Commission staff working document - Accompanying document to the Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Equality between women and men — 2010 {COM(2009) 694 final}
Date: 2009-12-18
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: activity report, anti-discriminatory measure, equal treatment, gender equality

EN 

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Brussels, 18.12.2009 
SEC(2009) 1706 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

accompanying document to the 

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND 
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Equality between women and men — 2010 

{COM(2009) 694 final} 

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1 

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STATISTICAL ANNEX TO THE ANNUAL REPORT ON EQUALITY BETWEEN 
WOMEN AND MEN 2010 

This statistical annex provides an overview of the situation of women and men in the EU, its 
evolution  over  time  and  remaining  gender  gaps  in  various  fields  such  as  the  labour  market, 
work-life  balance,  social  inclusion,  education  and  presence  in  decision-making  positions. 
Most of these indicators have already been presented in previous reports in order to facilitate 
the follow-up from one year to another. 

Female participation in the labour market and gender gaps 

The European Strategy for Jobs and Growth set the target of reaching an employment rate for 
women of 60% by 2010. Over the last few years, female employment has increased steadily, 
at a rate that was consistently higher than for men. The employment rate of women rose by 
4.2 percentage points (p.p.) between 2003 and 2008, from 54.9% to 59.1%, whereas over the 
same period the employment rate of men increased by 2.5 p.p., from 70.3% to 72.8%. As a 
result,  the  gap  between  women’s  and  men’s  employment  rates  decreased  from  15.4  p.p.  in 
2003  to  13.7  p.p.  in  2008.  At  national  level,  significant  differences  exist  across  the  EU:  in 
three  Member  States  (Malta,  Italy  and  Greece)  less  than  half  of  working-age  women  are  in 
employment,  whereas  this  proportion  is  above  70%  in  Denmark  (74.3%),  Sweden  (71.8%) 
and the Netherlands (71.1%).  

The employment rate gap between women and men ranged from less than 5 p.p. in Finland 
and Sweden to more than 25 p.p. in Greece and Malta. Between 2003 and 2008, it narrowed 
in  all  Member  States,  except  in  seven  (Slovakia,  Poland,  Sweden,  Bulgaria,  the  Czech 
Republic, Romania and Finland) where it widened.  

In general, the gender gap in employment rate increases with age and is highest among older 
workers (55 to 64 years). In 2008, it was on average 18.2 p.p., down from 19.5 p.p. in 2003 
due to the strong increase in the employment rates of women above 55 years, from 30.7% in 
2003 to 36.8% in 2008.  

Until the economic and financial crisis (see specific analysis below), the unemployment rates 
of both women and men had been decreasing, from 2003 to 2008. However, the decline was 
quicker  for  women  (from  9.8%  to  7.5%)  than  men  (from  8.4%  to  6.6%)  and  therefore  the 
gender gap has been reduced, from 1.4 p.p. in 2003 to 0.9 p.p. in 2008. This decrease occurred 
notably in countries where the gap was the highest in 2003 (Spain, Malta, Italy, Greece and 
the Czech Republic). 

Part-time employment and full-time equivalent employment rates 

Women's participation in the labour market is still largely typified by a high and increasing 
share  of  part-time  work.  In  2008,  the  share  of  women  employees  working  part-time  was 
31.1% in the EU-27 while the corresponding figure for men was 7.9%. The share of female 
part-timers exceeded 35% in Denmark and Luxembourg, 40% in Belgium, Sweden, Austria, 
the United Kingdom and Germany and even exceeded 75% in the Netherlands. Conversely, 
the share of part-timers among female workers was very low in Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, 
Latvia, the Czech Republic and Lithuania. 

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Because of the high prevalence of part-time employment among female workers, the positive 
evolution  of  female  labour  market  participation  described  above  has  to  be  qualified.  In 
particular  the  employment  rates  measured  in  full-time  equivalent  have  increased  at  a  much 
slower  pace  than  the  traditional  measure  (in  headcounts).  When  measured  in  full-time 
equivalent, not only is the gender gap much higher, but it has only slightly reduced over the 
last  five  years  (from  21.2  p.p.  in  2003  to  20.2  p.p.  in  2008)  and  has  even  widened  in  nine 
Member States (Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Bulgaria, Romania, Lithuania, Finland, the Czech 
Republic and Hungary).  

Growth potential of eliminating gender gaps in employment 

Many studies1 in the last decade have shown the positive impact that gender equality has on 
economic development. Gender equality can be a productive factor and female participation 
in the labour market has many economic and social benefits. Several studies have estimated 
the  impact  of  an  increase  in  female  employment  (or  of  a  reduction  of  the  gender  gaps  in 
employment)  on  economic  growth.  One  of  the  most  recent  studies2  estimates  the  potential 
increase in GDP that would occur following the elimination of gender gaps, i.e. if women’s 
rates  were  to  reach  the  level  of  men’s  rates  in  terms  of  employment,  part-time  work  and 
productivity (measured by wages). It concludes that there could be a gain in GDP of almost 
30% for the EU as a whole if gender gaps were eliminated3. The gain ranges from less than 
20% in Slovenia, Bulgaria, Portugal, Latvia and Finland to 35% or more in Ireland, the United 
Kingdom, the Netherlands, Greece and Malta. Even if the limitations of these calculations and 
the risk of overestimation are recognised in this study, these figures show the great economic 
potential of reducing gender gaps (not only in employment rates but also in part-time working 
and in pay) in all EU Member States.  

Recent trends arising from the financial and economic crisis 

The economic and financial crisis is having a strong impact on the labour market situation of 
both  women  and  men.  Initially,  the  impact  on  men’s  employment  was  greater  than  on 
women’s  employment  because  the  hardest-hit  sectors  since  the  crisis  began,  besides  the 
financial  sector,  are  manufacturing,  construction  and  transport  where  male  workers  still 
account for the largest employment share.  

The EU average men’s unemployment rate has been rising faster than the women’s rate and 
even exceeded it in recent months. From May 2008 (when unemployment rates started to rise) 
to September 2009, the men’s unemployment rate rose from 6.4% to 9.3% while the female 
rate rose from 7.4% to 9%. However, women’s unemployment rates remain higher than men’s 
rates  in  half  of  the  Member  States.  Moreover,  on  average  in  the  EU,  the  women’s 
unemployment  rate  remains  higher  than  the  men’s  rate  among  persons  aged  25  and  more, 

1 

2 

3 

For a summary of the existing studies, see e.g. the analysis note by the Network of experts in gender 
and  employment  issues  :  M.  Smith  and  F.  Bettio,  The  economic  case  for  gender  equality,  2008 
(available at : http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=748&langId=en) 
A. Löfgren, Gender equality, economic growth and employment, 2009. This report was presented at the 
conference  held  under  the  Swedish  Presidency  ‘What  does  gender  equality  mean  for  growth  and 
employment?’, 
at: 
October 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=3988&langId=en. 
For the EU-27 as a whole, the non-weighted average is 27 % but the average weighted with population 
size of each Member State would be 28 % and the average weighted with GDP would be 29 %. 

Stockholm, 

available 

15-16 

2009, 

and 

is 

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reflecting  the  fact  that  it  is  especially  among  young  people  that  men  are  more  affected  by 
unemployment than women.  

It  is  important  to  consider  not  only  the  evolution  of  the  unemployment  rates  but  also  the 
employment  rates,  since  not  every  person  losing  his/her  job  becomes  registered  as 
unemployed and in times of crisis the risk of exiting the labour market is significant. In one 
year  (between  second  quarter  2008  and  second  quarter  2009),  male  employment  rates 
decreased by 2.1 p.p., while female employment rates stagnated (-0.3 p.p.). In most Member 
States, the male employment rate has decreased faster.  

