Commission staff working document - Accompanying document to the: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Key competences for a changing world - Progress towards the lisbon objectives in education and training - Analysis of implementation at the European and national levels {COM(2009) 640 final}
Date: 2009-11-25
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU programme, cooperation policy, education policy, educational reform, impact study, professional qualifications, report, vocational training

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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 25.11.2009 
SEC(2009) 1598 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Accompanying document to the: 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Key competences for a changing world 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE LISBON OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION 
AND TRAINING  
Analysis of implementation at the European and national levels 

{COM(2009) 640 final} 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 6 

PART I : EU implementation of the education and training 2010 work programme ................ 9 

1 

1.1 

1.2 

2 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.5 

2.6 

3 

3.1 

3.2 

3.3 

3.4 

4 

4.1 

4.2 

4.3 

4.4 

5 

5.1 

5.2 

5.3 

5.4 

5.5 

The Open Method of Coordination in Education and Training (OMC) .................... 10 

New tool for the dissemination of peer learning results ............................................ 10 

Education and Training 2010 Coordination Group (ETCG), High Level Group and 
preparation of the new ET 2020 Strategic Framework .............................................. 11 

Progress on transversal lifelong learning policies and instruments ........................... 12 

New Skills for New Jobs............................................................................................ 12 

European Qualifications Framework (EQF) .............................................................. 13 

Validation of non-formal and informal learning ....................................................... 14 

Lifelong guidance ...................................................................................................... 14 

Mobility...................................................................................................................... 15 

External dimension strategy....................................................................................... 15 

Schools ....................................................................................................................... 16 

A European Agenda for cooperation on schools........................................................ 16 

Key competences ....................................................................................................... 17 

Teachers ..................................................................................................................... 18 

Social inclusion and migration................................................................................... 19 

Progress in implementing the Copenhagen process for vocational education and 
training ....................................................................................................................... 19 

The Copenhagen policy framework: Assessing progress and preparing the future... 19 

ECVET - European credit system for VET................................................................ 21 

EQARF - Quality Assurance in VET......................................................................... 21 

Teachers and Trainers in VET ................................................................................... 22 

Higher Education ....................................................................................................... 22 

Progress on higher education ..................................................................................... 22 

Higher education and the Bologna Process................................................................ 23 

Quality Assurance in Higher Education..................................................................... 24 

Other on-going initiatives to support the Modernisation agenda............................... 24 

University –Business partnerships ............................................................................. 24 

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5.6 

European Institute of Innovation and Technology..................................................... 25 

6 

Progress on the Adult learning Action Plan............................................................... 26 

PART II: Thematic cross-country analysis .............................................................................. 34 

1 

1.1 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

2 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.5 

2.6 

3 

3.1 

3.2 

3.3 

4 

4.1 

4.2. 

4.3. 

Key Competences Framework ................................................................................... 35 

The provision for key competences in national policies............................................ 35 

Key Competences in the Curriculum ......................................................................... 40 

Key Competences for the disadvantaged ................................................................... 70 

Supporting adults in developing Key Competences .................................................. 78 

Teacher Education...................................................................................................... 86 

Assessment of key competences ................................................................................ 91 

Monitoring and Evaluation ........................................................................................ 95 

Summary Conclusions on the implementation of Key Competences........................ 99 

transversal Lifelong Learning Issues ....................................................................... 103 

Lifelong learning strategies (LLLS)......................................................................... 103 

Establishment of lifelong guidance systems ............................................................ 105 

Development of national qualification frameworks................................................. 107 

Learning outcomes based approaches...................................................................... 108 

Measures to assess and validate non-formal and informal learning ........................ 109 

Conclusions on transversal lifelong learning issues................................................. 111 

Vocational education and training ........................................................................... 113 

Attractiveness........................................................................................................... 113 

Relevance to labour market needs............................................................................ 119 

Conclusions on attractiveness of VET and link to labour market needs.................. 123 

higher education ....................................................................................................... 124 

Income Streams in Higher Education ...................................................................... 125 

Opening up to lifelong learners................................................................................ 130 

Conclusions on income streams and the opening up of HEIs to lifelong learning .. 133 

PART III: Progress at national level ...................................................................................... 136 

BELGIUM.............................................................................................................................. 137 

BULGARIA ........................................................................................................................... 142 

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CZECH REPUBLIC .............................................................................................................. 145 

DENMARK............................................................................................................................ 149 

GERMANY............................................................................................................................ 153 

ESTONIA............................................................................................................................... 158 

IRELAND .............................................................................................................................. 162 

GREECE ................................................................................................................................ 167 

SPAIN .................................................................................................................................... 172 

FRANCE ................................................................................................................................ 176 

ITALY.................................................................................................................................... 180 

CYPRUS ................................................................................................................................ 184 

LATVIA ................................................................................................................................. 188 

LITHUANIA.......................................................................................................................... 192 

LUXEMBOURG.................................................................................................................... 196 

HUNGARY............................................................................................................................ 200 

MALTA.................................................................................................................................. 204 

THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................... 208 

AUSTRIA............................................................................................................................... 212 

POLAND................................................................................................................................ 216 

PORTUGAL........................................................................................................................... 220 

ROMANIA............................................................................................................................. 224 

SLOVENIA............................................................................................................................ 227 

SLOVAKIA ........................................................................................................................... 231 

FINLAND .............................................................................................................................. 235 

SWEDEN ............................................................................................................................... 239 

THE UNITED KINGDOM .................................................................................................... 243 

CROATIA .............................................................................................................................. 247 

ICELAND .............................................................................................................................. 251 

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NORWAY.............................................................................................................................. 255 

TURKEY................................................................................................................................ 259 

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INTRODUCTION 

This  Commission  staff  working  document  accompanies  the  Commission  Communication 
proposing  the  2010  Joint  Report  on  progress  under  the  Education  and  Training  2010  work 
programme (i.e. the open method of coordination in education and training contributing to the 
European Union's Lisbon agenda for growth and jobs). 

Context 

Every two years the Council and the Commission adopt a Joint Report on the implementation 
of the Education and Training 2010 work programme, including the field of higher education 
and  the  Copenhagen  process  in  vocational  education  and  training  (VET).  The  next  Joint 
Report  will  be  adopted  in  February  2010,  based  on  the  Commission's  draft.  Member  States 
and  the  Commission  had  agreed  that  it  should  focus  in  particular  on  the  progress  made  in 
in  2006  of  a 
implementing  key  competences  policies, 
Recommendation  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  key  competences  for 
lifelong learning1.  

the  adoption 

following 

This  staff  working  document  reports  on  the  implementation  of  the  Education  and  Training 
2010  work  programme  at  the  European  level  (PART  I),  it  contains  a  detailed  cross-country 
analysis of progress (PART II) and an analysis of progress at national level (PART III).  

The  2010  Joint  Report  should  be  read  together  with  this  report  on  'Progress  towards  the 
Lisbon Objectives in Education and Training - Analysis of implementation at European and 
National Level' as well as the report on 'Progress towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education 
and  Training  -  Indicators  and  benchmarks  -  2009',  which  are  both  annexed  to  the 
Commission's draft joint report. 

The  present  report  is  based  on  important  contributions  from  competent  authorities  in  the 
Member  States  on  their  different  situations.  It  values  European  diversity  and  the  unique 
opportunities which this affords, and fully respects the Member States' responsibility for their 
education systems. 

Aims and objectives 

The main aims of this document are therefore: 

•  To describe the progress made since 2006/7 in the implementation of selected elements of 
the Education and Training 2010 work programme at the national and European levels and 
to illustrate this progress with examples of recent developments. 

•  To  review  the  state  of  progress  in  the  Member  States  on  the  implementation  of  key 

competences in schools, vocational education and training (VET) and adult learning.  

•  To comment on the support provided by the Key competences recommendation to national 

key competences policies. 

1

  OJ L 394 of 18.10.2006, p. 10 

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Status and caveats 

Parts  II  and  III  of  this  document  are  based  primarily  on  the  analysis  of  national  reports 
received  from  the  participating  countries  in  mid-2009,  which  were  prepared  following 
Commission  guidelines.  Reference  is  however  also  made  to  other  Commission  sources 
providing  information  on  country  progress  (in  particular  information  from  Cedefop  and 
Eurydice).  

As  the  information  provided  in  the  2009  national  reports  on  specific  measures  within  key 
competences, lifelong learning (LLL), vocational education (VET) and higher education (HE) 
is  often  not  detailed,  the  examples  cited  in  the  report  have  been  chosen  to  illustrate  the 
progress being made, rather than as examples of good or best practice. 

National  reports  were  received  by  31  out  of  the  32  participating  countries  (Member  States, 
EFTA/EEA, and candidate countries; Liechtenstein did not report). 

Report structure 

PART  I  -  provides  an  overview  of  the  EU  IMPLEMENTATION  OF  THE  EDUCATION 
AND TRAINING 2010 work programme since the 2008 Joint Report. 

PART II – provides a cross-country analysis which closely reflects the structure of the 2009 
national reports, which themselves reflect the guidelines provided by the Commission: 

Chapter  1  describes  the  progress  relative  to  the  KEY  COMPETENCES  FRAMEWORK  in 
particular:  provision,  curriculum,  key  competences  for  all,  supporting  adults  in  developing 
key competences, teacher education, assessment, monitoring and evaluation. 

Chapter  2  describes  the  progress  relative  to  TRANSVERSAL  LIFELONG  LEARNING 
ISSUES  in  particular:  lifelong  learning  strategies,  lifelong  guidance  systems,  national 
qualification frameworks, learning outcomes based approaches, and non-formal and informal 
learning. 

Chapter 3 describes the progress relative to VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 
in particular: attractiveness and relevance to labour market needs 

Chapter  4  describes  the  progress  relative  to  HIGHER  EDUCATION,  in  particular:  income 
streams in higher education and lifelong learning. 

PART III – provides factual analyses of progress at national level (country by country). 

Supporting the Lisbon Strategy through education and training  

The Education and Training 2010 work programme was adopted as a joint work programme 
of the Council and the Commission in 2001/02 to support the Lisbon process in education and 
training. Over the last seven years the Education and Training 2010 work programme has, as 
the open method of coordination in this field, made a vital contribution towards achieving the 
overall objectives of growth and jobs. The European Council has on various occasions (most 
recently in March 2008 and 2009) emphasised that education and training/lifelong learning is 
a key driver of the Lisbon Strategy.  

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Furthermore  education  and  training  is  identified  as  a  key  element  throughout  the  renewed 
Social Agenda for opportunities, access and solidarity. This stresses the role of education and 
training in relation to children and youth; investing in people, more and better jobs and new 
skills; mobility; longer and healthier lives; and combating poverty and social exclusion.  

The  increased  focus  on  education  and  training  in  the  Lisbon  context  over  the  years  led  the 
Education Council to invite the Commission to come forward with a proposal for an updated 
strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training  in  key  messages 
which  were  endorsed  by  the  March  2008  European  Council.  This  was  based  on  a  specific 
request in the 2008 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission.2  

Following a comprehensive consultation process with participating countries, social partners 
and  other  stakeholders3  the  Commission  adopted  the  communication:  "An  updated  strategic 
framework for European cooperation in education and training"4 in December 2008. This was 
followed  up  by  Council  Conclusions  on  a  strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in 
education and training ("ET 2020")5 adopted in May 2009. 

The  Strategic  Framework  introduces  a  few  new  elements  in  the  OMC  in  terms  of  policy 
priorities  and  implementation.  Four  broad  strategic  objectives  are  identified  for  the  period 
until  2020  as  well  as  priority  areas  for  2009  –  2011.  Implementation  will  be  strengthened 
through  more  focused  work  on  the  short  term  priority  areas,  more  focused  peer  learning, 
better dissemination of results, joint reports focused on a thematic area and including factual 
analyses  of  the  situation  in  countries.  This  approach  is  also  used  in  this  staff  working 
document, which has a thematic focus on Key Competences (PART II) and includes factual 
analyses of the situation in countries (PART III). 

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  OJ C 861, 5.4.2008, p. 9. 

The consultation process is described in details in an Impact assessment: SEC (2008)3047 final 

  COM (2008) 865 final 
  OJ C 119 of 28.5.2009, p. 2 

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 PART I: EU IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING 2010 WORK 
PROGRAMME

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EU  IMPLEMENTATION  OF  THE  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING  2010  WORK 
PROGRAMME  

This section of the staff working paper takes stock of the progress made at EU level to date 
since  the  2008  Joint  Interim  Report  in  achieving  concrete  outcomes  at  European  level  and 
thus  provides  an  update  of  the  Commission  Staff  Working  papers  from  20036,  20057  and 
20078 covering the first six years of implementation of the Education and Training 2010 work 
programme. 

1 

THE OPEN METHOD OF COORDINATION IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OMC) 

The  Education  and  Training  2010  work  programme  has  involved  different  activities  using 
various  working  methods  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  thematic  priority  being  addressed. 
The  tools  have  involved  for  example  clusters,  peer  learning  activities,  networks,  university-
business partnerships and the activities under the Copenhagen process.  

1.1 

New tool for the dissemination of peer learning results 

Peer  Learning  Activities  (PLAs)9  have  been  undertaken  since  2005  mainly  by  clusters  of 
countries sharing a common interest in a thematic priority10. The current clusters have focused 
on  seven  topics:  Modernisation  of  higher  education;  Teachers  and  trainers;  Maths,  science 
and  technology;  Access  and  social  inclusion;  Key  competences;  ICT;  and  Recognition  of 
learning outcomes. As a key tool in the OMC, peer learning is also used by the Adult learning 
working group and the University-Business Forum. 

The work of the clusters and PLAs is intended to contribute, on the one hand, to the initiation 
of the policy development process at the European level (reflection, ideas) and, on the other 
hand,  to  support  national  policy  development  and  implementation  of  agreed  European 
objectives and principles through mutual learning and exchange of good practice.  

To  disseminate  the  results  of  E&T  2010  cooperation,  and  especially  the  results  of  peer-
learning, the Commission has set up at special website: www.kslll.net which opened in 2009. 
On  the  KSLLL  (the  Knowledge  System  for  Lifelong  Learning)  all  PLAs  which  have  taken 
place  are  listed  with  a  short  and  a  long  summary,  a  list  of  participating  countries,  and 
background documents11. The KSLLL also contains the option for countries or other relevant 
stakeholders to post examples of good practice directly in the compendia developed through 
the clusters. 

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Commission  Staff  Working  paper  of  11  November  2003  on  'Implementation  of  the  Education  and  Training  2010  programme' 
(COM (2003) 685 final). 
Commission  Staff  Working  paper  of  10  November  2005  on  'Implementation  of  the  Education  and  Training  2010  programme' 
(COM (2005) 549 final). 
Commission  Staff  Working  paper  of  12  November  2007  on  'Implementation  of  the  Education  and  Training  2010  programme' 
(COM (2007) 549 final). 
Peer  learning  is  a  process  of  cooperation  at  European  level  whereby  policy  makers  and  practitioners  from  one  country  learn, 
through  direct  contact  and  practical  cooperation,  from  experiences  of  their  counterparts  elsewhere  in  Europe  in  implementing 
reforms in areas of shared interest and concern. 
The word “cluster” is used to mean the regrouping of interested countries around a specific theme,corresponding to their national 
policy priorities, and on which they have expressed a desire to learn from other interested countries, or to share with others their 
successful or unsuccessful experiences.  
Throughout this chapter references to PLAs are made in terms of contributions to the work in different areas. For more specific 
descriptions of individual PLAs please refer to the KSLLL. 

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1.2 

Education and Training 2010 Coordination Group (ETCG), High Level Group 
and preparation of the new ET 2020 Strategic Framework 

The  implementation  and  further  development  of  the  education  and  training  OMC  has  been 
carried out in close cooperation between the Member States and the Commission. 

The  Education  and  Training  2010  Coordination  Group  (ETCG)  has  overseen  the  operational 
management and implementation of E&T 2010 in a lifelong learning perspective. Since mid 
2007, the ETCG has held five meetings and discussed operational issues such as the work of 
the clusters, the state of lifelong learning strategies, and the biennial reporting exercise. 

The High Level Group, which brings together political advisers to national ministers, has held 
seven  meetings  since  mid  2007  and  discussed  strategic  political  questions  relating  to  the 
European cooperation. 

The High Level Group played a key role in providing Member States the opportunity to feed 
into the preparation of the Commission’s Communication on an update of the education and 
training  open  method  of  coordination  of  December  200812,  which  led  to  the  adoption  of 
Council  Conclusions  on  a  Strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and 
training (ET 2020) in May 200913.  

In  this  context,  also  a  broad  consultation  of  countries,  social  partners  and  stakeholders  was 
carried  out  in  2008.  The  feedback  gained  on  the  E&T  2010  Open  Method  of  Coordination 
was largely positive. The general result was that, although  some progress was apparent, the 
overall  challenges  and  objectives  for  European  cooperation  remained  valid.  Also  some 
improvements to the working methods were recommended in order to increase their focus and 
effectiveness. 
1.3 

Monitoring  and  evaluating  the  implementation  of  the  work  programme 
(indicators and benchmarks) 

The 2009 Report "Progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and training–indicators 
and benchmarks" which accompanies the present Staff Working Paper analyses the national 
and European performance related particularly to the set of indicators and benchmarks which 
exist for the period until 2010.  

In  May  2009,  the  Education  Council  revised  the  current  set  of  benchmarks  as  part  of  the 
Council conclusions on the new ET 2020 strategic framework. The revised structure includes 
five  benchmarks:  participation  in  early  childhood  education,  low  achievers  in  reading, 
mathematics  and  science,  early  leavers  from  education  and  training,  higher  education 
attainment and participation in lifelong learning. Moreover, the Education Council has invited 
the Commission to work towards concrete proposals for benchmarks in the areas of mobility 
and employability (for 2010) and language skills (for 2012).  

The Commission is also presently engaged in development work on possible new European 
indicators  in  three  competence  areas.  Concerning  languages,  a  first  European  survey  is 
presently  being  implemented  covering  the  five  most  taught  foreign  languages  (English, 
French, German, Italian and Spanish) and three competences (reading, writing and listening 
comprehension). The field survey is planned to take place in 2011 and a final report on the 
results  of  the  survey  will  be  released  in  2012.  Concerning  learning  to  learn  skills,  a  pilot 
survey has been carried out in 2008, testing an instrument for measuring these skills of young 

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"An updated strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training", COM(2008) 865 final of 16.12.2008 
OJ C 119/2 of 28.5.2009. 

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people.  On  the  basis  of  the  results  of  the  pilot  survey,  the  Commission  plans  to  set  up  a 
Committee  of  national  experts  to  plan  for  further  development  work.  The  Commission  will 
report back to the Council if the European survey on learning to learn skills is to be proposed. 
Concerning  creativity  skills,  the  first  exploratory  steps  have  recently  been  taken  by  the 
Commission to plan for possible initiatives measuring the creative skills of individuals on a 
cross-country level and identifying key indicators on the creative capabilities of societies.  

2 

PROGRESS ON TRANSVERSAL LIFELONG LEARNING POLICIES AND INSTRUMENTS 

Strong emphasis continues to be placed on supporting the 32 participating countries' efforts to 
put in place coherent and comprehensive lifelong learning strategies. This ambition was set by 
the Council and the Commission in the 2004 Joint Interim Report on the implementation of 
E&T 2010 and endorsed by the 2004 European Council. 

The  Commission  has  continued  to  monitor  the  development  and  implementation  of  such 
strategies. It has supported national measures aimed at raising awareness of lifelong learning 
strategies  and  of  European  cooperation  in  this  field.  Since  2008,  specific  support  has  also 
been  given  to  transnational  cooperation  in  the  development  and  implementation  of  such 
strategies at the national and regional level. 

The following paragraphs also offer a brief overview of the outcomes of key instruments and 
initiatives at European level related to improving lifelong learning opportunities, notably the 
New Skills for New Jobs (NSNJ) initiative, the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), 
lifelong guidance, the validation of non-formal and informal learning and mobility. 

2.1 

New Skills for New Jobs 

In  its  conclusions  of  March  2008  and  March  2009,  the  European  Council  stressed  the 
importance of a better anticipation and matching of skills and jobs, in particular in times of 
economic  crisis14.  Following  the  mandate  of  the  European  Council  and  since  the 
Communication on "New Skills for New Jobs" adopted in December 200815, the Commission 
has taken steps to improve the EU's capacity to anticipate skill needs, particularly:  

•  Following the first assessment of future skills needs presented in the 2008 Communication, 

the Commission released 18 studies on skills needs in sectors (summer 2009). 

•  Cedefop  released  a  forecast  of  skills  supply  (June  2009)  and  is  working  on  an  updated 
forecast of skills supply and demand with an estimate of potential imbalances up to 2020 
(to be available end 2009)  

•  Cedefop is also examining the potential of employers´ surveys as a tool for analysing skills 

needs.  

•  In  cooperation  with  ILO,  Cedefop  is  undertaking  a  study  on  "skills  needs  in  green  jobs" 

(beginning 2010). 

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Brussels European Council 13/14 March 2008, Presidency Conclusions, 7652/1/08 REV 1; Council Conclusions on New Skills 
for New Jobs. Anticipating and matching labour market and skills needs, 2930th Employment, social policy, health and consumer 
affairs Council meeting, Brussels, 9 March 2009.  
"New Skills for New Jobs. Anticipating and Matching Skills and Jobs", COM (2008) 868 final 

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The Commission is also raising awareness of skills needs, and promoting the "New Skills for 
New Jobs" agenda among its working groups, fora and networks, to encourage Member States 
to disseminate and use information on future skills needs, and to develop mechanisms so that 
skills needs analysis is taken on board in policy and practice. The Commission also supports 
Member  States  in  reforming  curricula,  assessment  and  qualifications  to  provide  the  right 
skills, i.e. those that are most relevant to and needed by the labour market. This is being done, 
for example, through promoting the learning outcomes approach linked to the implementation 
of the EQF and the work on transversal key competences.  

Co-operation  between  the  world  of  work  and  the  world  of  education  and  training  is  at  the 
heart of the "New Skills for New Jobs" initiative. The Commission is therefore encouraging 
innovative partnerships between all levels of education/training and business (the University-
Business Forum for example).  

2.2 

European Qualifications Framework (EQF) 

Following  extensive  consultations  between  Member  States  and  various  stakeholders  at 
European level, the European Parliament and the Council adopted a recommendation on the 
establishment of a European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning in April 200816. 
The main objectives are to facilitate mobility and lifelong learning. To achieve this, the EQF 
acts  as  a  translation  device  to  make  qualifications  more  readable  and  understandable  to 
employers,  individuals  and  institutions  throughout  Europe.  It  takes  the  form  of  a  reference 
framework  providing  a  bridge  across  countries  and  sectors,  covering  general  education, 
vocational  training  and  higher  education  and  facilitating  the  validation  of  non-formal  and 
informal learning.  

In  order  to  ensure  coherence  and  transparency  in  the  implementation  of  the  EQF,  the 
Commission,  closely  supported  by  Cedefop,  set  up  the  EQF  Advisory  Group  composed  of 
representatives of participating countries and European social partners. The Advisory Group 
has  agreed  on  a  set  of  criteria  and  procedures  to  guide  the  referencing  of  national 
qualifications levels to the EQF. Working groups are preparing proposals on ways to support 
mutual trust in the referencing process, to address sectoral developments related to the EQF 
and to establish EQF information resources.  

Since  2006,  the  Commission  has  supported,  through  specific  calls  under  the  Leonardo  da 
Vinci programme, 33 projects to test how the EQF can be effectively implemented and how 
the learning outcomes approach promoted by this framework can be applied. These projects 
address  themes  such  as  the  development  of  national  qualification  frameworks  (NQFs), 
national  referencing 
levels,  sectoral 
qualifications,  bridging  between  VET  and  Higher  Education,  promoting  the  validation  of 
informal and non-formal learning and the involvement of stakeholders, and the development 
of support materials. 

levels  and  self-certification  against 

the  EQF 

The cluster on the recognition of learning outcomes has also significantly contributed to the 
development  of  national  qualifications  frameworks  in  Europe.  Through  peer  learning 
activities, the cluster has explored major trends in countries and defined typologies, dynamics 
and  the  basic  concepts  related  to  NQFs.  The  activities  have  fed  into  the  national  policy 
development  processes,  supporting  policy  makers  in  better  understanding  the  impact, 
opportunities and challenges of NQF development.  

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OJ C 111/1 of 6.5.2008. 

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The  implementation  of  the  EQF  is  closely  coordinated  with  relevant  policy  initiatives  and 
measures  within  the  Copenhagen  and  Bologna  processes,  and  broader  developments  on 
qualification frameworks at the international level. 

2.3 

Validation of non-formal and informal learning  

The validation of non-formal and informal learning is increasingly seen as a key element of 
lifelong  learning  strategies  and  has  been  given  priority  within  the  Copenhagen  Process,  the 
Bologna  Process  and  the  Adult  Learning  Action  Plan.  It  is  closely  linked  to  the 
implementation of the EQF. 

Reflecting  a  concern  as  regards  the  quality  and  coherence  of  approaches  in  this  rapidly 
evolving field of policy and practice, the cluster on the recognition of learning outcomes has 
systematically  supported  the  exchange  of  national  experiences.  Its  peer  learning  activities 
have  strongly  contributed,  for  example,  to  the  European  Guidelines  on  the  validation  of 
informal  and  non-formal  learning  published  by  Cedefop  in  July  200917.  The  guidelines 
address stakeholders at national, regional, enterprise and local levels, and aim to contribute to 
the overall improvement of practise. They are intended as a reference for validation practices 
in all sub-sectors of education and training as well as in enterprises and sectors.  

2.4 

Lifelong guidance  

A major conference on lifelong guidance (Gérer les transitions) was organised by the French 
Presidency  in  Lyon  in  September  2008.  The  conference  confirmed  that  lifelong  guidance  is 
perceived as a vital field for policy actions to accompany people during many transitions they 
experience in today's economy and society. It underlined the importance of generalised access 
to  quality  guidance  services  and  the  need  to  equip  people  with  the  skills  necessary  to  take 
advantage of learning opportunities. 

Following up the conference, the French Presidency proposed a Resolution that was adopted 
by the Council in November 2008, inviting Member States to take action around four priority 
areas: 

1. Encourage the lifelong acquisition of career management skills; 

2. Facilitate access by all citizens to guidance services; 

3. Develop the quality assurance of guidance provision; 

4. Encourage coordination and cooperation among the various stakeholders. 

The  Resolution  invites  Member  States  to  take  advantage  of  the  European  lifelong  guidance 
policy  network  (ELGPN)18.  This  network  of  Member  States  is  supported  financially  by  the 
Commission  and  currently  coordinated  by  Finland.  In  2008  the  network  focused  on 
contributing to the Lyon conference mentioned above. Its work programme for 2009 and 2010 
particularly focuses on thematic peer learning work on the four priority areas indicated in the 
Council Resolution of November 2008. 

For  the  PLOTEUS  portal  on  learning  opportunities,  a  Commission  resource  to  support 
information  and  guidance  services,19  a  second  phase  started  in  2008  with  a  view  to 
interconnecting  national  databases  and  making  them  available  to  citizens  and  guidance 

17

18

19

Cedefop and DG EAC: European Guidelines on the validation of informal and non-formal learning. Luxembourg, 2009. 
See: http://ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn 
See: http://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/ 

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operators through a common interface. Five national databases were involved in the first wave 
of development; fifteen others joined the second wave that will be achieved in 2010. Further 
development of Ploteus will also be linked to the development of "Match and Map" initiative 
as part of the follow up to New Skills for New Jobs. 

2.5 

Mobility 

Learning  mobility  and  its  potential  to  contribute  to  European  cohesion  and  competitiveness 
has recently been the subject of considerable reflection. The Council concluded in November 
2008  that  "every  young  person  should  have  the  opportunity  to  take  part  in  some  form  of 
mobility, whether this be during their studies or training, in the form of a work placement, or 
in the context of voluntary activities."  

A clear consensus exists in support of the objective of expanding mobility opportunities and 
extending  them  more  broadly  to  young  people.  What  is  now  needed  is  to  build  on  this 
consensus  and  define  strategies  to  achieve  these  ambitions.  This  is  why  the  Commission 
adopted a Green Paper in July 200920 on how to promote learning mobility for young people. 
The  Green  Paper  opens  up  the  debate  to  stakeholders  and  the  wider  public,  seeking  their 
views on how best to boost substantially the opportunities for young people to have a mobility 
experience.  

In 2008 the first evaluation of the Europass initiative was carried out21. The main conclusions 
were that the documents with a clear competence-based approach were the most effective and 
that their potential could be further exploited. In particular, the successful Europass CV tool 
should  grow  into  a  fully  fledged  CV  and  self-assessment  service.  Following  a  feasibility 
study, actual development started in summer 2009 with a view to make the service available 
to  citizens  by  the  end  of  2010.  Further  synergy  with  the  Eures  job  mobility  portal  was  also 
pursued, as well as with the implementation of the EQF. 

2.6 

External dimension strategy 

The  European  Commission  implements  programmes  and  undertakes  policy  dialogue  which 
have  as  their  aim  to  open  up  the  EU's  education  systems  (notably  higher  education)  to  the 
wider world. This allows European systems to participate in and benefit from the new  global 
openness  of  education,  in  the  form  of  increased  flows  of  students,  educationalists  and  of 
ideas. 

Policy  dialogue  aimed  at  facilitating  the  exchange  of  experiences  and  good  practices  is 
currently  underway  with  a  wide  variety  of  partner  countries  –  with  leading  industrialised 
countries  such  as  US,  Canada,  Australia,  Japan,  Korea  and  New  Zealand;  with  newly 
emerging  knowledge  powers  such  as  China,  India  and  Brazil;  and  with  countries  in  the 
European Neighbourhood. 

Cooperation  is  also  underway  with  countries  in  the  European  Neighbourhood,  in  particular 
the  partner  countries,  assisted  by  the  European  Training  Foundation  for  improving  human 
capital development in the context of the EU external policies22. Policy approaches and tools 
discussed in the Copenhagen process provide an important reference for the modernisation of 
VET systems for countries in accession as well as partner countries.  

20

21

22

COM(2009) 329 final of 8.7.2009 
Cf. Communication COM(2008)427. 
See ETF’s recast regulation(EC) No 1339/2008 (Dec 2008) 

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Programme support for student and academic exchange is most notably provided by the EU's 
flagship programme for worldwide academic cooperation, Erasmus Mundus. The Decision for 
the  second  phase  of  the  Erasmus  Mundus  programme  was  adopted  in  December  2008  and 
entered into force at the beginning of 2009. The Erasmus Mundus II programme builds upon 
the success of its first phase (103 joint masters' courses and approximately 100 partnerships 
selected  and  some  10000  scholarships  offered  to  students  and  academics)  by  aiming  to 
become the EU reference programme for cooperation with third countries in this area. Over a 
period of five years (2009-2013), just over 950 million Euros will be available for European 
and third-country universities to set up joint programmes or collaborative partnerships, and to 
grant  scholarships  to  European  and  third-country  students  for  an  international  study 
experience. The first call of the new phase of the programme was launched in February 2009 
and in July 2009 50 new or renewed joint masters' courses and – for the first time – 13 joint 
doctoral programmes were selected. Approximately 10,000 new grants will be attributed for 
the academic year 2009-2010. 

3 

SCHOOLS 

3.1 

A European Agenda for cooperation on schools 

In 2007 the Commission undertook a public consultation on ‘Schools for the 21st Century’23 
that  involved  all  relevant  stakeholders  and  decision  makers  at  national,  regional  and  local 
levels. The outcomes of the consultation, together with the work of the clusters and relevant 
research,  were  the  basis  of  the  Commission's  Communication  "Improving  Competences  for 
the  21st  Century:  An  Agenda  for  European  Cooperation  on  Schools"24  published  in  August 
2008. The proposed agenda is based on three areas of work:  

•  Giving  all  pupils  the  competences  they  need  for  life  in  our  rapidly  changing  knowledge 

society; 

•  Commitment to provide high quality learning for every student; 

•  Work on improving the quality of teachers and school staff needs to continue.  

The  November  2008  Council  Conclusions  endorsed  the  proposed  agenda  and  stressed  the 
fundamental  role  of  school  education  in  laying  the  foundations  for  lifelong  learning.  In 
particular,  the  Council  emphasised  the  two-fold  challenge  of  the  acquisition  of  key 
competences:  first,  more  work  is  needed  to  ensure  the  fundamental  basic  skills  such  as 
literacy and numeracy as part of the key competences and, second, enhance the acquisition of 
transversal key competences such as learning to learn, social and civic competences that are 
crucial for lifelong learning and for success in the labour market. 

On  equity  in  education  and  training,  the  Council  Conclusions  reiterated  the  need  to  tackle 
early  school  leaving  and  foster  social  inclusion.  This  should  be  achieved  by,  inter  alia, 
ensuring  transitions  through  improved  guidance  and  advice,  high-quality  opportunities  by 
improving  early  identification  of  learning  difficulties  and  by  providing  timely,  personalised 
pedagogical approaches tailored to individual needs. The Council also recognised the key role 

23

24

See http://ec.europa.eu/education/school21/index_en.html 
See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0425:FIN:EN:PDF 

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of Early Childhood Education and Care and called for a focus on cooperation in this area in 
the future. 

The  Council  Conclusions  also  recognised  the  key  role  of  teachers  and  school  leaders  in 
making schools more responsive to today's challenges. Joint work should include issues such 
as attractiveness of the teacher profession, the recruitment, placement, retention and mobility 
policies  and  the  professional  development  and  support  of  both  teachers'  and  school  leaders' 
professions. 

3.2 

Key competences  

The  Cluster  on  Key  Competences  has  focussed  on  policy  aspects  that  can  help  schools  and 
teachers support the acquisition of the eight key competences by all students.  

The policy examples examined by the cluster indicate that with innovative pedagogies much 
can  be  done  by  individual  teachers  through  subject  teaching.  Peer  learning  concludes  that 
support for schools has to be systematic and comprehensive. The policy examples examined 
by  the  cluster  in  Hungary,  Greece  and  Austria  demonstrated,  first  of  all,  the  necessity  of 
having a national lifelong learning strategy that explicitly indicates the essential role of school 
education as providing key competences for further learning and adult life. 

Secondly,  policy  processes  need  to  be  both  top-down  and  bottom-up  with  effective 
communication  between  all  actors.  The  implementation  of  a  competences-based  curriculum 
should be supported by the use of research and evidence, new approaches to teacher's initial 
education  and  professional  development,  learning  material  and  assessment  and  evaluation 
techniques.  

Teachers have been identified as key to any change, and there is a growing understanding on 
the  role  of  school  leaders  in  creating  the  right  ethos  and  organisation  for  teachers  to  work 
together.  

In  the  field  of  mathematical  competence  and  basic  competences  in  science  and 
technology,  the  cluster  on  Maths,  Science  and  Technology  (MST)  has  focused  on  the 
modernisation  of  teaching  methods;  enhancement  of  the  professional  profile  of  teachers; 
ensuring a better transition between secondary and higher education; promoting partnerships 
between  schools,  universities  and  industry;  addressing  the  needs  of  special  groups  and 
improving female participation in MST studies and careers. Since December 2008, work has 
been  carried  out  together  with  the  Commission's  Directorate-General  for  Research  and  as  a 
follow-up to the Rocard report25 recommendations. The Cluster has produced a Compendium 
of Good Practices in MST26. This presents relevant initiatives in MST visited and analysed by 
experts through the PLA methodology in relation to national reforms and action plans in four 
countries: France, Norway and Portugal.  

The topics addressed by three PLAs (mid-2007-2009) are closely linked to policy priorities of 
participating countries; they all concern large scale action plans or strategic reforms on MST 
at national level. The PLAs carried out so far appear to have had positive impacts at national 
level and a clear demand for dissemination of good practices has been reported by experts.  

In  the  field  of  digital  competences,  the  peer-learning  cluster  on  ICT  has  worked  on 
identifying key factors for improving the quality of ICT integration in teaching and learning 

25

"Science Education NOW – A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe", 2007:  

See: http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/rocardreport 
26

See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/compmst_en.pdf 

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in  European  education  systems,  the  use  of  new  technologies  in  education  and  training,  its 
added-value  for  qualitative  and  innovative  learning  and  its  contribution  to  attract  groups  at 
risk  of  exclusion.  The  cluster  has  contributed  to  a  fundamental  change  in  discourse  in  the 
domain  of  ICT  for  learning:  from  'accessibility'  to  'embedding  the  use  of  ICT  in  broader 
educational strategies' towards 'innovative learning'.  

The cluster exchanged good practices and has produced a Compendium of Good Practices. It 
has  identified  key  recommendations  on  the  implementation  and  integration  of  ICT  in 
education and training (see forthcoming summary of "Lessons Learned by the ICT cluster") 
and  contributed  to  the  preparation  of  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Paper  on  the  "Use  of 
ICT to support innovation and lifelong learning for all – A report on progress"27. The cluster 
has  also  contributed  to  the  development  of  improved  indicators  for  measuring  ICT  use  and 
impact, including exchange with European-wide comparative studies28.  

Peer  learning  activities  have  been  organised  in  Oslo,  Helsinki,  Luxembourg,  Budapest, 
Birmingham,  Thessaloniki  and  Vienna.  The  cluster  worked  closely  with  the  respective 
clusters  on  'Teachers  and  trainers',  'Key  competences'  and  'MST'  to  transfer  the  main 
recommendations from the ICT cluster to the policy agendas of these other clusters. 

The ICT cluster has also had an impact on European policy-making on "Digital competence" 
(e-inclusion and e-skills) across Commission Directorates General (EAC, INFSO, ENTR) so 
that both the assessment of digital competences, as well as the importance of the role of E&T 
for developing these competences in partnership with industry and research, have been put on 
the agenda 

A  number  of  significant  policy  developments  in  the  field  of  communication  in  foreign 
languages on have taken place since 2007, especially on language teaching and learning.  

In  September  2007,  the  Commission  adopted  a  report  on  the  implementation  of  the  Action 
Plan  "Promoting  language  learning  and  linguistic  diversity  2004-2006"  while,  in  September 
2008,  it  adopted  the  Communication  "Multilingualism:  an  asset  for  Europe  and  a  shared 
commitment".  The  Communication  was  the  outcome  of  a  wide  and  intensive  consultation 
process  throughout  2007  and  2008,  involving  meetings  of  high-level  Member  State 
representatives  and  of  distinguished  intellectuals,  a  ministerial  conference,  a  business 
conference  and  forum,  an  open  stakeholder  consultation  as  well  as  an  inventory  of 
Community actions in the field of multilingualism. The Communication subsequently led the 
EU Education Council to adopt in November 2008 a Resolution on a European strategy for 
multilingualism.  

Furthermore, the Member States and the Commission have pursued cooperation on the ways 
and  means  of  improving  foreign  language  skills  in  the  EU  within  the  Expert  Group  on 
Languages and the European Language Inspectors' Network.  

3.3 

Teachers 

In  November  2007,  the  Council  adopted  Conclusions29  which  constitute  a  commitment  to 
improving  the  quality  of  teacher  education.  This  was  further  developed  by  the  above 
Conclusions of November 2008 on school education30. 

27

28

29

30

SEC(2008) 2629 
Studies on Technology's impact in primary schools" (STEPS) and on Indicators on ICT in Education (IIE) 
See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:300:0006:0009:EN:PDF 
See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:319:0020:0022:EN:PDF 

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The  cluster  ‘Teachers  and  Trainers’  has  successfully  identified  key  policy  conditions  for: 
promoting  effective  relationships  between schools and teacher education institutions (TEIs), 
and  the  induction  of  new  teachers  into  the  profession.  As  part  of  the  work,  two  PLAs  have 
taken  place  since  mid-2007;  one  on  the  relationship  between  teacher  education  institutions 
and schools (Denmark 2007) and one on policies of induction of new teachers (Estonia 2008). 

Induction  presents  a  significant  challenge  in  the  EU,  with  less  than  half  of  Member  States 
providing  coordinated  support  for  beginning  teachers.  The  Cluster  is  soon  to  publish  a 
Handbook  to  assist  Policymakers  to  remedy  this.  It  has  identified  that  the  successful 
integration  of  beginning  teachers  into  the  profession  requires  them  to  receive  four  distinct 
types  of  support:  mentoring,  collaboration  with  peers,  access  to  external  advice  and 
knowledge and structured self-reflection. 

3.4 

Social inclusion and migration  

In 2007-2009, the work on social inclusion has focussed on  increasing  the efforts  to reduce 
early  school  leaving  and  on  migrants  and  education.  In  March  2008  the  European  Council 
urged  Member  States  to  reduce  the  number  of  early  school  leavers  and  to  improve  the 
achievement of learners from migrant or disadvantaged backgrounds. 

The cluster on 'Access and Social Inclusion in Lifelong Learning' has been the main tool for 
increasing cooperation among Member States on these issues. Four PLAs have taken place in 
France, Spain, Sweden and Italy exploring programmes to support students in underachieving 
schools, pedagogical innovation, pre-primary education and targeting disadvantaged youth.  

The  Green  Paper  'Migration  and  mobility:  Challenges  &  opportunities  for  EU  education 
systems',  adopted  in  July  2008,  highlighted  the  need  to  develop  policies  and  measures  to 
bridge  the  achievement  gap  between  migrant-background  learners  and  others  in  education 
systems across the EU and opened a public consultation on the subject. Around 100 responses 
were  received,  mostly  from  education  authorities  or  organisations  active  in  the  field,  which 
have been analysed by the Commission. A consultation report will be published in 2009.  

4 

4.1 

PROGRESS  IN  IMPLEMENTING  THE  COPENHAGEN  PROCESS  FOR  VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

The  Copenhagen  policy  framework:  Assessing  progress  and  preparing  the 
future 

Vocational education and training (VET) is crucial for Europe’s aim to re-position itself in the 
global economy through well-qualified human capital equipped with the skills needed in the 
future. The Copenhagen process is part of the OMC in education and training (Education and 
Training  2010  and  it  successor  ET2020).  Since  2002,  European  VET  policy  has  been 
reviewed  every  two  years,  most  recently  in  Bordeaux  in  November  2008.  Following  the 
adoption  of  the  Conclusions  of  the  Council31,  the  ministers  from  the  EU  Member  States, 
candidate  and  EEA  countries,  the  European  Social  partners,  and  the  Commission  adopted  a 
Communiqué which sets out the VET priorities for 2008-201032. The Bordeaux Communiqué 
also called for a Ministerial follow-up meeting to be held in Bruges in 2010, to evaluate the 

31 
32 

See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009:018:0006:0010:EN:PDF 
See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/bordeaux_en.pdf 

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implementation  of  the  Copenhagen  process  and  to  reflect  on  its  strategic  direction  beyond 
2010. This will take place within the context of the ET2020 Strategic Framework. 

The  following  policy  priorities  were  set  in  the  Council  Conclusions  and  Bordeaux 
Communiqué in 2008: 

•  Implementing the tools and schemes for promoting cooperation in the field of VET – 
with a particular focus on: i) establishing National Qualifications Frameworks on the basis 
of  learning  outcomes,  ii)  the  European  Credit  system  for  Vocational  Education  and 
Training, and iii) the European Quality Assurance Reference Framework. 

•  Heightening  the  quality  and  attractiveness  of  VET  systems  –  by  promoting  the 
attractiveness of VET to all target groups, namely by organising skills competitions such as 
EuroSkills, and by promoting excellence and quality assurance mechanisms.  

•  Improving the links between VET and the labour market – by i) developing forward-
planning  tools  focusing  on  jobs  and  skills  in  line  with  the  Council  Resolution  on  "New 
skills  for  new  jobs";  ii)  ensuring  the  involvement  of  the  social  partners;  iii)  improving 
guidance and counselling (throughout life) to ease the transition from training to work; iv) 
promoting adult training, in particular in the workplace with special attention to SMEs; v) 
developing validation and recognition of non-formal and informal learning outcomes; vi) 
increasing mobility; and vii) increasing the role of higher education in VET.  

•  Strengthening  cooperation  arrangements  –  by  i)  increasing  the  efficiency  of  mutual 
learning  activities,  ii)  strengthening  linkages  between  VET,  school  education,  higher 
education  and  adult  training,  and  iii)  consolidating  exchanges  and  cooperation  with  third 
countries  and  international  organisations,  such  as  the  OECD,  the  Council  of  Europe,  the 
ILO and UNESCO. 

Cedefop’s  analysis  and  countries’  self-assessment  show  a  close  alignment  of  national 
priorities  and  the  European  agenda.  Although  progress  varies,  a  European  VET  area  is 
emerging. As described in Cedefop's report "Towards a European era of vocational education 
and  training"33,  the  development  of  common  European  tools,  principles  and  guidelines  is 
central to the Copenhagen process.  

The European qualifications framework (EQF) and the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning are a priority in almost all countries (see section 2).  

Credit systems are not yet commonplace in European  VET  systems.  Bringing  the  European 
credit  system  for  VET  (ECVET)  to  maturity  and  implementation  still  requires  substantial 
work  and  investment.  Promising  results  are  expected  from  pilot  projects  testing  this 
instrument.  

The  implementation  of  the  European  quality  assurance  reference  framework  (EQARF)  will 
play  a  key  role  in  further  developing  quality  assurance  mechanisms  in  Europe.  Quality 
assurance is increasingly understood as an  objective as well as a means to ensure that VET 
programmes  are  more  attractive  and  effective,  equitable  and  efficient  and  that  learners, 
employers and education providers within a country and across borders have trust in the value 
of  learning  outcomes  −  a  prerequisite  for  the  common  European  tools  and  mechanisms  to 
succeed. 

33 

See http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/528/3055_en.pdf 

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Increasingly,  European  tools  are  part  of  a  VET  policy  mix.  As  a  result  of  these  European 
initiatives,  general  and  comprehensive  reforms  of  the  national  education  systems  have 
intensified. These mainly focus on increased orientation towards learning outcomes.  

4.2 

ECVET - European credit system for VET 

The European credit system for vocational education and training (ECVET)34, which aims to 
allow trainees to build upon their achievements when moving within national systems or from 
one  national  VET  system  to  another,  was  adopted  by  the  Council  and  the  European 
Parliament in June 200935 and is in its first phase of implementation and development. It will 
facilitate the accumulation, exchange and transfer of learning outcomes in any context, thus 
enabling  citizens  to  pursue  lifelong  learning  and  to  achieve  qualifications  by  taking  all 
learning contexts into account.  

Following  a  public  consultation  on  the  ECVET,  a  draft  Recommendation  on  ECVET  was 
proposed by the Commission in  April 2008.  For  this purpose the Commission established a 
technical working group composed of experts from the countries participating in E&T 2010 
and  the  European  social  partners,  education  associations  and  other  stakeholders.  The 
recommendation  was  adopted  by  the  Parliament  in  December  2008  and  by  the  Council  in 
May 2009. A launching conference for ECVET was organised in Prague in May 2009, under 
the  Czech  presidency.  A  European  wide  conference  focused  on  the  implementation  of 
ECVET is planned for November 2009. 

The  Recommendation  foresees  the  establishment  of  a  European  ECVET  network  and  of  a 
European ECVET users' group in order to develop cooperation between Member States and to 
ensure  the  overall  governance  of  the  implementation  of  ECVET.  In  2008,  10  pilot  projects 
and  two  ECVET  network  projects  were  selected  to  test  and  develop  ECVET.  They  are 
financed by the Leonardo da Vinci Programme. 

4.3 

EQARF - Quality Assurance in VET 

The  Common  Quality  Assurance  Framework  for  VET  (CQAF)36  endorsed  by  Council 
Conclusions  in  May  2004  has  been  a  basis  for  mutual  learning  and  the  launch  of  several 
concrete initiatives, at both national and European levels.37 At European level, the CQAF has 
supported  thematic  work  (quality  indicators,  early  warning  systems  and  links  with  Higher 
Education and EQF) and peer learning activities, as part of the implementation of the biannual 
work programme of the European Network on Quality Assurance in VET.  

Building  on  experience  and  achievements  made  so  far  through  national  and  European 
practical  initiatives,  the  Commission  prepared  a  proposal  for  a  Recommendation  on  the 
establishment  of  a  European  Quality  Assurance  Reference  Framework  (EQARF),  as  a 
supporting  tool  to  help  Member  States  to  promote,  and  monitor  continuously,  the  quality 
improvement/reform  of  their  VET  systems  and  quality  management  practices.  The 
Recommendation  was  adopted  by  the  Parliament  in  December  2008  and  by  the  Council  in 
May  2009.  A  launching  conference  was  organised  under  the  Czech  EU  Presidency  in  May 
2009 (along with ECVET).  

34

35

36

37

See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc50_en.htm 
See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009:155:0011:0018:EN:PDF 
See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc1134_en.htm 
See http://communities.trainingvillage.gr. 

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The  Recommendation  is  a  common  reference  instrument  to  support  Member  States  in 
promoting  and  monitoring  quality  improvement  in  VET  systems  at  different  levels.  It  will 
also contribute to building mutual trust in national VET systems within a genuinely borderless 
lifelong  learning  area,  thus  facilitating  transnational  mobility  of  learners  and  workers.  The 
improvement  cycle  of  planning, 
framework  comprises  a  quality  assurance  and 
implementation, evaluation/assessment and review of VET provisions. It provides a common 
basis  for  further  development  of  quality  principles,  reference  criteria  and  indicators,  as 
appropriate. 

The  Recommendation  foresees  the  establishment  of  Quality  Assurance  National  Reference 
Points  and  of  a  European  EQARF  network  in  order  to  develop  the  cooperation  between 
Member States and to ensure the overall governance of the implementation of EQARF. 

4.4 

Teachers and Trainers in VET 

Teachers  and  trainers  in  VET  have  been  identified  as  a  key  priority  in  the  Copenhagen 
Declaration, and the subsequent Communiqués. They are seen as important actors promoting 
the attractiveness and quality in VET and in achieving lifelong learning for all. In 2006, a sub-
group of the cluster on Teachers and Trainers was established to focus specifically on VET 
teachers  and  trainers.  Three  peer  learning  activities  have  been  organised  since  mid-2007  in 
Portugal,  Slovenia  and  Germany  on  the  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  for 
VET teachers and trainers, teachers as change agents for the autonomy of VET schools, and 
professionalization of teachers and trainers in VET. 

The  specific  focus  on  VET  teachers  and  trainers  was  supported  by  two  studies  which  have 
been  contracted  by  the  Commission  to  analyse  the  situation  in  this  rather  diverse  field  in 
Europe. They have identified possible actions and measures (particularly on the qualification 
and recruitment of trainers, their work and  working environments, on policies and practices 
related  to  the  training  of  trainers  and  their  effectiveness  and  on  possible  professional 
development  pathways).  Additionally  6  workshops  were  organised  to  gather  information  on 
the  training  and  practice  of  VET  teachers  and  trainers  in  the  Member  States  and  to  consult 
with national stakeholders on outcomes of the studies and possible future developments. The 
final report will be available in autumn 2009. 

In 2008 a new study was launched on the "Impact of Leonardo da Vinci teachers' and trainers' 
mobility  projects  on  the  VET  systems".  The  impact  will  be  assessed  at  three  levels:  the 
individual/thematic  level,  the  institutional  level  and  the  systemic  level.  The  results  will  be 
available  by  the  end  of  2009.  Cedefop  has  via  the  TTNET  network  focused  its  work  in 
2008/2009  on  the  changing  roles  of  VET  teachers  and  trainers  and  on  the  feasibility  of 
developing a common framework for VET professions.  

5 

HIGHER EDUCATION 

5.1 

Progress on higher education 

The  Commission  aims  to  support  Member  States  in  their  efforts  to  modernise  higher 
education systems, in all areas of their activity - education, research and innovation - making 
them more coherent, more flexible, and more responsive to the needs of society. In May 2006, 

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22 

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the Commission published a Communication pointing to nine areas38 where action would help 
deliver the modernisation agenda for universities in education, research and innovation. 

The Commission has since then worked with Member States and the higher education sector 
to  help  implement  the  modernisation  agenda  through  the  OMC  and  by  special  initiatives 
(European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, EQF, European Institute of Innovation 
and Technology etc.) and by supporting the initiatives of others (pilot projects, associations, 
networks  etc.)  through  the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme.  The  Commission  also  works  to 
support  this  modernisation  agenda  through  the  implementation  of  the  7th  EU  Framework 
Programme for Research and the Competitiveness and Innovation Programme, as well as the 
Structural Funds and EIB loans.  

The  peer-learning  cluster  on  Modernisation  of  Higher  Education  has  supported  the  reform 
agenda  for  higher  education.  This  Cluster  looks  in  detail  to  issues  related  to  curriculum, 
governance  and  funding  reform.  Based  on  the  learning  needs  of  participating  countries,  the 
Cluster  looks  at  key  issues  and  organises  specific  events  for  the  exchange  of  good  practice 
and reflection on experiences.  

The Cluster has organised three peer learning activities (PLAs) since mid-2007 in Bulgaria, 
Iceland and Spain, on implementing the EQF and national qualification frameworks in Higher 
Education, on circling the Knowledge Triangle from the perspective of education (the added 
value  of  better  connecting  Higher  Education  to  research  and  innovation)  and  on  ways  to 
increase mobility (funding models examined). 

Examples of outcomes from the work of the Cluster include:  

•  The  findings  of  the  PLA  on  Knowledge  Triangle  have  informed  the  preparation  of  a 
Swedish  Presidency  conference  on  the  knowledge  triangle,  and  input  into  the  Council's 
reflections in this area 

•  Conclusions  of  the  PLA  on  ways  to  increase  mobility:  the  funding  models  examined 
informed the French Presidency conference on mobility and the development of the Green 
Paper on Mobility  

•  The  Cluster  has  also  developed  a  Compendium  of  good  practice  in  policymaking  for 
modernising  universities.  The  Compendium  is  an  information  tool  aimed  at  informing 
national  and  regional  policy  development  and  policy  implementation.  It  is  based  upon 
good practices provided from the Member States, with evidence on results where available. 
The  Compendium  is  a  dynamic  resource:  as  new  examples  of  good  practice  arise,  these 
will be added39. 

5.2 

Higher education and the Bologna Process 

The  Commission  stimulates  Bologna  initiatives  at  European  level  and  participates  as  a  full 
member  in  the  Bologna  Follow-up  Group.  Ten  years  on  from  the  Bologna  Declaration,  the 
ministerial follow-up conference in April 2009 in Leuven and Louvain-la-Neuve focused on 
defining political orientations for the European Higher Education Area for the coming decade 
to  2020.  The  final  Communiqué  reflects  well  the  objectives  and  expectations  of  the 

38

39

”Delivering  on  the  Modernisation  Agenda  for  Universities”  Education,  Research  and  Innovation  COM(20006)208  final,  of  10 
May 2006   
See: http://www.kslll.net/PoliciesAndAchievements/Default.cfm 

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Commission. In particular it formulates the target that in 2020, at least 20% of graduates in 
the European Higher Education Area should have had a study or training period abroad.  

At the previous ministerial meeting in London in 2007, it was decided to develop a strategy 
for  the  external  dimension  of  the  Bologna  Process.  The  Commission  has,  for  several  years, 
strongly  advocated  closer  cooperation  with  countries  outside  the  process.  It  therefore 
welcomed  the  initiative  taken  by  the  hosts  of  the  conference  (Belgium,  Netherlands,  and 
Luxembourg)  to  organise  a  Bologna  Policy  Forum.  This  meeting  immediately  followed  the 
Ministerial  Meeting  on  29  April  and  was  attended  by  higher  education  ministers  or  their 
representatives  from  15  countries  around  the  world,  including  the  US,  Canada,  Mexico, 
Brazil, Australia and China. The Forum provided the opportunity to discuss how worldwide 
cooperation  in  higher  education  can  be  enhanced  through  the  Bologna  Process.  The  final 
declaration highlighted the consensus that a more permanent and structured dialogue between 
"Bologna"  and  third  countries  would  be  of  mutual  interest  and  that  Bologna  Policy  Fora 
should become regular events.  

See also section 2 on Erasmus Mundus. 

5.3 

Quality Assurance in Higher Education 

In September 2009, the Commission published the first triennial report assessing progress in 
the development of quality assurance systems in Member States and on cooperation activities 
at European level. This was to follow-up the 2006 joint recommendation on further European 
cooperation in quality assurance in higher education40. A major breakthrough was the creation 
of the European Quality Assurance Register (EQAR) which was launched in 2008. The report 
highlights  in  particular  the  need  for  a  more  efficient  quality  assurance  infrastructure,  the 
implementation  and  possible  revision  of  the  European  Standards  and  Guidelines  in  quality 
assurance, and a stronger European dimension in quality assurance.  

5.4 

Other on-going initiatives to support the Modernisation agenda 

To  facilitate  the  transparency  of  higher  education  institutions  and  their  missions,  the 
Commission  is  supporting  research  into  the  feasibility  of  a  European  Global  University 
Ranking. This ranking would cover all three levels of study, be entirely independent, multi-
dimensional, and involve universities across the whole world. The first results of the research 
will be available in early 2010, and testing will run through 2010 and the first half of 2011.  

