or hold an 
equivalent qualification. 

Successful completion of Ensino básico or hold an 
equivalent qualification. 

Successful completion of Ensino básico or hold an 
equivalent qualification. 

Secondary school leaving certificate. 

Secondary school leaving certificate + vocational 
qualification certificate level III. 

Diploma of vocational qualification level III and of 
the completion of secondary education. 

Further studies. 

Higher education. 

Employment in a broad range of trades and 
occupations. 
Higher education. 

Employment. 
Higher education. 

Full-time and part-time. 

Full-time and part-time. 

Full-time and part-time. 

Full-time and part-time. 

Pupils must enrol in a school located in the district where they live or where their parents or guardians work. 
Cursos do ensino recorrente are generally provided in the evening for young people over 15 who have not completed compulsory education (1" stage secondary) and for young people over 18 (2nd stage secondary). 
There is considerable flexibility in all aspects of the organisation of these courses, with the result that evening courses are progressively disappearing. 

Secondary education in the Portuguese education system, 1995/96 

University education 

Non­university higher education 

(a) 

_ ß u r s os dó ensine 
/ seølindaric 

Competition (b) ~^^ 

CURSOS DAS 

PROFISSIONAIS 

ENSINO BASICO 

3° CICLO 

2° CICLO 

1» CICLO 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
I education 

Part­time 
education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

a) Cursos do ensino recorrente are provided in general in the evening for young persons of 15 years who have not finished compulsory education (lower secondary) or those over 18 (upper secondary). This kind of education 

has great flexibility and is interdisciplinary in curriculum, methods and assessment. 

b) Admission to higher education depends on success in a competitive examination. The classification of candidates takes account of their performance in different subjects, some chosen by the candidates and others 

specific to the character of the examination. 

Source: Eurydice. 

00 
2 
o 
C -( 
EL 
o 
σ3 

in 
&. 
O 
3 

4-

Table 22. Structures of secondary education in FINLAND (post-reform),  1995/96. 

00 

Lower  or  upper 
secondary 

General  objectives 

Peruskoulu/Grundskola 

Lukio/Gymnasium 

Ammatillinen 

toisen  asteen  koulutus 

Lower secondary  (last  stage of'unified  structure). 

Upper secondary  general  education. 

Upper secondary  vocational  education  and  training. 

Promote  pupils'  personal  development  into  balanced, 
healthy,  responsible, autonomous, creative,  cooperative 
and  peace-loving  individuals  and  members  of society. 
Teach  morals and  good  behaviour  as well  as the 
knowledge  and  skills necessary  for  life.  Organise 
teaching and  non-teaching  activities  to give pupils  the 
opportunity  to develop  their personalities,  prepare  for an 
active  role  in society and  working  life,  choose  their 
careers  and  further  studies, gain  an  understanding  of the 
need  to protect  the environment  and  foster  international 
cooperation  and  peace.  Promote equal  opportunity  for 
boys and  girls. 

Promote  pupils'  personal  development  into balanced,  healthy, 
responsible, autonomous, creative, cooperative and  peace-
loving  individuals  and  members  of society. Teach  morals  and 
good  behaviour.  Organise teaching and  non-teaching  activities 
to give pupils the opportunity  to develop  their  personalities, 
prepare  for an active  role  in society and  working  life,  choose 
their careers  and  further  studies, gain  an  understanding  of the 
need  to protect the environment  and  foster  international 
cooperation  and  peace.  Promote  equal  opportunity  for  boys and 
girls. 

Build  on the educational  functions  of the Peruskoulu/Grundskola  and, 
through  on-the-job  training  in firms, give pupils the necessary  skills to 
pursue  further  studies  and  achieve  and  maintain  the vocational  skills 
they  need  for working  life.  Enable  pupils  to develop  their  personalities 
and  enhance  their awareness  of the  need  to protect the  environment 
and  to promote  national  culture,  international  cooperation  and  world 
peace. Promote  equal  opportunity  for boys and  girls. 
The aim  of supplementary  vocational  education  is to keep up and 
develop  vocational  skills acquired  during  upper secondary  vocational 
education  or on the job.  The goal  of special  vocational  education  is to 
promote  the total  process of training  pupils with  special  needs, 
together  with  the services  which  support  them. 

Duration 

3 years. 

Theoretical  starting  and 
finishing  ages 

Ages  13-16. 

Access  conditions  and 
admission  criteria 

As the Peruskoulu/Grundskola 
selection  takes  place between  its lower and  its  upper 
stages (considered  here as lower  secondary  education). 

is a unified  structure, no 

Certificates  awarded 

On completion  of the Peruskoulu/Grundskola,  pupils 
are awarded  a school-leaving  certificate  assessed 
internally  and  without  a final  examination. 

Further  educational  and 
career  options 

General  or vocational  upper  secondary  school.  Some 
municipalities  offer  the possibility  of taking an  optional 
10'" year. 

Full-time  or  part-time 

Full-time. 

3 years, but  this period  may be shortened  or extended  to 4 
years, depending  on the pupil's  own  pace. 

2 or 3 years, depending  on the vocational  course. 

Ages  16-19. 

Ages  16-18 or  19. 

A Peruskoulu/Grundskola  certificate  is required.  Pupils  apply 
to a maximum  of five institutions  (general  and/or  vocational 
education).  Selection  is made on the  basis of average  marks  in 
the theoretical  subjects  in the certificate.  The school  can  also 
establish  a minimum  average.  Specialised  schools  (for  the arts, 
sports, etc.) can  give weight  to the special  skills or hobbies  in 
their  section. 
After  completing  successfully  the minimum  number of courses, 
students  receive the general  upper  secondary  general  school 
leaving certificate  lukion päästötodistus.  Students  also sit  the 
matriculation  examination ylioppilastutkinto 
subjects.  On passing,  they  receive a  ylioppilastutkintotodistus 
certificate  which  confers  general  eligibilty  to enter  higher 
education. 
Universities  (Yliopisto/Universitet,  Korkeakoiilu/Hogskola), 
non-university  higher  education 
(Ammattikorkeakoulu/Yrkeslwgskola)  or higher  vocational 
education.  Rarely  employment. 
Full-time. 

in at  least 4 

A Peruskoulu/Grundskola  certificate  is required.  Under  special 
circumstances  it is possible to accept  pupils without  it. 
Pupils apply  to a maximum  of five institutions  (general  or vocational). 
Candidates  are selected  on the basis of criteria  set  by the  Ministry  of 
Education,  including previous  reports and  practical  experience.  Pupils 
are selected  by the body  responsible  for admissions  at the school. 

Pupils  receive a certificate  after  having completed  all classes  in their 
course  with  at  least  'satisfactory'  marks. 

Non-university  higher  education 
(Ammattikorkeakoiihi/Yikeshõgskola),  higher  vocational  education  or 
employment 

Full-time. 

Secondary education in the Finnish education system, 1995/96 

Universities 

t 

Non­university higher education, 
(AMK institutions) 

î 

Post­secondary vocational education 
(colleqes) 

t " 

LUKIO/GYMNASIUM (b) 
(General) 

^ h 
^ w 

i  L 

▲ 

AMMATILLINEN TOISEN 
ASTEEN KOULUTUS (c) 
(Upper secondary vocational 
education and training) 
A 

(a) 

DPRiiQKmii ι i/nmiNnctk-ni Δ 

19 

16/17 

16 

13 

7 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
¡education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

a) The Peruskoulu/Grundskola, an all­through school, can provide an optional tenth year for those who have completed their compulsory education. 
b) The duration of studies at the Lukio/Gymnasium is between 2 and 4 years. The norm is 3 years. 
c) Training lasts between 2 and 3 years depending on the vocational subject area. 

Source: Eurydice. 

CO 

-î 

O 
f— c 
EL 
o 
cí3 

in 

Ë. 
O 
3 

t 

Table 23. Structures of secondary education in SWEDEN, 1995/96. 

Grundskola 

Gymnasieskola 

Lower or upper secondary 

Lower secondary (last three years of integrated structure). 

Upper secondary/ 

General objectives 

Duration 

All children and young people must have equal access to education in the state 
school system regardless of sex, place of residence and social and economic 
circumstances. The education shall provide pupils with knowledge and skills 
and, in co­operation with the home, promote their harmonious development 
into responsible people and members of society. All school activity must be 
carried out in accordance with fundamental democratic values. 
3 years. 

Theoretical starting and finishing ages 

Ages 13­16. 

Build on the educational functions of the Grundskola. Pupils should be able to 
take stock of broad fields of knowledge and develop an analytical ability and 
adopt an increasingly scientific method of working and thinking. Pupils shall 
also obtain knowledge of international cooperation and global links, and be able 
to evaluate events from a Swedish, Nordic, European and global perspective. 

3 years. 

Ages 16­19. 

Access conditions and admission criteria 

As the Grundskola is an integrated structure, no selection takes place between 
its lower and upper levels (considered here as providing lower secondary 
education). 

Successful completion of the Grundskola. Starting in the school year 1998/99, a 
pass will be required in Swedish, English and mathematics to gain access to the 
national programmes in upper secondary school. 

Certificates awarded 

There is no final examination for compulsory education, but a leaving 
certificate is awarded. 

Further educational and career options 

Choice of upper secondary studies. 

The leaving certificate indicates the marks obtained in all upper secondary 
courses. Marks are awarded on a four­category scale: Failed, Passed, Passed 
with credit and Passed with distinction. 

Access to higher education (Universities and higher­level institutions) or 
employment. 

Full-time or part-time 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

00 

s 

E 
O 
B 

—i 

iL 
o 
¿3 
ir. 
Ρ 
δ' 
3 

The upper secondary school has recently been reformed and as of 1 July 1995 it is organised in terms of 16 different national programmes. All programmes contain the same eight core subjects. For pupils with special needs or with 
interests other than those covered by the 16 national programmes, there are some alternatives, i.e. a specially designed programme or an individual programme. 

Secondary education in the Swedish education system,  1995/96 

Universities and university colleges 

19 

166 

GYMNASIESKOLA 

-1^ 

Source: Eurydice. 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
I  education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

C/J 

C 
-ι 
P. 

O 
cri 
Ρ 
3 

O 
3 

4-

Table 24. Structures of secondary education in ENGLAND and WALES, 1995/96. 

Lower or  upper  secondary 
General  objectives 

Duration 

Theoretical  starting  and 
finishing  ages 
Access conditions and 
admission  criteria 

Certificates  awarded 

Further  educational  and 
career  options 

Full-time or  part-time 

Lower and upper secondary. 

Secondary  school 

All pupils have a right to a broadly based and balanced curriculum which is adapted to their needs, 
promotes their spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development, and which prepares them 
for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. 
Lower secondary: 3 years. 
Upper secondary: 2 or 4 years. 
Lower secondary: Age 11-14. 
Upper secondary: Age  14-16 or 18. 

At lower secondary level: 
Selective schools {commonly known as grammar schools) may include pupils' abilities and aptitudes 
in their admission criteria. Any school may select up to  15% of its intake on the basis of ability or 
aptitude. 
At upper secondary level: 
Not applicable at the start of upper secondary (age  14). No formal qualifications  are required to enter 
the Sixth Form (age  16) but some courses have specific  requirements. 
At age  16: General Certificate  of Secondary Education (GCSE). 
At age  18: General Certificate  of Education at Advanced  Level (GCE Α-level) or Advanced 
39 

Supplementary Examinations (AS) or GNVQ (General National  Vocational  Qualifications). 

On completion of lower secondary' (age 14): 
Choice of options for the GCSE examinations. 
On completion of compulsory education (age 16): 
Continue studies leading to the GCE Α-level, AS Examinations, GNVQs at school or in Further 
Education  Institutions (see note 38 below) 
Training. 
Employment. 
On completion of upper secondary (age 18): 
Higher education; 
Vocational qualification  in Further Education Institutions; 
Training; 
Employment. 
Full-time. 

Post-compulsory*, age 16. 
To contribute to the spiritual, moral, mental and physical development  of the community. 

Further  Education  Institution' 

1 to 2 years (depending on the chosen course). 

Age  16 normally -  depending on the chosen course -  although students of any age can be admitted. Students must usually be 
over the age of compulsory education (age 16). 

No qualifications  required although some courses may have specific  requirements. 

National  Vocational Qualifications  (NVQ), General National  Vocational Qualifications  (GNVQ) 
Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC), Royal Society of Arts Examination Board (RSA), the City and Guilds 
of London Institute (CGLI), the London Chamber of Commerce and Industry Examination Board (LCCI) 
GCE Α-level and AS Examinations. 
GCSE. 
Higher Education. 
Employment. 
Training. 

Full-time. 
Part-time. 

00 
Ξ 
η 
r— 

c 
-! 
Ρ 
TO 
Ρ 
3^ 
v. 
Ρ 
δ' 

t—. 

In  England  in  1993/94, some  86.2% of  pupils  in  publicly  funded  secondary  schools  attended  Comprehensive  Schools,  5.5%  attended  Middle  Schools  officially  considered  to be secondary  schools,  4%  attended  Grammar  Schools  and  3.1% Secondary 
Modern  Schools. In Wales, all pupils  in publicly  funded  schools attended  Comprehensive  Schools. 
These  institutions  include  Sixth  Form  Colleges  which  mainly  provide  general  academic  education.  Further  Education  Colleges  which  generally  provide  vocational  education  and Tertiary  Colleges  which  provide  both  general  and  vocational  education. 
One intermediate  GNVQ is considered  equivalent  to 4 or 5 GCSE passes grades A* to C; one  advanced  GNVQ  is considered  equivalent  to 2 GCE A level passes. 

Secondary education  in the English and Welsh education systems,  1995/96 

University  education 

1 

18 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Non-university  higher  education 

t 

FURTHER  EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 
Sixth Form Colleges 
Further  Education  Colleges 
Tertiary  Colleges 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
¡education 

o> Part-time 

education 

a) Officially,  Middle Schools are classed as primary schools if the majority  of pupils are younger  than  11 years old, and as secondary  schools  if the majority of pupils are older than 11. 
b) Sixth  Form Colleges generally offer full-time courses; Further  Education Colleges and Tertiary  Colleges offer  both full- and part-time courses. 

Source: Eurydice. 

Middle Schools (a) 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

00 
H 
3 
O 
t-f 
3 
-t 
Ρ 
O 
i-I 
aq 
Ρ g_ 

ca 
Ρ 
S' 
3 

4-

Table 25.  Structures of  secondary  education  in NORTHERN  IRELAND,  1995/96. 

Lower  or  upper  secondary 

Lower and  upper secondar)'. 

Lower and  upper  secondary. 

Post-compulsory. 

Grammar  schools 

Secondary  Schools 

Further  Education  Colleges 

General  objectives 

All pupils have a right  to a broad-based  and  balanced  curriculum  which 
is adapted  to their needs, promotes  their spiritual,  moral, cultural, 
mental  and  physical  development,  and  which  prepares  them  for  the 
opportunities,  responsibilities  and  experiences  of adult  life. 

Duration 

Lower secondary: 3 years. 
Upper secondary: 2 or 4 years. 

All  pupils  have a right  to a broad-based  and  balanced 
curriculum  which  is adapted  to their  needs,  promotes 
their spiritual,  moral, cultural,  mental  and  physical 
development,  and  which  prepares  them  for  the 
opportunities,  responsibilities  and  experiences  of adult 
life. 
Lower secondary:  3 years. 
Upper secondary:  2 or 4 years. 

Theoretical  starting  and 
finishing  ages 

Lower secondary: ages  11-14. 
Upper secondary: ages  14-16 or 18. 

Lower secondary:  ages  11-14. 

Upper secondary:  ages  14-16. 

40 

Prepare  pupils  for  working  life as well  as  for 
advanced  qualifications. 

1 to 2 years (depending  on the level:  foundation, 
intermediate,  advanced). 

Ages  16-17/18 (depending  on the chosen  course). 

00 

I 

o 
rf· 
3 
-i 
Ρ 
TO 
Ρ g_ 
ce' 
Ρ 
S' 
3 

Access  conditions  and 
admission  criteria 

Certificates  awarded 

Further  educational  and  career 
options 

Full-time  or  part-time 

At  lower secondary  level: each  school  publishes  the  number of 
available  places and  their admission  criteria:  only Grammar  Schools 
may  include  pupils'  academic  abilities  among these  criteria. 
At upper  secondary  level: completion  of lower secondary  school. 
At age  16: General Certificate  of Secondary Education (GCSE). 
At age  18: General Certificate  of Education at Advanced Level (GCE A-level) 
or Advanced Supplementary  Examinations (AS) or GNVQ (General National 

Vocational  Qualifications). 

41 

On completion  of lower secondary  (age  14): 
Choice  of options  for  the GCSE. 
On completion  of compulsory  education  (age  16): 
Continue  studies  leading to the GCE A level  examination,  AS 
examinations or GNVQs at school  or at a further  education  college; 
Employment; 
Training. 
On completion  of upper secondary  (age  18): 
Higher  education; 
Vocational  qualifications  in  further  education  colleges; 
Employment; 
Training. 
Full-time. 

At  lower secondary  level: no specific  conditions. 
At  upper secondary  level: completion  of the  lower 
secondary  level. 

No formal  qualifications  required  although  some 
courses  may have specific  requirements 

At age  16: General Certificate  of Secondary  Education 
(GCSE). 
At age  18: General Certificate  of Education at Advanced 
Level (GCE Α-level) or Advanced  Supplementary 
Examinations (AS) or GNVQ (General National  Vocational 
Qualifications).'" 

On  completion  of lower secondary  (age  14): 
choice  of options  for  the GCSE. 
On  completion  of compulsory  education  (age  16): 
continue  studies  leading to the GCE A level 
examination,  AS examinations  or GNVQs  at school  or 
at a further  education  college; 
employment; 
training. 

National Vocational Qualifications  (NVQ), General 
National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQ). 
Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC), 
Royal Society of Arts Examination Board (RSA), The 
City and Guilds of London Institute (C&G), The London 
Chamber of Commerce and Industry Examination Board 
(LCCI). 
GCE Α-level and AS Examinations. 
GCSE. 
Higher  Education. 
Employment. 
Training. 

Full-time. 

Full-time/Part-time. 
Modular  courses. 

Post-compulsory  provision  is also made  for  16-18 year olds  in many  secondary  schools. 
One intermediate  GNVQ is considered  equivalent  to 4 or 5 GCSE passes grades A* to C; one advanced  GNVQ  is considered  equivalent  to 2 GCE A level passes. 

Secondary education  in the education system of  Northern  Ireland,  1995/96 

University education 

ΐ 

18 

GRAMMAR 
SCHOOLS 

Non-university higher education 

J 

FURTHER 
EDUCATION  COLLEGES 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
I education 

Part-time 
education 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

" Post-compulsory  provision  is also made for  16- to 18-year-olds  in many  secondary  schools. 

4^ 

Source:  Eurydice. 

00 
Ξ 
o 
Β 
BL 
o 
ο3 

co 

Β. 
O 
3 

O 

Table 26. Structures of secondary education in SCOTLAND,  1995/96. 

Secondary  school 

Further  Education  College 

Lower  or  upper  secondary 
General  objectives 

Duration 

Theoretical  starting  and  finishing  ages 

Access  conditions  and  admission 
criteria 

Certificates  awarded 

Further  educational  and  career  options 

Full-time  or  part-time 

42 

Lower and upper secondary. 
At lower secondary level: 
Prepare pupils to take their place in society, helping them attain their personal, social and 
professional  aims and meet the expectations of their parents and employers as well as the 
demands of vocational and higher education. 
At upper secondary level: 
As above. 
Lower secondary: 4 years. 
Upper secondary: 2 years. 
Lower secondary: Ages 12-16. 
Upper secondary: Ages 16-18. 
Lower secondary: 
No entrance restrictions: all pupils who complete 7 years of primary education are 
admitted to secondary school. 
Upper secondary: 
Schools can establish admissions criteria for specific courses and advise pupils, for whom 
it seems reasonable, to take a one-year course leading to the Higher Grade or modular 
courses for  1  or 2 years leading to certification  by SCOTVEC. 
At lower secondary level: 
Scottish Certificate  of Education at Standard Grade: National  Certificate 
At upper secondary level: 
Scottish Certificate  of Education at Higher Grade (5lh and 6"' year); 
Certificate  of Sixth Year Studies (6lh); National  Certificate. 
On completion of lower secondary: 
upper secondary education; 
employment; 
further  education; 
vocational  education. 
On completion of upper secondary: 
further  education; 
higher education; 
employment; 
vocational  education. 
Full-time (or part-time if vocational/further  education). 

Post-compulsory. 
Presents an alternative to courses leading to the Higher Grade or 
Certificate  of Sixth Year Studies. 
Offers  a range of qualifications  whether academic or vocational  as an 
alternative to those of schools. 

1, 2 or 3 years. 

Ages  16-17/18/19 (depending on the training course chosen). 

No conditions. 

National Certificate  (full-time  or part-time education), HNC, HND 
General Scottish  Vocational  Qualification  (full-time  or part-time 
education). 
Scottish Certificate  of Education at Higher Grade. 

Employment. 
Higher education. 

Full-time/part-time. 
Modular courses. 

CO 
<— 
5 
O 
rf-
3 
-! 
£L 
o 

-ι 

3^ 
<—·-
δ' 
3 

Some  pupils who wish  to continue  in higher education  only  spend  one year  in upper secondary  school, but this is not  common. 
The  vocational  education  of young people and  adults  is provided  on the basis of contracts concluded  with  independent  training  bodies  (often  private sector employers). 
This training  lasts two years and is organised  in  'units of core  skills'. 

Secondary education in the Scottish education system, 1995/96 

University education 

Non­university higher education 

18 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS (a) 

19 

■

>! 

FURTHER EDUCATION 
COLLEGES 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
¡education 

V/ Part­time 

education 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

• In Scotland, 99% of secondary schools are comprehensive  schools which offer  all course types for pupils of all levels of aptitude. 

Source: Eurydice. 

00 
5 
o 
3 
R 
EL 
o 
¿3 
fa 
3 

O 
3 

IO 

Table 27. Structures of secondary education in ICELAND, 1995/96. 

Grunnskoli 

Menntaskoli 

Fjölbrautasköli 

¡dnskoli 

Sérskóli 

Lower or upper 
secondary 

Lower secondary (last level of 
integrated structure). 

General objectives 

Duration 

Acquisition of knowledge, skills, 
aptitudes, working methods which 
help each pupil to develop. Prepare 
pupils for life in a democratic 
society. 
3 years. 

Theoretical starting 
and finishing ages 

Ages 13­16. 

Access conditions 
and admission 
criteria 

Certificates 
awarded 

As the Grunnskoli is an integrated 
structure, no selection takes place 
between its lower and upper levels 
(considered here as providing lower 
secondary education). 
Grunnskólapróf(\e&Vmg certificate 
for compulsory education). 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Provide general education. Prepare 
pupils for higher education. 

Provide general education. Prepare 
pupils for higher education and for an 
occupation. 

Provide general education. Prepare 
pupils for higher education and for an 
occupation. 

Prepare pupils for an occupation. Prepare 
students to enter higher education. 

4 years. 

2 to 4 years (generally). 

4 years (generally). Shorter courses 
exist. 

1 to 4 years. 

Ages 16­20. 

Ages 16­20. 

Ages 16­20. 

Variable. 

Completion of the 101'1 year of the 
Grunnskoli. 

Completion of the 10"' year of 
Grunnskoli. 

Completion of the 10'" year of 
Grunnskoli. 

Completion of the Ι θ"' year of Grunnskoli. 

Stúdentspróf. 

Stúdentspróf, sveinspróf verslunarpróf 
and some other certificates. 

Sveinspróf and some other certificates. 

Various certificates. 

Further educational 
and career options 

Full-time or part-
time 

Choice of upper secondary courses. 

Access to higher education, 
university. 

Access to higher education, university 
and working life. 

Access to some higher education 
courses, to other technical or vocational 
courses and to working life. 

Access to some higher education courses 
and to working life. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

Full­time. 

<—t 

00 
s 
o 
rf 
3 
-ι 
£5 

PO 

5, 
vi 
ë-
ö' 
3 

Secondary education  in the Icelandic education system,  1995/96 

Lower secondary 
education 

I  Upper secondary 
I  education 

—►  Options and possible 

transfers 

Source: Eurydice. 

in 

3 
■-! 
ÊL 
o 

5. 
v> 

r -■ 

δ' 
3 

<J1 
- t-

Table 28.  Structures  of  secondary  education  in  LIECHTENSTEIN,  1995/96. 

m 

Oberschule 

Realschule 

Gymnasium 

Voluntary  10lh  year 

Fachschulen 
(foreign  countries) 

Berufsschule  +  Lehre 
(foreign  countries) 

Berufsmittelschule  + 
Lehre 
(foreign  countries) 

Lower secondary. 

Lower secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

Upper secondary. 

General education at 
different  levels. 
Preparation  for working 
life. 

General education at 
greater depth. 
Preparation  for working 
life or for studies in the 
Gymnasium or 
Fachschule. 
4 years. 

Educational  preparation 
for certain  paramedical, 
commercial, teaching 
and skilled  craft 
occupations. 

Vocational  training in 
paramedical, 
commercial, teaching, 
artistic, tourism and 
other occupations. 

Dual training in 
apprenticeship and in the 
Berufsschule part-time. 

Dual training in 
apprenticeship and in the 
Berufsmittelschule part-
time. Completed  by the 
award of the Fach-
hochschulreife. 
3 to 4 years. 

8 years. 

1 year. 

2 to 5 years. 

2 to 4 years. 

Lower and upper 
secondary. 
Preparation  for the 
Hochschulreife and 
higher education. 

Lower  or  upper 
secondary 
General  objectives 

Duration 

4 years. 

Theoretical  starting 
and  finishing  ages 

12-16. 

12-16. 

12/14/15-19. 

16-17. 

16-22. 

16-19. 

16-19. 

Access  conditions 
and  admission 
criteria 

5 years of primary school. 

5 years of primary school 
and admission 
procedures: evaluation of 
pupils and advice to 
them and their parents. 

Certificates  awarded 

Oberschule leaving 
certificate 
(Oberschulabschlußzeugnis). 

Realschule leaving 
certificate (Realschul 
abschlußzeugnis). 

1st route: 5 years of 
primary school and 
admission procedures (as 
for the Realschule). 
2nd route: after  1  or 3-4 
years of the Realschule, 
admission procedures or 
voluntary entrance 
examination. 
Hochschulreifezeugnis 
after success in the 
Reifeprüfung. 

9 years of compulsory 
education. 

Leaving  certificate 
(Schlußzeugnis). 

Further  educational 
and  career  options 

Apprenticeship 
(Berufslehre). 

Entry to Gymnasium or 
Fachschule or 
apprenticeship 
(Berufslehre). 

Entry to all kinds of 
higher education. 

Fachschulen after entry 
examination, 
Berufslehre. 

Full-time  or  part-
time 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

Full-time. 

9 years of compulsory 
education of which the 
last 3 were in the 
Realschule,  entry 
examination  and/or 
prerequisites based on 
school results. 

Pre-school  teacher's 
certificate.  Primary 
school teacher's 
certificate and 
Hochschulreife.  Various 
vocational  diplomas and 
the Fachhochschulreife. 
Working life; according 
to type of education, the 
possibility of higher 
education or 
Fachhochschule. 
Full-time. 

9 years of compulsory 
education. 

9 years of compulsory 
education and entry 
examination. 

Apprenticeship 
completion  certificate 
(Lehrabschlußprüfung). 

Apprenticeship 
completion  certificate 
(Lehrabschlußprüfung) 
and Fachhochschulreife. 

Working life; 
examination  for Meisler 
and skill in training 
apprentices; educational 
and vocational studies. 
Dual system -  part-time 
study and workplace 
training. 

Working life (and the 
same possibilities as after 
apprenticeship) 
Berufslehre and Fach-
hochschule. 
Dual system -  part-time 
study and workplace 
training. 

Secondary education in the Liechtenstein education system,  1995/96 

Higher education (b) 

GYMNASIUM TYPE  Β 
(LITERARY) 

REALSCHULE 

OBERSCHULE 

t 

f- M 

10" YEAR OPTIONAL 

OPTIONAL  t 

t 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

PRIMARSCHULE 

Lower secondary 
education 

Upper secondary 
education 

Part-time education 

/

// 

Options and possible 
transferts 

a) These institutions are outside Liechtenstein. 
b) These institutions are found mainly outside Liechtenstein. 

Ui 

Source:  Eurydice. 

Ui 

Table 29. Structures of secondary education in NORWAY, 1995/96. 

Lower or upper secondary 

Lower secondary (last level of integrated structure). 

Upper secondary. 

Grunnskole (ungdomstrinnet) 

Videregående opplœring 

General objectives 

Duration 

Provide pupils with a Christian and moral education, developing their mental and 
physical abilities and providing them with a broad­based general knowledge which 
fosters intellectual freedom and promotes tolerance. Create a framework of 
cooperation between teachers and pupils as well as between families and the 
school. 
3 years. 

Prepare pupils tor employment and for participation in civic affairs, lay the 
foundations for their continuing education and foster their personal growth. 
Develop and broaden their knowledge and understanding with respect to Christian 
values, Norwegian traditions and cultural heritage, concepts of democracy and 
scientific methods. 
3 or 4 years. 

Theoretical starting and finishing ages 

Ages 13­16. 

Ages 16­19. 

Access conditions and admission criteria 

As the Grunnskole is an integrated structure, no selection takes place between its 
lower and upper levels (considered here as providing lower secondary education). 

Successful completion of the 9' ' year of the Grunnskole. 

Certificates awarded 

When they leave school, pupils receive a certificate (avgangsvitnemål) which 
indicates the subjects they studied, the final marks of their last school year and the 
results obtained in their final examination (avgangseksamen). 

Further educational and career options 

Choice of upper secondary courses. 

There are two types of certificate: 
a) a trade skills or journeyman's certificate (fagbrev/svennebrev); 
b) a certificate (vitnemålfra den videregående skolen) giving entitlement to higher 
education. 
Higher education or employment. 

Full-time or part-time 

Full­time. 

Full­time. In certain cases, schools offer part­time education. 

Ξ 
O 
<— 
c 
-ι 

Ρ 
3. 
t/i 
po 

δ' 

Secondary education in the Norwegian education system, 1995/96 

University education 

Non­university higher education 

19 

16i 

16 

13 

VIDEREGÅENDE KURS II (VKII) 

On-the-job training 

VIDEREGÅENDE KURS I (VKI) 

GRUNNKURS(GK) 

(Ungdomstrinnet) 

GRUNNSKOLE 

(Barnetrinnet) 

i 

Training and work 

Training and work 

Videregående 
opplæring 

GO 

Lower secondary 
education 

I Upper secondary 
¡education 

Options and possible 
transfers 

Source:  Eurydice. 

►-i 

o 
Β 
Bi 
o 
<ß 
ca g_ 

t/3 
Ρ 
O 
3 

Structural  organisation 

2. Educational guidance 

Secondary  education  is  an  important  time  of  transition  when  pupils  not  only  have  to  become 
accustomed  to  a  new  type  of  educational  organisation  but  also  are  confronted  with  ever  more 
precisely-defined  options  as  their  educational  careers  progress.  In  order  to  help  these  young  people 
weigh  their  options,  most  countries  provide  educational  and  vocational  guidance  at  one  time  or 
another and have established  guidance bodies and procedures. 

Four key  periods emerge  from  an  analysis  of practices  in the  various  countries. Table  30 presents  the 
guidance procedure which  each country has set up for each  of the four  key periods. 

•  At the  end  of  primary  education,  Belgium,  Germany,  Luxembourg,  the Netherlands  and  Austria 
provide  their  pupils  with  initial  guidance  which  can  take  various  forms.  It  may  be  based  on  the 
results  obtained  from  tests  developed  by specialised  educational  guidance  centres. On the  basis  of 
academic  results,  the  teaching  team  may  provide  pupils  and  their  families  with  advice  and 
guidance  in  choosing  possible  alternatives.  The  final  decision  falls  to  pupils  and  their  families, 
except  in Germany  where the  decision  is taken  by parents, by the  primary  school  or by the  school 
supervisory  authority  according to different  Land  laws. 

•  During lower secondary  education  (or during the final phase of the single structure),  guidance 
procedures  are  available 
in  a  large  number  of  countries  (Germany,  Spain,  Luxembourg, 
Netherlands,  Austria,  Portugal,  Finland,  Sweden,  Scotland,  Iceland,  Norway).  Some  countries 
organise  courses  on  choosing  options  (Finland,  Norway),  whilst  others  offer  courses  to  develop 
professional  maturity  in  their  pupils  (Austria),  and  yet  others  organise  collective  information 
sessions  (Portugal).  In Belgium,  Luxembourg,  Portugal, Finland,  Sweden  and the United  Kingdom 
(England  and  Wales  and  Northern  Ireland),  an  educational  and  vocational  guidance  service 
provides advice  in the form  of collective  or individual  consultations. However,  in most countries  it 
is  the  teaching  team,  either  alone  or  in  collaboration  with  this  guidance  service,  which  advises 
pupils.  In  Germany,  advice  is  available  not  only  from  the  pupil's  teachers  but  also  from 
counselling  teachers  (Beratimgslehrer)  who  have  additional  training  in  educational  science  and 
psychology.  There  is  also  a  considerable  amount  of  guidance  offered  by  the  employment 
authorities.  In  Scotland,  specialised  staff  in  schools  offer  personal,  curricular  and  career  guidance 
on an individual  basis. 

In  Spain  during  the  course  of  lower  secondary  education,  it  is  the  tutor  who  fulfils  this  role, 
working  in  collaboration  with  the  guidance  service.  Pupils  have  one  hour  a  week  with  the  tutor. 
Towards  the end  of the first  stage, academic and vocational  orientation  activities  are organised  but 
always  in  school  time.  In  the  Netherlands,  a  diagnostic  examination  is  held  at  the  end  of 
Basisvorming  to allow pupils to change direction  if necessary. 