However, it should be noted that the full impact of the crisis on the labour market situation of 
women  and  men  is  not  yet  known.  For  instance,  public  administration  is  the  fourth  largest 
sector  in  terms  of  planned  net  job  losses  (after  manufacturing,  transport  and  the  financial 
sector)4 and is highly feminised. It is therefore likely that the extension of the crisis to other 
sectors (i.e. other than the male dominated ones that were first hit by the recession) will have 
a  strong  impact  on  female  employment,  notably  in  the  public  sector,  due  to  the  likely 
reduction of public spending5.  

Reconciliation between work, private and family life 

Parenthood  has  traditionally  a  significant  long-term  impact  on  women's  participation  in  the 
labour  market.  This  reflects  women's  predominant  role  in  the  care  of  children,  elderly  or 
disabled persons. In 2008, the employment rate for women aged 25-49 was 67% when they 
had children under 12, compared to 78.5% when they did not, a negative difference of 11.5 
p.p. Interestingly, men with children under 12 had a significantly higher employment rate than 
those  without,  91.6%  vs.  84.8%,  a  positive  difference  of  6.8  p.p.  In  the  United  Kingdom, 
Estonia and Malta, the negative impact of parenthood on female employment is higher than 
15 p.p.; it is higher than 20 p.p. in Ireland and Slovakia and higher than 25 p.p. in Hungary 
and the Czech Republic. On the contrary, the impact of parenthood on the female employment 
rate  is  limited  (less  than  5  p.p.)  in  Belgium,  Portugal  and  Slovenia  and  is  even  slightly 
positive  in  Denmark  (women  with  children  having  a  higher  employment  rate  than  women 
without). There is much less variation in the impact on men, with the positive impact ranging 
from 3.5 p.p. in Bulgaria to 11.3 p.p. in Luxembourg.  

An important factor affecting parents’ (and especially the mother’s) opportunity to participate 
in  the  labour  market  is  the  availability  of  care  services  for  children  and  other  dependent 
persons. Some progress has been observed in the proportion of children under 3 covered by 
formal care services, with the share increasing on average from 25% in 2005 to 30% in 2007 
(EU-25  average),  thus  moving  towards  the  Barcelona  target  of  33%.  However,  this  share 
varies  across  countries  and  these  services  are  not  always  available  on  a  full-time  basis  or 
affordable.  In  the  EU,  around  30%  of  working-age  women  having  care  responsibilities  are 
inactive  or  work  part-time  (but  would  like  to  work  more  hours)  due  to  the  lack  of  care 
services  for  children  and  other  dependent  persons.  This  share  is  below  10%  in  the 

4 
5 

Source : European Restructuring Monitor 
Concerning the impact of the recession on gender equality, see e.g. the analysis note by the Network of 
experts in gender and employment issues : M. Smith, Gender equality and recession, 2009 (available at 
: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=748&langId=en) and the forthcoming report : Smith M. and 
Villa P. (2009) Gender equality, employment policies and the crisis in EU Member States, EGGE 

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Netherlands,  Sweden  and  Denmark  but  is  higher  than  60%  in  Spain  and  Greece  and  even 
higher than 80% in Latvia and Romania.  

Education and research 

While the average educational attainment of women and men is now similar over the entire 
working-age  population,  young  women  (20-24)  record  a  higher  level  of  educational 
attainment than men in almost all Member States. On average, 81.3% of young women (20-
24) reached at least upper secondary school in the EU in 2008, against only 75.6% of young 
men. Furthermore, women represent as much as 59% of university graduates in the EU. This 
share  is  higher  than  50%  in  all  Member  States  and  even  higher  than  65%  in  Hungary, 
Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. While this trend will most probably have a positive impact on 
women’s  outcomes  on  the  labour  market  in  the  future,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  until  now  the 
generally  high  skills  levels  of  women  have  not  been  fully  reflected  in  their  employment 
outcomes.  Indeed,  even  if  the  gender  gap  in  employment  rates  is  lower  among  women  and 
men  having  tertiary  education  (than  among  women  and  men  having  a  lower  level  of 
education),  gender  gaps  seem  also  to  follow  a  lifecycle  pattern,  with  the  level  of  education 
having a limited influence. Gender gaps in employment, part-time work and pay tend to rise 
between the age of 25 and the age of 35, reflecting the high impact of family responsibilities 
on female employment.  

Finally,  although  women  now  outnumber  men  among  university  graduates,  they  are  under-
represented  among  researchers  and  academic  staff.  Men  outnumber  women  among  PhD 
students  and  graduates,  especially  for  science,  mathematics  and  computing  and  for 
engineering, manufacturing and construction. Furthermore, women represent only 18% of the 
professors in public universities6.  

Gender segregation of the labour market 

The choice of study fields certainly impacts on the gender segregation of the labour market, as 
regards both occupations and economic sectors. There has not been much positive evolution 
in  aggregate  levels  of  segregation  in  sectors  and  occupations  since  2003.  In  2008,  Estonia, 
Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia and Finland faced high segregation in occupations and the same 
five  countries  (though  in  another  order)  have  the  highest  levels  of  segregation  in  sectors. 
Consequently,  women  are  under-represented  in  certain  private  sectors  that  are  crucial  for 
economic growth. Moreover, it is expected that in the medium run, skill and labour shortages 
will affect mixed occupations less than male- or female-dominated occupations, which adds to 
the  need  for  a  more  balanced  distribution  of  occupations7.  This  concerns  for  instance  the 
female-dominated occupations of service workers and sales assistants, clerical staff and care 
workers  and  home  helpers  and  the  male-dominated  occupations  of  engineers,  plant  and 
machine operators and assemblers.  

6 

7 

EN 

available 

European  Commission,  She  Figures  2009  –  Statistics  and  Indicators  on  Gender  Equality  in  Science, 
2009, 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-
society/document_library/pdf_06/she_figures_2009_en.pdf  
See the recently published report by the EC’s Network of experts on gender and employment issues: F. 
Bettio  and  A.  Verashchagina,  Gender  segregation  in  the  labour  market  —  Root  causes,  implications 
and policy responses in the EU, 2009. 

at: 

5 

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Pay gap  

As a result of all the above mentioned gender inequalities in the labour market (some of them 
resulting from personal choices by women and men), there is a persistent gender pay gap in 
the EU. The gender pay gap (defined as the difference between men’s and women’s average 
gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men’s average gross hourly earnings) was estimated 
in  2007  at  17.6%  on  average  in  the  EU.  It  exceeded  25%  in  two  countries  (Estonia  and 
Austria) and 20% in seven countries (Slovakia, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, 
Germany,  the  United  Kingdom  and  Greece).  However,  it  was  below  10%  in  Italy,  Malta, 
Poland, Slovenia and Belgium.  

At-risk-of-poverty rates 

The  disadvantaged  position  of  women  on  the  labour  market  has  consequences  in  terms  of 
their higher exposure to the risk of poverty. This was particularly true for persons above 65 
years,  among  whom  the  share  of  people  living  in  households  at  risk  of  poverty  (having  an 
income  below  the  threshold  set  at  60%  of  the  national  median  income)  was  significantly 
higher for women than for men in the EU-27 in 2007 (22% vs. 17%). This was a pattern in 
almost all Member States. The gap exceeds 10 p.p. in Slovenia and Bulgaria and 15 p.p. in 
Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Romania. 

When considering at risk of poverty rates among the working age population (18 to 64), the 
gender gap is limited (2 p.p., 16% for women compared to 14% for men in the EU-27) and is 
mainly  due  to  the  highest  prevalence  of  poverty  among  single-parent  households  (34%  on 
average for the EU-27), headed in majority by women. Indeed, the at-risk-of-poverty rate is 
calculated at household level and it is assumed that all members of a given household have 
the  same  level  of  poverty.  Comparisons  between  the  sexes  are  based  on  the  assumption  of 
equal sharing of resources within households. However, due to the fact that women are often 
secondary  earners  or  do  not  earn  any  salary8  and  that  they  devote  more  time  to  unpaid 
domestic  and  family  work,  their  economic  independence  is  often  limited  and  some  of  them 
face  a  high  risk  of  poverty  in  the  event  of  break-up,  divorce  or  death  of  their  partner9. 
Therefore, the current figures of at-risk-of-poverty rates at household level cannot fully reflect 
the individual situation of women and men.  