The  Ranking  project  complements  work  being  undertaken  on  behalf  of  the  Commission  on 
European  University  Data  Collection  (mapping)  which  will  create  a  census  of  European 
universities, and launch a pilot data collection on a sample of research-active universities. 

Building  upon  a  successful  conference  held  in  co-operation  with  the  European  Investment 
Bank  on  the  theme  of  student  lending  in  January  2009,  the  Commission  will  launch  a 
Feasibility Study on Student Lending for learning mobility in late 2009. 

5.5 

University –Business partnerships 

University-Business  Cooperation  is  a  cornerstone  in  the  modernisation  of  higher  education. 
This has been highlighted in the Commission's Communication of 2006 and reinforced in the 
Resolution  of  the  Council  on  modernising  universities  for  Europe's  competitiveness  in  a 

40

Further European cooperation in quality assurance in higher education Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the 
Council (February 2006): http://eurex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_064/l_06420060304en00600062.pdf  

EN 

24 

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global  knowledge  economy41.  The  Council  invited  the  Commission  to  support  the  Member 
States  with  regard  to  the  modernisation  agenda,  including  through  encouraging  partnerships 
between universities and industry/private sector. 

In order to contribute to improving cooperation between higher education and industry/private 
sector, the Commission launched the University-Business Forum, a European level platform, 
providing  for  structured  dialogue  between  the  stakeholders,  stimulating  the  sharing  of  good 
practice  and  mutual  learning.  The  first  plenary  University-Business  Forum  took  place  in 
February 2008 followed by three thematic forums focusing on specific aspects in the context 
of  University-Business  Cooperation:  continuing  education  and  lifelong  learning  (Brussels, 
June);  curriculum  development  and  entrepreneurship  (Tenerife,  October)  and  Knowledge 
Transfer (Brussels, November). The 2nd plenary University-Business Forum was organised in 
Brussels in February 2009. 

At these events, representatives from the different stakeholders met to exchange experiences 
and  to  discuss  common  problems  and  solutions.  The  areas  addressed  were  governance, 
curriculum  development,  entrepreneurship,  knowledge  transfer,  lifelong  learning  and 
mobility. Each forum formulated a number of conclusions and possible lines of action. 

The  Commission  adopted  in  April  2009  the  Communication:  "A  new  partnership  for  the 
modernisation  of  universities:  the  EU  Forum  for  University  Business  Dialogue".  The 
Communication  sets  out  what  has  been  learned  from  the  first  year  of  the  Forum  about  the 
challenges  and  barriers  to  University-Business  Cooperation,  the  issues  to  be  addressed  and 
good practices and approaches, which could be more widely used. It makes proposals for the 
next  steps  in  the  Forum's  work  and  outlines  concrete  follow-up  actions  to  strengthen 
University-Business Cooperation. 

The  Conclusions  of  the  Council,  adopted  on  12  May  2009,  on  "enhancing  partnerships 
between education and training institutions and social partners, in particular employers, in the 
context  of  lifelong  learning",  invites  the  Commission  to  "further  develop  the  University-
Business Forum as a physical and virtual platform at European level for dialogue between the 
different  stakeholders,  to  envisage  its  extension  to  include  other  levels  of  education  and 
training,  stakeholders  from  countries  outside  the  EU  and  specific  sectors  within  higher 
education,  to  disseminate  the  findings  of  the  platforms  and  to  facilitate  access  to  and  the 
sharing of examples of good practice". 

5.6 

European Institute of Innovation and Technology 

The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) is a new Community body which 
aims to generate sustainable European growth and competitiveness in the global knowledge 
society via the stimulation and delivery of world-leading innovation and entrepreneurship in 
the higher education, research and business triangle42.  

The appointed Governing Board, the EIT's autonomous decision-making body, kicked off its 
activities  in  September  2008.  The  EIT's  "Knowledge  and  Innovation  Communities"  (KICs), 
integrating  for  the  first  time  all  actors  involved  in  the  "knowledge  triangle"  or  "innovation 
chain"  within  ambitious  pan-European  partnerships,  are  the  EIT's  first  major  action  at 
European level. The EIT will put a strong emphasis on attracting and mobilizing participants 

41

42

COUNCIL  RESOLUTION  of  23  November  2007  on  modernising  universities  for  Europe's  competitiveness  in  a  global 
knowledge economy; 16096/1/07 REV 1 
See: http://eit.europa.eu/ 

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25 

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and resources from the private sector, notably industry, the full inclusion of which is one of 
the cornerstones of the initiative. 

6 

PROGRESS ON THE ADULT LEARNING ACTION PLAN  

The  Adult  learning  Action  Plan  ‘It  is  always  a  good  time  to  learn’  was  adopted  by  the 
Commission in September 200743. Building on the 2006 Communication on Adult Learning44, 
the Action Plan defines five concrete actions which Member States should seek to implement 
in  order  to  increase  the  participation  in  and  the  quality  of  adult  learning  and  to  develop 
efficient systems that reach all adults and involve all relevant stakeholders. The Action Plan 
was reinforced by the Conclusions of the Council in May 2008. The five priority actions are 
to: 

•  Analyse effects of reforms in other educational sectors on adult learning: developments in 
the  adult  learning  sector  must  be  mainstreamed  into  the  ongoing  process  of  modernising 
education and training.  

•  Improve the quality of provision: quality is influenced by many factors but none is more 
important  than  staffing;  teaching  and  other  support  staff  should  be  equipped  with  key 
competences to motivate and accompany adult learners; quality standards for providers are 
lacking. 

•  Increase  the  possibilities  to  achieve  a  qualification  at  least  one  level  higher:  it  must  be 
possible for everyone to take their qualification one step up or up-date their competences at 
the same level. 

•  Speed  up  the  process  of  assessing  and  recognizing  non  formal  and  informal  learning  for 
disadvantaged groups: the assessment and validation of competences, regardless of where 
and how they are gained, are especially important for the low qualified.  

•  Improve the monitoring of the adult learning sector: there is an urgent need for a common 
language to overcome the misunderstandings and the lack of comparable data in the sector.  

Implementing the Action Plan 

To  support  the  implementation  of  the  Action  Plan,  the  Commission  established  the  Adult 
Learning  Working  Group  (representatives  from  Member  States,  EFTA  and  EEA  countries, 
European Associations involved in adult learning and European social partner organisations). 
Since  January  2008,  the  Working  Group  has  met  on  a  regular  basis  to,  on  the  one  hand, 
support and guide the Commission's work, and, on the other hand, ensure implementation of 
the  Action  Plan  in  the  respective  countries.  Work  on  the  Action  Plan  priority  areas  is  also 
supported  by  five  focus  groups,  each  of  which  consists  of  five  experts  invited  by  the 
Commission  to  give  advice  and  guidance  at  strategic  points  in  the  development  of  the 
dedicated follow up activities. 

43

44

COM(2007) 558 final. 
COM(2006) 614 final 

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26 

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To ensure that implementation of the Action Plan and dissemination of its results so far reach 
the  grassroots  level,  and  to  strengthen  cooperation  between  the  relevant  stakeholders,  four 
meetings  were  organised  which  group  the  participating  countries  into  four  regions.  The 
meetings are also used for a wider consultation on future actions that will be needed to assure 
that adult learning becomes an essential element of lifelong learning strategies. A final report 
of  the  meetings,  which  take  place  in  October  and  November  2009,  will  be  available  by  the 
end of 2009. 

In 2008-2009, Peer Learning Activities have taken place on literacy, monitoring of the sector, 
the  "one  step  up  approach",  and  the  validation  of  non  formal  and  informal  learning  with  a 
focus  on  the  low  qualified.  The  results  and  reports,  which  are  online45,  support  mutual 
learning in priority areas of the Action Plan, but also feed into the body of information being 
accumulated on ways to build effective adult learning systems. 

Key outputs in 2009 

By the end of 2009, a number of outputs will be available based on studies, consultation with 
the Working Group, PLAs and expert meetings, etc., including the following: 

A reference framework of key competences for adult learning staff  

This  framework  will  contribute  to  improving  the  quality  of  staff  working  in  the  sector  by 
providing  a  set  of  criteria  which  can  be  used  to  assess  those  entering  the  sector,  to  develop 
curricula  for  initial  and  continuing  education  and  training  of  adult  learning  staff  and  to 
validate competences obtained via non-formal and informal learning. 

A glossary of key definitions used in the adult learning sector 

This glossary should support better understanding and communication within and outside the 
adult  learning  sector.  It  will  facilitate  studies  undertaken  in  the  field  of  adult  learning  and 
support the comparability of core data for monitoring the sector. 

An inventory of good practices focused on up-skilling adults with weak qualification levels 

This  inventory  should  serve  as  a  tool  to  disseminate  and  promote  exchange  and  transfer  of 
good  practices  at  national,  regional  and  local  level,  in  order  to  help  people  achieve 
qualifications, which in turn should help them to enter the labour market or take a more active 
role  in  society.  The  sense  of  urgency  to  assist  those  people  is  increased  by  the  economic 
downturn and expected demographic changes. 

A methodology for assessing the impact of reforms in the adult learning sector 

This methodology will help Member States to analyse and assess how reforms in education 
and  training,  as  well  as  the  broader  labour  market,  economic  and  social  policy  reforms  are 
impacting on the adult education sector.  

Next steps 

The results and outcomes of all of these initiatives may be summarised in a Commission Staff 
Working Paper, by the end of 2010, to show where adult learning stands in Member States at 

45

The  full  findings  of  these  and  other  PLAs  can  be  viewed  on  the  website  Knowledge  System  for  Lifelong  Learning 
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/Default.cfm?id=6 

EN 

27 

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the end of the three-year period covered by the Action Plan. It would provide input to a final 
conference, early in spring 2011, the purpose of which would be to evaluate the Action Plan, 
its implementation, results and achievements. 

EN 

28 

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Part I Annex 1 - Active country participation in clusters and groups doing peer-learning 

Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education 

Teachers & 
Trainers 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Teachers & 
Trainers 
in VET 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Country 

AT 

BE-fr 

BE-nl 

BG 

CY 

CZ 

DE 

DK 

EE 

EL  

ES 

FI 

FR 

HR 

HU 

IE 

IS 

IT 

LT 

EN 

Math, science and 
technology 

Access and 
social inclusion 

Key 
competences 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

29 

ICT 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Recognition of 
learning outcomes 

Working 
group on 
adult learning 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

EN 

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Country 

Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education 

Teachers & 
Trainers 

Teachers & 
Trainers 
in VET 

Math, science and 
technology 

Access and 
social inclusion 

Key 
competences 

ICT 

Recognition of 
learning outcomes 

Working 
group on 
adult learning 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

LU 

LV 

MT 

NL 

NO 

PL 

PT 

RO 

SE 

SI  

SK 

TR 

UK 

CEEP 

ETUC 

UEAPME 
Business 
Europe 

EN 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
(Northern 
Ireland) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

30 

EN 

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Part I Annex 2 - Peer Learning Activities mid-2007 - mid-2009 (reverse order) 

Date 

Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group 

Title 

Venue 

Country 

15-06-2009  

Recognition of 
Learning 
Outcomes 

Peer Learning Activity on the use 
of learning outcomes as a bridge 
between VET and HE 

Berlin 

Germany

11-05-2009 

21-04-2009 

22-03-2009 

Teachers and 
Trainers in 
Vocational 
Education and 
Training (VET) 

Access and 
Social 
Inclusion 

Working group 
on adult 
learning  

Professionalisation of teachers and 
trainers in VET 

Bonn 

Germany

Measures targeted to 
disadvantaged youth 

Naples 

Italy 

Peer Learning Activity on Adult 
Monitoring 

Bratislava 

Slovakia 

12-02-2009 

Recognition of 
Learning 
Outcomes 

Peer Learning Activity on the 
costs and benefits of validation of 
non-formal and informal learning 

Reykjavik 

Iceland 

03-12-2008 

Access and 
Social 
Inclusion 

30-11-2008 

Information 
and 
Communication 
Technology 
(ICT) 

Preschool education in Sweden 
and the connection between pre-
schooling, school-age childcare 
and compulsory school in the light 
of life-long-learning 

Stockholm 

Sweden  

E-Inclusion and digital 
competences  

Vienna 

Austria  

10-11-2008 

Key 
Competences 

Fostering Cross-curricular Key 
Competences for Creativity and 
Innovation 

Vienna 

Austria  

29-10-2008 

Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education 

Ways to increase mobility: funding 
models examined 

Alicante 

Spain  

26-10-2008 

Teachers and 
Trainers  

Policies on the induction of new 
teachers 

Talinn 

Estonia  

20-10-2008  Recognition of  Added value of NQFs as tools to 

London 

UK  

EN 

31 

   EN 

 
Date 

20-10-2008 

Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group 

Learning 
outcomes 

Teachers and 
Trainers in 
Vocational 
Education and 
Training (VET) 

Title 

Venue 

Country 

support lifelong learning 

VET teachers as change agents 
towards the autonomy of VET 
schools 

Bled 

Slovenia 

13-10-2008 

Math, Science 
and 
Technology 
(MST) 

The action plan for mathematics, 
the action plan for science and the 
promotion of scientific culture in 
Portugal 

Vila do 
Conde 

Portugal  

08-10-2008 

08-10-2008 

Information 
and 
Communication 
Technology 
(ICT) 

Access and 
Social 
Inclusion 

25-06-2008 

Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education 

11-06-2008 

14-04-2008 

14-01-2008 

14-01-2008 

Recognition of 
Learning 
outcomes 

Math, Science 
and 
Technology 
(MST) 

Working group 
on adult 
learning  

Teachers and 
Trainers in 
Vocational 
Education and 

E-skills and digital literacy and 
partnerships for LLL strategies 

Thessaloniki  Greece  

Schools as Learning Communities  Bilbao 

Spain  

Circling the Knowledge Triangle 
from the perspective of Education: 
the added value in better 
connecting Higher Education to 
Research and Innovation 

Reykjavik 

Iceland  

Development of National 
Qualifications Frameworks 

Niepolmice  Poland  

Increased recruitment and better 
quality instruction in MST. A joint 
promotion of MST in Norway 

Oslo 

Norway  

Peer Learning Activity on Adult 
Literacy 

Dublin 

Ireland  

Validation of non-formal and 
informal learning for VET teachers 
and trainers 

Lisbon 

Portugal  

EN 

32 

   EN 

 
Date 

Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group 

Training (VET) 

Title 

Venue 

Country 

09-12-2007 

Key 
Competences 

Peer Learning Activity on Key 
Competences for lifelong learning 

Athens 

Greece  

12-11-2007 

08-10-2007 

Access and 
Social 
Inclusion 

Math, Science 
and 
Technology 
(MST) 

Fight against failure at school and 
inequality in education  

Paris 

France  

Renovation in science education: 
an inquiry-based approach 

Sèvres, 
Paris 

France  

08-10-2007 

Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education 

Peer Learning Activity on 
Implementing EQF / NQF in 
Higher Education  

08-10-2007 

Recognition of 
Learning 
outcomes 

Peer learning activity on the 
development of National 
Qualifications Frameworks  

Sofia 

Bulgaria 

Budapest 

Hungary 

07-10-2007 

Teachers and 
Trainers  

Relationships between Teacher 
Education Institutions and Schools 

Copenhagen  Denmark 

04-10-2007 

Information 
and 
Communication 
Technology 
(ICT) 

Leadership in ICT and parental 
involvement  

Birmingham  UK  

17-09-2007 

Key 
Competences 

The supporting system for 
curricular reform 

09-07-2007 

Recognition of 
Learning 
outcomes 

Peer Learning activity on 
validation of non-formal and 
informal learning 

Budapest  
and 
Veszprém 

Hungary 

Paris 

France  

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PART II: THEMATIC CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS

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34 

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1 

KEY COMPETENCES FRAMEWORK 

The  Recommendation  sets  out  eight  competences  which  combine  knowledge,  skills  and 
attitudes appropriate to the context and which all individuals need for personal fulfilment and 
development,  active  citizenship,  social  inclusion  and  employment.  Young  people  should 
develop  these  competences  during  their  initial  education  and  training,  and  adults  should  be 
given  the  opportunities  to  learn,  maintain  and  update  these  competences  in  the  course  of 
lifelong learning.  

The eight key competences are: 

•  Communication in the mother tongue; 

•  Communication in foreign languages; 

•  Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; 

•  Digital competence; 

•  Learning to learn; 

•  Social and civic competences; 

•  Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and 

•  Cultural awareness and expression. 

The  Key  competences  approach  combines  the  acquisition  of  relevant  knowledge,  the 
development  of  skills  and  positive  attitudes  towards  further  learning,  added  to  creativity, 
critical thinking and problem solving. This emphasis together with the fact that many of the 
key  competences  are  cross-curricular  by  their  nature,  presents  schools,  training  institutions, 
teachers, trainers and leaders with new demands, both in their practice and in attitude.  

The Recommendation invites the Commission by 2010 to review the impact of the Reference 
Framework within the context of the Education and Training 2010 work programme.  

The  current  review  is  based  on  national  reports  completed  in  spring  2009.  Each  country 
responded  to  a  questionnaire  which  included  elements  deriving  from  the  Recommendation 
(the impact of the Framework on the national lifelong learning strategy and national reforms; 
curricula  of  initial  education  and  training,  provision  of  key  competences  for  adults,  and  the 
disadvantaged)  and  other  questions  based  on  the  joint  work  done  by  the  Commission  and 
Member  States  since  the  adoption  of  the  Recommendation  (the  education  and  professional 
development of teachers and trainers and the use of assessment and evaluation to support the 
competence-based approach). 

1.1 

The provision for key competences in national policies 

All  countries  now  have  measures  in  place  to  develop  provision  for  Key  Competences. 
However,  these  measures  vary  in  scale,  in  how  they  relate  to  the  existing  education  and 
training  provision  and  in  how  they  are  conceptualised.  This  depends  on  the  situation  that 

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35 

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existed in the country prior to the adoption of the Key competences framework. Four trends 
can be identified: 

A. Using the Framework to reform education and training provision directly; 

B. Using it is a reference to fine-tune incremental reforms; 

C. Introducing reforms that are coherent with certain aspects of the Framework; 

D.  Having  put  in  place  reforms  and  measures  consistent  with  the  Framework  prior  to  its 
adoption. 

A) Using the Framework to reform education and training provision directly  

Half  of  the  countries  (AT,  BG,  CY,  CZ,  ES,  FR,  HR,  IS,  LT,  LV,  PL,  RO,  SK,  SI)  are 
introducing  wide-ranging  reforms  which  explicitly  use  the  Framework  as  an  organising 
structure to develop provision for key competences. Countries describe that their reforms are 
“based  on”  (ES,  SK)  or  “orientated  towards”  (CZ,  RO)  or  “inspired  by”  (FR)  the  Key 
Competences  Framework.  These  wide  ranging  reforms  may  concern  all  the  sectors  of 
education and training (BG, CY, CZ, ES, HR, IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SI, SK) as is the case in 
the Spanish example in the box below or only compulsory education (FR). Other examples of 
country reforms explicitly underpinned by the Key Competence Framework include France, 
Austria and Romania.  

Box 1-1 – Spain - Key Competences in the Organic Law on Education 

In  2006  Spain  introduced  a  new  Organic  Law  on  Education  which  incorporated  the  Key 
Competences into the whole of the Spanish curriculum in primary, secondary, VET and adult 
education. This identifies eight competences which young people should achieve by the end 
of  compulsory  education  and 
the  EU 
is  based  explicitly  on 
Recommendation,  framed  to  accommodate  the  particular  context  of  the  Spanish  education 
system.  

those  specified 

in 

Key Competences in Spain do not replace the existing curriculum: they provide an organising 
framework  which  is  used  to  specify  objectives  for  each  area,  identify  relevant  content  and 
specify  criteria  for  assessment.  Different  key  competences  can  be  developed  through  many 
different  subjects  and  methods,  through  extra-curricular  activities  and  even  through 
experiencing  an  institutional  environment  which  models  a  cooperative  and  democratic 
learning community. Assessment processes have been rolled out nationally and regionally and 
the whole endeavour is supported by large scale teacher development programmes. 

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36 

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Box  1-2  –  France  -  Common  foundation  of  competences  (Le  Socle  Commun  de 
Compétences)  

The French law on school orientation (La loi d’orientation sur l’ecole - April 2005) declared a 
common foundation of competences (socle commun des compétences) which took note of the 
European  work  towards  a  Framework  of  Key  Competences.  The  seven  competences  in  the 
French ‘socle de compétences’ correspond closely to the European Framework and define the 
foundations  which  all  young  people  in  general  or  vocational  education  and  training  must 
acquire by the end of compulsory schooling.  

The ways in which the Key Competences Framework underpins or is used in these national 
reforms vary. The following complementary approaches were identified:  

•  It is used to plan programmes/ curricula (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, ES, FR HU, IS LU, LV, 

NL, PL, RO, SI); 

•  It can structure cross-curricular work (BE fr, BE nl, ES, HU, HR, NL, PL, SI); 

•  It provides a basis for learners’ assessment in relation to some or all key competences (AT, 

BG, CY, CZ, ES, FR, HR, LT, LV, RO); 

•  It structures evaluation of education and training systems (AT, BG, CY, CZ, ES, FR, HR, 

IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SK, SI). 

B) Using the framework to fine-tune incremental changes  

Several countries (BE fr, BE nl, EL, HU, LU,  NO, PT, TR) have introduced innovations in 
their  systems  which  include  significant  elements  that  are  related  to  the  Framework,  even  if 
these  are  not  fully  organised  around  it.  Countries  in  this  category  used  the  Framework  to 
clarify general priorities of reforms and / or to address particular gaps in the provision of key 
competences.  

Box 1-3 – Belgium fr - Priority Action Plan for the Future of Wallonia (Marshall Plan 
for Wallonia) 

The  so-called  Marshall  Plan  for  Wallonia  (Priority  action  plan  for  the  future  of  Wallonia), 
launched  in  2006,  includes  a  series  of  measures  designed  to  improve  key  competences  in 
certain  areas  such  as:  linguistic  competence,  an  e-learning  action  plan  and  range  of  support 
measures  including  teacher  training  and  establishment  of  training  structures  to  facilitate 
resources and learning in advanced technology.  

These innovations build on the contributions of a series of expert working groups, which, at 
the end of the 1990s, formulated statements of competence for all levels and sectors which are 
compatible with the concepts underpinning the Key Competences Framework. 

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37 

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C) Country reforms that are coherent with certain aspects of the Framework  

A few countries (e.g. EE, IE, MT, NL, UK) have introduced reforms which support provision 
of the key competences in certain areas although different terminology is used.  

Box 1-4 – Netherlands - Key Competences 

The  key  competences  to  be  developed  by  pupils  in  primary  school  and  the  lower  years  of 
secondary school are set down in attainment targets which overlap considerably with the EU 
Key Competences. Since 2006 particular attention has focused on: 

–  continuous, cross-sectoral progression of learning; 

–  the  implementation  of  reference  levels,  which  define  more  precisely  what  a  child  should 

have learned in terms of language and arithmetic by the end of primary school; 

specific  work  on  to  science  and  technology  in  the  form  of  a  major  cross-curricular 
technology,  digital  competence  and  entrepreneurship  programme  involving  2,500  primary 
schools. 

D)  Country  reforms  which  were  in  place  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  Key  Competences 
framework but are consistent with it 

Three countries (DE, DK, EE, FI, SE) have introduced reforms based on competence-based 
approaches  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  Framework.  Competence-based  curricula  have  been 
present in these systems for many years and are not re-defined as new measures.  

Box 1-5 – Denmark - Globalisation Strategy 

The  Danish  Government’s  Globalisation  Strategy,  based  on  work  that  started  in  2005, 
initiated  a  review  of  the  aims  and  objectives  of  all  curriculum  subjects  in  2006.  This  work 
started before the adoption of the Key Competences Framework and is not articulated around 
it even though fully coherent with the Framework approach. This work is now completed and 
the new aims and objectives were communicated to schools in the summer of 2009. 

New  and  more  precise  descriptions  of  objectives  and  expected  learning  outcomes  for  each 
subject - and also for cross-curricular activities - give teachers a clear and distinct picture of 
what  the  pupils  are  going  to  learn.  These  objectives  are  similar  to  the  elements  of  key 
competences in the Framework. 

1.1.2 

Summary of country reforms  

Table 1.1 below illustrates the trends discussed above.  

Table 1.1- Reforms to Support Key Competences in Member States 

Using 
the  Key  Competences 
Framework  to  reform  education 
and training provision 

is 

Using 
a 
it 
reference  to  fine-
tune 
incremental 
reforms 

are 

Introducing  reforms 
that 
coherent 
with  certain  aspects 
of the framework 

Having  put  in  place  reforms 
and  measures 
consistent 
with  the  Key  Competences 
Framework  prior 
its 
adoption 

to 

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AT,  BG,  CY,  CZ,  ES,  FR,  HR, 
IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SK, SI 

BE  fr,  BE  nl,  EL, 
HU,  LU,  NO,  PT, 
TR 

NL, UK, IE, MT  

DE, DK, FI, EE, NL, SE 

Table  1.1  shows  that  in  more  than  three  quarters  of  countries  the  Key  Competences 
Framework  has  had  a  direct  influence  on  formulation  of  national  policies  or  measures.  In 
those countries where the link between national reforms and the Framework is less explicit, 
specific  innovations  are  clearly  consistent  with  the  Framework  although  usually  different 
terminology  is  used  and  the  reforms  may  have  been  inspired  more  explicitly  by  national 
research or developments rather than the work at European level.  

The  measures  reported  above  are  at  different stages of implementation across the countries. 
For example, Slovenia and Spain have been implementing reforms for two or three years and 
some  elements  of  these  have  already  been  evaluated.  Scotland,  Romania  and  Denmark  are 
about  to  move  into  full  implementation  of  newly  developed  or  piloted  measures.  Work  in 
Bulgaria and Portugal is at an advanced stage of planning.  

1.1.3 

Actors Involved in implementation of Key Competences at national level 

The Recommendation highlights the need to establish close links with employment policy and 
social policy, cultural policy, innovation policy and other policies affecting young people and 
through collaboration with social partners and other stakeholders to ensure coherence of adult 
education and training provision for individual citizens.  

However,  stakeholder  involvement  in  the  design  and  implementation  of  reforms  to  support 
key  competence  provision  is  also  crucial  when  it  comes  to  general  and  vocational  sector 
reforms.  To  make  sure  that  these  reforms  translate  into  improved  teaching  and  learning 
approaches it is necessary that teachers, school leaders, parents and also employers and other 
stakeholders, accept and promote these reforms.  

Furthermore,  one  important  feature  of  the  Recommendation  is  the  intention  to  expand  the 
positive influence of the Framework beyond the school or training centre and also, beyond the 
education and training sectors. The Recommendation aspires to influence policy development 
and implementation of measures in wider areas including employment, youth and cultural and 
social  policy46.  In  order  to  achieve  the  cross-sectoral  responses  needed,  the  relevant  actors 
need to be involved in the development and provision of measures at all relevant stages.  

Information  supplied  by  the  country  reports  on  the  range  of  actors  involved  in  the  key 
competences is uneven. However, certain trends are identifiable:  

•  The  involvement  of  ministries  other  than  general  education  government  departments  is 
referred to by the majority of reports (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EL, FI, FR, HR, 
HU, IE, IS, LT, LU, LV, NL, NO, PL, RO, SE, SI UK); 

•  The involvement of social partners, especially business and industry and to a lesser extent, 
trade unions. is reported by over half of the countries (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE, EL, FI, FR, 
HR, IS, IE, LT, LV, MT, NO, PL, SE, SK, TR, UK); 

46

Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Key competences for lifelong learning.  
OJ L 394/10 of 30.12.2006, p. 3;  

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39 

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•  The involvement of pedagogic institutes and education experts is mentioned by over half 
the countries (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, EL, FI, FR, HR, HU, IS, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, NO, Pl, 
RO, SE, SI, TR, UK); 

•  The involvement of  teachers is highlighted by half the countries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, 

CZ, EL, FI, HR, HU, IE, IS, LT, MT, NL, NO, Pl, UK); 

•  The involvement of school managers is less frequent and is noted by third of the countries 

(AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, FI, HR, HU, IE, IS, LT, MT, NL, NO, Pl, SI, UK); 

•  The  involvement  of  parents  and  pupils  is  only  reported  by  some  countries  (CY,  EL,  FI, 

HR, MT, NO, UK). 

1.1.4 Conclusions on the provision for key competences in national policies 

Information from country reports shows that substantial reforms to support provision of key 
competences are underway in many countries. Given that in 2002 Eurydice reported on key 
competences as a ‘developing’ concept47 in general education, great strides have clearly been 
made since then.  

There  is  evidence  of  considerable  involvement  of  wider  stakeholders  in  relation  to  certain 
competences and to some extent in adult education. There is also substantial involvement of 
certain  actors  at  general  policy  level:  government  departments,  social  partners,  pedagogical 
institutes.  

There is however scope to involve learners, including adult learners, school pupils and parents 
of younger learners more in the process. Also, the involvement of school managers needs to 
be stepped up. Although teachers are better represented, their involvement seems limited in at 
least half of the countries. Practitioner involvement at an early stage facilitates dissemination. 
The involvement of learners and parents strengthens the legitimacy of reforms and makes it 
more likely that they will be welcomed and implemented effectively.  

Measures should be taken at EU level to ensure that information about successful reforms is 
disseminated  among  Member  States,  so  that  countries  can  benefit  from  the  experiences  of 
others at a more advanced stage.  

1.2 

Key Competences in the Curriculum  

This  section  addresses  the  provision  of  the  eight  key  competences  set  out  by  the 
Recommendation in schools and in VET in relation to curriculum content and organisation48.  

47 

48 

Eurydice (2002) “Key Competencies: A developing concept in general compulsory education.”  
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ressources/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/032EN.pdf   
It is important to highlight from the outset the limitations of this analysis in relation to initial VET: in 
some  countries  the  curriculum  in  initial  VET  is  subject  to  the  same  reforms  as  general  education,  in 
others  VET  is  organised  in  a  very  heterogeneous  was  which  makes  reporting  trends  very  difficult. 
Therefore, only tentative conclusions on initial VET systems are offered.  

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1.2.1  Communication Competence in the Mother Tongue 

The  Recommendation  defines  Communication  Competence  in  the  Mother  Tongue  as  the 
ability  to  express  and  interpret  concepts,  thoughts,  feelings,  facts  and  opinions  in  both  oral 
and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing).  

However,  this  competence  also  recognises  the  fact  that  Europe  is  a  multicultural  society 
where  people's  mother  tongue  may  not  correspond to the official language of instruction. A 
recent  Eurydice  study  reports  that  7%  of  pupils  aged  15  say  that  at  home  they  speak  a 
language  other  than  the  language  of  instruction49.  With  regard  to  these  situations  the 
Recommendation  notes  that  the  ability  to  communicate  in  an  official  language  is  a  pre-
condition  for  ensuring  full  participation  of  the  individual  in  society.  The  Recommendation 
emphasises  that  the  key  competences  should  support  people  with  low  skills,  especially  in 
literacy. This priority is restated in Council Conclusions50 which stress that concrete action is 
needed to improve the level of basic skills. As reading literacy is a crucial competence which 
all citizens need for education and training, work, home and leisure51, Member States tend to 
put high policy priority on literacy.  

Competence in Mother Tongue Communication in schools 

Communication in the Mother Tongue is traditionally organised as a stand-alone subject but 
more  recently  innovative  complementary  measures  have  been  put  in  place  or  are  being 
introduced in many Member States and are at the core of this section. 

Approaches to provision 

Innovative teaching methods which encourage active participation and communication were 
reported  by  all  countries,  often  supported  by  programmes  of  continuing  professional 
development for teachers.  

Cross-curricular  work  addresses  this  competence  in  another  context:  linked  with  other 
subjects  or  even  across  several  schools.  With  regard  to  Communication  in  Mother  Tongue, 
cross-curricular work is supported as follows: 

•  cross-curricular work linked with different subjects is used at different stages in the system 
(AT,  BE  fr,  CZ,  DK,  EE,  EL,  FI,  FR,  HR,  HU,  LT,  LU,  LV,  NO,  PL,  RO,  SE,  SK,  SI, 
UK); 

•  cross-curricular objectives or attainment targets (BE nl, CZ, DK, NL). These are objectives 
which  are  not  specific  to  one  area  of  study,  but  are  pursued  through  several  different 
subjects or projects; 

•  cross-curricular work in out of school projects (HR). Young people carry out community 

work (HR) or research into topics of local community interest; 

49

50

51

Eurydice (2008) “Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe”, p. 9; 
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/about/eurydice/documents/KDL2008_EN.pdf 
Council Conclusions on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training. OJ C 119/2, 28.5.2009. , op. 
cit. 
Ibid., Annex para 2 

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41 

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•  cross curricular work with Mother Tongue and IT is carried out in Lithuania. 

A  whole-school  approach  means that reading and writing are woven throughout the whole 
curriculum and taught in context as the need arises (BE nl, ES, LT, HR, NO, SK, SI, UK). In 
Belgium (nl), for instance, it is considered “each teacher is also a language teacher”.  

National Strategies, Programmes and Other Measures  

Several countries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE, DK, FR, IE, MT, NL, NO, PT, UK) have 
developed Literacy Action Plans or otherwise placed literacy provision high on the national 
agenda. The benefit of a national action plan is that it co-ordinates measures across the whole 
education  and  training  system  in  all  sectors,  including  adult,  informal  and  non-formal 
education. This is important as the impact of home and parental factors on the development of 
language and communication is well-documented.52 Another tool which can also facilitate co-
ordination of measures is the National Lifelong Learning Strategy, where this exists.  

Box 1-6 - Portugal - Literacy Action Plan  

The  National  Literacy  Plan  in  preparation  in  Portugal  sets  out  to  provide  a  range  of  co-
ordinated  measures  to  ensure  that  every  Portuguese  person  achieves  a  level  of  reading  and 
writing that enables them to deal with the written word in every area of their life. It will be 
based on a series of studies which will inform the targets for each stage and the development 
of evaluation instruments to monitor the impact of the various measures. 

A  combination  of  strategies  has  been  created  which  will  support  the  development  of 
competences in reading and writing, as well as encouraging the habit of reading in people’s 
lives. Measures will include the promotion of daily reading in kindergardens and pre-school; 
reading in familiar contexts, in libraries and in social contexts. 

Awareness-raising  measures  will  include  special  programmes  on  TV  and  radio  focused  on 
reading and books; and the creation of blogs and chat rooms about reading and books aimed 
at people of all ages.  

Co-ordination  of  all  measures  and  interaction  between  schools  will  be  facilitated  by  a  web-
site giving access to a wide range of materials aimed at educators.  

National Programmes and initiatives to support the literacy dimension of the communication 
competence have been developed and are being implemented in many countries (BE fr, CY, 
DE, FR, IE, MT, NO, PT, UK). 

Box 1-7 – UK (England) - Functional Skills  

Functional  Skills  are  practical  skills  in  English  and  in  ICT  and  Mathematics  that  allow 
individuals  to  work  confidently,  independently  and  effectively  in  life.  The  pilot  programme 
includes  qualifications  standards  and  a  support  programme  for  schools  and  centres,  plus 
training for practitioners. Over 2,000 centres including schools, colleges, training centres and 
further education colleges have taken part in the pilot since 2007.  

52

NESSE 
http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/activities/reports/ecec-report-pdf 

(2009)  “Early  Childhood  Education  and  Care:  Key  Lessons 

from  Research  and  Policy  Makers”; 

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42 

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A public consultation took place in spring 2009 to validate the standards for these skills which 
the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (England and Wales), developed in consultation 
with employers, teachers, subject associations and awarding bodies.  

Creative use of communication in the mother tongue 

Over half of the countries (BG, CY, CZ, EE, EL, ES, HU, HR, IE, LT, LV, MT, NO, NL, PL, 
SE, SI, UK) made some reference to the creative use of communication in the mother tongue, 
and  the  potential  of  different  communication  strategies  to  foster  personal  and  social 
development,  critical  thinking  and  multicultural  awareness.  For  the  most  part,  these  were 
referred to in the context of the innovative teaching, including cross-curricular work linking 
different subjects, or multi-disciplinary projects referred to above.  

Other specific measures and methods referred to include: 

Creative Use of Libraries: which was identified by some countries (CZ, EL, ES, IE, SI) as 
having  the  potential  to  foster  critical  thinking  and  cultural  awareness,  as  well  as 
communication. 

Drama  and  role  play  activities  were  mentioned  by  three  countries  (CZ,  MT,  UK).  The 
Drama  Unit  project  in  Malta  shows  how  creative  communication  activities  can  foster  many 
competences. 

Box 1-8 – Malta – Theatre in Education 

The  Drama  Unit  in  Malta  provides  Theatre  in  Education  projects  for  all  secondary  school 
students which  are organised to cater for particular  age groups and explore a wide range of 
themes. Some are social and personal, such as bullying; others enrich particular areas of the 
syllabus.  Maltese  and  foreign  authors  are  invited  to  the  schools  and  their  visits  are  often 
followed up by work with drama teachers. Students are encouraged to participate directly in 
drama activities, which help them to gain confidence, think, listen, work individually and in 
groups.  

Fostering bilingualism and multilingualism within borders 

In some countries the boundary between mother tongue and foreign (or second) language is 
not clear. These may be countries with more than one official national language (e.g. BE, LU, 
MT,  IE,  SI),  regional/national  languages  (ES,  UK)  but  also  countries  with  strong  minority 
languages (EE, LT, LV, RO, SK).  

Measures  to  support  multilingualism  were  reported  by  six  countries  (AT,  DK,  FI,  EE,  LV, 
SE). The example from Slovenia shows how language development can promote intercultural 
understanding, as well as language skills. 

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Box 1-9 – Slovenia – Language development  

The CROMO project is part of the European Language portfolio which provides a vehicle for 
language development and also for intercultural understanding amongst the different groups 
who speak different mother tongues, and have different cultural backgrounds within the same 
national borders. The module aims to promote respect for diversity both nationally and across 
borders This project therefore addresses aspects of the transversal competence of Social and 
Civic awareness, in addition to promoting language skills. 

Supporting the Integration of Immigrant children 

Two thirds of the countries (AT, BE fr, BG, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI, FR, HR, IE, LU, 
LV,  NL,  NO,  PT,  RO,  SE,  SI,  UK)  report  having  put  in  place  special  measures  to  support 
language  development  for  children  and  young  people  whose  mother  tongue  is  not  the 
language of instruction. 

•  Language  support  in  schools  is  reported  as  being  provided  in  several  formats:  through 
special programmes, through integrated classroom activity supported by specially trained 
teachers  or  classroom  assistants,  through  the  provision  of  separate  classes  in  learning 
support  or  by  a  combination  of  these  methods.  One  or  more  of  these  approaches  were 
referred to by a large number of countries (BG, DE, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI, FR, HR, IE, LV, 
NL, NO). 

•  Research  into  policy  or  pedagogy  for  immigrants  is  being  carried  out  in  five  countries 

(DK, IE, EE, EL, SI); 

•  Special Task Forces or Action Plans were referred to by a few countries (DE, DK and EE).  

Other measures designed to support the development of Communication Competence in the 
Mother Tongue include: 

•  Early  intervention:  Many  countries  (BE  nl,  DK,  EL  FI,  BG,  NO)  have  introduced  an 
obligatory pre-school year for all children. Denmark, Sweden and the UK have identified 
attainment  objectives  for  the  pre-school  stage  which  all  children  are  expected  to  work 
towards. 

•  Identification of minimum levels of attainment at different stages in primary and secondary 

levels is a trend observed in some countries (AT, BE fr, DE, DK, FR, MT, NO, NL). 

Competence in Mother Tongue Communication in VET 

All  countries  report  that  Communication  in  the  Mother  Tongue  is  a  feature  of  the  VET 
provision  even  though  little  detail  is  given  on  how  this  is  tackled  and  whether  differences 
exist compared with general education. 

Some county reports state explicitly that measures to foster mother tongue communication are 
aimed at all sectors and levels of their education  and training systems, including VET (AT, 
CY,  DE,  FR,  HR,  NO,  PL,  RO,  SK,  SI).  This  contributes  to  equality  of  access  and 
opportunity,  especially  for  young  people  in  VET  and  adult  learners  who  did  not  gain  those 

EN 

44 

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competences  in  compulsory  education.  A  strong  emphasis  on  the  basic  levels  of 
communication competence in VET was reported by a few (CZ, DK, FR, UK).  

The extent to which the Communication in the Mother Tongue is covered by VET curricula 
may  depend  on  the  qualifications  requirements  and  may  not  be  the  same  from  one 
qualification  to  another.  This  was  mentioned  by  a  few  countries  (BE  fr,  HU,  NL),  and  the 
Netherlands  noted  that  as  from  the  school  year  2010-2011  Dutch  language  instruction  will 
become compulsory in all VET qualifications. The Hungarian report noted that there is still 
some  resistance  from  certain  actors  in  the  VET  sector  to  include  this,  and  other  key 
competences, in VET curricula, on the grounds that the provision of key competences should 
take place in compulsory general education before young people enter VET.  

1.2.1  Conclusions on Communication in Mother Tongue 

Overall there  is very substantial coverage of the competence to communicate in the Mother 
Tongue  throughout  initial  education  and  training  curricula.  It  is  still  often  tackled  in  a 
traditional way as a single subject. However, many countries are developing more innovative 
approaches to address the failures of traditional mother tongue teaching approaches to equip 
pupils with basic literacy skills.  

In  some  places,  strong  emphasis  is  placed  on  co-ordinating  literacy  measures  to  ensure  that 
they are mutually reinforcing throughout the system, which is a strategy that should be given 
more attention. Such coordination may be accomplished through the development of plans or 
strategies such as National Literacy Action Plans which cover all sectors and levels, including 
adult and non-formal education. 

Innovations  at  school  level,  such  as  cross-curricular  work,  need  to  be  supported  by  the 
immediate  working  and  learning  environment.  Significant  factors  include:  timetabling, 
facilities  to  support  team  teaching  and  resources  for  out-of-school  activities.  This  also 
requires  training  for  teachers,  and  also  for  managers  to  support  appropriate  organisational 
strategies.  

Developing  communication  competence  through  a  wide  variety  of  interactive  methods  has 
been used to good effect in some countries to promote integration and mutual understanding. 
The  personal  and  social  dimensions  of  the  communication  competence  should  receive  as 
much  attention  as  the  functional  and  practical  aspects,  as  they  are  essential  for  personal 
fulfilment and social cohesion in a rapidly-changing world.  

An  emerging  approach  is  the  whole-organisation  or  cooperative  approach  to  literacy 
development,  where  all  teachers  of  all  subjects  work  on  the  language  of  their  own  subject 
area, as it arises. This has many potential benefits and could be explored further by countries 
where this is not yet a feature of the system. Good practice from those countries where this 
has taken place should be more widely disseminated.  

1.2.2  Communication Competence in Foreign Languages 

It has long been acknowledged that linguistic diversity is essential to making Europe the most 
competitive and knowledge-based economy in the world. Recent Council Conclusions call for 
young people to learn at least two languages in addition to the mother tongue to contribute to 

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45 

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the  goal  of  promoting  democracy,  citizenship,  intercultural  dialogue  and  personal 
development.53 Furthermore, increased mobility, migration and immigration have all led to the 
steadily  increasing  recognition  of  the  necessity  for  multilingualism  in  order  that  member 
states, and their citizens, may contribute to, and benefit from, integration.54 

Foreign language competence is therefore crucial to promote economic competitiveness and 
for personal and social well-being and cohesion.  

As  noted  earlier  in  the  context  of  Mother  Tongue  competences,  in  some  countries  the 
boundary between mother tongue and foreign (or second) language is not clear. In addition, 
many countries have significant populations with migrant backgrounds.  

Communication in Foreign Languages in Schools  

Findings  from  the  country  reports  confirm  that  foreign  language  learning  is  a  compulsory 
element in all national systems. Findings from a recent study from Eurydice complements the 
information from the country reports55: 

–  Foreign language learning begins from the first year of primary school or earlier in a few 

countries (AT, DE, ES, IT, LU, MT, NO, PL, PT). 

–  Foreign language learning begins later in primary school in many countries (BE fr, BE nl, 
BG,  CY,  CZ,  DK,  DE,  EE,  EL,  ES,  FI,  FR, HR,  HU,  IS,  LT,  LV,  NL,  RO,  SE,  SI,  SK, 
UK). 

–  Additional  languages  are  offered  at  later  stages  in  many  countries  (BE  nl,  BG,  CY,  CZ, 
DK,  DE,  EE,  EL,  ES,  FR,  IS,  IE,  LV,  LT,  LU,  HU,  MT,  NL,  NO,  PL,  PT,  RO,  SE,  SI, 
SK). 

–  Three foreign languages are offered by the end of compulsory education in some types of 

schools in some countries (AT, BE nl, DE, IS, LU, NL,PL, RO, SI). 

–  Four foreign languages are offered in Luxembourg. 

In the vast majority of countries, the study of foreign languages is compulsory from primary 
level  onwards.  Only  in  Ireland  and  UK  (Scotland)  is  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  not 
compulsory,  although  in  Scotland  it  must  be  offered.  Country  reports  also  indicate  that  in 
some  systems,  the  range  and  number  of  languages  which  pupils  can  follow  is  being  or 
increased (CZ, HR, LT, PL) and attempts are made to encourage pupils to choose other than 
the most widely spoken languages (FI, UK). 

The picture emerging from the country reports confirms the  observation from Eurydice  that 
earlier  learning  of  a  foreign  language  as  a  compulsory  subject  has  become  a  clearly  visible 
trend in the course of the last decades.56  

53

54

55

56

EN 

Council Conclusions on preparing young people for the 21st Century: an agenda for European cooperation in schools, p. 3; OJ C 
319/20 of 13.12.2008 
“CLIL/EMILE 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc491_en.pdf 
Country Reports and Eurydice Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe (2008), op. cit., pp. 28-29  
Ibid., p. 27 

“The  European  Dimension:  Actions, 

Potential,” 

Foresight 

Trends 

(2002) 

and 

p. 

9 

46 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
Approaches to provision 

Single  subject  remains  the  main  approach  to  teaching  foreign  languages  even  though 
innovative approaches, discussed below, are becoming more widespread.  

Cross curricular work 

•  General connections are made between foreign languages and ICT (HR, HU, LT, NL).  

•  Languages are linked with the arts and music (BG, MT). 

Systemic Measures to Support Foreign Language Competence  

Different  systemic  measures  which  are  currently  being  developed  or  are  already  in  place  in 
many countries including national strategies (ES, LT, SI, PT).  

Box 1-10 - Lithuania and Spain – Strategies to support language leaning 

The  planned  Lithuanian  Strategy  for  Teaching  Foreign  Languages  will  set  priorities  for 
language  teaching  and  provide  measures  for  the  successful  development  of  linguistic 
competences.  Based  on  the  European  Union’s  multilingualism  policy  it  will  include  the 
introduction of innovative methods of language teaching, especially integrating the teaching 
of a foreign language with the use of ICT 

Several initiatives  are  in place in Spain under PALE, a programme designed to support the 
teaching  and  learning  of  foreign  languages  in  Spain.  Measures  include  training  teachers 
specialised  in  foreign  languages  and  those  in  charge  of  teaching  contents  in  a  foreign 
language CLIL, increasing the number of language assistants and reducing foreign language 
class sizes.  

Use of European Projects and Instruments  

European initiatives support work on Foreign Language competences in half of the countries 
(AT,  BE  nl,  CY,  CZ,  DK,  EE,  EL,  HR,  IS,  MT,  PT,  RO,  SK,  SI).  The  main  instruments 
mentioned are listed below:  

•  Content  and  Language  Integrated  Learning  Project  (CLIL)  is  a  cross-curricular 
initiative which supports the teaching of non-language subjects through a foreign language. 
Only a few country reports referred to current involvement in such learning provision (AT, 
BE nl, LU) but CLIL project documentation indicates that with a very few exceptions (DK, 
EL,  IS)  this  approach  is  in  operation  in  all  countries,  even  if  only  with  a  minority  of 
pupils57. 

•  The  European  Language  Portfolio  (ELP)  is  a  tool  which  learners  use  to  record  and 
reflect  on  their  language  learning  and  cultural  experiences  and  acts  as  a  ‘language 
passport’  which  the  holder  can  use  to  complement  existing  certificates.  A  few  countries 
(AT, CY, DE, HR, LT, NL, SI) referred to the use of the ELP.  

57

Eurydice Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe (2008), op. cit., pp.42 - 43 

EN 

47 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
•  The  Common  European  Framework  of  Reference  for  Languages  can  be  used  for 
planning, assessing and evaluating language competence in an internationally comparable 
way. A number of countries (AT, CZ, DE, EE, FR, LT, MT, NL, PL, RO, SI, SK) reported 
using it. 

•  Participation  in  European  projects  to  develop  language  learning,  especially  under  the 
Lifelong  Learning  Programme,  was  noted  by  several  countries  (AT,  CY,  HR,  LT,  SI)  as 
enriching  the  quality  of  language  teaching  in  schools  and  the  development  of  innovative 
teaching methods.  

Communication in Foreign Languages in VET 

Half of the countries (BE nl, BG, CZ, DE, ES, FI, HR, IS, LT, LV, NL, NO, PL PT, SE, SK, 
SI) report that foreign languages are part of the VET curriculum. However, it was not always 
clear whether compulsory or optional. On the basis of the information supplied, a few trends 
can provisionally be identified: 

•  At least one foreign language is a compulsory part of the VET curriculum at some stage in 
some  countries  (AT,  BE  nl,  CY,  CZ,  EE,  FI,  HR,  LT,  LV,  NL,  PL,  SE,  SK).  In  Spain 
agreement  has  been  reached  with  the  Autonomous  Communities  who  have  committed 
themselves to guaranteeing that higher level VET students acquire language competences 
in at least one foreign language. 

•  Foreign  languages  are  included  in  VET  programmes  where  these  are  deemed  to  be 
appropriate to the qualification for example in areas such as Hospitality or Tourism (HU, 
IE, ES, SI) or focus on the terminology of a certain field (SK). 

1.2.2.1  Conclusions on Communication in foreign languages  

Provision to develop communication in foreign languages in general education is expanding. 
However,  the  choice  of  languages  being  offered  is  an  issue.  The  English-speaking  Member 
States make less provision for this competence than others, although measures are planned to 
increase foreign language learning in those countries  

There is little information in the country reports about provision in VET. Often the language 
offered  is  conditional  on  the  type  of  qualification  being  followed;  or  the  coverage  may  be 
more  limited  than  in  the  general  education  system  (e.g.  focusing  on  the  terminology  of  the 
field). Considering the potential of foreign language learning to promote personal, social and 
cultural  competence  as  well  as  the  technical  skills  involved  in  language  proficiency,  it  is 
important to ensure that languages are widely available to young people in VET as well as in 
the general education system.  

Many of the measures reported in support of the foreign language competence also promote 
several  of  the  other  key  competences  such  as  cultural  awareness  and  can  foster  social  and 
personal development. They also demonstrate the potential of language learning as a vehicle 
to promote intercultural understanding.  

1.2.3  Mathematical Competence and Basic Competence in Science and Technology 

This Competence encompasses two related areas which are often integrated in practice but are 
usually  addressed  as  separate  subjects  or  areas  of  learning  in  school  and  VET.  The 

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48 

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Recommendation  defines  mathematical  competence  as  the  ability  to  develop  and  apply 
mathematical thinking in order to solve a range of problems in everyday life58. This includes 
the  technical  skills  of  numeracy  and  also  understanding  of  mathematical  concepts  and 
mathematical thinking. Competence in science is defined as the ability and willingness to use 
the body of knowledge and methodology employed to explain the natural world, in order to 
identify questions and to draw evidence-based conclusions59.  

Both of these inter-related areas include significant dimensions of knowledge and skill which 
are  essential  for  adult  life  and  which  form  the  basis  for  further  learning  and  working  life. 
However,  there  is  also  a  strong  focus  on  the  importance  of  attitude  which  implies  a 
disposition to look for reasons and to assess their validity. Thus, even at the most basic levels, 
a  degree  of  critical  thinking  and  active  engagement  with  a  problem-solving  process  is 
required.  Similarly,  attitudinal  dimensions  are  critical  for  competence  in  science  and 
technology. These include curiosity, concern for safety and ethical issues.  

The Council Conclusions of November 2008 highlight the priority of ensuring that all young 
people  acquire  basic  skills,  including  numeracy,  in  order  to  develop  their  potential.60 
Similarly,  Council  Conclusions  of  2007  recognise  the  critical  role  played  by  science  and 
technology in the development of knowledge-based economies61 and call on Member States to 
increase the qualified human resources in the field, including redressing the gender balance.  

Mathematical Competence in Schools 

Developing mathematical competence is a compulsory component of the primary and lower 
secondary  curriculum  in  all  countries.  Early  provision  for  mathematical  competence,  where 
children are familiarised with fundamental concepts and processes at the pre-school level, is 
promoted in a few countries: DE, DK, BE fr, FI, NO, PL, UK. Clearly, early preparation for 
mathematical competence depends on the extent of early childhood education in the Member 
State.  

Approaches to Provision 

The  country  reports  show  that  the  most  widespread  approach  to  addressing  mathematical 
competence in schools is the stand-alone subject. 

In addition to this subject-centred approach, just under half of the countries report other ways 
of  developing  mathematical  competence  which  transcend  individual  subject  boundaries. 
These include:  

•  Cross-curricular  work  in  the  context  of  one  or  several  other  (often  technical)  subjects, 
which is a strategy used in less than half countries (BE fr, BE nl, CY, CZ, EL, FI, HR, HU, 
LT, NL, NO, SE, SI).  

58

59

60

61

OJ L 394/10, 30.12.2006, Annex, op. cit. 
Ibid.  
OJ C 319/20, op. cit., p. 3 
Council Conclusions on the future of science and technology in Europe, 22 and 23 November 2007 

http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/intm/97234.pdf 

EN 

49 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
•  Mathematics across the curriculum, which involves weaving mathematics into most or all 
subjects of the curriculum. This strategy is implemented in some countries (EE, HR, HU, 
LT, NO, SI). 

Such approaches are significant from a teaching perspective, because aspects of mathematics 
(e.g.  problem  solving,  logics),  like  those  of  literacy,  arise  in  many  areas  of  the  school 
curriculum. Failure to master these mathematical dimensions can present a barrier to learning 
of subjects that are not directly concerned with mathematics. 

Some  countries  (CZ,  DE,  DK,  ES,  IE,  MT,  LV,  LU,  NL,  PL,  PT,  RO,  SE,  SI,  UK)  make 
reference  to  the  importance  of  including  a  problem-solving  dimension  in  promoting 
mathematical competence. This places strong emphasis not only on computational skills but 
also  on  maths  as  a  set  of  tools  for  application  in  the  real  world  which  engages  learners’ 
critical capacities rather than rote learning.  

One innovation which illustrates some of these priorities is the pilot Project Maths in Ireland.  

Box 1-11 – Ireland - Project Maths 

A  major  reform  of  maths  was  initiated  in  September  2008  in  secondary  schools  in  Ireland. 
Project Maths aims to provide a bridging framework from the primary into secondary school 
and to promote greater maths literacy across the school population. It focuses on context and 
applications and problem-solving in the context of “real mathematics education”, to include a 
greater ICT dimension  

Project  Maths  began  with  24  pilot  schools.  It  will  be  phased  in  over  a  3  year  period  in  a 
rolling  programme,  covering  different  areas  of  maths  in  each  phase.  Building  on  the 
experience in the project schools, the reforms will begin in all second-level schools in 2010, 
preceded by a comprehensive programme of professional development for teachers.  

Systemic Measures to Support Mathematical Competence 

Many  countries  have  introduced  measures  to  support  the  development  of  mathematical 
competence which involve systemic changes.  

Development or revision of standards to define levels of competence in maths at different 
stages is a feature of about one third of the countries’ reforms (AT, DE, DK, FR, BE fr, BE 
nl,  MT,  NL,  LU,  PL,  SE).  Denmark  has  recently  drawn  up  standards  to  guide  preparatory 
maths activity in pre-school.  

In general, these standards are used to guide teaching and learning and provide feedback for 
pupils and parents on progress. However, sometimes they  are also used to support national 
testing of the whole school population in certain age groups, or a sample population.  

Special  programmes  for  young  people  who  need  extra  help  to  work  with  mathematical 
competence  are  provided  by  most  countries.  A  Maths  Action  Plan  has  been  launched  in 
Portugal  to  support  schools  in  defining  and  implementing  their  own  strategies  to  ensure 
quality of maths provision. 

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50 

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Extra-curricular Activity 

Only  a  few  countries  (AT,  DE,  FI,  HR,  MT,  SI)  referred  explicitly  to  developing 
mathematical  competence  through  extra-curricular  work.  These  include  Mathematics 
integrated with Communication, Science, Technology and also the transversal competences of 
Learning to Learn and Social and Civic competence.  