•  After  the  end  of  lower  secondary  education  (or  at  the  end  of  the  single  structure)  in  most 
countries,  pupils  are  no  longer  in  compulsory  schooling.  Furthermore,  the  number  of  educational 
and  vocational  options  open  to  them  is  increasing.  The  choices  they  are  required  to  make  are 
therefore  very  important  and  decisive.  It is hardly  surprising to note that  at this  level  of  schooling, 
the  18 countries  under  study offer  various forms  of guidance which  is often  provided  over a period 
of  several  years.  Certain  countries  combine  advice  from  the  guidance  service  with  that  of  the 
teaching  staff  (Germany,  Luxembourg,  Sweden,  United  Kingdom).  In  Belgium,  France,  Italy  and 
Luxembourg,  a  council  comprising  the  teachers  of  the  class  provides  advice,  taking  into  account 
the pupil's academic  results, while in Greece this function  is undertaken  by the teachers'  council. 

58 

Structural  organisation 

In  Denmark,  the  guidance  service  offers  pupils  information  regarding  job  opportunities.  In 
Norway,  the  guidance  counsellor  in  each  institution  provides  information  regarding  upper 
secondary  education  and jobs.  In  Iceland,  the  guidance  is  generally  provided  by  teachers,  but  in 
some  schools  there  are  educational  counsellors.  In  Spain,  pupils  receive  at the  end  of  compulsory 
is  confidential,  non-
the  consejo  orientador  (guidance  advice),  that 
secondary  education 
prescriptive  information  on their  future  vocational  and  academic  possibilities. This paper  is signed 
by the tutor and by the head of the school. 

•  During  the  course  of  upper  secondary  education,  most  countries  offer  yet  another  kind  of 
guidance  service.  In  most  cases,  advice  is  provided  by  the  institution's  guidance  counsellor 
(Ireland,  Finland,  Sweden,  Iceland,  Norway),  a  tutor  (Spain),  a  teacher  (Denmark,  Austria, 
Iceland), a team  of teachers  (Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Sweden,  United  Kingdom), the 
pupil's  teachers  and/or  a  counselling  teacher  (Germany)  and/or  a  specialised  service  (Belgium, 
Spain,  Luxembourg,  Austria,  United  Kingdom).  Several  countries  offer  pupils  a  combination  of 
several  of  these  services.  The  nature  of  this  combination  of  services  varies  from  one  country  to 
another.  For  instance,  in Austria the  school  psychological  and  educational  advisory  service  is only 
consulted  when  special  problems  arise.  At  the  upper  level  of  secondary  education,  counselling  is 
usually  of  a  more  vocational  nature.  In  Germany,  for  example,  school  guidance  services 
collaborate  with  local  employment  offices  (Berufsinformationszentren  -  BIZ)  to  provide  career 
information  services.  Each  local  employment  office  offers  special  career  consultations  for 
secondary  school  leavers who have completed  the gymnasiale  Oberstufe. 

Although  the  18 countries  under  study  have  clearly  established  guidance  procedures,  their  practices 
differ  in several  ways. The  first  is the point  during schooling  when  advice  is first given; the  second  is 
the  nature,  form  and  frequency  of  such  counselling  (annual  courses,  ad  hoc 
information, 
documentation,  visits  to  firms);  and  the  third  is  the  individual  or  body  which  provides  counselling 
(counsellor, tutor, teacher, an individual or a team, integrated within the school or otherwise). 

As  regards  the  level  at  which  guidance  is  given,  various  situations  co-exist.  Since  all  countries  offer 
guidance at the end of secondary  education, only guidance provided  at the lower  levels of schooling is 
mentioned  here. Four countries -  Belgium,  Luxembourg, Netherlands  and  Austria -  offer  guidance  at 
the  end  of  primary  education  and  again  at the  end  of  lower  secondary  education.  Germany  provides 
both this and guidance throughout  secondary  education. 

In other countries (Greece,  Spain, France, Ireland,  Italy, United  Kingdom), there  is no guidance  phase 
during  the  transition  from  primary  education  to  lower  secondary  education.  Indeed,  the  first  real 
guidance  phase only occurs  at the end  of lower  secondary  education,  even  though  in certain  countries 
like France and  Scotland, guidance  is available during lower secondary  education. 

59 

Cr· 

Table 30. Guidance procedures used during secondary schooling,  1995/96. 

r/3 

At  the end  of  primary  education 

During  the  course  of  lower  secondary 
education 

At  the  end  of  lower  secondary  education  or 
of the  single  structure 

During  the  course  of  upper 
secondary  education 

Β 

DK 

D 

Opinion of the 'class council' and at the 
discretion of the parents and child. 

Depends on academic results. 
Opinion of a psycho-medico-social  centre (PMS). 
At the discretion of the parents and child. The pupil 
may be enrolled  in the first year in a 'reception'  class 
and then guided either to the normal  Is' year (class A) 
or to the 2nd year of vocational education. 
Educational  and vocational guidance is a compulsory topic in the  Is' to 9th years, and it is optional in 
the  10lh year. The aim is to make pupils aware of their own abilities and options in relation to 
opportunities  for further  education  and jobs after  leaving school, and to inform them of the conditions 
and terms currently  in operation  in the educational field and in the labour market. 
Regulation of the transition to secondary education 
differs  according to Land law. The assessment of the 
primary school  is taken as the basis of decision or is 
used  for guidance in deciding the pupil's  future school 
career. In all cases there is detailed consultation with 
parents. The final decision  is taken by parents, by the 
secondary school or by the school supervisory 
authority. 

School career advice includes consultation 
not only over a possible switch to another 
school type and over which educational  path 
to pursue but also the counselling of pupils 
on vocational  qualifications  offered  by the 
education system. The school guidance 
services collaborate with local employment 
offices  to provide pupils with vocational 
guidance. 
No specialised guidance. 

EL 

No specialised guidance. 

E 

F 

No specialised guidance. 

Tutor and guidance service. 

No specialised guidance. 

No specialised guidance. 

IRL 

No specialised guidance. 

No specialised guidance. 

I 

L 

No specialised guidance. 

No specialised guidance. 

ORIKA ('Guidance  for children') project to 
familiarise  young people with secondary education 
alternatives. Opinion of the educational  psychology 
and guidance centre (CPOS). 

Pupil guidance provided by the SPOS 
(Educational psychology and guidance 
department). 

Depends on results obtained. 
Opinion of the 'class council' and of the PMS. 
At the discretion of the parents and child. 

Depends on results obtained. 
Opinion of the 'class council' and of the 
PMS. 
At the discretion of the parents and 
child. 

Visits to educational establishments, finns, training 
placements, distribution  of brochures, courses 
organised by the guidance services. 

Collective and individual guidance in 
each type of school (by a teacher or 
person appointed  by the teachers). 

The same possibilities  as during the course of lower 
secondary education. The choice of individual 
educational  path depends on leaving certificate  or 
qualification,  (qualification  after year 9, 
qualification  after year  10 or entitlement to proceed 
to the gymnasiale Oberstufe).  Guidance and 
counselling are also available from  the local 
employment office (Berufsberatung). 

Local employment offices  offer  special 
careers consultations  for secondary 
school  leavers who have completed the 
upper level of the Gymnasium or 
vocational education and training. 

No specialised  guidance. Guidance 
sessions during the second year. 

School vocational guidance (SEP) takes the form of 
courses during the third year of gymnasio and the 
first and second year at secondary school. This 
course consists of a discussion organised  in class or 
of visits to workplaces. 
Tutor and guidance service which provide advice on 
possible alternatives. 

Guidance proposal by the 'class council' and 
decision by the school head. 

Tutor and guidance service. Guidance 
sessions in the last year of upper 
secondary education. 
At the end of the second general and 
technological year, guidance proposal 
submitted  by family. 
Opinion of the 'class council'. 
Decision taken by the school head  after 
consultation  with the pupil and  family. 
There are Guidance Teachers who provide advice about possible alternatives, working methods 
and job search techniques. 
Opinion of the 'class council  'or teacher co­
ordinators. 
Opinion of the 'class council' and of the SPOS 
(guidance profile) on the basis of the marks obtained 
and of the pupil's choice of vocational and 
educational  career. 

Advice of the commission  in charge of 
Esame di maturila. 
Pupil guidance provided by the SPOS. 

Table 30. Guidance procedures used during secondary schooling, 1995/96. 

During the course of lower secondary 
education 
At the end of the second year, the competent 
authority advises pupils on their future 
options. 

At the end of lower secondary education or 
of the single structure 

During the course of upper 
secondary education 

No specialised guidance. 

No specialised guidance. 

At the end of primary education 

Decision by the admissions board of the receiving 
institution on the basis of the results obtained in tests 
in the final year of the primary school. This board is 
comprised of the school head and of teachers from the 
receiving institution, to which may be added the 
director and teachers from the original primary school 
The test of the CITO (National educational evaluation 
institute) is used by 70% of primary schools. 
Depends on academic results. 
Recommendations to parents by the school head. 
Parents may consult the school psychological and 
educational advisory service (individualised advice 
and aptitude tests). 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

In each school there is a teacher in charge of 
guidance (Schülerberater). In the event of 
major problems, he refers to the school 
psychological and educational advisory 
service. Some schools offer specialised 
courses to promote vocational awareness. 

In each school there is a teacher in charge of 
guidance (Schülerberater). Concerning 
individualised advice and aptitude tests, he refers to 
the school psychological and educational advisory 
service. He also refers to careers information centres 
(BIZ). 

Information session organised by guidance counsellors (mainly for pupils in their 9th year) and pupil consultation on either an individual or group basis. 

FIN 

Guidance in choosing options in the following stages.  Guidance by educational counsellors to include vocational guidance. Visits to institutions/schools 

and firms. Distribution of brochures. 

In each school there is a teacher in 
charge of guidance (Schülerberater or 
Bildungsberater). In the event of major 
problems, he refers to the school 
psychological and educational advisory 
service. 
Educational and vocational information 
session; consultation on either an 
individual or group basis; study visits, 
placements and contacts with business. 
Guidance by teachers and educational 
counsellors helping students to choose 
their individual study programmes and 
giving vocational advice. Visits to 
institutions/schools and firms. 
Distribution of brochures. 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Visits to educational establishments and firms; training placements. 
Educational and vocational guidance by guidance counsellors and teachers. 
No specialised guidance. 

A partnership between teachers and members of local vocational guidance services provides pupils with integrated information and advice. In 
Scotland, there are members of school staff in charge of guidance, both career and personal. 

No specialised guidance. 

During the procedures of transfer to post-primary 
education there are consultations with parents about 
guidance. 
Guidance and information about the world of work form part of the curriculum. One-week training 
placement during the 8lh year. 

The curriculum of the Oberschule and of the 
Realschule contains the subject 'preparation 
for work' in the 7th and 8th years. 

Guidance from class teachers and, for individuals, 
by educational counsellors in some schools. Visits to 
institutions/schools and firms, distribution of 
brochures. 

Initiation courses (Schnuppern'ochen) in the 
workplace. 

Each institution has a counsellor, on either a full- or 
part-time basis, who provides information regarding 
upper secondary education and employment. 

In each institution there are educational 
counsellors (part-time or full-time) who 
provide individual guidance and give 
information on higher education studies 
and job opportunities. Teachers also 
provide guidance. 
Classes on entry to working life. 

Each institution has a counsellor, on 
either a full- or part-time basis, who 
provides information and individual 
advice (types of study, selection of 
subjects, apprenticeship possibilities, 
job opportunities and further study). 
Institutions which offer both general and 
vocational education often have one 
counsellor for each type of study. 

Structural organisation 

3. Pupil mobility in lower secondary 
education 

Only six of the 18 EU and EFTA/EEA countries are concerned by the issue of pupil transfer during 
lower secondary education, since it is then that pupils are channelled into different types of lower 
secondary education (Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, Liechtenstein). 

In Belgium, it is possible to move from one type of education to another but this is infrequent in the 
sense of transfers from vocational back to general education. Pupils in vocational education also have 
the possibility of obtaining the same certificates as those delivered in the other types of education, 
sometimes by prolonging their schooling. In the French Community of Belgium, lower secondary 
education has been integrated since the 1994/95 school year: all pupils have two years (possibly three) 
in which to acquire the core skills (socles de compétence) they need before moving to upper 
secondary education. In the Flemish Community of Belgium, there are only two types of lower 
secondary education: type A (for most pupils) and type Β for pupils with difficulties. Transfer from 
type Β to type A is always possible. 

In Luxembourg, it is possible to transfer from one type of education to another. Particular attention is 
paid by the 'class council' to the subjects in which the pupil obtains the best results. 

In the Netherlands, the recent introduction of the Basisvorming into all lower secondary education 
structures (VWO, HAVO, MAVO, VBO) aims to impart three years of broad­based education 
without making a distinction between general and technical courses. 

In Austria, in contrast to the three countries mentioned above, types of education are differentiated not 
in line with their general or vocational nature, but in relation to the level of general education 
provided. Two types of school exist in lower secondary education (Hauptschule and 
allgemeinbildende höhere Schule). Mobility between these two school types is facilitated by the 
identity of the curriculum in the first two years. 

In Germany, all lower secondary schools build on undifferentiated primary education. They all 
provide general education so that vocational education takes place at upper secondary level only after 
compulsory general education. Secondary schools differ in length of course and school leaving 
qualifications but they are so interrelated that they constitute an open system allowing transfer from 
one type of course to another. 

In conclusion, it is possible in these five countries for pupils to switch between types of education 
during this stage to enable them to retain for as long as possible their chances of re­entering the more 
selective type of education (mainly general education). But in practice, the different systems mainly 
make it possible for pupils who are no longer able to follow their current level of education to move 
to a less selective type of education. 

62 

4. Distribution of the school population among 
the various secondary education structures 

Structural organisation 

There is a division not only between the lower and upper stages of secondary education but also 
between general education (an education of transition leading to higher education) and vocational 
education (a preparation mainly for employment but also for certain higher education studies). 

In lower secondary general education, the proportion of girls to boys is virtually identical in all 
countries (see Graph 1). Three countries ­ Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands­ present a 
different picture in that they offer lower secondary vocational education. Whereas there are more boys 
than girls in lower secondary general education in Belgium, girls are more represented in lower 
secondary vocational education (65% girls) in the same year. The opposite situation is found in 
Luxembourg and the Netherlands in lower secondary education, where it is only in vocational 
education that the number of boys exceeds that of girls (Luxembourg: 48% girls; Netherlands: 40% 
girls). 

Graph 1. Percentage (and numbers) of girls and boys 
in lower secondary general education, 1 9 9 4 / 95 

100% 

50% 

LO 
co 
CD 

LO 
in 

CD 

co 
1^ 
CM 
co 
co 

CM 
in 
in 

5 

CO 
CO 
en 
CD 
LO 
CM 

CM 

CM 

en 
o 
•f 
r­
o 
CM 

CO 
h-
CM 
CM 

c» 
CD 
CM 
CO 
CM 
en 

CM 
CO 
LO 
LO 
co 

0% 

— 

— 
D EL 

Β DK 

Source: Eurydice. 

CO 
o 

CD 

Ο 

CD 
o 

LO 
CM 
CM 

CO 
o 

co 

CD 

s 

LO 
CM 
o 
τ-
­Ι­

co 
CD 
en 
¡2 

05 

■G 

CM 

05 
co 
CVI 

o 
r­
o 

CO 

-τ-
α} 
CO 
co 
CM 
co 

CM 

σ> 

co 
o 
CM 
co 
CO 

CO 
CO 
CJ5 
CM 
CM 
CM 

co 
σ> 
CM 
o 
o 

CO 
CM 
CM 
LO 

CD 
LO 

o 

r^ 
LO 
CD 
CD 

t-~ o 
CO 

LO 
LO 
O 
O 
CO 

CD 
05 
r­. 
05 
CM 
CM 

co 
05 
r­
co 
05 

r^ 
CJ5 
CD 
LO 

CD 
CO 
CO 

LO 
o 

r­
r^ 
co 
CD 

LO 

IO 
co 
r~ 

+ 

— 

­

+ 

■1­

IRL I 

Girls 

NL 

Ρ FIN 

Boys 

— 
UK IS LI NO 

­

Belgium: Figures are for 1993/94. 
Italy: Figures are for 1992/93. The total of girls and boys in 1994/95 was 1 867 230. 
Portugal: Provisional figures. 

In upper secondary education, where different types of education have been established in all 
countries (except Sweden), general education predominates in half the countries under study. Greece, 
Spain, France, Ireland, Portugal, Finland, United Kingdom and Iceland have more pupils in general 
than in vocational education. The contrast is particularly marked between Germany and Austria on the 
one hand, where over three­quarters of all pupils follow vocational schooling, and Ireland and 
Portugal on the other, where fewer than a quarter of pupils follow this type of education. 

63 

Structural  organisation 

Graph  2.  Percentage  (and  numbers)  of  pupils 
in  upper  secondary  general  and  vocational  education,  1 9 9 4 / 95 

100% 

50% 

0% 

S 

Β 

DK  D 

EL 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

FIN 

UK 

IS 

LI  NO 

Source:  Kiirvdice. 

General 

Vocational 

Belgium:  Figures are for  1993/94. 
Sweden: Since  1995, upper secondary education  is no longer divided  into general  and vocational  branches. 
United  Kingdom: For international  statistical  purposes, all pupils  in schools are classified  as following  general  education 
programmes. All students on  Further  Education  courses, some of which  are academic, are classified  as following  vocational 
courses. Students over  19 years of age attending these institutions  are included  in these statistics. 

In all  the  countries  under  study,  with  the  exception  of the  United  Kingdom,  girls  outnumber  boys  in 
upper  secondary  general  education.  The  opposite  is  true  for  vocational  education,  where  boys  are 
more numerous, except  in Spain, Ireland and  Finland. 

In  Spain,  it  would  appear  that  boys  are  less  likely  than  girls  to  continue  at  school  after  the  end  of 
compulsory  education.  Indeed,  girls  outnumber  boys  in  each  of  the  two  types  of  education.  Finally, 
upper secondary vocational education  is most male-dominated  in Iceland (74%). 

(54 

Structural organisation 

Graph 3. Percentage (and numbers) of girls and boys 
in upper secondary general education, 1 9 9 4 / 95 

100% 

50% 

0% 

Source: Eurydice. 

Boys 

Β DK D EL E F IRL L NL A Ρ FIN S UK IS LI NO 

D GiHs 

Belgium: Figures are for 1993/94. 
Greece: EPL pupils (comprehensive school) are classified as following general education. However, it should be noted that 
EPL is a new type of school especially created to combine general and technical education. 
Sweden: Since 1995, upper secondary education is no longer divided into general and vocational branches. 
United Kingdom: For international statistical purposes, all pupils in schools are classified as following general education 
programmes. All students on Further Education courses, some of which are academic, are classified as following vocational 
courses. Students over 19 years of age attending these institutions are also included in these statistics. Figures broken down by 
sex are not available for Scotland. 

Graph 4. Percentage (and numbers) of girls and boys 
in upper secondary vocational education, 1 9 9 4 / 95 

100% ι 

50% 

CM 
CD 
LO 
LO 
CO 

t^ 
CD 

CO 
CD 

CD ? 

O 
LO 
τ— 

LO 
OS 
CO 
LO 
LO 

CD 
co 

o 
co 
LO 
CO 
CD 
O 

■tf 
CO 
CM 
LO 
00 

O 
05 
LO 
CO 

05 
CD 

r-~ 

3 

CO 

r^ 
CM 
1^ 
CD 
LO 

CD 
h~ 
O 
t-~ 
CO 

t^ 
r-. 
o 
CO 
Ύ— 
CO 

CD 
O 
O 
CM 
O 
CO 

co 
Tl-
LO 
CO 
O 
O 

LO 
O) 
co 
Tf 

o 
o 

CD 

LO 

o 

CM 
r--

LO 

CD 

CM 
TI­

CM 5" 

LO 
CO 

05 

o 
CO 
1^ 

i 

co 

O 
o 
CO 
co 

co 

Ι-. 
co 

LO 
LO 
co 
co 
co 

8 

■* 

¥ 

0% 

+ 

+ 

— 

4-

— 

Β DK 

D EL 

F IRL I 

NL 

Ρ FIN 

Source: Eurydice. 

] Girls 

Boys 

CM 

h-
co 

CJ5 
CO 
LO 
CO 

CD 
CO 

O 
CD 

CO 
t-· 
LO 

CD 
O 
CM 
CO 

-

CO 
LO 
Τ— 
co 

co 
o 
τ-

co 
CM 

+ 
UK IS LI NO 

Belgium: Figures are for 1993/94. 
Sweden: Since 1995, upper secondary education is no longer divided into general and vocational branches. 
United Kingdom: For international statistical purposes, all pupils in schools are classified as following general education 
programmes. All students on Further Education courses, some of which are academic, are classified as following vocational 
courses. Students over 19 years of age attending these institutions are also included in these statistics. Figures broken down by 
sex are not available for Scotland. 

65 

Structural  organisation 

5. Conclusions 

The objectives  underpinning  the  organisation  of  secondary  education  are  shared,  in  large  part,  across 
the  European  Union  and  associated  countries.  General  education  of  a  broadly  standard  type  is 
provided  for  all  children  in  the  initial  stage  and  followed  by  a  phase  of  diversification  which 
recognises  different  interests  and  aptitudes  of  pupils  and  the  range  of  educational  or  occupational 
futures  available to them. These aims are not new. They  differ  little from  those  contained  in the  1948 
United  Nations  Declaration  of  Human  Rights.  The  major  shift  in  emphasis  in  recent  years  has  been 
that  diversification  should  not  become  a  barrier  to  individual  opportunities  as  more  young  people 
continue education  to the age of 18. 

In view  of  the  agreement  on  aims,  it  is puzzling  that  there  are  so many  variations  in the  institutional 
structures  of  secondary  education.  Some  secondary  schools  admit  pupils  as  early  as  the  age  of  10, 
while  others  make  them  wait  until  they  have  completed  an  all-through  institution  of  compulsory 
education  at  16 or  17. There may be separate  institutions for the  lower and  upper  stages or one  school 
for  the  whole  of  secondary  education.  Some  upper  secondary  institutions  are  restricted  to  two  years 
(as  in Denmark  and  Ireland), while elsewhere there are establishments  covering  both  lower and  upper 
secondary  education  in a course of eight years. 

Common  secondary  schools  are  open  to  all  young  people  irrespective  of  achievement  or  aspiration, 
even  though  restricted,  in  some  cases,  to  those  of  one  neighbourhood.  Differentiated  schools  admit 
young  people  who are judged  to  have  particular  capacities  or potential.  The variations  do  not  always 
coincide  with  national  frontiers.  While  most  countries  only  have  one  type  of  secondary  school,  both 
common  and  selective  kinds are found  in some other  countries, for  example,  in England  and  Northern 
Ireland. 

This  heterogeneity  in  Europe  is  not  likely  to  disappear  very  quickly.  Radical  reform  of  school 
structures  is an expensive,  lengthy and often  disputed  process which was made necessary  in the  1960s 
and  1970s  by  the  expectation  of  universal  participation  in  secondary  education.  Only  Spain  and 
Portugal  have  embarked  on  major  reforms  of  the  whole  secondary  school  structure  since  the  mid-
1980s.  In  the  reforms  of  the  1960s,  the  reconciliation  of  tradition  and  the  demands  for  change  was 
often  delicate.  The  outcome  was  differing  patterns  of  secondary  schooling  between  and,  sometimes, 
within  countries. 

There  is  also  little  change  in  regard  to  the  length  of  compulsory  schooling  and  in  the  certificates 
awarded  to  students. The  legal  end  of compulsory  education  comes  as early  as  14 in  Italy  and  as  late 
as  18, at least on a part-time basis, in Belgium and the Netherlands, reflecting  differing  norms of what 
states  legitimately  can  require  of  their  citizens  rather  than  expectations  of  how  long  young  people 
should  be  in  education.  Certificates  of  student  attainment,  with  national  validity,  may  be  given  to 
some  pupils  as young  as  14 whereas  others  may  not  receive  their  first  recognised  qualification,  as  in 
the  pre-university  schools  (VWO)  in the Netherlands,  until  the  age  of  18. National  qualifications  are 
not easily changed. They have a symbolic value embedded  in custom and  history. 

The  accommodation  of  new  purposes  and  older  institutions  leads to the  appearance  of  new  stages  in 
the  course  of  secondary  education  which  may  or  may  not  correspond  to  the  institutional  structures 
and/or  the  points  of  time  at  which  certification  occurs.  The  division  between  lower  and  upper 
secondary  education  is real  throughout  the  European  Union  because  it reflects  clear  purposes.  It may 
be achieved  through  subtle  changes  in the  curricula  of particular  years  rather than  in dramatic  breaks 
in institutional  topography. 

The  aims  also  give  special  importance  to  conditions  of  access,  educational  guidance  and  the 
demography  of  schooling.  Selection  of  pupils  for  different  kinds  of  lower  secondary  school  is  more 
to  justify.  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  have  compensated  by  introducing  common 
difficult 
programmes across the various types of schools  in the early years. There are also  issues of  differences 
of  standards  between  nominally  common  schools  in  most  countries.  Allocation  of  pupils  to  lower 
secondary  schools  by  geographical  principles  attempts  to  ensure  that  all  young  people  have  similar 

66 

Structural  organisation 

opportunities. Parental  choice, which  does not conflict  with  financial  and  organisational  efficiency,  is 
given  increasing weight  in many countries, not only to permit the  individual  interests of children to be 
matched  with  appropriate  schools  but  also to  allow parental  decisions  to  stimulate  particular  schools 
to improve their  performance. 

The  variations  in  the  capacities  and  interests  of  pupils  in  upper  secondary  education  give  added 
importance to educational  guidance. For many pupils, the end of lower secondary  education  coincides 
with  the  time  when  decisions  about  future  careers  need  to  be  made.  For,  while  achievement  is  the 
main  criterion  for  allocation  to different  branches  of  secondary  education,  pupils need  to be aware  of 
their  potential  and  the  implications  of  their  choices  of  educational  route  on  transfer  to  the  upper 
secondary  stage. The general  and vocational  educational  bifurcation  is not the only challenge  to pupil 
decision-making  since  opportunities  are  available  in  many  countries  for  vocational  educational 
courses  to  lead  to  higher  education.  The  significant  decisions  instead  focus  on  what  kind  of  future 
study and work the pupil should  choose. 

There are two differing  approaches to guidance. In most countries, the  emphasis  is upon  teachers  and 
counsellors,  sometimes with the aid of psychological  services, as  in Belgium  or Luxembourg,  helping 
pupils to  develop  self-awareness  so that  they  can  make  rational  choices. The  main  differences  are  in 
whether guidance  is provided  mainly by teachers or by specialist counsellors. 

The  other  approach  stresses  the  provision  of  experience  of  the  world  of  work.  In  Germany,  an 
introduction  to  the  working  world,  including  work  placements,  has  been  compulsory  for  secondary 
school  pupils  for  a  considerable  time.  Other  countries  have  more  recently  introduced  similar 
approaches to help pupils to make career choices they will not later regret. 

The demographic  picture  of secondary  education  adds another perspective to school  structures.  While 
lower  secondary  education  has  been  almost  universally  attended  in  most  countries  for  some  years, 
participation  rates  in  the  upper  secondary  phase  have  increased  in  ways  that  suggest  that  a  rigid 
separation  of options may not meet pupil aspirations. 

The  proportions  of  the  pupil  population  in  the  general  and  vocational  streams  varies  considerably 
between  countries.  But  there  may  not  be  as  sharp  a  distinction  between  the  content  of  courses,  as 
indicated  by the decision  in Sweden to abolish the distinction between  general and vocational  streams. 
Labour  market  demand  for  those with  narrowly  defined  secondary  vocational  education  may  decline 
in the  future,  as  high  technology  operations  require  enhanced  levels  of  general  education  from  more 
workers. In effect,  most or all upper secondary education  may become general  in character.  Following 
this hypothesis, the  choice  between  a general  or vocational  orientation  to courses  may be  a matter  of 
pupil  interest which can be expressed  in selection  of programmes rather than of institutions. 

67 

Structural organisation 

6. Glossary 

Algemeen secundair onderwijs B ni 

General secondary education 

Allgemeinbildende höhere Schule A 
(AHS) 

Ammatillinen koulutus FIN 

Ammatillinen oppilaitos/opisto FIN 

Ammattikorkeakoulu 

Bachillerato 

Barnetrinnet 

Basisonderwijs 

Beroepssecundair onderwijs 

Beroepsvoorbereidend leerjaar 

Berufliches Gymnasium 01 
Fachgymnasium 

Berufsbildende höhere Schule 

Berufsbildende mittlere Schule 

Berufsbildende Pflichtschule 
(Berufsschule) 

Berufsfachschule 

Berufsgrundbildungsjahr 

Berufsschule 

Bildungsanstalt für 
Kindergartenpädagogik 

Bildungsanstalt für 
Sozialpädagogik 

Collège 

Community school 

Comprehensive school 

Comprehensive school 

Cursos de carácter geral 
(CSPOPE) 

Cursos do ensino básico 
recorrente 

Cursos do ensino secundario 
recorrente 

Cursos tecnológicos 

FIN 

E 

NO 

NL 

Bnl 

Bnl 

D 

A 

A 

A 

D 

D 

D 

A 

A 

F 

IRL 

IRL 

UK 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Cursos das Escolas Profissionais Ρ 

Academic secondary school, lower and upper levels 

Vocational education 

Vocational upper secondary and post­secondary education 
college 

Non­university higher education (AMK­institution) 

General upper secondary education 

Primary education 

Primary education 

Vocational secondary education 

Lower secondary vocational education 

Upper level of the Gymnasium with a career oriented or technical 
bias (years 11­13) 

Upper secondary technical and vocational college 

Intermediate secondary technical and vocational college 

Apprenticeship with part­time compulsory vocational school 
(upper secondary) 

Full­time upper secondary vocational school 

Basic vocational training year (1st stage of vocational training) 

Part­time upper secondary vocational school 

Kindergarten teacher training college 

Socio­pedagogical training college 

Lower secondary school 

Comprehensive lower and upper secondary school 

Comprehensive lower and upper secondary school 

Comprehensive lower and upper secondary school, non­selective 
admissions 

Secondary courses predominantly leading to further studies 

Part­time evening foundation education courses for unqualified 
adults 

Part­time evening courses (secondary general and technical 
education) 

Secondary courses predominantly oriented towards working life 
(technological courses) 

Secondary courses followed as an alternative to general and 
technological courses for the intermediate training of technicians 

Dimotiko scholeio 

Educación primaria 

EL 
F. 

Primary school 

Primary education 

68 

Structural organisation 

Educación Secundaria 
Obligatoria (ESO) 

Efterskoler 

Eniaio polykladiko lykeio 
(EPL) 

Ensino Básico 

Escuelas técnicas superiores 

Escuelas universitarias 

EU (Erhvervsuddannelserne) 

Fachhochschule 

Fachoberschule 

Facultades 

Fjölbrautaskóli 

Folkeskole 

Formación profesional específica 
de grado medio (or Ciclos 
formativos de grado medio) 

Framhaldsskóli 

Further education college 

Further education institution UK 

E 

DK 

EL 

Ρ 

E 

E 

DK 

D 

D 

E 

IS 

DK 

E 

IS 

UK 

Genikes exetaseis EL 

Geniko lykeio EL 

Gesamtschule D 

Compulsory secondary education 

Private boarding schools (lower secondary education, 
years 8 ­ 1 0) 

Comprehensive upper secondary school 

Basic education, primary education and lower secondary 
education 

Higher technical colleges 

University schools 

Vocational education and training 

Application­oriented higher education institution providing 
degree courses particularly in engineering, economics, social 
work and design 

Technical upper secondary school (years 11 and 12) 

University faculties 

Comprehensive upper secondary school 

Primary and lower secondary education 

Vocational upper secondary education 

Upper secondary school 

A type of further education institution providing mainly 
vocational education courses 

A post­compulsory institution providing general and vocational 
courses. However, for international statistical purposes, all 
students on further education courses are classified as following 
vocational programmes. 

General examination for entry to higher education 

General upper secondary school 

Comprehensive lower secondary school with two forms ­ the 
cooperative (kooperative Gesamtschule) and the integrated 
(intergrierte Gesamtschule). A number have also the upper 
secondary level (gymnasiale Oberstufe). 