8 

9 

According to a report by the EC’s Network of experts on gender and employment issues (F. Bettio and 
A. Verashchagina, Fiscal systems and female employment, 2009, forthcoming) based on EU-SILC data, 
the share of couples in which the woman is the secondary earner (brings less than 45% of the household 
earnings) or does not earn any salary is 63.5% in the EU on average (non weighted). It ranges from 53% 
in Slovenia to 81% in Austria.  
The  Belgian  Gender  and  Income  Analysis  (BGIA)  project  has  calculated  individualised  at  risk  of 
poverty rates (based on individualised income of women and men) which lead to much higher gender 
gaps between women and men. For Belgium in 2007, this individualised risk of poverty would be 36% 
for women and 11% for men, compared to 16% for women and 13% for men in the measurement based 
on households. Although these calculations are based on the strong hypothesis of absence of sharing of 
resources  between  household  members  (instead  of  the  hypothesis  of  total  sharing  of  resources),  they 
reflect certain gaps in the economic independence of women and men and the risk of poverty women 
would face in the event of break-up, divorce or death of their partner. 

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Women in decision-making positions 

The  average  number  of  female  members  of  national  parliaments  (single/lower  houses)  was 
24% in 2009, one p.p. higher than in 2005. The percentage is above 35% in Spain, Denmark, 
Belgium and Finland and above 40% in the Netherlands and Sweden. However, it was below 
15% in Ireland, Hungary and Romania and did not exceed 10% in Malta.  

Among senior ministers of national governments (i.e. ministers with a seat in the cabinet), the 
share of women increased from 22% in 2005 to 26% in 2009. The increase was higher than 10 
p.p. in Slovakia, Italy, Finland and Denmark, higher than 15p.p in Poland and Slovenia and 
even reached 20 p.p. in France. 

In the economic field, women represent on average almost one-third of leaders of businesses 
in  the  EU,  but  in  most  countries  the  share  is  lower  than  that.  It  is  below  25%  in  Denmark, 
Finland, Ireland, Malta and Cyprus but above 35% in Spain, Latvia and France.  

As regards female membership of the boards (‘highest decision-making body’) of the largest 
publicly quoted companies, the situation is markedly different. In 2009, women represented, 
on  average,  only  11%  of  these  board  members  at  EU  level.  The  percentage  exceeded  20% 
only in Finland (24%) and Sweden (27%); it was below 5% in Malta, Italy, Portugal, Cyprus 
and Luxembourg. 

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Employment rates (women and men aged 15 - 64) in EU Member States- 2008

72,8

59,1

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  total 
employment 
rate in 2010

Lisbon target 
for women's 
employment 
rate in 2010

DK SE NL FI EE AT UK DE LV SI CY PT LT FR IE BG EU27 CZ BE LU ES SK RO PL HU EL IT MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 

Absolute gender gap in employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States - 2003 and 2008  
(Difference between men's and women's employment rates) 

Left bar: 2003     Right bar: 2008

15,4

13,7

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

FI

SE

LT

LV

EE

DK

SI

BG

FR

DE

PT

UK

NL

BE

HU

AT

RO EU27 PL

IE

SK

CY

LU

CZ

ES

IT

EL MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
NB:  A positive gap indicates higher employment rates for men in comparison with women, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.

EN 

8 

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Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55 - 64) in EU Member States- 2008

55

36,8

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  
employment 
rate of workers 
aged 55-64    

SE EE LV FI DK UK LT DE PT NL IE CY BG EU27 FR CZ RO ES AT LU EL BE HU SK IT SI PL MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.

Absolute gender gap in unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 years and over) in EU 
Member States - 2003 and 2008
 (Difference between women's and men's unemployment rates) 

Left bar: 2003      Right bar: 2008

IE

RO

LV

UK

EE

LT

1,4

0,9

DE

BG

AT

HU

NL

FI

SE

DK

SI EU27 CY

FR

BE MT

PL

LU

CZ

PT

SK

ES

IT

EL

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
Notes : A positive gap indicates higher unemployment rates for women in comparison with men, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.                                 

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

EN 

9 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Share of part-time workers in total employment (persons aged 15 and over) 
in EU Member States - 2008

Women

Men

31,1

7,9

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG

SK

HU

LV

CZ

LT

GR

EE

RO

CY

SI

PL

PT

FI

ES MT

IT

FR EU27

IE

DK

LU

BE

SE

AT

UK

DE

NL

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 

Absolute gender gap in employment rates, measured in full time equivalent (women and men aged 15-64) in EU 
Member States - 2003 and 2008  (Difference between men's and women's employment rates) 

Left bar: 2003     Right bar: 2008

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

21,2

20,2

FI

LV

LT

EE

BG

SI

SE

DK

FR

HU

RO

PT

PL

SK

CY

CZ EU27 UK

BE

DE

AT

IE

ES

LU

IT

EL

NL MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
NB:  A positive gap indicates higher employment rates for men in comparison with women, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.

EN 

10 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Potential growth in GDP in the EU Member States following a transition to full equality in the labour
market, in % of GDP

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

SI B G P T

LV

FI

LT RO P L FR SE DK B E LU HU EE EU27 DE CY SK

IT

A T ES CZ

IE

UK NL

EL M T

Source:  A. Löfgren, Gender equality, economic grow th and employment, 2009. This report w as presented at the conference held under 
the Sw edish Presidency 'What does gender equality mean for grow th and employment?', Stockholm, 15-16 October 2009. These figures 
are an estimation of the potential increase in  GDP that w ould occur follow ing the elimination of gender gaps, i.e.  if w omen's rates w ere to 
reach the level of men's rates in terms of employment, part-time w ork and productivity (measured by w ages).

Evolution of employment rates between 2008 and 2009 (second quarter) for women and men 
(aged 15-64) in EU Member States 

Left bar: women     Right bar: men

DE

AT

LU

PL

NL

BE

EL

FR

SI

HU

RO EU27 BG CY

IT

DK

LT MT

FI

CZ

PT

UK

SE

SK

ES

EE

IE

LV

-0,3

-2,1

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), quarterly data.                                             

EN 

11 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Unemployment rates among women and men in EU Member States, in May 2008 and 
September 2009(1), seasonally adjusted, in %

Women - Sept 2009

Men - Sept 2009

Women - May 2008

Men - May 2008

25

20

15

10

5

0

NL AT CY SI CZ LU EL DK MT IT RO BG BE PL DE PT UK SE EU27 FI

FR HU SK IE LT EE ES LV

Notes: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey. (1) Exception to the reference period : UK : July 2009; EL, LT, RO : 2nd quarter 2009; EE : 3rd quarter.  

 Employment impact of parenthood for women and men (aged 25-49) in 2008 
Difference in percentage points in em ploym ent rates w ith presence of a child under 12 and w ithout the 
presence of any children 

men

women

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

15

10

5

0

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

CZ HU SK IE MT EE UK DE AT BG EU-
27

PL ES LU FI EL

IT CY FR LV NL RO LT BE PT SI DK

Source :  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual average.
Notes : no data available for SE.

EN 

12 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Employment rates of men aged 25-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2008

Without children

With children

100,0

90,0

80,0

70,0

60,0

50,0

40,0

30,0

20,0

10,0

0,0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

EL

LU NL CZ DK CY

SI MT AT EE

FI

FR PT

IT

BE DE EU-
27

PL SK UK LV

IE

LT ES BG RO HU

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data available for SE. 