Box 1-12 – Austria - Youth Innovativ and Generation Innovation Projects  

Youth Innovativ is a major national competition for schools and vocational education centres 
where young people design and research multi-disciplinary projects in the areas of Business, 
Design, Engineering, ICT and climate change. Often these are supported by local businesses. 
As  well  as  working  on  the  technological  or  scientific  task,  young  people  also  develop 
creativity, social skills, and a capacity for entrepreneurship. 

Generation Innovation is a major project which promotes learning in science and technology 
right  through  the  school  system,  from  kindergarten  onwards.  Young  people  of  all  ages 
research  topics  at  a  level  suitable  for  their  stage,  in  ways  that  encourage  innovation  and  a 
playful discovery of the world of technology and science in their chosen topics.  

One  of  the  major  aims  of  Generation  Innovation  is  to  increase  the  participation  of  young 
women in science and technology research and work.  

Science and Technology in Schools 

Provision of science in the general education system is similar to that described for maths: it 
is  a  core  subject  in  all  countries  which  is  provided  in  a  range  of  contexts  starting  in  the 
primary school. Most countries’ reports group science and technology together.  

The 2008 Rocard report62 into science education in Europe stressed the importance of science 
education  both  for  Europe’s  future  economic  and  technological  development,  and  for 
equipping  every  citizen  with  the  skills  needed  to  live  and  work  in  the  knowledge  society  by 
giving  them  the  opportunity  to  develop  critical  thinking  and  scientific  reasoning  that  will 
enable  them  to  make  well  informed  choices.  The  same  study  found  that  the  origins  of  the 
declining  interest  among  young  people  for  science  studies  are  found  largely  in  the  way 
science  is  taught  in  primary  and  secondary  schools63.  This  requires  putting  pedagogy  and 
teaching  methods  high  on  the  agenda  in  the  development  of  this  competence.  Other  factors 
found to contribute to this area were large-scale interventions which can reach a critical mass 
of learners; promoting teachers’ professional development and motivation; and facilitating co-
operation with external actors.64 

62

63

64

EN 

on 

European Commission (2007) “Science Education Now: A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe” Report from the High 
Level  Group 
6. 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_library/pdf_06/report-rocard-on-science-education_en.pdf 
Ibid., p. 5  
Ibid., p. 11  

by  Michel  Rocard 

“Rocard”  Report), 

Education 

Science 

chaired 

(The 

p. 

51 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
 
Approaches to Provision 

•  Cross curricular themes or projects are a feature of science work in some countries (BE 

fr, CY, DE, FI, HR, HU, LT, NL, MT, NO, PT, SE, SK, SI).  

•  Extra-curricular  work  is  a  major  source  of  promotion  and  provision  of  competence  in 

science and technology in a few countries (AT, DE, FI, MT, SI) 

Box 1-13 - Belgium nl - Technical Literacy at School in the 21st Century 

In  2008  the  Flemish  Community  of  Belgium  concluded  the  development  phase  of  a  major 
project, “Technical Literacy at School in the 21st Century.” This strategy is supported by the 
Ministries of Education and Training and the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation. 
One  measure  was  the  creation  of  a  general  framework  defining  the  main  dimensions  and 
components  of  technology,  based  on  extensive  research  and  consultation,  which  sets 
outcomes for learners in primary and secondary schools. 

The development stage is now complete and the strategy is moving into the implementation 
phase during which 20 pilot schools will develop good practice by applying the technological 
concepts, processes and systems defined in the framework.  

Cross-curricular and extra-curricular work, reported by just under half of the countries listed 
above, has the potential to support experiential and discovery-based learning.  

The conscious use of inquiry as a pedagogical strategy, often known as ‘inquiry-based science 
education’  or  IBSE,  is  defined  as  the  intentional  process  of  diagnosing  problems,  critiquing 
experiments, and distinguishing alternatives, planning investigations, researching conjectures, 
searching  for  information,  constructing  models,  debating  with  peers,  and  forming  coherent 
arguments65.  The  use  of  inquiry-based  science  education,  or  methods  which  are  consistent 
with this definition, was referred to explicitly by only one country: Malta.  

Box 1-14 – Malta - Inquiry-based science education 

Inquiry-based science education is an important part of the curriculum in Malta. The process 
starts  with  in-service  education  for  primary  and  secondary  teachers  using  inquiry-based 
methods  and  investigative  approaches  to  the  teaching  of  science.  Similar  training  is  also 
provided  for  student  teachers  specialising  in  science.  Partnership  with  external  actors  is 
another important feature of the strategy. Out-of-school activities include: the development of 
a  Science  Week,  the  production  of  a  science  TV  series,  the  publication  of  booklets  and  a 
range  of  hands-on  science  activities  created  in  conjunction  with  a  wide  range  of  actors. 
Partners in these activities include the university, Heritage Malta, Local Councils, Playmobil 
Funpark.  

There is a strong link to the learning outcomes on the revised science syllabus which has been 
specially designed to promote competence. 

65

Defined by Linn, Davis & Bell (2004), quoted by European Commission (2007) “Science Education Now: A Renewed Pedagogy 
for the Future of Europe” Report from the High Level Group on Science Education (The “Rocard” Report),), op. cit., p. 9  

EN 

52 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
Methodologies which promote active learning and therefore share some of the features of 
IBSE were referred to by five countries (AT, EE, IE, PL and SI).  

The ‘AHHAA Science Centre’ in Estonia introduces science and technology to all societal 
groups.  There  is  a  strong  emphasis  on  active,  “hands-on”  learning  supported  by  travelling 
exhibitions  and  other  supplementary  educational  activities  and  resources  including  a 
planetarium,  pilot  school  laboratory  programmes,  creation  of  study  materials  and  a  science 
theatre.  

External Actors are involved in the provision of science education in some countries where 
there  are  projects,  often  national  competitions,  to  promote  and  recognise  achievement  in 
science (AT, DE, EE, IE, MT, SI). 

Systemic Measures to Support Scientific Competence 

Interventions  at  the  systemic  level  impact  on  the  educational  experience  of  learners  and 
teachers on a large scale. A relatively small number of countries reported that such measures 
are now in place: 

•  Action  Plans  or  National  Science  and  Technology  Strategies  are  in  place  in  a  few 
countries  (BE  fr,  BE  nl,  DE,  IE,  SE).  In  Sweden,  a  Science  Delegation  is  currently 
investigating science education and will report in 2010. 

•  Large-scale national development initiatives to promote maths, science and technology 

in schools have been launched (DE, IE, LV, MT, SI, SE).  

•  Sweden  is  currently  developing  compulsory  national  tests  for  physics,  chemistry  and 

biology, in addition to a major programme of teacher professional development.  

•  Germany has defined educational standards for science; 

•  Slovenia  is  working  on  the  language  and  terminology  of  science  and  math  across  the 

curriculum as part of its major reforms. 

Teacher  development  in  relation  to  science  education  can  be  promoted  through  continuing 
professional development, and also through networking within and between schools: 

•  Professional development programmes for teachers have been launched to improve the 

teaching of maths, science and technology (CY, DE, LV, MT, SE). 

•  Teacher  Education  of  Science  in  Slovenia  is  being  reformed,  with  the  objective  of 
developing new methods to raise competences in science and make it more popular. The 
project is based on a partnership between teacher education faculties and a consortium of 
schools. 

•  Teachers’  networks  to  promote  good  practice  in  science  are  referred  to  by  only  a  few 

countries (AT, EE, MT, SI). 

•  Partnership projects linking schools with external actors including members of the local 
community, business, parents, higher education institutes and others were reported by only 
a few countries (AT, DE, HR, MT, SI). 

EN 

53 

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•  Encouraging girls and young women to study science was identified as a priority in only 

a few countries (AT, DE, PT, SE). 

Mathematical Competence and Basic Competence in Science and Technology in VET 

Once again, information on VET provision is patchy in the national reports. Maths is reported 
as being part of the VET curriculum in over half of the countries (AT, BG, CZ, EE, EL, FI, 
FR,  HR,  HU,  LT,  LV,  NL,  PL,  PT,  RO,  SK,  SI,  UK).  Some  countries  report  that  maths  is 
either compulsory in VET (BG, CY, FI, FR, SE) or depends on the qualification (IE, NL, HU, 
ES).  

Some countries stress the integration of maths throughout the VET curriculum (EL, ES, NO, 
PT), especially at the higher levels (ES), and two countries report a practical, technical focus 
for maths in VET (AT, SK). Three countries mention the promotion of participation of young 
women in maths and science-related activities in VET (AT, DE, SE).  

1.2.3.1  Conclusions  on  Mathematical  Competence  and  Basic  Competence  in  Science  and 

Technology  

Overall,  mathematical  competence  remains  a  very  strong  element  of  general  education 
curricula.  The  position  of  mathematical  competence  in  vocational  education  varies:  some 
countries make similar provision to that in general education whereas a few tailor provision 
more closely to the relevant vocational qualification. 

Some of the country reports highlight the promotion of problem-solving, critical thinking and, 
to a much lesser extent, inquiry-based learning in mathematics and science. There is evidence 
of some variety in approaches to provision of these competences through cross-curricular and 
real-life  projects,  as  well  as  extra-curricular  activities.  However,  it  is  not  clear  that  these 
activities necessarily develop science competence as purposefully as systematic inquiry-based 
science education. More work is needed to foreground this as a major pedagogic strategy in 
the  future.  This  is  especially  important,  given  that  research  evidence  shows  very  positive 
results  for  all  ages,  at  all  levels  of  ability  for  this  approach.66  Integration  of  mathematical 
competence  into  other  areas  of  activity  is  a  recurring  theme  emerging  from  many  of  the 
country reports, although this approach is at an advanced stage in only a few countries. This 
has  implications  for  the  competence  of  teachers  and  trainers,  and  needs  to  be  supported  by 
suitable teacher education and training. 

Achieving  a  gender  balance  did  not  emerge  as  a  major  priority  in  country  reports,  although 
this  was  an  important  dimension  of  the  last  reporting  cycle.  In  the  current  reports,  a  small 
number of countries referred to projects to support the development of competence in science 
and  technology  for  young  women.  However,  according  to  the  most  recent  analysis  from 
PISA, the gender gap is more significant in maths. 

The  information  provided  in  country  reports  suggest  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  scope  for 
development  in  the  teaching  of  science  and  its  orientating  methodologies  along  the  lines  of 
the  Inquiry-based  science  education  strategies  which  have  been  proven  to  promote 
competence and make science popular amongst a wide target group of all ages and abilities.  

66

European Commission (2007) “Science Education Now: A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe” op. cit., page 14.  

EN 

54 

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There  is  also  room  for  greater  co-operation  with  external  partners,  along  the  lines  of  that 
which  already  exists  for  Civic  and  Social  and  Entrepreneurship  competences,  in  order  to 
provide real-life contexts for scientific inquiry.  

1.2.4  Digital Competence  

The European Council in 2000 identified ICT as a core component of the knowledge society 
and vital for the future of education and training systems. Since then, the necessity to update 
what  are  considered  as  essential  competences  for  the  knowledge  society  to  ensure  that 
everyone  has  access  to  information  and  communications  technology67  has  been  repeatedly 
restated. The Key Competences Recommendation identifies digital competence as one of the 
Key  Competences  for  lifelong  learning,  to  ensure  that  all  citizens  are  equipped  to  make 
critical  use  of  the  new  technologies  in  their  personal  and  social  lives,  as  well  as  in  the 
workplace.68  

The Recommendation stresses not only the basic skills required to use new technologies, but 
stresses  the  confident  and  critical  use  of  Information  Society  Technology  (IST)  for  work, 
leisure and communication. This goes far beyond the capacity to manipulate the technology, 
and puts awareness of the legal and ethical principles involved in the use of IST, and critical 
reflection on the validity and reliability of information available through the internet, at the 
centre of this competence.  

One of the key issues in relation to Digital Competence concerns access. Council Conclusions 
on e-skills69 identify Fostering Employability and Social Inclusion as one of the major action 
lines to be pursued in the e-skills agenda. Yet the opportunities provided by the information 
society  also  create  new  divides.70  Research  confirms  the  increased  use  of  the  internet  in  all 
countries since 2005, but also that there are great disparities between different socio-economic 
groups and evidence that people in disadvantaged groups use the internet less intensively than 
other groups.71 There are still 40% of people who do not use the internet at all, and a much 
lower  rate  of  use  amongst  those  with  low  education.72  This  includes  young  people:  50%  of 
young people aged 15 – 21 with low basic skills have never used the internet.73 Reasons for 
not  having  the  internet  at  home  include  affordability  and,  significantly,  lack  of  skills.74  For 
many young people, school will be their only opportunity to develop this key competence.  

Digital Competence in Schools and VET 

Digital competence features in the school curriculum in all countries. For the most part, this 
encompasses the use of digital media as well as IST. Specific action plans or policy strategies 
are in place in AT, BE fr, BE nl, LT. Significant investment in terms of funding and resources 
was reported by most countries.  

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

Report  from  the  European  Commission  (2001)  “The  Concrete  Future  Objectives  of  Education”  COM(2001)  59  final,  p.  8, 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/concrete-future-objectives_en.pdf 
Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit. 
Integrated  Competitiveness  Council  Conclusions 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/intm/97225.pdf 
Commission  Staff  Working  Document  (2008)  "Digital  Literacy  Report:  A  Review  for  the  i2010  e-inclusion  initiative"  p.  4, 
http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/docs/digital_literacy/digital_literacy_review.pdf  
Ibid., p. 15 
Ibid. 
Studies on Technology’s impact in primary schools (STEPS)  
Ibid.  

2832nd  Council  meeting 

23  November 

2007, 

of 

EN 

55 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Digital  Competence  is  reported  to  be  part  of  the  primary  school  curriculum  in  just  over  a 
quarter of countries (BE nl, CZ, HR, IE, LT, LV, MT, NL, PL, UK). Preparatory groundwork 
for digital competence is introduced at the pre-primary stage in Cyprus and Norway. 

In a number of countries this competence is taught as a separate subject (BE fr, BG, CY, CZ, 
DE,  FR,  EL,  FI,  HR,  LU,  LV,  PL,  PT,  RO),  while  in  others  it  is  integrated  across  subjects 
(AT, BE nl, BG, CZ, DE, EE, FI, HU, LT, MT, NL, NO, SI, SK). In Norway this competence 
is  seen  as  a  basic  skill  which  is  woven  throughout  the  curriculum,  along  with  literacy  and 
numeracy.  

The extent to which the ‘confident and critical use of ICT’ is fostered is unclear from the 
country reports. Some countries (DE, ES, FR, IE SE, SI, SK) do refer explicitly to the ‘critical 
and  reflective’  use  of  ICT  but  in  general  this  aspect  was  not  stressed.  Ethical  and  legal 
considerations arising from the use of ICT and digital media are highlighted only by Latvia. 

Less  detail  was  supplied  about  the  extent  to  which  Digital  Competence  is  addressed  in 
vocational settings but some countries indicated that their practice was similar or identical to 
that in the general system (HR, PL). In Estonia and Slovenia, for instance, digital competence 
is woven into the curriculum of all vocational programmes. Other countries (CZ, DE, IE, LU, 
PT,  SK)  accord  this  competence  a  prominent  position  in  the  VET  curriculum  and  some 
include  modules  at  different  levels  (ES).  In  other  countries  (HU)  digital  competence  is 
included where this is related directly to the vocational programme.  

Approaches to Provision 

The  country  reports  confirm  the  trend75  that  Digital  Competence  is  used  to  enhance 
personalisation of learning, collaborative learning and other transversal key competences. 

ICT is used to enrich learning through cross-curricular themes across subjects (AT, CZ, BE fr, 
HR,  LT,  MT,  NL,  SI)  or  for  collaborative  learning  and  interaction  (AT,  PT).  Digital 
technology  can  also  promote  individualised  work  and  differentiate  the  pace  of  the  learning 
experience for individual pupils (AT, PT).  

Box 1-15 – Luxembourg - A whole-school approach to Digital Competence  

A national education portal (http://www.myschool.lu) has been created in Luxembourg with 
the  aim  integrating  ICT  into  education  at  national  level,  and  using  it  to  support  all 
administration  and  teaching  functions.  Several major  developments  have  taken  place  during 
2008: teachers can develop interactive exercises and self-correcting tasks and tests which can 
be made available to their students.  

Research  highlights  a  strong  digital  advantage  which  many  young  people  have  over  their 
parents and also their teachers. However, working with parents to promote the use of ICT 
was  referred  to  by  only  a  few  countries  (CY,  EL).  Greece  has  introduced  an  “E-parents” 
initiative  aimed  at  supporting  parents’  involvement  in  the  development  of  key  competences 
with their children. Cyprus has introduced a Learning Platform which includes, among other 
things, e-mail and calendar facilities connecting pupils, teachers and parents.  

75 

Ibid 

EN 

56 

   EN 

 
                                                 
Similarly,  while  IT  competence  is  very  often  gained  outside  formal  educational  settings, 
country reports did not refer to the impact of informal learning. This suggests that this is an 
area  for  further  action,  for  example,  by  using  extra-curricular  activities  as  a  vehicle  to 
promote digital competences outside formal learning situations. 

Teacher training  

Given the rapid changes in ICT and also identification of new issues (e.g. the ethical issues 
involved  in  using  world-wide  web,  the  environmental  impact  of  online  technologies)  the 
development  of  digital  competence  needs  to  be  supported  by  initial  teacher  education  and 
continuing  professional  development.  Many  countries  refer  to  programmes  designed  to  up-
skill teachers (AT, CY, EE, IE, FI, HU, MT, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI).  

Box 1-16 – Estonia - Portal to support teachers in development of digital competences  

Estonia has developed a portal to prepare new teachers and support practising teachers in the 
development  of  digital  competence76  focusing  on  the  development  of  teacher  competences 
described  in  the  professional  standards  for  initial  education,  induction  year,  and  in-service 
education. Currently, the most active users of the portal are students studying to be teachers 
and beginning teachers in their induction year. 

1.2.4.1  Conclusions on Digital Competence 

Lack of home access has been identified as one of the barriers to digital competence: in 2007, 
57% of the population were still not on-line at home. What happens in the school is therefore 
crucial in ensuring that all young people acquire the skills and attitudes of digital competence 
they need in their personal and social lives, as well as in the workplace. 

There  is  evidence  of  a  great  deal  of  activity  in  Member  States  in  stepping  up  provision  for 
Digital Competence. This has included curriculum reform, extra funding and resources, new 
programmes, the creation of virtual learning environments, the use of ICT in communication, 
administration and management.  

More work is needed to promote a whole-organisation approach to the introduction of ICT in 
methods  and  the  administration  of  teaching.  Support  for  teachers  in  the  form  of  initial  and 
continuing  training  needs  to  be  stepped  up.  As  effective  integration  of  ICT  into  subjects 
across  the  curriculum  depends  on  the  commitment,  support  and  understanding  of  school 
managers. Professional development and support for school managers is therefore essential.  

The digital divide between many young people and adults - their teachers and parents – was 
not raised in the country reports. Research highlights a strong digital advantage which many 
young people have over their parents and also, their teachers. However, technical proficiency 
is not always supported by critical reflection on the use of ICT. 

There is some evidence of the use of ICT to promote transversal skills, interaction and critical 
reflection but this emphasis needs to be strengthened. Overall, certain important content areas 
and  learning  opportunities  have  received  little  attention  in  the  country  reports,  including 

76

Within the framework of the European Union Structural Fund’s project “Teachers’ Professional Development with the Support of 
Educational Technology” see: http://www.htk.tlu.ee/opah  

EN 

57 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
‘confident  and  critical  use’  of  ICT;  ethical  and  legal  considerations  arising  from  the  use  of 
ICT; and informal learning situations.  

1.2.5 

Learning to Learn 

The Recommendation defines this competence as the ability to pursue and persist in learning, 
to  organise  one’s  own  learning,  including  through  effective  management  of  time  and 
information, both individually and in groups. It also stresses that much of the knowledge-base 
required in Learning to Learn is related to awareness of the self: one’s learning processes and 
needs,  identifying  available  opportunities  and  the  ability  to  overcome  obstacles  in  order  to 
learn successfully77. Also required are personal attitudes and dispositions such as motivation 
and confidence all resting on the basic skills of literacy and numeracy.  

Learning to Learn in Schools and VET 

This competence is given a high priority in the country reports.  

Learning  to  Learn  is  embedded  in  learning  experiences  throughout  the  curriculum, 
especially in relation to general education, in two thirds of the countries (AT, BE fr, BG, CY, 
CZ, DK, DE, IE, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, HU, LT, LV, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RO, SE, SK). A 
few countries (CZ, NO, NL, HR, PL, SI) reported that this competence is also incorporated 
into the VET curriculum.  

Approaches to Provision 

Learning  to  Learn  is  a  process  oriented  competence  that  is  typically  transversal  to  all 
educational and training activities. However some cognitive aspects of learning to learn (such 
as learning strategies and methods) may be addressed through specific learning content. Such 
modules were mentioned in only three reports (ES, IE, LT) and in both cases this concerned 
support for learners working on literacy or numeracy at a basic level in VET. 

Though most countries give little information on how this competence is integrated into the 
curriculum these approaches have been mentioned: 

•  Learning objectives for Learning to Learn are being developed in a few countries (BE nl, 

EE, EL, LT, PL, SE) as part of a cross-curricular framework.  

•  A framework in Personal Learning and Thinking Skills is used in England and Wales to 

support Learning to Learn.  

•  Programmes  and  Modules  in  aspects  of  Learning  to  Learn  exist  out  in  a  few  countries 

(BE nl, CZ, ES, HR, IE). 

•  Portfolio  building  is  used  at  primary  level  in  Luxembourg  at  different  levels  of 
complexity. In primary schools, children complete a task, reflect on it in their portfolio and 
thus develop self esteem and motivation. Portfolios are used in other countries, (AT, DE, 
IE, PT, SE, UK), sometimes contributing to the process of assessment. 

77

Recommendation on Key Competences for lifelong learning, op. cit.  

EN 

58 

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•  Assessment  processes  such  as  self  and  peer-assessment  and  project  work  are  used  to 

promote reflection on learning in several countries.  

An example of a project which supports several of these process described is the Key skills 
Project in Ireland. 

Box 1-17 – Ireland - The Key Skills Project  

The  Irish  Key  Skills  Project  is  designed  to  support  teaching  and  learning  across  the 
curriculum  in  the  upper  secondary  schools  and  also  to  promote  success  in  school  and  full 
participation in society including family life, the world of work and lifelong learning.  

The Key Skills are: Information Processing, Critical and Creative Thinking, Communicating, 
Working with Others, Being Personally Effective. Each element is broken down into essential 
elements  and  learning  outcomes.  These  skills  are  being  included  in  all  subjects  in  upper 
secondary schools as part of an ongoing syllabus reform.  

A network of eighteen schools was founded in 2006. Practising teachers write units, develop 
sample  learning  activities  and  try  out  the  materials  and  tools.  Critical  reflection  is  an 
important feature of the project, for both teachers and learners. Much of the support material 
is  designed  to  support  this  and  self-assessment  is  an  important  tool  in  fostering  these 
competences.  

Other  countries  (AT,  DE,  MT,  RO)  have  identified  the  importance  of  teacher  development, 
and of ensuring that work on Learning to Learn is theoretically robust: 

•  Teacher  Development  in  Austria  is  being  piloted  to  support  practising  teachers  in 
methodologies including: team teaching, lesson plans for open learning, individualisation 
and  giving  feedback.  A  few  countries  refer  to  the  professional  development  of  teachers 
(DE, MT, RO). 

•  Research  into  Learning  to  Learn  known  as  “The  Inclusion  of  Key  Qualifications  in 
Learning  to  Learn  in  Educational  Programmes”  is  being  conducted  in  Slovenia  by  the 
National Institute for VET.  

Although  the  embedding  of  Learning  to  Learn  in  the  curriculum  requires  significant  work, 
most countries do not describe in detail the ways in which Learning to Learn is embedded in 
particular  subjects  or  in  the  overall  curriculum.  However,  there  are  some  descriptions  of 
practical  measures  which  are  not  specifically  subject-related  and  which  support  the 
embedding of this competence throughout all learning:  

•  Personal  Learning  Plans/  Individual  Development  Plans/  Individual  Learner  Plans: 
are used in some form in a few countries (CY, DK, SE, SI, UK-Scotland). The Plan is used 
to  record  the  learning  goals,  programme  content,  specific  objectives  and  progress  of  an 
individual learner. This plan then becomes a type of contract between the learner and the 
school or VET provider which can be used to track and analyse progress. 

•  Three-way  discussions  with  teachers,  parents  and  the  learner  in  Cyprus  and  Scotland 

which use the Personal Learning Plan as a structure and focus. 

EN 

59 

   EN 

 
•  A School Library Network is used in Greece to support curiosity and further interest in 

learning in both general education and VET.  

A  Peer  Learning  Activity  organised  by  the  Key  Competences  Cluster  group  in  2007 
concluded that, as all of the key competences are interdependent with ‘Learning to Learn’, a 
school  succeeding  in  delivering  the  Learning  to  Learn  competence  will  also  have  a  greater 
likelihood  of  other  competences  being  effectively  learned.  The  importance  of  a  positive 
learning  environment  where  there  is  a  shared  understanding  amongst  management,  teachers 
and learners about how and why learning takes place was stressed.78 

1.2.5.1  Conclusions on Learning to Learn 

One theme emerging from the country reports is that Learning to Learn needs to be embedded 
not  only  in  all  subjects,  but  in  all  aspects  of  the  learning  environment.  Measures  include: 
personal learning plans, portfolio-building and the use of teaching and assessment strategies 
which  foster  deep  learning.  These  measures  all  require  good  communication,  teamwork, 
democratic  schooling  management,  and  supportive  mechanisms  for  pupil  assessment  and 
school self-evaluation.  

Notwithstanding  the  strong  process  orientation  of  Learning  to  Learn,  some  of  the  measures 
referred  to  above  to  involve  addressing  cognitive  dimensions.  These  include  knowing  the 
rules and strategies of learning and how to make use of them79. What is not clear from most of 
the  country  reports  which  locate  Learning  to  Learn  as  embedded  in  subjects  and  other 
activities, is whether ‘embedded’ means that knowledge of learning strategies and processes 
is explicitly taught in context, or if it is assumed to be ‘caught’, directly or indirectly. 

1.2.6 

Social and Civic Competence  

Social  and  Civic  Competence  describes  the  personal,  interpersonal  and  intercultural 
knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  that  equip  individuals  to  participate  in  an  effective  and 
constructive  way  in  social  and  working  life,  and  particularly  in  increasingly  diverse 
societies80. 

This competence has two complementary aspects:  

•  in  terms  of  the  processes  involved  in  positive  social  cultural  and  intercultural 
communication  encompassing  the  ability  to  communicate  constructively…to  show 
tolerance, express and understand different viewpoints, to negotiate;  

•  as  a  body  of  knowledge  of  the  concepts  of  democracy,  justice,  equality,  citizenship  and 

civil rights, including those how those are implemented in the European Union. 

Both  of  these  dimensions  are  present  in  the  curricula  of  Member  States  although  they  are 
contextualised in different ways.  

Social and Civic Competence in Schools and in VET 

78

79

80

EN 

(2007), 

European  Commission 
http://www.kslll.net/Documents/PLA_Key%20Competences%20for%20LLL_Jan.%2007.pdf 
Progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and training. SEC (2008) 2293 , p168 
Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit., Annex, p. 3 

report.  Cluster 

competences 

Synthesis 

'Key 

–  Curriculum  Reform'. 

60 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
 
Through a Dedicated Subject 

In  a  few  counties  (AT,  ES,  IE,  LT,  LU,  SI,  UK-England)  this  area  is  addressed,  at  least  in 
part, through subjects on the curriculum such as:  

•  Personal, Social, Health and Economic (PSHE) education and Citizenship education are 
compulsory subjects in schools in England, as is Moral Education in Lithuania, and Moral 
and Social Education in Luxembourg.  

•  Citizenship  modules  were  reported  by  Spain,  Poland,  Ireland  and  Lithuania,  but  a 
Eurydice81 study showed that these are also delivered in other countries (AT, CZ, IT, NO, 
RO,  SI,  SK)  at  different  stages  of  compulsory  education.  The  same  study  shows  that  in 
some countries these are delivered as a separate compulsory subject at different stages of 
compulsory education but also integrated into the rest of the curriculum in some countries 
(BG, CY, CZ, DK, FR, EE, EL, LT, LU, LV, PL, PT, SE).  

The  traditional  subjects  give  a  lot  of  scope  to  teach  about  the  structures  of  democratic 
societies.  They  can  also  support  the  process  aspect  of  this  competence  through  the  use  of 
methodologies which promote interaction, critical reflection and participation.  

Through Related Subjects 

•  History, geography, philosophy, communication, social science are used in (AT, BE fr, 
BG,  DE,  FI,  MT,  NO)  address  the  content,  skills,  attitudes  and  processes  required  for 
effective development of this competence.  

•  Information  Technology  as  a  vehicle  to  encourage  interaction,  problem-solving  and 
critical  reflection  is  promoted  in  Austria  and  Lithuania  as  already  noted  in  relation  to 
Digital Competence. These processes are mentioned in the Recommendation as supportive 
of democratic participation.  

•  The Philosophy for Children project in Luxembourg explores issues related to social and 

civic competence with children in primary schools.  

Woven throughout the Curriculum 

•  Integrating  social  and  civic  competence  into  some  or  all  subjects  is  a  strategy  used  by 
many countries (UK Scotland and Wales, NL, BE nl, CZ, DE;, FR, ES, HR, MT, NO, PL, 
PT,  RO,  SK).  They  view  this  area  as  a  cross-cutting  competence  which  is  embedded 
throughout the whole curriculum and addressed as relevant issues arise.  

•  A combination  of these approaches  to provision is used in two  countries (HR  SI). The 
lower  secondary  curriculum  in  Slovenia  includes  a  subject  called  ‘civic  and  patriotic 
education’  but  the  issues  it  covers  are  also  addressed  in  a  cross-curricular  way  and  in 
subjects  such  as  history,  both  at  that  level  and  at  earlier  stages  in  the  education  system.

81

Eurydice (2005), Citizenship education at school in Europe, Figure 2.1 
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ressources/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/055EN.pdf 

EN 

61 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
In the Learning Environment 

•  Direct  Participation  in  school  structures  brings  the  processes  of  social  and  civic 
competence directly into young people’s lives. This approach is implemented in Estonia, 
Finland,  Poland  and  Spain.  One  view  of  promoting  civic  and  social  competence 
recommends promoting democratic values and practices by putting these into action, both 
in  the  teaching  process  and  especially  in  the  ethos  and  operation  of  the  immediate 
institutional environment (AT, CZ, EE, ES, FI, MT). By consciously modelling civic and 
social  competences  in  real  life,  school  managers  and  teachers  can  give  pupils  the 
opportunity  to  gain  first-hand,  personal  experience  of  the  knowledge,  skills  and  the 
attitudes involved in democratic participation.  

Box 1-18 – Finland - Citizen Participation Programme  

Part  of  the  Citizen  Participation  Policy  Programme82  in  Finland  involves  the  creation  of 
Students’  Associations  whose  role  is  to  promote  cooperation  among  students,  channel  their 
influence  and  participation  in  matters  relating  to  them  and  generally  to  promote  active 
citizenship. Student associations are now part of the Basic Education Act in Finland, which 
means  that  education  providers  have  to  set  these  up  for  individual  schools  or  networks  of 
schools, or otherwise organise opportunities for students to be heard on common issues of the 
school. Student associations arrange national and regional training, assist in the planning and 
evaluation of activities at school level and engage with local actors. 

Through Special Measures 

Several  countries  have  evolved  different  ways  of  supporting  the  development  of  Civic  and 
Social competence in ways which are suitable for the context of their own national systems: 

•  Textbooks  and  teaching  materials  promote  participatory  methods  and  convey  relevant 

content in AT, CZ, EL, HU, IE, MT, SI. 

•  A  dedicated  framework  has  been  developed  in  BE  nl  which  outlines  cross-curricular 
competences and personal development in relation to others and the ability to participate in 
a multicultural, democratic society 

•  Quality statements to define the area of social and civic competence have been developed 

in the Netherlands. 

•  At  national  level,  a  special  committee  has  been  set  up  by  the  Ministry  of  Education  in 

Luxembourg to explore citizenship education. 

Through Outreach Teaching Methodology 

•  The Extended Project: This is most frequently-mentioned method. It can be carried out 
within the context of a traditional subject, in the context of two or more subjects as a cross-
curricular project or in the wider context of the world outside the school. Projects at all of 
these levels are referred to by several countries (AT, DK, ES, FI, HR, IE, MT, NL, NO, 

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PT).  They  report  that  the  process  of  deciding  on  a  topic  for  study,  planning  and 
implementing  it,  reporting  findings  and  reflecting  on  their  success,  can  provide  the 
opportunity  to  develop  most  or  all  of  the  transversal  competences.  In  Norway  young 
people undertake outreach work in the community which promotes this competence.  

Box  1-19  –  Croatia  -  National  Curriculum  for  Human  Rights  and  Democratic 
Citizenship Education 

In Croatia the National Curriculum for Human Rights and Democratic Citizenship Education 
sets  out  themes  for  all  levels  of  general  and  vocational  education  which  promote  all  of  the 
Key  Competences,  with  a  particular  focus  on  democratic  citizenship.  Cross-curricular  and 
extra-curricular  activities  engage  with  real-life  problem-solving  in  the  community,  such  as 
access to public buildings for people with disabilities and many others. Each project includes 
interdisciplinary  skills  such  as:  reading,  discussion,  writing,  analysing  graphs,  problem 
solving  in  small  groups,  cooperative  learning  techniques,  role  play,  studying  the  laws  and 
Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, writing official letters and applications, The students 
systematically study the problem, document it and draw up a plan for solving it. Parents and 
people from the local community are involved in the realisation of the project. 

Through Assessment  

•  Interdisciplinary  projects  for  assessment:  A  small  number  of  countries  (AT,  DK,  RO) 
refer to innovative methods of assessment which promote learners’ capacity for interaction 
and  critical  engagement  with  the  world.  These  are  based  on  interdisciplinary  projects.  In 
three  cases  (AT,  DK,  RO)  these  are  required  as  part  of  the  final  assessment  for  national 
qualifications. This is one example of how the ‘backwash’ effect from assessment can have 
a positive impact on teaching and learning.  

In VET 

Not all respondents gave details of the extent to which this competence is addressed in VET 
but most of those who did mentioned a similar range of delivery mechanisms as those found 
in  the  general  system:  dedicated  subjects,  embedded  in  other  subject  areas,  or  delivered 
through project work and other similar methodologies.  

Based  on  the  limited  information  available  in  the  reports,  it  appears  that  Civic  and  Social 
competence does receive attention in the VET sector although, as for general education, it is 
not possible to say how far this extends. Some refer to embedding the content into the subject 
or  craft  content,  although  there  is  no  way  of  knowing  how  far  this  translates  into  what  is 
actually taught, or how.  

1.2.6.1  Conclusions 

Provision  for  this  competence  is  gathering  momentum  and  is  being  promoted  through  a 
variety  of  approaches,  sometimes  supported  by  frameworks,  statements  of  objectives  and 
assessment processes. These may address to a large degree the knowledge dimension and to 
some  degree,  the  attitudinal  and  process  aspect  of  this  competence.  The  more  traditional 
approach of a single subject is being complemented with cognitive approaches and methods.  

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However, the surest way of providing this competence for all young people is to embed it in 
the methodology used for all subjects, and not only those which explicitly address civic and 
social issues as a body of knowledge. If teaching in general and VET education and training 
models the principles of democratic participation, then all young people will have access to 
this competence, whether it is included on their official timetable or not. A similar effect can 
be  achieved  by  ensuring  that  the  learning  environment  includes  structures  such  as  students’ 
associations (ie real-life participation).  

1.2.7 

Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurship  

In common with the other transversal Key Competences, this competence is strongly process-
orientated: the Recommendation refers to an individual's ability to turn ideas into action and 
the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives which may be social as 
well as commercial.  

This competence is also underpinned by a varied body of knowledge which is open to a range 
of  interpretation:  understanding  of  the  working  of  the  economy,  as  well  as  the  specific 
demands  and  opportunities  of  employers.  The  attitudinal  dimension  refers  to  the  ethics  of 
business and the potential of enterprises to be a force for good, for example through fair trade 
or through social enterprise. 

Personal and interpersonal skills are a further important aspect of this competence, including 
the ability to lead and delegate, manage resources, analyse, communicate, de-brief, evaluate 
and  record,  effective  representation  and  negotiation,  and  the  ability  to  work  both  as  an 
individual and collaboratively in teams, as well as the ability to communicate, cooperate and 
coordinate with partners in networks, clusters etc.. 

Initiative and Entrepreneurship in Schools and VET 

Initiative and Entrepreneurship appears on the curriculum of primary and secondary schools 
and in VET in a variety of different ways. Some aspects, such as initiative and innovation, are 
addressed  through  teaching  methods  and  activities  such  as  mini-companies  and  work  in  the 
community.  Others  emphasise  a  body  of  knowledge,  such  as  knowledge  of  the  financial 
system or economics.  

Through a Dedicated Subject  

•  Certain subjects such as Citizenship (FI, CZ, IE, RO, SK), Entrepreneurship (UK - Wales), 
Economy  (LT)  and  parts  of  stand-alone  modules  (CY,  EE,  EL,  PT)  cater  for  this 
competence.  

•  Secondary school attainment targets in entrepreneurship or related areas define part of this 
competence in the French Speaking Community of Belgium where it is addressed through 
various projects.  

•  Preparation  for  entrepreneurship  at  primary  school  is  part  of  the  curriculum  in  a  few 

countries (CZ, FI, LV, NL, NO).  

Embedded in themes or across the curriculum 

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•  Themes such as ‘The Individual and the World of Work’ (CZ,IE, RO, SK) or programmes 
such  as  Personal  Social  and  Health  Education  (UK  –  England)  provide  a  vehicle  for 
addressing  some  aspects  of  this  competence.  This  strategy  is  found  also  in  France, 
Denmark, Estonia and Sweden.  

•  Cross curricular work in Entrepreneurship is carried out in schools in some countries (AT, 
BE fr, HR, FR, DE, MT, RO) to promote aspects of this competence, sometimes through 
community projects (DE, DK, HR, IE, PT) and volunteer community work (FI). Hungary 
includes this competence under the Cultural domain.  

•  The ethos of the school was referred to by Spain and Sweden as being an important vehicle 

for sense of initiative and entrepreneurship. 

•  Mini enterprises are widely used as a multi-disciplinary strategy in general education and 

in VET, in some countries (CZ, DE, EL, HR, HU, IE, LU, HU, PL, PT, UK). 

The specific ways of promoting Initiative and Entrepreneurship in VET 

•  Qualification  guidelines  include  different  elements  of  this  competence  in  some  countries 
(FI, HU, LT, NL, NO, PL, SI, SK). In Hungary aspects of entrepreneurship are included in 
different  qualifications.  Special  activities  such  as  Enterprise  Week  (CY)  and  other  extra-
curricular activities foster entrepreneurship in a few other countries (AT, EL, ES, IE, PT, 
RO, SK, UK). 

•  Specific modules are included in apprenticeships or other vocational qualifications in some 

countries (AT, BE fr, ES, IE, FI, HU, RO);  

•  A  methodology  which  promotes  interaction  and  discovery  is  stressed  as  an  important 

vehicle for developing initiative in AT, DK, ES, PT, RO, SE. 

Countries report that partnership between schools, VET and business and enterprise are a very 
important  strategy  in  the  promotion  of  this  competence  (AT,  CZ,  DE,  FI,  LU,  PT,  RO,  SE, 
SK, UK).  

Box 1-20 – Germany - Mini-Enterprises  

In  Germany  students  operate  mini-companies  which  are  educational  projects  with  limited 
sales and profits. These are based on real business models. Student employees of companies 
plan, produce and sell products or provide services. Student companies thus serve to promote 
responsibility, teamwork and individual initiative of students and provide practical and action-
oriented knowledge about the economy and economic contexts. 

Box 1-21 – Netherlands – Entrepreneurship Education 

The Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science have 
set  up  a  programme  on  entrepreneurship  and  education.  One  of  the  key  elements  of  this 
programme is to invest in entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills from a very young age. 
Primary and secondary schools can play a vital role in developing these skills. 

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The entrepreneurship and education grants scheme was launched in 2007 and provides seed 
money  for  the  Entrepreneurship  and  Education  Partnerships:  encouraging  projects  from 
primary school through to vocational training 

In  November  2008  the  Dutch  government  launched  a  new  programme  covering  the  2008-
2012 period. One of the key features of this programme is to professionalise entrepreneurship 
education  by  investing  in  networks  between  schools  and  companies,  from  primary  school 
right  through  to  vocational  training,  and  opening  an  additional  four  to  six  entrepreneurship 
centres in the higher education sector. 

National  level  strategies  and  programmes  are  being  implemented  in  some  countries  (BE  nl, 
CZ, DE, FI, LU, MT, PL, SE, SK, UK - Wales). 

1.2.7.1  Conclusions Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurship  

Substantial  progress  has  been  made  in  most  countries  in  recent  years  in  promoting  the 
entrepreneurial  dimension  of  this  competence.  Much  of  this  work  has  been  underpinned  or 
driven  by  national  action  plans  and  strategies,  which  is  a  positive  development  in  the 
promotion of all of the key competences.  

This competence provides many opportunities for engaging in partnership with organisations 
and enterprises outside the education and training system.  

The dedicated subject approach addresses a body of knowledge most relevant to the national 
context,  and  this  has  allowed  different  concepts  of  the  competence  to  emerge.  However, 
knowledge  must  be  accompanied  by  the  appropriate  contextual  dimensions.  These  can  be 
supplied  either  through  integrated  or  cross-curricular  work,  or  through  creating  links  with 
outside partners such as local businesses.  

Creating  such  links  ensures  that  the  body  of  knowledge  covered  is  applied  in  a  meaningful 
context. It also allows for cross-fertilization between the world of business and the world of 
education and training. 

It  is  not  clear  to  what  extent  the  personal  and  social  dimensions  of  this  competence  are 
addressed;  or  whether  the  creative  and  innovative  aspects  receive  as  much  attention  as  the 
entrepreneurial  dimensions.  In  common  with  Social  and  Civic  competence,  there  is 
substantial  scope  to  promote  those  aspects  of  entrepreneurship,  for  instance  by  the  use  of 
participatory teaching methods across the whole curriculum.  

1.2.8  Cultural Awareness and Expression  

According to the Recommendation "Appreciation of the importance of the creative expression 
of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of media" is one dimension of this competence 
but  there  are  many  others,  in  addition  to  the  familiar  and  traditional  view  of  culture  as 
including music, performing arts, literature, and the visual arts. 

Other  dimensions  address  the  societal  level,  particularly  in  fostering respect  for  diversity  of 
cultural expression.83 Council Conclusions of May 2008 stress the importance of acquisition 

83

Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit.  

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by  all  citizens  of  the  key  competences  most  relevant  to  intercultural  competences  and  most 
likely to foster an appreciation of cultural diversity as a core value, such as linguistic, social 
and civic competences and cultural awareness and expression.  

This  competence  is  therefore  concerned  both  with  promoting  the  creativity  and  cultural 
appreciation of people as individuals, but also as members of society. It harnesses awareness 
of  one’s  own  culture  to  promote  understanding  and  tolerance  of  others’,  in  a  society  of 
increasing diversity.  

The  Council  Conclusions  also  address  particularly  the  issue  of  access  and  call  for  the 
promotion of everyone's active participation in cultural life and access to culture and heritage 
in  all  their  diversity,  with  particular  attention  to  people  who  have  fewer  opportunities  for 
access84. Education and training systems have a significant role to play in reducing barriers to 
access to cultural opportunities arising from different kinds of disadvantage.  

A  further  dimension  of  cultural  awareness  and  expression  concerns  the  arts  and  culture  as 
process,  that  is,  as  a  methodology.  From  this  perspective,  the  methods  of  the  arts  have  the 
potential to be used as a vehicle to promote individuals’ personal and social development85 in 
the context of any subject or educational activity.  

Cultural Awareness and Expression in Schools and in VET 

Arts and cultural education86 forms a part of the school curriculum addressed in a variety of 
different  ways,  including  as  a  stand-alone  subject,  through  projects  and  themes  and  in 
outreach activities which take young people out of the school and into the gallery, museum or 
concert hall. This is the most familiar and traditional view of cultural awareness. 

Through the Subject-Centred Curriculum 

•  Subjects provided as part of cultural education include: music (AT, BG, DE, DK CY, CZ, 
HU, IE, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, SE, SK, SI); visual arts (AT, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, 
ES, HU, IE, LU, MT, PL, PT, RO, SE SK, SI); and literature, in all countries, usually as 
part of mother tongue teaching. 

•  Foreign  languages  provide  a  vehicle  for  the  study  of  the  culture  of  different  countries  in 

Bulgaria and Malta. 

•  Civics provides a context for cultural education in England; physical education provides a 

context in Finland. 

Through Cross-Curricular Themes 

•  A thematic, multi-disciplinary approach forms part of the provision for cultural awareness 

in AT, CZ, DE, ES, FR, HR, HU, LT, MT. 

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Bramford, Anne: The WOW factor. Global Research Compendium on the impact of arts in education. 
Waxham Verlad GmbH (2006). 
For a detailed overview of arts and cultural education, see Eurydice: Arts and cultural education at school in Europe.  

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•  Outreach  Activities  such  as  visits  to  theatres,  galleries  and  concerts  are  specifically 

mentioned by: AT, CZ, DE, LT, LU, MT, PL, SK. 

•  Active partnerships with cultural institutions were mentioned by Austria and Luxembourg. 
Austria has a long-standing and extensive statutory framework to support links between the 
education  system  and  arts  institutions.  Schools  in  Luxembourg  have  links  with  cultural 
institutions, especially the Philharmonic Orchestra.  

Box 1-22 – Austria - Dialogue Events  

These are multi-disciplinary projects which provide a creative experience for teachers, pupils 
and  artists  by  supporting  work  in  schools  under  several  categories  of  art  and  culture: 
architecture, fine arts, film/video, music, new media, dance and theatre and interdisciplinary 
work. Teachers in state schools can apply for funding to collaborate with practising artists on 
projects  which  vary  in  length  from  two  lessons  up  to  several  months.  Dialogue  Events  link 
artistic experience with everyday life in ways which develop participants’ cultural and artistic 
skills. They also aim to foster young people’s creativity, personal and social competence by 
using  participatory  and  action-oriented  methods  that  facilitate  collaboration  between  artists, 
teachers and pupils. 

Cultural Awareness and Expression in VET 

•  Croatia offers the same experience of the arts and culture to young people in VET as in the 
general education system. In some countries (IE, NL, SK, PT, UK) the type and extent of 
provision  depends  on  the  qualification  being  followed.  In  others  (BE  fr,  BE  nl,  CZ,  PL. 
PT) provision is embedded in the curriculum. But countries do not specify what provision 
is made within VET for this competence.  

•  Very few countries report using the processes of the arts as a vehicle to promote personal 
and  social  development,  or  intercultural  understanding.  This  was  mentioned  only  by 
Luxembourg, Malta and Slovakia.  

1.2.8.1  Conclusions Cultural Awareness and Expression 

Although  culture  and  the  arts  are  catered  for  in  all  countries  through  the  traditional  subject 
curriculum,  according  to  the  country  reports,  this  competence  does  not  appear  to  be  a 
significant strategic priority for Member States as a whole.  

The potential of the arts to provide a methodology for work in other areas of the curriculum, 
and in personal and social development, could be better exploited in many countries. This has 
implications  for  initial  and  continuing  teacher  education,  which  could  incorporate  methods 
borrowed from the arts into the methodology of all subjects. In this way, cultural awareness 
and expression will be more readily accessible to young people in all sectors and situations.  

There  were  significant  gaps  in  the  information  supplied  in  the  country  reports  regarding 
provision  in  VET.  However,  the  information  supplied  indicates  that  this  area  is  not  very 
strongly  provided  for  in  the  vocational  sector,  especially  where  VET  takes  place  outside 
school.  

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1.2.9 

Some  general  conclusions  concerning  integration  of  the  key  competences  in 
curricula 

The shift towards competence 

There  has  been  a  general  shift  in  European  countries  to  a  competence-based  approach,  to 
which the European Framework has made an important contribution. Several countries (AT, 
BE nl, CZ, DE, FR, MT, NO, Pl, SI, UK) are already supporting the development of certain 
key competences by expressing them as reference levels. These describe goals towards which 
learners should aspire, or a minimum level of attainment they should reach at specified stages. 
In others, such levels are in the process of being developed (DK). Some of these attainment 
targets  or  reference  levels  address  areas  of  activity  which  are  similar  to  or  overlap  with 
aspects  of  the  key  competences,  especially  Communication  and  Mathematics  and  in  a  few 
cases, address cross curricular themes (BE nl, CY, FI, SI).  

Support for literacy 

All  countries  have  specific  measures  to  address  Communication  in  the  Mother  Tongue, 
particularly literacy, as a policy priority. Specific provision for migrants is widespread in this 
regard.  

Cross-curricular work in all competences 

Cross-curricular work is emerging as a teaching strategy in support of all of the competences. 
This  is  a  welcome  development  because  all  of  the  competences  are  a  combination  of 
knowledge skills and attitudes appropriate to the context, hence the importance of providing a 
variety  of  contexts.  However,  this  requires  team-work,  planning  and  staff  training  and 
development, as well as the support of the school manager. More needs to be done to make 
cross-curricular work a regular strategy in all subjects and activities. 

Integration  and  the  whole-organisation  approach  of  certain  competences  throughout  the 
curriculum  

A whole school approach is emerging as a strategy in some countries. This applies especially 
to  embedding  literacy  and  numeracy  across  the  curriculum  and  school  activities.  School 
leadership,  staff  training  and  other  support  structures  such  as  teamwork  and  timetabling  are 
essential for success.  

The importance of early intervention  

Early  intervention  in  key  areas  such  as  literacy  and  numeracy  emerges  as  a  key  strategy  in 
many  countries.  Early  learning  of  foreign  languages  and  digital  competence  is  also 
mentioned, but less frequently.  

Extra-curricular activities  

Extra-curricular activities are a vehicle for developing all of the key competences and could 
be  exploited  more.  Only  sometimes  do  national  reports  refer  to  these  specifically  as 
opportunities  for  learning.  Informal  learning  has  great  potential,  especially  in  areas  such  as 
digital competence.  

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Key competences provision in VET  

How key competences are catered for in VET is not always clear but it seems that main focus 
is  on  mother  tongue  and  maths,  though  often  with  a  sectoral  or  technical  orientation. 
Entrepreneurship  also  seems  to  be  securely  embedded  in  VET  curricula.  However,  foreign 
languages, social and civic competence and cultural awareness receive less attention. 

Contributing factors 

Several  important  contributing  factors  have  emerged  from  country  reports,  to  differing 
degrees, as supporting effective provision of the key competences: 

•  action  or  strategy  planning  as  part  of  overall  National  Lifelong  Learning  Strategies  for  a 
coherent  approach  across  the  different  sectors,  in  order  to  offer  equity  of  access  to  key 
competences; 

•  standards by which to assess the progress and development of the key competences; 

•  awareness-raising  and  professional  development  opportunities  for  teachers  and  school 

managers; 

•  staff  development  and  working  conditions  that  allow  for  integration  and  cross-curricular 

work e.g. team teaching; 

•  a school/organisational ethos that is participatory and democratic. 

1.3 

Key Competences for the disadvantaged 

The Recommendation on Key Competences invites Member States to ensure that "appropriate 
provision  is  made  for  those  young  people  who  due  to  educational  disadvantage  caused  by 
personal,  social,  cultural  or  economic  circumstances  need  particular  support  to  fulfil  their 
educational potential."  

The  analysis  set  out  below  provides  an  overview  of  the  types  of  measures  implemented  to 
support  systems,  schools  and  teachers  to  enhance  the  provision  of  key  competences  for 
disadvantaged target groups. Countries report a variety of measures that either addresses all 
young people by creating a coherent framework for all target groups, or measures specifically 
focused on certain disadvantaged target groups.  

1.3.1 

Legislative measures for key competences for all  

The  majority  of  Member  States  have  over  time  created  legislative  frameworks  targeting 
particular groups (AT, BE fr, BG, CZ, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, HR, HU, IE, LV, LT, LU, MT, 
NL, NO, PL, RO, SK, SI, SE, UK). These are further described below. A few countries (BE 
fr, DK, FR, IS, NO) also report a trend towards a single overarching legislative framework for 
both mainstream learners and specific target groups:  

Box  1-23  -  Belgium  fr  -  towards  a  system  offering  a  comprehensive  support  to  Key 
Competences 

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The first piece of legislation aiming to foster the acquisition of basic skills by all was adopted 
in  1997  (‘Missions’  decree)  in  the  French  speaking  Community  of  Belgium.  It  particularly 
focused on making statutory a common weekly teaching grid in all schools in order to support 
the  development  of  literacy  and  numeracy  skills  during  the  first  years  of  compulsory 
education  and  the  acquisition  of  transversal  competences  during  all  compulsory  education. 
This  legislation  was  complemented  by  another  (adopted  in  2008)  that  specifically  targets 
pupils experiencing difficulties at the end of primary education.  

A new unified system will replace these two legislative frameworks from 2010-2011. It will 
apply  to  all  types  of  schools  and  put  specific  emphasis  on  disadvantaged  learners.  While 
based on existing measures, its main focus will be on introducing additional ones (e.g. supply 
of additional teachers and professionals – educators, guidance staff, etc.). 

Another common approach is the introduction of rights-based legislation (DK, ES, HU, HR, 
NL, NO, SE, UK). Such legislation makes the acquisition of key competences a right for all. 
This  places  an  obligation  on  education  and  training  providers  and/or  teachers  to  put 
appropriate teaching and learning strategies in place.  

1.3.2  Measures supporting targeted action 

The  measures  developed  by  Member  States  to  address  the  needs  of  SEN  students  include 
action plans and programmes; guidelines and individual learning plans; funding measures and 
communication strategies. 

Action plans 

Action  plans  and  guidelines  to  accompany  legislative  measures  are  reported  by  many 
countries  (AT,  BE  fr,  CZ,  DK,  ES,  IE,  LV,  LT,  LU,  PL,  PT,  SE,  UK).  Several  focus  on 
specific target groups (AT, BE fr, DK, IE, PL, PT, SI (for Roma), UK). In Spain, for instance 
a range of measures are in place: 

Box 1-24 - Spain – Action Plans to support the development of KC by young people 

Spain has put in place a Programme for Reinforcement, Guidance and Support (PROA) which 
is aimed at students who, due to a disadvantaged family or social background and/or limited 
education  resources,  have  fewer  possibilities  of  achieving  full  development  of  their  basic 
competences. 

The plan focuses on: 

-  training  teachers  on  issues  such  as  diagnosis  and  evaluation  or  modifications  to  curricula 
aimed at more clearly incorporating acquisition of competences; 

- specific programmes aimed at improving school performance of students with the greatest 
difficulties; 

-  programmes  aimed  at  preventing  early  school  leaving  and  promoting  the  re-integration  of 
drop-outs.  

Individual learning plans 

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The  use  of  individual  learning/development  plans  is  increasing.  They  enable  learning  to  be 
personalised and adapted to different learning needs and strategies.  

Some countries use individual learning plans systematically for all learners (FI, HU, NO, SE, 
SI);  others  certain  target  groups  (BE  fr,  CZ,  DE,  DK,  EE,  LV,  PT).  Such  plans  consist  of 
agreements  between  teachers  and  pupils  and  may  involve  increased  use  of  individual 
assessments, as in the case of Sweden.  

Box 1-25 - Sweden – Individual development plan in compulsory education 

The  Swedish  Government  has  amended  the  provisions  relating  to  individual  development 
plans in compulsory education. As from the autumn term of 2008, the development plans also 
include written assessments of each pupil’s knowledge  development. The development plan 
shall  also  document  agreements  between  the  teacher,  the  pupil  and  his  or  her  parents  or 
guardians. 

Additional funding 

Most countries (AT, BE fr, BG, CY, CZ, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI, HR, HU, IE, IS, LV, LT, PT, 
NL,  RO,  SE,  SK,  UK)  report  using  additional  funding  to  support  provision  of  key 
competences  for  mainstream  learners  as  well  as  specific  target  groups.  These  measures 
generally  put  the  emphasis  on  issues  such  as  teacher  education,  school  infrastructure  or 
learning  materials  (new  adopted  materials  (AT,  BE  fr,  CY,  CZ,  EL,  HU,  IS,  LT,  SK)), 
teaching  methods  (BE  fr,  BG,  CY,  CZ,  PT,  RO) or distribution of free textbooks (AT, BG, 
EL, HR, RO). 