Grammar school UK 

Lower and upper secondary school, selective entrance 

Grundschule D 

Grundskola S 
Grunnkurs NO 
(GK) 

Grunnskólapróf IS 

Grunnskole NO 

Grunnskoli IS 

Gymnasio EL 

Gymnasieskola S 

Gymnasium D 

Gymnasium DK 

Gymnasium LI 

(E/NI) 

Primary school 

Compulsory primary and lower secondary education 

Upper secondary education, foundation courses 

Examination at the end of compulsory schooling 

Compulsory primary and lower secondary education 

Compulsory primary and lower secondary school 

Lower secondary school 

General and vocational upper secondary school 

General lower and upper secondary school, normally years 5­13, 
providing advanced general education and leading to university 
entrance qualifications 

General upper secondary school 

General lower and upper secondary school leading to higher 
education entrance qualifications 

69 

Structural  organisation 

Gymnasiale  Oberstufe 

D 

Upper  level of the Gymnasium (normally years  11-13) preparing 

Háskólar 

Hauptschule 

Hauptschule 

HAVO (Hoger  Algemeen 
Voortgezet  Onderwijs) 

HF (Højere 
Forberedelseseksamen) 

IS 

A 
D 

for  final  examinations and university  entrance 

Universities 

General  lower secondary  school 
Lower secondary  school (normally years 5-9)  providing basic 
general  education 

NL 

Upper general secondaiy  education 

DK 

Course  leading to the higher preparatory  examination  (general 
upper secondary  education) 

HHX (Højere  Handelseksamen) 

DK 

HTX (Højere Teknisk  Eksamen) 

DK 

Course  leading to the higher commercial  examination  (vocational 
upper secondary  education) 

Course  leading to the higher technical examination  (vocational 
upper secondary  education) 

Instituto de educación 
secundaria 

Iönskoli 

Istituto  d'arte 

Istituto  magistrale 

Istituto  professionale 

Istituto tecnico 

IUFM 

Korkeakoulu 

Kunstsecundair  onderwijs 

KVU 

Lager  onderwijs 

Liceo  artistico 

Liceo classico 

Liceo  scientifico 

LLW  (Leerlingwezen) 

Lukio/gymnasium 

LVU 

Lycée d'enseignement  général et 
technologique 

Lycée général 

Lycée  professionnel 

Lycée technique 

Lykeio 

MAVO (Middelbaar  Algemeen 
Voortgezet  Onderwijs) 

MBO (Middelbaar  Beroeps 
onderwijs) 

Menntaskóli 

Middle school 

MVU 

National  school 

70 

E 

Lower and upper secondary  school 

S 

Vocational  upper secondary  school 

Upper secondary  arts college 

Teacher training at upper secondary  level 

Vocational  upper secondary  college 

Technical  college of vocational  upper secondary  education 

F 

FIN 

B ni 

DK 

B ni 

I 

I 

I 

NL 

FIN 

DK 

F 

L 

F 

L 

EL 

NL 

University teacher training  college 

University 

Secondary artistic  education 

Higher education, short course 

Primary  education 

Upper secondary arts school 

Classical-type  upper secondary school, general  education 

Scientific-type  upper secondary school, general  education 

Apprenticeship  system (levels  1, 2 and 3) 

General  upper secondary  school 

Higher education,  long course 

Establishment  of general and technological  upper  secondary 

education 

Lower and upper general  secondary  school 

Establishment of upper secondary vocational  education 

Lower and upper technical and vocational  school 

General upper secondary  school 

Lower secondary general  education 

NL 

Upper secondary vocational  education 

IS 

Upper secondary  school 

School  for children  of 8-12 years or 9-13 years officially  classed 

UK 
(E/W)  as either a primary school or a secondary school  depending on 

the age of the majority  of the pupils 

Higher education, medium-length  course 

Primary school 

DK 

IRL 

Structural  organisation 

Oberschule 

Oberstufenrealgymnasium 

Orientierungsstufe 

Peruskou lu/gru ndskola 

Polytechnischer  Lehrgang 

Realschule 

Realschule 

Régime technique 

Scuola  elementare 

Scuola  magistrale 

Scuola  media 

Secondary  school 

Secondary  school 

Sérskólar á háskólastigi 

Sérskóli 

Sixth  form  college 

Stúdentspróf 

Sveinspróf 

Techniki epaggelmatiki  scholi 
(TES) 

Techniko epaggelmatiko  lykeio 
(TEL) 

LI 

A 

D 

Lower secondary school preparing pupils for vocational  training 
and working  life 

General  upper secondary  school 

Orientation  stage in lower secondary  education 

FIN 

Compulsory primary and  lower secondary  education 

A 

D 

LI 

L 

1 

I 

1 

IRL 

UK 

IS 

IS 

Pre-vocational  year 

Lower secondary school  (years 5-10)  providing extended  general 
education 

Lower secondary  school preparing pupils for general  upper 
secondary education, vocational  training and working  life 

Upper secondary technical education  provided  in a technical 
lycée 

Elementary school, primary  education 

Upper secondary training school for nursery teachers 

Lower secondary  school 

Comprehensive  lower and upper secondary  school 

Lower and upper secondary  school  providing general  education 

Specialised  higher-level vocational  schools 

Specialised vocational  school 

UK 
(E/W) 

A type of further  education  institution  providing mainly general 
education courses for  16-19 year olds 

IS 

IS 

EL 

Examination  giving entitlement to enter university 

Journeyman's  examination 

Vocational  upper secondary technical  institution 

EL 

Vocational  upper secondary technical  school 

Technisch  secundair  onderwijs 

B ni 

Secondary technical  education 

Tertiary  college 

Ungdomstrinnet 

VBO (Voorbereidend  Beroeps 
onderwijs) 

Verslunarpróf 

Videregående  kurs I (VK I) 

Videregående  kurs II (VK  II) 

Videregående  opplæring 

Vocational  school 

Volksschule/Grundschule 

Volksschuloberstufe 

VWO  (Voorbereidend 
Wetenschappelijk  Onderwijs) 

A type of further  education  institution providing both general  and 

UK 
(E/W)  vocational  education 

NO 

NL 

IS 

NO 

NO 

NO 

Lower secondary  education 

Pre-vocational  education 

Business studies  examination 

Upper secondary education, level  I advanced  courses 

Upper secondary education, level II advanced  courses 

Upper secondary  education 

IRL 

Comprehensive  lower and upper secondary  school 

A 

A 

Primary school 

Primary school providing lower secondary  education 

NL 

Pre-university  education 

Yliopisto 

FIN 

University 

71 

Organisation  of  education 

II -  Organisation of education 

A better  understanding  of  the  place  of  secondary  education  in  the  school  careers  of  pupils  involves 
going  beyond  analysis  of  institutional  structures  and  the  range  of  branches  available  to  pupils  in 
secondary  education.  The  organisation  of  teaching  as  such  can  be  described  through  an  axis  which 
compares  the  internal  working  of  the  school  in  each  country  with  the  ways  in  which  prescribed 
objectives  are  pursued.  Of  the  parameters  considered  in this  chapter,  particular  attention  is  given  to 
the  time  allocated  to  the  various  subjects  studied  by  pupils  as  well  as  to  the  methods  of  evaluation 
used to assure their mastery.  Scrutiny  of the time allotted  to different  compulsory  curriculum  subjects 
sometimes  reveals  considerable  variations  between  countries  in  the  importance  given  to  certain 
subjects  at  the  same  level  of  education.  Similarly,  procedures  for  the  assessment  of  pupils  and  the 
certification  processes  at the  end  of courses are  also  important  elements  which  testify  to the  diversity 
of situations and the differing  degrees of autonomy accorded to educational  institutions. 

1. Organisation of school time 

1.1. Distribution  and duration of school holidays1 
The  summer  vacation  varies  in  length  between  six weeks  (Germany,  England,  Wales,  Scotland)  and 
thirteen  weeks (Ireland, Iceland). 

While  Danish,  Finnish,  Scottish  and  some  German  pupils  return  to  school  as  early  as  mid-August, 
most of their counterparts  in other countries only do so in early  September.  In Spain, Luxembourg and 
Portugal  and  for  other  pupils  in  Germany,  the  secondary  school  year  begins  in  the  second  half  of 
September. 

Young people  in over  half the  countries  covered  have  a break  of around  one  week  in  late  October  or 
early  November.  Greek,  Spanish,  Italian,  Austrian,  Portuguese,  Swedish  and  Icelandic  pupils  do  not 
share this privilege. 

At  the  end  of  the  calendar  year,  over  the  Christmas  period,  all  European  pupils  have  around  two 
weeks'  holiday. 

Between  January  and  March, there  is a short  break  which  is enjoyed  by all  except  Greek,  Italian  and 
the majority  of Scottish and  Icelandic pupils. 

In all Member  States there  is an  Easter break ranging from  one to two weeks (except  in Finland  where 
it  lasts  only  four  days).  In  most  countries  this  is  the  last  holiday  of  the  school  year.  In  Germany, 
Luxembourg, the Netherlands  and the United Kingdom  (except  Scotland), the third term  is punctuated 
by around  one week's  holiday. 

To  summarise,  with  the  exception  of  Scotland,  those  countries  with  the  shortest  summer  holidays 
(Germany,  England,  Wales)  usually  have  a  holiday  period  in  October,  at  Christmas,  in  February,  at 
Easter and  in May.  In Germany, the duration  of this holiday  period  is set by the various Länder  each 
year. By contrast,  Iceland,  which  has  13 weeks of summer  holiday,  has no holiday  period  in  October, 
February or May. 

In  addition  to  these  official  school  holidays,  all  countries  have  a quota  of  up to  13 days  which  they 
distribute  in line with national  and local holidays. 

For further details, please consult Organisation of School Time in the European Union, second edition, EURYDICE ( 1995). 

73 

Organisation  of  education 

1.2. Number of teaching days per year 
The official  number of teaching days per year established  by the countries varies from  one to the next. 
In  Iceland,  pupils  in  upper  secondary  education  attend  school  for  160  days  a  year,  while  in 
Luxembourg they are there for 216 days. 

However,  as explained  in the following  paragraph,  these  figures  are not  particularly  meaningful  since 
in some cases they  refer  to full  days and  in others  to half days. There  may also  be variations  within  a 
single  Member  State. This  is the case  in Germany,  Austria  and  Portugal  where two  different  schemes 
of the school  week  operate  in parallel, which  in turn  has an  impact  on the number  of teaching  days in 
the year. 

1.3. Planning of the typical school week 
The  most  common  pattern  of  the  school  week  is  five  days  from  Monday  to  Friday,  except  in 
Luxembourg  and  Italy  where  six  days  are  still  the  norm.  In  four  other  countries  (some  Länder  in 
Germany,  Ireland,  Austria,  Portugal),  schools  are  free  to  choose  between  a  five-day  and  a  six-day 
week.  In  a  few  countries,  the  length  of  school  time  also  varies  from  day  to  day.  In  Belgium  and 
France,  there  is  no  school  on  Wednesday  afternoons.  In  Luxembourg,  three  full  days  alternate  with 
three  mornings.  However,  in  some  schools  a  'modified'  five-day  week  exists  for  those  pupils  who 
devote more time to sports and musical  activities. 

In  addition,  the  school  day  typically  extends  from  8  a.m.  -  or  earlier  -  until  1 p.m.  or  2  p.m.  in 
Austria,  Denmark  and  Germany,  while  in  most  other  countries  it  does  not  start  until  8.30  a.m.  and 
does not  finish  until 4 p.m. or 5 p.m., including a lunch  break. 

1.4. Number and length of taught periods per week 

In most countries, the weekly teaching time  is determined  by a prescribed  minimum  number of taught 
periods. 

Tables  31  and  32  show the  weekly  minimum  and  maximum  number  of taught  periods  and  the  length 
of such  periods for  lower as well as upper secondary  education. They reveal that the weekly  number is 
generally  slightly  smaller  for  lower  secondary  than  for  upper  secondary  schools.  This  number  is the 
same  in  Belgium,  Ireland  and,  for  pupils  in  school,  the  United  Kingdom  (except  Scotland).  Only  in 
Greece  is  the  average  number  of  periods  greater  in  lower  than  in  upper  secondary  education.  The 
number may  increase as pupils advance  through  lower secondary  education,  as in  Denmark,  Germany 
and  Spain.  This  was  formerly  the  case  in  Greece,  but  since  the  1996/97  school  year,  the  number  of 
periods remains the same for the three years. 

This  divergence  is  partly  influenced  by  the  number  of  periods  in  upper  secondary  vocational 
education.  Indeed,  in  those  countries  where,  at  the  upper  secondary  stage,  the  average  number  of 
taught  periods  differs  between  general  and  vocational  education,  the  majority  have  a greater  number 
in  vocational  education:  Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Austria, 
Portugal,  Finland, Sweden  and  Iceland. 

However,  if the  weekly  number  of taught  periods  in  lower  and  upper  secondary  general  education  is 
compared  (see  Graph  5),  the  difference  becomes  almost  negligible.  In  some  countries  there  is 
nevertheless  a higher  average  weekly  number  of teaching  periods  during  lower  secondary  education: 
Greece,  Finland  and  Sweden  (based  on  the  theoretical  averages  for  the  last  two  countries). 
Conversely, there are generally  more  periods  in upper  secondary  in France, Luxembourg,  Austria  and 
Norway. 

74 

Organisation  of  education 

Graph  5.  Weekly  number  (minimum  and  maximum)  of  taught  periods 
in  lower  and  upper  secondary  general  education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

46 

44 

42 

40 

38 

36 

34 

32 

30 

28  4 

26 4 

24 

22 

20 

18 -H 

0 

DK 

EL 

IRL 

I 

NL 

A 

FIN 

S  UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Lower secondary  education 

J  Upper secondary  education 

+  Maximum 

Source: Eurydice. 

_  Minimum 

The graph  is based  on the data contained  in Tables 31 and 32. For some countries -  detailed  in the footnotes  to those tables  -
the values represent  theoretical  averages and the graph  is by way of illustration  only. In some countries  (e.g. Sweden  and  the 
United  Kingdom),  the  number  of  taught  periods  and  their  duration  is  determined  at  school  level  and  therefore  varies  from 
school to school. 

However,  to  compare  pupils'  numbers  of  classes,  it  is  important  to  take  into  account  not  only  the 
number of weekly periods but also their  length. This differs  between  countries and may indicate  major 
variations  between  apparently  similar  weekly  amounts  of teaching.  Thus,  pupils  in  lower  secondary 
general  education  in  Ireland  have  45  periods  a week,  each  of 40 minutes  (1  800  minutes  a week). In 
contrast,  Italian  students  have a minimum  of 30 periods, but each  one officially  lasts 60 minutes  (also 
1  800  minutes  a  week).  The  lightest  weekly  load  in  lower  secondary  education  is  approximatively 
1 200 minutes (Denmark and Portugal). 

75 

Organisation of education 

Table 3 1. Weekly number of taught periods and their duration 

in lower secondary education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

Member State 
li1 

DK 
I) 
EL 
E 
1 
IKI. 
I 
1. 

NL 
A 
Ρ 
FIN 
S 
UK 
E/W 
NI 
SC 
IS 
LI 
NO 

Number of periods per week 

Duration of a period 

Number of school days in the year 

General education: 
minimum 28. maximum 32/33/34 
Vocational education: minimum 28. maximum 36 
minimum 26. maximum 40" 
minimum 28. maximum 34' 
minimum 34. maximum 353 
minimum 28. maximum 33'' 
minimum 25.5. maximum 30 
45 
30 to 40s 
General education: 30 
Technical education: minimum 30. maximum 31 
32 
31 to 34" 
30 or 3112 
30 (average) 
maximum 4 0u 

approximately 40lf' 
approximately 40 " 
35 to 40'8 
minimum 35 
minimum 34. maximum 38 
30 

50 minutes 

182 

45 minutes 
45 minutes 
45 minutes 
55 minutes' 
55 minutes 
40 minutes 
60 minutes 
50­55 minutes 

50 minutes 
50 minutes 
50 minutes 
45 minutes13 
60 minutes 

35­40 minutes 
35­40 minutes 
40­60 minutes 
40 minutes 
45 minutes 
45 minutes 

200 
188/2084 
175 
175 
180 
179 
minimum 200 
216 

2001" 
180/214 
175/210 
190 
178 to 190" 

minimum 190 
minimum 190 
190 
160 
200'" 
190 

This level corresponds to the first cycle of two years in the three Communities (French, German­speaking and Flemish). In pre­vocational and 
technical education (accessible only in the second year in the French Community), the maximum number can rise to 36 and, again in the French 
and German­speaking Communities, two periods of support teaching (activités complémentaires) may also be added, which explains the 
maximum of 34 periods. 
The minimum number is for the 7th year of Ihefolkeskole. The maximum is calculated on the basis of the legal requirement of 7 to 8 lessons a day 
in the 8th and 9Ü' years. 
Generally, pupils have 28 periods (compulsory subjects and options) for the first two years (years 5 and 6) in all kinds of school and 30 periods in 
years 7 to 10. 
In the Lander which have introduced a five­day week, the annual number rises to 188 days on average. It is 208 days where a six­day week 
operates. This difference only affects the weekly timetable and not the number of hours taught in a year. 
The first year of the Gymnasio has 34 periods a week and the second year 35. From the school year 1996/97, the weekly number of periods is set 
at 35 throughout the Gymnasio. 
In lower secondary education (the first two years) in the Autonomous Communities which do not have their own language, the number of weekly 
teaching periods is fixed at 28 for the first two years and in the last two years increases to 30. Moreover, in the Autonomous Communities with 
their own language, the weekly number is 30.5 for the first stage of lower secondary education and 33 for the second stage. Furthermore, the 
weekly number may differ slightly from one Autonomous Community to the other. 
The official duration of a period is set at 60 minutes. However, 5 minutes are deducted from each hour to allow for changing classes. 
Under the extended timetable, children may attend school for up to 40 hours per week. Supplementary hours include educational activities to 
enrich and deepen the subjects taught. 
The official duration of a period is set at 60 minutes. A 20­minute deduction is made per day to allow for changing classes. 
With the introduction of basic secondary education (basisvorming), the number of days in the school year was increased by 5 in 1994. 
Pupils can take optional extra subjects and/or optional exercises. In addition, they may take periods of remedial teaching. Out of the total weekly 
number of periods in the 5Ü' to 8Ü' years, each school, on its own initiative, may devote periods to particular subjects or projects to be spread over 
the entire year. 
In the third stage of ensino básico. 2 or 3 hours per week may be allocated to sports, depending on the facilities available. 
The period lasts for one hour but only 45 minutes are actually spent on teaching. Municipalities are free to decide the distribution of hours to the 
school subjects in the last 3 years of the Peruskoulu. However, the law on compulsory education stipulates that the weekly timetable should have 
an average of 30 periods. 
Compulsory education in the Grundskola (9 years) totals 6 665 periods. No annual or weekly number of periods is fixed. Since the 1995 reform, 
schools decide how to distribute diese periods over die 9 years of compulsory education. According to the compulsory school ordinance, school 
activities cannot exceed a maximum of 8 hours per day. including breaks, 5 days per week. However, not many pupils attend school 8 hours per day. 
The minimum and maximum number of days in the year is fixed by the law on compulsory education. Councils of each establishment are free to 
decide the number of days within these legal limits but this does not affect the total number of periods in the course. 
'there are no legal requirements relating to the number of lessons or their duration. The detail of the daily timetable is a matter for the headteacher 
of each school. The figures given are general and vary' from school to school. In England and Wales, a General Guide to Good Practice suggested 
minimum weekly hours of lesson time should be 24 hours for 12­ to 16­year­olds. These hours only include those in which pupils are actually 
being taught. They exclude breaks, the daily act of collective worship, and registration. Many secondary schools provide more hours of lessons 
than the suggested minimum. In 1995. the average at Key Stage 3 (11­ to 14­year­olds), considered here as lower secondary education, was 24.5 
hours of lesson time a week. 
In Northern Ireland, the statutory minimum is 22.5 hours oflesson time a week (exclusive of religious instruction which is obligatory in state and 
grant­aided schools). 
Established by each local authority. School heads are free to determine the number and duration of teaching periods for their school in 
consultation with the teaching stall". However, the Scottish Joint Negotiating Committee (1987) agreed on die maximum 'class contact time' per 
week at the secondary' level: 23.5 hours per week (equivalent to 4.7 hours per day). 
This information is valid for the Oberschule, the Realschule and the Gymnasium. The annual number of days is calculated on the basis of a 
compulsory 40 weeks and represents a maximum. The public holidays which take place during the school year are included. 

76 

Table  3 2.  Weekly  number  of  taught  periods  and  their  duration  in  upper  secondary 
education,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

Organisation  of  education 

Member  State 

Β 
B fr and B de ' 

Bnl 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 
I 

L 

NL 
A 

Number of periods per week 

General education: minimum 28, maximum 32/34 
Artistic/technical transition streams: 
minimum 28, maximum 36 
Artistic/technical  qualification  education, 
Vocational education: minimum 34, maximum 36 
General education: minimum 28, maximum 33 
Artistic/technical  and vocational  education: 
minimum 28. maximum 36 
General education: minimum 30, maximum 33 
Vocational education: 372 
General education: minimum 30, maximum 333 
Artistic/technical/vocational  education: 
minimum 30. maximum 364 
General Lykeio: 30 
Polikladiko, comprehensive (EPL) and  technical-vocational 
education  (TEL): 34 
Technical-vocational  school (TES): 30 
General education: minimum 29, maximum around 325 
Vocational education: variable 
General education: minimum 29. maximum 31/357 
Vocational education: minimum 29.5, maximum 35 
45 
Classical Liceo: minimum 27, maximum 29 
Scientific  Liceo: minimum 25, maximum 30 
Technical school: minimum 31, maximum 38 
Vocational school: minimum  31. maximum 409 
General education: minimum 30", maximum 31 
Technical education: minimum 30, maximum 34/36 
30 (average)12 
General education: minimum 32. maximum 38 
Vocational education: minimum  31. maximum  4 0n 

Duration  of a 
period 

Number of school 
davs 

50 minutes 

182 

50 minutes 

45 minutes 

182 

200 

45 minutes 

188/208 

45 minutes 

175 

55 minutes6 

55 minutes 

40 minutes 
60 minutes10 

175 

180 

167/1798 
minimum 200 

50/55 minutes 

216 

50 minutes 
50 minutes 

20(1 
180/214 

Two periods of support teaching may be added. In the third stage of general education, the maximum number of hours per week can reach 34 
when the pupil chooses certain options. 
In vocational  education,  the  number  of weekly  periods  indicated  is  for  the first two  years.  During  the  practical  apprenticeship  phase,  the 
student-apprentices  have a normal week of 37 actual  hours. The last phase also has 37 hours and  includes practical  experience and  personal 
study periods. 
In the gymnasiale Oberstufe, the average number of periods rises to 30. of which 20 are in compulsory subjects  and  10 in options which may 
be advanced courses. 
In  full-time  vocational  education,  30  periods  weekly  are  required  as  a  minimum  in  the  two  years  of  the  Berufsfachschule.  In  the 
Fachoberschule, 8 periods are compulsory  in the  11th year. Practical  workplace training together with  30 periods of teaching are required  in 
the  12"' year.  Under  the  dual  system  (Berufsschule and  workplace  training),  a weekly  minimum  of  12 lessons  on  a part-time  basis  in  the 
school is required and 3 days in the company. 
The minimum number represents the first  year of the Bachillerato in the Autonomous  Communities  which  do not have their own language. 
The maximum represents the first year in the Autonomous Communities with their own language. The number of periods increases to 30 and 
31 respectively, in the second year. However, the weekly numbers may vary slightly from one Autonomous Community to the other. 
The official  duration of a period is set at 60 minutes. However, 5 minutes are deducted from each hour to allow for changing classes. 
In the last two years, the maximum may be as much as 35 in cases where the pupil chooses certain options. 
Secondary  schools  must  be  open  for  a  minimum  of  179  days  a  year  of  which  they  may  devote  a  maximum  of  12  days  to  certificate 
examinations. 
In view of the large number of lessons in technical and vocational schools, school councils often  ask for die length of the lesson to be reduced 
to  55 or even  50 minutes.  Such  authorisation  is granted  by the  Provveditore agli studi  (provincial  education  authority)  on the  basis  of the 
justification  offered.  More often  than not, the aim is to coordinate the school timetable with public transport schedules, since schools of upper 
secondary education  are only found  in larger urban centres and cater for pupils from  a considerable geographical catchment area. 
The official  duration of a period is set at 60 minutes. A 20-minute deduction  is made per day to allow for changing classes. 
The national minimum is in theory 29 periods per week, but pupils must add one or two 'pre-specialisation'  options to this. 
In upper secondary education, there are no prescribed  minimum  or maximum  numbers of teaching periods per week. There is, however, an 
adviesurentabel  (a  recommended  teaching  timetable)  for  the  HAVO  and  VWO,  which  shows  the  teaching  periods  to  be  spent  on  each 
subject  spread  over  the  whole  course  for  each  school  type.  The  theoretical  average  has  been  calculated  by  dividing  the  number  of 
recommended  periods  for  the whole curriculum  by the  number  of years  and  weeks.  In contrast,  the vocational  schools  (MBOs)  are free to 
organise the distribution  of hours of their programmes in ways that permit their students to acquire final qualifications  according to standards 
established at the national level. 
Under the dual system (Berufsschule and workplace training), the weekly number of periods (part-time)  is 8 or 9 (confined  to one day of the 
week). 

77 

Organisation of education 

Table 32. (cont.) Weekly number of taught periods and their duration in upper 

secondary education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

Member State 

Number of periods per week 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 
E/W 
NI 
SC 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General education (CSPOPE)': minimum 23. maximum 33 
Technical education (CT)2: minimum 28. maximum 32 
General education: average 28.54 
Vocational education: around 35 
General education: approximately 20 
Vocational education: average 23'' 

approximately 407 
approximately 409 
35­401" 
General education: average 3 5" 
Vocational education: variable, maximum 46 
General education: minimum 34. maximum 38 
Vocational education: 17 
from 30 to 35 

Duration of a 
period 
50 minutes 

Number of school 
days 
160/1923 

45­50 minutes' 

120/190 

60 minutes 

178/190 

35­40 minutes 
35­40 minutes 
40­60 minutes 
40 minutes 

45 minutes 

45 minutes 

minimum 1908 
minimum 190 
190 
16012 

200 

190 

In the CSPOPE (courses aimed mainly at higher education), the minimum for the 10th and 11th years is fixed at 28 periods and the maximum 
at 33. In the 12th year, following a regulation of 1995, technological courses have been reduced by 3 hours. 
In the 10Ü' and 11th years, the minimum is fixed at 29 periods. 
In 1995/96. the introduction of the new system of final external evaluation has resulted in the reduction of the number of school days. 
In general upper secondary schools, the minimum number of courses is 75, which gives a theoretical calculated average of 28.5 periods per 
week based on the assumption that completion takes 500 days (3 years of 190, 190 and 120 days respectively). 
The period lasts one hour but this includes a break of around 15 minutes. During practical training, there are double periods (i.e. 90 minutes). 
Upper secondary education includes 2 150 or 2 370 periods, depending on the selected course. No annual or weekly number of periods is 
fixed. Schools decide how to distribute these periods over the 3 years of upper secondary education. The average presented is theoretical and 
is based on the assumption that the schools divide the lessons evenly throughout the period of education. 
Upper secondary' education is taken to include the 14­ to 16­year­olds. There are no legal requirements relating to the number of lessons or 
their duration. The detail of the daily timetable is a matter for the headteacher of each school. These figures are general and vary from school 
to school. In England and Wales, the suggested minimum weekly hours of lesson time is 24 hours (12­ to 16­year­olds). These 'suggested' 
hours include only those hours in which pupils are actually being taught. They exclude breaks, the daily act of collective worship, and 
registration. Many secondary schools provide more hours of lessons than the suggested minimum. At Key Stage 4 (14­ to 16­year­olds), the 
average was 24.6 hours in 1995. 
At post­compulsory level (16­ to 18­year­olds), pupils may continue dieir education in school or in further education institutions. The number 
of lessons a week will be determined by the courses of study undertaken by individual students. A GCE A level normally involves 240 to 300 
hours of lessons ('contact time') over 2 school years. Based on a 30­week year, this equates to 4 to 5 hours a week. Pupils normally take 3 or 
4 A levels. However, they may take other courses such as General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), National Vocational 
Qualifications (NVQs) or a combination of these courses. 
Does not apply to Further Education institutions. 
The statutory minimum for pupils of 11 to 16 years is 22.5 hours of lesson time a week during compulsory secondary education (exclusive of 
religious instruction which is obligatory in state and grant­aided schools). 
This is established by each local authority. School heads are free to determine the number and duration of teaching periods for their school in 
consultation with the teaching staff. 
On average, over the normal course of 4 years, there are 35 periods, but the number of periods may vary between 32 and 40. 
Consisting of days of teaching and examinations in 1995/96. The number of actual teaching days was usually 135. 

11 

12 

78 

Organisation of education 

1.5. Number of taught hours per year 
Given the wide variations in the way school time is organised in different countries, only a calculation 
of the annual number of taught hours provides the basis for an accurate comparison of pupils' class 
attendance in each country. These annual taught hours, illustrated in Graphs 6, 7 and 8, are calculated 
by multiplying the number of periods per week by the duration of a period in order to obtain the 
weekly load in minutes. This number is then divided by the number of school days per week before 
being multiplied by the number of teaching days per year. The total expressed in minutes is then 
converted to hours by dividing by 60. 

Graph 6. Annual number of taught hours 
in lower secondary general education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

420 

182 

152 

161 

26 

148 

169 

333 

90 

30 

120 

893 

842 

933  900 

1074 

1067 

930 

875  855 

931 

855  893 

1020 

855 

747 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

849 

849 

780 

790 

200 

0 

Bfr Bnl Dk D EL E F IRL I L NL A Ρ FIN S E/W NI SC IS LI NO 
Β de OK 

Source: Eurydice. ' MINIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS MAXIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS 

Germany: The annual number of class hours in half­day schools (Halbtagsschule) is based on an average, which was calculated on 
the basis of the 'Recommendation on types of school and courses of education at lower secondary level' of the Standing Conference 
of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany of 3 December 1993. 
Spain: Data are approximate. They may vary slightly from one Autonomous Community to another. The flexible timetable includes 
learning a mother tongue other than Castilian, for the Autonomous Communities with their own language. 
Italy: The official length of a period is 60 minutes, but 20 minutes are deducted each day to take account of time spent changing 
classes. 
Finland: This is a theoretical average based on 30 periods per week. 
Sweden: The new timetable introduced in 1995/96 represents 6 665 taught hours. Schools are free to distribute these over the 9 years 
of the Grundskola (compulsory education), whilst ensuring that pupils attain certain targets at the end of the 5th and 9th years. 
United Kingdom: There is no legal requirement concerning the minimum of taught lesson time in England and Wales. Governing 
bodies and headteachers in maintained schools however are obliged to ensure that there is sufficient time to deliver the whole 
curriculum. The figures for England and Wales are based on average taught lesson time per week in 1995. Time spent on 
registration, the daily act of collective worship and all breaks are excluded. The figure for Northern Ireland reflects the statutory 
minimum of 22.5 hours of taught lesson time per week. Lessons in religious education have to be added to this total. For Scotland, 
this is the class contact time required contractually of teachers. Time spent by pupils at school will exceed this total. 
Iceland: There is no maximum. Municipalities are free to add additional hours. 

Graph 6, based on the information contained in Table 31, shows the number of hours for the lower 
secondary level or first stage. It should be remembered that, in countries where compulsory education 
is organised in a single structure (Denmark, Portugal, Finland, Sweden, Iceland and Norway), lower 
secondary education is not a separate stage. For these countries, figures represent the three last years 
of compulsory education. It does appear in most cases that the number of hours per year varies within 
countries. In view of the freedom given to individual institutions to detennine their own timetables, 
not only do the figures shown in the graph represent theoretical averages but there are also variations 
between schools. This is the case in Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In Iceland, only the 
minimum is imposed and municipalities may supplement it with additional hours. 

Only in Ireland, the Netherlands and in Greece (since September 1996) is the annual number of class 
hours the same throughout lower secondary education. 

Elsewhere this variation is expressed in the form of a minimum and maximum number. In some 
countries, it stems from the variety of options offered to pupils (Belgium, Germany, France). In other 

79 

Organisation of education 

countries, such as Denmark, Germany, Greece (until September 1996), Spain and Austria, the number 
of taught periods increases as pupils progress through the school. In Italy, several timetables exist in 
parallel and in Spain hours are added in the Autonomous Communities with their own mother tongue 
for learning these languages. In Luxembourg, the differences are due to the two types of education 
which are in parallel (general secondary education and technical secondary education). 

Graph 6 indicates considerable variations between some countries. For instance, during lower 
secondary education in Iceland, pupils' class time amounts to a minimum of around 747 hours per 
year whereas in Ireland it is over 1 074 hours. 

As shown in Graph 7, based on the information presented in Table 32, the number of taught hours per 
year in upper secondary general education does not differ greatly from that in lower secondary 
schools. 

1400 

tt 
< 1200 
LU 
% 1000 
cc 
Ζ) 
o  800 

600 

Graph 7. Annual number of taught hours 
in upper secondary general education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

60 

182 

152 

85 

105 

66 

96 

30 

166 

180 

267 

111 

143 

•■100 

849 

849  900 

846 

788 

200 

931  957  1002 

900 

767 

1000 

960 

935 

812 

613 

712 

855  893 

747 

1020 

855 

Bfr Bnl Dk D EL E F IRL I L NL A Ρ FIN S E/W NI SC IS LI NO 
B de UK 

Source: Eurydice. 

D 

M I N I M UM N U M B ER OF H O U RS M A X I M UM N U M B ER OF H O U RS 

Belgium: The upper level comprises stages 2 and 3, each lasting two years 
Germany: The annual number of class hours was calculated on the basis of the 'Agreement on the reorganisation of the Gymnasiale 
Oberstufe' of the Standing Conference of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of 
Germany of 7 July 1972. as amended on 11 April 1988. 
Spain: Data are approximate. They may vary slightly from one Autonomous Community to another. 
Ireland: Secondary schools must be open for a minimum of 179 days a year of which they may devote a maximum of 12 days to 
certificale examinations. The statistics presented here have been calculated on the basis of the minimum of 167 days of education. 
Austria: The number of hours indicated is taken from the national fixed timetable. An increasing number of schools make use of 
curricular autonomy. In these schools, the number of hours may differ from the fixed timetable within a given framework. 
Finland: Data refer to a theoretical average. In practice, there are considerable differences between individual pupils and between the 
three years of upper secondary education. The number of hours is obtained by dividing the minimum number of hours for compulsory 
subjects by 500 days (duration of the upper level of secondary education) and multiplying it by 190 (number of school days per year). 
Sweden: The theoretical average is based on the equal distribution of 2 150 periods over three years. 
United Kingdom (E/W and NI): Data are for the last two years of compulsory education (14­ to 16­year­olds). For England and 
Wales, they are based on statistics of average taught lesson time per week in 1995. For Northern Ireland, figures are based on the 
prescribed minimum of 22.5 hours per week (not including religious education which must be provided in state and grant­aided 
schools). In post­compulsory education (16­ to 18­year­olds), there is no prescribed annual number of taught hours as each pupil has 
an individual programme. Individual examining or awarding bodies may, however, provide guidance on the number of lessons which 
might be required to cover the syllabus. Attendance requirements are determined by the individual institution. 
United Kingdom (Scotland): the number of hours for post­compulsory education (16­ to 18­year­olds) is the same as for compulsory 
secondary education but pupils have the choice of a number and kinds of courses. This is the class contact time required contractually 
of teachers. Time spent by pupils at school will exceed this total. 
Iceland: For a normal four­year course, the average is 747 hours per year. Teaching hours in Graph 7 are calculated from the total 
number of 160 teaching and examination days. There were, however, normally 135 actual teaching days in 1995/96. 

In upper secondary general education, there are variations in the annual number of taught hours per 
year in most countries. The few countries which do not show differences between maxima and 
minima in the graph have actual fluctuations resulting from the autonomy of schools and the freedom 
of choice of pupils to add extra hours of subject teaching. 

At general upper secondary level, this variation is due to the wide range of options available to pupils 
(languages, mathematics, science, literature, etc.) and the choice between various branches of study 
which have an impact on how many hours of teaching they receive per week and per year. 

SO 

Organisation of education 

As regards the annual number of teaching hours, the country figures vary from 613 in Portugal to 
1 000 in the Netherlands. It should be noted that the upper secondary stage in Iceland lasts 4 years, 
which explains in part the annual minimum. 