Employment rates of women aged 25-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2008

Without children

With children

SI DK NL

LT PT LV

FI

BE FR CY AT BG DE EE PL EU-
27

RO LU UK ES

IE

SK EL

IT

CZ HU MT

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data available for SE. 

EN 

13 

   EN 

 
 
 
Inactivity and part-time work among women due to the lack of care services for children and 
other dependent persons  (% of total female population having care responsibilities), in 2008

29,9

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

NL

SE DK SK

FI

CZ

FR EE AT

IT

BG LU CY EU27 PT HU BE DE

PL

LT

SI

ES

EL

LV RO

Source:  Eurostat - Labour Force Survey. IE, MT, UK : data not available. 

Educational attainment (at least upper secondary school) of women and men aged 20 - 24, 
in EU Member States - 2008

women men

81,3

75,6

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

SI

SK

PL

LT

CZ

IE

SE

CY

EE

FI

EL

LV

FR

HU

AT

BE

BG EU27 NL

UK

IT

DK

RO

LU

DE

ES

PT MT

Source : Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.
NB:  FI :  provisional values.
Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, 
which may lead to lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY.

EN 

14 

   EN 

 
 
Sex distribution of tertiary education graduates, for EU Member States, in 2007

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

41

59

LV

EE

LT HU PL

SE

FI

SI

SK

PT BG RO EL CY EU

IT

ES

BE UK DK MT CZ

IE

NL

FR DE

AT

Source:  Eurostat, Education statistics. 
Note : LU : no data available. The EU-27 value is calculated on the basis of all countries except LU.

Gender segregation in occupations in EU Member States, in 2008

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

EL RO IT UK MT NL DE AT BE PL DK FR SI

SE ES PT

IE CY HU CZ

LU BG FI

LV LT SK EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS, Spring data.  Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for w omen 
and men applied to each occupation; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of 
total employment (ISCO classification).

EN 

15 

   EN 

 
 
 
Gender segregation in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2008

EL MT RO NL

FR IT UK DE AT LU CZ

SI BE DK HU PL CY ES PT BG SE

IE LV

LT

FI SK EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS, Spring data. Gender segregation in sectors is calculated as the average national share of employment for w omen 
and men applied to each sector; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total 
employment (NACE classification). 

Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2007 
(Difference between men's and wo men's average gro ss ho urly earnings as a percentage o f men's average gro ss ho urly earnings)

17,6

25

20

15

10

5

0

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

IT MT PL

PT

SI

BE BG LU RO LV HU FR

IE

ES EU27 DK SE

FI

LT UK

EL DE CY CZ NL

SK AT EE

Source:  Eurostat. Structure of Earnings Survey 2006 and national sources (2007) for yearly SES-comparable estimates.

EN 

16 

   EN 

 
 
 
At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers1 for older people (women and men aged 65 years and 
over), in EU Member States, 2007

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

22

17

CZ 

LU HU

PL

NL

SK

FR

SE MT

AT

DK DE EU27 FI

BE

EL

IT

SI

PT

BG ES

UK

IE

RO LT

EE

LV

CY

Source:  Eurostat. SILC.
NB:  1) At-risk-of-poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the 
national median income. Income must be understood as equivalised disposable income (sum from all sources, adjusted for household size and composition). It should 
be noted that the risk-of-poverty indicator is computed using an income definition which does not yet include imputed rent of owner-occupiers. Comparisons between 
sexes are based on the assumption of equal sharing of resources within households. 
Source: EU-27:  SILC 2007, Income data 2006; except for UK, income year 2007 and for IE moving income reference period (2006-2007). EU aggregates are Eurostat 
estimates and computed as population weighted averages of national values. 

Sex distribution of members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States -
in 2005 and 2009 (1)

Left bar: 2005        Right bar: 2009

women 

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

77

76

24

23

SE

NL

FI

BE

DK

ES

DE

PT

AT

EU27

BG

LV

EE

IT

LU

PL

UK

FR

LT

CZ

SK

EL

CY

SI

IE

HU

RO MT

Source:  European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision-making
NB: (1) Data for 2009 were collected in August 2009. The indicator was developed as part of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action 
in the EU Council of Ministers. 

EN 

17 

   EN 

 
 
 
Sex distribution of senior ministers in national governments in EU Member States - in 2005 and 2009  (1)

Left bar: 2005        Right bar: 2009

women 

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

FI

ES

SE

DE

DK

AT

FR

BE

LU

EU27

SI

PL

BG

IT

MT

NL

IE

LV

CZ

UK

RO

LT

PT

SK

EL

EE

CY

HU

Source:  European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision-making
NB: (1) Data for 2005 were collected in December 2005 and data for 2009 were collected in August 2009. The indicator has been developed as 
part of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers. A senior minister is a minister in the national government 
who has a seat in the cabinet. 

Sex distribution of leaders of businesses, in 2008

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

67,5

32,5

FR LV ES

IT

PL EE UK EU-
27

LT

PT BG DE AT SK LU NL BE HU EL CZ RO SE

SI DK

FI

IE MT CY

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS). NB: leaders of businesses covers ISCO (International Standard Classification of Occupations) categories 121 
(Directors and chief executives) and 13 (Managers of small enterprises). 
For MT and CY: data lack reliability due to small sample size.
FR: the figures exclude Directors and CEOs, for which data are not available

EN 

18 

   EN 

 
 
 
Sex distribution of members of the highest decision making body of largest publicly 
quoted companies in 2009

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

89

11

SE

FI DK SK BG LV

LT NL CZ DE HU RO UK EU-
27

ES FR PL

SI

BE

IE

AT EE EL

IT MT PT CY LU

Source:  European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision-making. 
Data were collected in August 2009. The list of the largest publicly quoted companies is based for each country on current membership of 
blue-chip index. In countries for which the blue-chip index includes a small number of companies (for instance LU, SK), at least the 10 largest 
companies were covered. 

EN 

19 

   EN 

 
 
Employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States — 2003 and 2008 

Women 

Gender gap 
Men 
2003  2008  2003  2008  2003  2008 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg  
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

54.9 
51.8 
49 
56.3 
70.5 
58.9 
59 
55.7 
44.3 
46.3 
58.2 
42.7 
60.4 
57.9 
58.4 
50.9 
50.9 
33.6 
66 
61.6 
46 
61.4 
51.5 
57.6 
52.2 
65.7 
71.5 
65.3 

59.1 
56.2 
59.5 
57.6 
74.3 
65.4 
66.3 
60.2 
48.7 
54.9 
60.4 
47.2 
62.9 
65.4 
61.8 
55.1 
50.6 
37.4 
71.1 
65.8 
52.4 
62.5 
52.5 
64.2 
54.6 
69 
71.8 
65.8 

70.3 
67.3 
56 
73.1 
79.6 
70.9 
67.2 
75.2 
73.4 
73.2 
69.9 
69.6 
78.8 
66.1 
64 
73.3 
63.5 
74.5 
81.1 
76.4 
56.5 
75 
63.8 
67.4 
63.3 
69.7 
74.2 
77.8 

72.8 
68.6 
68.5 
75.4 
81.9 
75.9 
73.6 
74.9 
75 
73.5 
69.6 
70.3 
79.2 
72.1 
67.1 
71.5 
63 
72.5 
83.2 
78.5 
66.3 
74 
65.7 
72.7 
70 
73.1 
76.7 
77.3 

15.4 
15.5 
7 
16.8 
9.1 
12 
8.2 
19.5 
29.1 
26.9 
11.7 
26.9 
18.4 
8.2 
5.6 
22.4 
12.6 
40.9 
15.1 
14.8 
10.5 
13.6 
12.3 
9.8 
11.1 
4 
2.7 
12.5 