Additional funding to support disadvantaged young people is reported in only a few countries 
though (BE fr, EE, HU, NL). These countries report that they allocate additional funding to 
schools  characterised  by  large  amounts  of  pupils  with  disabilities  or  disadvantaged  socio-
economical  backgrounds.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Netherlands  (see  text  box  below),  funding 
measures  also  generally  stress  the  need  to  involve  close  cooperation  between  the  different 
educational actors.  

Box 1-26 – The Netherlands – Compensatory policy funding 

A compensatory policy aimed to prevent and reduce disadvantage has been set up at central 
government level in the Netherlands. It targets young people enrolled in pre-primary, primary 
and  secondary  education  and  has  an  annual  budget  of  around  487  million  euro.  Funds  are 
allocated to primary schools on the basis of a weighting system (i.e. schools can get additional 
funding on the basis of the educational levels of pupils’ parents) and to secondary school on 
the basis of the Learning Plus and Newcomers Funding Scheme (i.e. extra funding allocated 
to  schools  coping  with  pupils  with  migrant  background).  Cooperation  between  local 
authorities, school institutions and other institutions is seen as a determining factor and thus is 
strongly encouraged through the design of the scheme.  

Communication measures 

Attracting  young  people  to  education  and  training  beyond  the  compulsory  schooling  age  or 
retaining  them  in  schools,  especially  those  prone  to  dropping  out  altogether  or  joining  the 
labour market prematurely, is also a challenge for key competence provision. A few countries 

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report  on  broad  communication  measures  (AT,  EL,  ES,  FR,  HR,  LT,  NO,  SK,  UK).  These 
take  the  form  of  e.g.  nationwide  campaigns,  websites,  and  dissemination  of  good  practices. 
Their  aim  is  to  reach  out  to  the  target  groups  via  new  interactive  media  and  explain  the 
purpose of legislation, strategies and action plans "in their own language". 

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Box 1-27 – Croatia – The ‘Secondary school for all’ campaign 

The ‘Secondary school for all’ campaign was launched following the implementation of the 
National Programme of Measures for the Implementation of Compulsory Education in 2007. 
Its  aim  is  to  raise  public  awareness  of  the  advantages  of  increasing  the  number  of  young 
persons in secondary education and creating the preconditions for their better social inclusion 
and lifelong learning. A priority measure is to improve the working conditions of teachers.  

1.3.3 Measures targeting specific groups 

Countries identify a certain number of target groups that are given particular emphasis in their 
policies and measures. The most common such target groups that countries have identified are 
young  people  with  special  educational  needs  (SEN);  young  people  with  literacy  needs  and 
potential early school leavers. 

Support for young people with SEN  

Measures  to  support  the  development  of  key  competences  by  young  people  with  SEN 
constitute an important goal in many countries. This trend was clearly reported in more than 
half of the countries (AT, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FI, FR, HR, IE, IS, LV, LT, NL, NO, PL, 
PT, SE, SI, SK, UK England87). The measures identified can be grouped as follows: 

Structural measures involving inclusive or combined settings 

In most reports, little information is provided on whether the measures involve special schools 
or  classes,  or  interventions  to  help  children  in  the  context  of  the  regular  classes.  Four 
countries (EE, FI, LV and DK) however make this more explicit. While a strong emphasis is 
put on inclusive settings in the Estonian and Latvian reports, the Danish report stresses that 
special education can be organised in a variety of ways. Most Danish young people with SEN 
generally remain in a mainstream school class but may also be taught in a special class (either 
within a mainstream school or within a special school) or combine both. 

Box 1-28 - Latvia – Measures to support young people with SEN in schools 

Aside  from  benefitting  from  specialist  guidance  (speech  therapists,  psychologists,  etc.) 
schools in Latvia can also implement the following measures: 

•  remedial  teaching  (additional  classes  for  up  to  6  students  with  motivational  difficulties, 
motor or mixed developmental difficulties, students with visual and hearing disabilities); 

•  individual  study  programmes  for  students  in  one  or  more  subjects  with  an  agreement  on 
either  reduced  or  heightened  requirements  for  study  content  or  learning  results  as 
compared to the school’s curriculum, exceptions in study organisation, etc.;  

87

Information found in the reports refer to young people with disabilities (i.e. who have clear organic reasons for their difficulties in 
education) and/or difficulties (i.e. with emotional and behavioural difficulties of specific difficulties in learning). This typology 
reflecting the categories A and B set by OECD to define pupils with SEN.  

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•  'opportunity  classes'  for  students  with  learning  difficulties  in  basic  and  upper  secondary 
schools students studying according to the national curriculum for (up to 16 students per 
class); 

•  extra help or consultations from subject teachers outside school hours; 

•  after-school groups, with activities, pedagogical guidance for homework, study assistance, 

opportunities for hobbies, etc. 

Curricular measures / individual learning plans, assistance and information 

Curricular adaptations are reported by a few countries (AT, DK, EE, IS (effective from 2010) 
and  LV).  They  may  consist  of  adjusted  curricula  (AT,  DK,  EE,  IS,  LV),  guidelines  for  the 
implementation  of  quality  standards  for  inclusive  education  (AT),  or  guidelines  for  the 
implementation of individual support plans (AT, EE and LV). These are often accompanied, 
as  in  Estonia,  by  annual  assessment  discussions  between  the  teacher,  student  and  parent, 
where progress, learning conditions and future challenges are agreed.  

Raising  the  number  of  specialist  assistants  aimed  to  help  ensure  a  quality  process  of 
integration at school is reported by three countries (EE, LT, LV).  

An example of a website dedicated to SEN provision was provided by the United Kingdom 
(England):  

Box 1-29 - UK (England) – approaches to support competence development of learners 
with difficulties 

The  Learning  and  Skills  Improvement  Service  has  developed  an  on-line  toolkit  supporting 
‘Learners to succeed’. It also launched a project named ‘Getting a life’ that will spread good 
practice  from  a  number  of  local  projects  aimed  at  improving  progression  of  young  people 
with learning difficulties and/or disabilities learners into employment. 

Measures targeting young people with literacy needs  

Making  sure  that  appropriate  teaching  time  for  reading  and  mastering  the  language  of  the 
country  is  foreseen  in  curricula  for  early  childhood  education  and  primary  education  was 
particularly  stressed  by  some  countries  (DK,  BE  fr,  ES,FI,  FR,  HU,  LT,  NL,  NO,  SI)  as  a 
measure to prevent literacy difficulties or to address them in early stages.  

Action plans and extra funding to foster literacy skills were also reported by few countries 
(BE  nl,  FR,  ES,  NL).  These  countries  stressed  that  supporting  the  development  of  literacy 
skills was considered, by law, as their core priority.  

As  previously  highlighted,  teaching  materials  and  complementary  electronic  resources 
support  effective  teaching  and  learning.  The  Spanish  Ministry  of  Education  has  approved 
significant  budget  allocations  to  improve  school  libraries  but  also  made  several  electronic 
resources available. 

The implementation of specific measures addressed to bilingual young people has also to be 
stressed by some countries (AT,CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, LV, LU, NO, PT, UK). Such measures 
mostly  address  young  migrants  (AT,  CZ,  DE,  DK,  ES,  FI,  IE,  LV,  LU,  NO,  PT,  UK)  or 

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young people from minority groups (IE, LV, NO) who do not generally master the language 
of the host country (DK, FI, LV, LU, NO, UK).  

Box  1-30  -  Denmark  –  Measures  to  support  bilingual  children  in  acquisition  of  the 
national language 

The  municipalities  are  obliged  to  offer  language  stimulation  training  to  bilingual  children 
living in Denmark from the age of 3 who are in need of such training in order to develop their 
competences in the language of instruction. Bilingual children, who do not attend a day-care 
centre, receive 15 hours of language stimulation activities per week. 

The  Folkeskole  Act  also  gives  municipalities  the  possibility  to  refer  bilingual  pupils  with  a 
need for language support that is deemed ‘not insignificant’ to a school other than the district 
school to which they belong, if a better pedagogical offer is available at another school.  

The  Ministries  of  Education  and  of  Refugee,  Immigrant  and  Integration  Affairs  have  in 
cooperation  established  a  ‘Task  Force  for  Bilingual  Pupils’,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  advise 
municipalities on effective ways of improving the education outcomes of bilingual pupils.  

Measures targeting (potential) early school leavers  

The  importance  of  this  issue  is  highlighted  by  the  European  benchmark  on  early  school 
leavers88 and several Council conclusions89.  

Issues relating to early school leaving are high on the policy agenda of many countries (BE fr, 
BG,  DE,  EE,  ES,  FI,  FR,  HR,  LT,  LV,  LU,  NL,  PL,  PT,  UK).  A  few  report  that  their 
measures  mainly  consist  of  flexible  scheduling  (BG,  PT)  or  individualised  learning  plans 
(DK, LU), increased guidance and the involvement of other stakeholders such as employers’ 
representatives.  

More specifically, two main kinds of measures can be distinguished. They consist of retaining 
and/or  bringing  school  leavers  back  to  educational  systems,  and  preventing  potential  drop-
outs at an early stage.  

•  Preventing young people at risk from dropping out (BE fr, FI, SE, LU, LV, PT) is tackled 
through individualised forms of support such as tutoring (BE fr, FI) or setting up ad hoc 
classes for low achievers (LU, LV, SE). An example of flexible arrangements in Finland is 
outlined below:  

88

89

By 2010 an EU average of no more than 10% early school leavers should be achieved. 
See for instance November 2006 Council, 12677/06 EDUC 167 

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Box 1-31 – Finland – Flexible education to prevent early drop-outs 

The  flexible  basic  education  programme,  initiated  in  2006,  has  already  brought  significant 
results  in  preventing  drop-out.  It  seeks  to  support  young  people  at  the  end  of  compulsory 
education, and help them to apply for further education and training. Early intervention, active 
ways of learning, individualised approaches combining schools and authentic work,  and  the 
involvement  of  parents  are  the  key  features  of  the  project  at  school  level.  However,  it  also 
focuses  on  teachers'  competences  in  meeting  young  people's  needs  and  their  collaboration 
skills, and makes local authorities responsible for efficient coordination between services such 
as youth, health and social services. The programme is now being mainstreamed.  

•  Ways to retain and bring young people back to education involve promoting the concept of 
Second Chance Education (LU, LT, LV, MT) or increasing flexible educational provision 
both  in  general  education  and  VET  (BG,  LU,  MT,  PT).  The  UK  reports  extending  the 
length  of  compulsory  schooling  thus  retaining  young  people  longer  in  education  and 
training.  

Box 1-32 – Luxembourg – A set of measures to address early school leaving 

Luxembourg  is  putting  in  place  a  coherent  set  of  measures  to  address  early  school  leaving, 
including: 

–  support  measures  by  the  Local  Youth  Action  network  which  proposes  individualised 
support and guidance in order to motivate them to re-integrate general education or VET; 

–  to  ensure  that  those  who  repeat  a  class,  which  is  often  the  first  step  to  dropping  out, 
improve their results (which is in most cases not the case if they remain in the same type of 
class),  certain  schools  put  in  place  specific  classes  with  individualised  support  (95%  of 
these students reach the objective set at the beginning of the school year); 

–  A Law on second chance schools which will put in place a specific type of provision for 
early school leavers in order to bring them up to the level of key competences required in 
order to integrate general or technical education and training. 

1.3.4  Conclusions on Key Competences for the Disadvantaged 

While  countries  have  developed  specific  legislation,  action  plans  and  measures  to  address 
different  target  groups,  some  countries  go  further  and  create  a  single  coherent  framework 
for both mainstream learners and specific target groups, notably through the introduction of 
rights based legislation.  

Funding  is  crucial  to  make  sure  these  measures  and  action  plans  translate  into  results. 
Though  countries  report  specific  funding  for  certain  target  groups,  clear  information  on 
whether the amounts are increasing or decreasing was not given 

There is a trend towards individual learning plans accompanied by guidance to make sure 
that  disadvantaged  young  people  or  those  with  difficulties  receive  adequate  and  coherent 
support  for  their  learning.  In  most  cases,  these  primarily  target  young  people  with  literacy 
needs (including migrants) and those with special education needs (SEN).  

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More  generally,  a  coherent  picture  on  policies  effectively  tacking  educational  disadvantage 
would require information on the role of early childhood education and care (ECEC). 90 Some 
countries already included this topic in their reports as a priority (CY, DK, FR, FI, HU, IS, 
LV, NL). 

The few examples concerning reforms in VET (BE fr, CZ, EL, IT, DK, LT, LU, NL, SK, PT) 
could provide a basis for mutual learning in this area. 

Similarly,  effective  measures  targeting  unemployed  young  people  were  not  fully  present  in 
reports, and this would be another specific area where countries could learn from each others' 
practice. 

1.4 

Supporting adults in developing Key Competences 

The need to support  the  adult  population in developing  and updating the key competences 
throughout  their  lives  is  clearly  emphasised  in  both  the  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning91  and  the  Council  Conclusions  on  the  Action  Plan  on 
Adult Learning, It is always a good time to learn92 which invites Member States to address 
the  problem  of  the  persistently  high  number  of  early  school  leavers  by  offering  a  second 
chance to those who enter adult age without a qualification, focusing on areas of particular 
concern, such as basic literacy and numeracy, IT skills and language learning. 

Ongoing  societal  changes  (e.g.  globalisation,  demographical  changes,  but  also  different 
family  composition,  role  of  women,  increasing  technological  developments  requiring  new 
work practices, unemployment, etc.) increase the risk that those without qualifications or with 
only  low  qualifications  may,  more  than  ever,  become  excluded  from  society  and  the  labour 
market.  

The development and implementation of coherent and efficient policies for the adult learning 
sector implies overcoming challenges related to: the complexity of the structure of the sector 
93  94  that  comprises  different  forms  of  learning,  types  of  providers  (public  and  private)  and 
diverse  target  groups95,  and  involves  a  large  number  of  funding  and  decision-making 
institutions (e.g. national, regional and local authorities, education, training and employment 
sectors). 

It  should  be  noted  that  countries,  in  their  reports,  include  a  wide  variety  of  actions  at  very 
different levels of detail, making the information sometimes difficult to compare. Furthermore 
countries often report about measures concerning the adult sector in general and the specific 
link to key competences is not always made.  

90

91

92

93

94

95

Whereas ‘pre-primary education has the highest rates of return of the whole lifelong learning continuum, especially for the most 
disadvantaged’  as  stressed  in  the  Commission  Communication  on  "Efficiency  and  equity  in  European  education  and  training 
systems", COM(2006) 481 final 
Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit. 
Council Conclusions of 22 May 2008 on adult learning, OJ C 140/10 of 6.6.2008 
Adult learning is officially understood as all forms of formal as well as non-formal and informal learning undertaken by adults 
after  having  left  initial  education  and  training,  however  far  this  process  may  have  gone  (e.g.  including  tertiary  education).  See 
COM (2006) 614 "Adult learning - It is never too late to learn" 
The  adult  learning  sector  touches  all  the  other  educational  sectors.  So  it  is  important  to  analyse  the  effects of developments  in 
other  educational  areas  and  their  interaction  with  the  development  of  adult  learning.  This  sector  also  interrelates  with  other 
policies (employment, culture, health, etc.).  
The level of development, participation, funding of adult learning may greatly vary across countries 

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Main types of progress achieved 

Countries are currently at very different levels of development regarding participation in adult 
learning participation as well as policies on the quality, financing and the development of the 
sector.  However  what  characterises  the  sector  across  the  whole  Europe  is  not  only  its 
diversity,  but  also  the  lack  of  participation  especially  among  those  who  most  need  it  (low 
qualified, drop outs, disadvantaged, etc.). Supporting the development of key competences by 
all adults clearly means making an optimal use of this diversity of providers and settings. To 
achieve this, interrelated policies, governance and delivery measures are needed as stressed in 
the Action Plan on Adult learning.  

Legislative measures targeting the development of key competences in Adult learning 

Measures  to  ensure  the  development  of  key  competences  for  all  adults  are  included  in 
legislation as reported in the majority of countries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, BG, DE, DK, EL, HR, 
IE,  IS,  IT,  LV,  LT,  LU,  PT,  NO,  PL,  RO,  SE).  Amongst  them,  a  trend  towards  amending 
legislation to contribute the implementation of key competences observed in a few countries 
(CZ, EE, FR, IT, HU, IS, PL, PT).  

Several countries' legislation targets coherence between the adult learning sector and the other 
sectors of education and training in a lifelong learning perspective (CZ, DE, DK, EL, ES, FI, 
HR, IS, LV, LT, RO, SE, UK). This is illustrated by the Icelandic approach (see Box below) 
which  refers  to  bridging  the  formal  system  and  learning  acquired  in  other  contexts  (for 
example on the job). 

Box 1-33 – Iceland – Adult learning in the context of a comprehensive approach to LLL 

The Icelandic education system has been undergoing a radical change through new legislation 
for all levels of formal education which took effect in 2006-2008. A Bill on Adult Education 
which  is  currently  under  preparation  will  complete  the  overall  policy  thus  establishing  a 
comprehensive  approach  to  Lifelong  Learning.  The  new  Bill  will  include  provisions  for 
building bridges between the system for validation of non-formal and informal learning and 
the formal school system. This system is already being piloted and it focuses particularly on 
reaching  out  to  people  who  are  on  the  labour  market  but  who  have  left  the  education  and 
training  system  without  qualifications.  The  goal  is  to  bring  them  back  to  VET,  recognising 
what  they  have  learnt  in  the  work  place  and  enhancing  their  skills  in  order  to  achieve  a 
qualification. 

Legislation  focusing  on  specific  target  groups  of  adults  (e.g.  people  with  low  or  no 
qualifications,  with  disabilities,  migrants,  women,  older  people,  etc.)  exists  in  all  countries. 
Legislation  is  sometimes  complemented  by  action  plans  focusing  on  e.g.  illiterate  people, 
immigrants, and older people (BE nl, BG, HU, LT, NL, NO, PL, PT).  

Legislation covering the whole adult population is reported in only a few countries (BE fr, BE 
nl,  LT,  NL,  NO,  RO,  SE,  UK).  All  of  the  latter  also  provide  for  a  statutory  right  to  adult 

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education. Legislation which in addition also covers both formal and non-formal learning is 
mentioned in a few countries (EE, IS, FI, LV, SK)96.  

Supporting/setting up structures at national/regional level  

National councils or agencies for adult learning exist in the majority of countries (BE fr, BE 
nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, EL, ES, FR, HU, HR, IE, IS, LT, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, SI, SE). As 
regulatory bodies, they help formulate priorities for the policy agenda and curricula. 

Nine  countries  (BE  nl,  CY,  DE,  EL,  ES,  IS,  MT,  NL,  SK)  have  reported  the  existence  of 
regional  councils  and/or  networks/centres  that  help  embed  adult  learning  in  the  regional 
context associating learning communities, cities and regions. 

Box 1-34 – Netherlands – Comprehensive approach to adult learning  

The Interdepartmental Project Unit for Learning and Working (PLW) in the Netherlands was 
set  up  in  2005  to  boost  adult  learning  in  combination  with  work,  focusing  on  programmes 
combining  work  and  study  that  lead  to  a  qualification  and  better  opportunities  on  the  job 
market.  A  tool  to  recognise,  assess  and  validate  competences  is  also  being  used  in  this 
context. The  key element  of  the PLW approach is the development of regional  partnerships 
(government,  schools  and  the  business  community)  to  build  a  sustainable  infrastructure  for 
lifelong  learning  in  the  region.  The  parties  to  these  partnerships  recognise  that  it  is  in  their 
own  interest  to  work  together  to  ensure  that  the  regional  working  population  develops 
competences  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  regional  labour  market.  There  are  currently  45  such 
partnerships. 

Box 1-35– Belgium nl – Establishment of lifelong learning regional centres  

The new decree on adult education of June 2007 redefined and emphasized the mission of the 
Centres  of  Basic  Education  in  the  Flemish  Community  of  Belgium.  From  September  2008 
there  are  13  such  regional  Centres  focusing  activities  on  adults  who  need  basic  training  in 
order to fully participate in society or follow further training. These centres provide a broad 
and  varied  range  of  basic  education  programmes,  in  which  the  key  competences  are 
integrated:  mother  tongue,  mathematics,  social  orientation,  ICT,  introduction  in  foreign 
languages (French, English) and participant counselling activities.  

Funding measures 

While some countries report increasing funding in adult education (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, DE, 
EE,  IE,  IT,  LV  and  UK),  two  countries  (IS  and  HU)  refer  to  budget  cuts.  Funding  and/or 
financial incentives were reported in many countries (BE fr, BE nl, EL, ES, FI, HR, IE, LT, 
LU,  NL,  NO,  PL,  SE,  SI,  UK).  These  measures  can  take  different  forms  e.g.  involving 
vouchers (FI), training grants/free tuition fees for courses of basic education (BE nl, EE, LV, 
NO,  PL,  and  UK),  tax  credits  (NL).  Only  two  countries  (IE  and  SE)  mentioned  increased 
funding for adult learning in reaction to the ongoing economic crisis. 

96

Complementary information was found in the report ‘The State  and Development of Adult Learning and Education in Europe, 
North America and Israel - Regional Synthesis Report UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2009. This stated that legislation 
integrating all aspects of adult learning, formal and non-formal, has been enacted in a small number of countries, for example, in 
Denmark, Finland, Netherlands, Romania and Sweden. 

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Delivery-related measures in the context of lifelong learning  

One of the biggest barriers to adults wishing to develop their key competences is information 
gaps97 and lack of efficient communication to reach those who are the most at risk of social 
exclusion  (in  particular  low  qualified  people)  and  being  un-employed.  The  importance  of 
adequate guidance in motivating adults to learn and retaining them in learning was underlined 
in several EU peer learning events on the Adult Learning Action Plan. 

Measures to strengthen guidance services were reported by several countries (AT, CZ, EE, 
DE, IS, LT, LV, LU, NO, PL, SE, SK, UK). However the level of information provided does 
not  permit  a  comparative  and  comprehensive  overview.  The  recent  UNESCO  Institute  for 
Lifelong  Learning  regional  synthesis  report98  provides  complementary  examples  of  such 
measures.  It  also  stresses  that  many  EU  countries  ‘are  endeavouring  to  address  the  critical 
lack of comprehensive adult guidance systems’.  

Other  types  of  measures  reported  that  focus  on  the  delivery  of  adult  learning  are:  on-line 
training (AT, BE nl, EL, ES, FI, NL, RO); widening adults' access to higher education (BE fr, 
EL,  ES,  HR,  IE,  LT,  RO,  SK);  distribution  of  free  text  books  (NL);  media  campaigns  (CZ, 
EL, HU, NL); new measures supporting the recognition of non-formal and informal learning 
(IS, LU, NO), which, as reported by the Adult Learning Working Group, is a growing factor 
in adult learning provision (BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI; FR, HU, IE, 
IS, IT, LI, LT, LU, MT, NL, NO, RO, SE, SI, UK) 

1.4.2 Measures targeting specific adult groups 

Countries' reports focus on a number of different target groups in order to equip them with the 
necessary  level  of  key  competences  to  participate  in  the  labour  market  and  society,  and  for 
personal development. These targets are:  

•  Adults with low skills/unemployed (all countries); 

•  Migrants and bilingual adults (AT, BG, CY, CZ, DK, DE, EL, ES, EE, FI99, FR, IT, LU, 

MT, NL, NO, SE, UK); 

•  Ethnic minorities (BG, CZ, EL, HR); 

•  Adults with special needs/disabilities (AT, CY, CZ, HR, IS, IT,LV, LT, PL, PT, SE);  

•  Elderly people (AT, CY, CZ, EE, HR, IT, PL, SE, SI, SK); 

•  Offenders in custody (CY, FR, IT, LV, PL, PT, UK). 

Also people at risk at redundancy (PL, UK), young adults (PL, FR), women (HR); and war 
veterans (HR) were mentioned. 

97

98

99

Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Concerns migrants only 

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Measures  to  support  the  development  of  Key  Competences  by  adults  with  low  basic 
skills/unemployed 

The development and mastering of literacy in particular is at the core of actions implemented 
in all the countries that report on this target group (see above). Literacy skills are essential not 
only for the workplace, but also to develop self esteem and give people a voice and a critical 
engagement in a democratic society.  

Measures to support the development of Key Competences by migrant/bilingual adults  

Measures primarily focus on: 

•  actions  to  promote  the  development  of  the  official  language,  including  compulsory 
language  courses  for  immigrants  in  most  countries  (AT,  BG,  CZ,  DK,  EL,  EE,  FR,  LU, 
MT, NO, SE, UK); 

•  skills to integrate in the new society (AT, BG, EL, ES, LU, NO) as well as vocational skills 

(DK, SE)  

Integration  of  language  learning  with  learning  of  other  competences,  such  as  literacy 
mathematical  skills,  digital  competence,  etc.  is  reported  by  Austria  and  Greece.  Other 
countries  (BG,  DK,  DE)  integrate  language  learning  for  immigrants  with  learning  of 
vocational skills or combining working and learning. 

Box  1-36  –  Denmark  and  Austria:  Integration  of  language  learning  and  acquisition  of 
other competences  

In  Denmark  immigrants  and  refugees  not  having  adequate  Danish  language  skills  to 
participate  in  regular  adult  vocational  training  courses  may  join  programmes  specifically 
developed  for  this  target  group.  These  programmes  combine  Danish  language  courses  with 
introductory short training courses and a work placement.  

In Austria integration courses for immigrants combine language teaching with acquisition of 
the other key competences (literacy, digital competence, maths, social and civic competence, 
etc.)  In  addition  these  programmes  combine  learning  with  methods  to  assess,  validate  and 
recognise immigrants’ prior learning.  

Measures  to  support  the  development  of  Key  Competences  by  adults  from  ethnic 
minorities  

Measures  for  adults  from  minority  groups  (particularly  the  Roma)  were  reported  in  the 
Bulgarian  and  Greek  reports.  The  example  set  out  below  depicts  the  provision  of  new 
curricula aimed to foster literacy skills by Roma adult population.  

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Box 1-37 - Bulgaria - Curricula for Literacy and Qualifications of Roma 

New curricula for adult education were in 2008 developed and approved by the Minister of 
Education  and  Science  in  Bulgaria  amending  the  National  Programme  for  Literacy  and 
Qualifications  of  Roma.  After  reaching  the  desired  learning  outcomes  the  learners  have  the 
right to take an examination certifying completion of initial education and allowing access to 
lower  secondary  education  or  to  attend  vocational  training.  The  emphasis  is  put  on  the 
acquisition of key competences.  

Similarly,  the  implementation  of  an  educational  programme  addressed  to  Roma  -as  well  as 
other adults from minority and immigrant groups, see text box 1-37- was reported in Greece. 
As in Bulgaria, its main focus is on supporting the development of literacy by these adults. In 
terms of target group, the emphasis is however specifically put on parents as the example set 
out below further details.  

Box  1-38  -  Greece  –  Educational  Programme  Instruction  and  Counselling  Support  to 
families of socially vulnerable groups 

The  Programme  aims  to  contribute  to  the  creation  of  a  supportive  family  environment  that 
will  assist  the  student,  reduce  school  failure  and  drop-outs  and  finally  help  confront  the 
danger of social marginalization and exclusion of socially vulnerable groups. The acquisition 
of  basic  language  skills  helps  improve  the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  parents 
themselves  and,  therefore,  of  the  entire  family.  The  educational  programme  has  been 
implemented  in  Centres  for  Adult  Education  (KEE)  and  Schools  for  Parents  across  the 
country 

Measures to support the development of Key Competences by adults with SEN 

Measures supporting the development of Key Competences by adults with special educational 
needs (SEN) were reported in around a third of countries (AT, CY, CZ, HR, IS, IT, LV, LT, 
PL,  PT,  SE).  Though  a  few  of  them  explicitly  indicate  that  these  measures  are  part  of  their 
lifelong  learning  strategies  (IS)  and/or  embedded  in  recent  legislation  (PT  and  SE), 
information on the ways they are implemented and their main outcomes was scarce.  

Box  1-39  –  Sweden  –  Right  to  basic  education  for  adults  with  SEN  embedded  in 
legislation  

As from 2007, the Government has introduced into the Education Act the right to basic adult 
education for those with learning difficulties (särvux).  

Measures to support the development of Key Competences by older adults  

Supporting the acquisition of Key Competences by older adults is crucial to strengthen their 
employability and/or the quality of their personal lives. Such measures were identified in less 
than  a  third  of  the  countries  (AT,  CY,  CZ,  EE,  HR,  IT,  PL,  SE,  SI,  SK).  However,  four 
stressed  that  such  measures  were  at  the  core  of  national  programmes  or  strategies  (CZ,  EE, 
SE, SI). 

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Box 1-40– Czech Republic – National Programme for the Preparation of Aging  

Special measures are devoted to older people (especially those of prior- retirement age) within 
the framework of the National Programme of the Preparation for Aging for the years 2008 to 
2012.  Emphasis  is  put  on  key  competences  from  the  perspective  of  adapting  older  people’s 
skills to both strengthen their employability their quality of life.  

Among  the  key  competences,  emphasis  is  generally  put  on  supporting  the  development  of 
foreign  language  (EE,  SI),  ICT  (SE)  and  “inter-generational  co-existence  and  intercultural 
competences” (SI). 

Box  1-41  –  Estonia  and  Slovenia  –  Range  of  Key  Competences  addressed  in  ongoing 
measures  

In Estonia, special emphasis is placed on older people for whom the purpose of their foreign 
language training is the better comprehension of information and participation in the everyday 
media space, politics, cultural live and organisations 

In Slovenia, educational programmes addressed to older adults (65 years old or over) involve 
language learning, social studies and the preservation of cultural heritage, healthy living and 
environment protection, and inter-generational co-existence and intercultural competences 

Measures to support the development of Key Competences by offenders in custody  

Measures  to  develop  key  competences  by  offenders  in  custody  were  reported  in  a  few 
countries  (CY,  FR,  IT,  LV,  PT  and  UK  -  England).  Two  country  reports  (LV  and  UK  - 
England)  provided  more  explicit  information  highlighting  the  provision  of  a  new  core 
curriculum  for  offenders  (UK  -  England)  or  the  possibility  to  acquire  key  competences  at 
different  levels  of  education  of  education  -  ranging  from  general  education  to  higher 
education – (LV).  

1.4.3  National  data  available  on  participation  of  adults  and  adult  priority  groups’ 

participation  

The quality and efficiency of the adult learning sector can only be if there if a feedback loop 
on what works and what does not. Monitoring and evaluation measures require accurate data 
on  participation  and  progress  achieved,  which  is  currently  very  scarce  and  often  not 
comparable,  mainly  due  to  the  lack  of  clear  definitions  and  the  fragmented  character  of  the 
sector. In the UK, use of the "unique learner number" allows the achievement of individuals 
to  be  tracked  and  has  great  potential  for  longitudinal  tracking  of  learner  achievement  fine-
tuning policy.  

Evidence from the country reports shows that data collection on adult learning is undertaken 
in  all  countries.  The  information  collected  however  focuses  on  basic  data  such  as  overall 
numbers of participants in most countries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, EE, EL, ES, 
FR,  HR,  IE,  IS,  IT,  LV,  LT,  LU,  MT,  NL,  NO,  PT,  RO,  SI,  SK,  SE,  UK  -  England).  This 
means  that  evidence  relating  to  e.g.  particular  target  groups,  participation  rates  by  type  of 
settings/programmes,  etc.  is  rarely  available.  Wherever  more  detailed  indicators  (e.g. 
providing a distribution by age, gender, area of learning) exist (as reported in BE nl, ES, IE, 
IT, LT, NL, NO, SE, SI, UK), data are often not be comparable. 

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Measures aimed to implement new tools and/or methodology (consisting e.g. new databases 
for specific programmes, extranet, etc.) for a more systematic and reliable data collection are 
reported in only a few countries (FR, HR, NO). The analysis of the reports however makes 
clear that few countries have implemented any consistent data management system so far. 

1.4.4  Collaboration with representatives of other policy areas, partners and stakeholders 

in designing provision for adults 

As stressed in the Council Conclusions of May 2008 on adult learning100, ‘the cross-sectoral 
nature, diversity, complexity and richness of adult learning impose the need for an integrated 
approach  involving  all  stakeholders,  including  those  at  local  and  regional  level,  the  social 
partners and NGOs’. 

The information provided in the country reports firstly highlights that policy and provision are 
underpinned by partnership arrangements (involving several government Ministries, regional 
authorities/councils and social partners) largely taking the form of ad hoc councils (e.g. called 
sectoral or advisory councils) in the majority of countries. Such arrangements notably allow 
the involvement of social partners. 

mentioned 

stakeholders 

providers, 
include 
Those 
employers’/employees’  representatives,  Chambers  of  Commerce,  experts  and  NGOs 
(although a major actor this latter is however only reported in eight countries – AT, BG, EL, 
HU, LT, NO, PL, SE). A few countries (e.g. BE, DK, EE) report that the involvement, rights 
and duties of stakeholders are formally stated in legislation.  

educational 

comprise 

Another finding that emerges from the country reports is that policy responsibility for adult 
learning  is  fragmented  in  many  countries,  with  multiple  ministries  having  responsibility  for 
different  aspects.  This  is  particularly  reported  in  nine  countries  (BE  fr,  BE  nl,  ES,  HR,  LT, 
LV, NL, NO, SI). The case of Latvia where nine Ministries (led by the Ministry of Education 
and  Science)101,  along  with  other  stakeholders,  collaborate  in  the  development  of  strategies 
and  action  plans  is  particularly  noticeable  in  this  respect.  While  this  share  of  governance  is 
very beneficial to ensure that adult learning responds to the needs of the different economic 
sectors  (as  represented  by  the  different  ministries)  it  requires  strong  cooperation  and 
coordination, in order for the policies to remain coherent. 

The  transfer  of  responsibilities  for  adult  learning  from  the  central  level  to  regions, 
municipalities or other local level authorities was also  reported in some countries (CZ, DK, 
DE, FI, FR, HU, IS, PL, SE,NO). 

1.4.5  Conclusions supporting adults in developing Key Competences 

Development  of  measures  to  support  provision  of  Key  Competences  for  adults  can  be 
observed  at  all  levels:  adoption  of  new  and  revised  legislation  and  strategies,  improved 
delivery and governance of the sector as well as specific funding measures.  

100

101

Council conclusions on adult learning, op. cit. 
Ministries of Education and Science, Economy, Agriculture, Welfare, Health, Culture, Interior, Defence, Regional Development 
and local governments. 

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This trend is strong for low qualified/unemployed adults and, to a lesser extent, immigrants. 
Raising their basic levels of Key Competences is emphasised in many countries and measures 
have a specific focus on literacy, numeracy or language learning. Though other target groups 
(e.g. adults with SEN, elderly people, etc.) are referred to in the legislation of many countries, 
information  from  the  reports  does  not  allow  providing  of  a  comparable  picture  of  these 
measures in terms of delivery and funding. 

A  second  chance  to  attain  lower  or  upper  secondary  level  qualifications  is  also  widely 
provided. With regard to immigrants, social and civic competence is sometimes included, thus 
highlighting the importance of key competences in fostering social inclusion and intercultural 
integration, and not merely the technical skills of communication. 

However  measures  to  further  develop  Communication  and  numeracy  skills  do  not  receive 
attention  nor  does  the  provision  of  competences  such  as  (MST)  Mathematics  and  Scientific 
Competence for adults appear to be a priority.  

The  way  countries  report  on  adult  competences  shows  strong  links  with  broader  policy 
measures  such  as  lifelong  learning  strategies  and  guidance,  validation  of  non-formal  and 
informal learning, National Qualifications Frameworks, etc. 

Furthermore, the vocational aspect of adult learning policies is evident from many reports but 
how  this  embraces  the  key  competences  remains  unclear.  Often  in  work-based  learning 
professional skill development is combined with the learning of key competences, including 
literacy and numeracy, as part of vocationally oriented courses. 

Further  efforts  seem  to  be  needed  to  provide  or  upgrade  key  competences  for  older  people, 
adults  with  disabilities/SEN  and  employed  people,  in  particular  on  the  background  of  the 
current economic downturn). 

1.5 

Teacher Education 

leaders  who  are  most  directly 

Stepping  up  provision  for  key  competences  makes  many  new  demands  on  the  teachers, 
trainers  and 
them  out.  The 
Recommendation on Key Competences highlights the need for appropriate infrastructure for 
continuing  education  and  training  of  adults,  including  teachers  and  trainers.102  Therefore, 
these  demands  are  also  opportunities  to  address  the  initial  and  continuing  professional 
development for teachers and trainers in the context of lifelong learning. 

in  carrying 

involved 

In the Conclusions of the Council on Improving the Quality of Teacher Education103, Member 
States agreed to Promote during initial teacher education, early career support and through 
continuous  professional  development  the  acquisition  of  competences  which  will  enable 
teachers to teach transversal competences such as those outlined in the Recommendation on 
key competences…. They also agreed to ensure that teachers are encouraged and supported 
throughout their careers to review their learning needs and to acquire new knowledge, skills 
…. 

102

103

Recommendation on key competences (2006) op. cit., p. 2  
Council Conclusions of 15 November 2007 on improving the quality of teacher education, 
OJ C 300/6 of 12.12.2007 

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The purpose of this section is to explore the extent to which countries report that teachers and 
trainers  in  general  education  and  VET  are  supported  by  suitable  initial  and  continuing 
education in their work ensuring that young people and adults develop the Key Competences.  

1.5.1 

Initial Teacher Education, General Education 

•  National definitions of the competences required of teachers underpin teacher education 
in almost half of the countries (AT, BE nl, DE, DK, EE, FR, HU, IE, IS, LT, LU, LV, NL, 
PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK). 

•  National (or regional) initial teacher training programmes exist in BE fr, DE, DK, EE, 
ES,  FI,  HU,  IE,  LV,  NL,  PL,  PT,  RO,  SI,  UK)  and  address  some  of  the  areas  of 
professional  competence  required  for  the  development  of  the  Key  Competences  and  the 
competences  outlined  in  the  Council  Conclusions  on  Improving  the  Quality  of  Teacher 
Education104.  

•  A  Competence-based  approach  to  initial  teacher  education  was  reported  as  being  a 
long-standing feature of the existing systems in six countries (CZ, DK, EL, LU, PL, UK); 
and will be introduced shortly in a small number of countries (BE nl and BE fr). 

•  Reforms  in  teacher  education  have  already  been  introduced  to  accompany  and  support 
the  introduction  of  key  competences  into  the  education  system  (ES,  HU,  RO,  SI).  Other 
reforms are consistent with specific elements of the key competences (AT, BE fr, BE nl, 
BG, CY, DK, EE, EL, HR, FI, MT, PL, PT, UK). These include teaching competences in 
cross-curricular work (BE nl, EE, EL, PT, RO), in promoting literacy across the curriculum 
(NO,  UK),  work  on  transversal  competences  or  other  individual  subject  areas  (AT,  HR, 
PT, RO), and teaching and assessment methods of different kinds (BG, EL, UK) including 
the use of ICT (CY, EL, IE, PR, RO).  

•  Reforms  in  initial  teacher  education  are  either  currently  underway  or  planned  for  the 
near future in a further sixteen countries (AT, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, FR, HR, IE, IS, LT, 
LU, NO, PT, RO, SE).  

1.5.2 

Initial Training of Teachers and Trainers in VET 

There  is  a  wide  variety  of  practitioner  roles  in  the  sector  (VET  teachers  in  secondary, 
vocational or technical schools; in-company VET trainers, etc). It is not always clear which of 
these roles is referred to in responses from the country reports.  

•  Reforms  to  the  initial  education  of  VET  teachers  are  already  underway  105(AT,  FI, 
HU, IS, RO, SK, UK) or planned (BE fr, DE, DK, EL, HR, LT, PL, TR) in less than half of 
the  countries  represented.  Some  of  these  changes  are  large  scale  and  wide-ranging  (HR, 
RO, TR) whereas others involve incorporating specific measures such as entrepreneurship 
(LT), or specialist functions such as support for job improvement (FI).  

104

105

Council Conclusions of 21 November 2008, op. cit. 
There is a wide variety of practitioner roles in the sector (VET teachers in secondary, vocational or technical schools; in-company 
VET trainers, etc). It is not always clear which of these roles is referred to in responses from the country reports.  

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However,  in  countries  where  the  training  requirements  for  VET  teachers  and  trainers  are 
different from those of general education teachers, little information is provided on how they 
are  equipped  to  ensure  that  the  reforms  concerning  Key  Competences  at  national  level  are 
translated into the teaching and learning approaches in VET.  

Box  1-42  –  Slovenia  -  Partnership  of  Faculties  and  Schools:  Supporting  Key 
Competences 

Key competences are being developed in Slovenia through general educational subjects and in 
vocational  modules,  through  the  curriculum  as  a  whole  and  in  some  integrated  key 
qualifications.  

To  support  these  reforms,  Slovenia  has  embarked  on  a  major  national  programme  of  initial 
education  for  VET  teachers  and  trainers.  The  “Partnership  of  Faculties  and  Schools” 
programme  uses  networks  of  schools  to  create links  between practising teachers  who act as 
mentors  to  future  teachers.  Supported  by  the  tertiary  institution,  programmes,  tools  and 
support materials were drawn up for new teachers and the teacher-mentors, underpinned by a 
set of competences for all of the roles which were identified by the actors themselves.  

In  this  way,  the  induction  of  new  teachers,  and  the  continuing  professional  development  of 
practising teachers are co-ordinated and mutually supportive. 

1.5.3  Continuing education for teachers in, general education  

•  Seven  countries  (CZ,  ES,  LU,  NO,  SE,  Sl,  SK)  refer  to  continuing  education 
programmes  or  events  for  practising  teachers  which  are  specially  tailored  to  equip 
teachers to re-orientate their work towards the Key Competences.  

•  This may include specific events such as periodic seminars, workshops and conferences on 
particular areas such as individual subjects (AT, CZ, DE IE nl, HR, PT, SI) or transversal 
competences (AT, CZ, DE, FI, IE, LT, MT, NO, SI) or cross-curricular work (HR) provide 
an introduction to elements of key competence.  

However,  specific  events  and  even  long-term  programmes  are  only  the  first  step  in 
professional  development.  It  is  essential  that  CPD  should  not  only  develop  method  and 
techniques, but also support teachers in becoming reflective practitioners. To accomplish this, 
the  learning  from  professional  development  programmes  or  events  must  be  consolidated  by 
follow-up strategies which allow teachers to discuss their experiences of putting into practice 
new ways of working in their school community.  

The  TALIS  study106  reports  a  very  wide  variation  in  teacher  participation  in  CPD  across 
countries. Non-attendance is attributed to obstacles such as lack of suitable programmes and 
conflict  with  work  schedules.  Yet  the  study  identified  positive  effects  associated  with 
participation in continuing professional development, including increased use of more varied 
and versatile teaching methods, co-operation with colleagues and greater job satisfaction. This 
highlights the need to address teachers' attitudes, beliefs and practices as a whole107 and the 

106

107

OECD  (June,  2009)  “Executive  Summary,  Creating  Effective  Teaching  and  Learning  Environments: First  Results  from  Talis,” 
OECD publishing, p. 10  
Ibid., p. 6 

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potential  of  individualised  approaches  to  teacher  in-service  education  to  complement 
traditional interventions.  

Box 1-43 – Croatia - Teacher Councils  

In  Croatia,  a  new  competence-based  draft  National  Curriculum  Framework  includes  all  the 
key  competences  recommended  by  the  European  Framework  on  Key  Competences  for 
Lifelong Learning. 

This  is  supported  by  a  major  programme  of  CPD  for  teachers,  which  includes  subject  and 
cross-curricular methodology. The programme is supported by a national network of Teacher 
Councils.  Skilled  teachers  are  identified  to  take  on  the  roles  of  co-ordinator  of  professional 
learning  and  mentor.  A  significant  function  of  the  Teacher  Council  is  talent-spotting  – 
identifying teachers who are already innovators. These potential change agents and motivators 
are then positioned in situations which maximise their influence. 

In addition to CPD programmes and events other tools are used: 

–  Mentoring  of  teachers  after  completion  of  their  training  is  a  feature  of  initial  teacher 
education  in  several  countries  (AT,  BE  nl,  CY,  EE,  HR,  PT,  UK).  This  ensures  that 
learning is consolidated with a more experienced peer.  

–  Networking of teachers and schools to share good practice and facilitate mutual learning 

is reported in five countries (AT, CZ, DE, HU, HR, IE) and is planned in the UK. 

Box 1-44 – Hungary - Supporting Key Competences  

In Hungary, the largest development promoting  the key competences approach has been the 
public education development package. The ‘package’ is a complex instrument which, along 
with  teaching  tools,  also  includes  tools  used  for  education  process  design,  organisation  and 
evaluation. The materials were developed in consultation with practising teachers.  

A  large-scale  teacher  training  programme  is  now  being  rolled  out  as  part  of  the  central 
continuing  education  system,  supported  by  basic  teacher  training  modules  provided  by 
institutions of Higher education. 

An  aspect  of  teacher  education  which  was  not  probed  for  the  national  reports  is  the 
pedagogical culture of the institutions where initial teacher education takes place. This refers 
to  the  range  of  methodology  and  organisational  strategies  used  to  prepare  entrants  to  the 
profession,  and  whether  these  model  the  methods  and  practices  which  teachers  will  use  in 
order to promote key competences in their pupils.  

1.5.4  Continuing professional education for school managers 

Research  shows  that  successful  school  leaders  improve  teaching  and  learning  and  influence 
pupil  outcomes  indirectly  and  powerfully  through  their  influence  on  staff  motivation, 
commitment and teaching practices108. They are a key group in promoting the development of 
key  competences.  However,  there  is  little  evidence  of  CPD  on  this  topic  for  school 

108

Day, Christopher, et al, DCSF RR108, 2009, ‘The impact of school leadership on pupil outcomes’; www.dcsf.gov.uk/research 

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principals/managers.  One  country  provides  training  for  heads  and  deputy  heads,  along  with 
teachers, to implement a literacy support programme (CY). Only five others (DE, HR, LT, SI, 
UK) report that they offer school leaders such opportunities.  

Box 1-45 – UK (England) - Programmes for development of skills by further education 
leaders 

In England, where specific training programmes and a National College for School Leaders 
already exists, a programme for principals in the Further Education sector supports leaders in 
up-grading their skills through systematic programmes, of which one leads to a qualification. 
This will soon be a compulsory requirement for managers in the sector. 

Plans  for  introducing  such  training  in  about  a  quarter  of  these  countries  suggest  that 
recognition of the importance of supporting and engaging the leaders in the system, especially 
in the context of significant innovation, is gradually increasing. 

One of the key functions managers or principals will be required to carry out, or oversee, is 
the  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  all  training  and  development  opportunities  which  staff 
undertake.  Ensuring  that  all  young  people  achieve  the  key  competences  depends  to  a  large 
extent on the effectiveness and impact of training and development opportunities for teachers.  

1.5.5  Conclusions on Teacher Education 

The  key  competences  approach  places  new  demands  upon  teachers.  Some  countries  are 
addressing them through their curricula for initial teacher education. However, the group with 
most direct influence on the promotion of key competences are practicing teachers yet only 
one  fifth  of  the  countries  specify  the  key  competences  approach  as  an  objective  of  their 
continuing  professional  development  policies.  Therefore,  taking  further  steps  to  ensure  that 
this  large  group  fully  embraces  the  concept  and  practical  implications  of  key  competences 
must be a high priority. 

To  monitor  and  evaluate  all  teacher  education  and  training  measures  systematically  is  a 
crucial step in ensuring that teachers are properly equipped to meet the demands which these 
innovations make on them. As most countries are still in the early stages of consolidating their 
teacher  education  provision  in  support  of  key  competences,  this  is  a  suitable  time  to 
incorporate appropriate evaluation methods and tools into the new or reformed programmes. 

Countries reported very little on the extent to which they use for example mentoring, support 
for  teacher  networking  and  other  individualised  approaches  to  ensure  the  upskilling  of 
teachers.  This  may  indicate  a  need  for  such  strategies  to  be  added  to  the  more  traditional 
programmes  and  seminars  to  ensure  effective  dissemination  of  the  innovations  required  to 
support the implementation of the key competences approach.  

Improvements in the preparation of educators in the VET sector are gathering momentum in 
some  places,  but  there  is  still  a  long  way  to  go  to  ensure  that  VET  teachers  and  trainers  in 
Europe are thoroughly prepared to support the development of the key competences. 

Finally,  if  education  practitioners  are  expected  to  mentor  new  teachers,  either  formally  or 
informally,  then  it  is  crucial  that  they  keep  pace  with  innovations  being  promoted  through 
initial  teacher  education  and  that  initial  and  continuing  education  be  complementary  and 
structured  into  a  coherent,  mutually-supportive  process,  especially  including  professional 

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support  for  education  managers.  This  approach  is  not  yet  a  feature  of  teacher  and  trainer 
development in Member States. 

1.6 

Assessment of key competences 

The aim of the Recommendation is to support Member States’ work in ensuring that by the 
end of initial education and training young people have developed the key competences to a 
level  that  equips  them  for  adult  life  and  which  forms  a  basis  for  further  learning109.  This 
implies the need for strategies to assess the progress and achievements of young people in the 
key competences. This section examines issues arising from the country reports that include: 
the range of purposes for which assessment of key competences is carried out; the variety of 
methodologies used and their impact or potential impact; and the standards which define the 
level that equips young people for adult life.  

Some  of  the  country  reports,  in  particular  those  of  Sweden  and  Slovenia  highlight  the 
importance of assessment for the implementation of key competences. 

1.6.1 

Assessing Key Competences: purposes and methods  

A  recent  study  from  Eurydice  on  the  use  of  National  Testing  in  European  Education 
Systems110  provides  a  useful  summary  of  the  main  purposes  which  assessment  of  key 
competences  can  serve.  Assessment  of  learners’  progress  may  be  designed  to:  sum  up 
learners’ achievement at the end of a programme. This is known as ‘summative’ assessment. 
It may also provide information for system-level accountability. Assessment can be designed 
to  help  the  learning  process  of  individual  pupils  by  identifying  specific  learning  needs  and 
adapting  teaching  accordingly,  which  is  known  as  ‘formative’  assessment.  These  different 
purposes are not mutually exclusive: often, assessment processes are assumed to fulfil several 
different functions.111  

1.6.2  Development of Key Competences through summative assessment 

Summative  assessment  of  key  competences  is  most  often  carried  out  in  relation  to  those 
competences  which  are  closest  to  the  regular  subject  curriculum.  All  countries  carry  out 
summative  assessment  of  the  Communication,  Mathematics,  Foreign  Language,  and  Digital 
Competence  is  sometimes  assessed  as  a  separate  subject  (IE,  RO).  Standardised  tests  of 
Mother Tongue and Mathematical competence are periodically carried out with some or all 
of  the  school  population  in  all  countries  except  the  Czech  Republic.  External  national  tests 
(DE, DK, IE, PL, PT, RO, UK) as well as schools' internal assessment  (AT, FI, IE, Pl, PT, 
RO) remain important tools for development in many countries. 

Interdisciplinary projects as part of the final Diploma are in use in Austria, Denmark and 
Germany.  Students  select  a  research  topic,  design  the  method,  implement  and  record  the 
research and present it. This yields information about their understanding of the content area 
being  researched.  It  also  provides  them  with  the  opportunity  to  demonstrate  imagination, 

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110

111 

Recommendation on key competences (2006) op. cit., page 2.  
Eurydice (2009): "National Testing of Pupils in Europe: Objectives, Organisation and Use of Results, pp. 15 – 16.  
However, Eurydice among others point out that the use of the same process for multiple purposes can be problematic, Eurydice 
(2009), op. cit,.  

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creativity,  problem-solving,  initiative  and  perseverance  in  a  way  which  is  objectively 
observable and amenable to recording through descriptive mechanisms. 

Two  countries  (CY,  DK)  have  designed  methods  where  interactive  computer-based  tasks 
are individualised and adjust to the on-going performance of the learner. Three countries (AT, 
CY, PT) report experimenting with web-based tasks.  

1.6.3  Development of Key Competences through formative assessment 

The  recent  Eurydice  study  notes  that  formative  assessments  help  the  learning  process  by 
clarifying the specific learning needs of pupils and identifying appropriate individual follow-
up  and  adapted  teaching.112  However,  that  study  and  also  the  country  reports  show  that 
interpretations of what is meant by ‘formative assessment’ can vary. These differences centre 
mainly on differences in the sources of information on which judgements are based: 

learners’  performance  on  summative  tests, 

including 
Information  supplied  by 
standardised tests, is often used (AT, CY, DE, DK, ES, FR, HU, IE, LT, NO, PT, SI) to feed 
back into the teaching and learning process. In this sense, the assessment is ‘formative’. For 
instance, the Functional Literacy project in Cyprus tests all pupils in the country at the end of 
primary schooling, and is currently piloting tests for children aged 8 and 15. It also acts as a 
diagnostic  tool  to  identify  children  who  are  likely  to  need  extra  support  in  literacy  and 
mathematics.  The  Diagnosis  Evaluation  (Evaluación  de  Diagnóstico)  in  Spain  and  The 
National  Assessment  of  Basic  Competence  in  Hungary  are  also  designed  to  feed  back  into 
teaching and learning 

However,  there  is  another  interpretation  of  formative  assessment  which  is  more  closely 
aligned with the teaching and learning process: 

Information  supplied  by  interactive,  process-oriented  activities  during  teaching  and 
learning  can  be  used  to  structure  immediate  feedback  between  teacher  and  learner.  Some 
countries (AT, EL, DK HU, IE, LT, UK) make explicit efforts to strengthen the connection 
between  teaching,  learning  and  assessment  using  a  wide  range  of  methods  which  are 
summarised below.  

Assessment for Learning initiatives which are supported by a major input of staff training, 
resources and system-level support are available for example in England and Scotland. These 
major  national  projects  provide  significant  resources  to  support  teachers  in  the  form  of 
centralised  guidelines,  banks  of  assessment  materials,  templates  and  rubrics  to  structure 
recording; training in how to use these and in how to design formative assessment processes 
at local level. 

The  box  below  presents  the  general  principles  underpinning  one  major  ‘Assessment  for 
Learning’ initiative in England.  

112

Eurydice (2009), op. cit,. p. 15. 

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Box 1-46 – UK England - Principles of assessment for learning 

The 10 Principles of Assessment for learning: 
- should be part of effective planning of teaching and learning 
- should focus on how students learn 
- should be recognised as central to classroom practice 
- should be regarded as a key professional skill for teachers 
- should be sensitive and constructive because any assessment has an emotional  
impact 
- should take account of the importance of learner motivation 
- should promote commitment to learning goals and a shared understanding of the  
criteria by which they are assessed 
- should receive constructive guidance about how to improve 
- develops learners' capacity for self-assessment so that they can become reflective  
and self-managing 
- should recognise the full range of achievements of all learners 

Although other countries did not report on such substantial systemic support for assessment 
for learning in the form of national projects, some of the individual methods of assessment for 
learning are being used in most countries: 

•  Self-assessment engages learners in active and critical reflection on their own work. It can 
take the form of one-to-one or group discussion, marking own work, completing specially-
designed  questionnaires  or  be  supported  by  ICT.  It  is  usually  carried  out  in  conjunction 
with  the  teacher  or  trainer.  Several  countries  (AT,  CZ,  DK,  EE,  IE)  report  using  this 
approach.  

•  Peer assessment was mentioned by AT, CY, CZ, DK, EE, IE, LT, UK. The processes are 
similar to self-assessment, but the focus is on learners’ providing a critique of the work of 
their peers. 

•  Performance  Tasks  are  activities  which  may  occur  naturally  in  a  learning  situation,  or 
may  be  specially  structured  to  allow  the  learner  to  demonstrate  competence  in  particular 
areas. Such tasks are closely-aligned with methods and activities carried out on a day-to-
day  basis  but  when  used  for  assessment  purposes,  are  observed  and  monitored  in  a 
structured way by the teacher or trainer (AT, CY, HU, IE, RO).  

•  Portfolio  Building  is  an  approach  to  teaching  which  can  also  be  used  for  assessment. 
Learners  gather  samples  of  work  over  a  period  of  time  which  provide  evidence  of  their 
progress and achievements in specified aspects of competence. A process of reflection is 
needed  to  support  learners  in  deciding  which  pieces  of  work  demonstrate  which 
competences (AT, CZ, DE, IE, LU, UK). 

•  Project  work,  especially  interdisciplinary  projects  which  cross  subject  boundaries  and 
connect school with life outside the school, are used for learning and assessment purposes 
in AT, CZ, DE, DK, ES, HR, HU, IE, RO, SI, UK. 

•  Recording  tools  used  to  capture  learners’  progress  and  achievements  can  be  tailored  to 
match performance tasks, peer- or self-assessment. Some countries (CZ, HU, IE) are using 

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specially-designed templates or rubrics to do this, or facilitating practitioners in developing 
their own to use at school level.  