Graph 8. Annual number of taught hours 
in upper secondary vocational education, 1995/96 

1400 

1200 

^ 1000 
LU 

£ 80° 
o 600 
X 

400 

121 

121 

121 

180 

1031 

971 

971 

930 

169 

102 

846 

. 7 88 

300 

65 

135 

270 

120 

106 

298 

1000 

974 

945 

1033 

1000 

930 

900 

998 

790 

747 

200 

H 

•I 
B fr B de B ni Dk D EL 

H 

F IRL I L NL A Ρ FIN S E/W NI SC IS LI NO 

Source: Eurydice. 

MINIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS | | MAXIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS 

138 

833 

683 

500 

UK 

Denmark: The minimum is for the first two years and the maximum for the period of practical training (including short periods of 
education). 
Germany: Situation varies according to the Land. These data refer to full-time vocational education in school. In the dual system of 
vocational education and training (part-time in-company), pupils spend in general 480 hours per year learning in the Berufsschule. 
Spain: There is a great variety of ciclos formativos de grado medio. The total time of these ciclos varies between 1 300 and 2 000 
hours, in-company training included. They can be divided over one or two years. The number of 1 000 hours is an approximate 
minimum for the first year. The organisation of the second year depends on the ciclo and the Community. 
Italy: The difference in the number of hours is due to the different kinds of school chosen by the pupils. 
Portugal: Data are for the technological course. In vocational schools, the annual number of hours rises to 1 200. 
Luxembourg: Data are for technical secondary education which has three branches (technical, technician and vocational). 
Netherlands: Institutions of vocational education (MBOs) are free to organise the distribution of hours of their programmes in ways 
that permit their students to acquire final qualifications according to standards established at national level. 
Finland: This is a theoretical average based on 35 periods per week. 
Sweden: The theoretical average is based on the equal distribution of 2 370 periods throughout training. 
United Kingdom: There are no recommendations on the number of taught hours in post-compulsory education. 
Iceland: The number of hours in Graph 8 is calculated from the yearly number of teaching days and examinations (160). However, the 
number of days of teaching in 1995/96 was generally 135. 
Liechtenstein: In the dual system of vocational education and training (part-time in-company), pupils spend in general 500 hours per 
year learning in the Berufsschule. 

Comparison of Graphs 7 and 8 clearly shows that in upper secondary education, the annual number of 
taught hours in vocational education is always equal to or higher than in general education. This 
difference is generally due to the fact that the weekly number of teaching periods in vocational 
education is higher than in general education (see Table 32). 

All countries again present variations in the numbers of taught hours per year. This may be due to 
greater specialisation, and hence the larger numbers of options available in this type of education. 
Moreover, vocational education always contains a practical training course which can take various 
forms (work placements, work bench experience at school). 

In some countries, the set timetable does not always take this practical training into account. In Spain, 
practical training in ciclos formativos (modulo de formación en centros de trabajo) occurs in on-the-
job training and lasts between 400 and 700 hours according to the ciclo. In Italy, practical training 
ranges between 300 and 400 hours per year. In Luxembourg, practical training is organised in 
different ways depending on the type of course. One kind of vocational training is based on 
apprenticeship on-the-job with only a few hours of theoretical study in the lycée technique. Another 
involves two years in an educational institution followed by on-the-job training along with theoretical 
study in the lycée. In Portugal, most vocational schools have a three-year stage. Technical and 
practical subjects usually account for 50% of the training but there are variations between regions. 
Vocational secondary education includes technical and practical training sections which may take 
various forms (simulation, laboratory and workshop activities at school, etc.), or be in a genuine work 
environment. 

81 

Organisation  of  education 

2. Subjects taught 

2.1. Minimum number of teaching hours per subject 

at ages 13 and 16 

In several countries, curricula and official  directives leave teaching staff  and the school free  to choose 
how much time  should  be allocated  to the various  subjects. This  is the case  in Ireland  and the  United 
Kingdom.  In  England  and  Wales,  during  compulsory  secondary  education  (ages  11  to  16),  the 
curriculum  is expressed  not  in terms of lesson time but in terms of programmes  of study  and  learning 
outcomes. The Education Reform  Act  1988 specifically  forbids the Secretary of State for Education to 
prescribe the amount of time to be spent on each  subject.  Instead, there  is an obligation  on  governing 
bodies and headteachers to ensure that there is sufficient  time in the school day to deliver the National 
Curriculum  in  England  and  Wales  and  the  Northern  Ireland  Curriculum  in  Northern  Ireland.  The 
subject-matters  contained  in the National  Curriculum  are English  (Welsh  in some  schools  in  Wales), 
mathematics,  science, design  and technology,  information  technology,  history, geography,  music, art, 
physical  education  and a modern  foreign  language. In  Scotland, the  Scottish  Consultative  Council  on 
the Curriculum offers  guidelines on the division of time given to subjects to help headteachers in their 
decisions. 

In  Finland,  the  Council  of  State decides  the  minimum  amount  of time  that  has to be  allocated  to  the 
compulsory  subjects  during  the  three  years  of  lower  secondary  education.  The  municipalities  and 
schools  have  free  choice  in  the  precise  weekly  and  annual  allocation  of  time  to  each  subject.  The 
situation  in  Sweden  has been  identical  since  1995/96. In Austria,  in lower secondary  education,  there 
are two timetables, one with fixed  numbers and another autonomous timetable. Schools making use of 
curricular autonomy may allocate more or fewer hours to certain subjects than in the fixed  curriculum. 
They may even introduce new subjects. 

In  other  countries,  where  curricula  specify  the  minimum  distribution  of taught  hours  for  the  various 
subjects,  it is possible to compare how much time is allocated to them. 

Graphs  9  and  10  show  the  annual  minimum  numbers  of  hours  per  subject  at  age  13  in  general 
education  and  at  age  16 in the  science  stream  of  general  education.  For  comparisons  to  be  made  at 
each  age,  it  was  necessary  to  choose  a  branch  and  single  stream  found  in  all  European  Union 
countries.  The vocational  branch  was not chosen  because  of the  very  great  variation  in  programmes. 
The graphs presented here are given by way of illustration. They are based on the multiplication  of the 
proportion  of time allocated to the different  compulsory  subjects,  indicated  in the programmes, by the 
minimum  number  of  hours  of teaching  per year.  To  simplify  the  graphs,  certain  subjects  have  been 
grouped,  as  in  the  case  of  foreign  languages  1, 2  or  3. The  humanities  include  history,  geography, 
economics  and  social  studies.  Biology,  physics  and  chemistry  form  'Sciences'.  Technology,  Latin, 
Ancient Greek, religion and moral education are classified  as  'other'. 

Because of the diversity of structures and duration of educational  levels, data for pupils aged  13 may correspond  to  different 
years in the school course. The specific  situations are as follows: 
in the German Community of Belgium -  the first year of secondary education (seventh year of compulsory  education) 

in the French and Flemish Communities of Belgium, Greece, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Liechtenstein  -
the second year of secondary  education 
in Denmark, Portugal, Finland,  Sweden and Norway -  the seventh year of compulsory education  in the single structure 

in Germany -  the eighth year of school in  12 of the Länder 

in France -  third year of secondary  education 
in Austria -  the fourth  year of the Hauptschule (eighth year of compulsory education) 

in the United Kingdom -  ninth year of compulsory education 
in Iceland -  the eighth year of compulsory education in the single structure. 

83 

Organisation  of  education 

Graph  9. Annual  minimum number of teaching hours in each subject at  age  13 
in  general education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

HOURS/YEAR 

UK  NI 

Source: Eurydice. 

J  MOTHER TONGUE 

|  MATHEMATICS 

|  SPORT 

I  SCIENCE 

I  FOREIGN LANGUAGES 

OTHER 

¡  OPTIONS 

J  ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES 

J  HUMAN SCIENCES 

j  FLEXIBLE TIMETABLE 

Denmark:  The distribution  of subject  hours  is fixed solely  and  directly  by the Ministry  on the basis  of an  estimation  of 30 periods  a 
week.  However, it is the municipalities  and the schools which decide the actual  minimum  and maximum  number of weekly lessons. 
Germany:  The  annual  number  of  class  hours  by  subject  is  based  on  an  average,  which  was  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  weekly 
teaching  hours  for  year 8 of all  types  of schools  in  the  different  Länder.  The  category  'other'  includes  religion  and  various  subjects, 
according to the Land. 
Spain:  The  data  are  approximate  and  can  differ  slightly  from  one  Community  to  the  other,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  hours  of 
teaching  in the flexible programme of Autonomous Communities with their own mother tongue. 
Ireland,  United  Kingdom:  Curricula  and  directives  leave  each  school  at  liberty  to  decide  how  much  time  to  allocate  to  the  various 
subjects.  These  countries  are  therefore  depicted  as  having  a  flexible  timetable.  For  England  and  Wales,  the  total  represents  the 
suggested  minimum  number  of  teaching  hours.  For  Scotland,  this  is  the  class  contact  time  required  contractually  of  teachers.  Time 
spent by pupils at school  will exceed this total. 
Luxembourg:  From the age of  13, pupils must learn three foreign  languages, except in the Classics branch where Latin  is taught. 
Finland:  There are differences  between  schools, therefore  the  figures  given  are only  approximations.  They are averages  of the whole 
three years of lower secondary  level. The number of hours was calculated  on the basis of 30  hours per week. 
Sweden:  The  majority  of  pupils  (60%)  choose  a  second  foreign  language  as  an  optional  subject.  Religion  is  included  in  social 
sciences  and  not  in  the  'other'  category.  The  distribution  of  subjects  is  based  on  pre-reform  programmes.  Progressively,  with  the 
implementation  of the  1995 reform,  the programme will have a flexible  timetable. 
Liechtenstein: The data presented  relate to the hours in the Gymnasium's  academic first stage. 

At  the  age  of  13, all  pupils  in  general education are taught the  same  compulsory subjects. However, 
the  time  allocated  to  each  of  these  subjects  varies  from  one  country  to  the  next.  At  this  level  of 
education,  the  teaching  of  the  mother  tongue,  mathematics  and  a  foreign  language  have  the  most 
important  relative  positions in  most  countries. The  minimum compulsory amount  of time  devoted to 
sport  in the school timetable at this educational level seems to vary less between countries. 

Italy has the highest allocation of hours to teaching the mother tongue ( 187  hours per year). Conversely, 
in  principle,  this  subject  does  not  appear  on  the  timetable  in  Luxembourg  for  the  second 

84 

Organisation  of  education 

year,  and  only  36  hours  in  the  first  year.  This  is  explained  by  the  mainly  oral  nature  of 
Letzeburgesch  -  grammatical  rules  are relatively  recent  and  there  is  little  literature  in the  language. 
This  also  explains  why  Luxembourg  also  has  the  highest  number  of  hours  for  foreign  language 
teaching.  German  and  French,  the  official  languages  of  Luxembourg,  are  used  for  teaching  other 
subjects, and the pupils also learn English. 

In  science  subjects,  the  place  of  scientific  training  (biology,  physics,  chemistry)  differs  between 
countries.  Pupils  in Luxembourg  receive  only 30 hours'  teaching  a year  while  those  in Austria  have 
180. Four other countries -  Denmark, France, Portugal and Sweden -  devote a minimum  of  120 hours 
a year to the sciences. 

Education  in  the  humanities  (history,  geography,  economics,  philosophy,  social  studies)  also  shows 
great  variations,  with  an  annual  minimum  of  64  hours  per  year  in  Iceland  and  a  maximum  of  175 
hours a year in Portugal and Sweden. There are more than  150 hours in Italy. 

Pupils everywhere  still participate  in artistic activities but in some cases to a very limited  extent, as in 
Belgium  and  Finland,  where  30  hours  a  year  are  provided.  In  contrast,  five  other  countries  (Italy, 
Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein  and Norway) allocate  100 hours or more a year to these. 

The  category  'other'  is very  strongly  represented  in Greece  (263  hours) where  it occupies  more than 
25%  of the minimum  timetable and  in Spain, with  200 hours. It is also given  more than  100 hours in 
Italy,  Austria,  Liechtenstein  and  Norway.  In  Greece,  the  teaching  of  Ancient  Greek  in  traditional 
humanities  education  is  the  basis  for  its  considerable  part  in  the  timetable.  The  same  applies  in 
Liechtenstein,  with  Latin  being  taught  in  the  Gymnasium.  Everywhere  else,  this  category  is 
characterised  mainly  by the hours given to the teaching  of religion, philosophy  or civic  education. In 
contrast,  in the countries mentioned  above, besides the teaching  of religion  or moral  philosophy,  it is 
the  presence  of technology,  home  economics  and/or  computer  studies  in the  compulsory  curriculum 
which  largely explains the extent of this category. 

At  the  age  of  13, Belgian,  Spanish,  French,  Dutch,  Portuguese,  Finnish  and  Swedish  pupils  have  a 
variable number of options within the compulsory minimum hours allotted. In the French and  German 
Communities  of  Belgium,  the  Netherlands  and  Finland,  the  greatest  number  of  hours  for  optional 
subjects  is offered  in the minimum compulsory curriculum. In the Netherlands, it represents more than 
a quarter of the time. 

Greater  disparities  are  found  in  the  organisation  of  school  timetables  at  age  16  in  general  science-
based  education.  Indeed,  at  this  specific  stage  of  their  school  careers,  not  all  pupils  are  necessarily 
taught the same compulsory  subjects. 

It  is  also  important  to  recall,  in  the  light  of  the  diversity  of the  length  of  the  educational  stages  at  primary  and  secondary 
level, that the age of  16 does not correspond to the same year of the scientific  branch  of upper secondary general education  in 
the different  countries. 

The different  situations are summarised below: 

in  Denmark,  Germany,  Spain,  Luxembourg,  Finland,  Sweden,  United  Kingdom  (Scotland),  Iceland,  Liechtenstein  and 
Norway -  first year of upper secondary education; 

in Belgium,  Greece, France, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal and the  United Kingdom (England and Wales and Northern  Ireland  -
last year of compulsory education) -  second year of upper secondary education; 

in Austria (Realgymnasium) -  seventh year of secondary education. 

In this  section  of upper  secondary  general  education, the teaching of the mother tongue,  mathematics 
and  foreign  languages  usually  continues  to  be  fairly  important  in  relative  terms  in  most  countries. 
However, where the programme has not become flexible in regard to the individual  choices of pupils, 
the  place'of  science  (biology,  physics,  chemistry)  has  become  more  important  than  at the  age  of  13 
and  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  almost  everywhere,  perhaps  even  supplanting  the 
minimum  compulsory time allocated to mathematics. This explains why the scientific  branch has been 
chosen for the comparative analysis shown here. 

In  the  six  countries  where  artistic  and  sports  activities  are  still  on  the  minimum  compulsory 
curriculum,  less  time  is  allocated  to  these  activities  in  upper  than  in  lower  secondary  education, 
except in Denmark. 

85 

Organisation  of  education 

The amount of time devoted  to foreign  language teaching is generally not greater at the age of  16 than 
at the  age of  13, except  in the  French  Community  of  Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
Austria  and  Sweden.  In Greece, the  increased  importance  given  to foreign  languages  in the  first  stage 
(Gymnasio) is due to the  introduction  of a second  foreign  language  at that  level  (introduced  generally 
since  1996).  This  has  been  progressively  extended  to  include  the  first  year  of  the  Lykeio  from 
1996/97. 

It should  be emphasised  that the human  sciences  usually have  less  importance than  at the  lower  level. 
In contrast, the possibilities of options are greater. 

Finally,  in  Italy,  at  this  level  of  course  in  the  scientific  section,  the  teaching  of  Latin  has  become 
compulsory  (included  in  the  'other'  category)  and  in  Greece,  the  teaching  of  Ancient  Greek  is  also 
still  compulsory. 

86 

Organisation  of education 

Graph  10. Annual  minimum  number  of teaching hours in each compulsory  subject  at 
the age of 16 in general education, science section,  1995/96 

HOURS/YEAR 

400 

500 

700 

800 

1 100 

1 200 

Source: Eurydice. 

]  MOTHER TONGUE 

|  SPORT 

I  FOREIGN LANGUAGES 

OTHER 

|  MATHEMATICS 

|  SCIENCE 

|  OPTIONS 

| 

|  ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES 

J  HUMAN SCIENCES 

J  FLEXIBLE TIMETABLE 

Belgium (B fr): The number of hours in mathematics, sciences, foreign language, human sciences and 'other' are the minima which pupils 
complete according to their options. The options can reach four times the minimum. 
Germany:  In the gymnasiale Oberstufe, i.e. upper level of Gymnasium,  subjects  are taught  in basic and  advanced  courses (Grundkurse 
and  Leistungskurse) according  to  pupils'  aptitudes  and  performances.  The  course  system  includes  compulsory  subjects  and  obligatory 
optional  subjects.  Compulsory  subjects  (564 hours per year)  are grouped  together  into three main  areas: languages/literature/arts;  social 
sciences; mathematics/natural  sciences/technology,  as well as religion  and sport. Optional  subjects  (282 hours per year) are designed  for 
individual specialisation  in each of the three areas. 
Spain: The data are approximate and can differ  slightly from one Community to the other, particularly in regard to the hours of teaching in 
the flexible programmes of Autonomous Communities with their own mother tongue. 
Ireland: Each school is free to distribute time between the subjects. This is why the flexible timetable is shown here. 
Netherlands: During the six-year VWO course and the five-year  HAVO course, there is a recommended  number of teaching periods  for 
each subject, which are spread over the years of the course. Schools are free to choose how to distribute the subjects over each of the years. 
In the VWO section, pupils sit the final examination in a minimum of 7 subjects, of which 2 are compulsory. Pupils in the HAVO section 
sit examinations in a minimum of 6 subjects, of which 2 are compulsory. 
Portugal:  The  'other'  category  covers  the  32  hours  given  to  the  social  or  religious  education  course  and  the  192  hours  allocated  to 
technological studies chosen according to the possibilities offered  by the school. 
Finland: The annual  number of teaching hours  is calculated  by dividing the minimum  number of hours  of compulsory  subjects  by 500 
(duration  of upper secondary education), then multiplying this by  190 (number of school  days  in the year). The result  is an  approximate 
minimum. 
Sweden: In post-compulsory education, pupils choose subjects according to their abilities and are grouped in relation to their choices. The 
situation, then, is very complex in view of the high degree of variation in personal choices. 
United Kingdom: Each school is free to allocate time to the different  subjects. This is why a flexible time table is shown. This represents 
the  suggested  minimum  number  of hours  of teaching  as  set out  in  the  curriculum  proposals.  In  England,  Wales  and  Northern  Ireland, 
taught hours apply only to compulsory upper secondary education  (age 14 to  16). In post-compulsory secondary education, pupils choose 
their courses based on the subjects they will take for examinations. 
Iceland: The first year  of upper secondary  general  education  in  most  respects  is common  to  all  programmes,  but  some  differences  are 
observable between subjects and hours given to them. This graph presents an example representing the first year of the scientific section. 
Liechtenstein: Two sections exist in the Gymnasium -  either Latin (type B) or economics-based (type E). The latter is shown here. 
Norway:  There  is  no education  for  16-year-old  pupils which  may be termed  'scientific'.  All  pupils  in general  education  take  the  same 
subjects. 

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ ^ ^ _ ^ _ _=^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ _ ^ ^ _ ^ _=_= 

87 

Organisation  of  education 

3. Assessment and  certification 

What types of assessment  are normally used during the course of education? Do pupils move up to the 
next  class  automatically,  or  is  this  progression  subject  to  a  decision  by  a  'teachers'  council'  or  by 
parents  after  the  'class  council'  has given  its opinion?  What  are the  various  forms  and  procedures  of 
certification  upon completion  of the various  levels? 

Tables  33, 34  and  35  indicate  the  answers  to  these  questions  provided  by  each  of  the  18 countries, 
giving  a  breakdown  between  lower  secondary  education,  upper  secondary  general  education  and 
upper secondary vocational  education. 

In  lower  secondary  education,  assessment  is  continuous  throughout  the  year  in  all  countries.  On 
entry  to  the  college  in  France,  there  is  a national  testing  programme  to  identify  pupils'  weaknesses 
and  to  provide  appropriate  support.  In  1996,  Belgium  (French  Community)  adopted  the  same 
procedure but there the testing will take place every three years. 

During  lower secondary  education, the decision  whether to allow  a pupil to move up to the next  class 
is  taken  according  to  the  pupil's  performance  by  the  'teachers'  council'  in  Belgium,  Germany, 
Greece,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Austria  and  Portugal.  In  some  countries,  the  decision  also  takes 
account  of the pupil's  own potential  (Spain) or the objectives  set for  him at the beginning  of the year 
(Italy).  Promotion  is  automatic  in  Denmark,  Ireland,  Sweden,  the  United  Kingdom,  Iceland  and 
Norway.  It  is  also  automatic  in the  French  and  German-speaking  Communities  of  Belgium,  but  only 
during the first stage (from  the first to the second year). 

By contrast,  in the  majority  of  countries,  promotion  from  lower  to  upper  secondary  education  is  not 
automatic.  Two  countries  have  no  certification  at  the  end  of  lower  secondary  education.  In  the 
Netherlands for pre-university  education  (VWO) and general  upper secondary education  (FLAVO), the 
programme continues without a break  into upper secondary  education; pupils who have completed  the 
period  of  basic  education  receive  a  certificate  on  leaving  secondary  school.  In  England,  Wales  and 
Northern  Ireland,  lower secondary education  and the first two years of upper secondary education  take 
place  in the  same  institution  and  transition  is automatic, even  if the  age of  14 marks the  end  of a key 
stage  with  assessment;  a  certificate  (GCSE)  is  however  awarded  at  the  age  of  16,  but  this  is  not  a 
condition  of  pupils'  continuing  to  the  end  of  secondary  education.  All  other  Member  States  have 
introduced  certification  at the end of lower  secondary  education. This certification  governs  admission 
to  upper  secondary  education  except  in  Belgium,  France  and  Scotland.  In  Belgium,  the  certificate  of 
lower  secondary  education  is  issued  after  three  years,  i.e.  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  the  second 
stage. 

The certificate  is generally  awarded  as a result  of a period  of examinations. These  examinations  may 
be  organised  externally  -  France,  Ireland,  the  Netherlands  (for  the  VBO  and  MAVO),  the  United 
Kingdom  (except  for  Scotland  which  has a mixed  internal-external  approach), Iceland  and Norway  -
or  internally  -  Belgium,  Greece  and  Italy.  Germany,  Spain,  Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands  (VWO, 
HAVO),  Austria,  Portugal,  Finland  and  Sweden  do  not  hold  any  specific  examination  at  the  end  of 
lower secondary education. In Denmark, there is a standardised  examination, but this is optional. 

In  upper  secondary  general  or  vocational  education,  assessment  during  the  school  year  is  also 
continuous  in  most  Member  States.  In  France,  all  pupils  entering  the  lycée  are  subject  to  national 
assessment  in  French,  mathematics  and  a  modern  language,  in  order  to  detect  any  weaknesses  and 
allow teachers to adapt their teaching  accordingly. 

Promotion  to  a  higher  class  within  upper  secondary  general  or  vocational  education  is  automatic  in 
Ireland,  in  Sweden  and  in  the  United  Kingdom.  However,  in  England,  Wales  and  Northern  Ireland 
entry  to  some  courses  in  post-compulsory  education  at  age  16  depends  on  specific  entry  criteria. 
Pupils'  results  are  taken  into  account  in  Spain,  France, the Netherlands,  Austria  and  Portugal  where 

88 

Organisation  of  education 

the teachers'  council  decides whether or not they may move up a class on the basis of their marks. In 
Belgium  and Italy, the decision made by the  'class council'  is based not only on a pupil's marks  in all 
subjects  but  also  on the  observations  of teachers. In Greece, promotion  to the  next  class  is based  on 
the  results  during  the  year  and  an  examination  at the  end  of the  year.  In  Finland,  general  secondary 
education  is organised  in modular courses and pupils must succeed  in a minimum  of 75 courses in the 
whole stage. In Iceland, pupils are promoted to the higher class on the basis of assessment. 

In  most  countries,  the  certificate  of  upper  secondary  general  education  is  issued  following  a 
standardised  external  examination  or an  examination  with  external  supervision.1  This  is not  the  case 
in  Iceland,  where  pupils  obtain  their  certificate  after  an  internal  examination.  In  the  Netherlands, 
besides  the  external  examinations,  there  are  also  internal  examinations  prepared  and  marked  by  the 
school. The final assessment represents the average mark of the internal and external  examinations. In 
Belgium  and  in  Greece,  the  certificate  is  awarded  on  the  basis  of  not  only  the  results  of  an 
examination  at the end of the school year but also the average marks received  each term. In Spain and 
in  Sweden, there  is no final examination  and the certificate  is awarded taking  into account the results 
obtained during continuous  assessment. 

The  certification  procedures  in  upper  secondary  vocational  education  are  somewhat  different.  In 
several  countries,  external  examiners  (employers  and  trade  unions,  Chambers  of  Industry  and 
Commerce,  etc.)  are  included  in  the  examining  board  which  issues  the  qualification  certificate 
(Belgium,  Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Austria, Portugal and Iceland). 

A wide ranging review of qualifications  for  16- to  19-year-olds  in England,  Wales and Northern  Ireland  has recently  been  completed. The 
recommendations, which are currently under consideration, include the establishment of a new framework for existing general and vocational 
qualifications;  the  introduction  of  a  national  certificate  and  a  national  diploma;  the  improvement  of  key  skUls  at  all  levels  and  die 
rationalisation  of the  number of bodies  awarding  qualifications.  (DEARING,  R. (1996)  Revtew of (Ratifications for  16-to  9-year-olds. 
London:  School  Curriculum  and  Assessment  Authority).  Scotland  is  also  in  a transition  phase  with  regard  to  the  certification  of  upper 
secondary general education. 

89 

(ÏQ 
pa 

w' 
I» 
S' 

a. 
c 
o 
pa 
δ' 

o 

Table 33. Assessment and certification in lower secondary education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

Promotion to the next class 

Certification procedures 

Β 
B fr and B de 

Continuous formative assessment. 
Monitoring scheme introduced in 1996 to 
be carried out every 3 years with tests in 
French and mathematics on entry to 
secondary education at age 12. 

Bnl 

Continuous formative assessment. 

Since the 1994/95 school year, automatic 
promotion from the first to the second year. 
Decision by the 'class council' on the basis 
of academic results for promotion from the 
first stage to the second stage and for 
promotion to each subsequent class. 
No automatic promotion, except from first 
year Β to the pre­vocational training year. 

DK 

Continuous assessment. 

Automatic promotion. 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

Continuous assessment through written 
and oral tests with a six­level marking 
scale. 
The marks range from 6 (ungenügend), 
given where results do not meet the 
required standard and indicate that pupils 
do not have the basic knowledge and are 
not able to remedy their shortcomings in 
the foreseeable future, to 1 (sehr gut), 
given, when the results far exceed the 
required standard. 
Continuous assessment through written 
and oral tests. 

Continuous assessment without 
standardised tests. 

National tests in reading, writing and 
arithmetic for pupils aged 11, in order to 
detect and remedy any academic 
weaknesses. Continuous assessment. 
Continuous formative assessment 

Decision by the teachers' council 
(Klassenkonferenz). Pass allowed if the pupil 
has a score of 4 in appropriate subjects. A 
low mark in one subject can be compensated 
by a high one in another. In some schools at 
some levels, a transfer examination can be 
set at the start of the school year. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the 
basis of term marks in each subject. 

Pupils' academic results and progress are 
taken into account in relation to their own 
personal potential. 
Decision by the 'class council' of teachers 
based on academic results. 

Automatic promotion. 

Continuous assessment based on a 
personal record sheet (written description 
of a pupil's attitude, tendencies, behaviour 
and attainment level). 

Overall opinion of the 'class council' of 
teachers in relation to the original objectives 
set for each pupil (taking into account the 
personal record sheet). 

L 

Continuous assessment. 

Decision by the 'class council' of teachers of 
the class on the basis of the year's 
schoolwork. 

Possibility of obtaining the certificate of basic education after one or two years for pupils in the first year B. 
No certification at the end of the first two years. 

A certificate of basic education may be awarded after one or two years to pupils in first year B, first year A or the pre­
vocational training year. 
A certificate of lower secondary education may be awarded at the end of the first stage: 
­ results of the year's schoolwork and examination results are taken into account; 
­ possibility of taking an examination marked by a central examining board. 
No compulsory examination. Possibility of sitting examinations (tests standardised at central level) in certain subjects 
chosen by the pupil:1 
­ certificate mentioning the subjects studied, marks for the year's schoolwork and the results obtained in the 
examinations. 
Continuous assessment (written and oral tests), authorisation to move up to the second cycle: 
­ Hauptschulabschluß: 
­ Realschulabschluß /Mittlerer Schulabschluß: 
­ entrance to the gymnasiale Oberstufe. 

No examination; the marks obtained in term tests and in the official end of year examinations are taken into account 
(weighted average of 10/20 in all subjects): 
­ Apolytirio Gymnasiou certificate. 
No examination. Original objectives must be achieved: 
­ certificate of secondary education + report (subjects taken and marks obtained). 

The results in the final two years of lower secondary school are taken into account plus a national examination: 
­ Brevet national. 

National examination with two grades of difficulty (written tests and practical projects): 
­ Junior Certificate. 
End of course examination administered by teachers and an external chairman. Written tests in Italian, mathematics and a 
foreign language as well as interdisciplinary oral tests: 
­ diploma di licenza media. 
Pupils who have passed the compulsory education age of 14, but have been unable to obtain this qualification and have 
attended school for at least eight years, may request a certificate of completion of compulsory education. 
No examination: 
­ certificate of completion of compulsory education. 

Two examination levels are available: the school­leaving examination (after the 9th or 10th year of education) which may cover ten subjects, and the 'advanced level' examination (only at the end of the 10th year) which covers only six subjects. 
Only pupils who have followed the advanced course during the 10th year are allowed to sit the advanced examination. 

Two examination levels are available: the school­leaving examination (after the 9th or 10th year of education) which may cover ten subjects, and the 'advanced level' examination (only at the end of the 10th year) which covers only six subjects. 

T wo examination levels are available: the school­leaving examination (after the 9th or 10th year of education) which may cover ten subjects, and the 'advanced level' examination (only at the end of the 10th year) which covers only six subjects. 

Table 33. (cont.) Assessment and certification in lower secondary education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

Promotion to the next class 

Certification procedures 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. Autonomy for schools 
permits them to operate their own 
assessment system. National attainment 
targets have been set for the subjects in the 
period of basisvorming (first 3 years of 
V B O, M A V O, H A VO and VWO). These 
are compulsory minimum standards which 
schools are expected to achieve by the end 
of the period of basisvorming. 

Continuous assessment. 

Continuous assessment. 

Continuous assessment. Written tests and 
observation of pupils' progress and 
behaviour. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the basis 
of academic results. 

No certification for pre­university ( V W O) and general upper secondary education (HAVQ). Curriculum respectively 
lasts six or five years without transition to the upper secondary level. 
Internal examination prepared and marked by the school plus a national written examination for M A VO and for the 
general subjects in V B O. The final assessment represents the average mark of these two examinations and leads to the 
M A VO and V BO completion certificates. 

Success in the fourth year: 
­ final report, authorisation to attend upper secondary school. 
Success in the third year of the third stage: 
­ diploma or certificate of attendance for pupils over compulsory school age. 

After completion of the 9th year of compulsory school, pupils receive a leaving certificate (peruskoulun 
päästätodistus). There is no final examination. 

Decision by the 'teachers' council' based 
upon schoolwork results, with right of appeal. 
Promotion is not automatic. 
Decision by the 'class council' on the basis of 
academic results, including an overall written 
test in each subject during the final year. 
A pupil w ho has obtained satisfactory marks 
or a positive oral assessment in all subjects 
moves up to the next year. The decision is 
taken by the school head in agreement with 
the teachers. A pupil w ho has obtained a poor 
mark in one subject is given conditional 
permission to move up to the higher class. 
Promotion is confirmed after the pupil has 
passed a further examination in the subject 
concerned. 

S 

Continuous assessment. 

Automatic promotion. 

A standardised test is prepared at central level for certain subjects (Swedish, English and mathematics). The main 
purpose of the tests is to ensure national comparability of the marks obtained and to facilitate pupil support. 
The final certificate given to pupils at the end of compulsory education includes all their results at the end of the 9th 
year. 

UK 
E/W 
Nl 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Continuous formative assessment. 
National Curriculum assessment at age 14. 

Barring exceptional circumstances, pupils 
normally move up from one class to the next. 

No certification at age 14. 

Continuous assessment. 

Automatic promotion. 

Continuous assessment. 

Automatic promotion. 

Formative and summative assessment 
during the school year. Grades range from 
6 to 1. T wo reports per school year. 
Continuous assessment. 

In order to move up a year, passes are 
required in German, mathematics, and natural 
sciences or a foreign language. 
Automatic promotion. 

At the end of lower secondary education, at age 16, national examination, with internal assessment in addition to 
external certification: 
­ Scottish Certificate of Education Standard Grade, National Certificate (SCOTVEC). 

At the end of lower secondary education, pupils receive a school­leaving certificate specifying, inter alia, their results 
in four national examinations (Icelandic, mathematics, Danish and English). 
End­of­study examination in the Oberschule and Realschule. 

Final written examination in the 9th year (in at least one subject) set by the authorities. Most pupils also take an oral 
examination (with participation being decided at central level): 
­ certificate indicating the subjects chosen, the most recent marks and the examination results. 

CTQ 
pa 
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o' 
Β 
O 
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Cu 
o 
fa O 
3 

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P¡ 
D 

O 
3 

O 
C 
o 

δ' 
3 

VO 
t -) 

Table 34. Assessment and certification in υ 

jper secondary general education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

Promotion to the next class 

Certification procedures 

Ii 
B fr and B de 

Continuous assessment. 

Bnl 

Continuous assessment. 

DK 

Gymnasium Regular internal assessment to 
measure pupils' progress. 

HHX, HTX: Regular internal evaluation to 
measure pupils' progress. 

HF: No regular evaluation 
Gymnasiale Oberstufe. 
Continuous assessment on a scale of 0 to 
15 points which correlates with the usual 
marking scale of 6 to 1 (see Table 33). 