13.7 
12.4 
9 
17.8 
7.6 
10.5 
7.3 
14.7 
26.3 
18.6 
9.2 
23.1 
16.3 
6.7 
5.3 
16.4 
12.4 
35.1 
12.1 
12.7 
13.9 
11.5 
13.2 
8.5 
15.4 
4.1 
4.9 
11.5 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55-64) in EU Member States — 2003 and 2008 

Women 

Gender gap 
Men 
2003  2008  2003  2008  2003  2008 
18.2 
30.7 
EU-27 
Belgium 
18.7 
16.5 
Bulgaria 
21 
18.1 
Czech Republic 
28.4 
27.5 
Denmark 
52.9 
14.5 
Germany 
31.6 
15.7 
Estonia 
47.3 
4.9 
Ireland 
33.1 
25 
Greece 
25.5 
31.6 
Spain 
23.3 
29.8 
France 
33.3 
4.5 
Italy 
18.5 
21.5 
Cyprus 
32.7 
31.5 
Latvia 
38.8 
6.4 
Lithuania 
36.7 
12.4 
Luxembourg 
20.6 
9.4 
Hungary 
21.8 
12.8 
Malta 
13 
33.9 
Netherlands 
31.8 
21.5 
Austria 
20.8 
21 
Poland 
19.8 
23.4 
Portugal 
42.4 
14.6 
Romania 
33.3 
18.6 
Slovenia 
14.6 
23.6 
Slovakia 
11.2 
32.5 
Finland 
48.3 
1.3 
Sweden 
66.3 
6.7 
United Kingdom 
46.3 
18.3 
Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

19.2 
19.1 
19.5 
29.1 
14.4 
16.6 
11.6 
31.5 
33.2 
35.9 
7.5 
24.3 
36.2 
12.5 
18.6 
19.1 
16 
40.8 
24.9 
19.6 
15.4 
19.7 
10.2 
18.6 
29.8 
2.7 
4.5 
18.5 

36.8 
26.3 
37.7 
34.4 
49.8 
46.1 
60.3 
41.1 
27.5 
31.1 
36.0 
24 
39.4 
56.7 
47.8 
29.3 
25.7 
12.5 
42.2 
30.8 
20.7 
43.9 
34.4 
21.1 
24.2 
55.8 
66.7 
49 

49.9 
37.8 
40.5 
57.5 
67.3 
48.2 
58.9 
64.6 
58.7 
59.2 
40.8 
42.8 
68.9 
51.3 
55.3 
39.7 
37.8 
53.8 
56.7 
40.4 
35.2 
62.1 
43.5 
33.2 
41 
51 
70.8 
64.8 

55 
42.8 
55.8 
61.9 
64.3 
61.8 
65.2 
66.1 
59.1 
60.9 
40.5 
45.5 
70.9 
63.1 
60.2 
38.7 
38.5 
46.4 
63.7 
51.8 
44.1 
58.5 
53 
44.7 
56.7 
57.1 
73.4 
67.3 

EN 

20 

   EN 

 
 
 
Unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 and over) in EU Member States — 2003 and 2008 
In this table, the gender gap is calculated as women's unemployment rate minus men's unemployment rate 

EU-27 
Belgium  
Bulgaria  
Czech Republic  
Denmark  
Germany  
Estonia  
Ireland  
Greece  
Spain  
France  
Italy  
Cyprus  
Latvia  
Lithuania  
Luxembourg  
Hungary  
Malta  
Netherlands  
Austria  
Poland  
Portugal  
Romania  
Slovenia  
Slovakia  
Finland  
Sweden  
United Kingdom  

Women 

Men 

2003 
9.8 
8 
13.2 
9.6 
5.7 
9.3 
10.4 
4 
14.3 
15.9 
9.6 
11.9 
4.6 
10.8 
13.2 
4.7 
5.4 
9.9 
3.8 
4.3 
19.9 
7.2 
6.4 
7 
17.3 
9.9 
5 
4.1 

2008 
7.5 
7.6 
5.8 
5.6 
3.7 
7.5 
5.3 
4.6 
11.4 
13 
7.9 
8.5 
4.2 
6.9 
5.6 
6 
8.1 
6.8 
3 
4.1 
8 
9 
4.7 
4.8 
10.9 
6.7 
6.6 
5.1 

2003 
8.4 
7.4 
14.2 
5.9 
5.1 
10.2 
11 
4.8 
6 
8.2 
7.7 
6.9 
3.8 
10.4 
12.6 
3 
6.1 
6.4 
3.4 
5.1 
18.9 
5.2 
7.4 
6 
17 
11 
6.1 
5.4 

2008 
6.6 
6.5 
5.5 
3.5 
3 
7.4 
5.8 
7.1 
5.1 
10.1 
6.9 
5.5 
3.2 
8 
6.1 
4.3 
7.6 
5.6 
2.5 
3.6 
6.4 
6.6 
6.7 
4 
8.4 
6.1 
5.9 
6.1 

Gender gap 
2008 
2003 
0.9 
1.4 
0.6 
1.1 
-1 
0.3 
3.7 
2.1 
0.6 
0.7 
-0.9 
0.1 
-0.6 
-0.5 
-0.8 
-2.5 
8.3 
6.3 
7.7 
2.9 
1.9 
1 
5 
3 
0.8 
1 
0.4 
-1.1 
0.6 
-0.5 
1.7 
1.7 
-0.7 
0.5 
3.5 
1.2 
0.4 
0.5 
-0.8 
0.5 
1 
1.6 
2 
2.4 
-1 
-2 
1 
0.8 
0.3 
2.5 
-1.1 
0.6 
-1.1 
0.7 
-1.3 
-1 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

Share of part-time workers in total employment (persons aged 15 and over), in EU Member States — 2003 
and 2008 

Women 

Men 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2003 
29.1 
39.7 
2.9 
8.5 
32.0 
40.8 
10.6 
31.3 
7.4 
17.4 
29.7 
17.2 
13.2 
13.7 
11.2 
30.7 
6.1 
21.0 
74.2 
35.4 
13.1 
17.3 
13.0 
8.5 
3.7 
17.8 
35.4 
44.2 

2008 
31,1 
40,9 
2,7 
8,5 
36,5 
45,4 
10,4 
32,4 
9,9 
22,7 
29,4 
27,9 
11,4 
8,1 
8,6 
38,3 
6,2 
25,6 
75,3 
41,5 
11,7 
17,2 
10,8 
11,4 
4,2 
18,2 
41,4 
41,8 

2003 
6,8 
6,3 
2 
2,3 
11,4 
6,1 
5,5 
6,7 
2,1 
2,7 
5,6 
3,3 
5,5 
6,5 
7 
1,6 
2,8 
4,2 
22 
4,8 
7,9 
7,1 
11,1 
4,9 
1,3 
8,3 
11,3 
10,4 

2008 
7,9 
7,9 
2 
2,2 
14,2 
9,4 
4,1 
7,8 
2,8 
4,2 
5,8 
5,3 
4,8 
4,5 
4,9 
2,7 
3,3 
4,5 
23,9 
8,1 
5,9 
7,4 
9,1 
7,1 
1,4 
8,9 
13,3 
11,3 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

EN 

21 

   EN 

 
 
 
Employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) measured in full-time equivalent rates, in EU Member States 
— 2003 and 2008 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg  
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women 

Gender gap 
Men 
2003  2008  2003  2008  2003  2008 
20.2 
47.7 
42.9 
21.5 
48.8 
9.2 
55.1 
19 
61.8 
13.4 
46.2 
22.7 
57 
9 
46.7 
23.8 
43.2 
28.7 
41.9 
24 
51.8 
14.1 
39.9 
27.6 
57.2 
18.8 
56.5 
7.7 
58.4 
8.5 
43.7 
26.2 
50 
14.3 
30.6 
37.1 
41.7 
29.1 
51.6 
22.7 
44.7 
15.6 
57.9 
15.1 
51.8 
14.7 
55.5 
10.4 
50.9 
16.1 
62 
7.4 
63 
11.2 
50.7 
21.1 