•  A  Personal  Learning  Plan  is  a  process  of  communication  between  learner,  teacher  and 
sometimes  parents,  whose  outcomes  are  recorded  in  a  specific  plan.  This  is  specially 
designed  to  record  the  main  aims  which  the  learner  hopes  to  achieve,  and  the  targets, 
methods  and  indicators  by  which  they  will  be  accomplished.  The  document  itself 
(sometimes  called  Individual  Learner  Plan,  Personal  Education  Plan  or  other)  is  only  a 
record  of  the  deeper  process  of  reflection  and  communication  with  the  learner.  Several 
countries  (DK,  SI,  UK)  are  starting  to  use  this  approach  to  plan  learning.  An  important 
dimension of the Personal Learning Plan is the agreement about how the learners’ progress 
and  achievement  toward  their  goals  will  be  monitored  and  assessed.  Their  progress  and 
outcomes are then recorded on the Plan.  

•  School level assessment plans (CZ, LT, SI UK-Scotland) are drawn up at local level by 
the  practitioners  who  will  implement  the  assessment  processes.  The  Plan  ensures  that  all 
aspects  of  competence  are  assessed,  to  ensure  that  learners  are  making  progress  and  that 
the methods and resources are having the intended impact. This mechanism also supports 
the  development  of  a  whole-school  approach  to  fostering  key  competences,  as  it  ensures 
that all levels of the system in which the teaching and assessment takes place is adjusted to 
facilitate the processes. 

•  Professional development programmes or workshops have been conducted in some of 
these methods in some countries (AT, DE, IE, PT, RO). However, not many have reported 
wide-scale  continuing  professional  education  for  teachers  in  the  use  of  such  methods  to 
support different kinds of assessment in different subject areas.  

1.6.4  Conclusions on Assessment of Key Competences  

Although assessment of certain key competences – communication in the mother tongue and 
in foreign languages, mathematics and digital competence – is already catered for within the 
traditional  assessment  regime  in  all  countries,  there  is  a  danger  in  assuming  that  all  of  the 
dimensions  of  competence  are  thereby  addressed. Attitudes,  motivation and  dispositions are 
central  to  the  application  of  competence  and  traditional  methods  of  assessment  do  not 
adequately  capture  these  capacities.  This  is  true  also  in  relation  to  the  transversal 
competences.  

More  work  is  needed  to  support  countries  in  using  a  wide  range  of  assessment  processes 
which  capture  all  the  important  dimensions  of  competence.  Developing  a  wide  range  of 
assessment methods for a range of purposes is one of the main tasks ahead for most countries 
in the immediate future.  

However,  some  progress  has  already  been  made.  Most  countries  are  working  with  at  least 
some of the methods associated with ‘assessment for learning’. The work of those countries 
which  have  longstanding  experience  of  this  approach  can  provide  a  resource  and  should  be 
disseminated.  

The use of instruments such as national tests and standardised tests for formative purposes, to 
feed  back  into  the  process  of  teaching  and  learning,  is  quite  widespread  according  to  the 
country reports. It would be useful to explore the potential of assessment methods designed 

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primarily for formative purposes – the methods of ‘assessment for learning’ – to contribute to 
a  summative  purpose.  Several  examples  of  this  are  present  in  the  country  reports  but  more 
work is needed to clarify how these related processes can be linked.  

The  use  of  ICT  for  assessment  purposes  has  been  reported  in  several  countries  and  this 
technology  clearly  has  great  potential  in  creating  interactive  processes  and  simulated 
scenarios. It is nevertheless important to note that not all ICT assessments are innovative and 
not  all  assess  competence  effectively.  Some  are  essentially  traditional  multiple  choice  tests 
which  do  not  go  beyond  the  limitations  associated  with  such  modes.  Another  caveat  is  the 
potential impact of using ICT on access, as for learners who are unskilled in the use of ICT 
such methods could hinder rather than help their performance. The use of ICT for assessment 
of key competences provides many useful tools which may enhance assessment processes but 
should be explored further and more critically. 

In addition, assessment of key competences needs to be supported more by the systems in the 
immediate  school  environment,  in  the  form  of  personal  learning  plans  for  individuals  and 
school assessment plans for the institutions, or other planning mechanisms which perform the 
same  function.  This  is  particularly  important  when  competences  such  as  literacy  and 
numeracy  are  integrated  across  the  curriculum,  or  when  cross-curricular  work  promotes 
several competences within the same activity.  

1.7 

Monitoring and Evaluation 

Since  effective  long-term  policies  must  be  based  on  solid  evidence113,  monitoring  and 
evaluation mechanisms are at the core of successful policy development and implementation. 
Such  mechanisms  consist  of  channels  for  producing  and  accessing  relevant  research, 
statistical infrastructure capable of collecting the necessary data, and mechanisms to assess 
progress as policies are implemented114. 

The analysis set out below firstly offers an overview of the main types of means implemented 
at national and/or regional/local level to monitor/evaluate the education and training systems 
in  relation 
the  outcomes  of 
to  Key  Competences.  It 
monitoring/evaluation processes are used. 

then  highlights 

the  ways 

1.7.2  Mechanisms  in  place  to  monitor  and  evaluate  education  and  training  systems  in 

relation to Key Competences  

Complementary  to  assessment  processes,  nationwide  monitoring  and  evaluation  processes 
exist in all countries, though not explicitly linked to key competences in every case.  

Though  widespread,  it  has  however  to  be  noticed  that  these  mechanisms  focus  mainly  on 
compulsory  education  or  education  up  to  the  upper-secondary  leaving  examination.  Adult 
learning is for instance scarcely covered. 

The  ways  in  which  monitoring  /  evaluation  activities  are  undertaken  rely,  in  practice,  on 
various  mechanisms  that  compile  and  help  analyse  information  at  system  level.  Countries 
generally refer to several complementary mechanisms: 

113

114

COM(2006) 481 final, op. cit. 
Ibid.  

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•  The results of national assessment (AT, BE nl, BG, CZ, CY, DE, EE, FI, HR, HU, IE, LV, 

LT, LU, NL, NO, PT, RO, SK, SI). 

•  The results of school self evaluation (AT, CZ, DK, FI, LT, LV, PL, SE).  

•  The results of external examinations (BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DK, DE, FI, FR, EE, EL, 

ES, FR, HR (from 2010-2011), HU, IE, LU, NL, PL, SE, SI, UK). 

•  Specially prepared performance indicators (EE, FI, FR, NO, UK).  

•  The definition of competence thresholds or final requirements (e.g. BE fr, FR, LU). 

•  International  evaluations,  including  PIRLS,  TIMSS,  PISA,  etc.  (all  countries  use  at  least 

some of them). 

•  A dedicated authority - e.g. a council set up to monitor a reform, inspectorate – (BE nl, CZ, 

DK, EE, IE, FI, LT, LV, NL, PL, SE, SI, UK (Scotland, Wales). 

National assessment programmes/national tests for system-level monitoring 

National assessment programmes consist of nationally coordinated approaches to measure 
and  monitor  student  achievement  against  national  and  international  standards.  They  include 
tests (generally focused on several key competences) aiming to provide valuable information 
about  student  achievement  in  a  number  of  areas  of  the  curriculum.  Such  mechanisms  were 
explicitly reported in a few country reports (AT, BE nl, BG, CY, DE, FI, HR, HU, NO, SI). 
For example in the Flemish Community of Belgium a National Assessment Program (NAP) 
has  been  installed  that  provides  valid  and  reliable  output  data  at  system  level.  A  scientific 
research  team  developed  tests  (in  Dutch,  mathematics,  biology,  gathering  and  processing 
information  and  modern  foreign  languages)  for  a  representative  sample  of  schools  and 
students.  Knowledge,  skills  and  competences  (core  curriculum)  are  tested  at  the  end  of  an 
educational cycle. 

Other  forms  of  national  assessments  (not  specifically  embedded  in  national  assessment 
programmes)  relate  to  national  testing  of  given  key  competences.  National  testing  is  a 
standardised  means  of  validating  learners’  achievements  against  set  performance  indicators, 
as reported in several countries (AT, BE nl, BG, EE, HU, IS LV, LT, LU, NL, RO).  

National assessments can also take the form of centralised examinations (as reported in HR 
and RO, SI). Hungary tests reading comprehension and mathematics in a standardized fashion 
in the context of the national assessment of basic competences. Assessment is mandatory and 
takes place simultaneously in three grades involving all students.  

In  all  cases,  evaluation  mechanisms  are  complemented  with  the  results  of  international 
evaluations,  PISA,  PIRLS  and  TIMMS  in  particular.  A  few  countries  (EE,  LV,  NL)  state 
explicitly that these outcomes are an important source for assessing the performance of their 
system comparative to others. 

Reports from countries with education and training systems characterised by a strong level of 
autonomy  at  municipalities/school  level  refer  to  decentralised  monitoring  and  evaluation 
systems.  The  results  of  school  self-evaluation  and  involvement  of  municipal  bodies  in 
monitoring activities were explicitly stated in a few countries (DK, FI, LT, LV and SE). 

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Box  1-47  –  Denmark  -  Municipal  councils’  responsibility  for  the  Folkeskole  and  the 
State’s monitoring 

The  2006  amendment  of  the  Folkeskole  Act  made  more  explicit  the  municipal  councils’ 
responsibility for the Folkeskole and State monitoring. It entails two mandatory tools (quality 
reports and action plans) the municipalities are to use when monitoring the Folkeskole. The 
quality report is designed to ensure systematic documentation and cooperation between local 
politicians,  municipal  councils  and  schools  on  the  evaluation  and  quality  development  of 
primary and lower secondary education. If the quality report shows that the academic level in 
a  school  is  generally  unsatisfactory,  the  municipal  council  must  draw  up  an  action  plan  for 
improving the level at the particular school. 

The  results  of  external  evaluation  constitute  another  widespread  monitoring  or  evaluation 
mechanism  (BE  nl,  BE  fr,,  BG,  CY,  CZ,  DK,  DE,  FI,  FR,  EE,  EL,  ES,  IE,  FR,  HR  (from 
2010-2011),  HU,  LU,  NL,  PT,  SE,  SI,  UK).  The  Estonian  example  set  out  below  supplies 
evidence of this trend, stressing the complementary importance of different tools.  

Box 1-48 – Estonia - External evaluation system  

The  external  evaluation  system  in  Estonia  includes  criterion-based  internal  evaluation  and 
governmental supervision of the educational institutions, placement tests at the end of the first 
and second stage of study in basic school, final basic school exams with uniform questions, 
and state examinations at the upper secondary school level, international comparative surveys, 
and training permits. The purpose of evaluating learning results is to support the development 
of the national curriculum and teacher training, and to target better the provision of education. 
Another objective is  to evaluate  the  learning results  specified in the  national curriculum for 
basic and upper secondary schools to be achieved at the end of each stage of study. 

National targets/specific performance indicators 

Amongst  other  tools,  the  definition  of  Key  Competences-related  indicators  (either  of 
performance  or  referring  to  competence  thresholds)  at  national  level  was  also  reported  in  a 
few countries (BE fr, EE, FI, FR, LU, NO, UK). In general, most of them focus on language 
(mother tongue and foreign language), mathematics and ICT competences. 

Box 1-49 – France - Use of indicators 

Once a year, the Ministry of Education provides the national Parliament with the number of 
pupils  that,  in  the  framework  of  the  ‘socle  de  compétences’,  effectively  master  Key 
Competences at certain stages of education. Indicators on the performance of pupils enrolled 
in  the  last  year  of  lower  secondary  on  mother  tongue  and  mathematics  have  been  available 
since 2007. 

Dedicated authority  

The important role of national inspectorates has been reported in seven countries (BE nl, CZ, 
IE, NL, PL, SE, UK Scotland and Wales). In all cases, those are set up to assure the quality of 
education provided and to promote improvement and innovation in the education and training 
systems. Sweden, which traditionally had a decentralised approach to quality assurance, has 
also recently established such a body, the National School Inspectorate. 

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Box 1-50 – UK (Scotland) - Inspectorate of Education 

In  Scotland,  HM  Inspectorate  of  Education  (HMIE)  inspects  and  reports  on  the  quality  of 
education  in  pre-school  centres,  primary  schools,  secondary  schools,  special  schools, 
community  learning  and  development  services,  colleges,  and  residential  educational 
provision. New Quality Indicators for use in both internal self evaluation by schools and local 
authorities and  external evaluation by HMIE were published  in January 2008. They  include 
indicators  on  learners’  experiences;  meeting  learning  needs;  and  developing  people  and 
partnerships.  

1.7.3  Ways to use the outcomes of monitoring/evaluation processes  

Though  very  little  specific  information  is  reported,  national  reports  refer  to  the  way  the 
outcomes  of  monitoring  and  evaluation  are  used  for  improving  the  overall  quality  and 
transparency  of  the  education  and  training  systems;  modifying/discontinuing  existing 
programmes/actions; raising awareness of emerging policy issues with stakeholders. 

These outcomes are usually compiled in annual reports submitted to the central level and used 
by all educational stakeholders for policy-making. As reported by a few countries (EE, DE, 
FI, NL), these outcomes may be translated into indicators to provide e.g. comparative trends 
and provide solid evidence to policy-makers. In Finland, the National Board also carries out 
longitudinal monitoring, utilising findings of previous evaluations. Evaluations produce: basic 
indicators, which describe pupils' and students' knowledge, skills and attitudes in the content 
areas  of  the  curriculum;  contextual  indicators,  which  describe  how  pupils'  and  students' 
knowledge  and  skills  relate  to  demographic,  social,  economic  and  educational  factors;  and 
trend indicators, which describe changes in the basic and contextual indicators.  

Box 1-51 – Latvia - Use of international evidence to feed into policy-making 

The  results  of  the  international  studies  are  used  for  the  improvement  of  the  subject 
curriculum,  in  teachers’  further  education  and  in  the  process  of  developing  new  normative 
acts that regulate the content of education. The results of the International Reading Literacy 
Study - PIRLS 2006, revealed problems in the development of basic skills in mother tongue 
and learning to learn. Work addressing all actors (parents, teachers, librarians) has begun with 
the  aim  of  improving  basic  skills.  The  results  of  the  international  TIMSS  study  of  2007 
"Mathematics and Science in Primary School” confirm positive results of this approach. 

1.7.4  Conclusions on Monitoring and Evaluation 

Monitoring/evaluation  processes  can  strengthen  and  sustain  the  development  of  Key 
Competences  at  national  and  system  level.  The  country  reports  show  that  this  necessity  is 
clearly perceived in nearly all countries. 

Countries  typically  combine  several  mechanisms  including  use  of  internal  and  external 
evaluation. However, as with assessment (see section 0), the extent to which the monitoring 
and indicator systems take into account all the dimensions of Key Competences, not only the 
knowledge aspect, remains an issue.  

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Further efforts are also needed in the field of adult learning (where monitoring processes are 
scarce).  Systematic  evaluation  of  the  outcomes  of  the  VET  system  is  not  mentioned  in  any 
national report. 

1.8 

Summary Conclusions on the implementation of Key Competences 

General 

There  is  a  clear  trend  across  the  EU  towards  competence-based  teaching  and  learning,  to 
which the European Framework of Key Competences has contributed considerably, either as 
a main focus of policy reform, or as one of a range of factors influencing such reform.  

This implies a shift from viewing education as the transmission of a static body of knowledge, 
to a more dynamic approach combining knowledge, skills and attitudes in each subject area. It 
also  means  a  widespread  commitment  to  developing  transversal  competences,  notably 
learning to learn, social and civic competence and initiative and entrepreneurship, alongside 
the  more  “traditional”  competences,  e.g.  mother  tongue,  maths,  science  and  technology. 
Whole-school  teaching  of  traditional  competences,  embedding  these  in  other  subjects,  is 
gaining ground in the EU.  

Implementing  these  reforms  involves  a  wide  range  of  actions:  not  only  reviewing  the 
curriculum, but also teacher education and teacher competences, school organisation to allow 
for more individualized learning, team teaching and partnerships with actors outside school, 
and  increasing  cross-curricular  work,  and  introducing  new  methods  of  assessment.  While 
curricular change is widely under way in most of the EU, it is not yet clear how systematically 
the other elements are being addressed in order to achieve real change in schools. 

Some  countries’  curricular  reforms  are  very  fundamental,  representing  a  root-and-branch 
recasting of the content and approach to teaching and learning. Often such reforms include a 
strong  cross-curricular  element,  even  for  competences  which  are  traditionally  conceived  as 
separate subjects such as Mother tongue.  

According  to  the  national  reports,  most  policy  attention  relating  to  key  competences  is 
focused  on  schools.  Provision  for  adults  is  patchier,  although  some  countries  are  taking 
important initiatives to address key competences in a true lifelong learning perspective. These 
deserve to be analysed and to provide material for policy development in other countries.  

The  reports  provide  limited  information  on  key  competences  in  vocational  education  and 
training (VET). To some extent, this may reflect the fact that VET has traditionally focused 
more on competences than general education. However, it seems clear that the full range of 
key competences, as defined in the European Framework, are less systematically addressed by 
most countries’ VET systems than they are by their school systems. 

By competence 

Mother  tongue  competence.  This  competence  receives  intensive  attention  in  all  countries. 
Often this takes the form of single-subject teaching, focusing in particular on literacy. Explicit 
national  literacy  strategies  or  projects  are  widespread,  often  involving  all  levels  in  the 
education  system  so  as  to  reinforce  literacy  skills  beyond  primary  education  and  to  reverse 
failure  to  acquire  them  at  an  earlier  stage.  Migrant  inflows  have  led  to  more  specialist 
provision for teaching the mother tongue as a second language, including to adults. While the 

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single-subject  approach  predominates,  there  are  many  examples  of  the  Mother  tongue 
competence  being  taught  in  a  cross-curricular  way  across  other  subjects  in  schools  and  in 
VET.  

Foreign  language  competence.  Generally,  the  volume  of  foreign  language  learning  in 
education and training is expanding (though not in English-speaking countries), and language 
learning increasingly starts at primary school. In non-English-speaking countries there is often 
an  issue  about  the  range  of  languages  learned  and  the  dominance  of  English.  There  is  little 
information about foreign language provision in VET. Many of the measures reported for the 
foreign  language  competence  also  promote  several  of  the  other  key  competences  such  as 
cultural awareness and can foster social and personal development.  

Maths, science and technology. Mathematical competence remains a very strong element of 
general education curricula. The position of mathematical competence in vocational education 
varies:  some  countries  make  similar  provision  to  that  in  general  education  whereas  a  few 
tailor provision more closely to the relevant vocational qualification.  

Some of the country reports highlight the promotion of problem-solving, critical thinking and, 
to  a  much  lesser  extent,  inquiry-based  learning  in  mathematics  and  science.  This  has 
implications  for  the  competence  of  teachers  and  trainers,  and  needs  to  be  supported  by 
suitable  teacher  education  and  training.  There  is  also  room  for  greater  co-operation  with 
external  partners,  along  the  lines  of  that  which  already  exists  for  Civic  and  Social  and 
Entrepreneurship competences, in order to provide real-life contexts for scientific inquiry. 

Digital competence is a particular teaching challenge because (a) many students learn outside 
school through home and social use of ICT, often to a higher level than their teachers in some 
respects, and (b) lack of home access (57% of the EU population not online at home in 2007) 
presents  a  major  barrier  to  many  others.  What  happens  in  the  school  is  therefore  crucial  in 
ensuring that all young people acquire the skills and attitudes of digital competence they need 
in their personal and social lives, as well as in the workplace. 

There is a great deal of activity in countries to expand provision for Digital Competence. This 
has included curriculum reform, extra funding and resources, new programmes, the creation 
of  virtual  learning  environments  such  as  eTwinning,  and  the  use  of  ICT  in  communication, 
administration and management.  

Certain  important  aspects  of  this  competence  have  received  much  less  attention,  including 
‘confident  and  critical  use’  of  ICT;  ethical  and  legal  considerations  arising  from  the  use  of 
ICT;  and  informal  learning  situations.  As  ICT  use  becomes  more  pervasive  these  are 
increasingly important issues.  

Learning to learn. Countries are devoting significant attention to this competence. Learning to 
learn  is  being  embedded  not  only  in  all  subjects,  but  in  all  aspects  of  the  learning 
environment.  It  goes  along  with  a  more  individualized  approach  to  learning.  Measures 
include:  personal  learning  plans,  portfolio-building  and  the  use  of  teaching  and  assessment 
strategies  which  foster  deep  learning.  These  all  require  good  communication,  teamwork, 
democratic  schooling  management,  and  supportive  mechanisms  for  pupil  assessment  and 
school  self-evaluation.  Alongside  these  process  aspects,  the  cognitive  dimensions  are  also 
being addressed. These include knowing the rules and strategies of learning and how to make 
use of them.  

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Social  and  civic  competence.  Provision  for  this  competence  is  gathering  momentum. 
Countries’ approaches mainly address its knowledge dimension and somewhat its attitudinal 
and  process  aspects.  An  effective  approach  to  this  competence  is  to  embed  it  in  the 
methodology  used  for  all  subjects,  and  not  only  those  which  explicitly  address  civic  and 
social  issues  as  a  body  of  knowledge,  and  to  embody  it  in  “real-life”  structures  such  as 
students’ associations. 

Initiative  and  entrepreneurship.  Most  promote  the  entrepreneurial  dimension  of  this 
competence,  often  underpinned  by  national  action  plans  and  strategies.  Many  use  this 
competence to develop partnerships with organisations and enterprises outside the education 
and training system (e.g. mini-companies). The individual creative and innovative aspects of 
this competence receive less attention. 

Cultural  awareness  and  expression.  Although  part  of  the  traditional  subject  curriculum  in 
schools (art, music), this competence does not appear to be a significant strategic priority for 
most countries. The potential of culture to provide a methodology for work in other areas of 
the curriculum, and in personal and social development, could be better exploited.  

Key competences for all 

Many national reports describe priority disadvantaged groups who receive specific support to 
acquire  key  competences:  e.g.  learners  with  special  educational  needs,  those  at  a  socio-
economic  disadvantage,  those  with  literacy  needs  (including  migrants),  and  those  at  risk  of 
dropping  out.  As  a  result  of  the  financial  crisis,  the  unemployed  increasingly  feature  as  a 
target group.  

Commonly, provision is based on targeted funding, legislation, action plans and measures to 
address different target groups. Some countries go further and create a single framework for 
both  mainstream  learners  and  specific  target  groups,  notably  through  the  introduction  of 
rights-based legislation.  

There  is  a  clear  trend  towards  individual  learning  plans  accompanied  by  guidance.  These 
primarily target young people with literacy needs (including migrants) and those with special 
education needs (SEN).  

Several  countries  stress  the  importance  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  to  tackle 
sources of disadvantage at their roots. 

Key competences for adults 

The  development  of  measures  to  support  key  competences  for  adults  is  widespread  and 
includes new and revised legislation and strategies, improved delivery and governance of the 
sector, and specific funding measures.  

Many  policies  target  low  qualified  and/or  unemployed  adults  and  immigrants,  and  focus  on 
raising basic levels of competence, notably literacy, numeracy or language learning. “Second-
chance” institutions for gaining secondary school qualifications are common in this context. 
Information on provision for other target groups (e.g. adults with SEN, elderly people, etc.) is 
less extensive. 

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There  are  links  with  broader  policy  measures  such  as  lifelong  learning  strategies  and 
guidance,  validation  of  non-formal  and 
learning,  National  Qualifications 
Frameworks. 

informal 

Teachers 

The  key  competences  approach  places  new  demands  upon  teachers.  Some  countries  are 
revising their curricula for initial teacher education accordingly. However only one fifth of the 
countries  mention  the  key  competences  approach  in  relation  to  continuing  professional 
development  for  serving  teachers,  the  group  with  the  biggest  influence  Moreover,  countries 
reported  little  use  of,  for  example,  mentoring,  support  for  teacher  networking  and  other 
individualised approaches for upskilling teachers.  

Improvements in the preparation of VET teachers are gathering momentum in some countries, 
but  there  is  still  a  long  way  to  go  to  ensure  that  VET  teachers  and  trainers  in  Europe  are 
thoroughly prepared to support the development of the key competences. 

Training and professional support for education managers is not widely reported, but will be 
crucial  to  delivering  the  organizational  changes  at  institution  level  implied  by  the  key 
competences. 

Developing new assessment methodologies through initial and continuing teacher education, 
including  the  impact  of  ICT  on  testing  techniques,  is  becoming  a  high  priority  in  many 
countries.  

Assessment and monitoring 

Assessment of key competences poses a formidable challenge, because many competences do 
not  fall  neatly  into  traditional  subject  divisions,  and  all  of  them  contain,  alongside  essential 
knowledge,  the  dimensions  of  skills  and  attitude  which  are  much  more  difficult  to  assess. 
There  is  a  widespread  move  towards  more  formative  assessment  approaches,  normally  as  a 
complement  to  summative  testing  (such  as  final  examinations).  However,  high-stakes 
summative  testing  seems  to  remain  the  dominant  mode  in  most  countries,  with  a  strong 
emphasis on knowledge and recall. There are some key innovations in a number of countries 
including  experimentation  with  complementary  methodologies  such  as  peer  assessment, 
portfolios, project-based assessment.  

In  the  linked  area  of  qualifications,  assessment  has  traditionally  been  based  on  summative 
examinations.  However,  there  are  significant  developments  in  several  countries,  often 
articulated around a National Qualifications Framework, to open up to a range of approaches 
to  the  accreditation  of  prior  learning,  based  on  demonstrated  learning  outcomes  irrespective 
where  these  have  been  gained.  This  accelerating  trend  has  important  potential  for  the 
assessment and certification of the range of key competences.  

An  increasing  number  of  countries  are  putting  in  place  monitoring  systems  to  gauge  the 
effectiveness of systems in delivering some or all of the key competences.  

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2 

TRANSVERSAL LIFELONG LEARNING ISSUES 

Making lifelong learning a reality  has been a priority of European cooperation in  education 
and training for the past years and will continue to be a key objective also under the updated 
strategic framework for European Cooperation until 2020.  

In  this  respect,  the  development  of  lifelong  learning  strategies  (LLLS),  coherent  lifelong 
guidance  policies,  national  qualification  frameworks  (NQFs)  linked  to  the  EQF,  a  stronger 
focus  on  learning  outcomes,  and  instruments  for  the  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal 
learning  are  considered  cornerstone  policies  as  they  aim  at  strengthening  coordination  and 
permeability across the sectors and mutually interconnecting all forms of learning.  

2.1 

Lifelong learning strategies (LLLS) 

Member States agreed to develop and implement coherent and comprehensive LLL strategies 
by  2006.115The  2006  and  2008  Joint  Reports  noted  that  the  vast  majority  of  countries  have 
progressed – at differing stages - in adapting their education and training systems to the LLL 
approach. However, coherence and comprehensiveness as well as concrete implementation of 
LLL policies remained for the majority of them a challenge.  

National  reports  of  2009  largely  confirm  these  findings:  Among  the  countries,  who  have 
reported on progress regarding their LLL-policies the following approaches can be observed: 

–  A  single  strategy  document  which  is  broadly  comprehensive  and  coherent  has  been 
adopted and is currently being implemented (CZ, DK, EE, FI, LT, SI, UK- Scotland); This 
LLLS document is of high relevance for policy making, covers all levels of education and 
is  based  on  analysis,  accompanied  by  specific  objectives,  embedded  in  legislative 
regulations with an associated budget, supported by a roadmap having performance targets 
and support by stakeholders. Austria is currently at an advanced stage in developing such a 
strategy.  

–  A  LLL-  document  has  been  adopted  which  shows  a  strong  focus  on  a  specific  target 
group  or  a  specific  sector  rather  than  covering  the  full  spectrum  of  LLL  (LT,  LV,  SK), 
which  provides  primarily  an  analytical  framework  (DE)  or  where  the  relevance  of  the 
strategy across sectors needs to be improved (HU). 

–  A  set  of  policies  /sectoral  strategies  covering  all  key  areas  of  LLL,  have  been  adopted 
under  the  guiding  principle  of  LLL  and  are  currently  being  implemented,  though  not 
having been underpinned by a single LLL strategy document (BE nl, ES, FR, IE, IS, LU, 
NL, NO, PT, SE, UK-England).  

Poland and Romania reported that they are still in the process of developing a single strategy 
document. 

Much  of  the  emphasis  of  LLLSs  is  in  relation  to  the  establishment  of  connections  and 
pathways  between  different  types  of  education  programmes  –  e.g.  VET  and  general 

115

The  commitment  to  establish  LLLS  is  based  on  the  June  2000  European  Council  in  Portugal,  the  2002  Council  resolution  on 
lifelong learning (OJ C 163/1, 9.7.2002) and the 2004 Joint Report. The importance of LLL strategies and investment in human 
capital was re-emphasised in the Employment Guidelines for the period 2008-2010. 

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education-,  or  formal,  non-formal  and  informal  learning.  In  terms  of  the  effects  generated, 
national reports outlined that the strategies: 

–  have provided an analytical framework triggering subsequent national initiatives (DE, EE), 

–  enhanced monitoring mechanisms, as new monitoring systems are developed with the aim 

to track progress in the implementation of the strategy (BG, CY, EE, HU, SK)  

–  contributed  to  strengthening  the  links  of  education  and  training  with  local  and  labour 

market needs (LV, SK).  

In terms of challenges, the following points are worth underlining:  

–  Very  little  information  is  provided  on  adequate  budget  allocation  for  effective 
implementation and only a few countries report that their LLL-strategies are in the process 
of  resulting/have  recently  resulted  in  the  approval  of  detailed  implementation  plans  (CZ, 
LV, SK). 

–  A feature of many strategies is their relatively short-term nature, mostly having a planning-

horizon of 3 to 5 years and limiting its span to a single legislative period.  

–  On  the  whole  there  is  little  documentation  in  terms  of  the  evidence  base  used  in  the 
development of the strategies, how progress will be measured (only two countries - EE and 
LV  -  included  information  on  their  strategies’  impact  with  reference  to  predefined 
indicators in relation to participation in adult education and training) and their impact on 
national policy making across sectors.  

Box 2-1 – Slovak Republic - National Programme for Learning Regions 

The National Programme for Learning Regions was approved on the Ministry level. It ensures 
the  effective  interconnection  of  lifelong  learning  with  the  needs  of  the  local  and  regional 
labour  markets.  The  active  participation  of  educational  institutions  on  the  regional  level, 
employers and self-government in implementing the strategy for lifelong learning and lifelong 
guidance is a prerequisite for this cooperation.  

A learning region is an area in which the responsible officials cooperate and learn to jointly 
solve local or regional issues in partnership cooperation. It pertains to the creation and support 
of the origin of local or regional networks of various institutions oriented on the solution of 
common  problems.  The  conviction  that  a  joint  course  of  action  in  solving  issues  is  more 
effective  than  isolated  activities  of  individual  subjects  is  the  basic  prequalification  for  the 
creation of local and regional partnerships. 

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Box 2-2 – Czech Republic - Implementation of the national lifelong learning strategy  

The Czech Republic approved its Strategy of Lifelong Learning document in 2007, based on a 
thorough analysis of the condition of the different parts of the national education and training 
system and their interconnections, for the period running until 2015. The strategy has so far 
proved  to  be  a  fundamental  document  for  other  cross-curriculum  and  sectoral  policies  in 
education  and  training.  Its  main  benefits  have  so  far  been  the  achievement  of  a  greater 
interconnection  of  partial  education  and  training  aspects  previously  mentioned  in  individual 
documents into a coherent concept of lifelong learning and its strong effects as a catalyst to 
stimulate  the  efforts  of  stakeholders  in  the  implementation  of  lifelong  learning.  In  2009  an 
implementation plan has been approved that translated the general objectives of the strategy 
into  a  set  of  comprehensive  specific  measures  that  need  to  be  implemented,  including  a 
framework  timetable,  and  that  details  individual  ministries‘  competences  in  relation  to  the 
measures to be implemented. 

2.2 

Establishment of lifelong guidance systems  

The  2004  Council  Resolution  on  Guidance  through  life  called  for  high-quality  guidance 
oriented  to  citizens’  lifelong  and  life-wide  learning  and  the  improvement  of  guidance 
structures.116 In 2008, the Council adopted a new "Resolution on better integrating guidance 
into lifelong learning strategies"117 to provide further impetus to the achievement of three key 
aims:  fairer  access,  quality  improvement  of  guidance  services  and  establishment  of 
partnerships between existing forms of guidance provision. 

Regarding  fair  access  to  guidance,  the  2009  national  reports  and  recent  CEDEFOP 
research118 show that  

–  substantial progress has been achieved in the improvement, modernisation and expansion 
of  guidance  for  employed  and  unemployed  adults  regardless  of  their  age  and  residency 
status  (AT,  BE,  BG,  CY,  DE,  EL,  FR,  HU,  IS,  IE,  LT,  LV,  MT,  ES  and  UK).  This  is 
important on the background that the 2008 Joint report119 had noted that greater progress in 
terms of guidance for adults was required. 

–  guidance  is  increasingly  offered  through  a  wider  range  of  delivery  modes  including  the 
development of adult local/regional guidance networks  (AT,  DK,  BE  fr,  BE  nl,  BG,  CZ, 
FI, HU, IS, NL, NO, SI, ES, SE) and websites (DK, NL, SK, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, FI, EE, ES, 
FR, IE, HU, LT, SI, UK120). 

Countries  also  reported  increased  guidance  measures  to  enhance  the  attractiveness  of  VET, 
including: 

116

117

118

119

120

In addition, the Maastricht, Helsinki and Bordeaux Communiqués, the 2007 Council Resolution on New Skills for New Jobs (OJ 
C 290 of 4.12.2007) and the 2008 Council Conclusions on Adult Learning (OJ C 140, 6.6.2008) all highlighted the importance of 
facilitating access to guidance. 
OJ C 319 of 13.12.2008;  
CEDEFOP  (2009)1,  "Continuity,  consolidation  and  change.  Towards  a  European  era  of  vocational  education  and  training", 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/528/3055_en.pdf 
OJ C 86/1, 5.4.2008 
CEDEFOP (2009)1, op. cit. 

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–  organisation  of  guidance  events,  competitions  and  fairs,  including  Euroskills,  for  young 
people in primary and secondary school (BE fr, CZ, ES, LV, FR, MT, NL, RO, SK, TR), 

–  increases in the number of offices providing VET guidance (BE fr, EL); 

–  production of VET guidance materials for specific sectors (LV, PL, RO). 

Box 2-3 – Latvia - Adaptation weeks for first year students 

In Latvia, in order to facilitate the process of adaptation of young people to VET institutions 
and overcome the difficulties caused by the change of study environment, adaptation weeks 
were  introduced  in  the  2007/2008  academic  year  for  new  first  year  students.  During  these 
weeks adaptation tests are carried out in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of 
the new students. The results of these tests are used in the design of an individual programme 
to accelerate and facilitate students’ adaptation to the new programme. During the adaptation 
week  students  also  learn  to  establish  an  adequate  framework  for  relations  with  the  people 
around  them,  tools  are  provided  for  them  to  start  developing  their  personal  learning  style, 
reflect on their motivations and learn about the chosen profession. 

In  terms  of  the  most  prominent  issues  to  increase  lifelong  guidance  quality  in  practice, 
countries' reports and recent CEDEFOP research121 note progress on: 

–  the professionalisation and training of counsellors (AT, DE, EE, NO, PL, SI) 

–  quality assurance procedures (AT, DE, IE, UK); and  

–  continuous evaluation of processes and structures (AT, SK). 

A third crucial issue is coordination and leadership to promote cooperative approaches and 
partnership  in  guidance  provision  across  all  ages  and  groups,  for  example  by  establishing 
forums,  networks  and  other  structures122.  A  few  national  reports  (AT,  EL,  SK)  reported 
further  progress  in  the  integration  of  guidance  systems.  In  addition,  a  range  of  initiatives 
related to coordination and leadership were described: 

–  gradual  integration  of  guidance  provision  taking  the  holistic  needs  of  people  as  their 

starting point (DK, EE, ES, UK); 

–  establishment  of  cooperation  and  coordination  mechanisms  at  the  regional  and  national 

level (AT); 

–  further legal clarification of the responsibilities of different stakeholders – e.g. employment 
services, universities - in relation to study and career guidance arrangements, in particular 
for people with overseas qualifications (SE). 

In  terms  of  challenges,  it  is  important  to  note  that  while  coordinating  mechanisms  across 
guidance  sectors  and  levels  of  provision  have  been  established  in  most  European  countries, 

121

122

Cedefop  (2008)  "Establishing  and  developing  national  lifelong  guidance  policy  forums.  A  manual  for  policy-makers  and 
stakeholders", http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/508/5188_en.pdf 
Council Resolution of 28 May 2004 on strengthening policies, systems and practices in the field of guidance throughout life in 
Europe (Doc. 9286/04) 

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many  of  them  are  still  informal  or  work  in  progress123.Two  reports  (FR,  SK)  explicitly 
highlighted  shortcomings  in  the  area  of  leadership  and  coordination,  mentioning  that  the 
national  fragmentation  of  information  structures  about  VET  makes  their  use  by  citizens 
difficult. 

Moreover, compared to the last reporting 2007, few reports referred to developments in the 
provision  of  guidance  to  disadvantaged  groups.  Only  three  reports  (CZ,  DK,  LV)  made 
reference to mentoring within schools, targeted at students at risk of dropping out. 

2.3 

Development of national qualification frameworks 

National Qualifications Frameworks (NQFs) provide a structure supporting the transparency, 
coherence  and  consistency  of  qualifications  in  a  lifelong  learning  perspective.  This  should 
result  in  clearer  arrangements  to  make  access  to  and  transfer  between  qualifications  more 
flexible,  enable  comparisons  of  qualifications  and  establish  quality  standards  for  them,  thus 
finally  improving  the  quality  of  learning  provision124.  The  2008  Recommendation  on  the 
establishment  of  a  European  Qualifications  Framework  for  Lifelong  Learning125  invited 
countries to relate their national qualifications systems or frameworks to the EQF by 2010 and 
to develop national qualifications frameworks, where appropriate.  

In  many  countries  this  triggered  or  strengthened  the  development  of  an  NQF  based  on 
learning  outcomes.  While  a  NQF  is  already  in  force  only  in  a  few  countries  (IE,  FR,  MT, 
UK), the development of an overarching NQF enjoys a high priority on the education policy 
agenda in virtually all countries. Countries report on: 

–  having established, even if not yet fully implemented a NQF (BE nl) . 

–  the  development  of  a  proposal  for  an  NQF  by  expert  working  groups  and  consultations 
with  a  range  of  stakeholders  (such  as  educational  institutions,  municipalities,  individual 
employers  and  social  partners)  prior  to  the  submission  of  the  final  proposal  for  approval 
(AT, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, HR, HU, IT, LT, PL, SE) 

Box 2-4 – Belgium nl - the approval of the NQF  

In Belgium nl, following two years of consultation with stakeholders and the analysis of pilot 
projects the Decree on the Flemish qualification framework (“Vlaamse kwalificatiestructuur”) 
was  endorsed  by  the  Flemish  Government  in  February  2009  and  adopted  by  the  Flemish 
Parliament  in  April  2009.  The  NQF  based  on  eight  levels  and  the  descriptors  of  the 
Framework are compatible with the descriptors of the EQF. The NQF will become the basis 
for the recognition of diplomas and certificates awarded by the different national competent 
bodies. 

Most countries are  following  an integrated approach  that  will result in an  overarching NQF 
for lifelong learning covering all the different education and training sectors. National reports 
and other  sources  however  also  show that some countries have  developed  NQFs for certain 

123

124

125

Cedefop (2008); op. cit. 
OECD (2007) "Qualifications Systems: Bridges to Lifelong Learning"  
Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment of a European Qualifications 
Framework for Lifelong Learning, OJ C 111/1 of 6.5.08 

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levels of their education and training system, concentrating on HE (BG, DK, ES, IS, NO, RO, 
SE,  TR)  and/  or  VET  (RO)126.  It  will  be  important  to  ensure  that  those  countries  that  have 
qualifications frameworks for certain educational sectors or levels establish bridges between 
them  to  achieve  a  coherent  overarching  framework  which  promotes  flexible  learning 
pathways across levels and sectors.  

The  development  of  NQFs  is  in  most  countries  a  parallel  process  to  linking  national 
qualifications  levels  to  the  EQF.  Almost  all  countries  envisage  to  relate  their  national 
qualifications systems or NQFs to the EQF by 2010 or 2011:  

–  National Coordination Points (NCPs) in charge of coordinating the referencing of national 
qualifications levels with the EQF are already designated in 17 countries (BG, CZ, EE, EL, 
ES, FI, FR, IE, IS, IT HR, LV, MT, PT, SI, UK, TR). 6 more countries plan to designate 
them by 2010 (AT, BE, IS, LT, NO, SE).127  

–  Ireland and Malta already completed the process of referencing their NQFs to the EQF in 

summer 2009. 

–  24  other  countries  envisage  to  complete  the  referencing  of  their  national  qualifications 
system or framework to the EQF by 2010 (AT, BE fr, BE nl, DK, EE, FR, FI, HR, IS, IT, 
LU, NL, PT, TR, UK) or by 2011 (CZ, DE, EL, ES, LV, NO, PL, SI, SK, SE). 

Box 2-5 – Ireland - Referencing to the EQF 

Ireland  has  completed  the  process  of  referencing  the  Irish  NFQ  to  the  European 
Qualifications Framework. This referencing was assisted by a National Steering Committee, 
composed  by  representatives  of  key  education  and  training  stakeholders  as  well  as 
international  experts  of  qualifications  systems  and  frameworks,  which  oversaw  the 
referencing  process.  A  detailed  technical  comparison  of  the  NQF  descriptors  with  the  EQF 
descriptors was also undertaken. The final referencing report was agreed among the national 
quality assurance bodies for education and training in June 2009. 

2.4 

Learning outcomes based approaches 

The development of learning outcomes based qualifications and learning approaches128 is on 
the political agenda of the majority of countries (AT, BE fr, Be nl, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, FI, 
HR, HU, IE, IT, LV, NO, PL, PT, SE, SK, TR, UK).  

A number of national reports made explicit mention of initiatives taken to establish a learning 
outcomes  based  approach  (BE  nl,  CZ,  EE,  ES,  IS,  IT,  HU,  LU,  IE,  NO,  PL,  PT,  SI),  often 
linking this to the development of NQFs (BE nl, IE) or the creation of national registries of 
vocational qualifications (ES, FR, HU, PT). Some countries reported a sequential stage in the 
implementation of learning outcome approaches starting for instance in the area of secondary 
education (LU) or VET (SI, NO), while planning to later extend it to other levels and types of 
education.  

126

127

128

CEDEFOP (2009)1, op .cit.; Eurydice (2009) HE in Europe 2009: Developments in the Bologna process. Luxembourg, Office for 
Official Publications of the European Communities. 
This is called for in the EQF Recommendation, op. cit. 
A learning outcomes approach supports the transparency of qualifications by indicating what the learner should know, understand 
and is able to do by the end of a learning process. 

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In a number of European countries the national curricula describe educational targets by using 
learning  outcomes  (AT,  CZ,  FR,  IT,  PL,  PT,  SE  and  UK  examples  are  described  in  recent 
research129).  However,  the  drive  to  redefine  qualifications  and  curricula  using  learning 
outcomes has been most clearly seen in VET, especially referring to learning outcomes with 
particular professional and labour market orientation. Recent national developments include: 

–  the  development  of  VET  qualifications  and  job  profiles  based  on  learning  outcomes  and 

standards (AT, BG, CZ, EL, HU, IT, PL, RO);  

–  revising  national  legislation  and  other  regulations  on  VET  programmes/  qualifications 

implying a learning outcomes approach (DK, EE, HR, IS);  

–  introducing  competence-based  curricula  (AT,  BE  nl,  CZ,  EE,  DE,  LT,  LU,  MT,  PL,  PT, 

SI, SK, TR); and  

–  introducing  learning  outcomes  to  guide  assessment  of  student  practice,  replacing  more 

traditional notions (FI, HU, IE, NO, RO)130.  

On  the  other  hand,  the  shift  to  learning  outcomes  approaches  still  represents  a  challenge  in 
higher education.131 Concerning general education, the use of the key competences concept is 
likely  to  continue  to  contribute  towards  greater  usage  of  outcome-based  approaches  also  in 
this area. A few reports refer to guidance documents being produced for schools in order to 
support formulation of learning outcomes based study programmes (CZ, EE, IS, LV).  

To  sum  up,  many  countries  are  making  good  progress  towards  the  adoption  of  learning 
outcomes  approaches.  However,  this  work  will  remain  on  the  agenda  as  most  countries  are 
still in an early stage of implementation and very often countries and institutions do not yet 
have  sufficient  practical  experience  in  the  use  of  learning  outcomes  for  the  definition  of 
standards, the description of curricula and the organisation of assessment.132 

2.5 

Measures to assess and validate non-formal and informal learning 

The  lifelong  learning  paradigm  suggests  that  learning  should  be  identified,  assessed  and  its 
results recognised regardless of the context in which they have been acquired, i.e. including 
for the learning taking place outside formal programmes in education and training institutions. 
The  recent  emphasis  on  learning  outcomes  supports  such  an  approach.  Common  European 
Principles  for  the  identification  and  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  were 
agreed in 2004133 and are used as a partial basis for validation systems in IE, IS, NL, NO.  

The  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  is  receiving  attention  in  almost  all 
countries,  however,  countries  are  starting  from  different  stages  of  development:  While  the 
most  progressed  countries  already  pursue  a  systematic  approach  across  all  education  and 
training sectors (BE fr, BE nl, DK, EE, FI, FR, IE, NL, NO, PT, RO, SI, ES, UK), a second 

129

130

131

132

133

CEDEFOP  (2009)2,,  The  shift  to  learning  outcomes:  Policies  and  practices  in  Europe.  Luxembourg,  Office  for  Official 
Publications of the European Communities. Pp. 22-23. 
CEDEFOP (2009)1 , op. cit. 
Eurydice (2009) HE in Europe 2009: Developments in the Bologna process. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the 
European Communities. 
CEDEFOP (2009)1 , op. cit. 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/validation2004_en.pdf 

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group  of  countries  is  currently  implementing  validation  instruments  and  pilot  projects  in 
specific contexts and preparing a national approach (AT, CZ, DE, IS, IT, HU, LT, LU, MT, 
PL,  SE).  For  the  third  group  validation  is  still  a  rather  new  concept,  sporadic  validation 
activities can be identified (BG, CY, EL, HR, LV, SK, TR). 134 

However, national reports 2009 show that activities towards better validation are undertaken 
by countries from all of the three groups. Around half of the reports mention developments in 
this area over the last two years, which include: 

–  approval of new legislation/ guidelines or the setting up of pilot projects and testing of new 

procedures (BG, BE nl, CZ, DK, EE, ES, IT, LU, LV, MT, PL, RO, SI);  

–  the establishment of new agencies (BE nl., DK, EE, LT, SE), such as the Danish National 
Centre for Knowledge and Information on Prior Learning and the BE nl Quality Agency 
(which  coordinates  quality  assurance  for  all  education,  training  and  validation  systems), 
created in 2008 and 2009 respectively 

–  expansion  of  delivery  structures  (BE  fr,  PT);  in  Portugal,  the  "New  Opportunities 
Initiative" and its emphasis on validation opportunities for the low qualified contributed an 
increase of the network of centres for the recognition, validation and  certification of non 
formal and informal learning from less than 100 in 2006 to almost 500 in 2008. 

–  information campaigns to dissemination validation opportunities, using public employment 
services  (BE  fr)  and  development  of  websites  with  information  on  validation  procedures 
and tools for self-evaluation (BE nl, DK); 

Box 2-6 – Spain - Validation of professional competences  

Spain  is  in  the  final  stages  of  approval  of  new  legislation  to  establish  a  procedure  and 
requirements  for  the  evaluation  and  accreditation  of  professional  competences  acquired 
through  work  experience  or  non-formal  training.  Competences  thus  acquired  could  be 
validated for VET modules or full qualifications (VET diplomas or professional certificates). 
The  system  will  operate  through  national/regional  calls  prioritising  specific  sectors;  social 
partners could also request calls to meet the needs of specific economic sectors. It is expected 
that 80,000 people – mainly with low qualification levels – would benefit from the system in 
its  first  three  years.  The  legislation  outlines  a  substantial  role  for  guidance  during  the 
validation  process  and  underlines  the  importance  of  training  of  assessors  as  well  as 
counsellors. 

An important area of attention in the last two years has been the use of validation to open up 
access to higher education (see also Chapter 3). This has been done by: 

–  validation  of  prior  learning  granting  access  to  HE  programmes  and/or  the  recognition  of 

credits leading to a shorter duration of studies (in BE nl, EE, SE);  

–  creating  new  agencies  to  develop  validation  processes  in  this  sector  (EE,  LT,  SE);  for 
example in Lithuania, the Centre for Quality Assessment in HE has been created with the 
objective of developing processes for the assessment and recognition of HE qualifications.  

134

CEDEFOP (2009)1, op. cit. 

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With  validation  systems  increasingly  in  place,  the  coming  years  will  reveal  the  extent  to 
which systems are used and where new strategies need to be developed to ensure trust from 
different stakeholders and attract potential users. In most countries further efforts are required 
to  set  up  fully  developed  and  comprehensive  validation  systems.  Four  countries  mentioned 
future  plans  for  capacity  building  (HR,  HU,  LV,  SK)  and  in  those  in  which  validation  is 
decentralised (IT, NO for example) there is a need to address regional imbalances.  

2.6 

Conclusions on transversal lifelong learning issues 

The lifelong learning paradigm has gained greater importance in most countries: All countries 
are  developing  policies  that  contribute  to  the  realisation  of  LLL  as  reflected  in  the 
development  of  strategies  as  well  as  instruments  for  the  promotion  of  flexible  learning 
pathways and transition between different parts of the systems. 

Most  of  the  countries  reported  that  they  are  also  working  on  the  setting  up  and/or 
implementation of LLL strategies. Many countries have an agreed and published strategy. 
However,  these  can  be  considered  comprehensive  and  coherent  only  in  a  relatively  small 
number  of  cases.  Countries  without  a  published  LLL  strategy  are  at  diverse  stages  of 
development, ranging from countries with lifelong learning policies and key measures in all 
relevant areas, to those where the education sectors are undergoing partial reforms that seem 
not to be driven by explicit conceptions of lifelong learning.  

A challenge remains the effective implementation of lifelong learning strategies and policies. 
There  is  little  evidence  in  the  national  reports  that  LLL  strategies  are  broadly  supported  by 
targeted  funding  mechanisms.  Adequate  and  efficient  budget  allocation  is  key  to  the 
effectiveness  of  reforms  as  well  as  their  relevance  across  other  sectors  of  national  policy 
making  such  as  employment  or  youth.  Moreover  the  chosen  time  frames  of  strategies  seem 
often  rather  short  given  the  complexity  and  long-term  development  perspectives  of  the 
education  and  training  sector.  Based  on  broad  consensus  between  stakeholders  across  all 
relevant sectors LLLS should provide a long-ranging vision of development and be subject to 
regular  updating.  Implementation  plans  should  be  guided  by  concrete  targets  and  a  clear 
division  of  responsibilities  between  actors  whereas  strong  monitoring  mechanisms  to  assess 
progress and impact of new policies need to be more often established. 

Significant measures have been taken over the last two years in many countries regarding the 
development of stronger guidance systems for employed and unemployed adults and to some 
extent VET. Progress has also continued in relation to the diversification of delivery modes, 
while  development  has  been  slower  in  relation  to  the  coordination  of  different  guidance 
systems beyond informal arrangements. The reports provided less evidence in relation to the 
provision of guidance for disadvantaged groups.  

Significant  development  work  regarding  the  establishment  of  national  qualification 
frameworks has continued in most countries and many countries expect to adopt their NQFs 
during  the  next  two  years.  Almost  all  countries  reported  actions  to  link  their  qualifications 
systems or frameworks to the EQF, although national coordination points have not yet been 
established in all countries. It will be important to continue strong coordination between the 
ongoing work in the higher education sector and the overarching qualification frameworks for 
lifelong learning. 

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Going along with this, a majority of the countries are working on a stronger use of a learning 
outcomes  approach.  Progress  has  been  uneven  across  education  areas  and  so  far  seems  to 
have  been  most  widespread  in  VET.  There  seems  to  be  a  need  for  further  guidance,  staff 
support  programmes  and  changes  in  teacher  training  programmes  to  increase  capacity  and 
know-how at the time of implementation.  

Validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  continues  to  be  an  area  of  great  interest 
and several countries approved new legislation or developed better delivery structures in this 
area.  Further  progress  is  nevertheless  required  in  those  countries  where  there  are  no 
established validation systems or where they encounter problems of acceptance among certain 
key  stakeholders.  In  those  countries  where  validation  systems  exist,  they  need  to  be  further 
promoted  in  order  to  make  them  fully  used  by  its  target  groups.  The  recently  published 
European  guidelines  for  validating  non-formal  and  informal  learning  should  support  this 
process (see part I on EU implementation of the work programme).  

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3 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

Increasing  the  attractiveness,  quality  and  relevance  of  VET  are  key  priorities  in  the 
Copenhagen  process135.  This  has  been  more  recently  reflected  in  the  2008  Bordeaux 
Communiqué136  where  –  building  on  the  conclusions  in  Maastricht137  and  Helsinki138  - 
heightening the quality and attractiveness of VET and improving the links between VET and 
the labour market were underlined as two of the four priority areas for future action.  

The  first  section  of  this  chapter  presents  a  synthesis  of  approaches  highlighted  by  the 
countries  focused  on  modularisation,  the  establishment  of  pathways  between  VET  and  HE 
and  quality  improvement  to  increase  VET  attractiveness.  The  second  section  of  the  chapter 
describes  curricular  reform,  greater  use  of  partnerships  between  VET  and  employers  and 
work-based  training  (including  apprenticeships)  as  key  instruments  to  increase  the  labour 
market relevance of VET.  

3.1 

Attractiveness 

Demographic  changes  and  rising  skills  requirements  make  it  crucial  that  VET  becomes  an 
attractive  option  for  young  people  and  adults  alike139.  The  following  section  describes  the 
responses of countries mentioned in national reports to tackle this challenge. Apart from the 
areas analysed below, guidance and validation of non-formal and informal learning - covered 
in  the  chapter  on  transversal  lifelong  learning  issues  –  play  also  an  important  role  in 
increasing the attractiveness of VET.  

3.1.1  Modularisation 

Modularisation is seen to enable learners to achieve qualifications progressively, to increase 
the  flexibility  of  the  vocational  offer,  to  facilitate  passing  from  one  programme  to  another 
and,  on  occasions,  to  facilitate  accumulation  towards  full  or  part-qualifications  thus  making 
VET  more  attractive  to  young  people  and  those  in  the  labour  market.  National  reports  that 
covered modularisation in VET (AT, BE nl, HU, EE, EL, ES, LU, IT, LV, PL, PT, SI, TR) 
reported that it is being used as an instrument to make VET more attractive, mainly by: 

•  allowing  students  who  do  not  complete  a  VET  programme  to  be  awarded  a  partial 

qualification.  

•  facilitating the transfer between general education and VET; and 

•  providing schools with the flexibility to take into account the specific needs of learners and 

regional/local economic needs.  

135

136

137

138

139

Conclusions  of  the  Council  on  the  future  priorities  for  enhanced  European  cooperation  on  Vocational  Education  and  Training. 
Council document 14474/06 of 30 October 2006. 
'The  Bordeaux  Communiqué  on  enhanced  cooperation  in  vocational  education  and  training'  (26  November  2008). 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/bordeaux_en.pdf  
‘Maastricht  communiqué  on  the  future  priorities  of  enhanced  European  cooperation  in  vocational  education  and  training‘  (14 
December 2004). http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/maastricht_en.pdf 
‘Helsinki communiqué on enhanced European cooperation in vocational education and training’  
(5 December 2006). http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/helsinki_en.pdf 
CEDEFOP  (2009)  Future  Skill  Supply  in  Europe.  Medium-term  forecast  up  to 2020:  synthesis  report.  Luxembourg,  Office  for 
Official Publications of the European Communities.  