Continuous assessment through written 
and oral tests. 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. 

National assessment tests in 
French/modern language/mathematics at 
the age of 15 in order to detect and remedy 
any difficulties. 
Continuous assessment by teachers using 
marks and comments. 
Continuous formative tests. 

Non­standardised written and oral tests 
plus observation of pupil's progress and 
behaviour at school. 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

Decision by the 'class council' on the basis 
of academic results (class work, assessment 
and examinations). 

Examinations possible in all subjects (written and oral tests). 
Possibility of taking an examination before the Community's examining board: 
­ certificat d'enseignement secondaire supérieur. 

Decision by the 'class council' on the basis 
of academic results (the pupil's attitude, 
year's schoolwork and results at previous 
examinations are all taken into account). 
Opinion of all teachers on the basis of the 
annual marks allocated to each subject on a 
13­point scale. 
The decision is taken by pupils or their 
parents. 
Opinion of all teachers on the basis of 
annual marks awarded in each subject on a 
13­level scale. 

No annual results. 
Decision by the teachers' council 
(Klassenkonferenz). Promotion allowed if 
the pupil has obtained a score of 4 in 
subjects taken into account for promotion 
(year 11 ). A weak mark in one subject can 
be compensated by a good mark in another. 
Automatic promotion from year 12 to 13 
(last year). 
Decision by the teachers' council on the 
basis of official written examinations held in 
June and of marks obtained each term in 
each subject. 
A pupil's academic results and progress are 
taken into account in relation to his own 
personal potential. 
Decision by the teachers' council on the 
basis of academic results. 

Automatic promotion. 

Decision by the teachers' council during 
scrutini on the basis of academic results (at 
least 6/10 in each subject) and teachers' 
observation of the pupil's behaviour at 
school (at least 8/10). 

A certificate may be issued upon completion of the second stage (certificate of lower secondary education). 
A certificate of upper secondary education may be delivered upon completion of the third stage: 
­ examinations in all subjects (written and oral tests); results of the year's schoolwork are taken into account: 
­ possibility of silting an examination marked by a central examining board. 
Final examinations (written and oral tests). Written tests are prepared by the education department for upper secondary 
education and marks are awarded by two external examiners appointed by the ministry. Marks for oral tests are allocated by the 
teacher concerned and an external examiner appointed by the ministry: 
­ Studentereksamen. 

For HHX and HTX : final examinations (written and oral) in the presence of external examiners plus dissertation. Certificate 
mentions subjects studied and examination results, as well as annual grades: 
­ Hojere handelseksamen and Hojere teknisk eksamen. 
Final examinations (written and oral in all subjects): 

­ Hojere forberedelseseksamen. 
Continuous assessment (taking into account the results obtained during education) plus an examination before an examining 
board in three subjects (written and oral tests) and one oral examination in a fourth subject: 
­ Abiturprüfung. 

The final assessment represents the average of the marks obtained in the end­of­year examinations and each term's marks: 
­Apolytirio lykeiou (end of upper secondary education certificate at the general and comprehensive lykeio (EPL) after three 
years); 
­ Ptvchio eidikotitas (specialised certificate at the end of four years' study). 
Positive assessment in all subjects: 
­ school­leaving certificate at the end of the upper secondary cycle (Bachillerato). 

National examination: 
­ certificate of secondary education conferring right of access to higher education (Baccalauréat). 

National examination with two grades of difficulty, three in mathematics and Irish (tests drawn up by Ministry of Education 
inspectors and marked by teachers supervised by advisory examiners reporting to the inspectorate): 
­ Leaving certificate. 
National examination (esame di maturità: written and oral tests) possible for pupils who gain a positive assessment in their 
final year. Presence of six external teachers and one from the school: 
­ Diploma di maturità. 

Table 34. (cont.) Assessment and certification in upper secondary general education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

Promotion to the next class 

Certification procedures 

L 

Continuous assessment. 

Decision by the 'class council' on the basis 
of the year's schoolwork. 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

s 

UK 
E/W 
Nl 
sc 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the 
basis of academic results. 

Continuous assessment. 

Continuous assessment. 
Term assessments (over 10/20 at the end 
of the third term). 

Continuous assessment. Written tests and 
observation of pupil's progress and 
behaviour. 

Continuous assessment with grading on a 
scale of four. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the 
basis of the academic results with a right of 
appeal. 
From the 10th to the 11 th year: decision by 
the 'class council' on the basis of the results 
of an assessment carried out during the third 
term and the mark obtained in an overall 
written test taken during this term (over 
10/20). 
There are no year classes; pupils have to pass 
minimum of 75 compulsory courses. Each 
course consists of 38 lessons. At the end of a 
course, the teacher evaluates the pupil's 
proficiency in the subject. Pupils normally 
take three years to complete all the necessary 
courses. They can also study for four years. 
Automatic promotion. 

Continuous formative assessment. 

Barring exceptional circumstances, pupils 
automatically move up to the next class. 

Continuous assessment: moderation. 

Automatic promotion. 

Continuous assessment and written tests at 
the end of each semester. 
Formative and summative assessment 
during the school year. Grades range from 
6 to 1. Two reports per school year. 

For all levels, marks are allocated each 
term on a scale from 0 to 6 ­ no decimal 
points are used. 

Depending on the academic results obtained. 

Promotion if grade obtained in the eight 
required subjects averages 4 with a 
maximum of 4 subjects falling below this 
mark. 
Admission to level I advanced courses 
requires prior completion of the basic course 
or proof of the required skills and 
knowledge. Similar procedures apply for 
admission to level II advanced courses. 

National written and oral examination on the final year's subjects. Pupil assessment based mainly on results of tests. However, new 
regulations stipulate that the result of the year's schoolwork should count for one third of the final examination mark: 
­ Diplome de fin d'études secondaires. 
Internal examination prepared and marked by the school. 
Written national examination. 
The final assessment represents the average mark of these two examinations: 
­ certificate of completion of VWO and F1AVO. 
Upper cycle of the Allgemeinbildende höhere Schule: school­leaving examination (Reifeprüfung, Matura): 
­ school­leaving certificate (Reifephifungszeugnis) giving access to university. 

At the end of the 12th year, pupils sit national examinations. The final score is a weighted average of the marks obtained during 
the previous years and the final examination score (over 10/20). 
CSPOPE: 
­ certificate of secondary education. 
CT: 
­ certificate of secondary education + vocational certificate (level III). 
Continuous assessment and a national examination in the final year (Ylioppilastutkinto). 
The national examination contains four compulsory subjects. Pupils receive two certificates: 
­national certificate; 
­ certificate of upper secondary education, awarded by the school. 

No general examination. Teachers are advised (but not obliged) to use the tests prepared by the National Education Agency in 
order to ensure consistency in the marks awarded. 
The final certificate is a combination of course marks in the subjects chosen by the pupil. 
External single­subject examinations: 
­ General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), usually at age 16; 
­General Certificate of Education (GCE) A level and AS level, usually at age 18. 
National examinations established by the Scottish Examination Board and certification via SCOTVEC: 
­ Scottish Certificate of Education Higher Grade, Certificate of Sixth Year Studies; 
­ National Certificate Modules. 

Internal examinations (written and oral) drawn up and marked by the school, taking into account continuous assessment: 
­ Slúdentsprófsskirteini. 
Written and oral final examinations taking into consideration marks during school work: 
­ Matura. 

Written or oral examinations, or a combination of the two. The examinations in Norwegian composition are compulsory. In 
addition, pupils normally sit at least two written examinations: 
­ certificate stating the end­of­year results and examination results (Vitnemå fra den videregående skole). 

pa g. 
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3 
o 
i-h 

Q α. 
c 
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pa 
<-+ 
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3 

Table 35. Assessment and certification in upper secondary vocational education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

Promotion to the next class 

Certification procedures 

Β 
B fr and B de 

Continuous assessment. 

Bnl 

Continuous assessment. 

DK 

D 

Regular internal assessment of pupil 
progress. 
Vocational training at the full­time 
vocational schools: 
Berufsfachschule, Berufliches 
Gymnasium/Fachgymnasium, 
Fachoberschule 

and in the dual system: 
Berufsschule and on­the­job training. 

Continuous assessment, marks from 6 
to 1. 

Decision by the 'class council" on the basis of academic results 
(class work, assessment and examinations) and vocational 
experience. 

Decision by the 'class council' on the basis of academic results 
(the pupil's attitude, schoolwork results for the year and previous 
examination results taken into account). 

Automatic promotion but pupils must pass the examinations held 
during the courses. 
Decision taken by the teachers' council (Klassenkonferenz): 
promotion granted if the pupil obtains 4 points in each of the 
appropriate subjects. A weak mark in one subject can be 
compensated by a high mark in another. 

EL 

Continuous assessment with written and 
oral tests. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the basis of official written 
examinations in each subject in June and of each term's marks. 

E 

F 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. 

Pupils' academic results and progress are considered in relation 
to their personal potential. 

Continuous assessment in 
establishments approved by the Recteur. 

'Class council's' opinion (during course) or decision (end of 
course). 

IRL 

Continuous assessment. 

Automatic promotion. 

I 

Written and oral non­standardised tests 
and observation of pupil progress and 
behaviour. 

Decision by the teachers council during scrutini on the basis of 
academic results (at least 6/10 in each subject) and teachers' 
observation of the pupil's behaviour at school (at least 8/10). 

Examination in all subjects (written and oral tests). Possibility of sitting an examination 
before the Community's examining board: 
­ certificat d'enseignement secondaire supérieur and/or certificat de qualification after 
seven years. 
Various certificates are awarded depending on whether the certificate of the lower stage has 
been obtained: 
­ examination in all subjects with the year's schoolwork taken into account; 
­ possibility of taking examination marked by a central examining board. 
Certificate following examination on the theoretical part and training certificate on 
completion of the practical part of the course. 
Berufsfachschule: written, oral and practical examinations in all subjects (general and 
specialised vocational areas) before examination board: 
­ Staatlich geprüfter technischer Assistent: 
­ Staatlich geprüfter kaufmännischer Assistent. 
Fachoberschule: written and oral examination in four subjects and in one subject oral only, 
before an examination board: 
­ Fachhochschulreife. 
Certification in the dual system: 
Written and oral examination controlled by competent authorities (e.g. Chambers of 
Commerce or Industry), employers, employees and at least one teacher are involved. 
Intermediate certificate required for admission to final examination. 
­ Certificate according to qualification chosen: 
­ Facharbeiterbrief: 
­ Kaufmannsgehilfenbrief: 
­ Gesellenbrief. 
The final assessment represents the average of the marks obtained in the end­of­year 
examinations and each term's marks: 
­ TEL Apolytiro lykeiou (end of upper secondary education certificate) for pupils who 

have followed an option stream; 
Ptychio eidikolitas (specialised certificate) for pupils who have followed 
specialisation courses. 

­ TES Ptychio TES. 
Positive assessment in all modules: 
­ qualification as a technician upon completion of a specific intermediate stage of vocational 
education. 
National examination: 
­ certificat d'aptitude professionnelle; 
­ brevet d'études professionnelles; 
­ baccalauréat professionnel. 
National examination: 
­ National Vocational Certificate. 
After three years, qualification examination before examining boards of teachers of the 
school and two external assessors: 
­ Qualification certificate. 
After a further two years, a school­leaving examination in vocational schools: 
­ diploma di maturità professionale which combines the results from national final 
examinations and tests during training. 

Table 35. (cont.) Assessment and certification in upper secondary vocational education, 1995/1996 

Assessment during education 

L 

Continuous assessment. 

Decision by the 'class council' on the basis of the results over 
the year. 

NL 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the basis of academic 
results. 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 
E/W 
Nl 

SC 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Continuous assessment. 

Decision by the teachers' council on the basis of academic 
results with a right of appeal. 

Continuous assessment. 

Continuous assessment with no 
standardised tests. 
Continuous assessment with grading on 
a scale of 4 points. 
Continuous formative assessment in 
secondary schools or in Further 
Education institutions. 
Pupils may take general education 
courses (see Table 33) or vocational 
courses or a combination of these. 
Continuous assessment with moderation 
in Further Education colleges. 

Assessment by module involving both teacher and pupil; 
assessment by the 'class council' of a set of modules for each 
subject (over 10/20). 
The assessment also includes a vocational proficiency test (PAP) 
carried out two thirds of the way through the programme. The 
jury is composed of 4 people, including one trade union or 
employers' association representative. 
Automatic promotion, provided the pupil has satisfactorily 
completed most classes. 
Automatic promotion. 

Modular courses. 
On completion of a unit, pupils progress to the next unit. 

Promotion depends on student attainment. 

Continuous assessment and written tests 
at the end of each semester. 

Promotion subject to results. 

Continuous assessment. 

At all levels, marks are attributed each 
term with grading on a scale of 0 to 6; 
no decimal points are used. 

Decision by a council (teachers, parents and office for vocational 
training) on the basis of academic results with a right of appeal. 
Admission into level I advanced courses requires the prior 
completion of the basic course or proof of the required skills and 
knowledge. Similar procedures apply for admission to level II 
advanced courses. 

Certification procedures 

On completion of the vocational branch, national examination at the end of the 
apprenticeship (theory and practice): 
­ certificat d 'aptitude technique et professionnelle (CATP). 
Upon completion of the technician's training branch, national examination: 
­ diplôme de technicien. 
On completion of the technical branch, national examination: 
­ diplôme de fin d'études secondaires techniques. 
Internal examination: 
­ certificate of MBO completion. 
The examination syllabus for the MBO is set by the school, except in the case of the 
components for which the leaving examinations are set nationally, in which case it is set by 
the Minister for Education, Culture and Science. 
School leaving examination: 
­ school leaving certificates: Abschlußzeugnis, Reifeprüfungszeugnis, Reife­ und 
Befähigungsprüfungszeugnis. 
The last two give access to university. 
No examination. 
The final mark awarded on completion of studies is the weighted average of the mark 
obtained at the end of the course (average of the marks obtained in the various subjects) and 
the mark obtained in the PAP: 
­ certificate of secondary education + level III vocational qualification certificate. 

No examination. 
The results are based on continuous assessment. 
No general examination. A compulsory standardised test in certain subjects is drawn up at 
central level. 
GNVQs: external tests with criterion­based assessment. 
NVQs: internal tests, demonstration of competencies and written assignments. 

External tests: 
­ Scottish Certificate of Education at Higher Grade; 
­ General Scottish Vocational Qualification; 
­ HNC, HND. 
Continuous assessment (taking into account the results obtained and schoolwork) and 
internal examinations (written tests) prepared and marked by the school. 
­ Sveinspróf final national examination organised by a committee of employers and trade 
unions. 
Fähigkeitszeugnis. 

Written or oral examinations, a combination of the two or practical examinations. 
There are two types of certificate: 
­ A journeyman's certificate (fagbrev/svennebrev) marked on a three­point scale, 
'excellent', 'pass' and 'fail'; 
­ A certificate leading to higher education (avgangsvitnemoalfra den videregående skole). 

O 
crq 
Ρ 
g. 

ce' 
pa 
δ' 
3 
ο 
*+ΐ 
α> α. 
c 
ο 
Ρ 

>-+ 

δ' 
3 

yo 

Organisation of education 

Table 36. Certificates and examinations on completion of upper secondary general 

education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

Title of the certificate 

Title of the standardised external or 
supervised examination 

Certificat de l'enseignement secondaire 
supérieur (CESS) 

Diploma van secundair onderwijs 

Abschlußzeugnis der Oberstufe des 
Sekundarunterrichts 

— 

Bevis for Studentereksamen 

Studentereksamen 

Bevis for Hojere Forberedelseseksamen 

Højere Forberedelseseksamen 

Bevis for Højere Handelseksamen 

Bevis for Hojere Teknisk Eksamen 

Højere Handelseksamen 

Højere Teknisk Eksamen 

Zeugnis der allgemeinen Hochschulreife 

Abiturprüfung 

Apolytirio lykeiou/Ptychio eidikotitas 

Titulo de Bachiller 

Baccalauréat 

Leaving Certificate 

Diploma di maturità 

— 
— 

Baccalauréat 

Leaving certificate examination 

Esame di maturità 

Diploma de fin d'études secondaires 

Examen de fin d'études secondaires 

Diploma Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk 
Onderwijs 

Hoger Algemeen Voortgezet Onderwijs 

Eindexamen 

Reifeprüfungszeugnis 

Reifeprüfimg 

Certificado de fim de Estudos Secundarios 

Ylioppilastutkintotodistus 

Ylioppilastutkinto 

Slutbetyg från gymnasieutbildning 

General Certificate of Education Advanced level 
(GCE A Level) 

General Certificate of Education Advanced 
Supplementary (GCE AS) 

GCE A Level examination 

GCE AS examination 

— 

— 

Scottish Certificate of Education 

Higher Grade 

Studentsprófsskírteini 

Maturitätszeugnis 

Certificate of Sixth Year Studies 

— 

Matura 

Vitnemål (fra den videregående skole) 

Eksamen (fra den videregående skole) 

Β 

Bfr 

B nl 

B de 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

E, W, NI 

SC 

IS 

LI 

NO 

% 

Organisation  of  education 

4. Educational measures to combat school 
failurel 

School  failure1  is a problem  which  affects  all  European  Union  countries to  a greater or  lesser  degree. 
Each  country  endeavours  to  find  solutions  to  this  problem  and  these  vary  widely  according  to  the 
specific  features  of  the  various  education  systems.  However,  it  is  possible  to  divide  these  measures 
into three main categories on the basis of their  objectives. 

Some  countries  focus  on  prevention  through  the  introduction  of  new  teaching  methods  and 
techniques.  The  aim  of  the  French  Community  of  Belgium's  reform  of  lower  secondary  education 
(ages  12  to  14)  is  to  reduce  school  failure  by  defining  core  skills  which  have  to  be  attained  by  all 
pupils,  as  well  as  by  introducing  continuous  formative  assessment.  The  Flemish  Community  of 
Belgium  is  concentrating  its  efforts  on  enhancing  vocational  education  by  organising  workshop 
classes  and  modular  courses,  project  work,  varying  teaching  approaches  and  establishing  links 
between  school  and  the  socio-economic  sector.  In  Ireland,  pupils  are  divided  into  streams  for  certain 
subjects; they also have the option  of completing  upper  secondary  education  in three years rather than 
two.  In  Austria,  Hauptschule  pupils  are  also  streamed  according  to  ability  in  some  subjects.  Italy  is 
endeavouring to provide better  information  (collaboration  between scuola  media and  upper  secondary 
school)  and  to  rethink  its  apprenticeship  and  assessment  system  in  order  to  improve  the  transition 
between  lower  and  upper  secondary  education  at  the  end  of  compulsory  education.  Luxembourg 
offers  a two-stage  apprenticeship  system  in the vocational  branch  of the technical lycée.  This  system 
enables  pupils  who  are  capable  of  learning  the  practical  side  of  a  trade,  but  have  difficulties  in 
keeping  up  with  the  theoretical  side,  to  follow  theoretical  training  at  their  own  pace.  Following  the 
introduction  of the  system  of  comprehensive  schools,  Scottish  teachers  manage  to  cope  with  mixed-
ability  classes  calling  for  varying  teaching  techniques  and  the  introduction  of  continuous  formative 
assessment. 

In  Sweden,  the  specially  designed  programme  and  the  individual  programme  are  alternatives  for 
pupils  in  the  gymnasieskola  (upper  secondary  education)  with  special  needs  or  with  interests  other 
than those covered by the  16 national  programmes. The specially designed programme  is equivalent  to 
the  national  programmes  but  may  comprise  courses  from  several  national  programmes  and  locally 
devised courses  in addition to the core  subjects. 

The  individual  programme  aims to assist  pupils who have difficulties  pursuing  other  upper  secondary 
education  and  to  enable  people  to  combine  a job  providing  vocational  training  with  the  study  of 
particular subjects at an upper secondary  school. 

Another  measure  for  countering  school  failure  is  support  teaching.  A  large  number  of  countries 
(Belgium,  Germany,  Greece,  Spain,  France,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Austria,  Portugal,  Finland, 
Sweden,  United  Kingdom)  make  room  in  the  timetable  for  support  teaching  aimed  at  pupils 
experiencing  difficulty.  In  Scotland,  it  is  now  more  common  for  pupils  experiencing  difficulty  to 
receive  assistance  from  special  learning  support  teachers  in  the  classroom  itself.  In  Belgium,  in  the 
French  and German-speaking  Communities, new  information  technologies  are often  used as a support 
teaching tool. In Italy, extra coaching  is given to pupils  in vocational  education  to help them  make  up 
for  lost  time  or to  meet  specific  local  demands.  In  Luxembourg,  children  in  lower  secondary  school 
who  encounter  difficulty  in assimilating  German  can  follow  lessons  in French-speaking  classes  (with 
appropriate  German  lessons).  In  Spain,  pupils  experiencing  difficulties  are  given  extra  lessons  by  a 
support  teacher.  Other  measures  have  been  taken,  including  programmes  adapted  to  the  special 
problems  of  pupils  (adaptaciones  curriculares)  and  individualised  programmes  for  pupils  having 
more serious difficulties.  In Portugal, pupils with particular  learning difficulties  may,  if they  so desire, 
benefit  from  educational  support  measures,  provided  they  are  regular  and  attentive  pupils  and  have 
not cancelled their enrolment  in the subject  in question. 

For further  details, consult Measures to Combat School Failure: A Challenge for  the Construction of Europe, EURYDICE (1994). 

97 

Organisation  of  education 

The  third  measure  is  a  combination  of  prevention  and  support  teaching,  in  that  it  offers  pupils  an 
educational  and/or  vocational  guidance  service  throughout  secondary  education.  The  organisation  of 
the various guidance  services  in all the  countries  concerned  is discussed  in greater  depth  in Chapter 1 
of  this  study.  A  good  many  countries  have,  to  varying  degrees,  introduced  a  combination  of  these 
three  measures.  For  example,  in  the  field  of  prevention,  Iceland  offers  an  extra  semester  or  year  of 
study  to  pupils  leaving  lower  secondary  education  who  are  experiencing  difficulties  in  the  main 
subjects  prior  to their  entry  into  upper  secondary  programmes.  In the  field  of  support  teaching,  extra 
teaching  is offered  in  mathematics  and  Icelandic,  and  pupils  are  provided  with  guidance  counselling 
from  lower  secondary  school  onwards.  In  England  and  Wales,  the  Dearing  Report  (1996),  includes 
recommendations  on  the  introduction  of  nationally  recognised  awards  for  low-achievers  and  under-
attainers within  a national  framework  of qualifications  for  16- to  19-year-olds. 

Teacher  training  also  appears  to  be  an  important  factor  in  combating  school  failure.  The  following 
chapter  addresses  two  aspects  of teacher  training -  pedagogical  instruction  and  the  role  of  in-service 
training. 

48 

Secondary  teacher  training 

III -  Secondary teacher training 

Teachers  need  a high  level  of general  education  to deepen  their  knowledge  of the  subjects  they  teach 
and  to  increase  their  capacity  to  acquire  complex  professional  skills.  They  should  also  develop  an 
appreciation  of  pedagogical  processes  as well  as practical  expertise  to  meet  the  educational  needs  of 
diverse  student  populations.  Teachers  of  all  levels  of  secondary  education  now  usually  have  the 
advanced  general  education  which  previously  was  confined  to those  who taught  in  upper  or  selective 
academic  schools. Pedagogical  and  practical  training  is provided  increasingly  for  teachers  of all  types 
of  secondary  education.  Furthermore,  initial  training  is  only  a  beginning.  Career-long  in-service 
training  has  become  more  important  as  the  challenges  of  secondary  school  teaching  change  and  as 
teachers need to refresh  themselves and their skills. 

Current  variations  in  initial  teacher  education  between  countries  can  be  understood  by  referring  to 
patterns  which  preceded  the  widening  of  access  to  secondary  education.  Prospective  primary  school 
teachers  left  elementary  education  to  enter  establishments  at  secondary  level  which  offered  more 
advanced  coverage  of  the  subjects  taught  in  primary  schools  together  with  courses  in  methods  of 
teaching.  Selective,  academic  secondary  schools,  in  contrast,  recruited  teachers  with  university 
degrees  but  not  necessarily  any  pedagogical  or  practical  training.  These  two  types  of  teacher  had 
separate  grades,  salary  scales  and  conditions  of  service.  This  system  survived  in  its  entirety  in  Italy 
until  reforms  in  1990.  The  training  of  secondary  school  teachers  in  Italy  is  still  in  the  process  of 
reform.  In future,  a two-year  university postgraduate  course will  include didactics of the subjects to be 
taught (700 hours) and practical training (at least 300 hours). 

When  lower  secondary  schooling  became  universal,  the  position  of  teachers  was  often  anomalous. 
Some,  as  in  France,  had  worked  in  primary  schools  and  were  promoted  to  secondary  education 
positions while others had the background  of traditional  secondary  school teachers. In some countries, 
initial  training  for  teachers  of  this  level  continues  to  reflect  this  duality  with  the  survival  of  the  old 
primary  school teacher  model where teachers were trained  in separate non-university  institutions as in 
Belgium  and  Denmark  or  in concurrent  systems  in a greater  number  of  countries.  Elsewhere  a  single 
structure of secondary  school  initial teacher training has been  introduced  which  is closer to that  of the 
old  academic  secondary  school  type,  with  emphasis  on  acquisition  of  a university  degree  to  which  a 
shorter period  of professional  training  is added. At present,  both  types of training  of  lower  secondary 
school teachers co-exist  in several countries. 

Training  systems face a number of common  issues. Lower secondary teachers are not always  expected 
to  have  the  same  level  of  educational  background  and  depth  of  subject  knowledge  as  those  in  upper 
secondary  schools  and  vocational  courses  may  be  taught  by  teachers  with  a  lower  level  of  training. 
The  view  persists  that  a  knowledge  of  the  teaching  subject  is  the  main  qualification  needed  by 
teachers  intending  to  work  in  upper  secondary  education.  Within  professional  training,  different 
weight  is given  to theoretical  pedagogical  studies  and  to  school-based  practice.  School  practice  may 
be  integrated  with  the  rest  of  the  professional  course  in  higher  education  institutions,  or  it  may  be 
separated  into a phase more directly controlled  by schools or other authorities. 

99 

Secondary  teacher  training 

1. Structures of initial teacher training 

1.1. Concurrent  and  consecutive  systems 

Pedagogical  and  practical  training  may occur at the  same time  as general  education  (concurrent  model) 
or  after  the  general  education  part  has  been  completed  (consecutive  model).  Both  systems  are 
widespread  in  lower  secondary  initial  teacher  training.  The  concurrent  type  is provided  for  all  aspiring 
lower  secondary  school  teachers  in  Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Austria  and,  for 
some,  in countries  such  as  Portugal,  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  consecutive  model  has  been  applied  to 
almost all  lower secondary  school teacher training  in Greece,  Spain,  France,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg 
and  Scotland (see Map 1). 

There  is  more  uniformity  in  the  training  of  teachers  for  upper  secondary  level  where  the  consecutive 
model  is  the  norm  in  most  countries.  The  concurrent  model  is  only  standard  for  these  teachers  in 
Germany and Austria. The concurrent  model  for  upper secondary teachers  in Austria and for both  lower 
and  upper  secondary  school  teachers  in  Germany  has  also  a  consecutive  element.  In  the  first  phase, 
students  follow  general  education  courses  as  well  as  undertaking  studies  in  pedagogy  and  school 
placements.  In  the  second  phase,  training  is  school-based  and  consists  of  pedagogical  studies  and 
practical  teaching. In most concurrent systems, school placement  is weighted towards the end rather than 
at the beginning of the  course. Though  some are prepared  in the  concurrent  manner  in the Netherlands, 
Portugal,  Finland  and  Sweden,  in  practice  few  students  trained  this  way  in  these  countries  (except  in 
Finland)  are  likely  to  enter  upper  secondary  teaching.  In  England,  Wales  and  Northern  Ireland,1  all 
school teachers irrespective of the level at which they will be teaching must have qualified  teacher status, 
which  may  be obtained  either  by means  of concurrent  or consecutive  models  of  initial  teacher  training. 
However, most secondary  school teachers follow  the consecutive route. In Scotland,  concurrent  courses 
are taken  generally  by those wishing to teach  in primary  schools. 

M ap  1. Initial  training  of  lower 
secondary  school  teachers,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

M ap  2.  Initial  training  of  upper  secondary 
school  teachers,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

J  Concurrent  model 

|  Consecutive  model 

Concurrent  + Consecutive 

Source:  Eurydice. 

The descriptions  in this  chapter  relating to  England,  Wales  and Northern  Ireland  focus  on the most  common  routes to Qualified  Teacher 
Status  for secondary' school teachers and do not deal with requirements for teaching in Further Education  institutions. 

100 

Secondary teacher training 

1.2. Level and duration of training for teachers of 

general secondary education 

All future secondary school teachers, whether trained in the concurrent or consecutive model, now 
receive a general education at higher education level. Teachers of lower and upper secondary general 
education share the same level of initial training in university institutions in Greece, Spain, France, 
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In contrast, lower 
secondary school teachers are prepared in non­university establishments separately from university 
educated upper secondary teachers in Belgium and Denmark. Such separation also occurs in Iceland, 
but both kinds of training occur in university institutions. In Norway, there are non­university 
institutions specifically for lower secondary teachers and universities which train for both lower and 
upper levels. In Germany, the Netherlands and Austria, the distinction between lower and upper 
secondary school teachers is not clear­cut. Some types of training in these three countries are for 
teachers in lower secondary schools in both university and non­university institutions (except in 
Germany)," while other types of training in universities cater for teaching in schools which cover both 
the lower and upper stages. 

The length of time spent in general education and professional training varies from three years for 
lower secondary school teachers in the concurrent type in Belgium, Austria and Iceland to seven years 
in the consecutive mode in Luxembourg. In most countries, the norm is four or five years. The length 
of the general education phase in the consecutive type ranges from three years for many or most 
secondary school teachers in France, Ireland, England and Wales up to six years for some in Norway. 
The professional training element of the consecutive model can take place over a very short period, 
such as six months in Denmark (for upper secondary education), or run to three years for the teacher 
training course (Luxembourg). 

Graph 1 1. Initial training of lower secondary school teachers 

(general education), 1 9 9 5 / 96 

6 

ω 5 
ir < 
SS * 
-ζ. 
O 3 
< 
CE 2 
Ζ) 
Q 

1 

0 

I I Non­university higher education 

I I School­based practical training 

Source: Eurydice. 

— 

— 

— 

University education 

Germany: General training for secondary' education can take four­and­a­half years as well as the three­and­a­half­years 
shown here. 
Germany, Austria and Iceland: There are two types of training of which one is shown here. The other, which qualifies 
teachers for both levels of education, is shown in Graph 12. 

In Germany, Hauptschule and Realschule teachers are prepared either in universities or in teacher training colleges (Pädagogische 
Hochschulen), which are equivalent to universities. 

101 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Graph  12.  Initial  training  of  upper secondary  school  teachers 
(general  education),  1995/96 

7 

6 

— 

4 

LU 

cc < 
>-
§ 
H 
rr  2 
Q 

3 

— 

Ί 

~" 

1 

0 

I 

I 

B 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

1 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

E/W.  NI  SC 
UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

|  Non-university  higher  education 

[_]  University  education 

|  School-based  practical  training 

Soure 

e:  Eurydice. 

Belgium:  Intending  upper secondary  teachers may follow  the professional  course part-time. 
Spain:  The average time  for the general  education  phase is shown.  It may vary between  four  and six years. 
France:  The  graph  depicts professeurs  certifiés  with  a licence  who  spend  two years  in  professional  training,  the  second 
of which  is based  in schools. Those holding a maîtrise will have completed  four years of general  education. 
Luxembourg: The general education phase occurs in universities in other countries and must be at least four years in length. 
Netherlands:  Some  upper  secondary  grade  1 teachers  are also  trained  in non-university  HBOs. All  professional  courses 
may be taken  part-time. 
Finland:  Training  for general  secondary  school  teachers has always been  provided  at university  level. 
United  Kingdom:  Initial  teacher  training  courses  are jointly  directed  by higher  education  institutions  and  schools.  Some 
students  ¡n Scotland  will have completed  only three years of general  higher  education. 
Liechtenstein,  Norway:  In the consecutive course, general  education  may be four years or six years according to  subject. 

School-based  types  are  defined  as  those  in  which  the  initial  teacher  training  occurs  during  school 
placement. 

Lower  secondary  school  teachers  receive  a  shorter  initial  training  than  their  upper  secondary  school 
colleagues  in  Belgium  and  Denmark,  as  is  the  case  also  for  some,  but  not  all,  teachers  in  lower 
secondary  education  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Austria  and  Norway.  Elsewhere,  the  general 
education  phase is the same for  both  levels. Shorter courses usually  lead to non-university  diplomas of 
a  lower  level  than  those  obtained  by  upper  secondary  school  teachers. The  variations  between  higher 
education  courses  in different  countries prevent the equation  of length  of training with relative teacher 
status across countries. 

The  divergence  between  countries  in the  general  education  component  of teacher  education  is also  the 
product  of differing  policies  for  the  refonn  of higher  education  since the  1960s. In  Belgium,  Denmark, 
the  Netherlands,  Austria  and  Norway,  there  are  non-university  institutions  of  higher  education  with 
specific  professional  training  functions,  which  have  declined  or  disappeared  in  Spain,  France,  Italy, 
Sweden  and the United  Kingdom.  In Finland, the training of secondary  school teachers has always been 
provided  at  university  level. These  broad  policies  have  an  impact  on the  institutional  arrangements  for 
teacher  training,  especially  in  helping  to  remove  differences  between  the  level  of  general  education 
expected  of  teachers  in  lower  and  upper  secondary  education  where  all  are  trained  in  university 
institutions. 

Departures  from  these  overall  patterns  should  be  noted.  In  the  Scandinavian  countries,  as  also  in 
Portugal,  the  combination  of  primary  and  lower  secondary  stages  in  a  single  type  of  school  brings 
together  primary  and  lower  secondary  teachers  in  one  institution  and  separates  them  from  upper 
secondary  teachers. But  lower and  upper secondary  school  teachers are trained  in the  same way, except 
in Denmark.  In each of these countries, except  in Portugal, a distinction  is made between the training of 
'class'  teachers for the primary phase and  'subject'  teachers for the lower secondary  stage. In France, the 
unification  of  secondary  school  teacher  training  into  one  consecutive  system  which  prepares  teachers 

In  Greece,  Ireland  and Portugal,  there  are non-university  institutions  of higher  education  which  train  teachers  for the  primary  and pre-
primary  levels. 