21.2 
23.8 
7.5 
18.1 
13.6 
22.7 
9 
27.7 
30.7 
30.7 
16.5 
29.1 
22.1 
9.8 
7.4 
29.2 
14 
44.7 
31.5 
23.3 
11.4 
17.6 
13.4 
10.6 
12.3 
6.4 
9.3 
22.9 

70.9 
68.4 
68.2 
75.1 
77.2 
72.2 
73.3 
74.9 
75.7 
73.1 
67.8 
69.4 
79.1 
73.7 
68.8 
73.9 
63.5 
71.6 
74.5 
74.8 
66.2 
74.4 
66.3 
71.2 
69 
72.4 
73.7 
73.3 

50.7 
46.9 
59 
56.1 
63.8 
49.5 
64.3 
51.1 
47 
49.1 
53.7 
41.8 
60.3 
66 
60.3 
47.7 
49.2 
34.5 
45.4 
52.1 
50.6 
59.3 
51.6 
60.8 
52.9 
65 
62.5 
52.2 

68.9 
66.7 
56.3 
73.2 
75.4 
68.9 
66 
74.4 
73.9 
72.6 
68.3 
69 
79.3 
66.3 
65.8 
72.9 
64 
75.3 
73.2 
74.9 
56.1 
75.5 
65.2 
66.1 
63.2 
68.4 
72.3 
73.6 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 
Potential growth in GDP in the EU Member States following a transition to full equality in the labour market, 
in % of GDP 

EU-27 (non 
weighted average) 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

27 
26 
15 
32 
23 
29 
27 
35 
41 
32 
21 
32 
29 
18 
20 
27 
27 
45 
40 
32 
21 
16 
20 
14 
30 
19 
21 
35 

Source: A. Löfgren, Gender equality, economic growth and employment, 2009. This report was presented at the conference held under the Swedish Presidency 
‘What does gender equality mean for growth and employment?’, Stockholm, 15-16 October 2009. These figures are an estimation of the potential increase in 
GDP that would occur following the elimination of gender gaps, i.e. if women’s rates were to reach the level of men’s rates in terms of employment, part-time 
work and productivity (measured by wages). 

EN 

22 

   EN 

 
 
Evolution of employment rates between 2008 and 2009 (second quarter) for women and men (aged 15-64) in 
EU Member States 

Women 

Men 

2008-II  2009-II  2008-II  2009-II 

58.8 
56 
59 
56.7 
73.8 
66.2 
63.3 
57.6 
49.2 
52.8 
60.6 
46.9 
62.7 
61.2 
60.4 
56.6 
49.9 
37.6 
71.4 
66.6 
52.7 
61.9 
52.9 
63.7 
52.8 
69 
70.9 
64.7 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg  
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

59.1 
55.7 
59.5 
57.8 
74.4 
65 
66.1 
60.5 
49 
55.2 
60.6 
47.5 
63.3 
66.2 
61.3 
55.8 
50.1 
38.5 
70.9 
65.7 
52.1 
63.1 
53.1 
63.7 
54.2 
70 
72.3 
65.9 
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), quarterly data. 
Unemployment  rates among  women  and men  in  EU  Member States, in  May 2008 and  September  2009 (1), 
seasonally adjusted, in % (In this table, the gender gap is calculated as women’s unemployment rate minus men’s unemployment 
rate) 

70.9 
66.8 
67.7 
73.9 
78.5 
75.2 
64.4 
66.8 
73.9 
66.9 
68.9 
69 
78.1 
61.6 
60.3 
74.6 
61.5 
71.5 
82.7 
76.9 
66 
71.6 
65.6 
71.4 
68 
70.5 
74.5 
74.6 

73.0 
68.3 
68.4 
75.3 
82.4 
75.6 
73.8 
75.6 
75.4 
74.4 
69.7 
70.8 
79.3 
72.9 
68 
72.8 
63.1 
71.6 
83.3 
79 
66 
74.3 
66.4 
72.6 
69.2 
74.7 
77.2 
77.4 

Women 

Men 
May 2008  Sept. 2009  May 2008  Sept. 2009  May 2008  Sept. 2009 

Gender gap 

EU-27 
Belgium  
Bulgaria  
Czech Republic  
Denmark  
Germany  
Estonia  
Ireland  
Greece  
Spain  
France  
Italy  
Cyprus  
Latvia  
Lithuania  
Luxembourg  
Hungary  
Malta  
Netherlands  
Austria  
Poland  
Portugal  
Romania  
Slovenia  
Slovakia  
Finland  
Sweden  
United Kingdom  

7.4 
7.1 
6.1 
5.4 
3.7 
7.3 
3.9 
4.1 
11.2 
12.4 
8.2 
8.8 
4.1 
6.3 
4.2 
5.9 
8 
6.5 
3.3 
3.8 
8.1 
8.9 
4.7 
5.3 
11.2 
6.6 
6.4 
4.8 

9 
8 
7.4 
8.2 
6 
6.9 
11.9 
8.9 
12.8 
19.3 
10.6 
9.2 
5.9 
16.9 
10.8 
6.8 
9.4 
8.1 
3.8 
4.5 
8.5 
9.7 
5.3 
5.8 
12.5 
7.9 
8.3 
6.5 

6.4 
6.2 
5.7 
3.4 
2.6 
7.4 
4.3 
6.2 
4.9 
9.1 
7.1 
5.4 
3 
6 
5.4 
4 
7.5 
5.7 
2.5 
3.2 
6.6 
6.5 
6.6 
3.7 
8.8 
5.9 
5.8 
5.7 

9.3 
7.9 
7.7 
6.1 
6.8 
8.3 
18.4 
16.2 
6.6 
19.2 
9.4 
6.9 
5.8 
22.5 
16.8 
6.3 
10 
6.8 
3.5 
5 
7.9 
8.7 
7.2 
6 
11.5 
9.3 
9.1 
9 

1 
0.9 
0.4 
2 
1.1 
-0.1 
-0.4 
-2.1 
6.3 
3.3 
1.1 
3.4 
1.1 
0.3 
-1.2 
1.9 
0.5 
0.8 
0.8 
0.6 
1.5 
2.4 
-1.9 
1.6 
2.4 
0.7 
0.6 
-0.9 

-0.3 
0.1 
-0.3 
2.1 
-0.8 
-1.4 
-6.4 
-7.3 
6.2 
0.1 
1.2 
2.5 
0.1 
-5.6 
-6.1 
0.5 
-0.6 
1.3 
0.4 
-0.5 
0.6 
1 
-1.9 
-0.2 
1 
-1.6 
-0.9 
-2.5 

Notes: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey. (1) Exception to the reference period: UK: July 2009; EE, EL, IT, LT, RO: 2nd quarter 2009; EE: 3rd quarter.  