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Countries reported to be at different stages in the modularisation of their VET offer: 

–  a minority of countries reported to have recently modularised much or parts of their VET 
provision (BE nl, HU, LU). Luxembourg is putting in place a competence-based approach 
to VET organized in the form of units, which are subdivided into modules, with the aim to 
facilitate that people who interrupt their studies resume training at the place where they had 
abandoned  them,  which  is  seen  in  the  country  as  a  centre-piece  for  realising  lifelong 
learning; 

–  other countries (AT, PL, PT, UK) reported to be expanding the modularised offer within 
VET  provision  (PT  has  done  this  in  relation  to  continuing  VET,  whereas  the  UK  has 
adopted a more encompassing approach requiring all VET qualifications to be unitised; in 
AT new modular apprenticeship programmes are being created–see below); 

–  four  countries  (AT,  HU,  IT,  LV)  reported  to  be  reorganising  their  existing  VET 
programmes  towards  further  modularisation  coupled  with  reductions  in  the  duration  of 
VET  programmes  or  the  establishment  of  part-qualifications.  In  Italy  pathways  of  three 
years  of  training,  aimed  at  achieving  a  qualification  equivalent  to  ISCED  level  3,  have 
been  broken-down  (2  +1,  1  +2)  facilitating  the  transition  to  the  second  or  third  year  for 
those  who  come  from  traditional  academic  educational  pathways.  In  Latvia  a  strategy  to 
increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET  aims  to  reorganise  present  four  year  secondary  VET 
programmes  into  three  year  programmes  and  introduce  a  modular  system  for  these  VET 
programmes.; and 

–  two countries reported to be currently considering further modularisation (CZ, SI). 

Box 3-8 Austria - Modularisation of apprenticeships 

The Austrian 2006 BAG (Berufsausbildungsgesetz) amendment created the legal basis for a 
possible  modularisation  of  the  apprenticeship  system  to  make  it  more  flexible,  improve 
compliance  with  sectoral  requirements,  increase  the  number  of  training  enterprises  and 
interlink initial with continuing vocational training The Austrian approach to modularisation 
consists of main and special modules. The qualifications comply with the special methods of 
production and services in the particular sector. Respective choices persist during a maximum 
training period of up to four years. 

Whilst modularisation has been an important area of activity to make VET more attractive to 
learners,  recent  research  from  CEDEFOP  has  highlighted  the  need  to  investigate  further  its 
real  contributions  to  achieve  this  objective.  140.  In  this  respect,  it  should  be  noted  that  no 
country offered details on the effectiveness of modularisation measures in their reports. 

3.1.2 Pathways between VET and HE 

The Maastricht Communiqué called for increased permeability within education and training 
systems, which requires that the HE and VET systems approach each other to support lifelong 
learning.  The  Bordeaux  Communiqué  and  the  2008  Joint  Report  mention  explicitly  that 
further progress is required in reducing the obstacles to progression between VET and further 

140

Lasonen, J. and Gordon, J. (2008) ‘Improving the attractiveness and image of VET’ in CEDEFOP (ed.) Modernising Vocational 
Education and Training. Volume 3. CEDEFOP, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 

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or higher education. These pathways have often taken the form of introducing an equivalence 
for  HE  access  between  VET  programmes  and  general  programmes  (CY,  FR,  IS)  and,  in 
particular in those countries where there are HE entrance examinations for either general or –
less frequently- vocational HE, the introduction of bridging courses which provide individuals 
who have completed upper secondary VET with the foundation to enter HE (NO). Access to 
HE (and in some cases waiving of part of HE courses/ achievement of a full HE qualification) 
can also be achieved through the validation of non-formal and informal learning (FR). 

In some countries the progression from VET into HE is already well-established (AT, BE nl, 
CY,  CZ,  FR,  IE,  IS,  IT,  NL,  NO,  SE,  UK),  whereas  other  countries  are  working  on  the 
adaptation of the national qualifications system to facilitate access, transfer and accreditation 
or  the  establishment  of  bridging  programmes  to  provide  access  to  HE.  Almost  half  of  the 
2009  reports  (AT,  CY,  DE,  EL,  ES,  HU,  LT,  LU,  HR,  IS,  IT,  NO,  SE)  referred  to  the 
development  of  pathways  between  VET  and  higher  education  as  a  tool  to  increase  VET 
attractiveness through measures such as: 

–  introducing  new  educational  offers, 

including  new  programmes  resulting  from 

collaboration between VET and HE institutions (DE, LU, LT, SE); 

–  bringing vocational and general education closer together by introducing VET programmes 
with  greater  emphasis  on  generic  skills  as  well  as  new  vocational  HE  programmes  to 
reduce dead ends (CY, DE, EL, NO); 

–  making VET and general upper secondary education equivalent for HE entry (EL, IS) or 

offering double-certification (RO); 

–  establishing additional periods of study to acquire a professional degree that allows access 

to technical courses in HE (IT, NO); 

–  establishing quotas for VET graduates access into HE (ES, HU); and 

–  providing access to HE based on professional experience (AT, HR). 

Box 3-9 – Greece - EPAL schools  

The  new  EPAL  secondary  schools  (Epagelmatika  Lykeia)  -  which  combine  general  and 
vocational education - enable its graduates to take part in the national examinations for entry 
to all higher education institutions under the same conditions as General Lyceum graduates. 
This is for the first time that such an option is available for VET students in Greece. A new 
law  introduced  in  2009  provides  an  additional  pathway  for  EPAL  graduates  to  enter  higher 
education institutions through a quota of places reserved for EPAL graduates set each year by 
the  Ministry.  There  is  evidence  that  these  new  schools  have  sparked  a  renewed  interest  in 
VET: in their second year of operation new entrants to the EPAL increased by 14% compared 
to the previous year.  

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Box 3-3 – Italy Non academic post-secondary training 

Regional administrations in Italy have set up 126 'training poles' to provide higher technical 
education  and  training  as  an  alternative  to  university  studies.  This  initiative  puts  a  strong 
emphasis on meeting national and in particular local economic needs, and on basing training 
provision  on  agreement  between  different  stakeholders.  It  is  based  on  a  2004  agreement 
between  the  Italian  Ministries  of  Education,  Labour  and  Economic  Development,  and  the 
Regions  –  including  the  association  of  upper  secondary  schools  and  training  centres,  public 
and/or  private  research  centres,  enterprises  and/or  category  associations  and  universities.  A 
2008  decree  specifies  that  both  Higher  technical  education  and  training  (IFTS)  and  training 
offered  by  Higher  Technical  Institutes  (ITS)  are  planned  on  the  basis  of  training  needs  that 
have  been  identified  in  a  number  of  sectors  regarded  as  crucial  for  the  development  of  the 
national and local economy. Local planning and provision of the higher training system must 
be the result of joint action with the provincial authorities and be supported by an agreement 
with the social partners. Courses combine academic study and practical training.  

Whereas pathways from secondary to tertiary VET are frequent (i.e. giving access to certain 
specific  technical  HE  programmes),  access  to  general  tertiary  education  is  more  complex. 
Routes into HE from apprenticeships are less well developed (cf. section on apprenticeships 
below in this chapter), as is the recognition of VET partial qualifications for entrance to or as 
part  of  HE  studies.  However,  stimulating  the  take-up  of  these  pathways  will  increasingly 
require  addressing  attitudinal,  practical  situational  as  well  as  institutional  barriers  (e.g.  in 
terms of formal HE access requirements).  

National  reports  provide  little  information  on  access  to  HE  through  the  validation  of  non-
formal and informal learning. The Bologna stocktaking exercise141 has recently outlined that 
this  has  been  an  area  in  which  little  progress  has  been  achieved  since  2007(see,  however, 
chapter 4.3.2). Validation is still better developed in the non-university HE sector and when 
used, it aims to improve the social dimension of HE, by attracting under-represented groups. 
In any case, it seems that the awareness of validation procedures is low. Full implementation 
of validation within HE would probably require a change of culture in many HE institutions, 
the  development  of  NQFs  and  more  widely  accepted  credit  transfer  linked  with  learning 
outcomes.  

Member  States  would  now  need  to  focus  on  encouraging  the  use  of  existing  pathways  and 
ensuring that these are genuinely open by dealing with problems of failure to progress. Also 
offering effective guidance to assist individuals to make the right decisions now that greater 
choice  is  available  to  them  seems  to  continue  to  be  a  challenge,  as  supported  by  recent 
research142. 

3.1.3  Quality and investment in VET 

The Council conclusions in Barcelona in 2002143, the 2006 Commission Communication on 
adult  learning144,  and  the  Bordeaux  Communiqué  have  firmly  reiterated  quality  as  a  main 

141

142

143 

EN 

C.  And 

Rauhvarhers,  A.,  Deane, 
Stocktaking 
Pauwels,  W. 
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/conference/documents/Stocktaking_report_2009_FINAL.pdf  
ECOTEC (2008) Beyond the Maastricht Communiqué: developments in the opening up of VET pathways and the role of VET in 
labour market integrations. Final report to the European Commission. 
Presidency conclusions, Barcelona, 15-16 March 2002 (SN 100/1/02, §43) 

Bologna 

Process 

Report. 

(2009) 

116 

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priority  in  VET.  Excellence  and  increase  in  quality  in  VET  are  sought  by  EU  countries 
through a diversity of mechanisms such as quality assurance (QA), quality assessment, greater 
investment  in  VET  improving  teacher  training145,  and  participation  in  international  skills 
competitions.  

Assuring  quality  in  VET  is  a  priority  for  most  EU  countries146.  The  establishment  of  a 
European  network  for  quality  assurance  in  VET  (ENQA-VET)  with  national  quality 
assurance  reference  points  in  many  countries  and  the  growing  attention  to  teachers  and 
trainers tie in with this increasing focus on quality issues, which are crucial if VET is to be an 
attractive  option  for  young  people  and  adults.  Drawing  on  the  principles  underlying  the 
Common  Quality  Assurance  Framework  for  VET  (CQAF)  that  had  been  endorsed  by  the 
Education  Council  in  May  2004147,  the  adoption  in  2009  of  a  recommendation  of  the 
European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the  establishment  of  a  European  quality  assurance 
reference  framework  in  vocational  education  and  training  (EQARF)148makes  an  important 
contribution  to  the  development  of  the  quality  assurance  in  VET  at  European,  national, 
regional  and  local  level.  Increasing  decentralization  of  VET  intensifies  the  need  for  QA 
systems. 

The 2008 Joint report highlighted that some countries (AT, DE, DK, FI, IE, SE, NO) already 
had established comprehensive quality assurance systems while others (BG, CZ, ES, FR, LU, 
MT,  SI)  were  still  in  the  development  phase,  but  judged  overall  progress  in  this  area 
satisfactory. In their 2009 reports countries described a variety of measures that are in place to 
enhance quality applicable either at VET system and/or VET provider levels: 

•  governmental external QA bodies (DK, NL, NO, PL, SE, UK); thus in Denmark all VET 
schools establish a concrete action plan for improving the completion rates in the different 
courses. The plan is evaluated by the Ministry of Education;  

•  external quality assessments of VET systems (BE fr, CY) and VET graduates (EE, PL) 

•  institutional self-assessments (AT, EE, ES, IT, LT, SE); thus in Austria the QIBB (Quality 
Initiative in VET) – which includes a ‘common frame of reference for QA in VET’- aims 
to ensure the quality of vocational schools and their continuing development; regardless its 
voluntary nature, 75% of schools make use of the framework; and 

•  voluntary links of its VET institutions with foreign examining bodies (MT).  

•  introduction  of  performance  based  awards  at  VET  providers  level  (AT  has  established  a 
‘quality bonus’ for companies conditional on good performance of their apprenticeships in 
their training; HU introduced in Quality Prizes for VET institutions with highest placement 
rate of graduates on the labour market).  

144
145 
146

147

148

COM (2006) 614 final.  
CEDEFOP (2009)1 op. cit. 
CEDEFOP (2009)1 op. cit. 
9599/04 EDUC 117 SOC 252 du 18 Mai 2004  
Recommendation  of  the  EP  and  the  Council  on  the  establishment  of  a  European  Quality  Assurance  Reference  Framework  for 
vocational education and training 2008/0069 (COD) LEX 1033 18 June 2009 

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Several  reports  mentioned  participation  in  international  skills  competitions  such  as 
EuroSkills  (AT,  DK,  EE,  HU,  LT,  LV,  NL,  SK)  and  WorldSkills  (ES,  EE,  HU,  NL)  as 
initiatives that help to increase the attractiveness of VET. These countries also reported using 
such  competitions  to  benchmark  the  quality  of  their  VET  provision  against  that  of  other 
countries. 

Changes in the training of teachers and trainers have significant impacts on the quality of 
VET  provision.  The  report  from  the  Peer  Learning  Activities  on  the  professionalization  of 
teachers and trainers in VET provides a comprehensive overview of initiatives in the field149. 
The national reports underlined following developments at national level: 

–  the  upgrading  of  their  entry  qualifications  or  their  continuous  professional  development 
(DK, MT, NO) Denmark, Malta and Norway reported efforts to upgrade the qualifications 
and the competences of staff; 

–  the  improvement  of  teaching  quality  through  the  adoption  of  new  educational  standards 

and teacher training (AT); 

–  enhancement  of  the  possibilities  for  the  professional  development  of  VET  teachers  in 

relevant companies (HR). 

Regarding investments in VET, 12 countries (BE fr, BE nl, BG, EE, EL, ES, IT, LT, LV, 
HU,  MT,  SE)  reported  to  have  devoted  targeted  investments  to  establish  well-equipped 
training centres. This enhances the attractiveness  of VET  as trainees can operate with  up to 
date equipment, acquiring skills of direct relevance in the labour market.  

Countries also reported on the use of financial support and incentives to individuals (BL fr, 
BL nl, CY, EE, HU, LV, PL): 

–  guaranteeing  the  right  to  education  for  all  and  free  training  for  job  seekers  and  workers 
(BE  fr,  where  job  seekers  also  receive  training  insurance,  reimbursement  of  travel  and 
child care and nursery school, amongst other support measures); 

–  ad-hoc  free  provision  available  in  some  sectors  or  for  some  target  groups  (EE  reported 
increased  participation  in  in-service  training  following  investment  in  the  provision  of  a 
range  of  new  free  VET  courses;  CY  as  part  of  the  actions  taken  to  deal  with  the  current 
economic  crisis,  has  increased  funding  to  temporarily  give  unemployed  people  over  25 
more greater educationally related financial support during 2009 and 2010, subsidising up 
to 80% of the course costs); 

–  provision of scholarships in areas with skills shortages in BE nl and HU, students enrolled 
in courses where demand for labour exceeded supply, receive a monthly allowance; and 

–  provision  of  scholarships  based  on  good  performance  (LV  is  supporting  talented  young 
people  providing  scholarships  to  support  students  who  achieve  good  academic  results  in 
VET  institutions  that  implement  accredited  engineering  and  technology,  architecture  and 
construction VET programmes). 

149

European Commission (2009) Summary report from the Peer Learning Activity on the professionalization of teachers and trainers 
in vocational education and training, http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningClusters/ClusterDetails.cfm?id=11  

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Quality and investment in VET are essential to make VET attractive. Countries are employing 
structural measures to improve quality combined with changes in quality assurance practices, 
teacher training, greater investment in infrastructure and individual support to VET students 
and increasing the profile of VET through international skills competitions.  

3.2 

Relevance to labour market needs 

The  Bordeaux  Communiqué  and  the  Council  Resolution  on  New  Skills  for  New  Jobs 
underline the importance of increasing the relevance of education and training provision for 
meeting  labour  market  needs.  Curricular  reform,  increasing  partnerships  between  VET 
providers  and  employers  and  enhancing  the  role  of  work-based  learning  including 
apprenticeships  are  the  main  strategies  countries  reported  in  order  to  enhance  the  labour 
market relevance of VET. These measures complement other initiatives already reviewed in 
this  report,  such  as  guidance  and  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning.  An 
important aspect to note given recent political emphasis in this area is that skills forecasting 
has  an  important  role  in  informing  the  diverse  changes  outlined  below  to  make  VET  more 
relevant  to  labour  market  needs.  As  analysed  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document 
accompanying the Communication on New Skills for New Jobs150, most Member States are 
already  using  or  developing  tools  for  skills  forecasting.  However,  these  initiatives  vary 
significantly in scope and methodology and need to be brought together into an orchestrated 
effort in order to strengthen the EU capacity for anticipation and forecasting of skills needs. 

Few  countries  (BG,  CY,  CZ,  EE,  FR,  HU,  IE,  IT,  LT,  PL,  RO,  SE)  reported  to  have 
established  new  mechanism  or  having  already  established  mechanisms  to  meet  this  end, 
through: 

–  the work of regional development and training committees or observatories (CZ, HU, FR, 
IT, PL, RO); in Italy a decree has established that each regional administration should draw 
up  local  plans  to  be  reviewed  every  three  years  with  the  objective  of  adapting  VET 
provision to the needs of the productive sector; 

–  employer surveys (BG, CY); as such Bulgaria undertook a national representative survey 
of the needs of employer in relation to their workforce and prepared medium term forecasts 
for the demand of labour for the period 2008-2010; 

–  sectoral  observatories  (FR);  each  sector  should  establish  an  observatory  with  the  main 
objective  to  enable  formulation  of  sectoral  education  and  training  policies  based  on 
qualitative and quantitative anticipation mechanisms; 

–  the  use  of  administrative  data  on  changes  in  employment  structures  (EE,  LT)  and  career 

tracking systems (HU). 

3.2.1  Qualification/ curricular reform  

The  2008  Joint  report151  mentioned  curricular  reform  as  a  fundamental  tool  to  improve  the 
labour market relevance of VET, together with the move towards learning outcomes (covered 

150

151

European Commission (2008) Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the Communication on New Skills for New 
Jobs. http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/com868_en.pdf 
2008 Joint Council/ Commission Report on the implementation of the Education & Training 2010 work programme: ‘Delivering 
lifelong learning for knowledge, creativity and innovation’. 

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in  the  chapter  on  transversal  lifelong  learning  issues).  Engagement  of  employers  is  often 
accompanied  by  greater  degree  of  decentralisation  to  enable  VET  institutions  to  meet  local 
labour  market  needs.  Thus,  the  main  trends  in  the  country  reports  in  relation  to  curricular 
reform are:  

–  updating the qualification standards and/or curricula (BG, BE nl, CZ, DE, DK, EL, EE, IS, 
IT, LT, LU, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RO, SE, SK, UK). This has been with the aims of better 
matching  with  labour  market  needs,  (strengthening  the  emphasis  on  competences),  and 
extending the vocational offer. 

–  increasing 

the  role  of 

the  productive  sector 

the  redefinition/  evaluation  of 
standards/curricula in VET (BG, BE nl, CZ, DE, EE, EI, IS, IT, LT, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, 
SK, UK). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, according to national guidelines for VET 
curricula, schools are designing part of their own VET programmes in line with regional 
labour  market  needs.  In  Iceland,  new  legislation  gives  VET  lower  secondary  schools  the 
opportunity to introduce VET courses in cooperation with upper secondary schools or with 
local firms for students 14-16 years old; and 

in 

–  examples of a more active role of the State in the development of new VET provision. In 
Denmark  the  Ministry  of  Education  is  initiating  new  education  programmes  covering 
occupations or trades not covered by the programmes initiated by the trade boards. 

Box 3-4 – Romania - Social partner involvement  

In  Romania,  the  relevant  social  partners  are  involved  in  both  developing  and  validating  the 
professional  qualifications  offered  by  the  VET  system  and  in  the  strategic  planning  of  the 
education  and  training  offer.  At  sectoral,  regional,  local  levels  there  are  consultative  bodies 
such as: sectoral committees, regional consortiums, local committees for the development of 
the  social  partnership,  the  administration  councils  of  the  schools.  The  VET  curricula  are 
developed with the consultation of all the above mentioned structures and after investigating 
the needs of training on the labour market at regional and local levels. 

3.2.2 

Partnerships with employers 

The  2002  Council  Resolution  on  lifelong  learning  and  most  recently  the  Bordeaux 
Communiqué  invited  Member  States  to  promote  partnerships  and  cooperation  between 
education  and  training  establishments  and  the  social  partners  to  increase  the  relevance  of 
VET152.  A  range  of  European  countries,  particularly  those  with  established  apprenticeship 
systems, (AT, DK, DE, FI, FR, IE, LU, NL, NO) have a longstanding tradition of cooperation 
with enterprises. Countries with less established partnerships with employers were those that 
more frequently reported new partnership initiatives, as described below. Almost two thirds of 
the reports mentioned increased partnerships with employers (AT, BG, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, DE, 
EE, EL, FR, HR, HU, IS, IT, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, UK), often geared towards 
curricular discussion (see above). National reports also included other strategies to stimulate 
partnership work: 

–  establishing  new  structures  for  dialogue  between  employers,  public  authorities  and 
educational institutions (AT, BG, BE fr, BE nl, DE, EE, HR, HU, LU, LV, PT, RO, UK); 

152

Council Resolution of 27 June 2002 on lifelong learning. 2002/C 163/01. OJ, 9.7.2002. 

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–  the creation (CZ) or consolidation (UK) of sector skills councils to represent employers on 
training issues; in the UK sector skills councils are run and owned by employers but draw 
on  the  expertise  of  trade  unions,  professional  bodies  and  other  stakeholders  to  build 
intelligence on skills needs and influence planning and funding of VET across the UK; 

–  expanding  social  partner  functions  on  VET  issues  (EE,  HU,  IS,  LT,  PL,  PT,  UK)  in  a 
particular area such as the planning of the training offer or, more deeply, in the governance 
of the VET system; 

–  providing  new  financial  incentives  for  employers  who  collaborate  in  the  provision  of 

training (BE fr) or ensuring new agreements for placements for young people (AT); 

–  developing cooperation with Chambers of Crafts and Trades in order to involve small and 

medium sized crafts businesses in apprenticeships (HR); 

–  engaging employers more actively in the training of VET teachers (BE nl, BG, CZ);  

–  making  employer  co-financing  a  requirement  for  schools  to  take  part  in  some  of  the 

national programmes that provide funds for VET (BG); 

–  creation  of  a  label  “lycee  des  metiers”  (FR)  which  recognises  partnership  between  VET 
providers, local authorities and employers as well as a use of a quality charter. The goal is 
to have 800 VET schools within the scheme by 2010. 

Box 3-5 – Estonia - Partnership in the planning of VET offer  

In Estonia one of the objectives of the national “Development Plan Vocational Education for 
2005–2008”  was  to  further  develop  cooperation  with  social  partners  (employers’  and 
employees’  umbrella  organisations  and  professional  associations).  Significant  progress  has 
been made since in ensuring that the content and organisation of vocational education better 
conforms to the needs of the labour market. Thus the planning of state-commissioned training 
places (SCTP) for vocational educational institutions has been aligned with developments in 
the economy and employment trends (Labour Market Board).  

On the whole this is an area in which progress has been achieved over the last decade in most 
EU  countries  as  illustrated  by  the  many  different  ways  of  involving  employers  in  curricula, 
recruitment, financing etc.153 

3.2.3 

Apprenticeships and work based training 

The Bordeaux Communiqué invited Member States to promote learning at the workplace154. 
Many countries see apprenticeships and work based training as a suitable way to ensure that 
VET  is  relevant  to  labour  market  needs,  reduce  the  drop-out  rates  of  students  at  risk  and 
increase  educational  achievement  in  EU  countries.  National  reports  show  developments 

153 

154 

See  also:  ECOTEC  (2008)  Beyond  the  Maastricht  Communiqué:  developments  in  the  opening  up  of 
VET  pathways  and  the  role  of  VET  in  labour  market  integrations.  Final  report  to  the  European 
Commission. 
Council Resolution on lifelong learning, op. cit. 

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occurring in apprenticeships and work based learning over a third of the countries (AT, CY, 
CZ, DE, FR, IE, IT, LT, LV, NO, PT, SE, UK): 

–  Cyprus  and  Sweden  (where  apprentices  will  become  eligible  for  access  to  HE  and  a 
national  apprenticeship  committee  has  been  created)  are  particularly  significant  cases  as 
these  countries  reported  pilots  in  relation  to  the  establishment  of  new  apprenticeship 
programmes; 

–  expansion number and types of apprenticeship places available in the public and/ or private 
sector (UK, NO); thus Norway is studying how to increase the number of apprenticeships 
and considering the introduction of an entitlement to an apprenticeship contract; 

–  expansion  of  the  opportunities  and  guidance  to  combine  school  and  work  situations 

through stages/ internships (BE nl, BG, LU, NL) and enterprise tutoring (IT); 

–  subsidies are being provided to firms whose apprentices upon good performance (AT) or 

for the training of workers in workplace settings (BE fr, UK);  

–  allowing  lower-secondary  students  to  test  work-based  upper-secondary  programmes, 
should  they  choose  to  continue  their  education  with  a  VET  programme  after  finishing 
lower-secondary education (IS, NO); and 

–  waiving of the initial components of apprenticeships has become possible upon evidence of 

satisfactory professional experience, to attract more people (AT). 

Box 3-6 – Italy - School-work alternance 

In Italy the Ministry of Education has expanded school-work alternance possibilities through 
a new methodological system for undertaking training at secondary school level, including the 
use of simulation centres (one or more schools in each region) and virtual companies linked to 
a  tutoring  enterprise.  The  method  is  based  on  alternating  school  and  working  periods, 
systematically linking classroom training with practical experience so that students have the 
opportunity to understand processes and techniques employed in leading companies.  

Box 3-7 – Belgium nl - Certified Workplace Learning 

In Belgium nl, to stimulate innovation without imposing rapid changes in the education policy 
rules for the entire education sector, the policy chooses to support the so called “proeftuinen” 
(experimental pilot projects). These are temporary projects organized by (groups of) schools 
on the following topics: to develop certified workplace learning in a systematic and structural 
way;  to  optimize  and  expand  internship  for  trainees,  teachers  and  trainers.  Some  of  the 
projects can be used for the design of evaluation tools that assess skills acquired within the 
classroom, during internships or periods of workplace learning. 

Several  countries  are  considering  or  taking  action  to  create  or  increase  their  apprenticeship 
offer.  Few  countries  made  specific  reference  to  the  stimulation  of  quality  apprenticeships, 
retention of apprentices and work based training in SMEs – a group of employers that find it 

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more difficult than large employers to invest in and retain the apprentices they take on155. For 
reaping  the  full  advantages  of  such  kinds  of  training  it  would  be  advisable  to  pay  further 
attention  to  those  mechanisms  aimed  at  promoting  quality  apprenticeships  especially  in  the 
SME sector. More broadly, apprenticeship offer is sensitive to the economic climate156, and 
may need to be stimulated more strongly in the current economic conditions. 

3.3 

Conclusions on attractiveness of VET and link to labour market needs 

The chapter presents the different approaches taken at national level to address key priorities 
of  the  Copenhagen  process,  namely  the  attractiveness  and  labour  market  relevance  of  the 
diverse and complex VET systems which exist throughout Europe.  

To  promote  the  attractiveness  of  VET,  the  main  tools  mentioned  in  the  national  reports  are 
modularisation, pathways to higher education (HE), and excellence and quality. 

Modularisation is seen by countries to be an important way of making VET provision more 
flexible and responsive to the specific needs of learners and businesses. Better access to HE is 
also reported by a number of countries as a way of increasing attractiveness to good trainees 
and students (e.g. through new or improved pathways). However, the improvement of access 
through the validation of non-formal and informal learning may remain a challenge in most 
countries. And it is not yet clear to what extent the initiatives or tools mentioned have been 
used by institutions and trainees and, therefore, to what extent they have had an impact. 

On the issue of quality assurance, national reports mention a number of tools being used for 
the implementation of quality assurance systems with focus on the professionalization of VET 
teachers  and  trainers.  Investment  in  up-to-date  equipment,  targeted  financial  incentives  for 
individuals  and  the  participation  of  countries  in  international  skills  competitions  were  also 
cited as means to increase the excellence and attractiveness of VET. 

Clear developments have been reported by a range of countries to enhance the relevance of 
their  VET  provision  to  labour  market  needs.  Partnerships  with  social  partners  have  a  long 
tradition  in  those  countries  with  established  apprenticeship  or  dual  systems,  but  such 
structures are now also becoming more frequent in the countries without that tradition. This is 
particularly  the  case  for  the  financing  and  planning  of  VET  provision  in  accordance  with 
employers'  needs.  The  continuing  decentralisation  of  VET  has  allowed  providers  to  use 
curricular  reform  to  adapt  the  VET  provision  to  local  labour  market  needs.  There  is  some 
evidence that employers are being involved more systematically in the update and redefinition 
of curricula and qualification standards. Apprenticeships and work-based training schemes are 
seen as an efficient tool to ensure labour market relevance and, therefore, new apprenticeship 
schemes  are  increasingly  being  established  in  the  countries  with  no  work-based  training 
tradition. The continuation of these steps to make the systems and practice more relevant will 
be crucial if VET provision is to respond effectively to the challenges of evolving skills needs 
as set out in the New Skills for New Jobs initiative. 

155 

156 

Culpepper,  P.  (2007)  ‘Small  States  and  skills  specificity:  Austria,  Switzerland  and  inter-employer 
cleavages in skills specificity’ Comparative Political Studies, vol.40 (6), pp. 611-637. 
Steedman, H. (2005) ‘Apprenticeships in Europe: Fading or Flourishing?’ CEP Discussion paper 710. 
London School of Economics. 

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4 

HIGHER EDUCATION 

Modernisation  of  Europe’s  higher  education  institutions,  involving  their  interlinked  roles  of 
education, research and innovation, has been acknowledged not only as a core condition for 
the success of the broader Lisbon Strategy for growth and jobs, but as part of the wider move 
towards an increasingly global and knowledge-based economy.  

The Commission Communication on ‘Delivering the Modernisation Agenda for universities: 
education, research and innovation’157 sets out three broad areas for reform: 

i) Curricula appropriate to the needs of society and the economy, including a increased focus 
upon  competence  based  learning,  more  flexible  learning  paths,  better  recognition,  and 
improved opportunities for mobility. 

ii)  Governance:  enhanced  university  autonomy,  strategic  partnerships,  including  with 
enterprises, and improved quality assurance 

iii) Funding diversified sources of university income better linked to performance, promoting 
equity, access and efficiency, including the possible role of tuition fees supported by grants 
and loans. 

Furthermore, the Council Resolution of November 2007 on modernising universities158 made 
explicit 

The need for universities to have sufficient autonomy, better governance and accountability in 
their structures to face new societal needs and to enable them to increase and diversify their 
sources of public and private funding in order to reduce the funding gap with the European 
Union's main competitors;  

and emphasised 

The  importance  of  increasing  lifelong  learning  opportunities,  widening  higher  education 
access to non-traditional and adult learners and developing the lifelong learning dimension 
of universities;  

This chapter examines the evidence from countries set out in their national reports on progress 
made in:  

i) plans and measures to diversify the income streams of Higher Education Institutions; and  

ii)  plans  and  incentives  to  encourage  Higher  Education  Institutions  to  open  up  to  lifelong 
learners. 

157 
158 

COM(2006) 208 final  
Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  Council  on  the  Council  Resolution  of  23  November  2007  on 
Modernising Universities for Europe's competitiveness in a global knowledge economy, COM(2008) 680 
final  

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4.1 

Income Streams in Higher Education 

Total  investment  in  higher  education  was  about  1.3%  of  GDP  in  2006.  Public  investment 
accounts for approximately 87% of the total amount spent on tertiary education institutions in 
Europe;  and  of  this  amount  the  vast  majority  is  in  the  form  of  direct  public  spending159 
Clearly, whilst public support remains the primary source of Higher Education (HE) funding, 
a trend can be observed both in an increase in private funding and expansion of competitive 
funding from both public and private sources, as countries pursue strategies aimed to diversify 
the funding base of their higher education institutions.160  

Three main sources of diversified funding sources are prevalent: Tuition Fees; Research and 
Service Contracts (secured through competitive programmes or privately contracted research 
and  related  services  from  industry);  and  Fund  raising  (such  as  support  from  foundations, 
trusts, charities, individuals and corporate donors).  

In  their  national  reports,  countries  highlight  tuition  fees  as  the  main  form  of  diversified 
resources (BE-nl, EE, EL, LV, LT, NO, MT, SK, SL, UK). The levels of such fees, the cycles 
and  programmes,  and  the  student  profiles,  to  which  they  apply  varies  significantly  between 
countries.  It  should  be  noted,  that  many  countries,  including  those  that  do  not  have 
(widespread)  tuition  fees,  do  implement  registration,  examination  and  administration  fees, 
which in some cases may be substantial. 

A small number of countries describe an additional need to attract a diverse supply of public 
funding streams (DE, ES, HU, IT, SL, UK) and most have recently undergone or are in the 
process of introducing legislation, which grants universities increased financial autonomy. 

In addition to the sources of diversified funding, countries include information on approaches 
to the allocation of public funds, such as an increased use of performance contracts, and the 
use of matched funding to make public funds ‘go further’. 

Several  countries  cite  the  importance  of  striking  a  balance  between  core  funding  –  and  the 
stability which this can provide, with competitively-based funding to encourage HE providers 
to  be  proactive  in  diversification,  both  in  their  income  streams  and  in  their  missions  and 
profiles/target  groups  (BE-nl,  CY,  EE,  ES,  PL).  Increasingly,  multi-annual  (usually  3  or  4 
years)  funding  agreements  are 
in  particular  for 
variable/performance-related funding allocations. 

in  place  with  annual  reviews, 

4.1.1.  The changing levels of public funding in response to economic downturn 

In  the  context  of  the  economic  and  financial  crisis,  the  EU’s  Economic  Recovery  Plan161 
stresses  that  Member  States  should  maintain  investment  in  education:  crucial  both  to  short-
term recovery and as a driver of longer-term prosperity.  

159 

160 

161 

Bearing  directly  the  current  and  capital  expenses  of  educational  institutions,  contrasted  with  indirect 
expenditure  in  the  form  of  transfers  to  private  households  (scholarships  and  loans)  and  firms  (public 
subsidies for educational activities) 
The 2009 annual report of the Commission on progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and 
training gives a detailed presentation and analysis of HE investment 
COM (2008) 800 final 

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Broadly,  national  reports  provide  little  information  on  the  impact  of  the  crisis  on  tertiary 
spending,  although  some  do  specifically  highlight  that  they  are  making  available  increased 
resources for HE in order to tackle economic challenges (DK, ES, HR). Others (EE, IE, IT, 
IS, UK) highlight the allocation of resources for initiatives targeted specifically at people who 
lose their jobs or who are under threat of redundancy as a result of the economic downturn.  

Box 4-1 – UK (England) - Economic Challenge Investment Fund 

The Economic Challenge Investment Fund (ECIF) was announced in January 2009 to enable 
higher  education  to  respond  rapidly  to  the  needs  of  employers  and  individuals  during  the 
economic  downturn.  The  fund  consists  of  £25  million  provided  by  the  Higher  Education 
Funding  Council  for  England  (HEFCE)  with  matched  funding  from  institutions  and  will 
enable  universities  and  colleges  to  provide  tailored  training,  development  and  professional 
support to vulnerable groups facing the risk of redundancy.  

Box 4-2 – Ireland - response to economic downturn 

In  April  2009,  the  Irish  Minister  for  Education  and  Science  announced  that  over  5,400 
additional  places  were  being  made  available  for  unemployed  people  on  higher  education 
courses.  

In  June,  2009,  the  Minister  announced  that  a  further  1,000  additional  post-graduate  places 
would  be  made  available  to  assist  unemployed  graduates  in  undertaking  part-time 
postgraduate  diplomas  or  conversion  programmes.  The  scope  to  further  develop  these 
initiatives and to identify other appropriate responses which higher education institutions can 
make  to  support  the  upskilling  of  unemployed  people  is  being  examined  by  a  Higher 
Education Labour Market Response Group. 

Whilst most countries provide no information on plans for overall levels of public expenditure 
on HE, it is clear that in some countries funding decreases have already been implemented or 
are  foreseen  (EE,  HU,  IT,  LT,  PL),  and  others  have  scaled  back  plans  to  increase  funding 
(AT) or have implemented caps on existing spending levels (UK).  

Germany is an example of increased investment in education and research. 

Box 4-3 – Germany – Additional investment in HE 

In Germany an additional 18 billion Euro investment in education and research by 2019 has 
been  announced  in  June  2009.  As  part  of  this,  the  federal  government  and  the  Länder  will 
each invest 3,7 billion Euro until 2015 for 275 000 additional study places.  

4.1.2.  Public funds: Financial Autonomy of Higher Education Institutions 

The Council Resolution on modernising universities for Europe's competitiveness in a global 
knowledge economy162 invited Member States to provide HE institutions with the autonomy 
to develop their full potential and take the necessary measures to modernise higher education 
institutions by granting them autonomy and greater accountability.  

162  http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/07/st16/st16096-re01.en07.pdf  

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The Commission had further stressed that universities should be funded more for what they do 
than  what  they  are,  focusing  resources  on  relevant  outputs  rather  than  on  inputs  and  by 
adapting  funding  to  the  diversity  of  institutional  profiles  and  that  Higher  Education 
Institutions  should 
financial 
sustainability.163 

take  greater  responsibility 

their  own 

long-term 

for 

A lack of autonomy can be a major inhibitor in the identification and achievement of the mix 
of funding which will support a modernised Higher Education system164 and there is clear and 
positive correlation between increased autonomy and HEI performance. 

In their country reports, many countries provide information on recent legislative changes or 
future plans to increase the financial autonomy of individual institutions (EE, EL, FI, FR, HR, 
IE,  IT,  LU,  LV,  NO,  PT,  SK,  UK).  Most  now  enable  institutions  to  attract  funds  from  a 
variety  of  sources  and  empower  HEIs  to  take  a  more  strategic  role  in  managing  the  public 
funds  conferred  to  them  and  in  seeking  new  funding,  eg.  through  the  management  of  their 
own  estates,  the  commercialisation  of  research/IPR  and  other  for  profit  activity  such  as 
services to business (BE-nl, CY, EE, EL FI, HU, IE, IS, LT, MT, NO, PT, SL, NL, SE, SK). 

Box 4-4 – Finland - New Universities Act and financial autonomy of HEIs 

The  Finland  Universities  Act  2009  allows  for  universities  to  become  independent 
corporations under public law or foundations under private law. This has put them outside of 
the  government  budgeting  system,  but  still  allows  institutions  to  receive  an  annual  budget 
from  national  funds,  which  will  be  maintained  at  the  current  level,  to  execute  the  tasks 
assigned  to  them.  The  intention  is  to  increase  the  financial  autonomy  of  institutions  and 
diversify  the  funding  base.  Universities  can  acquire  external  funding,  direct  investments  for 
strategic areas of important research, and may acquire shares and other property, and pursue 
in business ventures.  

Whilst  many  countries  outline  legislative  and  other  changes  in  their  country  reports  to 
increase  the  financial  autonomy  and  accountability  of  Higher  Education  Institutions  (HEI), 
few provide detail on how institutions are being equipped to take strategic financing decisions 
and the incentives put in place for them to do so. For example, through increased use of full 
(actual) costing and the ability to cross-subsidise provision.  

4.1.3.  Public funds: The use of performance contracts to allocate funding 

Performance indicators have a growing influence in the allocation of public funds; however, 
country  reports  demonstrate  limited  examples  of  their  use.  The  most  widespread  indicators 
are those linked to student attainment and improved quality of provision (AT, BE nl, BE fr, 
CZ, DE, DK, ES, HU, PT), and widening the participation amongst non-traditional learners 
(BE nl, HR). 

163

164

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Report on the Council Resolution on Modernising Universities, op. dict.  

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Box 4-5 – Belgium nl – Student achievement 

In  teaching,  in  Flanders,  performance  agreements  cover  an  incentive  for  the  institutions  to 
support  student  achievement  and  progression  and  to  improve  academic  success  (in  terms  of 
completing  credits  and  gaining  a  qualification),  especially  the  achievement  and  success  of 
students  from  more  vulnerable  backgrounds  (low  cultural  capital).  The  targets  include  an 
increase  of  participation  of  students  from  lower  socio-economic  backgrounds,  of  students 
from  ethnic  minorities,  of  students  with  a  disability  but  also  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
graduates  from  those  target  groups.  Attracting  second  chance  students  could  also  be  one  of 
the actions funded under those agreements. 

4.1.4.  Public  funds:  Matched  funding,  top-up  funds,  and  tax  relief  mechanisms  for 

diversification 

The 2007 Council Resolution issued a particular invitation to Member States to make use of 
the Structural Funds to help modernise Higher Education. Several countries report on how 
they  are  using  structural  funds  and  national  co-financing  (matched  funding)  to  support 
infrastructure and staffing costs to participate in wider activities (CY, EL, PL, SK, SI).  

The mechanism of matched funding is also used to encourage institutions to generate funding 
through voluntary donations and to seek investment from private organisations (NO, UK).  

Box 4-6 Norway - Donation Reinforcement initiative 

In  Norway,  higher  education  institutions  can  benefit  from  the  Donation  Reinforcement 
Initiative,  which  was  adopted  by  the  Norwegian  Parliament  in  June  2005  and  became 
effective in the 2006 budget.  

Under  the  initiative,  for  donations  of  at  least  3  million  NOK,  the  government  will  match 
donations  with  an  extra  25%.  The  Research  Council  of  Norway  manages  and  allocates  the 
matching  of  funds.  To  qualify,  donations  must  be  for  long-term  basic  research,  and  cannot 
fund  efforts  directly  benefiting  a  donor’s  business.  Donations  from  business  and  private 
individuals  were  eligible  from  2006,  and  donations  from  charities  were  eligible  from  2007. 
Institutions eligible for donations and reinforcements are universities, university colleges that 
award doctorates, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, and the Research Council 
of Norway.  

Investments  and  donations  from  the  private  sector  are  also  encouraged  through  tax  relief 
mechanisms.  Evidence  from 
that 
approximately  half  of  countries  have  recently  implemented  or  will  soon  implement  tax 
incentives related to partnerships between HEIs and the private sector.165 

the  European  Commission  (Eurydice)  highlights 

Several  of  the  country  reports  show  how  Governments  are  encouraging  HEIs  to  seek 
investments and donations that will be eligible for tax relief (AT, CY, EL, FI, LU, NO, PL, 
PT,  SE,  SI).  Policy  incentives  include  tax  relief  for  donations,  for  both  institutions,  and 
donors  (PL,  SE),  for  capital 
to  gifts  or 
endowments/legacies (SI).  

investment  (EL),  or  and  with  respect 

165

Higher education governance in Europe, policies, structures, funding and academic staff (Eurydice) 2008  

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Competitive  processes  for  the  allocation  of  national  funds  available  for  research  are 
increasingly  a  feature  in  most  countries.  In  addition,  recent  years  have  seen  a  growing 
awareness  of,  and  emphasis  upon,  attracting  funds  from  international  sources,  such  as  EU 
research framework programmes (AT, BE fr , BE nl, CY, DK, ES, FR HU, MT, NO, PT, SI, 
UK). 

4.1.5. Private funds: The changing use of tuition fees  

The Commission  Communication on  efficiency and equity166 called upon Member States to 
create  appropriate  conditions  and  incentives  to  generate  higher  investment  from  public  and 
private  sources, 
tuition  fees  combined  with 
accompanying financial measures for the disadvantaged.  

including,  where  appropriate, 

through 

Country  reports  demonstrate  variation  between  countries  that  permit  public  HEIs  to  levy 
tuition  fees  (AT,  BE,  DE  depending  on  Lander,  EE,  ES,  FI,  HU,  IS,  IT,  LV,  LT,  MT,  NL, 
NO, PT, SK, SI, UK) and those that do not permit the charging of tuition fees (CY, DK, IE, 
NO). For private universities, tuition fees are the main source of income; however, in some 
countries  private  universities  are  eligible  for  some  degree  of  state  funding  and  this  is 
mentioned specifically by IS and NO. There is also variation in trends regarding the levels of 
tuition fees: while some countries are considering the introduction or increase of tuition fees 
(CZ, DE to introduce tuition fees in additional Lander, EL, SE, MT), others are removing or 
reducing  them  (AT,  BE  nl,  NL).  In  addition,  there  are  other  charges  to  students  which 
constitute  private  income  to  HEIs,  for  example,  through  service  charges  (IE)  or  registration 
and examination fees, (FR, IS, SI), which in some cases may exceed the tuition fee levels in 
countries where tuition charges are modest. 

Differences  also  exist  with  regard  to  the  students  to  whom  tuition  fees  apply:  for  example, 
only to postgraduate students (CY, EL, MT, SI) or part-time students (IE, MT, SI).  

HU is perhaps unusual in seeing a reduction in revenues from tuition fees as a result of a fall 
in  the  number  of  self-financing  students,  brought  about  by  demographic  change  and  a 
proportional increase in the numbers of students choosing VET (with state-funded places). 

Attracting  students  from  outside  the  EU/EEA  is  increasingly  an  important  source  of  private 
funding for HEIs in several countries and is highlighted specifically by FI, MT, SE, and SK. 

4.1.6. 

Investments from industry/private sector 

Incentives for partnerships and investments in research are more common than partnerships in 
education.  These  include  business  incubators  or  joint  business  ventures,  joint  research 
initiatives  or  investments,  or  funding  for  research  and  development  services  (BE  fr,  BE  nl, 
CY, CZ, El, FI, HU, IS, NO, PT, SK, SI, LT).  

In particular, commercialisation of research is an increasing source of private revenue, and is 
highlighted specifically in several country reports (BE fr, EL, HU, IS, LT, LU, MT, NO, SK, 
SI), with some countries setting up institutional architecture to facilitate such co-operation for 
example through Technology Transfer Liaison Offices (EL), and the Poles de Competitivité 
(BE fr).  

166 

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Box 4-7 – Greece - identifying synergies between research and industry 

In  Greece  the  HELP-FORWARD  Network  (PRAXI)  serves  as  a  relay  centre  mediating 
between  research  and  industry  and  facilitating  identification  of  economic  synergies.  The 
Network  operates  as  a  distinct  entity,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hellenic  federation  of 
enterprises  (SEV),  the  Federation  of  Industries  of  Northern  Greece  (FING),  and  the 
Foundation  for  Research  and  Technology  –  Hellas  (FFORTH).  The  Network  collaborates 
with  most  regional  chambers  and  associations  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  as  well  as  with 
regional  government  offices,  assuring  a  balanced  and  cost-effective  coverage  of  the  entire 
country.  Special  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  hard-to-reach  and  often  disadvantaged  regions. 
The  HELP-FORWARD  network  maintains  close  links  with  most  Universities  and  Research 
Centres,  as  well  as  Technology  Parks,  Sectoral  RTD  companies,  and  venture  capital  and 
development banks, additional to the regional administrations.  

4.2. 

Opening up to lifelong learners 

Increasing  lifelong  learning  opportunities  in  Higher  Education  focuses  especially  on 
widening  access  for  non-traditional  learners  (inc.  students  from  deprived  socioeconomic 
backgrounds,  people  with  disabilities  and  older  learners)  as  well  as  promoting  continuing 
education and professional development for adults in employment.  

The  majority  of  countries  address  both  dimensions  in  their  national  reports.  However,  in 
general,  there  is  a  greater  focus  on  widening  access  for  people  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds, which is cited by almost all countries as a priority. 

4.2.1.  Policies and strategies for promoting inclusion of non-traditional learners 

Overarching policies and strategies for lifelong learning are emerging or already embedded in 
a  number  of  European  countries  (see  chapter  2).  Several  countries  specify  the  social 
dimension  to  widening  access  to  higher  education  in  their  policies  and  strategies  including 
targets to increase participation of students from lower socioeconomic groups, and to broaden 
overall access to higher education (AT, BE nl, CZ, DK, FI, IE, IT, LT, PT). Some countries 
highlight  specific  financial  incentives  for  widening  participation  amongst  non-traditional 
learners (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FI, NO, PL).  

Fewer countries address the workforce in their policies and strategies (BE nl, EL, FI, IS, IT, 
LT,  NL,  NO),  and  where  mentioned  by  countries  in  their  reports,  this  primarily  concerns 
general  continuing  education  and  training  rather  than  up-skilling  (for  new  careers  for 
example). However, in direct response to the current economic situation, four countries (IE, 
IS, IT, UK) have put in place specific responses to try to (re)engage the recently unemployed 
or those under threat of redundancy with HE learning opportunities (see also section 4.2.1).  

4.2.2.  The recognition of prior learning (formal, non-formal and informal) 

Recognition of prior learning (RPL) (see also chapter 3.2.2) can be key in opening access to 
higher education for those who have not followed ‘traditional’ academic routes or those who 
would  wish  to  return  to  studies  later  in  life.  A  central  component  of  lifelong  learning 
strategies,  RPL  allows  for  formal  consideration  of  achievements  gained  ‘outside  the 
classroom’ and for the translation of previous qualifications to enable learners to progress to 
higher levels. Several countries highlight how RPL strategies are supporting access to higher 

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education  for  those  without  the  formal  academic  entry  requirements,  including  for  mature 
students with workplace or professional experience (BE nl, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, IE, IT, 
LT, LU, LV, PT, SK, SI).  

France  has  one  of  the  most  developed  systems  of  recognition  of  prior  learning  in  the  VAE 
(Validation des Acquis de l’Expérience) under which HE degrees have actually been awarded.  

Box 4-8 – France – A long tradition of recognition of prior learning 

The French system for the recognition of prior learning VAE is increasingly successful also in 
the area of higher education. The number of validations that have been successfully delivered 
in higher education has increased from 3705 in 2006 to 4200 in 2007. The fact that more than 
half of these (2154) concerned the award of full higher education degrees is a sign of greater 
acceptance by the higher education institutions of the principle of validating professional and 
personal  experience,  and  of  an  improved  quality  of  the  validation  procedures  themselves. 
Substantial  increases  in  successful  VAE  procedures  in  some  HEI  are  also  a  result  of  local 
partnerships concluded with both the regions and business. More recently, there has been an 
upsurge in applications from those sectors most affected by the economic downturn (banking, 
insurance and the housing sector) 

Recognition of prior learning is in the main, carried out at the institutional level, sometimes 
supported by national guidelines (DE, DK, EE, FR, NO, IT, LT) and also through quotas for 
students who do not meet traditional recruitment criteria for HE (DK, NO).  

The ultimate success of the recognition and accreditation of prior learning, may well depend 
upon the willingness of institutions to cooperate on mutual systems of cross-recognition, and 
the inclusion of their practices within quality assurance procedures. This cross recognition is 
seen less frequently but is highlighted by LT, DK, FI, FR, NL UK. 

4.2.3.  A flexible delivery of courses 

The  preserve  of  higher  education  programmes  based  around  a  full-time  academic  year  is 
diminishing. Higher education is waking up to the call of potential students who wish to learn 
at  times  and  in  ways  that  are  convenient  to  them,  and  to  balance  studies  with  other 
responsibilities.  New  information  and  communication  technologies  are  also  changing 
radically  the  way  that  learning  takes  place,  both  inside  and  outside  the  classroom/lecture 
theatre. 

In  their  national  reports,  countries  provide  numerous  examples  of  modes  of  flexible  course 
delivery (BE nl, CY, DK, FR, LV, MT, PT, RO, SE, SI) including evening or weekend format 
courses,  distance  learning,  online  material  for  self-directed  learning,  and  alternative 
assessment methods: 

•  Distance learning is one of the  most common forms of flexible  learning and the  role of 
open universities is specifically highlighted by several countries as important in attracting 
new types of learners (AT, CY, CZ, EE, EL, FI, NL, PL, UK).  

•  Off-campus,  flexible  learning  centres  and  networks  are  also  cited  for  their  role  in 
attracting students who might otherwise be too intimidated to cross the threshold of an HE 
institution (AT, EL, ES, HR, NO, NL, IT).  

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•  Shorter  and  modular  qualifications  can  also  facilitate  new  learners  or  ‘returners’  to 
education, with students getting a taste of higher education and progressing as appropriate 
and convenient for them, including as building blocks towards a full degree.  

In this context, a growing use of short cycles and foundation degrees can be noted (DK, FR, 
PT, SI, UK). For information on permeability between VET and HE see Chapter 3. 

Box 4-9 – UK – Foundation degrees linked to work or economic demands 

In  the  UK,  Foundation  Degrees  provide  a  means  to  promote  lifelong  learning  in  higher 
education.  The  courses  are  flexible,  work-focussed,  and  demand-led,  often  provided  in 
collaboration with employers or where regional demand is clear. Foundation Degrees, courses 
lasting one or two years, are often a stepping stone for students to progress to completing a 
full  1st  cycle  degree.  The  more  flexible  entry  requirements  meant  that  this  approach  also 
provides for improved access to higher education for non-traditional learners.  

Whilst modular approaches and short-cycle qualifications are by no means new, these are still 
a  relatively  rare  phenomenon  in  many  countries.  In  addition  to  changes  in  course  planning, 
they  require  much  broader  change  at  the  institutional  and  national/regional  levels,  to  bring 
about  a  transformation  in  the  mindset  of  educators  and  to  ensure  that  funding  mechanisms 
support  flexible  delivery,  rather  than  inhibiting  it.  In  their  reports,  some  countries  highlight 
initiatives  to  target  teachers  and  trainers,  providing  support  and  retraining  to  adapt  and 
develop their teaching methods (DK, EE, EL, FR, LT, LV, MT, PL, PT).  

4.2.4.  The developing partnerships between institutions and other stakeholders 

The  national  reports  reveal  wide  commitment to  stakeholder  engagement  in  opening  up  HE 
institutions to non-traditional learners, sometimes as part of an overall lifelong learning policy 
or strategy. However, there is much less clarity, on how this is implemented, and particular on 
levels  of  commitment  to  engaging  stakeholders  in  partnerships  which  is  mentioned  in  a 
selection  of  country  reports  (CZ,  DK,  EL,  FI,  IE,  IS,  LV,  LT,  MT,  UK).  One  of  the  more 
common approaches to stakeholder engagement in lifelong learning lies in the involvement 
of businesses in curriculum development (EL, LV, LT, MT, NL, PL, PT, UK).167  

Box 4-10 – Malta – myPotential  

The “myPotential” programme is public-private partnership between the Maltese Government 
and  ICT  training  providers  offered  training  courses  leading  to  low  and  high-end  ICT 
certificates.  The  initiative  is  supported  by  major  financial  institutions  and  is  aimed  at  the 
employed,  and  the  unemployed  and  full-time  students.  Tax  credits  are  also  offered  to 
enterprises generating posts for ICT certificate holders.  

There is very little information on HE partnerships with regional and local government, with 
non  governmental  organisations/voluntary  sector  or  with  further  education  providers  and 
institutions in the country reports, although there are some good examples of how strategies to 

167

Whilst few country reports provide details on this aspect, further examples can be found in the Commission Communication of 2 
April  2009"A  new  partnership  for  the  modernisation  of  universities:  the  EU  Forum  for  University  Business  Dialogue", 
COM(2009) 158 final 

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connect higher vocational schools with higher education institutions, including the creation of 
common study programmes (BE-nl, CZ).  

4.2.5. 

Incentives and other support for non-traditional learners in HE  

In  order  to  widen  participation  (both  to  underrepresented  groups  and  for  continued 
professional  development)  support  and  incentives  to  attract  and  retain  new  entrants  to  HE 
should be put in place. Whilst clear evidence of strategies to attract underrepresented groups 
to higher education can be found, examples of how mechanisms to support and retain these 
students are less developed. 

As  highlighted  above  in  the  section  on  the  diversification  of  income,  several  countries 
stimulate  take  up  of  higher  education  studies  by  non-traditional  learners  through  the  use  of 
performance-based  contracts  and  target  setting  for  the  recruitment  and  attainment  of 
underrepresented groups. And many make reference to the importance of recognition of prior 
learning and the availability of flexible pathways (including permeability with VET). But also 
the following incentives were mentioned: 

•  financial incentives for students, primarily in the form of grants and loans (BE fr, CY, CZ, 
DK,  EE,  FI,  PT,  SI,  UK),  including  incentives  targeted  to  particular  underrepresented 
groups  identified  by  their  national/regional  strategies,  for  example,  financial  support 
specifically targeted to older adults (CZ, EE, MT).  

•  specific  incentives  for  employees  was  mentioned  by  a  few  countries  (BE  nl,  FI,  UK), 
although country reports do acknowledge a need to target this group (CZ, DK, FI, HR, NL, 
SI), and incentives for part-time students seem notably absent. 

•  increasing aspiration and tackling cultural barriers are key to attracting and retaining 
lifelong  learners,  particularly  those  from  non-traditional  or  disadvantaged  groups. 
However,  country  reports  provide  little  insight  into  non-financial  support  mechanisms 
pursued  to  engage  with  non-traditional  learners,  although  some  countries  do  make 
reference to the need to include advice, mentoring and help for students to adjust to new 
environments and increase retention rates (EL, IE).  

Box 4-11 – Cyprus – Means testing for financing non traditional learners 

In  Cyprus,  the  Council  of  Ministers  has  approved  a  package  of  student  welfare  measures, 
based on socioeconomic criteria. The package includes measures such as the increase in the 
funding of the Cyprus State Scholarship Foundation, financial support of public and private 
universities  as  well  as  of  public  schools  of  tertiary  education  for  providing  cheap 
accommodation to students, the provision of financial support for transportation purposes and 
meals and the subsidies for the purchase of academic textbooks and personal computers. 

4.3. 

Conclusions on income streams and the opening up of HEIs to lifelong learning 

The  evidence  provided  in  the  country  reports  regarding  the  diversification  of  funding 
streams  demonstrates  a  great  variety  of  approaches,  in  respect  of  both  public  and  private 
funds.  