102 

Secondary  teacher  training 

(professeurs certifiés) for  both collèges (lower  secondary)  and lycées (upper  secondary) has still  left  the 
elite grade of agrégés who complete a further  one or two years of general  education. 

1.3. Location of training 
Professional  training generally takes place  in or under the direction  of  institutions of higher  education 
(see  Table  38).  In  some  cases,  it  is  fully  removed  from  this  sector.  For  upper  secondary  education 
teachers  in Denmark and all teachers  in Luxembourg, the whole professional  training cycle  is based  in 
schools  with  supplementary  courses  provided  by  other  school  authorities.  In  Germany  and,  for 
academic  secondary  school  teachers,  in Austria,  the  last  phase  of  training  is  provided  in  schools.  In 
France,  a  similar  system  was  abolished  following  the  1989 reform  of teacher  training  when  Instituts 
universitaires  de  formation  des  maîtres  (IUFM)  were  established  with  links  to  one  or  several 
universities.  However,  the  final  year  of training  continues  to  be  based  largely  in  schools.  In  England 
and  Wales,  professional  training  is  jointly  directed  by  university  level  institutions  and  schools, 
although  in 25  cases consortia  of schools take a leading role. These  institutional  variations  reflect  the 
tension  between  views  that  teacher  training  is  an  extension  of  general  higher  education  and  that  it 
should  be  based  mainly  on  practical  experience  in  schools.  This  tension  may  also  be  seen  in  the 
varying  relationship  between  pedagogical  and  practical  training  described  in  section  2  below 
(Pedagogical  and practical training in initial teacher education). 

1.4. Selection of applicants and entry to employment 
Admission  to training  for  teaching  in  secondary  general  education  in every  country  now  requires  the 
same  qualifications  as  for  admission  to  higher  education  and,  for  consecutive  courses,  a  higher 
education  degree.  There  are  additional  admission  requirements  in  some  countries.  Similarly,  direct 
entry  to  employment  may  be  possible  or  even  guaranteed  after  completion  of teacher  training,  but  in 
some countries there are further  hurdles (see Table 38). 

General  admission  requirements  for  higher  education  vary  between  countries.  Normally  the  final 
certificate  awarded  on  successful  completion  of  upper  secondary  general  education  is  required,  but 
there are exceptions  for  older entrants  in some countries and  further  demands, including higher  grades 
in  final  certificates,  to  enter  particular  establishments  or  courses  within  them.  Candidates  for 
concurrent  teacher  training  courses  and  for  the  general  education  programmes  which  precede 
professional  training  in consecutive  schemes are expected to have these  qualifications. 

In  a few  cases, there  may  be  specific  additional  admission  requirements.  Entrants  to  both  concurrent 
courses  and  the  professional  phase  of  consecutive  courses  in  Ireland  need  to  demonstrate  their 
competence  in the  Irish  language.  In  England,  Wales  and Northern  Ireland,  interviews  are  conducted 
by  staff  of  higher  education  institutions  and  the  teachers  involved  in  training  to  determine  the 
suitability  for  teaching  of applicants  to both  concurrent  and  consecutive  courses.  Interviews  to  assess 
suitability are also part of the admission  procedure  in  Finland. 

There  are  sometimes  more  specific  demands  on  entry  to  the  professional  phases  of  consecutive 
courses. The  normal  requirement  is a higher  education  degree  of a specified  level. Interviews  may be 
used  in  Ireland  where  the  demand  for  places  exceeds  supply,  and  in  Scotland.  In  Gennany,  the  first 
state examination  must be passed  at the end  of the  first  stage of the concurrent  course  before  a period 
of school-based  practical  training. 

The distinction  between  entry to training and  selection  for  employment  as a teacher  is not clear-cut  in 
some countries. At one extreme, all  secondary  school  teachers  in Italy are appointed  to teaching  posts 
after  passing  the  abilitazione  examination  which  includes  questions  on  didactics  and  pedagogy,  for 
which  there  is  as  yet  very  little  formal  training.4  Aspiring  upper  secondary  school  teachers  in 
Denmark  must  first  be  appointed  to  a  school,  after  which  they  embark  on  six  months  of  on-the-job 
training,  but  performance  is  assessed  before  formal  qualification.  Trainees  in  Luxembourg  for  all 
levels  of  schooling  must  pass  a competitive  examination  on  completing  higher  education  outside  the 
country  before  undertaking  a  three-year  school-based  combination  of  salaried  work  and  training. 
French  trainees, on  completion  of general  university  courses, follow  one year  of courses  in an  IUFM 

A two-year university-based  course preparing for the abilitazione has been agreed in principle but has yet to be implemented. 

103 

Secondary  teacher  training 

before  taking the competitive  CAPES (Part  1) examination  and,  if they are successful,  embarking on a 
second  year  of  training  as  salaried  stagiaires  who  prepare  for  the  qualifying  examinations  (Part  2) 
(épreuves de  qualification). 

Table  37.  School-based  practical  and  professional  teacher  training  -  selection  for,  and 
whether  salaried  or  not,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

School-based  salaried training.  Selection  for 
entry to professional  training. 

Germany  (lower and upper secondary), 
France (lower and upper secondary), 
Luxembourg (lower and upper secondary). 

School-based  salaried training. No  competitive 
examinations  for entry to training. 

Denmark (upper  secondary), 
Austria (academic  secondary). 

School-based  unsalaried  training. No 
competitive examination  for entry to training. 

United  Kingdom  (lower and upper secondary), 
Liechtenstein  (lower and upper secondary). 

In  the  countries  mentioned  in  the  previous  paragraph,  admission  to  a  particular  phase  of  training 
guarantees  employment,  as  well  as  offering  a  salary  during  school-based  training,  provided  that 
assessment  or  evaluation  is  satisfactory.  Qualification  at  the  end  of  training  elsewhere  permits 
employment,  but  gives  the  holder  no  automatic  job  entitlement.  In  Spain,  competitive  state 
examinations  must be taken  after  qualification  to obtain  permanent  employment  as a state teacher. 

Conditions  of  employment  for  qualified  teachers  may  also  reinforce  certain  patterns  of  teacher 
training.  In  Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany  and  Austria,  for  instance,  teachers  in  lower  and  upper 
secondary  education  have  different  salary  scales, while  in  Austria  and Norway  they  are  employed  by 
different  levels  of  public  administration.  These  differences  may  be  linked  to  the  separation  of  the 
initial training of the two  levels of teacher. 

104 

Secondary teacher training 

Table 3 8. Teacher training and qualification, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

A. Lower Secondary General Education (Separate Route) 

Country and 
type 

Institution and admission requirements 

Β 

Hautes Ecoles/Hogeschoolen. 

(concurrent) 

Higher education entrance. 

Length of general 
higher education and 
professional training 

Three years. 

Final qualification and grade of 
teacher 

Diplôme d'agrégé 
d'enseignement secondaire 
inférieur (also régent). 

Diploma van geaggregeerde voor 
het lager secundair onderwijs. 

DK 

Lærerseminarium. Higher education entrance. 

Three­and­a­half years. 

Lærereksamen. 

(concurrent) 

D 

(concurrent) 

Universities and equivalent higher education institutions ­
Universitäten­Gesamthochschulen, Pädagogische 
Hochschulen (concurrent general education and first 
professional phase). Training centres and schools ­
Vorbereitungsdienst an Studienseminaren und 
Ausbildungsschulen (second professional phase). 

Higher education entrance (concurrent general education and 
first professional phase). Pass in first state examination for 
teachers ­ Erste Staatsprüfung (second professional stage). 

Three­and­a­half to four­
and­a­half years 
(concurrent general 
education and first 
professional phase). 

Two years (second 
professional phase). 

Second state examination for 
teachers ­ Zweite Staatsprüfung. 

NL 

Non­university higher education colleges ­ HBO. 

(concurrent) 

Higher education entrance. 

Four years (full­ or part­
time). 

Leraar voortgezet onderwijs 
tweedegraads. 

A 

Teacher colleges (Pädagogische Akademien). 

Three years. 

(concurrent) 

Higher education entrance. 

IS 

Universities. 

(concurrent/ 
consecutive) 

Higher education entrance. 

LI 

Pädagogische Hochschule. 

(concurrent) 

Three years for the 
concurrent model. 

Four years for the 
consecutive model. 

One­and­a­half years. 

Universities (only studies in Switzerland included). 

Three­and­a­half years. 

Lehramtsprüfung für 
Hauptschulen. 

Kennarapróf. 

Diplom als Lehrkraft an der 
Oberschule. 

Diplom als Sekundarlehrkraft I 
(Realschule). 

NO 

College of Education. 

(concurrent) 

Higher education entrance. 

Four years. 

4­årig allmennlærer­utdanning. 

Germany, Netherlands, Austria: Lower secondary teacher training does not qualify to teach in the lower secondary phase of 
academic schools (Germany ­ Gymnasium). 
Netherlands: Also qualifies to teach in vocational upper secondary schools. 

105 

Secondary teacher training 

Table 3 8. Teacher training and qualification, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

B. Upper Secondary General Education (Separate Route) 

Country 
and type 

Institution and admission requirements 

Β 

Universities. 

(consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University degree ­ licence/licenliaat 
(professional phase). 

DK 

(consecutive) 

Universities then upper secondary schools. 
Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University Master's degree ­ Cand.art. 
Appointment to upper secondary school 
teaching position (professional phase). 

I) 

(concurrent) 

Universities or equivalent higher education 
institutions ­ Universitäten­
Gesamthochschulen (concurrent general 
education and first professional phase). 
Training centres and schools ­
Vorbereitungsdienst an Studienseminaren und 
Ausbildungsschulen (second professional 
stage). 

Higher education entrance (concurrent general 
education and first professional phase). 

Pass in first state examination for teachers ­
Erste Staatsprüfung (second professional 
stage). 

NL 

Universities 

(consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general education 
phase). University degree ­ Doctorandus ­
which gives adequate preparation for the 
teaching subject together with a two month 
'Introduction to Teaching' course. 

Non­university higher education college ­
HBO. Higher education entrance or Grade 2 
teacher's certificate (additional phase). 

A 

(concurrent) 

Universities (general education and first 
professional phase). Academic secondary 
schools and institutes of in­service training 
(second professional phase). 

Higher education entrance (general education 
and first professional phase). University degree 
­ Magister (second professional phase). 

IS 

Universities. 

(consecutive) 

Higher education (general education phase). 
Bachelor degree (professional phase). 

LI 

Universities. 

(consecutive) 

Higher education (general education phase). 
Lizentiat (professional phase). 

Length of general higher 
education and professional 
training 

Final qualification and grade of 
teacher 

Four or five years' general 
education. Some professional 
courses (optional) during the final 
year. 

Diplôme d'agrégé d'enseignement 
secondaire supérieur/Diploma van 
geaggregeerde voor het hoger 
onderwijs. 

Five or six years' general education 
and six months' practical training. 

Paedagogikum. 

Four­and­a­half years (concurrent 
general education and first 
professional phase). Two years 
(second professional phase). 

Second state examination for 
teachers ­ Zweite Staatsprüfung. 

Four years (general 
education/subject study). One year 
(professional). 

Leraar voortgezet onderwijs eerste­
graads. 

Four years (general and 
professional) or three years after a 
Grade 2 certificate depending on the 
subject. 

Four­and­a­half years (general 
education and first professional 
phase). One year (second 
professional phase ­
Unterrichtspraktikum). 

Lehrberechtigung für das Lehramt 
an Höheren Schulen. 

Three years (general education). 
One year (professional phase). 

Diploma in Education. 
Uppeldis­og kennslufrœôi til 
kennsluréttinda. 

Four to six years (general 
education). 

One­and­a­half years (professional 
phase). 

Diplom für das Höhere Lehramt. 

In Germany, the Netherlands and Austria, these teachers also work in the lower secondary stage of academic schools and, 
in Belgium, teach certain subjects (mainly foreign languages) in lower secondary schools. 

106 

Table 38. Teacher training and qualification, 1995/96 

C. Lower and Upper Secondary General Education (Common Route) 

Secondary teacher training 

Country and type 

Institution and admission requirements 

D 

(concurrent) 

University or equivalent higher education 
institutions ­ Universitäten­
Gesamthochschulen (concurrent general 
education and first professional phase). 
Training centres and schools ­
Vorbereitungsdienst an Studienseminaren 
und Ausbildungsschulen (second 
professional stage). 

Higher education entrance (concurrent 
general education and first professional 
phase). Pass in first state examination for 
teachers ­ Erste Staatsprüfung (second 
professional stage). 

Final qualification and grade of teacher 

Second state examination for teachers ­ Zweite 
Staatsprüfung. 

Length of general 
higher education and 
professional training 

Four­and­a­half years 
(concurrent general 
education and first 
professional phase). 
Two years (second 
professional phase). 

EL 

Universities. 

Four to five years. 

University degree ­ Ptychio. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance. 

E 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University degree ­ Licenciado or 
equivalents ­ Diplomado or equivalents in 
some fields (professional phase). 

Four to six years 
(general education). 
One year (professional 
phase). 

Certificado de Aptitud Pedagógica. Profesor 
de Enseñanza Secundaria. Competitive 
examination for permanent appointment. 

F 

(Consecutive) 

Universities and other institutions of full 
higher education (general education phase). 
Instituts Universitaires de Formation de 
Maîtres (professional phase). 

Three years (general 
education phase). Two 
years (professional 
phase). 

Certificat d 'aptitude au professorat 'de 
l'enseignement du second degré (CAPES) 
Professeur certifié. Appointment as salaried 
stagiaire at beginning of the second year of 
professional training. Final appointment on 
professional qualification. 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University degree ­ Licence or equivalent ­
and sucess in competitive examination 
(concours de recrutement). 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University degree ­ Maîtrise. Success in 
competitive state examination. Agrégation 
(professional phase). 

Four years (general 
phase). Two years 
(professional phase). 

Agrégation ­ Professeur agrégé. Appointment 
as salaried stagiaire on achievement of 
agrégation. Final appointment on professional 
qualification. 

IRL 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
University degree ­ BA, BSc, BCom. 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance. 

Three or four years 
(general phase). One 
year (professional 
phase). 

Four to six years 
(general education with 
some didactics). 

Higher Diploma in Education. 

University degree ­ Diploma di Laurea. 
Permanent appointment after success in 
competitive examination. Abilitazione alla 
professione. 

L 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 
Degree from a foreign university. 
Competitive entrance examination ­
concours de recrutement (professional 
phase). 

Ρ 

Universities. 

(Concurrent and 
consecutive) 

Higher education entrance. 

FIN 

Universities. 

(Concurrent and 
Consecutive) 

Higher Education entrance. 

Four years minimum 
(general phase). Three 
years (professional 
phase). 

Professeur d'enseignement secondaire. 
Appointment as salaried stagiaire in a school 
before professional phase. Final appointment 
on professional qualification. 

Six years (concurrent). 
Three or four years 
general education, two 
years professional 
training (consecutive). 

Five or six years. 

Licenciatura em Ensino. 

Master's degree ­ Maisterin tutkinto ­ in a 
specified subject of study. 

107 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Table  3 8.  Teacher  training  and  qualification,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

C.  Lower  and  Upper  Secondary  General  Education  (Common  Route) 

Country  and  type 

Institution  and admission  requirements 

S 

Universities. 

(Concurrent  and 
consecutive) 

Higher education  entrance. 

Length  of general 
higher education  and 
professional  training 

Four-and-a-half years. 

IK 

Universities. 

Four years. 

Final  qualification  and grade of teacher 

Grundskollärarexamen  med inriktning  mot 
undervisning  i årskurserna  4-9 (for years 4 to 9 
lower secondary). 

Gymnasielärarexamen  (upper secondary). 

Bachelor of Education  and similar titles. 
Qualified  Teacher Status. 

(Concurrent) 

Higher education  entrance  and  assessment  of 
suitability  for teaching  including  medical 
examination. 

UK 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education  entrance  (general 
education  phase). University  degree and 
assessment of suitability  for  teaching 
(professional  phase). 

Three or four  years 
(general education). 
One year  (professional 
training). 

Postgraduate  Certificate  of Education. 
Qualified  Teacher Status. 

Teaching Qualification  (Scotland). 

NO 

Universities. 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education  entrance  (general 
education  phase). University  degree 
(professional  phase). 

Four years or six years 
(general  education). 
One year  professional 
training. 

Praktisk-pedagogisk  utdanningfor  allmennfag. 

1.5. Teachers for technical  and vocational  education 
Patterns  of training  for  teachers  in technical  and  vocational  secondary  education  are  similar  to  those 
for teachers  of general  subjects, though  there  are often  separate  specialised  institutions. The period  of 
general  education  may  be  shorter  and  the  expected  level  of  diploma  may  be  lower  for  some  of  these 
prospective  teachers  in  the  consecutive  type  of  training  in  most  countries  (see  Table  39),  but  often 
there  are  also  admission  requirements  of  specified  years  of  professional  experience  which  do  not 
apply  to teachers  in  general  education.  The  professional  experience  requirement  ranges  from  at  least 
one year  in Germany  to five  years  in Denmark  and  France.  Training  may  be  in  institutions  which  are 
separate  from  those  for  teachers  in  general  education  in  several  countries,  as  is  often  the  case  for 
teachers of art, music and,  in some cases, physical education. In England, Wales and Northern  Ireland, 
there  is  no  separate  category  of  technical/vocational  teacher.  School  teachers  in  technical  subjects 
must  satisfy  the  criteria  applied  to  other  school  teachers.  Those  employed  in  further  education 
institutions  are  subject  to  different  regulations.  In  Scotland,  although  it  is not  compulsory  for  further 
education  teachers to hold  a teaching  qualification,  they  are actively  encouraged  to work towards  one 
while  in service. 

In most other countries, training of vocational  education teachers  is not clearly  separated  from  that  for 
those in general  education. 

Distinctions  may  be made  between  teachers  of  craft  and  other  vocational  subjects,  who  often  have  a 
lower  level  of  general  education,  and  those  of  technical  subjects  with  qualifications  equivalent  to 
upper  secondary  general  education  teachers.  In  some  countries,  vocational  teachers  may  teach  in 
vocational  schools at lower secondary  as well as upper secondary  level. 

108 

Country and 
type 

Institution and admission requirements 

Length of general higher education and professional 
training 

Final qualification and grade of teacher 

Table 39. Teacher Training and Qualification. Vocational Education, 1995/1996 

Β 

Promotion sociale (adult and second chance). Work experience. 

Two or three years. 

Certificat d'aptitude pédagogique. Getuigschrift 
pedagogische bekwaamheid. 

(Concurrent) 

DK 

(Consecutive) 

Universities or other university sector institutions (general phase). Danmarks 
Erhverspædogogiske Læreruddannelse (Danish Institute for the Educational Training of 
Vocational Teachers) (professional phase). 

Teachers of general subjects ­ as for upper secondary general education teachers plus 2 
years' professional experience. Appointment as teacher in a vocational college. 

Teachers of general subjects ­ five years (general phase). 
One year (professional phase). 

Pædagogikum. 

Teachers of vocational subjects­ upper secondary level vocational qualification plus 5 
years' professional experience. Appointment as teacher in a vocational college (professional 
phase). 

Teachers of vocational subjects ­ no general higher 
education. Professional phase as for teachers of general 
subjects. 

D 

As for general upper secondary, but at least one year of work experience is also required. 

As for general upper secondary. 

(Concurrent) 

Second state examination for teachers ­ Zweite 
Staatsprüfung. 

Dual system. Craftsmen­teachers in the workplace (Ausbilder and Meister). Part­time 
courses. 

120­200 hours part­time courses. 

Certificate of vocational competence ­ Berufsabschluß (professional phase). 

EL 

(Consecutive) 

Universities and technological higher education institutions (general phase). Technical and 
vocational teacher training institutes ­ PATES/SELETE. 

Higher education entrance (general phase). 

Four to five years (general). Six months for university 
graduates, one year non­university higher education 
graduates (professional). 

Ptychio and teaching diploma ­ PATES. 

E 

Universities. 

Three years (general phase). One year (professional phase). 

(Consecutive) 

Higher education entrance (general phase). University degree ­ Diplomado or equivalents 
(professional phase). 

F 

(Consecutive) 

As for general upper secondary, but also one year's professional experience additional 
admission requirement. 

As for upper secondary general. 

Higher education entrance is required (general phase). University degree, or university 
diploma and five years' work experience or five years' work experience at professional 
level (de cadre) without higher education (professional phase). 

No higher education or two or three years (general phase). 
Two years (professional phase). 

Certificado de Aptitud Pedagógica Profesor Técnico de 
Formación Profesional. Competitive examination for 
permanent appointment. 

Certificat d 'aptitude au professorat de l'enseignement 
technique (CAPET). Professeur de l'enseignement 
technique. 

CAPLP2. Professeur de lycée professionnel. 

O 
VO 

Table 39. (cont.) Teacher Training and Qualification. Vocational Education, 1995/1996 

Country and 
type 

Institution and admission requirements 

Length of general higher education and professional 
training 

Final qualification and grade of teacher 

IRL 

Specialist institutions of higher education and universities. 

Three to five years. 

Specialist diplomas and degrees. 

(Concurrent) 

Higher education entrance. 

NL 

(Concurrent) 

Non­university higher education colleges (HBO), technical training colleges (PTH) and 
agricultural teacher training colleges (STOAS). 

Higher education entrance (general education phase). 

Vocational qualifications of HBO (professional phase). 

A 

(Concurrent) 

Same as for upper secondary general above. Some in vocational teacher colleges ­
Berufspädagogische Akademien as above, except that for some craft teachers vocational 
qualifications and six years' practical experience may replace higher education entrance 
requirements. 

Four years full­time. Four to six years part­time. 

Leraar voortgezet onderwijs tweedegraads. 

FIN 

(Consecutive) 

LI 

(Concurrent) 

University or vocational college of education. Higher vocational diploma or university 
Master's degree plus one to three years' work experience. 

Four to five years (general education). One year full­time or 
two years part­time (professional training). 

Diploma in teaching. 

Dual system. Craftsmen­teachers in the workplace (Ausbilder and Meister). Part­time 
courses. 

About 100 hours part­time courses. 

Certificate of vocational competence ­ Berufsabschluß (professional phase). 

NO 

Colleges of education. 

(Consecutive) 

Vocational qualification, four years' work experience (general education phase). 

Two years (general education). One year (professional 
training). 

Praktisk­pedagogisk utdanningfor yrkesfag. 

m 
o 
o 
o 

C 

ft 
fa 
O 
sr 
Π) 
-t 
Ρ 
5' 
5' 
era 

Secondary  teacher  training 

2. Pedagogical and practical training in initial 
teacher education 

Pedagogical  training  is understood  to mean  courses  intended  to enrich  prospective  teachers'  theoretical 
knowledge  of  education  and to  guide their teaching.  It also  includes  didactics,  the  training  in  methods 
of  teaching  particular  subjects  or  teaching  areas.  Practical  training  includes  periods  in  schools  and 
classrooms during either observation  placements or teaching practice. 

There  are  variations  between  countries  in the  balance  of  general  education,  subject-based  studies  and 
those  related  to  professional  training.  The  different  elements  of  professional  study  also  vary  in  the 
priority  given  to  them  across  countries.  Furthermore,  terminology  can  be  confusing  when  the  same 
professional  areas are given  different  names just  as when  similar names  apply to rather  different  kinds 
of course. 

The three elements are usually  identified  separately. Theoretical  study of education  in most countries  is 
termed  pedagogy  but  this  word  has  a different  meaning  (closer  to  didactics)  in  Ireland  and  the  United 
Kingdom  where  the  equivalent  to  pedagogy  is  Foundations  of  Education  (Ireland)  or  Educational 
Studies  (United  Kingdom).  The  subject  matter,  however,  is  much  the  same  across  all  countries 
including,  for  instance,  the  psychology,  sociology,  philosophy  and  history  of  education.  The  study  of 
methods  of teaching  is  most  commonly  named  didactics,  but  again  this  word  does  not  have  universal 
currency  and  is  frequently  substituted  by  methodology  or  professional  studies  (Ireland).  Teaching 
practice  is the  most  universally  agreed  term,  though  'school  experience'  or  'school  placement'  is  also 
used  to  reflect  better  the  observation  of educational  processes  as well  as the  development  of  students' 
skills  in classroom  teaching. 

There  are  differences  across  countries  in  the  relationship  between  general  education,  subject  studies, 
pedagogy and didactics. Even the distinction  between  general  education  or subject  studies and  didactics 
is not always clear.  In France, the distinction  is between formation  disciplinaire  or didactics  which  has 
more  time  than formation  générale  or  educational  theory.  In  England  and  Wales, theory  of  education 
and  child  development  have  the  purpose  of  helping  students  to  teach  competently,  secure  effective 
learning and to manage pupil behaviour. General  education  can function  to deepen the understanding  of 
future  teachers  but  it also  provides  them  with  the  knowledge  of the  subjects  they will  teach.  Didactics 
or methods  of teaching these subjects  can be provided  in general  education  phases of teacher  education 
as in Belgium (upper secondary), Greece and Italy. It is not clear how far  such didactics are practical  or 
are concerned with the history or philosophy of the  subject. 

Pedagogical  and practical  training often  has more weight when combined  with  general  education  in the 
training of lower secondary teachers  (especially where they study in concurrent  systems) than  in that of 
upper  secondary  teachers.  One  measure  is  the  time  given  to  pedagogical  and  practical  training  as  a 
proportion  of  total  periods  spent  in  general  and  professional  education  (see  Graphs  13  and  14  and 
Table  40).  In  most  countries  where  the  training  of  the  two  kinds  of  teacher  is  distinguished,  lower 
secondary  teachers  spend  relatively  more  time  on  professional  matters  than  their  upper  secondary 
equivalents.  In  eight  countries  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  France,  Luxembourg,  Austria,  Iceland 
and Norway), future  lower secondary  school teachers  spend at least one third  of their period  of training 
in  professional  studies  but  in  only  three  (France,  Luxembourg  and  Austria)  does  the  same  apply  to 
upper  secondary  school  teacher  training.  Belgium  and  Denmark  are  at the  extremes  with  respectively 
40%  and  35% of  time  for  lower  secondary  teachers  spent  in  professional  courses  compared  with  an 
average  of 9% for  upper  secondary  teachers. In  Germany,  the time  spent  on  pedagogical  and  practical 
training is high for teachers of both  levels since each kind undertakes a two-year traineeship after  a  first 
phase  which  also  includes  some  pedagogical  and  practical  training.  Yet  future  upper  secondary 
teachers devote a smaller proportion of time in this first  phase to pedagogical  study (6 to 9%) than their 
lower secondary equivalents (18 to 26%) (see Table 40). Older views that only future  teachers of young 
children need more educational theory and practice may still be widespread. 

I ll 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Graph  13.  Pedagogical  and  practical  training  as  a  proportion  of  the  total 
preparation  of  teachers,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

50 

50  50 

0/ 
/o 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Β  DK  D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

L 

NL  A 

Ρ 

FIN  S 

UK 

IS 

LI  NO 

Lower secondary  education 

I  Upper secondary  education 

+  Maximum 

Source: Eurydice. 

_  Minimum 

Based  on data contained  in Table 40. 

The  training  of  vocational  and  some  specialist  teachers 
training follows  a different  pattern. 

for  example  of  art  or  physical  education  -  is  ignored  where  this 

In  Greece,  the  Netherlands  (lower  secondary)  and  Italy  (where  subject  didactics  is the  only  professional  training),  decisions 
are  made  in  each  institution  about  the  balance  between  general  education  and  professional  training.  Figures  for  the  United 
Kingdom  are based on the consecutive type of training (see Table 40C). 

As shown  in Graph  14, the  countries  that  provide  high  proportions  of professional  teacher  training  for 
both  lower  and  upper  secondary  teachers  usually  also  have  long  periods  of  school-based  training 
(Germany,  France,  Luxembourg  and  Austria).  Salaried  trainees  also  spend  much  time  in  school-based 
activities  in France and  Luxembourg. In other countries, such as the United  Kingdom, the  school-based 
element of initial training has even  been  extended. 

School  placement  may  become  more  important  as  a way  for  students  not  only  to  acquire  practice  in 
teaching  but  also  to  relate  their  theoretical  learning  of  pedagogy  to  real  life  situations.  In  some 
countries,  the  time  devoted  to  school  experience  is  small  (especially  in  the  consecutive  systems  of 
Belgium,  Spain  and  Ireland,  where  it  occupies  fewer  than  50  days),  while  elsewhere  it  is  substantial, 
notably  in Germany  where  school-based  training  is part  of the  first  phase  and the whole  of the  second 
phase of two years. Students have between  100 and  160 days  of school  experience  in Denmark,  France 
and  the  United  Kingdom  and  in concurrent  teacher  training  for  lower  secondary  education  in  Belgium. 
Evidence  of  time  spent  in  schools  is  not  available  for  all  countries  since  in  Greece,  the  Netherlands, 
Portugal, Sweden  and Norway the balance between  university and school-based  activities  is decided  by 
individual training  establishments. 

112 

Graph 14. Days spent on school placements - teacher training for lower and upper 

secondary education, 1 9 9 5 / 96 

Secondary teacher training 

436 

Days 

350 

300 

250 

240 

m il ! 60 60 

80 : 50 50 ; AX π a ¡ HI Ml I 

Β DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A Ρ FIN S UK IS LI NO 

Zutifcuffi 

p fl j£ 

75 75 ■ 70 CI 70 

Lower secondary education 

I Upper secondary education 

+ Maximum 

Source: Eurydice. 

_ Minimum 

Based on data contained in Table 40. In several countries the times are given in hours, weeks, years or as a proportion of the 
course. Conversions have been made, except where specific information has been provided, on the assumption that higher 
education years have 30 weeks, that school years have 200 days and that a school day has 5 teacher working hours. 

Where information is not provided in the graph, decisions about the length of school placement are made by higher education 
institutions individually except in the case of Italy which has, as yet, no school placements in the professional training of 
secondary school teachers. 

Figures for the United Kingdom are based on the consecutive type of training. See Table 40 for the concurrent type. 

In Germany and Austria, for upper secondary (academic secondary) school teacher training, school placement occurs in both 
the first phase (together with general and other professional training) and in the second, school­based phase. 

In Denmark (upper secondary) and Luxembourg, school placement is confined to the period of salaried traineeship. In 
France and Austria (upper secondary), 200 of the 240 days of placement occur during the period of salaried traineeship. 

The preceding description has focused on differences between the forms of training in various 
countries and highlights that distinctions, where they exist, are greater between lower and upper 
secondary school teachers than between those in the same type of school. Moreover, a reasonable 
balance between general education, pedagogical studies and practical training is yet to be achieved in 
several countries. Resistance to both pedagogical study and practical training still remains in a number 
of countries where experience of both can be very limited, especially for those leaving traditional 
university courses. It has been recognised that the aim to create a common experience for pupils in 
secondary schools, both in countries with common schools and in those with diversified systems, may 
be more difficult to achieve where teachers have different levels of training and status. 

It is not easy to identify general patterns in professional teacher training across countries. One major 
difference is the length of time between the beginning of professional training and final qualification 
which varies between six­and­a­half years for some in Germany and only six months for some in 
Denmark (and does not yet exist in Italy). Lengthy professional training, as in Germany, may be an 
ideal induction for future teachers, but financial and labour­market planning considerations (for both 
governments and individuals) may require the professional phase to be kept as short as possible and 
delayed until after general education is completed. In the latter case particularly, in­service teacher 
training becomes even more vital. 

113 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Table  4 0.  The  place  of  pedagogical  and  practical  training,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

A.  Lower  Secondary  General  Education  (Separate  Route) 

(All  concurrent) 

Country 

General  higher 
education 
(time,  proportion) 

Pedagogical  study/educational 
theory/didactics 
(time,  proportion) 

School  placement 
(time,  proportion) 

Β 

14 to 20 hours a week. 
60% of three years. 

Pedagogy, psychology, general 
didactics  and  school  placement 
(special  didactics  included  in 
general  education/subject  studies). 

16 to 28 weeks (11 to  16 of which 
in the 3rd year). 44 to 78% of 
professional  training,  18 to 31%  of 
total course. 

Total  professional 
training 
(time,  proportion) 

5 to 9 hours a week. 
40% of three years. 

DK 

65% of four years. 

74 to  81% of first phase 
of three-and-a-half to 
four-and-a-half  years. 
Part of second,  two-year 
practical  phase. 

22% of total  time. 63% of 
professional  training time. 
Pedagogy, psychology and 
didactics. Special  didactics 
included  in general 
education/subject  studies. 

Pedagogical  studies.  18 to 26% of 
initial  three-and-half to  four-and-a-
half-year  course.  Educational 
science  in both  initial  and final 
phases. Includes  psychology and 
educational  theory, social 
sciences/politics  or theology or 
philosophy,  general  didactics 
(subject  didactics  included  in 
general  education/subject  studies). 

20 weeks. 37% of  professional 
training,  13% of total course. 

35% of four years. 

Average of  12 weeks per year in 
blocks or spread  across the  course 
in the initial three-and-a-half to 
four-and-a-half-year  phase (9 to 
12% of total). Two-year school 
placement,  including  seminars 
(second  phase). 31 to 36% of first 
phase, 40 to 48% of whole course. 

27 to 38% of first 
phase. All of two- year 
practical training. 43 to 
50% of both phases. 

Throughout  the  four 
years.  Proportion 
decided  locally. 

Proportion  decided  locally. 

Proportion  decided  locally. 

40% of all three years of 
the course but  integrated 
with  professional  areas. 

Educational  theory.  Didactics  and 
practical  training  are  integrated 
with general  education. 

About  18% of the whole course. 

Throughout the  four 
years.  Proportion 
decided  locally. 

60% of all three years 
of the course. 

67% of three-year 
course. 

Educational  studies.  Psychology, 
philosophy,  history, sociology of 
education.  Didactics 

14 weeks over three years. 47% of 
professional  component,  16% of 
whole course. 

33% of three-year 
course. 