EN 

23 

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Employment rates of women and men (aged 25-49), with or without children (under 12) in 2008 

EU-27 

Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg  
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
United Kingdom 

With children  Without children  Difference (in p.p.) 
Men 
Women  Men  Women  Men  Women 
6.8 
78.5 

-11.5 

91.6 

67.0 

84.8 

74.3 
70.7 
56.0 
86.0 
68.9 
68.8 
61.2 
58.4 
62.3 
73.8 
56.1 
73.6 
75.6 
77.8 
66.2 
52.2 
38.8 
78.5 
71.9 
68.0 
76.7 
66.8 
86.1 
59.9 
75.1 
66.2 

92.3 
87.8 
95.9 
95.8 
92.3 
93.5 
89.9 
97.0 
88.2 
93.3 
92.5 
95.6 
90.4 
88.9 
96.5 
85.7 
94.1 
96.0 
93.9 
91.5 
93.1 
85.8 
95.1 
91.0 
93.5 
90.7 

78.5 
82.6 
88.8 
85.8 
82.3 
87.8 
81.5 
67.8 
72.9 
82.4 
65.1 
82.2 
83.9 
83.4 
76.9 
80.5 
57.8 
84.6 
85.2 
78.8 
78.4 
72.5 
87.2 
84.8 
85.5 
84.3 

85.2 
84.3 
90.6 
89.7 
85.3 
88.1 
84.6 
87.5 
82.1 
87.3 
82.8 
87.2 
82.9 
79.5 
85.2 
81.4 
87.6 
91.4 
89.5 
82.0 
84.0 
78.6 
87.5 
84.9 
84.9 
86.6 

-4.2 
-11.9 
-32.9 
0.2 
-13.4 
-19.0 
-20.3 
-9.4 
-10.6 
-8.6 
-9.0 
-8.7 
-8.3 
-5.6 
-10.6 
-28.3 
-19.1 
-6.1 
-13.3 
-10.8 
-1.7 
-5.7 
-1.1 
-24.9 
-10.4 
-18.1 

7.2 
3.5 
5.3 
6.1 
7.0 
5.4 
5.3 
9.6 
6.2 
6.0 
9.7 
8.3 
7.5 
9.4 
11.3 
4.2 
6.5 
4.6 
4.4 
9.5 
9.1 
7.2 
7.6 
6.1 
8.5 
4.1 

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual average. Note: no data available for SE 
Inactivity and part-time work among women due to the lack of care services for children and other dependent 
persons (% of total female population having care responsibilities), in 2008 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 

2008 
29.9 
42.4 
20.8 
13.3 
7.5 
43.8 
16.3 
68.5 
60.1 
15.9 
19.1 
26.2 
84 
48.4 
24.9 
33.4 
3.7 
16.9 
46.4 
33 
90.2 
58.4 
10.2 
11 
7.5 

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey. IE, MT, UK: data not available.  

EN 

24 

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Educational attainment (at least upper secondary school) of women and men aged 20 – 24, in EU Member 
States — 2003 and 2008 

Women 

Men 

81.3 
83.9 
83.4 
92.2 
78.6 
76.4 
88.3 
91.3 
86.6 
67.6 
85.7 
79.7 
89.5 
86.0 
92.3 
77.4 
85.5 
57.3 
80.6 
84.8 
93.3 
61.9 
78.6 
93.6 
93.6 
87.6 
89.7 
80.0 

EU-27 
Belgium  
Bulgaria  
Czech Republic  
Denmark  
Germany  
Estonia  
Ireland  
Greece  
Spain  
France  
Italy  
Cyprus  
Latvia  
Lithuania  
Luxembourg  
Hungary  
Malta  
Netherlands  
Austria  
Poland  
Portugal  
Romania  
Slovenia  
Slovakia  
Finland  
Sweden  
United Kingdom  

2003  2008  2003  2008 
75.6 
79.4 
84.6 
80.5 
77.3 
84.0 
91.5 
91.0 
78.5 
63.6 
73.4 
71.9 
85.1 
76.0 
88.5 
84.1 
86.8 
78.0 
69.2 
52.7 
83.0 
81.0 
75.1 
73.5 
87.0 
80.1 
80.9 
74.3 
87.9 
85.9 
75.6 
68.3 
86.1 
81.7 
48.8 
49.1 
78.0 
71.9 
83.4 
84.2 
92.8 
89.3 
55.5 
47.1 
75.7 
77.9 
94.0 
87.4 
94.5 
91.0 
87.6 
84.6 
87.2 
86.2 
78.9 
76.4 
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
NB: FI: provisional values for 2008. DK, FR, HU, LU and MT: break in series.  
Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, which may lead to 
lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY. 
Sex distribution of tertiary education graduates, for EU Member States, in 2007 

74.4 
77.9 
75.4 
92.8 
73.8 
71.6 
77.9 
81.6 
76.6 
55.5 
79.7 
66.8 
71.3 
70.1 
80.6 
69.7 
83.4 
41.3 
72.0 
85.1 
87.9 
40.4 
74.3 
87.7 
93.7 
83.0 
84.3 
78.4 

EU 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2007 

Women 
59 
58 
60 
57 
57 
54 
69 
57 
59 
58 
55 
59 
59 
72 
67 
66 
57 
55 
52 
65 
61 
60 
62 
62 
63 
64 
58 

Men 
41 
42 
40 
43 
43 
46 
31 
43 
41 
42 
45 
41 
41 
28 
33 
34 
43 
45 
48 
35 
39 
40 
38 
38 
37 
36 
42 

Source: Eurostat, Education statistics.  
Note: LU: no data available. The EU-27 value is calculated on the basis of all countries except LU. 

EN 

25 

   EN 

 
 
 
Gender segregation in occupations and in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2003 and 2008 
Gender segregation in occupations  Gender segregation in economic sectors 

Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2003 
26.3 
27.8 
29.4 
27.4 
26.7 
32.1 
27.1 
21.7 
26.4 
26.3 
22.3 
28.6 
27.8 
27.5 
24.7 
28.8 
23.8 
25.3 
27.7 
25.2 
27.4 
11.8 
27.2 
30.5 
29.5 
27.7 
26.5 

2008 
26.2 
29.4 
28.5 
26.5 
26.1 
32.2 
27.6 
22.4 
27.3 
26.6 
23.8 
28 
29.8 
30.1 
29.2 
28.2 
24.9 
24.9 
26.1 
26.2 
27.3 
22.9 
26.7 
30.5 
29.5 
27 
24.8 

2003 
19.2 
19.3 
19.5 
18.3 
18.2 
24 
21.1 
15.9 
20.2 
17.2 
15.7 
18.1 
20.9 
21.9 
18.6 
19.7 
15.9 
18 
20.8 
14.1 
22 
14.3 
17.8 
22.7 
21.9 
21.6 
18.9 

2008 
19.3 
21.9 
19.1 
19.3 
18.3 
25.8 
22.5 
15.5 
20.7 
18 
18 
20.3 
22.8 
22.9 
18.9 
19.4 
15.6 
17.9 
18.4 
20.2 
21.7 
16.9 
19.2 
23.5 
23.1 
22.1 
18.2 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) — Spring data (except for LU in 2003: annual average data). Data lack comparability  due to changes in certain survey 
characteristics: for occupations, RO: based until 2004 on ISCO 1 digit. Break in series for IT, AT, DE, ES and SE. 
Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each occupation; differences are 
added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (ISCO classification). Gender segregation in sectors is 
calculated  as  the  average  national  share  of  employment  for  women  and  men  applied  to  each  sector;  differences  are  added  up  to  produce  the  total  amount  of 
gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (NACE classification). 

Pay  gap  between  women  and  men  in  unadjusted  form  in  EU  Member  States  —  2007  and  2008  (Difference 
between men’s and women’s average gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men’s average gross hourly earnings) 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2007  2008 
17.6 
9.1 
12.4 
23.6 
17.7 
23.0 
30.3 
17.1 
21.5 
17.1 
16.9 
5.1 
23.1 
15.4 
20.0 
12.5 
16.3 
5.2 
23.6 
25.5 
7.5 
8.3 
12.7 
8.3 
23.6 
20.0 
17.9 
21.1 

: 
: 
: 
26.2 
: 
23.2 
: 
: 
22.0 
17.1 
19.2 
4.9 
21.6 
13.4 
21.6 
12.4 
17.5 
: 
: 
25.5 
14.3 
: 
9.0 
8.5 
20.9 
20.0 
17.1 
21.4 

Source: Eurostat. Structure of Earnings Survey 2006 and national sources (2007) for yearly SES-comparable estimates. 2008: Provisional data for ES, CY, FR 
and FI. 