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There is a clear move towards increased use of performance-based contracts in the allocation 
of  public  funding,  both  for  the  distribution  of  core  funding  and  in  awarding  competitive 
funding. 

Several countries also  stress  the  need  to  provide sufficient security for HEIs when planning 
study  volumes,  for  example  through  the  preparation  and  agreement  of  multi-annual  budgets 
with an approach which favours proactivity in strategic priority setting.  

As  regards  diversification  to  private  funds,  tuition  fees  are  the  most  established  source  of 
private  revenue;  even  in  those  countries  with  no  background  of  tuition  fees.  For  EU/EEA 
students  these  are  becoming  an  almost  universal  feature  for  third  country  nationals  and  in 
many countries for the second cycle irrespective of student origin. 

Whilst at the national (or regional) level, governments can put in place strategies to encourage 
and  support  the  diversification  of  income  streams  for  universities  –  such  as  increasing 
autonomy and by removing barriers to co-operation with industry - ultimately diversification 
will depend to a great extent on the institutions themselves. 

There  is  a  growing  realisation  of  the  importance  of opening  up  HEIs  to  lifelong  learners, 
not least faced with demographic realities, which augur a reduction in the traditional cohorts 
of  students  to  HE.  Increasingly,  countries  are  developing  and  putting  in  place  lifelong 
learning  strategies  which  aim  to  encourage  more  people  to  think  of  higher  education  as 
relevant  to  them,  to  enable  higher  education  institutions  to  be  more  inclusive  and  more 
proactive in their recruitment. 

To date, most efforts have concentrated upon attracting underrepresented groups into HE, in 
particular  those  from  lower  socio-economic  backgrounds.  Strategies  to  promote  the  role  of 
higher  education  in  continuing  professional  development,  or  for  personal  development 
amongst those already in the labour market, are less developed (this also applies to schools, 
VET,  and  general  upper  secondary  education  within  the  broader  LLL  continuum).  With 
respect to both groups, there is little evidence of strategies for retention.  

Whilst the primary actors in facilitating access of non-traditional learners are undoubtedly the 
HEI  themselves,  countries  must  be  minded  of  the  importance  of  strategic  frameworks  to 
support LLL in all its forms, particularly in respect of funding mechanisms, which can be a 
powerful  driver  (or  act  as  an  inhibitor)  to  LLL;  one  such  example  is  support  for  part-time 
studies, where funding barriers both from an institutional and a student perspective are often 
cited.  

In  many  countries  national  policies  and  strategies  have  yet  to  fully  be  integrated  into  the 
institutional  approaches  to  widening  participation.  Despite  significant  progress  in  recent 
years, inflexibility of curricula and limited options for alternative attendance modes, dissuade 
many potential atypical students from participation in higher education. 

Specific  tools  to  facilitate  access  to  HEIs,  such  as  the  effective  use  of  validation  and 
recognition  of  formal,  non-formal  and  informal  learning  can  be  pivotal  in  attracting  more 
people into higher education. However, the responsibility for such recognition generally lies 
with institutions themselves and as such, implementation varies significantly. 

Although more partnerships are emerging, particularly with business, there remains a need to 
improve the types of mechanisms which will help Higher Education Institutions to understand 

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the specific requirements of the new types of learners. Furthermore, examples of engagement 
with other stakeholders relevant to LLL such as community organisations are lacking. 

Perhaps the most important barrier to widening access to higher education for disadvantaged 
groups  and  employed  learners  remains  aspiration.  Clearly,  such  cultural  issues  have  deeper 
roots and require sustained efforts to overcome, it is regrettable therefore that country reports 
do  not  outline  approaches  and  initiatives  to  increase  aspiration  amongst  those  groups  for 
whom LLL is far from a reality.  

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PART III: PROGRESS AT NATIONAL LEVEL 

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BELGIUM 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Belgium 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

99.1% 

99.7%07  

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

19.0% 

19.4%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

17.3%06 

17.0%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

13.8% 

12.0% b, 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment 

(age 20-24) 

81.7% 

82.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

42.8%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

25.0% 

27.2%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment 

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

35.2% 

42.9% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

8.6%04  

6.8%  

8.5% 03 

9.5%  

12.5 %

15% 

6.0%01 

6.0%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Belgium  performs  above  the  EU  average  in  the  four  school  related  areas:  Participation  in 
early childhood education, Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science, Early leavers 
from education and training and Upper secondary completion rate. As regards the share of 
low  achievers  in  reading,  mathematics  and  science  the  Flemish  Community  performs, 

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however,  better  than  the  implicit  2010  EU  target  level.  However,  from  a  good  starting 
position in 2000 Belgium progressed less than the EU average. 

One  area  in  which  Belgium  has  made  more  progress  is  in  increasing  the  number  of  MST 
graduates,  for  which  the  growth  rate  has  been  above  the  EU  average.  The  share  of  female 
MST graduates increased too but is still below EU average. At the same time the share of the 
population  with  higher  education  attainment  increased  further  from  an  already  high  level  in 
2000 and is now nearly 12 percentage points above the EU average. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Belgium  is  one  of  the  few  countries 
where participation rates declined significantly in the last years. As a result of this in Belgium 
adult lifelong learning participation rate is today significantly below EU average. 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  has  not  changed  in  Belgium  since  2000, 
whereas in the EU as a whole it has slightly increased. However in Belgium it exceeds the EU 
average by about 1 percent of GDP. 

Belgium already performs above the 2010 EU benchmark in the increase of MST graduates 
and  above  the  2020  EU  benchmarks  on  Participation  in  early  childhood  education  and 
Higher  education  attainment.  The  Flemish  Community  of  Belgium  in  addition  performs 
already above the 2020 benchmark in the share of low achievers in reading. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The concept of key competences has been a central feature of Belgian (nl and fr communities) 
education and training systems since many years.  

The  basic  and  transversal  competences  are  included  in  the  BE  nl  core  curriculum  which 
defines the compulsory minimum objectives (learning outcomes) with regard to knowledge, 
insight, skills and attitudes by type of pupils that must be addressed by all schools. A major 
revision of the core curriculum to update the key competences took place in 2006.  

A competence based approach was introduced in the BE fr in 1997 with the decree 'Missions'. 
The national framework curriculum was adopted end 1990 and progressively implemented. It 
describes  the  basic  competences,  knowledge,  skills  to  be  acquired  during  the  compulsory 
education for all pupils by the end of secondary education.  

Curricular reforms  

Since 2006 a major revision of the BE nl core curriculum has been made for general and VET 
education.  It  covers  at  least  the  elementary  and  first  cycle  of  secondary  education  and 
concerns  all  basic  competences,  except  mathematics  to  be  revised  later.  For  compulsory 
education, content objectives are the same as for general and technical education while they 
are different for professional education. Transversal competencies are mandatory even if not 
taken  into  account  for  summative  asssessement.  Three  transversal  competences  are  defined: 
digital competences, learning to learn and the interpersonal, intercultural, social competences 
and  civic  competence.  While  differently  organized,  there  is  a  substantial  overlap  with  the 
European key competences. Entrepreneurship is often realised through projects. 

The  BE  fr  national  framework  curriculum  provides  a  broad  generic  description  of  the  basic 
competences  to  be  acquired,  in  particular  in  mother  tongue,  foreign  languages,  mathematic, 
sciences, initiation to technology and to art. The framework is common for general, technical 

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and professional education up to the end of the first cycle of secondary education. Transversal 
competences  are  referred  to  as  ’transversal  themes'  embedded  in  the  description  of  basic 
competences. There are no specific summative assessments for those competences. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The BE nl public authorities intervene mainly via funding to support actions implemented by 
educational networks. The new 2008 Decree on financing compulsory education is resulting 
in  additional  resources  being  directed  to  schools  with  socio-economically  disadvantged 
pupils. The authorities are developing non mandatory guidelines for new or revised learning 
outcomes. 

As  concerns  adult  education,  the  2005  Strategic  Literacy  Plan  (2005-2011)  includes  an 
objective  of  differentiation  of  actions  according  to  different  (risk)  target  groups  (long-term 
unemployed, senior citizens, the underprivileged). Since the 2007 decree on adult education, 
the Centres for basic education have focused more on basic education for adults. There are no 
tuition fees for basic education courses to ensure accessibility. 

The  BE  fr  public  authorities  intervene  mainly  via  allocation  of  additional  teachers  and 
educational staff for compulsory education, additional funding taking into account the socio-
economic background of pupils and changes in the education and training system to reinforce 
the acquisition of basic competences and to combat disadvantage. Additional measures have 
been taken in Brussels where the rate of early school leaving is particularly high and the rate 
secondary  completion  quite  low.  But,  in  spite  of  this  effort,  the  very  important  needs  in 
vocational training for the unskilled and/or illiterate adults remain unmet.  

The offer for adult education provided by the BE fr community has been increased amongst 
for  those  with  low  levels  of  education,  job-seekers  and  adults  who  have  not  completed 
secondary  education.  Additional  training  was  also  provided  by  the  BE  fr  community  and 
subsidised by the regions mainly in view of fighting illiteracy and improving linguistic skills 
and digital literacy. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

In  2006  the  BE  nl  decree  on  teacher  education  redefined  the  learning  outcomes  of  teacher 
education  curricula  to  ensure  that  teachers  are  equipped  to  implement  a  competence-based 
approach. Those learning outcomes are described as basic competences: the knowledge, skills 
and attitudes that a graduate teacher needs to have acquired. The competences are related to 
their  responsibility  towards  the  learner,  the  school/educational  community  and  society. 
Continuous training of teachers is not mandatory but strongly encouraged and supported. 

Since 2002, the BE fr teacher education curricula for school teachers up to middle secundary 
includes  13  competences.  They  aim  to  ensure  that  teachers  are  equipped  to  implement  a 
competence  based  approach  and  to  take  responsibilty  towards  the  school  and  parents. 
Continuous training is mandatory for teachers. 

A major change in assessment methodology has been introduced. Since 2009, pupils have to 
take  an  external  summative  assessment  at  the  end  of  the  primary  education  to  obtain  the 
required  certification  to  move  to  secondary  education.  A  similar  approach  will  be  tested  in 
2010-11, at the end of the first and of the third cycle of the secondary education. 

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1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Evaluation of key competencies at BE nl system level is based on the results of the National 
Assessment  Program  (NAP),  and  the  PISA  surveys;  the  systematic  exploitation  of  research 
and evaluation of projects, and the audits of schools by the inspectorate. The NAP provides 
reliable data based on non mandatory surveys. Twice a year, a survey is made and focuses on 
a specific subject for pupils at different levels. The surveys are part of an assessment quality 
cycle. 

Evaluation  of  basic  competencies  at  BE  fr  system  level  is  based  on  the  results  of  external 
summative  assessments,  on  non  mandatory  assessments  and  on  external  surveys  such  as 
PISA. One annual non mandatory external assessment is made on a specific subject for pupils 
at  different  levels.  Since  2002,  a  consistent  system  of  statistical  indicators  on  the  education 
and training system of the BE fr community and on its relative performance has been set up 
and results are published on a regular basis.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies 

BE  nl  has  designed  a  comprehensive  LLL  strategy  (2004-2009)  with  systematic 
implementation  and  targeted  allocation  of  financial  resources.  Meeting  the  challenges  of 
efficiency  and  equity  and  ensuring  the  relationship  between  education  and  training  and  the 
labour  market  is  central  to  this  strategy.  The  development  of  a  Flemish  qualification 
framework has become well advanced since 2008. A learning outcomes approach is used for 
the  recognition  of  formal,  non-formal  and  informal  learning  in  view  of  using  the  Flemish 
qualification framework as a common support for the recognition of all types of learning. 

Since 2004, synergy and coordination between the 3 responsible authorities for E&T has been 
reinforced in order to define a BE fr LLL strategy. In order to provide access to LLL for all 
adults,  recent  measures  have  focused  on  strengthening  the  role  of  the  education  for  social 
inclusion (EPS) for delivering official degrees, on initiating in 2007 the first steps to a BE fr 
qualification framework and on developing the recognition of non formal and formal learning. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

In Belgium VET has a broad definition and covers different types of education from technical 
to apprenticeship "in alternative schemes". An effort has been made improve access for VET 
students to better infrastructure and up to date equipment and technology. 

BE  nl  has  introduced  many  initiatives  to  improve  the  attractiveness  of  VET,  such  as 
investments in infrastructure, subsidy for VET-students who study for “critical jobs”, changes 
to the procedure for submitting study programmes in order to adapt VET programmes better 
to socio-economic and technological developments.  

BE fr has taken many initiatives, such as actions to upgrade the image and change attitudes 
towards  VET  training  in  particular  for  shortage  jobs,  and  the  creation  of  a  new  service  in 
order  to  identify  in  collaboration  with  representatives  of  employers,  sectors  and  public 
employment services the VET programmes which need to be revised. Those actions to change 
the image and attitudes already modified the training offers.  

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4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

In Belgium, a  larger  degree of autonomy  has  been progressively  granted  to universities and 
higher  education  institutions.  Low  tuition  fees  are  considered  important  in  order  to  make 
higher education accessible. Higher education institutions are manly publicly funded. 

The 2008 Law on Funding provides a new model of funding for higher education institutions 
in  BE  nl,  establishing  a  shift  from  mainly  input  funding  to  a  combination  of  input  funding 
with output funding. Universities are encouraged to find other sources of funding in particular 
via collaboration with enterprises. Further reflection is ongoing on the challenges of the long 
term  sustainability  of  this  model.  This  model  rewards  higher  education  institutions  which 
develop provisions for lifelong learning and includes measures to widen participation.  

In BE fr, the basic operating budget is composed of fixed and variable parts according to the 
number of students enrolled. Additional public funding is granted taking into account a wide 
range  of  parameters  related  to  input,  quality,  the  number  of  student  grants,  etc.  Universities 
are  diversifying  their  income  streams  through  private  initiatives  mainly  in  the  field  of 
doctoral,  post-doctoral  and  research.  The  2007  decree  supported  lifelong  learning  by 
providing additional funding for continuous training programmes.  

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BULGARIA  

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Bulgaria 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

73.4% 

79.8%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

40.3% 

51.1%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA 
results) 

study 

Science 

- 

- 

53.3%06 

42.6%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

20.5%01 

14.8% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

75.2% 

83.7% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

14.6%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST  graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

45.6% 

39.3%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education, % of GDP 

19.5% 

27.1% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

1.3% 03

1.4%  

8.5% 03 

9.5%  

12.5 % 

15% 

3.97% 

4.24%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

In  school  related  areas  Bulgaria's  performance  is  mixed.  In  two  school  related  areas:  Early 
leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary  attainment  Bulgaria  performs 
slightly  better  than  the  EU  average  as  a  consequence  of  rapid  progress  in  these  fields.  On 
Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  while  there  has  been  progress  since  2000,  the 

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participation  rate  is  below  the  EU  average.  On  Low  achievers  the  situation  has  however 
deteriorated since 2000 and more than half the pupils are now low achievers. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  share  of  females  among  Graduates  in  maths,  science,  and 
technology, while on the decrease, is still third highest in Europe. 

As  concerns  Adults'  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Bulgaria  has  the  lowest  level  of 
performance in Europe and there has hardly been any progress since 2000. 

Investment in education as a % of GDP has increased over the period; Bulgaria is still below 
the EU average performance but the gap has decreased. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Policies focused on key competences came to the fore in 2008 following the adoption of the 
national lifelong learning strategy and the renewed employment strategy. 2008 was selected 
as a year of the key competences and this contributed to further raising awareness. Substantial 
focus has been put on key competences such as ICT and foreign languages.  

In 2009 a renewed education framework has been approved. The new Law for School and Pre-
school Education Development was tabled in early 2009 but did not stand in Parliament. A new 
Law  proposal  has  been  announced  by  the  new  government  in  September  2009.  Major  new 
elements  to  be  introduced  will  be  an  extended  focus  on  transversal  skills  such  as  ICT,  and 
foreign language in the 8th grade after the completion of primary schooling.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Transversal  competences  such  as  ICT,  entrepreneurship  and  cultural  expression  are  seen  as 
important  educational  objectives  which  have  to  be  taken  into  account  within  all  specific 
subjects/curricula. Transversal key competences are currently integrated in other subjects. For 
instance,  social  and  civic  competence  is  provided  by  subjects  such  as  Philosophy,  History, 
Geography  etc.  Cultural  awareness  and  expression  is  provided  by  subjects  such  as  Music, 
Arts, Languages.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The  disadvantaged  in  need  of  special  support  are  addressed  by  a  national  programme 
providing  for  extra-training  of  children  with  problems  in  assimilating  educational  content. 
Further  measures  include  incentivizing  teachers  to  work  with  disadvantaged  students  taking 
into account their personal abilities and interests. The high training needs for teachers in ICT 
reflects partly the high turnover of ICT trained teacher staff related to incentives outside the 
school system.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Among  the  main  priority  areas  in  teachers’  qualifications  is  in-service  training  in  the  fields  of 
ICT and foreign languages as well as training and acquisition of transversal competences such as 
social  and  civic  competences,  initiative  taking  and  entrepreneurship,  cultural  awareness  and 
expression.  Incentives  have  been  created  to  reward  excellent  teachers  through  differentiated 
payment  schemes  measuring  for  instance  skills  in  ICT,  teamwork,  or  working  with 
disadvantaged children.  

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1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Bulgaria’s results in PIRLS, TIMSS and PISA have triggered a reconsideration of the existing 
strategies and tools for external assessment, leading to more stress on practical knowledge and 
skills  related  to  the  labour  market.  Annual  evaluation  of  the  outcomes  of  the  education  and 
training process is the aim of the introduction of tests in the Bulgarian schools which started 
in the 2007/2008 school year. State matriculation examinations (Matura) are also part of the 
evaluation of outcomes.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

With a view to raise the low level of adult participation in education and training, the national 
LLL  strategy  was  adopted  in  late  2008.  Regarding  the  Bulgarian  NQF,  first  steps  including 
comparing  the  national  qualifications  levels  and  the  EQF  as  well  as  developing  a  plan  for 
further actions related to sectoral qualifications frameworks have been undertaken.  

A  pilot  of  a  system  for  validation  of  competences  acquired  by  non-formal  and  informal 
learning  has  been  developed  and  is  being  tested  for  three  professions.  Good  practices  on 
validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  from  other  EU  member  states  have  been 
published on official websites in order to raise awareness on the subject.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

VET development in 2008 was aimed at improving the link to the labour market. Efforts to 
increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET  have  focused  mainly  on  improving  the  relevance  of 
vocational  training  acquired  in  secondary  schools  (for  instance  by  organising  national 
championships)  and  improving  relations  with  social  partners  and  their  participation  in  the 
vocational education process. 

Examples  for  increasing  the  attractiveness  of  VET  programmes  include  incentivizing 
professional  training  for  the  unemployed  with  guaranteed  work  placements  (funded  by  the 
Employment Agency) and using EU funds for training e.g. “Leonardo da Vinci” and the ESF. 
Communication  measures  such  as  national  competitions  are  targeted  at  enhancing  the 
attractiveness  of  VET.  Further  efforts  include  electronic  publishing  of  curricula  and  the 
establishment of career centers in educational institutions. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  main  source  of  funding  for  higher  education  institutions  is  the  government.  Some 
diversification  is  provided  for  by  the  tuition  fees  paid  by  students.  The  opening  up  of 
universities  to  business  is  done  for  example  through  both  career  centers  and  High  Tech 
Business  Incubators.  The  opening  up  towards  lifelong  learners  includes  strengthening  the 
dialogue  with  national  employers'  organizations,  promoting  and  improving  distance  learning, 
and expanding policies for access to education. Modernization measures include subsidizing 
actually enrolled students (and not the number of vacancies) as well as increasing the number 
of student places. Expected results include creating more competition among higher education 
institutions  and  reducing  the  pressure  for  the  establishment  of  new  higher  education 
institutions.  

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CZECH REPUBLIC 

Czech Republic 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

90.0% 

92.6%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

17.5% 

24.8%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

19.2%06 

15.5%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

5.7%02 

5.6%b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

91.2% 

91.6% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

96.0%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

27.0% 

29.3%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

13.7% 

15.4% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

5.1%03 

7.8%   

8.5% 03

9.5%  

12.5 % 

15% 

3.97% 

4.61%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

02

03

= 2002, 

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" 

The  Czech  Republic  performs  better  than  the  EU  average  in  three  school  related  areas: 
Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  Low  achievers  in  mathematics  and  science  and 
Early  leavers  from  education  and  training.  In  the  latter  area  and  in  the  field  of  Upper 
secondary attainment, performance is notably higher. As for Low achievers in reading there 
was  a  sharp  increase  in  the  percentage  since  2000  and  the  Czech  Republic  in  2006  in  this 
indicator performed slightly worse than the EU average.  

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The Czech Republic has made significant progress in the area of MST graduates, in which the 
growth rate has been well above the EU average, while the share of female graduates, even if 
improved, has not reached the EU level. In the area of Higher education attainment there has 
been a slight progress, but the Czech Republic is far below the EU average and in 2008 had 
the lowest share of 30-34 years old with tertiary attainment in EU. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  progress  has  been  faster  than  the  EU 
average, but Czech performance is still below the EU average on this benchmark indicator. 

Public investment in education, as a % of GDP, has increased since 2000 more steeply than in 
the EU as a whole; the Czech Republic is still below the EU average performance but the gap 
has decreased. 

The Czech Republic already performs above the EU 2010 benchmarks in Early leavers from 
education and training, Upper secondary attainment and the increase in MST graduates.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

Requirements for the development of key competences are explicitly formulated in the recent 
strategic and curricular documents, e.g. the Long Term Plan of Education and the Education 
System  (2007)  and  the  Education  Act  (2005).  This  Education  Act  introduced  framework 
education programmes (FEP) for all types and stages of initial education (including vocational 
training)  and  the  concept  of  key  competences  is  defined  in  the  common  part  of  the  FEPs. 
Requirements for the development of all key competences, referred to as "functional literacy" 
("funkční  gramotnost"  in  Czech),  are  also  laid  down  in  the  main  strategic  document  for 
lifelong learning, i.e. the Strategy of Lifelong Learning in the Czech Republic (2007).  

1.1. Curricular reforms 

The  general  curricular  reform  was  launched  in  2004  when  two  important  documents  were 
approved: the Education Act and the Framework Educational Programme for Basic Education 
(FEP).  On  the  basis  of  FEP  schools  are  developing  their  own  educational  programmes  that 
should  enable  them  to  implement  their  own  ideas  and  better  react  to  the  needs  of 
pupils/employers/regions.  Progressive  implementation:  Instruction  according  to  school 
educational  programme  started  in  the  2007/08  school  year  in  the  first  year  of  primary, 
respectively  lower  secondary  education.  Since  2007  FEPs  for  upper  secondary  education 
(general  and  vocational)  are  being  developed  (planned  finalisation  September  2009).  The 
reform will continue by implementation of the FEPs at all types of upper secondary schools. 
The ESF is used for developing national and systemic projects to support schools in creation 
of their school curricula and for implementation of the curricular reform into the practice of 
schools. The reform is accompanied by in-service training of teachers.  

The  educational  content  in  the  FEP  is  not  divided  into  subjects  but  educational  areas:  Each 
FEP also includes cross-curricular topics aimed at developing key competences as described 
in the European Framework. 

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1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Special target groups for the provision of key competences are the unemployed, people with 
low  qualifications,  people  threatened  by  poverty,  minority  groups,  people  threatened  with 
losing  their  jobs,  social  groups  threatened  with  social  exclusion,  and  older  people  (pre-
retirement  age).  A  legislative  framework  has  been  created  to  encourage  the  participation  of 
these target groups in lifelong learning. ESF funds are used to support the lifelong learning of 
Czech citizens and the systemic project "Support of Citizens´ Individual Education" systemic 
project  which  consists  in  providing  individuals  with  vouchers  for  training  in  three  areas: 
language competence, ICT and entrepreneurial skills is under preparation 

Sectoral/stakeholder dialogue is conducted at inter-ministry level, especially between MEYS 
and the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. The MEYS also cooperates with other social 
partners (e.g. sector councils). 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The teaching profession's quality standard, which should be completed in a binding form (i.e. 
also  as  legislation)  within  two  years,  will  clarify  how  the  concept  of  the  profession  should 
change  (in  respect  to  the  teacher's  role  and  key  competences)  and  how  teachers  should  be 
educated to master the requirements connected with a substantial change in goals, content and 
methods of teaching. Significant number of in-service training courses aims to help teachers 
to  introduce  the  curricular  reform  in  schools  (mainly  preparation  of  school  education 
programmes on the basis of FEP).  

Czech primary and secondary schools still prefer summative assessment. However, the trend 
to use assessment to motivate pupils and encourage their activity has been growing. Materials 
with  methodological  recommendations  on  formative  assessment  of  key  competences  in 
secondary vocational schools were developed within ESF funded Pilot S systemic project. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Currently, mainly international comparative surveys: e.g. PISA, RLS, TIMSS, CivEd, Sites, 
PIRLS, are used to assess the key competences in initial education. The results are used in the 
preparation of conceptual materials, e.g. Long Term Plan of Education and the Development 
of the Education System in the Czech Republic and the Strategy of Lifelong Learning.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  of  the  Czech  Republic  was  adopted  in  July  2007.  Different 
partners have been involved and supported the strategy, including social partners and the civic 
sector. The implementation plan was approved by the government in January 2009. The Act 
on  Verification  and  Recognition  of  Qualifications  no.  176/2006  (2006)  is  a  basis  for  the 
system  of  the  validation  and  recognition  of  qualifications,  and  all  relevant  skills  and 
knowledge  can  be  recognized  no  matter  where/how  they  were  obtained  (school,  training  or 
self-learning).  National  Qualification  Framework,  which  provides  a  description  of 
qualification  requirements  for  the  labour  market,  is  being  implemented  through  an  ESF 
funded project - UNIV 3 - in all regions of the Czech Republic. Standards for vocational and 
general secondary education are being finalised. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

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The attractiveness of VET programmes is supported through improved counselling services in 
schools  and  career  counselling  in  general  (accompanied  by  e.g.  an  ESF  funded  systemic 
project which resulted in a comprehensive information system) on nation-wide offers of initial 
and further vocational education and training. There have also been several media campaigns 
that gave information about job opportunities in technical occupations. 

Employers´  involvement  in  recent  years  has  resulted  in  increased  interest  in  vocational 
training.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  White  Paper  on  higher  education  reform  was  discussed  during  2008,  and  in  2009  the 
Government of the Czech Republic took cognizance of it. The reform aims to facilitate access 
to university education for students from disadvantaged families via low-interest loans and to 
allow  for  more  private  funding  of  tertiary  education.  It  also  aims  to  support  cooperation 
between  the  universities  and  regions  and  employers/companies  for  adapting  the  study 
programmes  to  the  needs  of  regions  and  for  better  providing  practical  experience  for  the 
students. The project Reform of the Tertiary Education was launched in 2009 which builds on 
the White Paper. By the end of 2009 the analytical works and discussions on the main goals 
of  the  reform  will  follow.  Preparations  of  a  new  law  on  tertiary  education  and  financial 
support  for  students  will  be  launched  in  February  2010,  while  the  complete  proposal  of  the 
both acts should be finished in 2011.  

The  Implementation  Plan  of  the  Strategy  of  Lifelong  Learning  aims  to  strengthen  the 
development  of  bachelor  study  programmes  focused  on  practice,  to  develop  alternatives  to 
day classes in order to enable studies for adults in work and with families, to enhance quality, 
permeability  and  cooperation  of  higher  education  with  employers  and  to  support  multi-
resource financing of the tertiary education sector.  

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DENMARK 

Denmark 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

95.7% 

92.7%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

17.9% 

16.0%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

13.6%06 

18.4%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

11.7% 

11.5%b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

72.0 

71.0% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

20.0%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

28.5% 

36.0%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

32.1% 

46.3% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

24.2% 03 

30.2%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

8.29% 

7.98%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Denmark performs above the EU average in three school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood  education,  Low  achievers  and  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training.  The 
Upper  secondary  completion  rate,  however,  has  stagnated  in  Denmark  since  2000,  and  is 
below  the  EU  average.  Since  2000  it  succeeded  in  decreasing  the  share  of  low  achievers  in 
reading to 16%. 

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Adult participation in lifelong learning is among the highest in the EU and more than three 
times as high as the EU average. It has increased significantly since 2000.  

On  Higher  education  attainment  Denmark  has  among  the  highest  shares  in  the  EU  and 
progress  since  2000  has  been  strong.  Furthermore,  the  share  of  female  MST  graduates  is 
above  the  EU  average  and  the  gender  balance  has  improved  markedly.  The  growth  in 
graduates in MST since 2000 is below the average in the EU. 

Concerning investment in education, Denmark has the highest public spending on education 
in the EU. While declining, Denmark continues to allocate around 8% of GDP to education.  

Denmark performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Low achievers in reading, MST 
graduates  and  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning;  and  above  the  2020  EU  benchmark 
levels on Low achievers in mathematics, Higher education attainment and Adult participation 
in lifelong learning. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The Danish approach to the provision of education has traditionally been competence-based. 
However,  the  pendulum  has  recently  swung  towards  the  strengthening  of  basic  skills  as 
results  (see  above)  as  regards  PISA  and  upper  secondary  completion  rates  are  below 
expectations. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The objective is that pupils in the primary and lower secondary school system should be top 
performing  within  four  core  subject  areas:  reading,  mathematics,  science  and  English.  The 
policy  is  followed  through  with  precisely  defined  objectives  for  all  subjects  and  threshold 
objectives  for  key  subjects  at  certain  grade  levels.  Cross  curricular  competences  such  as 
digital, learning to learn, and social and civic competences as well as cultural awareness and 
expression are part of the overall objective of education and not specifically taught subjects. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

When pupils' educational needs cannot be fulfilled within differentiated teaching and classes, 
special  education  (or  special  educational  support)  is  given.  To  promote  the  educational 
outcomes of bilingual children, who perform at a level substantially lower than native Danish 
pupils, a range of support is available. 

Participation in adult education is among the highest in Europe. Specific initiatives have been 
taken  to  promote  the  participation  of  low  skilled  adults.  Figures  from  2008  indicate  an 
increase  in  the  participation  of  low  skilled  adults  in  basic  skills  courses  (reading  and 
mathematics) and in vocational training courses. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The  approach  to  initial  teacher  education  as  well  as  in-service  teacher  education  has 
traditionally been competence-based. The most recent reform of 2007 stressed the importance 
of  mastering  formative  assessment  techniques.  Other  elements  were  an  explicit  focus  on 
classroom management, teacher-parent collaboration and enhanced focus on pedagogical and 
didactic competences. 

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1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  Council  for  Evaluation  and  Quality  Development  of  Primary  and  Lower  Secondary 
Education was set up by the Minister of Education in September 2006. The Council’s tasks 
to  monitor  and  evaluate:  Academic  and  professional  standards,  Pedagogical 
are 
developments, Pupils' learning outcomes, negative social heritage, Integrating of pupils with a 
non-Danish  ethnic  background.  Each  year,  the  Council  submits  a  report  to  the  Minister  of 
Education with proposed initiatives to improve the quality of education in the "Folkeskole". 
This report feeds into the policy debate and point to important areas in school development. 

In 2006, The "Folketing" introduced 10 mandatory national tests from 2nd to 8th form in the 
following  subjects  (Danish/reading  literacy,  English,  mathematics  and  science  (biology, 
geography  and  physics/chemistry).  The  tests,  which  are  adaptive  and  computer-based,  are 
expected to become effective as of 2010. 

Furthermore, Denmark participates in international outcome based surveys such as PISA and 
TIMSS.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Several initiatives have been taken in view of implementing the coherent strategy for lifelong 
learning,  which  was  adopted  in  2006.  A  working  group  has  finished  the  drafting  of  a  final 
proposal  for  a  Danish  qualification  framework  (2009)  in  response  to  the  need  for  increased 
transparency of qualifications at national and European level. 

It  is  the  goal  of  the  government  to  strengthen  the  recognition  of  non-formal  and  informal 
learning  to  contribute  to  furthering  adult  participation  in  adult  and  in-service  training  and 
improve  adults'  opportunities  on  the  labour  market.  In  2007,  legislation  on  increased 
recognition of actual competences in adult vocational education and training came into force. 
Easily accessible tools that can be used by the individuals (and companies) to identify and to 
document non formal and informal competences have been made available on the internet. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

A wide range of initiatives have been taken with the objective of increasing the attractiveness 
of  VET  and  to  reduce  dropout.  These  include  efforts  to  upgrade  the  qualifications  and 
competences of staff, provisions of more practical training placements in companies and the 
public section, and allowing for shorter and more practical phases for students with a practical 
orientation.  In  relation  to  increasing  the  relevance  of  VET  for  the  labour  market,  trade 
committees  produce  a  development  statement  of  the  fields  covered  by  the  committee  and 
respective  fields  of  VET.  Moreover,  central  analytical  capacity  has  been  strengthened  to 
improve forecasting in relation to new innovative areas for VET. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The public financing of higher education is among the highest in Europe and all students at 
higher  education  institutions  are  entitled  to  substantial  student  grants  and  loans  to  ensure 
equal access. While tuition fees are not charged for students, universities do receive income 
through  several  streams  including  adults  in  the  continuing  education  system.  Research 
funding is also partly competitive. 

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In  2007,  the  Government  increased  its  support  for  participation  in  lifelong  learning  through 
increased state grants to adults in the continuing education system. Moreover, recognition of 
prior learning opens up universities, university colleges and academies for individuals who do 
not fulfil the formal admission criteria.  

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GERMANY 

Germany 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

82.6% 

94.5%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

22.6% 

20.0%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

19.9%06 

15.4%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary completion rate  

(age 20-24) 

14.6% 

11.8% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

74.7% 

74.1% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

39.7%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

21.6% 

29.8%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

Population with higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

25.7% 

27.7% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

6.0% 03 

7.9%  

8.5% 03

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

- 

- 

- 

40% 

03

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Germany performs above the EU average in three school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education, Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science and Early leavers 
from education and training.  

One  additional  area  in  which  Germany  has  made  considerable  progress  is  in  increasing  the 
number  of  MST  graduates,  for  which  the  growth  rate  has  been  above  the  EU  average.  In 
relation to the population with higher education attainment it should be noted that Germany 
has a well developed dual system in vocational education and training and that, in that regard, 
the  German  figures  for  higher  education  attainment  are  not  fully  comparable  with  those  of 
other Member States.     

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As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Germany  has  also  made  progress,  but 
still  performs  below  the  EU  average  on  the  benchmark  indicator,  which  measures  the 
frequency of participation (with a reference period of four weeks). Results from the European 
Adult Education Survey (with a reference period of one year) however imply that the annual 
participation rate is above EU average. 

Germany performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level on MST graduates and close to the 
2020 EU benchmark level on participation in early childhood education. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

A  key  development  is  the  increasing  policy  shift  towards  an  outputs  approach  across  the 
entire  education  system  (for  example  visible  through  the  establishment  of  an  increasing 
number of education standards or the development of a national qualifications framework). A 
joint  Bund–Länder  initiative  ("Qualifizierungsinitiative")  adopted  in  Oct.  2008  includes  a 
comprehensive  set  of  objectives  and  measures  targeting  learning  during  the  entire  lifecycle. 
The objective is to allow all people to access and to proceed through education and training 
and  thus  to  raise  the  general  competence  level  of  the  population.  The  measures  address  all 
areas  of  lifelong  learning,  e.g.  improved  early  childhood  education,  better  support  for 
language  acquisition,  more  training  opportunities,  better  academic  education  and  further 
education.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Education standards in mathematics, the German language and the first foreign language were 
adopted by the 'The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs 
of the Länder (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK) in 2004. These standards provide the basis for 
the  Länders'  curricula  and  assessment  regulations  and  develop  the  intentions  of  education 
objectives by defining the competences pupils should have aquired by a certain stage of their 
education pathway. 

Transversal  competences  such  as  learning  to  learn,  citizenship,  ICT,  entrepreneurship  and 
cultural  expression  are  overarching  educational  objectives  and  are  therefore  taken  into 
account within in the curricula of different subjects. In relation to intercultural education, the 
KMK and NGOs representing people with a migrant background adopted a joint declaration 
in Dec. 2007, which supports giving interculturalism more attention both within and outside 
schools. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences 

 In  the  "Qualifizierungsinitiative",  the  federal  government  and  the  Länder  have  set  national 
targets for the reduction of the number of early school leavers and of young people without 
initial  vocational  training,  to  increase  the  share  of  students  starting  higher  education  and  to 
increase the participation of the active workforce in continuing education and training from 43 
to  50  %  by  2015  (based  on  the  Adult  Education  Survey).    To  promote  equal  education 
opportunities for all, it is planned to better coordinate early childhood and school education 
and  to  provide  targeted  support  for  the  acquisition  of  the  German  language  at  pre-primary 
level. 

Further  education  includes  measures  targeted  at  specific  groups.    These  include  integration 
courses  for  migrants,  provision  targeted  at  specific  age  groups  (e.g.  ICT  courses  for  senior 

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citizens),  or  learning  opportunities  specifically  addressing  women/men,  families,  illiterate, 
unemployed  or  low-qualified  etc.  persons.  The  federal  government  supports  initiatives 
addressed at groups with a particular potential, for example to support academics to (re)enter 
the labour market.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Standards for teacher training (adopted by the KMK in 2004) provide guidelines concerning 
the competences teachers need to succeed in their everyday professional life. The KMK and 
teacher  unions  adopted  in  2006  a  joint  declaration  which  stressed  the  need  for  a  systematic 
supply of continuing teacher training. Accordingly, continuing training for teachers should be 
further  developed  in  particular  with  regard  to  addressing  heterogeneity,  learning  needs 
diagnosis and targeted support to pupils.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Germany has in recent years participated in important international comparative surveys and 
will  continue  to  do  so  in  the  future,  in  particular  in  PISA,  PIRLS,  TIMSS,  PIAAC.  
Additionally, the joint reporting taking place every 2 years is a central element for assessing 
the  quality  of  the  education  and  training  system.  This  was  introduced  in  2006  as  part  of  an 
overall monitoring strategy in education and training which allows systematic monitoring of 
the education and training system and its outcomes, which in turn is a precondition for quality 
development at all levels. Compliance with the agreed quality standards will in the future be 
assessed both within the Länder and across them.   

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

At their 'qualifications summit' in Oct. 2008, the heads of the federal and Länder governments  
agreed the 'qualifications initiative for Germany' ("Qualifizierungsinitiative") which includes 
a  comprehensive  set  of  objectives  and  measures  covering  all  education  and  training  areas. 
This  included  an  agreement  on  support  to  education  and  training  activities  addressing  the 
entire lifecycle. The federal and Länder level set the target to increase the share of GDP spent 
for  education  and  research  to  10%  by  2015.  A  first  interim  implementation  report  was 
presented in 2009. 

A lifelong learning strategy was agreed by the federal and Länder level in 2004, which was 
further developed through a 2008 federal government decision 'Concept for learning along the 
life cycle' ("Konzeption Lernen im Lebenslauf").  

A draft national qualifications framework for lifelong learning (DQR) was published in spring 
2009 for discussion. The DQR provides a comprehensive matrix  covering all education and 
training  sectors,  which  will  significantly  increase  orientation  within  the  German  education 
and training system. The proposal is currently undergoing a testing phase in which experts are 
examining its practical implementation by referencing qualifications to the levels of the draft 
DQR. It is planned to include non-formal and informal learning at a later stage.  

Although  Germany  does  not  have  a  comprehensive  system  for  the  validation  of  non-formal 
and informal learning, many specific instruments are tailored to the needs of different sectors 
and target groups. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

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The dual VET system (combining company and school-based learning) provides training for 
more  than  60%  of  the  age  cohort.  To  increase  the  provision  of  apprenticeships,  the  federal 
government  has  in  2007  extended  the  national  pact  on  apprenticeships  (Ausbildungspakt) 
concluded with employers in 2004 for a further 3 years. The pact contributed to improving the 
provision of apprenticeships and resulted in the targets it had itself set being exceeded. The 
federal  government  established  a  round  table  on  innovation  in  vocational  education  and 
training  (Innovationskreis  berufliche  Bildung) 
in  2006  which  came  forward  with 
recommendations  for  actions  aimed  at  adapting  education  and  training  policy  to  new 
demographic,  economic,  technological  and  international  developments  and  challenges.  The 
federal government has implemented these reform guidelines in cooperation with other actors 
responsible  for  VET  through  a  number  of  operational  measures  and  programmes.  Key 
recommendations also fed into the 2008 'qualifications initiative' agreed between the federal 
and Länder levels.  

Lower  secondary  education  graduates  have  been  offered  more  and  more  courses,  which 
combine a vocational qualification with the right to access higher education. The Länder have 
thus  improved  pathways  between  vocational  education  and  higher  education.  In  2009  they 
have  also  made  a  decisive  step  towards  more  open  education  pathways  through  facilitating 
access  to  higher  education  for  VET  graduates:  graduates  holding  higher  level  VET 
qualifications (Meister, Techniker, Fachwirte) will in the future have general access to higher 
education,  while  VET  graduates  holding  a  qualification  based  on  an  at  least  two-year  long 
traineeship, and with at least three years of professional experience, have the right to access 
higher  eduation  in  their  respective  areas  of  experience.  It  is  planned  to  include  these 
innovations in the Länder legislation by 2010. 

The  federal  government  introduced  at  the  end  of  2008  scholarships  providing  additional 
financial incentives to highly-talented women and men with professional experience to start 
higher  education.  They  address  in  particular  those  who  have  gained  their  right  to  access 
higher  education  through  initial  or  continuing  VET  or  professional  experience.  Following 
great  demand,  the  federal  government  increased  the  available  funds  in  2009.  The  federal 
government and the Länder have, in the context of the ‘qualifications initiative’, significantly 
increased  in  2009  the  financial  incentives  for  further  training  aimed  at  professional 
advancement  (Meister-BAföG)  and  also  provided  financial  incentives  to  invest  in  one's  own 
education  and  continuing  training  (Bildungsprämie).  The  federal  government’s  set  of 
measures  also  includes  the  initiative  ‘Recognition  of  vocational  competences  for  higher 
education courses’ (ANKOM), which contains simplified and transparent procedures for the 
recognition of VET qualifications for higher education studies. The  federal government  and 
most of  the  Länder  make use  European funds to  develop innovative measures in  initial and 
continuing VET in pilot projects. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Based on the Bologna process reforms, 75 % of all study courses lead to Bachelor or Master 
qualificatons.  The  "Qualifizierungsinitiative"  includes  the  target  to  raise  the  share  of  young 
people entering a higher education programme to 40 % of a particular age cohort by 2015. An 
additional 18 billion Euro investment in education and research by 2019 has been announced. 
As part of this, the federal state and the Länder will invest approx. 5.3 billion Euro until 2015 
in 275 000 additional study places. 

The  main  source  of  funding  for  HE  institutions  is  still  the  government.  Detailed  steering 
through  the  Länder  authorities  is  increasingly  replaced  by  autonomous  action  by  the  higher 

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institutions 

education 
funding  are 
increasingly used . 6 out of 16 Länder have introduced tutition fees and the share from third-
party funds has been growing in recent years. 

themselves.  Mechanisms  of  performance-related 

Continuing  academic  education  is  part  of  the  key  tasks  of  higher  education  institutions, 
alongside  research  and  teaching.  In  all  Länder  higher  education  institutions  can  themselves 
use  the  funds  acquired  through  the  provision  of  continuing  education  and  training. 
Cooperation of universities with external partners is also possible and appropriate in order to 
make use of synergies. Intensive guidance provision, preparatory and bridging courses, study 
courses  close  to  professional  practice  or  aimed  at  working  students,  flexible  organisational 
solutions, such as part-time, distance or combined learning, are all measures by which higher 
education  institutions  can  adapt  to  the  learning  needs  of  students  with  various  prior 
qualifications, as well as to their specific situations in life, and create new learning pathways 
in higher education supporting lifelong learning.  

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ESTONIA 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Estonia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

87.0% 

93.6%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA 
results) 

study 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

13.6%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

12.1%06 

7.7%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

15.1% 

14.0% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

79.0% 

82.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

79.8%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

35.7% 

38.7%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

30.8% 

34.1% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

6.7% 03 

9.8%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

6.10% 

4.80%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Estonia performs above the EU average in all the school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education, Low achievers and Early leavers from education and training, and the 
Upper secondary attainment. Estonia is among the best performing Member States in reading, 

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mathematics and science literacy, and has a small share of Low achievers in all these areas. 
Estonia  did  not  participate  in  the  PISA  survey  in  2000,  hence  it  is  not  possible  to  measure 
progress.  

The Adult participation in lifelong learning has increased since 2000 and is at the same level 
as the EU average.  

On  Higher  education  attainment  Estonia  has  increased  its  share  to  more  than  a  third  of  the 
population aged 30-34. The growth in graduates in MST since 2000 is almost 80% and more 
than twice as high as the EU average figure. Furthermore, the share of female MST graduates 
is above the EU average and the gender balance is improving.  

Estonia has a lower level of Investment in education than the average of all EU countries, and 
the public spending in education as % of GDP has decreased compared to the level in 2000.  

Estonia  performs  above  the  2010  EU  benchmark  levels  on  MST  graduates;  and  above  the 
2020 EU benchmark levels on Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

National  policies  guided  by  the  framework  of  Development  Plans  under  the  area  of  the 
Ministry of Education and Research, include Development Plans for all levels of the Estonian 
formal education system. They are oriented to competences and stress the achievement of key 
competences by target groups as objectives. 

New policy initiatives (such as updating the national curricula for basic and general secondary 
education and the adult education development plan for example), and measures (such as the 
use of EU Structural Funds in 2007-2013) directly refer to the key competences of the EU. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

In  the  current  (2002)  Basic  School  and  Gymnasium  national  curriculum,  basic  skills  are 
specified  as  compulsory  subject  competences  (languages),  domain  competences  (maths)  or 
cross-curricular  themes  (IT).  The  basic  skills  that  should  be  achieved  by  the  end  of  every 
stage  of  the  study  are  described  in  the  national  curriculum.  In  the  draft  version  of  the  new 
national  curriculum,  the  same  approach  is  taken.  In  the  VET  curricula,  basic  skills  are 
generally taught as compulsory and/or as part of specialist subjects.  

In  the  draft  version  of  the  new  national  curriculum,  the  transversal  key  competences  are 
referred to as general competences. Depending on the speciality, the acquisition of transversal 
competences in VET curricula is integrated into the general and/or specialist subjects.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Several flexible learning possibilities, such as individual study programmes and a simplified 
curriculum,  have  been  created  in  legislation  for  students  with  specific  education  needs  in 
compulsory education. Schools have the opportunity to provide free of charge support, such 
as textbooks, health and study counselling, meal and transport to school.  

Persons  who  have  not  completed  basic  or  secondary  education  can  study  free  of  charge  in 
adult  gymnasiums  in  order  to  achieve  key  competences  for  further  study.  The  key 
competences for adults are the focus of the Human Resource Development Plan (ESF 2007-

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2013).  Several  extensive  adult  training  programmes  were  designed  to  enhance  the 
employability  of  adults,  including  individuals  with  lower  levels  of  education,  those  whose 
native language is not Estonian, the unemployed, and older people.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

the 

supervising 

A teacher professional skills profile includes planning and management, shaping the learning 
environment, 
student,  cooperation, 
communication,  self-analysis,  analysis  and  assessment  of  the  students´  development.  It  is 
specified  in  the  teacher  training  development  plan  and  in  teachers´  professional  standards. 
This also applies to VET teachers. Students’ learning results are summarily evaluated in basic 
school  on  both  a  quarterly  and  yearly  basis,  and  by  course  and  stage  of  study  at  the  upper 
secondary level.  

learning  process,  motivating 

The competence-oriented approach based on professional standards is in the implementation 
phase in initial teacher training at universities.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

A  formal  evaluation  system  of  learning  results  of  students  is  in  place,  consisting  in  general 
education of placement tests at the end of stages of study, exams with uniform questions at the 
end  of  basic  school  and  state  examinations  at  the  end  of  upper  secondary  school.  The 
evaluation procedure is specified in the curriculum.  

Higher  education  institutions,  including  teacher  education,  are  currently  in  the  process  of 
introducing  an  output-oriented  assessment  system.  In  addition,  indicators  based  on  different 
data  sets  (national  and/or  international  surveys´  results)  and  self-evaluation  methods  can  be 
used  for  the  evaluation  of  key  competences.  Estonia  has  participated  in  TIMSS  2003, 
PISA2006, TALIS 2008 and is participating in the current PIAAC comparative evaluations.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

A  set  of  relevant  strategies  covering  different  sectors  of  education  is  implemented  under  a 
common  coordination  framework  with  harmonised  goals  and  principles  of  lifelong  learning 
("Smart  and  active  people  2010-2013").  Transition  to  the  competence-based  curricula, 
validation of prior learning and work experience along with the National Qualification System 
are  currently  in  the  process  of  implementation  in  HE  institutions.  Steps  are  being  taken  to 
ensure  the  skills  young  people  acquire  outside  formal  education  are  taken  into  account  by 
general and VET schools.  

The adjustment of the NQF into the 8-level system (which corresponds to the EQF) will be 
completed by the year 2013. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Based  on  vocational  standards,  44  national  curricula  have  been  developed  in  close 
cooperation with the social partners. In 2008-2013 the NQF will be updated and the national 
curricula for VET will become explicitly competence-based.  

Several programmes have supported the modernisation of the VET system, such as the use of 
innovative learning methods (e-learning) and improvements to the infrastructure. Within the 

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context of VET, efforts have been made to raise general levels of awareness of VET and its 
benefits.  

Cooperation  with  social  partners  has  been  extensive  (through  the  development  of  national 
curricula and the NQF for example). Due to State support programmes there is a considerable 
increase in the number of CVET courses and adult/in-service learners in VET institutions.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

With regards to HE curricular development, the transition to output-based curricula together 
with adjustment of ECTS has been set out in the Standard of HE and will take place starting 
from  1  September  2009.  The  ESF  programme  PRIMUS  (2008-2015)  for  HE  institutions  is 
designed to improve the quality of HE, to introduce a new quality assurance concept (based 
on  principles  of  self-improvement)  and  to  support  curricular  development  (in  19  HE 
institutions).  

The  broad  financial  autonomy  and  limited  State  financial  support  for  HE  institutions  have 
created  incentives  to  offer  a  wide  range  of  paid  services.  Adult  education  and  training, 
consultations,  research  and  development  supplement  the  budgets  of  HE  institutions.  At  the 
larger public  universities paid placements  and in-service training of  adult  students comprise 
up  to  1/3  of  the  budget.  The  ratio  of  students  aged  30  and  over  in  placement  training  is  a 
stable 20% at Estonian HE institutions.  

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IRELAND 

Ireland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

- 

- 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

11.0% 

12.1%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

16.4%06 

15.5%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

14.6%02 

11.3% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

82.6% 

87.7% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

-3.6%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

37.9% 

31.3%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

27.5% 

46.1% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

5.9% 03 

7.1% 

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

4.28% 

4.86%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

02= 2002, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Ireland performs clearly above the EU average in three school related areas: Low achievers in 
reading, mathematics and science, Early leavers from education and training and the Upper 
secondary  completion  rate.  In  the  latter  two  areas  Ireland  also  made  good  progress  since 
2000.  As  regards  low  achievers  in  reading  there  was  no  progress  since  2000,  but  Ireland  is 
still among the best performers in the EU. 

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Available statistics show a relatively low rate of Participation in early childhood education in 
Ireland However, there is no official provision at ISCED level 0. Many children attend some 
form of ISCED level 0 education, but for the most part data are missing. One area in which 
Ireland has made no progress is in increasing the number of MST graduates. Ireland did not 
improve the gender balance in MST graduates; on the contrary the share of female graduates 
has fallen significantly since 2000. 

At the same time the share of the population with higher education attainment has improved at 
the fastest pace in the EU, and is now among the highest in Europe. 

As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Ireland has made progress too, although 
from a low level, but is still performing below EU average.  

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  has  increased  significantly  in  Ireland  since 
2000 within a context of strong economic growth during the period (2000-2006), implying a 
strong growth of spending in absolute terms. 

As  regards  higher  education  attainment  and  low  achievers  in  reading  literacy  Ireland 
performs  above  the  EU  benchmarks  for  2020,  Ireland  performs  above  the  2010  EU 
benchmark in the area of Upper secondary attainment. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

The  Departments  of  Education  and  Science  (D/ES)  and  Enterprise  Trade  and  Employment 
(D/ETE) and the National Council for Curriculum Assessment (NCCA) have kept abreast of 
developments  in  the  key  competency  cluster,  and  the  continued  evolution  of  provision  has 
been informed by this process. The NCCA is constantly reviewing programmes and curricula. 
Examples  of  developments  affecting  the  provision  of  key  competences  since  2006  are  the 
standardised testing of English and Maths at two stages of the primary cycle (2007),and the 
launch  of  project  maths,  an  initiative  to  promote  greater  Leaving  Certificate  Maths  literacy 
across second-level 2008.. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

A  professional  development  programme  designed  to  introduce  the  new  Primary  School 
Curriculum  to  all  teachers  was  completed  in  2008.  The  curriculum  places  key  emphasis  on 
literacy and numeracy, personal fulfilment, and on responding to changing needs in a number 
of areas: science and technology, including a basic understanding of scientific principles and 
methods,  social,  personal  and  health  education,  citizenship  and  the  use  of  ICT  to  enhance 
learning.  Also  fostered  is  the  development  of  core  communication  skills,  motivation  for 
learning to learn and the ability and values to make ethical judgements.  

There  is  ongoing  review  of  curricula  in  both  the  lower  and  upper  cycles  of  secondary 
education,  which  includes  a  mix  of  academic  and  vocational  options.  NCCA  is  working  on 
curricular  reforms 
include: 
communications, information processing, critical and creative thinking, working with others, 
and  being  personally  effective.  The  result  will  be  to  embed  these  key  competences  in  all 
senior cycle subjects. 

that  senior  cycle  subjects  are  designed 

to  ensure 

to 

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1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

All  schools  have  access  to  Learning  Support  provision  to  address  the  competence  needs  of 
children  with  learning  difficulties,  their  early  identification  and  remediation.  Guidelines  for 
teachers,  professional  development  programmes,  additional  resources  and  range  of 
educational  programmes  are  in  place  to  address  special  educational  needs,  Travellers, 
newcomers to Ireland, and children and young people from disadvantaged communities. DEIS 
(Delivering  Equality  of  Opportunity  in  Schools),  a  national  action  plan  for  educational 
inclusion, is being phased in over the period 2006-2010. 

The fruits of a major expansion of opportunities in adult and further education (expenditure 
increased between 2002 and 2008 by 60%) are evidenced in 2008 in LLL participation results. 
Adult  literacy  provision  was  extended  from  5,000  in  1997  to  over  49,000  in  2008.  The 
National Skills Strategy, 2007, recommends that literacy and numeracy should be embedded 
in all publicly funded programmes, and sets out an economic imperative for the upskilling of 
workers with low or no qualifications. Early school leavers are targeted, as are the employed, 
unemployed and older people, through second chance provision.  

1.3. Teacher education and approaches to assessment  

The Teaching Council was established in 2006 to regulate the profession, and to promote the 
professional  development  of  teachers.  Recognising  the  changing  role  of  teachers  and  their 
importance as reflective, continuous learners, it is redefining the content of teacher education 
programmes with an emphasis on a learning-outcomes approach and all existing programmes 
will be reviewed and accredited, starting in the second semester of 2009. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

At primary level, there are no formal examinations, but assessment is an integral part of the 
work of the class teacher. Guidelines on assessment for teachers were published by the NCCA 
in 2007 and issued to all teachers and provide a range of approaches for both formative and 
summative  assessment.  Standardised  testing  in  English  reading  and  Mathematics  is 
implemented  for  all  pupils  at  two  stages  in  the  primary  cycle.  Schools  report  to  parents  on 
their children’s progress each year through a meeting and an annual report card. Standardised 
reporting  templates  for  reporting  to  parents  have  also  been  developed  by  the  NCCA  for 
primary schools.  

At secondary level, summative and formative assessment takes place in schools through the 
ongoing  work  of  the  class  teacher,  and  end  of  term/year  school  exams.  There  are  national 
examinations externally set and marked by the State Examinations Commission at the end of 
junior  cycle  (after  3  years  lower  second  level  provision)  and  at  the  end  of  senior  cycle  (on 
completion of upper second level education at the end of 5 or 6 years second level provision) 

Exam  results  are  published  annually  by  the  State  Examinations  Commission,  by  subject, 
gender  and  grade.  The  Chief  Examiner's  Reports  highlight  strengths,  weaknesses  and 
recommendations  in  the  subjects  concerned.  These  and  the  outcomes  of  evaluations 
conducted by the inspectorate (Whole School Evaluation, subject inspections, and a number 
of  in-depth  thematic  evaluations),  are  taken  into  account  in  ongoing  curriculum  reform. 
NCCA is working with a network of 20 schools on Assessment for Learning to promote new 
understanding of how students learn and how assessment can guide student progress. 