45% of one-and-a  half-
year to three-year 
course. 

35%.  Pedagogy,  developmental 
psychology, general  and  subject 
didactics. 

20%. One week and 2 to 4  practice 
lessons or 2 to 3 weeks of 
placements per year. 

55% of total  course. 

D 

NL 

A 

IS 

LI 

NO 

67% of four-year  course. 

Local  decision. 

16 to  18 weeks. 76% of 
professional  course, 25% of total 
course. 

33% of  four-year 
course. 

114 

Table  4 0.  The  place  of  pedagogical  and  practical  training,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

B.  Upper  Secondary  General  Education  (Separate  Route) 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Country 

General  higher 
education 
(time,  proportion) 

Pedagogical  study/educational 
theory/didactics 
(time,  proportion) 

School  placement 
(time,  proportion) 

Β 
(Consecutive) 

Four or five years. 88 to 
94%. 

DK 
(Consecutive) 

Five years.  91%. 

Experimental  educational  science, 
general  methods of teaching. 
Subject  didactics. 

Educational  theory. Didactics. Two 
courses of 2 to 4 days.  10 to 20% 
of professional  course. 

45 hours. 6% of one year,  1  to 2% 
of total  course. 

Minimum  of  120 hours'  teaching 
and observation  in six months in a 
school other than that  in which 
employed over six months.  80 to 
90% of professional  course, 8% of 
total course. 

Average of 9 weeks per year in 
blocks or spread  across the course 
in the initial  four-and-a-half  year 
phase (7% of total). Two years 
school  placement  (including 
seminars)  (second  phase). 31% of 
first phase, 38% of whole course. 

30% of professional  year in school 
placement  (250 hours of which  120 
to be spent on teaching). 6% of 
total  course. 

Educational  science in both  initial 
and final phases. Includes 
psychology and educational  theory, 
social  sciences/politics  or theology 
or philosophy, general  didactics 
(subject  didactics  included  in 
general education/subject  studies). 
6 to 9% of first phase of  four-and-
a-half years. 

70% of professional  year (600 out 
of 850 hours). 20% of total  course. 

6% (including teaching practice) of 
the initial  university-based  phase is 
spent on pedagogy.  10% of time in 
the initial  university phase  is spent 
on didactics. 

6% (including pedagogy) of the 
initial  university-based  phase and 
most of the traineeship year. About 
23% of both phases. 

Total  professional 
training 
(time,  proportion) 

Some courses  in one 
year. 6 to  12% of total 
course. 

9% of total  course. 

13 to  17% of first 
phase. All of second 
phase. 42% of both 
phases. 

26% of total  course. All 
of final one-year 
professional  phase and 
two months of first 
phase. 

16% of the  four-and-a-
half-year  university 
course  is spent on 
professional  studies and 
31%  of the total  course, 
including the  practical 
year which  is entirely 
professional. 

D 
(Concurrent) 

91 to 94% of first four-
and-a-half-year  phase. 
Some also in the second 
practical phase. 

NL5 
(Consecutive) 

74% of total  course. 
93% of first four-year 
phase. 

A 
(Concurrent) 

84% of the  four-and-a-
half- year  university 
course is spent on 
general education  and 
69% of the total  course 
including the practical 
year. 

IS 
(Consecutive) 

75%. All in initial three-
year course. 

67% of professional  course. 
General  educational  theory, 
psychology and sociology of 
education. 

13% of professional  course, 3% of 
total course. 

25%. All of one-year 
professional  course. 

LI 
(Consecutive) 

91 to 93%. 

20% of professional  course. School 
visits and didactics, youth 
psychology. 

15% of professional  courses. 4 
weeks Observation  and 4 weeks of 
practical  training. 

7 to 9% of total  course, 
35% of  professional 
course. 

Only the university postgraduate course. 

115 

Secondary  teacher  training 

Table  4 0.  The  place  of  pedagogical  and  practical  training,  1 9 9 5 / 96 

C 

. General  Education  Lower and  Upper Secondary  (Common  Route) 

General  higher 
education 
(time,  proportion) 

Pedagogical  study/educational 
theory/didactics 
(time,  proportion) 

School  placement 
(time,  proportion) 

Country 

D 
(Concurrent) 

91%  of  first  four-and-a-
half-year  phase. Some 
also in the second 
practical  phase. 

EL 
(Consecutive) 
E 
(Consecutive) 

50 to 70% (local 
decision). 
80 to 86% of total 
course. All of initial 
four-  to six-year phase. 

F 
(Consecutive) 

60 to 75% of total 
course. All of first three 
or four years. 

I RI 
(Consecutive) 

75 to 80% of total 
course. All of first  three 
to four-year  phase. None 
of professional  year. 

I 
(Consecutive) 

Most of four to six 
years'  general  education 
course. 

L 
(Consecutive) 

57%. All of  four-year 
first phase. None of last 
three year  professional 
phase. 

Ρ 
(Concurrent 
and 
consecutive) 

Maximum  80% of the 
total  course  for  upper 
secondary  or 70% for 
lower secondary. 

1  IN 
(Concurrent 
and 
consecutive) 
S 
(Concurrent 
and 
consecutive) 
UK 
(Concurrent)6 

78 to  81%.  125 to  145 
credits  out of a total of 
160 to  180. 

71 % of  four-and-a-half-
year course. 

75% of four-year  course. 

UK 
(including 
Scotland) 
(Consecutive) 
NO 
(Consecutive) 

75 to 80% All of three-
or four-year  course 
preceding  professional 
year. 

80 to 86%. Initial  four-
to six-year course. 

Educational  science  in both  initial 
and final phases. Includes 
psychology  and  educational  theory, 
social sciences/politics  or theology 
or philosophy,  general  didactics 
(subject  didactics  included  in 
general  education/subject  studies). 
9% of first phase of  four-and-a-half 
years. 
Local  decision. 

75% of professional  year, 40% on 
theoretical  pedagogical  elements 
(including psychological  and 
sociological), 35% on  educational 
aspects of teaching  subjects.  11 to 
15% of total course. 
60 to 80% of professional  course. 
300 to 450 hours  in two years on 
general  pedagogy. 20 to 30% of 
professional  phase. 400 to 750 
hours on didactic of teaching 
subject.  40 to 50% of  professional 
course. 
Around  60 to 70% of  professional 
year on  foundations  of education 
(philosophy,  psychology, 
sociology, history of education, 
curriculum  studies and 
comparative  education)  and on 
professional  studies (didactics). 
None. Questions on didactics in 
competitive entry examination  to 
teaching posts  (abilitazione  alla 
professione). 
Less than 33% of  professional 
course. Educational  theory and 
didactic  courses only in first year 
of this course. 

Local  decision. 

Total  professional 
training 
(time,  proportion) 

17% of first phase. All 
of second  phase. 42% 
of both phases. 

Average of 9 weeks per year in 
blocks or spread  across the course 
in the initial  four-and-a-half-year 
phase (7% of total). Two years' 
school  placement  (including 
seminars) (second  phase). 31%  of 
first phase, 38% of whole course. 

Local  decision. 

25% of professional  year to be 
spent  in school  placement (15 
credits of which at least ten  are to 
be in actual  teaching). 4 to 5% of 
total course. 

30 to 50% (local 
decision). 
14 to 20%. None of 
first phase. All of  final 
year. 

Second year of professional  course 
spent mainly  in school  and 20% of 
first year. 300 hours minimum  (up 
to 60% of course time over two 
years). 20 to 24% of whole course. 

25 to 40% of whole 
course. None of first 
three or four years. All 
of last two. 

Minimum  of  100 hours of teaching 
practice 30 to 40% of  professional 
year in schools. 8 to  13% of whole 
course. 

20 to 25% of total 
course. None of first 
phase, all of the last. 

None. 

Teaching practice over three years. 
Equivalent to one-and-a-half  years 
of full-time  teaching. 50% of 
professional  course, 29% of total 
course. 
Local  decision. 

No specialised  and 
assessed  professional 
course. 

43%.  Whole of the 
three-year  professional 
course. 

Not to fall  below 20% 
of the total  course  for 
upper secondary or 
30% for  lower 
secondary. 
19 to 22%. 35  credits 
out of a total  of  160 
credits. 

22% of  four-and-a-half-
year course. 

12% of total  course. 65% of the 
professional  element. 

10% of total  course. 35% of the 
professional  element. 

Local  decision. 

Local  decision. 

Separate area of course. Local 
decision  on proportion  (but mainly 
school-based). 
Separate area of course. Local 
decision  on proportion  (but mainly 
school-based). 

Local  decision. 

32 weeks (80% of  professional 
element). 20% total course. 

25% of  four-year 
course. 

24 weeks (67% of  professional 
course). 22 weeks and  61% in 
Scotland.  12 to  17% of total 
course. 

12 to  14 weeks (33% of 
professional  course). 5 to 7% of 
total course. 

20 to 25%. 
All of professional  year. 
None of preceding three 
or four years. 
14 to 20%. 
One-year  professional 
course. 

In Scotland, the concurrent courses are taken generally by those wishing to teach in primary schools. 

116 

Secondary  teacher  training 

3. Importance of in-service teacher training 

In-service  training  has  several  functions  ranging  from  the  personal  development  of  individuals  to 
collective projects  aimed at improvements  in the working practices of all teachers in one school. The way 
in-service  teacher  training  is organised  varies  from  one  country  to  another.7  It may  be  of  short  duration 
(from  one  day  to  one  week),  in  which  case  it  is  frequently  organised  during  school  hours  (Belgium, 
Denmark,  Ireland,  Luxembourg  and  Scotland).  Where  it  is  of  longer  duration  (several  weeks  or  even 
months),  it  normally  takes  place  outside  working  hours  and  may  take  the  form  of  courses  leading  to 
qualifications  or even professional  promotion  (Spain and  Scotland). In Portugal, where in-service training 
normally takes place out of school hours, this training time may be recuperated by time in lieu. 

In most  countries, participation  in  in-service training  is not  compulsory.  The  exceptions  include  Finland 
where  teachers  of  general  secondary  education  are  required  to  participate  in  in-service  training  for  a 
minimum  of three days a year and teachers  of vocational  secondary  education  five  days a year.  Austrian 
law  obliges  all  teachers  to  ensure  that  they  constantly  update  their  knowledge  and  the  content  of  their 
teaching.  In Austria,  in-service training may therefore  be considered  as compulsory,  even though  no  law 
or directive  indicates the type  or frequency of  courses  to be taken.  In  England  and  Wales, there  are  five 
days per year without pupil contact of which three should be given over to in-service training. In Scotland, 
in addition to five  days of in-service training, there  is a period  of 50 hours of  'planned  activities', part of 
which  is intended for  in-service training. In Iceland, contracts state that teachers should devote two weeks 
every other year to in-service training outside  school  sessions. In Sweden, each  school  is obliged  to  offer 
in-service training for, on average,  104 hours per teacher per year. 

In many cases, teachers are allowed to enrol freely  in the training of their choice. Sometimes they do so 
on the advice of an  inspector and/or the school  head. In France and Belgium  (French  Community), they 
have  to  obtain  the  approval  of  the  school  head  before  they  are  able  to  enrol  in  a  training  course.  In 
Germany,  where  in-service  teacher  training  is  the  responsibility  of  the Länder  and  comes  under  the 
Ministry  of  Education  for  each  Land,  a  teacher  wishing  to  take  part  in  in-service  training  activities 
either  enrols  directly  with  the training  institution,  or enrolment  takes  place through  the  school  head  or 
the school  inspector. 

In general, training themes are proposed  by organisations  belonging to the Ministry  of Education  or by 
teachers'  associations.  In  Denmark,  training  courses  are  organised  in  response  to  specific  demands 
from  school  teaching  staff.  In  Spain,  the  in-service  training  model  is  established  on  the  basis  of 
proposals  submitted  by the education  administration  and centres for teachers  and teaching  resources, as 
well as specific  requests from  teaching staff  in schools. 

In  certain  countries,  participation  in  a training  seminar  may  result  in  extra  qualifications  (Greece  and 
Austria).  In  Italy,  attendance  at  courses  recognised  and  encouraged  by  competent  authorities  at 
different  levels  (national  and  local)  leads  to  a  salary  increase.  In  Iceland,  in-service  training  has  an 
impact on the teacher's pay but not on career advancement. In Portugal, it is one of the prerequisites  for 
career  advancement,  whereas  in  France  it  has  no  effect  on  advancement.  It  should  be  noted  that,  in 
Luxembourg,  teachers  receive  remuneration  if  they  choose  to  undergo  training  -  during  the  school 
holidays -  in what the Ministry deems to be priority areas. 

In Greece,  after  teaching  for  two years  (or three years  if they  wish  to  go abroad), teachers  are  entitled 
to  a  sabbatical  year  during  which  they  receive  their  full  salary,  provided  that  this  year  is  devoted  to 
furthering  their  knowledge,  pursuing  university  studies,  carrying  out  a  training  placement  abroad  or 
conducting  research  work.  In  Iceland, teachers  can  apply  after  10 years  for  paid  leave  for  up to  a year 
of in-service training 

In  Spain,  taking  part  in  in-service  training  activities  has  a  specific  impact  on  a teacher's  professional 
career,  either  leading  to  higher  marks  in  competitive  and  other  examinations  or,  in  the  case  of  civil 
servant  teachers  who  come  under  certain  education  administrations,  as a prerequisite  for  receiving  the 
sexenios  (period  of  six  years)  payment  forming  an  integral  part  of  a  specific  salary  increase. 
Furthermore, those with  at  least eight years  of seniority  may  request  time  away  from  teaching  in  order 
to pursue studies that vary  in length. During this period, they receive their full  salary, except for  certain 
supplements that are normally allocated for  special duties. 

For further  details, see In-Service Teacher Training of Teachers in the European Union and EFTA/EEA Countries, (EURYDICE,  1995). 

117 

Administration 

IV -  Administration 

Introduction 

This  section  provides  an  overview  of  the  way  secondary  education  is  administered  in  the  European 
Union  and  the  EFTA/EEA  countries.  The  administrative  organisation  and  the  main  decision-making 
levels  are  analysed  in  order  to  bring  out  the  specific  national  features  and  the  main  trends  which 
appear. 

The  analysis  deals  with  the  following  areas:  organisation  of  schooling  (duration  of  compulsory 
schooling,  organisation  of the  school  year,  number  of  weekly  teaching  periods,  number  of pupils  per 
class),  content  and  distribution  of  teaching  (general  aims,  curricula  and  programmes,  course  load, 
definition  of  recognised  occupations,  breakdown  of  practical  and  general  training),  pedagogical 
organisation  and  certification  (teaching  methods,  selection  and  approval  of  school  textbooks, 
certification  and qualification)  and management of teaching  staff (recruitment,  appraisal). 

On the administrative  side, it is not easy to define  decision-making  levels which  correspond  exactly to 
all  national  situations.  Reference  is  usually  made  to  four  decision-making  levels  -  central  (which 
generally corresponds to the national  level), regional, local and the school. 

The  central  level  is  normally  represented  by  the  Ministry  of  Education.  The  ministry  may  appoint 
advisory  bodies  to  assist  it,  such  as the  Conseil  National  des  Programmes  in  France  or  the  National 
Council  for  Curriculum  and  Assessment  (NCCA)  in  Ireland,  which  draws  up  proposals  for  primary 
and  secondary  school  curricula.  In Austria, the  Federal  Ministry  of  Education  and  Cultural  Affairs  is 
entirely responsible  for  general and vocational  secondary education. But legislation  and  implementing 
powers  are  shared  between  the Bund  and  the  Länder.  In  Finland,  the  National  Board  of  Education, 
under  the  authority  of  the  Ministry  of  Education,  is  responsible  for  defining  and  developing  the 
national  guidelines  for  curriculum  design.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  there  are  four  ministerial 
authorities -  the Department  for  Education  and  Employment  for England, the Welsh  Office  Education 
Department  for  Wales, the  Scottish  Office  Education  and  Industry  Department  and the Department  of 
Education  for  Northern  Ireland.  In  Iceland,  the  Ministry  of  Education,  Science  and  Culture  is 
responsible for  upper secondary  education. 

In  the  case  of  Belgium,  it  is  relevant  to  consider  the  ministries  of  the  three  Communities  (French 
Community,  Flemish  Community  and  German-speaking  Community)  as  the  central  level  since  the 
Federal  government  has transferred  its responsibilities  to them  and  they  exercise  important  decision­
making powers. 

The  regional  level  includes  authorities  with  real  decision-making  powers,  such  as  the  Autonomous 
Communities  in Spain which  act within  a decentralised  organisational  framework.'  In Germany, the  16 
Länder are constituent  states of the Republic  and as such enjoy  governmental  authority.  State  functions 
are divided  between  the  Federation  and  the Länder  and  education  is primarily  the  responsibility  of the 
Länder. The regional  level also includes administrative authorities which have delegated  powers to carry 
out the tasks  of the  central  authority  at regional  level  and  have  rather  limited  decision-making  powers, 
such  as the Direcções Regionais de Educação  in Portugal,  the Sovrintendenza  scolastisca  regionale in 
Italy  and  the  Recteurs  d'académie  in  France.  In  Austria,  separate  federal  bodies  have  been  created  to 
implement  legislation  in  spheres  where  the  Bund  has  administrative  responsibilities.  These  are  the 
district  school  boards  (Bezirksschulräte) at the  level of the political  'districts'  and the provincial  school 
boards  (Landesschulräte) at  the  level  of  the Länder.  In Norway,  the  regional  level  corresponds  to  the 
counties (which are responsible for providing upper secondary  education). 

I 

In  Spain,  7 of the  17 Autonomous  Communities  benefit  from  'full  powers'  over  education.  The  remaining  Autonomous 
Communities  will gain these powers under the present government,  although  the state will still  retain  certain  powers such 
as decisions on the duration of education. 

119 

Administration 

The  local  level  essentially  comprises  district  councils  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden  and Norway)  and 
sometimes  authorities  with  powers  which  are  defined  apart  from  the  usual  geographical  and 
administrative  breakdown.  In England  and  Wales, the authorities with responsibility  for the  education 
service  in  this  area  (local  education  authorities)  are  the  county,  district,  borough  or  county  borough 
councils.  In  Northern  Ireland,  the  five  Education  and  Library  Boards  have  responsibility  for  the 
education  service  in  a  broad  geographical  area.  The  Scottish  Local  Authorities  are  responsible  for 
education,  along  with  other  services,  in  Scotland.  In  Iceland,  the  local  level  corresponds  to  the 
municipalities  (which  are responsible  for  lower secondary  education). 

At  school  level,  decisions  are  taken  by  various  bodies.  In  general  these  include  the  school  head, 
sometimes  in  collaboration  with  other  bodies  such  as  the  pedagogical  council.  In  the  present  study, 
when  referring  to  the  institutional  level,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  take  into  consideration  the 
respective prerogatives of the various boards and committees." 

Taking  into  account  vocational  secondary  education  entails  the  participation  of  other  players  since 
this type of training opens up on to the world  of work. Consequently, the social  partners -employers' 
federations  and  trade  unions -  are  often  involved  in drafting  legislation  and  regulations  associated 
with  the  implementation  and  accreditation  of  training.  Individual  companies  also  intervene  in  the 
training  process  insofar  as  they  select  trainers  for  the  practical  part  as  well  as  the  training  methods 
they use. 

The  definition  of  vocational  secondary  education  is  difficult  in  some  countries.  In  fact,  we  have  to 
find  a  vocational  type  of  education  inside  the  education  system.  In  the  case  of  Germany,  the 
presentation  of  vocational  secondary  education  includes  information  on  vocational  training  in  full-
time  schools as well  as the duales  System,  with  two places  of training, the Berufsschule  and the  firm. 
In  the  United  Kingdom,  vocational  education  mainly  takes  place  in  the  Further  Education  (FE) 
institutions  and  therefore  is  not  considered  to  be  part  of  secondary  education.  However,  in  order  to 
provide  international  comparisons,  it  may  be  included  in  upper  secondary  education.  Concerning 
Liechtenstein,  it should  be noted that there  is no vocational  secondary  education. 

A more detailed approach is presented in School Heads in the European Union (EURYDICE,  1996). 

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1. Organisation 

1.1. Duration of compulsory education 
The duration of compulsory education corresponds to the period when pupils have to attend school or 
receive education. In most countries, the start of compulsory education coincides with the point of 
entry to primary school (except in Ireland, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) and the end coincides 
with the transition from lower to upper secondary education (except in France, Austria and the United 
Kingdom (England and Wales and Northern Ireland)). In Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, the 
end of compulsory education can coincide with the end of upper secondary education, because 
compulsory education continues on a part­time basis during two or three years. Thus the end of full­
time compulsory education is always within upper secondary education. 

In all countries, decisions relating to the duration of compulsory education remain the sole prerogative 
of the central authority, with the exception of Germany where the individual Länder have this 
responsibility. However, in Belgium, where most powers are with the Communities, the federal 
government remains the competent authority for this matter. 

Table 41. Duration of compulsory education, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

1 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

VK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

1.2. Organisation of the school year 
Under organisation of the school year we include here its duration and the fixing of the dates of the 
different holidays. Decision­making in relation to the number of school days in the year always 
involves the central level. Decision­making relating to the dates of school holidays is also centralised 
in Belgium, at the level of the Communities,3 and in France, where the Ministry of Education sets the 
dates for the beginning of the school year and school holidays in the various académies in three 
geographical groupings. 

However, the breakdown of some free days is under the responsibility of the organising bodies or the schools. 

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In some countries, there are national regulations which permit some regional modifications. In 
Germany, the dates for the start and end of the school year as well as the length of school holidays 
were standardised on the basis of an agreement between the Länder in 1964.4 In Austria, the Länder, 
which have, as far as compulsory education is concerned, legislative competence in these matters, 
follow the federal provisions as specified in the law on school time (Schulzeitgesetz) for non­
compulsory education. There may be variations in the fixing of the beginning and end of the school 
year. In Italy, the duration of the school year is decided at central level, but the beginning and the end 
of the school year are decided at regional level. In other countries, modifications are possible at the 
local or school level. 

Table 42. Organisation of the school year, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 
DK 
D 
FL 
F 
F 
IRL 
I 
L 
NL 
Λ 
Ρ 
FIN 
S 
UK 
IS 
LI 
NO 

I 

1 1 1 1 1 

i 
1 i 
I I I I I 
1 1 1 

1 1 1 
I

II II 

I 

1 1 1 

1 _l 

| 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

In Denmark, with the exception of the first day of the summer holidays and the total number of school 
days (200) which are fixed by the Ministry of Education, the local education authorities are free to 
choose the holiday dates and shorter holiday periods. In the Netherlands, the Ministry of Education, 
Culture and Science decides the minimum number of school days/teaching periods per year, the 
number of days' holiday, and the length and dates of the summer holiday. The length and dates of the 
other holidays are decided at school level. In Sweden, the Education Act (Skollagen) sets the 
maximum duration of the school year. The municipalities (or the schools) are free to decide how to 
plan school time within the statutory framework of the school year. 

In England and Wales, the minimum number of days on which the school meets is decided by law, but 
the dates of the school terms and holidays are decided by the local education authority (LEA) or the 
school governing body, depending on the type of school. The situation is similar in Scotland. In 
Northern Ireland, the dates of terms and holidays are set by the Education and Library Boards for 
controlled schools and in other cases by the relevant school authorities. 

The organisation of the school year is managed in the same way in both general and technical 
education, except in Portugal (school level). The role of social partners is mentioned by Ireland 
(firms) and Luxembourg (employers' federations and trade unions). In Germany, the framework 

According to this agreement, the summer holidays (of about six weeks) in the individual Länder are staggered over the 
period between the end of June and mid­September. The actual dates are fixed in a long­term agreement by the Standing 
Conference of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder. Consequently, the actual beginning and end 
of the school year vary in the Länder. 

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programme of vocational courses is regulated in terms of the number of hours to be devoted to 
vocational training throughout the whole of training. Participants in the dual system (training in the 
company) have 25 to 30 days' leave each year, depending on their age. 

1.3. Number of weekly taught periods 
In some countries (Belgium, Spain, France and Finland), the weekly teaching time is fixed by a 
minimum and maximum number of taught periods. Thus there is both a central framework and room 
for manoeuvre at the level of the schools, which may concern more particularly the upper secondary 
level, as in Portugal and Norway. (For more details, see Chapter II of this study.) In the Netherlands, 
the central level sets the weekly number of periods for lower secondary education. 

In Austria, secondary schools which choose to make use of curricular autonomy enjoy a certain 
amount of flexibility while the others apply a centrally fixed number of weekly taught periods. 

Table 43. Number of weekly taught periods, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

In Germany, the weekly taught periods for the different types of school are laid down by the 
Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder. In some Länder, the Ministry has 
introduced a five­day week for all schools. 

In Greece, Italy, Ireland and Luxembourg, the number of weekly taught periods is fixed at central 
level for the whole of general secondary education. 

However, in three countries (Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom), there is no minimum or 
maximum fixed at the central or regional level. 

For vocational education, the decision­making level for the definition of the weekly schedule is 
different from that which applies in general education in Denmark (the central authority fixes 37 
hours per week during the practical training period), Luxembourg (schools have flexibility between 
32 and 36 periods a week in technical education) and Portugal (where school time is fully the 
responsibility of the vocational schools, except for those schools which provide mainstream 
education). Representatives from the world of employment participate in decision­making in 
Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg and Norway. 

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1.4. Number of pupils per class 
Decisions about the number of pupils in each class are more often the province of the national or regional 
supervisory authorities than of the school itself. In fact, most countries have fixed some norms (minimum 
and/or maximum). 

Table 44. Number of pupils per class, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

F 

F 

IRL 

1 

L 

NL 

Λ 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK (E.W.NI) 

UK (SC) 

IS 

1.1 

NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

In Germany, the nonns fixed for the minimum and maximum number of pupils per class are defined by the 
Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder with respect to the different kinds of schools and 
school years. Within these nonns, each school decides the composition of classes, and thence the grouping 
or the division of the classes. In Italy, the number of pupils in each class must range between 15 and 28 for 
the scuola media, and between 20 and 30 for the liceo (except during the first year, where there must be 
between 25 and 30 pupils). In Austria, the law stipulates a range of pupils per class (between 20 and 30). 

In other countries, the Ministry of Education only sets the maximum number of pupils per class. This is the 
case in particular in Denmark for the folkeskole (at upper secondary school, it is decided at school level), in 
Greece and in Spain (no more than 30 pupils per class in lower secondary and vocational education, and in 
upper secondary education no more than 35). In Scotland, the recommended maximum number of pupils in 
a primary school class is 33, and fewer in secondary schools and for practical subjects. 

In Iceland, decisions on the number of pupils per class are taken at local level in lower secondary education 
(since 1 August 1996). In upper secondary education, the schools themselves have some scope for deciding 
the number of pupils in each class, although the general frame is decided centrally. 

However, the initiative is left with schools to organise the distribution of the pupils among the classes in 
Belgium, France and the Netherlands. In the United Kingdom (except Scotland), there are no 
recommendations for maximum or minimum numbers of pupils per class. This is also the case in Finland 
and Sweden, with a possibility of control by the municipalities. 

With respect to vocational education, Luxembourg emphasises the role of the employers' federations and 
trade unions. In Portugal, the number of pupils per class is set according to a minimum determined by the 
central authority during the first years of operation. 

124 

2. Content and distribution of teaching 

Administration 

2.1. General guidelines 
The main guidelines and objectives for general secondary education are always the province of the 
central authorities (or the Länder in Germany). Thus in Denmark, the major aspects of the education 
system are governed by laws passed by the Danish Parliament (the Folketing) which establish overall 
objectives and define a general framework for the various types of education. 

Table 45. General guidelines, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

With respect to vocational education, France is characterised by regional decision­making. In seven 
countries (Germany, Greece, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, Finland and Iceland), employers' 
federations and trade unions are also involved in defining the general aims. In Germany, the 
framework programmes (Rahmenlehrpläne) for vocational instruction in Berufsschulen are worked 
out jointly in a coordinated procedure by central and regional authorities on the basis of regulations 
governing on­the­job training. In Ireland, there is a well­defined link between the central level and the 
business sector at local level. The law provides for the intervention of Vocational Education 
Committees under the authority of the Ministry of Education. In Luxembourg, the social partners are 
consulted on all legislation relating to technical secondary education, apprenticeships and other types 
of vocational training. 

2.2. Curricula and programmes 
The central level intervenes to varying degrees to determine curricula and programmes in all the 
countries. In many countries, a core curriculum or a general framework is defined at the central level 
from which local authorities and schools develop their own curricula. 

This is, for instance, the case in Denmark (where the municipalities decide themselves whether they 
want to follow the centrally constructed curriculum guidelines), in the Netherlands (where, although a 
core curriculum has been introduced for the first three years of secondary education, schools are free 

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to choose their own school curriculum), in Finland (where the National Board of Education defines 
the general framework of the curriculum for the peruskoulu and the lukio), in Sweden (where the 
government defines minima) and in Iceland (where the content of education is defined in the National 
Curriculum guidelines). 

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the government defines the basic curriculum which must 
include the National Curriculum (in England and Wales) or the Northern Ireland Curriculum (in 
Northern Ireland). Bodies at local and school level determine their own curriculum policy to reflect 
their particular needs and circumstances. The policy must fit in with the National Curriculum or the 
Northern Ireland Curriculum. In Scotland, the Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum is in 
charge of curricular development, with the Scottish Office devising guidelines for curriculum and 
assessment. These guidelines are interpreted at local and school level to meet local needs. 

Table 46. Curricula and programmes, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers" Trade unions Companies 
federations 

(*) 

(*) 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

Λ 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK (E. W.NI) 
UK (SC) 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General 

Vocational 

General and vocational 

(*) represents the role played by employers and trade unions in the duales System. 

In Germany, the curricula are under the responsibility of the Ministries of Education and Cultural 
Affairs of the Länder and are published as regulations; as such, they take the form of instructions 
from a higher authority which are binding on teachers. 

In Spain, the regional educational administrations (Autonomous Community or region administered 
directly by the Ministry of Education and Culture) are allowed to adapt curricula to their own specific 
requirements, provided they respect the core curriculum established by the Ministry. Optional subject 
matters are not regulated on a nation­wide basis. They are established by the competent education 
authority in each regional area and by the schools themselves, subject to certain rules. 

In some countries, local authorities or schools are given considerable room for manoeuvre. In 
Belgium, programmes are set by the Ministry for the French Community schools. In the other 
networks, schools can adopt the official programmes or define their own programmes, which must 
however be approved by the Ministry. 

With regard to vocational education, in relation to the drafting of curricula and programmes, the 

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participation  of  the  business  sector  is  relatively  frequent.  The  employers'  federations  (Belgium,3 
Denmark,  Germany,  Spain,  France,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  Austria,  Finland,  United  Kingdom  and 
Iceland), trade unions (Belgium,  Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Austria,  Finland, 
United  Kingdom  except  Scotland,  and  Iceland)  and  companies  (Denmark,  United  Kingdom  except 
Scotland) help to define  programmes. 

In  Belgium  (French  Community),  the  Community  Commission  on  qualifications  and  profiles,  on 
which  are  represented  teachers,  employers  and  trade  unions, defines  the  professional  profiles  and  the 
training  programmes  for  various  occupations. However,  all the  programmes  must  be approved  by the 
Minister.  In  the  Flemish  Community,  the  Social  and  Economic  Council  (SERV)  defines  the 
the  training 
professional  profiles.  The  Flemish  Council  for  Education  (VLOR)  then  defines 
programmes. 

In  Denmark,  the  social  partners  are  responsible  for  updating  training  programmes  as  well  as  for  the 
practical  side  of  training  courses.  They  also  exercise  considerable  influence  over  the  classroom 
element of training courses. 

In  Germany,  training  regulations  for  vocational  training  within  the  dual  system  are  issued  at  the 
Federal  level. 

In  Spain,  the  various  vocational  training  programmes  are  established  by  the  state  in  association  with 
employers'  and workers'  organisations. 

In  France,  the  vocational  upper  secondary  school  leaving  certificates  (baccalauréats  professionnels) 
were created  in close collaboration  with the business  sector. 

In England,  Wales and Northern  Ireland,  the National  Council  for  Vocational  Qualifications  (NCVQ) 
has  overall  responsibility  for  vocational  education  and  training  qualifications.  Vocational  education 
usually  leads  to  General  National  Vocational  Qualifications  (GNVQs)  (broad-based  vocational 
qualifications),  National  Vocational  Qualifications  (NVQs)  (job-specific  qualifications)  and  other 
more  traditional  qualifications  such  as  BTEC.  Approved  centres  deliver  GNVQs  and  NVQs  by 
structuring  their  own  programmes  to  meet  specified  criteria  provided  by  the  'awarding  body'  (the 
independent  organisation  which  awards  qualifications).  In  the  case  of NVQs,  awarding  bodies  work 
with  Lead  Bodies,  which  include  employer  and  trade  union  representatives.  In  Scotland,  SCOTVEC 
awards  are  SVQs  (Scottish  Vocational  Qualifications)  and  GSVQs  (General  Scottish  Vocational 
Qualifications).  These are equivalent to NVQs and are similarly  based. 

2.3. Course load 
The course  load, meaning the number of hours required  to deliver the curriculum,  is generally  defined 
together  with  the  methods  for  developing  curricula.  In  countries  where  it  is  the  central  authorities 
which  determine  course  load,  they  also  prescribe  development  methods,  as  in  Greece,  France,  Italy, 
Luxembourg,  Portugal  and Norway.  In Germany, the Länder  determine  the number  of teaching  hours 
for each  subject. 

In  general  secondary  education,  many  countries  decide,  at  the  central  level,  the  minimum  and 
maximum  number  of  hours  to  be  devoted  to  the  compulsory  subjects.  This  is  the  case  in  Belgium 
(French  Community)  with  the  drawing  up of timetables,  Spain  (where  the  programme  established  by 
the  various  administrations  with  full  powers  over  education  has  in  all  cases  to  include  the  core 
curriculum fixed by the Ministry), the Netherlands  (where the minimum  number of lessons per  school 
year  is determined  at central  level for the first three school years of lower secondary education  but the 
allocation  of  the  number  of  lessons  by  subject  is  determined,  however,  at  school  level),  Austria 
(where  schools are  free  to make  certain  modifications  to  curricula  and  timetables  in compliance  with 
the  law)  and  Finland  (where  the  Council  of  State  decides  the  minimum  number  of  hours  in 
compulsory  subjects 
in  vocational  education). 
in  general  education  and  in  common  subjects 
Definition  of minimum  course loads is also the norm  in Denmark and  since  1995/96  in Sweden. 