EN 

26 

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At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers for older people (women and men aged 65 years and over) in EU 
Member States —2007 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
-Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women  Men 
17 
21 
15 
2 
16 
14 
21 
24 
21 
26 
12 
18 
47 
21 
15 
7 
3 
24 
9 
9 
6 
24 
13 
11 
3 
18 
7 
27 

22 
25 
29 
8 
19 
20 
39 
33 
25 
30 
14 
25 
54 
39 
37 
8 
8 
18 
11 
18 
9 
27 
34 
25 
11 
25 
14 
32 

Source:  Eurostat.  EU-27:  SILC  2007,  Income  data  2006;  except  for  UK,  income  year  2007  and  for  IE  moving  income  reference  period  (2006-2007).  EU 
aggregates  are  Eurostat  estimates  and  computed  as  population  weighted  averages  of  national  values.  At-risk-of-poverty  rate  for  elderly  persons:  the  share  of 
persons  aged  65+  with  an  income  below  the  risk-of-poverty  threshold,  which  is  set  at  60%  of  the  national  median  income.  Income  must  be  understood  as 
equivalised  disposable  income  (sum  from  all  sources,  adjusted  for  household  size  and  composition).  It  should  be  noted  that  the  risk-of-poverty  indicator  is 
computed using an income definition which does not yet include imputed rent of owner-occupiers. Comparisons between sexes are based on the assumption of 
equal sharing of resources within households.  

Members  of  single/lower  houses  of  national  parliaments  in  EU  Member  States  —  distribution  by  sex  2005 
and 2009  

2005 

2009 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women  Men  Women  Men 
76 
62 
78 
82 
63 
68 
79 
87 
84 
64 
81 
79 
84 
78 
81 
80 
89 
91 
58 
72 
80 
70 
89 
84 
82 
60 
53 
80 

24 
38 
22 
18 
37 
32 
21 
13 
16 
36 
19 
21 
16 
22 
19 
20 
11 
9 
42 
28 
20 
30 
11 
16 
18 
40 
47 
20 

77 
65 
79 
84 
60 
69 
82 
87 
87 
64 
85 
88 
84 
79 
77 
79 
91 
91 
61 
67 
79 
75 
89 
87 
83 
62 
51 
80 

23 
35 
21 
16 
40 
31 
18 
13 
13 
36 
15 
12 
16 
21 
23 
21 
9 
9 
39 
33 
21 
25 
11 
13 
17 
38 
49 
20 

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision making. NB: Data for 2009 
were collected in August 2009. The indicator was developed as part of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers. 

EN 

27 

   EN 

 
 
 
Sex distribution of senior ministers in national governments in EU Member States — in 2005 and 2009 

2005 

2009 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women  Men  Women  Men 
74 
73 
76 
82 
58 
56 
92 
80 
89 
50 
67 
78 
92 
80 
87 
73 
100 
78 
78 
64 
75 
87 
85 
74 
87 
40 
55 
83 

78 
79 
80 
82 
72 
54 
85 
79 
94 
53 
87 
91 
100 
76 
85 
83 
88 
85 
69 
45 
93 
83 
83 
93 
100 
53 
50 
73 

26 
27 
24 
18 
42 
44 
8 
20 
11 
50 
33 
22 
8 
20 
13 
27 
0 
22 
22 
36 
25 
13 
15 
26 
13 
60 
45 
17 

22 
21 
20 
18 
28 
46 
15 
21 
6 
47 
13 
9 
0 
24 
15 
17 
12 
15 
31 
55 
7 
17 
17 
7 
0 
47 
50 
27 

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision making. NB: Data for 2005 
were collected in December 2005 and data for 2009 were collected in August 2009. The indicator was developed as part of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform 
for Action in the EU Council of Ministers. A senior minister is a minister in the national government who has a seat in the cabinet. 

Sex distribution of leaders of businesses, in 2008 

2008 
Women  Men 
67.5 
70.8 
68.6 
73.1 
76.0 
69.2 
66.0 
80.8 
71.5 
64.9 
60.0 
65.3 
91.8 
64.7 
68.2 
70.4 
71.4 
84.0 
70.7 
69.5 
65.3 
68.3 
73.3 
74.8 
69.5 
78.4 
74.0 
66.6 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Source:  Eurostat,  Labour  Force  Survey  (LFS).  NB:  leaders  of  businesses  covers  ISCO  (International  Standard  Classification  of  Occupations)  categories  121 
(Directors and chief executives) and 13 (Managers of small enterprises).  
For MT and CY: data lack reliability due to small sample size. 
FR: the figures exclude Directors and CEOs for which data are not available 

32.5 
29.2 
31.4 
26.9 
24.0 
30.8 
34.0 
19.2 
28.5 
35.1 
40.0 
34.7 
8.2 
35.3 
31.8 
29.6  
28.6 
16.0 
29.3 
30.5 
34.7 
31.7 
26.7 
25.2 
30.5 
21.6 
26.0 
33.4 

EN 

28 

   EN 

 
 
 
Sex distribution of members of the highest decision making body of largest publicly quoted companies in 2009 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2009 
Women  Men 
89 
92 
83 
87 
82 
87 
94 
92 
95 
90 
90 
96 
97 
83 
85 
97 
87 
96 
85 
93 
90 
96 
88 
90 
82 
76 
73 
88 

11 
8 
17 
13 
18 
13 
6 
8 
5 
10 
10 
4 
3 
17 
15 
3 
13 
4 
15 
7 
10 
4 
12 
10 
18 
24 
27 
12 

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on women and men in decision making. Data were collected 
in August 2009. The list of the largest publicly quoted companies is based for each country on current membership of the blue-chip index. In countries for which 
the blue-chip index includes a small number of companies (for instance LU, SK), at least the 10 largest companies were covered. 

Indicators for the candidate countries in 2008 

Turkey 

Croatia 

FYROM 

Activity rate (15-64)  
Employment rate (15-64)  
Employment rate of older workers (55-64)  
Unemployment rate 25-74  
Unemployment in population aged 15-24 
Share of part-time workers 
Share of employees with temporary contracts 
Educational attainment (upper secondary school, 
20-24)  
Sex distribution of members of national parliaments 
(1)  
Sex distribution of senior ministers in national 
governments(1)  
Sex distribution of leaders of businesses 
Share among members of boards of top quoted 
companies(1) 

Women  Men 
74.8 
67.7 
43 
7.8 
9.2 
5.6 
11.6 

26.9 
24.3 
16.5 
7.0 
4.4 
20.8 
12.5 

Gap  Women  Men  Gap  Women  Men  Gap 
76.6  26.4 
47.9 
50.7  17.8 
43.4 
21.9 
43 
26.5 
-0.6 
30.3 
0.8 
8 
24.1 
4.8 
-2.9 
4.7 
-15.2 
3.8 
16.2 
-0.9 

56.6 
50.7 
25.5 
8.4 
7.7 
11.5 
12.3 

50.2 
32.9 
21.1 
30.9 
16.1 
7.6 
12.4 

13.4 
14.3 
23.5 
-2.9 
-0.2 
-4.8 
-0.4 

70 
65 
49 
5.5 
7.5 
6.7 
11.9 

40.9 

56.4 

15.5 

96.3 

94.6 

-1.7 

77.6 

81.7 

4.1 

9 

7 

7 

9 

91 

93 

93 

91 

- 

- 

- 

- 

24 

20 

76 

80 

23.5 

76.5 

15 

85 

- 

- 

- 

- 

32 

9 

68 

91 

27.8 

72.2 

16 

84 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Source: Eurostat, LFS 2008, except (1), for which the source is European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, Database on 
women and men in decision making (data collected in August 2009). The gender gap is always calculated as the value for men minus the value for women.  

EN 

29 

   EN