In the Flemish Community, schools cooperate with employers for the preparation of curricula and programmes. 

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Β 
DK 
D 

EL 
E 
F 
IRL 
I 
L 
NL 
Λ 
Ρ 
FIN 
S 
UK 
IS 
LI 
NO 

1 

I 

Table 47. Course load, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

1 I 

! 

1 1 1 

1 1 1 

1 1 

I 

General 

1 I 

1 
1 

1 1 1 
1 1 

Vocational 

General and vocational 

In England and Wales, the amount of time to be spent on each subject can not be prescribed. Instead, 
there is an obligation on school governing bodies and headteachers to ensure that there is sufficient 
time to deliver the National Curriculum, religious education, collective worship and sex education. 

With regard to vocational education, a clear distinction between general and technical education is 
made only in Ireland. (It is the central level which fixes the course load, while schools are free to do 
this in general education.) In Luxembourg, the employers' federations and the trade unions play an 
important role. In the United Kingdom, the regulatory and awarding bodies may indicate how many 
hours of study a qualification is likely to take to complete, but this is ultimately determined by the 
institution providing the course. 

2.4. Definition of recognised occupations 

The definition of recognised occupations to be catered for by vocational education is frequently the 
subject of negotiations between the state and the social partners. It is the case in Denmark, where the 
social partners, through their representation in the trade committees, are involved in the decision­
making regarding the duration and nature of the courses, Luxembourg, where the Ministry of 
Education, in agreement with the chambers of trade, detennines which occupations are subject to 
apprenticeship, Norway, and Germany where, on the basis of consultation with all those responsible 
for vocational training and with the involvement of employers and trade unions, training regulations 
are drawn up which establish around 370 recognised occupations.6 In Spain and France, training 
programmes are prepared at national level in ad hoc committees such as the Consejo General de la 
Formación Profesional in Spain, a council of representatives from employers' and trade union 
organisations and the state. 

According to the Rahmenlehrplan, the Berufsschule classes cover the material for each recognised occupation. 

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Table 48. Definition of recognised occupations, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

(*) (*) 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Vocational 

(*) as far as training in the duales System is concerned. 

In Belgium, the Ministry responsible for small and medium­sized businesses requires a certificate of 
vocational qualification and a certificate of management knowledge for entry to a regulated 
occupation. 

In Italy, occupational profiles and subject areas common to all sections are defined by ministerial 
decree. 

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, industry lead bodies in consultation with the awarding 
bodies and the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) decide which vocational 
qualifications are appropriate for specific industries. All National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) 
must be accredited by the NCVQ. 

2.5. Breakdown of practical and general education in vocational 

education 

The breakdown between general and vocational training is most often detennined at central level. In 
Germany, under the dual system, framework programmes for vocationally­oriented courses offered by 
the Berufsschule are prepared jointly by the federal authorities and the Länder in consultation with 
employers and trade unions. Work­based vocational training has been standardised at federal level. In 
Iceland, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture decides on both the theoretical and the 
practical aspects of training, but the vocational education committees are consulted on those matters. 

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Administration 

Table 49.  Breakdown  between  practical  and  general  training,  1995/96 

Central 

Decision-making level 
Local 
Regional 

School 

Input of social partners 
Employers'  Trade unions  Companies 
federations 

(*) 

(*) 

(except SC) 

(except SC) 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

1 

L 

NL 

Λ 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

Vocational 

(*) as far as training in the duales System is concerned. 

In Finland, the minimum  amount of practical  training  is defined  on central  level. It can be increased  at 
school  level. 

In  Sweden,  the  national  goals  in  the  16  programmes  of  the  vocational  upper  secondary  school  are 
decided  in  cooperation  with  the  social  partners  involved  in  each  programme.  There  are  programme 
advisory  groups  for  each  national  programme.  Each  school  cooperates  with  the  social  partners  and 
local  industry, but there are no regulations concerning the form  of the  cooperation. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  the  degree  of  practical  training  and  related  theory  is decided  at  institutional 
level to meet general  criteria  laid down  by the awarding body. 

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3. Pedagogical arrangements and certification 

3.1. Teaching methods 
Teaching methods are chosen at the local or the school level in seven countries (Belgium, Denmark, 
Finland, Sweden, United Kingdom, Iceland and Norway). Thus in Belgium, each organising authority 
is free to choose its own teaching methods. In Denmark, the municipal councils are allowed to 
intervene in the teaching activities of public schools, whilst private schools are considered a part of 
alternative education. 

In other countries, this choice is made jointly with the central or the regional level. The cases of 
France and Luxembourg serve to illustrate the use of the school development plan. This defines the 
school's own specific objectives with regard to educational initiatives and action, as well as extra­
curricular activities, although the plan must be endorsed by a higher authority (the rectorat in France). 
In Italy, the regional institutes for research, educational innovation and teacher retraining (IRRSAE) 
which come under the Ministry of Education, though broadly autonomous, can monitor pilot projects 
proposed by the schools. In Portugal, broad methodological guidelines are drawn up at central level, 
although in each school it is the Pedagogical Council which defines precisely the methodology to be 
used. 

Table 50. Teaching methods, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

1 I 

1 1 1 

1 1 

\Z 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

1 I 

1 

1 I 

Vocational 

Q 

General 

General and vocational 

Β 
DK 
D 
EL 
E 
F 
IRL 
I 
L 
NL 
A 
Ρ 
FÍN 
S 
UK 
IS 
LI 
NO 

In three countries (Germany, Greece, Liechtenstein), the central or regional level defines the teaching 
methods. In Germany, teaching in schools is governed by regulations of various kinds laid down by 
the Länder. The curricula include teaching guidelines on the treatment of the various subjects, 
distribution of materials and various didactic approaches. In Greece, at the beginning of the school 
year, special directions about general and particular teaching methods are sent to all teachers by the 
National Pedagogical Institute. 

With regard to vocational education, Luxembourg gives a consultative role to the employers' 
organisations and trade unions. In Portugal, the centrally prepared curriculum is proposed to schools 
which have autonomous management of the pedagogical and methodological guidelines. Firms are 

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associated with decisions concerning vocational secondary education in Belgium, Spain, France and 
Portugal. In Germany, the Rahmenlehrpläne for vocational instruction in Berufsschulen are worked 
out jointly in a coordinated procedure by central and regional authorities, in which employers' 
associations and trade unions are involved. 

3.2. Selection and approval of school textbooks 
The selection of school textbooks most frequently takes place at school level (or even at section or 
class level). This free choice exists in Belgium, Denmark, where the general responsibility for school 
textbooks falls to the school's skolebestyrelse, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal, while taking 
into account general recommendations expressed by the competent central departments, Finland, 
Sweden and the United Kingdom where no textbooks are compulsory for secondary school pupils, 
with the exception of literature texts specified as part of the examination syllabus. 

Table 51. Selection and approval of 
school textbooks, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Β 

DK 

D 

EL 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

L 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK 

IS 

LI 

NO 

General 

However, sometimes the selection is made from a list approved at a higher level, such as the Land in 
Germany, the Autonomous Community in Spain and the Ministries of Education in Norway and Austria. 

In Iceland, at lower secondary level, the state is responsible for supplying textbooks and teaching 
materials, but the schools are free to choose what materials they prefer to use, when there is a choice. 
At upper secondary level, schools are free to choose textbooks and teaching materials. 

Only in Greece and Luxembourg are school textbooks selected at central level. 

3.3. Certification and qualification 

The determination of certification and qualification procedures is very often under the responsibility 
of the central level. It also depends on the teaching level (upper or lower secondary). We will focus 
here on certification at the end of upper secondary level (see Chapter II). 

In general secondary education, there is a national examination, always organised under the 
responsibility of the Ministry of Education, in the Netherlands (at the end of VBO, MAVO, HAVO 

132 

Administration 

and VWO), in Finland (matriculation examination assessed at national level by a committee appointed 
by the Ministry of Education) and in Portugal (since 1995). 

But the state can sometimes grant schools an important role, for instance by making them responsible 
for issuing school­leaving certificates themselves, although they are required to apply standards which 
to a greater or lesser degree are imposed and verified by the education authority, as is the case in 
Belgium, where schools at all levels are authorised to issue diplomas and certificates,7 Greece, Spain 
and Iceland. In Sweden, national tests designed by the National Agency for Education are used in the 
ninth year of the grundskola as a base to facilitate the establishment of comparable criteria in the 
marks which are given to the pupils. Similar tests are recommended, but not compulsory, at upper 
secondary level. 

Table 52. Certification and qualification, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Central Regional Local School 

Input of social partners 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

I 

I sm 

1 1 1 

1 I 

B 
DK 
D 
EL 
E 
F 
IRL 
I 
L 
NL 
A 
Ρ 
FIN 
S 
UK 
IS 
LI 
NO 

(*) (*) 

1 1 1 

General Vocational 

| General and vocational 

(*) as far as certification and qualification in the duales System is concerned. 

In vocational education, Luxembourg, Austria, the United Kingdom and Iceland involve employers' 
federations and trade unions in the decision­making process relating to vocational certification and 
qualifications. In Gennany, trainees in the dual system take final examinations administered by the 
authorities responsible for vocational training (self­governing regional and sectoral organisations 
from the various branches of industry and commerce).8 In Iceland, the journeyman's examination is 
the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture and of a special committee 
comprised of representatives from both sides of industry. 

But the upper secondary level certificate must be approved by an ad /zocommittee. Diplomas and certificates may also be 
issued by Community examining boards. 
The boards of examination are made up of representatives of industry and labour and teachers at Berufsschulen. 
Concomitantly, the Berufsschule issues a leaving certificate, which may incorporate a Hauptschulabschluß or 
Realschulabschluß, depending on the candidate's achievement. 

133 

Administration 

4. Management of teaching staff 

4.1. Recruitment 
Teaching staff are recruited only at central level in Greece, France, Italy and Luxembourg. In 
Portugal, the recruitment of teaching staff is mainly the responsibility of the central authority with, 
however, an opportunity of recruitment at the local level. The recruitment is organised through a 
competitive examination at the municipal or inter­municipal level. 

In other countries, the lower levels of decision­taking are involved, sometimes at one level of 
secondary education (either lower or upper, the other one remaining under the responsibility of the 
state). 

• Recruitment takes place on a regional basis in Spain, (in public schools), in Austria, (teachers for 

Hauptschulen and Berufsschulen), at the level of the counties in Denmark and Norway (in upper 
secondary level) and at the level of the Länder in Germany. 

• Recruitment is carried out by the municipalities or other local authorities or by the schools in 

Ireland, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, and in Iceland at the lower 
secondary education level. 

Table 53. Recruitment of teaching staff, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Input of social partners 

Central Regional Local School 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 

DK 

D 

ΚΙ. 

E 

F 

IRL 

I 

1. 

NL 

A 

Ρ 

FIN 

S 

UK (E.W/NI) 

UK (SC) 

LS 

LI 

NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

In England and Wales, following the Education Reform Act 1988, responsibility for appointing and 
dismissing teaching staff was effectively transferred from the LEA to the governing bodies9 even 
though, for most schools maintained by the LEA, staff remain legally in the employment of the LEA. 
In Scotland, school boards now share powers to recruit teaching staff jointly with the local authorities. 

For a detailed account of the role of governing bodies and school boards, please see the document School Heads in the 
European Union (EURYDICE, 1996). 

134 

Administration 

In Belgium, the recruitment of teaching staff is the responsibility of each organising authority. In the 
schools of the French Community network, recruitment is undertaken at the central level while in the 
schools of the other networks, it takes place at the local level (provincial and municipal schools) and 
at the level of the organising authority of the school or of all the schools which depend on it (private 
non­state schools). 

Teaching staff working in vocational education are not recruited at the same level of decision taking 
as in general education in Portugal (school level) and Norway (regional level). Companies are 
involved in recruitment decisions in France, Ireland and the Netherlands. In general, trainers are 
recruited and appraised at local level, represented by the educational institution as far as general 
trainers are concerned, and by the company with respect to its own salaried training staff. 

4.2. Assessment of teachers' work 
The assessment of teachers' work is always under the responsibility of the inspectors in the countries 
where there is an inspectorate. In other countries, it is more difficult to define the same kind of 
activities, as the monitoring of teaching is organised on a broader basis: educational activities are 
assessed without referring to an appraisal of individual teachers' work. 

Where it exists, inspection is generally organised at central level. This is the case, for example, in 
Belgium, with the inspectors of the Community, and in Italy, where the Inspectorate help the 
provveditore agli studi to monitor schools in the province. In Austria, inspection is under the 
responsibility of the federal school authorities in the Länder and the districts. In Luxembourg, the 
Ministry of Education is also responsible for monitoring secondary education through the heads of the 
various schools. 

Table 54. Assessment of teachers' work, 1995/96 

Decision­making level 

Input of social partners 

Central Regional Local School 

Employers' Trade unions Companies 
federations 

Β 
DK 
D 
EL 
E 
F 
IRL 
I 
L 
NL 
A 
Ρ 
FIN 
S 

UK (E,W,NI) 
UK (SC) 
IS 
LI 
NO 

General Vocational 

General and vocational 

In most of the German Länder, school supervisory authorities exercise academic supervision 
(Fachaufsicht), legal supervision (Rechtsaufsicht) and staff supervision (Dienstaufsicht) of teachers 
and headteachers in public­sector schools, in order to ensure that teaching staff are carrying out their 
duties. 

135 

Administration 

In  some  countries,  there  is  an  inspection  at  the  central  level  but  the  appraisal  of  teachers'  work  is 
under  the  responsibility  of  the  schools.  This  is  the  case  in  Portugal,  England,  Wales  and  Northern 
Ireland.  In  Scotland,  inspection  is  the  responsibility  of  the  central  level  but  senior  management  in 
schools takes part  in the assessment  or appraisal  of staff  internally. 

In other  countries, there  is no  inspectorate  as  such. National  monitoring  of the  education  system  is at 
the discretion  of the  Ministry  of  Education  in Iceland.  It is mainly the regional  authorities  (prefectures 
in  Greece,  counties  in  Denmark  and  Norway)  and  the  municipalities  (for  example,  in  Finland  and 
Sweden)  which  are  obliged  to  monitor  and  evaluate  the  educational  activities  systematically  in 
relation  to the objectives  and conditions applying to them. 

With  regard  to  vocational  education,  Denmark  demonstrates  the  role  of  the  employers'  federations 
and  trade  unions.  In  Portugal,  the  regional  delegations  of  the  general  inspection  of  education  are  in 
charge  of  educational  assessment  and  monitoring  in  the  vocational  schools,  but  these  delegations 
represent  the  central  government.  In  Scotland,  Further  Education  Colleges  are  subject  to  national 
inspection  and are responsible  for educational  assessment,  monitoring and recruiting. 

136 

Administration 

5. Summary 

This analysis  has brought  out a certain  number of trends  in the administration  of secondary  education 
in  the  European  Union  and  the  EFTA/EEA  countries.  It  appears  that,  while  the  degrees  of 
centralisation  or  decentralisation  vary  from  one  country  to  another,  they  also  vary  from  one  field  to 
another. Comparison  of general  and vocational  education makes it possible to assess the differences  in 
organisation  and  more  particularly  the  involvement  of  both  sides  of  industry  in  decisions  on  the 
administration  of the vocational  streams. 

Generally  speaking, while all the  Member  States have  in common  the characteristic  of having made a 
start  on  decentralisation,  it appears  that this  is more  often  in the  form  of  a  sharing  of  responsibilities 
than  of  a  clear  transfer  of  powers  and  decisions.  On  the  first  point,  it  would  appear  that  the  central 
authority  is the  administrative  reference  level  in  a majority  of  countries  (Belgium,10  Greece,  France, 
Ireland,  Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Iceland, Liechtenstein  and Norway). This does not mean that the 
other  administrative  levels  are  not,  in certain  cases, associated  with  decision  taking.  Mention  can  for 
instance  be  made  of  the  role  played  by  the  regional  authority  (France  and  Italy), the  local  authority 
(Belgium,  Italy,  Iceland  and  Norway)  and  the  school  (Belgium  and  Portugal).  The  regional  level  is 
predominant  in  Germany,  where  the Länder  are  responsible  for  general  and  vocational  education  in 
schools, and  increasingly  so  in  Spain  (the  Autonomous  Communities),  while  in Austria  it  intervenes 
jointly  with  the  central  authority.  This  concept  of  decision  taking jointly  or  in  association  is  also 
characteristic  of  Denmark  and  the  Netherlands  at  central,  local  and  school  level.  This  trend  towards 
joint  decision  taking  brings these  Member  States  closer to those  in which  decisions  are  taken  largely 
at local or school  level (Finland,  Sweden and the United  Kingdom). 

With  regard  to  the  various  aspects  examined  in  this  chapter,  the  distinction  between  totally 
decentralised  types of decision  taking and  others which  are totally  centralised  must be qualified.  Only 
the definition  of the duration  of compulsory education  remains the exclusive prerogative  of the  central 
level  (of  the  Länder  in  Germany).  In  vocational  education,  the  definition  of  recognised  occupations 
and the division  between  practical  and  general  education  are  also very  centralised.  To a lesser  extent, 
the  general  aims  of  education  are  mainly  defined  at  central  level,  which  also  influences  the 
organisation  of the  school  year,  curricula  and  course  loads.  The  role  played  by  local  authorities  and 
schools  is particularly  evident  in relation  to the choice  of teaching  methods, text  books and the  use of 
school  time.  Some  aspects  (recruitment  of  teachers  and  appraisal  of  their  work,  certification  and 
qualification  procedures,  and  class  sizes)  are typically  subject  to  decision  taking  which  is very  much 
divided  over the various administrative  levels. 

As  regards  vocational  education,  the  administrative  reference  level  is  often  the  same  as  in  general 
education.  The  most  notable  exceptions  are,  for  example,  the  organisation  of  the  school  year  in 
Portugal,  the  number  of  weekly  teaching  periods  in  Denmark  and  Luxembourg,  the  general  aims  in 
Germany  (as  far  as  training  in  the  dual  system  is  concerned),  the  curricula  in  France,  Italy  and 
Portugal, course  loads  in Ireland, certification  and  qualification  procedures  in Iceland, the  recruitment 
of  teachers  in  Denmark  and  the  appraisal  of  teacher  performance  in  the  Netherlands.  The  role  of 
representatives  of workers and employers  is more especially  brought  out  in relation  to the content and 
division  of  education  (general  aims,  curricula,  definition  of  recognised  occupations  and  division 
between  practical and general education). 

The different  types of administration  of secondary  education  are  in practice  largely determined  by the 
more  general  political,  historical  and  structural  context.  In  Member  States  with  a  federal  or  quasi-
federal  structure  (for  instance,  Belgium,  Germany  and  Spain),  it  is  the  first  intermediate  level" 
(regional  or community)  that  has most  powers. In the  northern  European  countries  and  in the  United 
Kingdom,  local  authorities  traditionally  have  important  powers. In the  remaining  countries,  reference 
to  a  central  authority  is  more  or  less  the  starting  point,  in  the  knowledge  that  various  powers  are 
delegated  to  lower  administrative  levels.  While  the  principle  of  subsidiarity  may  to  some  extent 

10 
1 ' 

The Community being taken as the central level. 
In Germany, the Länder are the highest level of competence in the field of education. 

137 

Administration 

inform  this movement towards  partial  decentralisation, there are also structural  reasons  inherent  in the 
education  system  itself:  upper  secondary  schools  often  serve  a wider  public  at  regional  level,  while 
lower  secondary  schools  (particularly  if  they  are  linked  to  primary  education  as  in  the  all-through, 
single-structure  schools)  are  provided  at  local  level.  The  question  of  decentralisation  is  inevitably 
linked  with  that  of  school  autonomy.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  which  result  from  this  have 
been  the  subject  of  much  debate  which  it  would  be  well  to  illuminate  by  producing  some  tangible 
results on the point. 

138 

V -  Index to Maps, Graphs and Tables 

Index  of  Maps,  Graphs  and  Tables 

CHAPTER I 

Table 1. 
Table 2. 
Table 3. 
Table 4. 
Table 5. 
Table 6. 
Table 7. 
Table 8. 
Table 9. 

Table 10. 
Table 11. 
Table 12. 
Table 13. 
Table 14. 
Table 15. 
Table 16. 
Table 17. 
Table 18. 
Table 19. 
Table 20. 
Table 21. 
Table 22. 
Table 23. 
Table 24. 
Table 25. 
Table 26. 
Table 27. 
Table 28. 
Table 29. 
Table 30. 
Graph  1. 
Graph 2. 

Graph 3. 
Graph 4. 

n the French and  German-speaking 

Duration of lower secondary education,  1995/96 
Duration of upper secondary general education,  1995/96 
Duration of upper secondary vocational education,  1995/96 
Theoretical age of entering lower secondary education,  1995/96 
Theoretical age of entering upper secondary education,  1995/96 
Theoretical  age of leaving upper secondary education,  1995/96 
Access conditions for  lower secondary education,  1995/96 
Access conditions for upper secondary education,  1995/96 
Structures of secondary education 
Communities of BELGIUM,  1995/96 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Structures of secondary education 
Guidance procedures used during secondary schooling,  1995/96 
Percentage (and numbers) of girls and boys in lower secondary general education,  1994/95 
Percentage  (and  numbers)  of pupils  in  upper  secondary  general  and  vocational  education, 
1994/95 
Percentage (and numbers) of girls and boys in upper secondary general education,  1994/95 
Percentage  (and  numbers)  of  girls  and  boys  in  upper  secondary  vocational  education, 
1994/95 

n the Flemish Community of BELGIUM,  1995/96 
n DENMARK,  1995/96 
n GERMANY,  1995/96 
n GREECE,  1995/96 
n SPAIN (post-reform),  1995/96 
n FRANCE,  1995/96 
n IRELAND,  1995/96 
n ITALY,  1995/96 
n LUXEMBOURG,  1995/96 
n the NETHERLANDS,  1995/96 
n AUSTRIA,  1995/96 
n PORTUGAL,  1995/96 
n FINLAND (after the  1995 reform),  1995/96 
n SWEDEN,  1995/96 
n ENGLAND and WALES,  1995/96 
n NORTHERN IRELAND,  1995/96 
n SCOTLAND,  1995/96 
n ICELAND,  1995/96 
n LIECHTENSTEIN,  1995/96 
in NORWAY,  1995/96 

139 

Index  of  Maps,  Graphs  and  Tables 

CHAPTER II 

Graph  5.  Weekly  number (minimum  and maximum) of taught  periods  in  lower and  upper  secondary 

general education,  1995/96 

Table 31.  Weekly number of taught periods and their duration  in lower secondary education,  1995/96 
Table 32.  Weekly number of taught periods and their duration  in upper secondary education,  1995/96 
Annual  number of taught hours in lower secondary general education,  1995/96 
Graph 6. 
Annual number of taught hours in upper secondary general education,  1995/96 
Graph  7. 
Annual  number of taught hours in upper secondary vocational education,  1995/96 
Graph  8. 
Annual  minimum  number  of teaching hours  in each  subject  at age  13 in general  education, 
Graph 9. 
1995/96 

Graph  10.  Annual  minimum  number  of teaching hours  in each  compulsory  subject  at the age of  16 in 

general education, science section,  1995/96 

Table 33.  Assessment and certification  in lower secondary education,  1995/96 
Table 34.  Assessment and certification  in upper secondary general education,  1995/96 
Table 35.  Assessment and certification  in upper secondary vocational education,  1995/96 
Table 36.  Certificates  and  examinations  on  completion  of  upper ' secondary  general  education, 

1995/96 

CHAPTER  III 

Map  1. 
Map 2. 
Graph  11. 
Graph  12. 
Table 37. 
Table 38.  Teacher training and qualification,  1995/96 

Initial training of  lower secondary school teachers,  1995/96 
Initial training of upper secondary school teachers,  1995/96 
Initial training of lower secondary school teachers (general education),  1995/96 
Initial training of upper secondary school teachers (general education),  1995/96 
School-based  types of practical and professional  teacher training,  1995/96 

A. Lower Secondary General  Education (Separate Route) 
B. Upper Secondary General  Education  (Separate  Route) 
C. Lower and Upper Secondary General  Education (Common Route) 

Table 39.  Vocational Education,  1995/96 
Graph  13.  Pedagogical  and  practical  training  as  a  proportion  of  the  total  preparation  of  teachers, 

1995/96 

Graph  14.  Days  spent  on  school  placements  -  teacher  training  for  lower  and  upper  secondary 

education,  1995/96 

Table 40.  The place of pedagogical and practical training,  1995/96 
A. Lower Secondary General  Education (Separate Route) 
B. Upper Secondary General  Education (Separate Route) 
C. General  Education  Lower and Upper Secondary (Common Route) 

140 

Index  of  Maps,  Graphs  and  Tables 

CHAPTER IV 

Table 4L  Duration of compulsory schooling,  1995/96 
Table 42.  Organisation of the school year,  1995/96 
Table 43.  Number of weekly taught periods,  1995/96 
Table 44.  Number of pupils per class,  1995/96 
Table 45.  General guidelines,  1995/96 
Table 46.  Curricula and programmes,  1995/96 
Table 47.  Course load,  1995/96 
Table 48.  Definition  of recognised occupations,  1995/96 
Table 49.  Breakdown between practical and general training,  1995/96 
Table 50.  Teaching methods,  1995/96 
Table 51. 
Table 52.  Certification  and qualification,  1995/96 
Table 53.  Recruitment of teaching staff,  1995/96 
Table 54.  Assessment of teachers' work,  1995/96 

Selection and approval of school textbooks,  1995/96 

141 

EURYDICE 

The Information  Network on Education in Europe 

EURYDICE 

OBJECTIVES 

The  role  of  the  EURYDICE  network,  the  information  network  on  education  in  Europe,  is to  promote  the 
exchange of information  on education systems and on national policies in the field of education. It contributes 
to increasing mutual understanding and cooperation between the  15 Member States of the European Union1. 

ORIGIN AND HISTORY 

In  1976, when  the  Council  and  the  Education  Ministers  adopted  the  Resolution  on  a  first  programme  for 
cooperation  in the field of education, they gave recognition to the importance, in this context, of exchanges of 
information  and  experience.  It  was  on  this  basis  that  the  EURYDICE  network  was  set  up  and  became 
operational  in  1980. Ten  years  later,  in  1990, the  Council  and  the  Ministers  adopted  a  Resolution  dealing 
specifically  with EURYDICE and calling for a reinforcement  of its services. The Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on 
European  Union)  marked  an  important  step  forward,  providing  in  the  new  Chapter  3,  Article  126,  for 
developing  exchanges  of  information  and  experience  on  issues  common  to  the  education  systems  of  the 
Member  States.  It  has  thus  opened  up  for  EURYDICE  new  prospects  of  which  the  Community  education 
programme,  SOCRATES,  adopted  on  14  March  1995,  takes  full  account  (Annex,  Chapter  III,  Action  3, 
point 2). It is under this Programme that the development of EURYDICE will be assured from now on. 

ORGANISATION AND ACTIVITIES 

The  network  comprises  National  Units,  most  of  which  are  located  in  the  Ministries  of  Education1.  The 
European  Unit,  established  by the  European  Commission,  coordinates  the  network's  activities,  publications 
and services. It also promotes exchanges between the National Units to meet the information  needs of national 
and  Community policymakers. On the basis of contributions  from  the  network,  it produces basic  documents 
and  comparative  analyses  on  topics  of  interest  to  cooperation  at  Community  level.  EURYDICE  is  also 
increasingly called upon to fulfil  the role of an Observatory',  in relation to the development of the education 
systems and  policies  in the  European  Union. Through the dissemination  of  its publications, the EURYDICE 
network also reaches a wide public in the education world. 

SERVICES AND PRODUCTS 

O 
O 

Database on the education systems (EURYBASE). 
Various publications on education. 

EURYDICE European Unit 
RuedArlon 15 
B-1050 BRUSSELS 
Tel. 
Fax 

32 2 238.30.11 
32 2 230.65.62 

June 1997 

Under  the  Agreement  on  the  European  Economic  Area,  Iceland,  Norway  and  Liechtenstein  are  participating  in  the 
activities of the EURYDICE network in the same way as the Member States of the European Union. Moreover, from  1996, 
the network activities are open to the central and eastern European countries and to Cyprus. 

EUROPEAN  COMMISSION 

EURYDICE  NETWORK 

Editing of the document 
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E-mail:  EURYDICE.UEE@euronet.be 
Coordination  and completion  of the study: Arlette  Delhaxhe, Martin  McLean, Azzedine  Si Moussa 

Data provided  by the Eurydice  National  Units 

EURYDICE  NETWORK  UNITS 

European  Union 

BELGIQUE/BELGIË 
Unité  Belge d'Eurydice  (Communauté  française) 
Ministère de l'Éducation,  de la Recherche et de la Formation 
Secrétariat  Général 
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Belgische  Eurydice-Eenheid  (Vlaamse  Gemeenschap) 
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Afdeling  Beleidsgerichte  Coördinatie 
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B-1010  Brussel 
Tel.:32-2-210.51.36 
Telefax:  32-2-210.53.72 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

Ministerium  der deutschsprachigen  Gemeinschaft 
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National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

ELLADA 
Ministry of National  Education 
and  Religious  Affairs 
Mitropoleos  15 
GR-10185  Athens 
Tel.:  30-1-32.37.480 
Telefax:  30-1-32.20.767 
National contribution: Antigoni Faragoulitaki, Véronique Zographos 

ESPAÑA 
Ministerio de Educación  y Cultura 
CIDE -  Centro de Investigación 
y Documentación  Educativa 
c/General  Oráa 55 
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Telefax:  34-1-563.18.42 
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FRANCE 
Unité  d'Eurydice 
Ministère de l'Éducation  nationale, de la Recherche et 
de la Technologie 
Délégation  aux Relations  internationales  et à la Coopération 
Sous-Direction  des Relations  internationales et 
de la Coopération  de l'enseignement  scolaire 
Bureau  de l'information  sur les systèmes éducatifs  et 
la reconnaissance  des  diplômes 
Rue de Grenelle  110 
F-75357  Paris 
Tel.:  33-1-40.65.67.66 
Telefax:  33-1-45.44.57.87 
National  contribution: Thierry  Damour 

IRELAND 
Eurydice  Unit 
International  Section 
Department  of Education 
6th floor - Apollo  House 
Tara Street 
Dublin 2 
Ireland 
Tel.:  353-1-873.47.00 
Telefax:  353-1-679.13.15 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

ITALIA 
Ministero della Pubblica  Istruzione 
Biblioteca di Documentazione  Pedagogica 
Palazzo Gerini 
Via Buonarroti  10 
1-50122 Firenze 
Tel.:  39-55-238.03.05 
Telefax:  39-55-24.28.84 
National  contribution:  Daniela Nenci, Antonella Turchi 

LUXEMBOURG 
Unité d'Eurydice 
Centre de Psychologie et d'Orientation  Scolaire 
Route de Longwy 280 
L-1940  Luxembourg 
Tel.:  352-45.64.64.604 
Telefax:  352-45.45.44 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

NEDERLAND 
Eurydice Eenheid  Nederland 
Bibliotheek  en  Documentatie 
Ministerie van  Onderwijs,  Cultuur en  Wetenschappen 
Postbus 25000 -  Europaweg 4 
Station  333  Kamer H150 
2700  LZ Zoetermeer 
Nederland 
Tel.:31-79-323.35.02 
Telefax:  31-79-323.48.23 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

ÖSTERREICH 
Bundesministerium  für  Unterricht  und 
kulturelle  Angelegenheiten 
Abt.  I/6b 
Minoritenplatz  5 
A-1014Wien 
Tel.:43-1-53.12.03.520 
Telefax:  43-1-53.12.03.535 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

PORTUGAL 
Unidade de  Eurydice 
Ministério da  Educação 
Departamento  de Avaliação,  Prospectiva 
e Planeamento  (DAPP) 
Av. 24 de Julho  134 
P-1350 Lisboa 
Tel.:351-1-395.75.97 
Telefax:  351-1-395.76.10 
National  contribution:  Rosa Antunes 

SUOMI /  FINLAND 
Eurydice  Finland 
National  Board of  Education 
P.O. Box 380 
SF-00531  Helsinki 
Tel.:358-9-77.47.71.38 
Telefax:  358-9-77.47.78.69 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

SVERIGE 
Eurydice Unit 
Ministry of Education  and  Science 
Drottninggatan  16 
S-l0333  Stockholm 
Tel.:46-8-405.17.52 
Telefax:  46-8-20.32.55 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

UNITED  KINGDOM 
Eurydice Unit  London 
National  Foundation  for  Educational  Research 
The Mere, Upton  Park 
Slough, Berkshire SL1 2DQ 
United  Kingdom 
Tel.:44-1753-57.41.23 
Telefax:  44-1753-53.14.58 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

Eurydice Unit  Scotland 
International  Relations  Branch 
Scottish  Office  Education  and Industry  Department 
Floor  1  Area B Victoria Quay 
Edinburgh  EH6 6QQ 
United  Kingdom 
Tel.:44-131-244.09.14 
Telefax:  44-131-244.55.81 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

EFTA/EEA  Countries 

ISLAND 
Ministry of Culture and  Education 
Division  of Evaluation  and  Supervision 
Eurydice  Unit 
Sölvhólsgata 4 
IS-150  Reykjavik 
Tel.: 354-560.95.66 
Telefax:  354-562.30.68 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

LIECHTENSTEIN 
National  Unit of Eurydice 
Schulamt 
Herrengasse 2 
FL-9490  Vaduz 
Tel.:41-75-236.67.58 
Telefax:  41-75-236.67.71 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

NORGE 
Royal Norwegian  Ministry of Education, 
Research  and Church  Affairs 
Eurydice Unit 
P.O. Box 8119 Dep. 
N-0032 Oslo 
Tel.:47-22-24.74.47 
Telefax:  47-22-24.27.30 
National  contribution: joint  responsibility 

CAT. NUMBER 
UU1097068ENC 

EURYDICE EUROPEAN UNIT 
Rue d'Arlon 15 
B-1050 Brussels