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Ireland takes part in international comparative evaluations such as PISA. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The promotion of lifelong learning is a governing principle of education and training policy in 
Ireland. Lifelong learning policy is developed in collaboration between the D/ES and D/ETE, 
in consultation with a wide range of stakeholders. Reports such as The White Paper on Adult 
Education, the Task Force on Lifelong Learning and the National Skills Strategy all provide 
for a continuum from early childhood through to adulthood, with an extensive range of adult 
learning programmes taking place in the further and higher education and training sectors. An 
updated lifelong learning strategy is currently being finalised. 

The  National  Qualifications  Framework  (NFQ)  is  a  10-level  framework  providing  for  all 
awards  in  the  State,  from  basic  education  and  literacy  to  post-doctoral  level  across  the 
education  and  training  sectors.  It  is  an  important  step  in  meeting  the  needs  of  a  lifelong 
learning  community  with  more  diverse  learners  who  have  different  learning  needs.  A  key 
element of the NFQ is to improve access (entry) to education and training, transfer within and 
between  education  and  training  and  progression  within  and  between  education  and  training, 
leaving no dead ends.  

The NFQ is supporting validation of formal, non-formal and informal learning, based on the 
achievement of learning outcomes. The framework includes provision for recognition of prior 
learning. In Ireland full awards can be gained by RPL, although these are the exception; the 
greatest  use  of  recognition  of  prior  learning  is  for  student  entry  to  programmes  or  for  the 
purpose of gaining credits or exemptions.  

Ireland completed the mapping of its NFQ to EQF in June 2009. It is anticipated that the next 
stage of introducing a reference to the EQF in all new Certificate and Diploma Supplements 
should be completed by 2012. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

VET's  attractiveness  is  not  questioned  and  the  NFQ  provides  for  all  awards  across  the 
education and training sectors. An Expert Group on Future Skills Needs (EGFSN) acts as the 
central national resource on skills and labour supply for the enterprise sector and on overall 
strategy  for  enterprise  training  in  Ireland.  Its  reports  assist  in  VET  policy  formulation  and 
reform.  To  cope  with  the  impact  of  the  economic  crisis  7,000  extra  education  and  training 
places  are  being  created  for  the  unemployed,  many  in  post-secondary  training  and 
apprenticeship courses. 

Government  policy,  as  articulated  in  the  National  Development  Plan  2007-2013,  is  to 
implement the 2007 report of the EGFSN- Towards a National Skills Strategy. This Strategy 
sets out clear long-term objectives in developing Ireland’s human capital through up-skilling, 
training  and  education  for  the  period  to  2020.  VET  programmes  are  fully  integrated  in  the 
seamless ten-level National Framework of Qualifications. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

In  February  2009,  the  Minister  for  Education  and  Science  launched  a  process  to  develop  a 
new National Strategy for Higher Education for the next twenty years. The process is being 
led  by  a  high  level  Steering  Group  comprising  national  and  international  expertise.  The 

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National  Skills  Strategy  vision  is  for  45%  of  the  labour  force  to  have  post-upper  secondary 
qualifications by 2020. 

Ireland  recognises  that  it  must  examine  ways  of  expanding  the  non-exchequer  sources  of 
income  of  institutions  so  that  they  have  the  resources  to  compete  on  an  international  level 
going into the future. A review of the options relating to the introduction of a form of student 
contribution is currently being finalised, drawing on international experience. 

The  National  Access  Office,  within  the  Higher  Education  Authority  (HEA),  facilitates 
educational access and opportunity for groups who are under-represented in higher education. 
It published a new National Plan for Equity of Access to Higher Education 2008-2013 which 
foresees  development  of  a  broader  range  of  entry  routes,  a  significant  expansion  of  part-
time/flexible  courses  and  that  mature  students  will  comprise  at  least  20%  of  total  full-time 
entrants  by  2013.  From  2004-05  to  2006-07,  there  was  a  29%  increase  in  the  number  of 
mature students. 

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GREECE 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Greece 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks  

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

69.3% 

68.2%07

85.6% 

90.7%07

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

24.4% 

27.7%06

21.3% 

24.1%06

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA 
results) 

study 

Science 

- 

- 

32.3%06

24.0 %06

- 

- 

24.0%06

20.2%06

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

18.2% 

14.8% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

leavers 

Early 
training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

79.2% 

82.1% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

MST  graduates 
(higher 
education) 

Share of females  

- 

- 

-  

- 

33.6%07

+15 % 

44.2%07

30.7% 

31.9%07

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

25.4% 

25.6% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

2.6% 03 

2.9%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

3.39% 

4.0%05 

4.91% 

5.05% 06

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

In  school  related  areas  Greece’s  performance  is  mixed.  In  two  areas:  Early  leavers  from 
education and training and Upper secondary attainment, Greece performs slightly better than 
the  EU  average.  While  on  early  school  leavers  there  has  been  some  progress  since  2000, 

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Greece's performance on Low achievers and on Participation in early childhood education is 
below the EU average and appears to deteriorate or stagnate. 

One area in which Greece has made progress is in increasing the number of MST graduates. 
The share of females in this field is clearly above the EU average. However, the share with 
High education attainment appears to have stagnated and was below the EU average in 2008. 

As regards Adult participation in lifelong learning, Greece has a very low performance which 
has only slightly increased since 2000.  

Greece performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number of 
MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  Greek  education  system  is  very  centralised.  There  is  a  gradual  but  slow  shift  to  a  less 
teacher/single  book/exam-centred,  more  flexible  system  with  some  emphasis  on  the 
development  of  key  competences.  In  compulsory  education,  this  shift  includes  initiatives  to 
modernise  curricula  and  textbooks,  increase  the  use  of  ICTs  and  reform  special  needs 
provision. This transition is far from complete. While dialogue involving political parties and 
social  partners  started  recently,  low  level  of  public  investment  in  education  and  training, 
continual  changes  in  policy  and  the  heavy  politicisation  of/lack  of  political  consensus  on 
education  are  among  the  factors  that  have  slowed  down  reform.  More  and  better  ECEC 
provision, better quality and equity of provision, more attractiveness and relevance of VET, 
and an upper-secondary system that is decoupled from university-entry exams, are some key 
challenges. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

New textbooks and learning material are being produced, with emphasis on the development 
of key competencies and a cross-curricular approach to knowledge. Pre-primary education is 
now compulsory at the age of 5. Mother tongue is the focal point of the national curriculum in 
primary  schooling.  ICT  competence  features  in  the  curriculum  as  a  separate  subject.  The 
study  of  foreign  languages  is  compulsory  from  primary  level  onwards  (with  specialist 
teachers  also  in  primary)  but  teaching  a  foreign  language  as  a  separate  subject  remains  the 
main  approach.  Second  foreign  language  provision  is  being  piloted  in  the  last  two  years  of 
primary. In secondary, preparatory language classes (EL) are provided to non-Greek students. 
In  addition  to  compulsory  EN,  an  option  between  FR,  DE  or  IT  is  available  as  a  second 
foreign language, compulsory in lower-secondary and optional in upper-secondary. Secondary 
VET  students  can  choose  between  EN,  FR  and  DE.  Where  adopted,  the  “Flexible  Zone” 
curricular component and the implementation of school projects also reflect the gradual shift 
to a more cross-curricular approach. Also, the new types of secondary VET schools after 2006 
provide a broader and more balanced curriculum.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

There  is  a  range  of  additional  school  types  for  early  school  leavers  and  for  students  who 
started  to  work  after  finishing  compulsory  education  (such  as  second  chance  schools  and 
evening  schools).  There  are  also  "intercultural"  schools  that  cater  for  the  children  of  the 
Muslim  minority  and  for  Roma  children.  EL  as  a  Second  Language  is  available  to  working 
immigrants  and  has  become  a  prerequisite  for  obtaining  residence  licence.  There  is  a 

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programme  for  instruction  and  counselling  support  to  families  (adults)  of  Roma,  Muslims, 
Repatriates and Immigrants. Special education is compulsory since 2008. Provision for pupils 
with  special  needs  includes  education  in  special  classes  or  schools  (separate)  as  well  as  in 
mainstream settings. The Vocational Training Centres offer vocationally oriented services to 
unemployed adults  with a secondary or  post-secondary VET qualification  and to vulnerable 
social groups. 

There is a need to provide more and better learning opportunities to adults, including the so-
called  "non-traditional"  learners  and  to  those  most  vulnerable  and  severely  affected  by 
inequalities  and  economic  swings.  The  Second  Chance  Schools  target  young  adults  without 
lower-secondary qualifications and emphasise the acquisition of key competences and social 
skills. The 58 Centres for Adult Education are open to all adult citizens. The 58 Schools for 
Parents  cover  topics  that  include  parental  guidance,  family-school  relations,  and  health 
education. The Centre for Distance Adult LLL provides a distance learning programme. The 
Prefectural  Committees  for  Adult  Education are  part  of  the  local  government  and  implement 
training programmes with a wide range of topics. Some targeted adult education programmes 
aim  to  develop  digital  competences  of  adult  learners.  The  Hellenic  Open  University  offers 
open and distance courses leading to a bachelor or master’s degree. Significant professional 
development  opportunities  are  available  to  public  administration  and  local  government 
employees in the context of the on-going efforts to modernise public administration. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The  work  of  the  Organisation  for  Teacher  Training  (OEPEK)  complements  the  work  of  the 
Pedagogical  Institute  (PI)  in  the  provision  of  in-service  training  of  teachers  and  of  regional 
induction  training  for  newly-appointed  staff.  In  alignment  with  the  new  textbooks  and 
learning material it has produced, the PI’s training courses aim to enhance the perspectives of 
the  new  teachers  and  encourage  them  to  adopt  a  cross-curricular,  competence-building 
approach.  However,  practitioners  report  problems  in  the  use  and  quality  of  the  new  books. 
The  new  curricula  promote  student  assessment  that  is  more  learner-centered,  criterion-
referenced, combines formative and summative means, and avoids general comparisons with 
other learners. Student assessment guidelines and procedures are set centrally by the Ministry. 
In addition, for each subject, the relevant textbook provided by the Ministry is accompanied 
by a teachers’ manual that includes assessment issues.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Assessment  for  learning  is  the  main  approach  to  pupils’  evaluation.  The  fact  that  the 
Pedagogical  Institute  is  the  body  responsible  for  curriculum  development  but  also  for 
evaluating its effectiveness in primary and secondary has raised questions of objectivity. Also, 
an increasing number of voices in recent years argue that there is a need to foster a culture of 
evaluation in all types and levels of compulsory education in order to develop effective long-
term  policies  and  create  policies  based  on  solid  evidence.  The  recently-established  Quality 
Assurance  Agency  aims  to  monitor  quality  in  tertiary  education  and  there  are  plans  to 
promote quality assessment in compulsory levels. 

Greece takes part in international comparative student evaluations such as PISA. 

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2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The 2005 Law on the "Systematisation of Lifelong Learning" is now enacted and the basis for 
the  establishment  of  a  LLL  network.  Policy  action  aims  at  setting  up  a  comprehensive 
institutional  and  practical  platform  systemising  existing  education  and  VET  framework,  the 
latter being a pillar of the Greek LLL approach. LLL is largely equated with adult education. 
The  provision  of  LLL  services  is  expanding  and  the  coordination  of  the  various  actors  has 
improved,  in  particular  visible  through  the  increased  activation  of  the  National  LLL 
Committee as a key player for LLL policies. Additionally, tertiary education institutions are 
establishing and expanding LLL institutes. However, supportive scientific and administrative 
structures still need to be put in place, as well as guidance and counselling services to provide 
information on LLL opportunities and careers.  

While  a  Committee  has  been  appointed  to  look  into  the  issue,  there  is  no  system  for  the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. Some progress is reported in the validation of 
an increasing number of job profiles and in the (initial) steps to set up a NQF aligned with the 
EQF. The establishment of Lifelong Learning Institutes in tertiary education institutions and 
in social partner structures has rendered LLL more accessible. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Increasing the quality, attractiveness and labour-market relevance of VET in Greece is a big 
challenge.  VET  has  been  declining  with  30%  fewer  students  in  the  last  6  years  and  a  large 
number  of  early  leavers  from  VET.  There  is  broad  recognition  of  the  need  to  develop  clear 
and  diverse  pathways  through  vocational  education  to  higher  education,  to  further  learning 
and  to  employment,  to  remove  dead  ends  and  to  improve  the  quality,  attractiveness  and 
relevance of VET. The new types of secondary VET schools (EPAL and EPAS) show a shift 
away  from  job-specific  to  a  broader  and  more  balanced  curriculum  with  some  emphasis  on 
the  development  of  key  competences.  EPAL  graduates  are  now  able  to  participate  in 
university-entry  exams  to  tertiary  education  at  an  equal  footing  with  students  from  general 
secondary. EPAS curricula currently focus on 41 occupational specialisations that are on high 
demand.  Some  mobility  between  secondary  general  and  vocational  tracks  is  now  possible. 
Also,  a  quota  of  places  reserved  for  EPAL  students  in  certain  tertiary  education  schools  is 
believed  to  increase  the  appeal  of  secondary  VET.  There  are  some  improvements  in 
infrastructure  planned,  learning  resources  and  facilities,  teacher  training  and  accreditation, 
school-based and local government-based guidance and employment liaison offices, and some 
efforts  to  increase  public  awareness  of  VET  opportunities  and  its  enhanced  status.  There  is 
progress in the clarification of the occupational rights of TEI graduates.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Reform  of  HE  is  in  progress  since  2006.  It  has  been  heavily  contested  and  politicised  but 
contestation is gradually giving way to debate. Greek universities and research remain under-
funded. New legislation aims to raise investment in research to 1.5% from the current 0.7% of 
GDP,  encourages  synergies  between  universities,  public  research  organisations  and 
enterprises  and  supports  the  creation  of  spin-off  companies.  Greece  has  a  very  high 
unemployment of young graduates. While direct public funding is the main source of income 
for  HE  and  research,  2007  legislation  facilitates  synergies  with  the  private  and  industrial 
sectors  and  has  enabled  the  diversification  of  income  streams.  Also,  the  public  funding  of 
universities  is  now  linked  to  the  compulsory  submission  of  4-year  academic  and  budgetary 

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plans.  Tertiary  education  institutions  are  subject  to  internal  and  external  evaluation  by  the 
Quality Assurance Agency. 

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SPAIN 

Participation  in  early  childhood 
education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of 
comp. primary) 

Spain 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

100.0% 

98.1%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

16.3% 

25.7%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA 
results) 

study 

Science 

- 

- 

24.7%06 

19.6%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

29.1% 

31.9% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

Early  leavers  from  education  and 
training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

66.0% 

60.0% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase 
2000  

since 

- 

12.4%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST  graduates 
(higher 
education) 

Share of females  

31.5% 

29.9%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult  participation 
learning 

in 

lifelong 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public  spending  on  education,%  of 
GDP 

29.2% 

39.8% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

10.5 % 05 

10.4%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

4.28% 

4.28%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003,05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

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In  school  related  areas,  Spain  performs  above  the  EU  average  on  participation  in  Early 
childhood education. However, Spain performs below the EU average in the remaining three: 
Low achievers, Early leavers from education and training, and Upper secondary attainment 
and its performance in the period 2000-2008 has deteriorated. 

Spain has made strong progress in increasing the number of MST graduates. Moreover, Spain 
has  a  high  share  of  Higher  education  attainment  and  has  performed  significantly  above  the 
EU average throughout the period. 

As  concerns  Investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP,  Spain  performs  below  EU 
average  levels  and  levels  have  not  increased  since  2000.  Nevertheless,  since  Spanish  GDP 
increased more rapidly than the EU average, investment in education has grown in absolute 
terms. 

Spain  performs  above  the  2020  benchmark  levels  on:  Participation  in  early  childhood 
education. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

The  European  framework  of  key  competences  has  been  adapted  to  the  Spanish  educational 
system and integrated into the curricula. The key competences have been defined as follows: 
1)  linguistic  communication;  2)  mathematical  competence;  3)  knowledge  of  and  interaction 
with  the  physical  world;  4)  information  processing  and  digital  competence;  5)  social  and 
citizenship competence; 6) cultural and artistic competence; 7) learning to learn; 8) autonomy 
and personal initiative. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The competence-based approach has led to significant changes in the curricula for languages, 
which until 2006 were largely focused on linguistics. The current approach puts more weight 
in  enabling  pupils  to  use  languages  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  In  the  area  of  mathematics, 
capacities such as reasoning or informed decision taking are being given more weight, as well 
as a push to improve didactics.  

Both  in  primary  and  secondary  education,  the  curriculum  for  each  subject  details  how  it  is 
expected to contribute to the development of the key competences, including the transversal 
ones. ICT (digital competence) has been the subject of special attention. A special emphasis 
has  also  been  put  on  reading,  which  is  understood  as  essential  for  developing  all  the  key 
competences, and therefore has to be dealt with within all subject areas. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Several measures have been put in place to reduce early school leaving in Spain, such as the 
PROA  plan  (Programme  for  Reinforcement,  Guidance  and  Support),  which  supports  the 
development  of  key  competences  in  pupils  at  risk  of  dropping  out.  The  new  PCPI 
(Programmes  for  Initial  Vocational  Qualification)  also  foresee  both  an  initial  VET 
qualification and reinforcing the key competences, with a view to enabling pupils to pursue 
their educational careers afterwards. 

Early school leavers, those without basic qualifications, immigrants and Roma are among the 
target groups of adult education. Adult education centres take an initial individual assessment 
of  needs  as  the  departure  point  of  personalised  learning  pathways  that  often  combine  basic 

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skills (e.g. literacy) with professionalization courses and non-formal learning. They may also 
lead towards (re)entering formal education through targeted admission tests.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Initial  teacher  education  comprises  instruction  on  the  key  competences  and  their  didactics. 
From  2009,  a  two-year  Master's  degree  will  be  introduced  as  a  prerequisite  for  graduates 
wishing  to  teach  at  secondary  schools,  also  with  a  view  to  raising  their  abilities  in  the  key 
competences.  In-service  training  is  playing  a  role  in  familiarising  existing  teachers  with  the 
competence-based approach. 

Changes in the assessment methods are being introduced gradually, based on the description 
of the contribution of each of the subject areas to the acquisition of the key competences.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Evaluation  is  set  out  as  an  integral  activity  of  the  education  system  by  the  Education  Law. 
Two  main  types  of  evaluations  are  conducted:  censual  (covering  all  schools)  and  sample. 
While the former vary across regions and are more curriculum-based, the latter are national-
level evaluations and are based on the key competences, starting with four of them in 2009. 

PISA results show that there remains potential for improving overall basic skills. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The 2006 Education Act and the 2007 framework law on higher education constitute policy 
frameworks covering all the different levels and modalities of the education system. Work on 
the NQF is on-going and it is foreseen that it will enter into force in 2011. A Royal Decree on 
the validation of professional competences acquired through work or non-formal learning is 
also foreseen for July 2009. 

This  validation  procedure  will  be  implemented  by  the  autonomous  regions,  and  it  has  been 
conceived as part of an integrated guidance process, so that individuals will not only be able 
to have their competences recognised, but will also have them assessed and will be helped to 
understand  the  different  options  to  complement  them.  Validation  will  be  conducted  on  an 
evidence basis (e.g. portfolios). Social partners have been closely involved in this process. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Increasing the numbers of VET graduates remains one of the key challenges of the Spanish 
education  system,  in  the  light  of  comparisons  with  other  countries  and  of  other  contextual 
indicators, such as early school leaving, and in spite of the fact that VET graduates perform 
significantly well in the labour market.  

A "roadmap" for a new VET model was presented in 2008. It is foreseen to better integrate 
initial  VET  with  training  for  workers  in  employment,  so  as  to  provide  a  better  quality  and 
more  labour  market  relevant  offer.  A  series  of  other  changes  are  introduced  to  increase  the 
attractiveness  of  VET,  e.g.  a  flexible,  modular  and  adaptable  offer;  the  obligation  to  spend 
training periods in enterprises; or increasing the availability of scholarships for studying VET. 

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4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  Strategy  Universidad  2015,  adopted  by  the  Government  in  2009,  foresees  four  lines  of 
action in order to modernise Higher Education: 1) the 'missions' of HE (teaching, research and 
transfer  of  knowledge  and  responsibility);  2)  people  (teachers  and  researchers,  students  and 
other staff); 3) capacity strengthening (governance, finance, etc.); and 4) built environment . 

Funding  issues  are  largely in the hands of the regions. While the policy on low tuition fees 
remains  unchanged  and  scholarships  increase,  universities  are  being  stimulated  to  diversify 
their  sources  of  income  for  missions  other  than  teaching.  Spanish  universities  have  been 
traditionally  active  LLL  providers,  and  a  working  group  is  currently  reflecting  on  how  to 
strengthen this role. Adaptation to the European Higher Education Area remains a key priority 
for the immediate future. 

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FRANCE 

France 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks  

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

100% 

100%07 

85.6%  90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

15.2% 

21.7%06 

21.3%  24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

22.3%06 

21.2%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

13.3% 

11.8% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

81.6% 

83.4% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

7.4%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females 

30.8% 

28.1%07 

30.7%  31.9%07 

amélioration 
de l'accès 
des femmes

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

27.4% 

41.3% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

7.1% 03  

7.3%  

8.5% 03

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

6.03% 

5.58%06 

4.91%  5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

France  performs  above  the  EU  average  in  Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  Low 
achievers in mathematics and science, Early leavers from education and training and Upper 
secondary completion rate. Participation in early childhood education is reaching 100% and 
the  share  of  early  school  leavers  and  upper  secondary  attainment  are  close  to  the  EU 
benchmarks.  

However,  as  regards  low  achievers  in  reading,  the  performance  of  France  has  deteriorated 
significantly since 2000. 

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France  did  not  progress  further  during  the  period  in  increasing  the  number  of  tertiary  MST 
graduates. The share of female MST graduates has fallen since 2000 and is now below EU 
average. 

On the other hand France has made good progress in increasing the share of 30-34 year olds 
with higher education attainment and today performs 10 percentage points above EU average. 

As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning, France has made little progress in recent 
years and is now performing clearly below the EU average.  

In the area of Investment in education as a % of GDP the performance of France has fallen 
since 2000 (if economic growth is taken into account it has, however, still grown in absolute 
terms), but is still above EU average. 

France  performs  above  the  2020  EU  benchmarks  in  two  areas:  Participation  in  early 
childhood education and Higher education attainment. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

France  develops  policy  to  strengthen  the  acquisition  of  the  key  competences.  This  policy  is 
coherent  with  the  European  Framework  for  Key  Competences  and  has  various  measures, 
designed for very young pupils (primary education), young people in colleges or undergoing 
initial vocational training (first cycle of the secondary), or the adults. 

1.1. Curricular reforms 

The  French  authorities  integrated  the  key  competences  into  the  educational  and  training 
system  from  2005-2006.  The  law  of  24  April  2005  introduced  the  "common  competence 
base"  which  defined  seven  key  competences.  They  in  principle  adopt  the  definitions  of  the 
key competences form the European Framework on Key Competences. These initiatives are 
reflected  in  the  curricula  of  primary,  secondary  and  vocational  education,  for  example  with 
the  introduction  of  the  teaching  of  foreign  language  as  from  the  second  year  of  primary 
school.  Moreover,  adapted  and  individualised  teaching  approaches  are  used  to  develop 
confidence and the image of oneself, critical skills, and communication with others. 

In  the  field  of  adult  learning,  many  initiatives  were  taken,  such  as  the  "key  competences" 
programme  established  in  January  2008,  which  enabled  an  increasing  adaptability  of  the 
training offer, provided by the state. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences 

The  target  groups,  identified  as  those  requiring  special  training  or  education  provisions  in 
order to allow them to acquire the key competences, are mainly illiterate persons (3.1 million 
individuals),  persons  with  low  education  level  (ISCED  level  0  to  3),  prisoners  and 
immigrants. For these groups specific training activities are carried out. 

Young people with the disadvantaged background can receive teaching support and specific 
measures  which  aim  to  open  their  access  to  the  community  programmes  and  thus  improve 
their geographical mobility. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment 

The  content  requirements  of  the  initial  and  continuing  training  of  the  teachers  since  2007 
referred  to  the  key  competences  such  as  they  appear  in  the  common  base  of  the  key 
competences.  In  addition,  a  vocational  training  "key  competences  and  the  common  base  – 
how to assess the competences of the scholarship" is envisaged. As regards the training of the 
teachers  of  adults,  there  are  no  national  level  regulations,  the  training  centres  have  the 
responsibility for this kind of training. 

The formative assessment is regarded as a crucial aspect of providing the key competences for 
young  people  in  initial  education.  It  forms  integral  part  in  the  course  of  education  and 
training, from the primary level till the end of the secondary, and is organised in various ways 
(tests,  evaluation  protocol  in  mathematics,  portfolio,  individual  competence  booklet,  etc). 
Another initiative of the French authorities is the integration of a competence booklet in the 
general  booklet  (primary  school)  and  the  individual  school  file  (in  the  college).  The 
summative  assessment  of  the  competences  is  attached  to  the  diploma  or  certificate  (B2i, 
CFG). Concerning the assessment of the linguistic competencies, at the level of the "Diplôme 
National  du  Brevet"  DNB  (Patent),  France  introduced  the  obligatory  validation  of  the  level 
A2 of the Common European Framework of reference for languages (CERF). 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  evaluation  of  the  key  competences  forms  is  included  as  part  of  the  indicators  of 
performance  of  the  education  system  and  is  also  taken  into  account  for  the  definition  of 
specific provisions with the attention to those which are underperforming. 

France takes part in the international surveys of pupils' achievements, for example PISA and 
PIRLS, and the European surveys on language skills. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies 

France  undertook  reforms  in  mid-2000s  which  aimed  to  make  lifelong  learning  a  reality. 
These  policies  affected  all  the  segments  of  education  and  training  (primary,  secondary, 
professional, continuous training and higher education) and are implemented by multi-annual 
plans of modernisation and adaptation of education and training and its organisation.  

In addition France established institutions to foster the implementation of the lifelong learning 
strategies.  The  National  Commission  of  Professional  Certification  (CNCP),  created  in  2002 
manages  the  national  commission  for  professional  qualification  (RNCP).  It  is  in  charge  of 
referring the French national qualification framework to the EQF. The national council of the 
lifelong vocational training was established by the Law of 4 May 2004, it is the forum of co-
operation for the state and the economic and social partners on legislation, the regulation, the 
financing  and  the  regional  policies  in  the  fields  of  training  and  apprenticeship,  thus 
contributing to the development of the lifelong learning strategy.  

In 2002, France set up an efficient system of validation of non formal and informal learning 
"Validation  of  acquired  experience"  (VAE).  It  enables  all  the  adults  to  obtain  certification 
which  approves  their  professional  and  personal  experience.  The  number  of  recipients  is 
increasing, passing from 22,652 in 2005 to 25,956 in 2006 and to 30,000 in 2007.  

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In  addition,  the  individual  right  to  training  (DIF),  established  in  2004  makes  it  possible  for 
each employee to benefit from an annual 20-hour minimum of training. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

France  develops  a  policy  to  increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET  according  to  four  main 
principles: improvement of information and guidance of young people and adults; assessment 
of  the  professional  way  (reduction  of  the  duration  of  training  leading  to  the  professional 
baccalaureate,  development  of  the  professional  college,  establishment  of  pathways  between 
the  various  education  and  training  segments,  etc);  strengthening  of  the  links  between  VET 
programmes, qualifications and the needs of the labour market, democratisation of access to 
European  mobility.  Improvement  of  the  relevance  of  the  VET  programmes  is  also 
implemented by setting up and developing forecasting of the labour market needs, the surveys 
of the labour market and supply of qualifications. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education 

The modernisation of higher education in France accelerated in recent years. Today, it rests 
mainly on three  strategic  main  principles: greater autonomy of the HE institutions  and  their 
opening  to  lifelong  training,  development  of  vocational  and  professional  training  and 
vocational inclusion of the students.  

The law on "freedom and responsibility of the universities" (August 2007) guaranteed greater 
autonomy  to  the  universities  in  the  management  of  their  budget.  Now  universities  can 
diversify their sources of financing and thus open to private funds (patronage, foundations). It 
enables the HE institutions to approach the economic world, and improve their governance.  

The  validation  of  informal  learning  (2002),  the  governmental  plan  of  development  for 
apprenticeship  (2005),  the  development  of  supply  of  continuous  training  and  certification 
contribute opening of the universities to vocational and lifelong learning. 

Lastly, the creation of "assistance office for the students' professional inclusion", shows that 
the universities take active measures to improve the vocational integration of the students. 

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ITALY 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Italy 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks  

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

100% 

99.3%07

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

18.9% 

26.4%06

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

32.8%06

25.3%06

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

25.1% 

19.7% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

69.4% 

76.5% 

76.5% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

112,5%07

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

36.6% 

37.0%07

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

11.6% 

19.2% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

6.3%04 

6.3%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

4.55% 

4.73%06

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

In  school  related  areas,  Italy  is  among  EU's  highest  performers  on  Participation  in  early 
childhood  education.  On  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary 
completion  rates,  even  though  Italy  performs  below  EU  average  levels,  the  trend  between 
2000 and 2008 shows a significant improvement.  

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Italy’s  performance  on  Low  achievers  is  below  the  EU  average  and  performance  has 
deteriorated. 

It is notable that Italy has had a very strong growth in MST graduates. Nevertheless, Italy has 
significantly  lower  Higher  education  attainment  than  the  EU  average.  Moreover,  Adult 
participation in lifelong learning is lower in Italy than the EU average and performance is not 
increasing. 

Italy performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number of 
MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

In  2006  a  law  on  new  compulsory  education  was  adopted,  based  on  the  2006  European 
Recommendation on key competences and contains four pillars: languages (with informatics), 
mathematics, scientific-technologic, historical-social. Learning outcomes have been presented 
in terms of competence, knowledge and skills. A Working Group has been created to put the 
NQF  in  line  with  the  EQF,  adopting  a  competence-based  approach  and  following  non- 
academic higher training (IFTS - Istruzione e Formazione Tecnica Superiore) best practices.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

In  the  2006  law  on  new  compulsory  education,  learning  outcomes  have  been  defined 
according to the above four pillars and the Key Competences Recommendation . They do not 
correspond exactly with the curriculum disciplines, as they were specified and developed in a 
2007 decree. In June 2009, a Reform of "Licei" (senior high schools) completely transformed 
and  reduced  courses  in  upper  secondary  education  (from  400  courses  to  6  main  "Licei")  in 
order  to  support  more  autonomous  schools,  a  stronger  link  education-labour  market-
University and a more rational list of courses. 

The  curriculum  disciplines  have  been  correlated  to  the  EU  key  competences.  They  are  the 
following: learning to learn, planning, communicating, partnership, acting autonomously and 
responsibly,  problem  solving,  connections  identifying,  information  keeping  promoting 
personality and positive social relationships. Mother tongue, foreign languages, maths science 
and  technology,  digital  competence  and  social  and  civic  competences  are  included  in  the 
national  curriculum  and  form  the  compulsory  education  disciplines.  With  the  new  laws 
mentioned  above  they  are  present  also  in  terms  of  cultural  axes.  Cultural  awareness  and 
expression key competence is included in the language pillar. Learning to learn concerns also 
VET, and the Initiative taking and entrepreneurship competence does not appear in general or 
VET curriculum. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Compulsory education has been widened and now spans almost 10 years. Access to the labour 
market is possible from age 16; the entire cycle of secondary education ends at 18. From 16 to 
18,  new  pedagogical  approaches  have  been  included  to  make  learning  more  attractive,  e.g. 
workplace  activities  or  the  alternation  of  school  and  job,  starting  from  15.  In  VET,  to 
guarantee basic competence to all young people leaving upper secondary general education, a 
review of continuous training is in development.  

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To  support  social  re-integration,  a  LLL  promotion  for  Italian  adults  and  migrant  adults  has 
been  set  up  through  the  Permanent  Territorial  Centres  and  evening  courses.  The  training  is 
based on the key competences.  

Most  of  initiatives  targeted  at  adults  concern  VET,  and  particularly  continuous  training 
activities  for  employed  persons.  These  activities  are  managed  and  funded  both  by  public 
authorities,  both  by  trade  unions  and  private  companies;  the  latter  are  financed  by  funds 
collectively managed by social partners (Fondi Paritetici Interprofessionali). In the frame of 
national  measures  against  the  current  crisis,  these  funds  cover  inter  alia  training  to  improve 
transversal,  linguistic,  entrepreneurship  and  digital  key  competences  as  the  foundation  for 
economic recovery.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

There is also a special teacher training project (Sistema Permanente di Formazione on line - 
SPF  on  line),  where  teachers  on  the  general  education  (national  level)  and  VET  (regional 
level) work together, cooperate and promote best practises, to implement the achievement of 
key competencies and transversal vocational knowledge. The SPF is an e-learning project.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

There is common agreement that the evaluation is a central issue. Two strands are followed: 
evaluation of process and evaluation of outcomes. As for the latter, the National Institute for 
Evaluation  (Invalsi)  carries  out  periodic  surveys  on  pupils’  achievements.  In  line  with  the 
EQARF methodology, a test to evaluate competencies of vocational training students has been 
carried  out.  It  should  lead  to  a  standardized  tool  for  evaluation  of  regional  VET  courses. 
Results will increase the knowledge of policy makers when redefining VET programmes.  

Italy participates in PISA, PIRLS, TIMSS international comparative student assessments, and 
in PIAAC 2008-2013 Programme.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Italian action in the field of lifelong learning is in line with European strategies. It includes 
initiatives  to  recognize  competences  acquired  outside  formal  education  and  training  and  the 
enhancement of learning opportunities for all citizens. National bodies (Ministries and social 
representatives) cooperate with local authorities (mainly Regions).  

A Working Group for defining the NQF has been set up, in order to agree on the conceptual 
framework and methodology. By 2011, all qualifications and certifications will be included in 
the EQF. Another initiative is the "Libretto formativo del cittadino" (citizen's training record) 
that  has  been  tested  in  several  regions.  It  should  be  part  of  a  more  general  process  of 
definition  of  national  procedures  for  validation  and  recognition  of  competences  acquired 
through non-formal and informal learning activities, which do not yet exist.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Actions  aiming  to  increase  VET  attractiveness  include  widening  of  the  range  of  available 
courses, including initial training and non-academic higher training paths; increasing the link 
with  the  local  labour  market  and  the  skills  demanded  by  enterprises;  and  designing  an 
additional year for initial VET programmes that allow enrolment to ISCED level 4 courses. A 
permanent  national  monitoring  system,  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  occupational  and  training 

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needs,  informs  stakeholders  about  characteristics  and  evolution  of  local  systems  in  order  to 
define labour policies, to develop training initiatives and to manage human resources.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Since 1993, the Higher education system has undergone a deep process of change. The first 
step  has  been  financial  autonomy  for  universities.  Subsequently,  Italy  set  up  the 
Bachelor/Master  system,  following  the  Bologna  process.  It  leaded  to  the  enrolment  of  a 
number  of  adults  who  had  previously  dropped  out  from  higher  education,  often  after  a 
working experience.  

The  main  source  of  public  funding  is  the  "Fondo  Finanziamento  ordinario"  (FFO).  In  the 
period 2000-2006, it passed from covering 61.5% of the total budget of public universities to 
57.2%. At the same time, fees paid by students and private funds have increased substantially 
(the latter from 11.7% to 15.7%). 

Higher  education  became  more  attractive  for  adults  thanks  to  the  introduction  of  3-year 
courses (bachelor) and to the possibility to have previous competences - acquired on the job 
or  through  non-formal  and  informal  education  –  recognized  by  the  academic  system  and 
counted as credits.  

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CYPRUS 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

Cyprus 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

64.7% 

84.7%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

18.5% 

13.7% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

79.0% 

85.1% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

- 

- 

- 

Increase since 2000  

- 

63.4%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

31.0% 

31.5%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

31.1% 

47.1% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

7.9% 03  

8.5 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.35% 

7.02%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Cyprus  performs  above  the  EU  average  in  three  school  related  areas:  Participation  in  early 
childhood  education,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary 
attainment, and its performance has improved significantly during the period 2000-2008.  

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Investment in education has grown significantly in Cyprus during the period 2000-2006, and 
in the EU Cyprus invests the third highest share of its GDP in education. It is also notable that 
among  EU  countries,  Cyprus  had  the  second  highest  private  spending  on  educational 
institutions, at more than 1% of GDP. 

Cyprus is the EU Member State with the highest share of population with Higher education 
attainment. Moreover, there is a strong growth in the number of MST graduates. Interestingly, 
however,  these  developments  are  not  accompanied  by  a  higher  than  average  Adult 
participation rate in lifelong learning. 

Cyprus performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Participation in early childhood 
education,  Upper  secondary  attainment,  and  MST  graduates;  and  even  above  the  2020  EU 
benchmark levels on Higher education attainment. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Cyprus is transforming its education system by inserting the European key competences at all 
educational levels in its Life Long Learning Strategy. There are initiatives in the field of ICT 
learning, teaching entrepreneurship and learning to learn. One point that Cyprus continues to 
focus on is the teaching of Greek to migrants with other mother-tongues – this is becoming 
the focus of more efforts at all levels with new educational approaches and should cover all 
schools within three years.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

A  new  curriculum  is  being  prepared  for  the  academic  year  2009-10  and  will  be  pilot  tested 
before being implemented nationally. It focuses strongly on all eight key competences. There 
is an enrichment of the science curriculum with greater ICT and new efforts to teach Greek to 
migrant children. ICT access is being expanded in schools and grants given to those at lower 
secondary level to buy computers in order to promote greater digital competences.  

Entrepreneurship,  learning  to  learn  and  social  and  cultural  awareness  are  being  actively 
promoted within the curriculum.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Zones  of  Educational  Priority  have  been  set  up  to  encourage  civic  values  and  intercultural 
tolerance  and  aid  migrants  learn  Greek.  They  also  provide  special  opportunities  for  pupils 
with diverse backgrounds. Special Greek classes are now given to migrant children at primary 
level. There are special schools to help talented students in their speciality such as music and 
sports  schools  and  all-day  schools.  ZEPs  also  aim  to  link  in  families  too  and  create  greater 
social cohesion, and reduce the rate of school drop-outs.  

Lifelong learning guidance has been set up for disadvantaged groups provided mainly by the 
adult  education  centres.  There  are  special  efforts  for  migrants,  asylum  seekers,  political 
refugees, the disabled, those with learning difficulties, diaspora Greeks with lower levels of 
Greek, and particularly important in the Cypriot context: Greek for Turkish Cypriots, Turkish 
classes for Greek Cypriots respectively . There are also special programmes for prisoners to 
help assure their social re-integration.  

Adult Education Centres and State Institutes of further education have been set up to provide 
non-formal  continuous  adult  education  to  all  Cypriot  citizens  aged  15+  aiming  at  the 

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enhancement of the quality of adult education provision, the improvement of knowledge and 
skills acquisition for adults leaving school without any basic qualifications and the provision 
of lifelong learning opportunities for adults from various socio-cultural backgrounds. ICT is a 
special focus of adult learning as are facilities for those with special needs. Given the political 
context of Cyprus, special efforts are also made in promoting intercultural competences and 
skills for improving inter-communal relations.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The Cyprus  Pedagogical Institute  is upgrading initial teacher training  and in-service teacher 
training through the Educational Reform Programme. New strategies have been devised based 
on identifying training needs and upgrading teacher skills. There is also a focus on improving 
the  inter-cultural  skills  of  teachers  and  trainers.  Distance  learning  portals  have  also  been 
created  for  teachers  and  efforts  made  to  improve  ICT  skills.  There  is  a  new  way  of  testing 
Greek and mathematics at 8, 11 and 15.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Specific  provisions  for  the  evaluation  of  the  outcomes  and  competences  of  the  education 
system  will  accompany  the  revised  curricula.  .  The  Centre  for  Educational  Research  and 
Evaluation will play a significant role in the analysis of evaluation results and the formulation 
of evidence-based education policy.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

A  strategy  for  life-long  learning  was  approved  in  November  2007,  including  measures  for 
early  school  leavers,  migrants,  women  wishing  to  access  the  labour  market  and  those  that 
have been long-term unemployed. The establishment of new institutions of higher education 
have been a particularly important corollary to this process as they provide courses for people 
on the labour market as well as tertiary students.  

The  new  universities  will  play  an  important  role  in  increasing  life-long  learning  both  in 
providing  extra  places  for  students  in  Cyprus  and  also  for  providing  LLL  to  people  on  the 
labour market. The new Apprentice System, when up and running in 2010, will also help to 
train younger people that have dropped out of the school system early and provide them with 
better basic skills to access the labour market earlier. A NQF is being set-up in Cyprus too – 
although  the  report  does  not  include  any  plan  for  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal 
learning once the formal education system has been integrated into the NQF.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

A  recent  external  evaluation  study  commissioned  by  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  Culture 
shows that Cyprus will decentralise VET and the taught content and increase cooperation with 
industry and the number of apprenticeships. The new apprenticeship system is being set-up in 
order  to  move  ahead  in  this  direction.  It  will  focus  too  on  the  provision  of  the  eight  key 
competences  and  should  be  ready  for  academic  year  2010-2011.  Increasing  participation  in 
VET at secondary level remains a major challenge.  

The  Cyprus  Productivity  Centre  is  conducting  surveys  to  examine  the  reasons  why  VET  is 
currently  not  such  an  attractive  option  to  young  people  and  to  propose  solutions.  They  will 
also  try  to  better  identify  the  training  needs  of  the  labour  market  at  enterprise  level.  VET 
secondary level graduates can now also participate in the Pan-Cypriot tests to enter university, 

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and this has the potential of enhancing the attractiveness of VET. There is also an initiative to 
bring general secondary and VET qualifications in line so that both can access the same jobs.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

New universities and new study programmes have been available in Cyprus from 2007 which 
have been an important step in modernising higher education. There are also courses for those 
on the labour market to upgrade their skills, and new facilities for continuous adult learning 
with evening and weekend courses. The School of Modern Greek has an initiative to help to 
teach  Greek  to  migrants  so  that  they  can  better  integrate  into  the  labour  market.  Some 
universities have created autonomous departments dedicated to the establishment of LLL for 
all citizens at university.  

Cyprus  is  diversifying  its  sources  of  funding  from  fees  for  post-graduates  and  from  private 
universities and participation in the EU's education and research programmes. A Science and 
Technology  park  may  also  be  established  to  allow  universities  to  differentiate  further  their 
financial resources, e.g. from private companies that will establish themselves there.  

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LATVIA 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Latvia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

65.4% 

88.2%07

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

30.1% 

21.2%06

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

20.7%06

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

17.4%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

16.9%02 

15.5% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

76.5% 

80.0% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

21,2%07

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

graduates 
MST 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

31.4% 

32.7%07

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

18.6% 

27.0% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

7.8 % 03

6.8 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.64% 

5.07%06

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

02 =2002, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Latvia performs above the EU average in two of the school related areas: Low achievers and 
Upper secondary attainment. Latvia did not participate in the PISA survey in 2000, hence it is 
not possible to measure progress.  

Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning  has  decreased  since  2000  and  is  now  further  behind 
the EU average figure in this field.  

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On Higher education attainment Latvia has increased the share with over 8 percentage points 
since 2000, but is behind the average in the EU. The growth in graduates in MST since 2000 
is less than half of the EU average figure. The share of female MST graduates is just above 
the EU average and the gender balance has improved during recent years.  

Latvia  has  a  higher  level  of  Investment  in  education  than  the  average  of  all  EU  countries, 
although it has decreased compared to the level in 2000.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Acquisition of key competences is included in the “Basic Guidelines of LLL Policy for 2007–
2013”, the “Programme for 2008-2010 for Implementation of the Guidelines of LLL Policy” 
and in “Education Development Guidelines for 2007 - 2013”.  

The  eight  key  competences  are  taken  up  in  the  State  Standards  of  basic,  general  secondary 
and vocational education and the underlying subject standards and further embedded into the 
curricula and assessment procedures. Implementation is largely carried out through activities 
funded  by  EU  structural  funds.  Recently  structural  reforms  addressing  efficiency  and 
effectiveness  are  being  undertaken,  including  improving  the  teacher  per  student  ratio, 
reducing the number of schools and teaching staff. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

A  comprehensive  reform  started  in  2005/2006  using  ESF  funding.  Basic  skills  education  is 
embedded  in  the  Basic  education  standard  (2006).  Curricula  of  17  subjects  have  been 
changed, moving from acquiring information to acquiring skills. Acquiring the basic skills is 
assessed  at  the  centralised  school-leaving  examinations,  among  others  in  Latvian  language 
and literature, mathematics, foreign language. Students acquire at least two foreign languages 
during basic education and can add a third foreign language in the secondary education.  

The transversal key competences concept is embedded into both the subject standards and the 
model  curricula  of  individual  subjects  covering  transversal  competences  such  as  learning  to 
learn, communication skills, initiative, understanding of entrepreneurship and others. Teacher 
further training curricula have been adjusted to take on board transversal skills. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Pedagogical  correction  programmes  for  students  with  learning  difficulties  and  behavioural 
problems and social correction programmes for juvenile criminals have been developed and 
implemented.  Issues  concerning  inclusive  education  are  part  of  teacher  further  training 
courses  focusing  not  only  on  the  subject  content  and  methodology,  but  also  helping  to 
improve minority and bilingual education programmes and special education approaches.  

Targeted approaches to adult groups: for are as follows: for the unemployed and jobseekers - 
raising  competitiveness,  gaining  basic  skills;  business  start-ups  -  training  on  entrepreneurship, 
preparing business plans; for people with poor Latvian language skills – language training; for 
adults  without  basic  or  secondary  education  attainment  –  evening  schools;  for  prisoners  – 
general  education  or  VET  inside  prisons  or  distance  learning.  Financial  support  and  local 
accessibility are the challenges. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Initial  teacher  training  curricula  are  designed  to  provide  competences  listed  in  the  teachers’ 
professional  standards.  Further  training:  36  hours  every  3  years  is  mandatory,  typically 
including  the  developments  in  the  subject  and  its  teaching/  assessment,  using  ICT  but  also 
teaching  in  minority  schools,  working  with  students  from  disadvantaged  groups  etc. 
Assessment  is  moving  towards  assessing  competences  -  starting  with  languages,  maths  and 
sciences - as well as centralised exams in all subjects. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  two  main  ways  of  summarising  evaluation  of  key  competences  are  a)  centralised 
examinations  (assessment  methodology  is  oriented  towards  evaluation  of  competences),  b) 
results  of  international  comparative  studies,  which  provide  information  about  the  results  of 
acquisition  of  different  basic  skills.  Results  of  analysis  are  used  to  adjust  curricula  and  set 
priorities for of teacher further education.  

Latvia  participates  in  international  comparative  student  evaluations  such  as  PISA,  PIRLS, 
TIMSS and other.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The “Basic Guidelines of LLL Policy for 2007–2013” and the “Programme for 2008-2010 for 
Implementation of the Guidelines of LLL Policy”  

emphasize  adult  learning  according  to  interests,  abilities  and  regional  needs  and  its 
implementation increased participation in LLL.  

Current implementation measures address the efficiency of adult education and incentives to 
participate in education and training. 

The  process  of  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  in  Latvia  is  not  yet 
implemented by offering the product to the end-user.  

Work towards National Qualification Framework corresponding  to EQF is  ongoing. A draft 
Higher Education Law has passed first reading in parliament. It provides legal background for 
the NQF, a learning outcomes-based approach, recognition of prior learning. Compatibility of 
HE  qualifications  to  EQF  has  been  established,  consultations  are  going  on  regarding  EQF 
levels 1-4. Prior learning methodology has been worked out in a ESF project, but it is not yet 
embedded  in  legislation.  New  Vocational  Education  Law  project  is  designed  in  order  to 
conform  to  the  necessity  to  provide  more  flexible,  adequate  to  the  labour  market  needs 
learning outcomes as well as it states the corresponding to EQF levels at the national level.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Due  to  the  recession  VET  is  also  undergoing  a  structural  reform,  reducing  the  number  of 
institutions/ programmes. The traditionally low prestige of VET in the society is a challenge. 
Employers  participate  in  the  development  of  professional  standards,  and  qualification 
examinations, provide places for educational practice, yet the relevance of VET to the labour 
market  is  often  questioned.  A  number  of  measures  to  improve  VET  with  ESF  support  are 

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either running or envisaged. One of the activities seen as important for attracting students to 
VET is improved financial support. 

The  main  measures  implemented  are:  new  study  programmes  of  VET  teacher  training  and 
career consultancy, establishing VET Regional Councils to ensure relevance of the VET offer 
to  the  needs  of  regions  as  well  as  co-operation  in  providing  work  placements,  curriculum 
development,  etc.  Other  measures:  adaptation  tests/individual  approach  to  1st-year  VET 
students,  professional  mastery  contests  for  VET  students.  Development  of  a  sectoral 
qualification structure based on research of economic sectors has started. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

EU  funds  have  been  used  to  modernise  of  programmes  in  engineering/  natural  sciences, 
further  support  for  doctoral  studies  and  HE  infrastructure  is  programmed.  Reform  of  HE 
introducing  a  qualifications  framework,  outcomes-based  curricula,  recognition  of  prior 
learning is stipulated in the Draft Law on HE. Challenges: slow legislative process, and major 
HE budget cuts due to recession. 

HEIs are free to use different income streams: state funding for studies (ca. 25% of students) 
body,  tuition  fees  (ca  75%  students),  research  funding,  EU  funding:  research  grants  and 
structural  funds,  contract  research  and  services.  Most  of  HEIs  open  up  to  LLL  -  they  have 
established  adult  education  departments  offering:  further  education  to  those  with  HE 
diplomas, courses for adult learners, or acquiring modules of the existing study programmes; 
some HEIs successfully compete in the tenders, organized by public employment services to 
provide training for the unemployed. 

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LITHUANIA 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Lithuania 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

60.6% 

76.6%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

25.7%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

23.0%06 

20.3%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

16.5% 

7.4% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

78.9% 

89.1% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

36.3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

35.9% 

32.5%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

42.6% 

39.9% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

5.9% 04 

4.9 %  

8.5% 03

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.90% 

4.84%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03

04

= 2003, 

= 2004, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Lithuania performs above the EU average in the two school related areas Early leavers from 
education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary  completion  rate,  where  Lithuania  has  made 
strong progress since 2000. Lithuania also shows strong progress in the field of Participation 
in  early  childhood  education  although  further  progress  is  needed  to  reach  the  EU  average 

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level. Concerning low achievers performance is very close to the EU average, but measuring 
progress is not possible since Lithuania did not participate in PISA in 2000.  

One area in which Lithuania has made more progress than the EU average is in increasing the 
number of MST graduates, and the share of females is still higher than the EU level, even if it 
has  decreased  since  2000.  During  the  same  period  the  share  of  the  population  with  higher 
education attainment has decreased slightly but from a relatively high level.  

As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Lithuania has made no progress and still 
performs below the EU average on the benchmark indicator.  

Public investment in education as a % of GDP has decreased since 2000 and is slightly below 
the EU as a whole where it had slightly increased; therefore the gap between Lithuania and 
the EU average performance has grown. 

Lithuania performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level on Upper secondary completion rate, 
increase in MST  graduates  and  above  the  2020  EU  benchmark  level  on Early  leavers  from 
education and training.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Lithuania  has  been  working  on  modernising  many  areas  of  its  education  system,  mainly 
higher education and VET in order to raise the quality and efficiency of these systems. The 
discussion on general education, based on the concept of key competences, started in  2003, 
and the renewed national curriculum was developed.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Lithuania  has  introduced  the  key  competences  into  the  Updated  General  Curriculum 
Framework  for  Primary  and  Basic  (Lower  Secondary)  Education.  Its  introduction  will  be 
gradual and starts in the 2009-2010 academic year. The new curriculum integrates all the key 
competences, including the transversal ones. 

The  introduction  of  transversal  competencies  is  supported  by  cross-curriculum  programmes 
(Learning  to  Learn,  Communication,  Sustainable  Development,  Health  and  Life  Skills, 
Cultural  Awareness)  which  integrate  different  subjects,  non-formal  education  activities  and 
school community events. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Disadvantaged  groups,  such  as  SEN  students,  are  taught  according  to  the  same  curriculum, 
however,  the  teaching  and  learning  methods  are  adapted,  and  the  teachers  receive  special 
training.  To  provide  the  “second  chance”  to  acquire  secondary  education  for  early  school 
leavers,  the  legislative  basis  is  being  improved.  In  2007,  the  documents  governing  flexible 
forms of learning (the Description of the Procedure for Module-Based Learning, Description 
of  the  Procedure  for  Independent  Learning  and  the  Description  of  the  Procedure  for 
Extramural  Learning)  were  updated,  and  numerous  initiatives  focused  on  the  education  of 
socially  excluded  groups  have  been  implemented.  In  vocational  education  the  curricula  has 
been adapted for persons having different education and needs. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

To  facilitate  the  transition  to  the  competence-based  curriculum  Lithuania  has  developed  a 
network  of  consultants  to  organise  on-the-spot  training  for  teachers  throughout  the  country, 
the training programmes include the new working and assessment methods that teachers have 
to  apply  according  to  the  updated  curriculum.  The  universities  providing  initial  teacher 
training  took  part  in  the  discussion  on  the  new  competence-based  curricula  and  will  be 
adjusting their curricula accordingly.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  evaluations  of  key  competences  are  based  on  the  participation  in  international 
comparative  surveys  (PISA,  PIRLS,  TIMSS,  etc.).  At  the  national  level,  the  outcomes  of 
learning in relation to several key competences (mother tongue, mathematical, scientific and 
technological literacy as well as social competence and civic awareness) are already partially 
evaluated  by  the  National  Research  of  Students’  Achievements.  This  research  evaluates 
knowledge, skills and abilities.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The  updated  Strategy  for  Ensuring  of  Lifelong  Learning  provides  for  and  defines  the 
directions of development of lifelong learning and their implementation measures. It focuses 
on  nine  key  areas,  including  VET,  continuous  training  of  adults,  non-formal  non-vocational 
adult  education,  professional  development  of  andragogues,  etc.,  and  is  linked  to  the 
governmental  long  term  development  strategy  and  state  education  strategy  (the  later  covers 
whole  education  system).  The  system  of  qualifications  is  being  created  on  the  basis  of  the 
European  Qualifications  Framework.  In  2007,  the  documents  governing  flexible  forms  of 
learning were updated in order to facilitate the validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
The  national  system  of  qualifications  will  enhance  cohesion  between  the  qualifications 
acquired  at  different  levels  of  education  and  eliminate  a  part  of  the  obstacles  restricting  or 
complicating lifelong learning.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The Law on Vocational Education and Training as amended in 2007 provides for a reform of 
the systems of vocational education and training and labour market training, and optimisation 
of  the  management  of  the  vocational  education  and  training  system.  The  Law  establishes  a 
modular  system  of  vocational  education  and  training,  application  of  various  forms  of 
acquisition of professional competence and qualifications, thus increasing the accessibility of 
lifelong learning. This is of particular importance for persons in the labour market who need 
to  acquire  higher  or  different  qualifications,  and  for  persons  with  special  needs.  In  addition 
the  development  of  VET  attractiveness  has  been  supported  with  a  wide  range  of  measures 
such as the development of social partnership, reorganisation of state VET schools into self-
governing  institutions  thus  allowing  variety  of  both  stakeholders  and  funds,  sectoral  studies 
carried  out  to  evaluate  the  need  for  training  and  skills  for  the  next  five  years,  vocational 
guidance and counselling tools, sectoral practical training centres and etc. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The reform of higher education in Lithuania has been a high level priority since 2006. In 2009 
the new Law on Science and Studies launched the major reform of higher education. One of 

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the  objectives  of  the  reform  is  to  establish  a  well-functioning  and  competitive  system  of 
funding  research  projects.  The  diversification  of  funding  of  HE  remains  a  challenge  for 
Lithuania, the main source of funding for HE institutions still being the government. 

At the majority of higher education establishments, there are divisions of continuous learning 
and/or distance studies centres aiming at developing a system of higher education studies and 
continuing  studies  based  on  ICT.  The  activities  of  lifelong  learning  at  higher  education 
establishments  are  considered  services  and  are  subject  to  payment  by  students  themselves, 
their employers or from various funds.  

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LUXEMBOURG 

Luxembourg 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

94.7% 

93.9%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(35.1%) 

22.9%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

22.8%06 

22.1%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

16.8% 

13.4% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

72.7%03 

72.8%  

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

- 

- 

- 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

32.0%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

21.2% 

39.8% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

6.5% 03 

8.5 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

3.74%01 

3.41%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 5= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Luxembourg  performs  slightly  above  the  EU  average  in  three  school  related  areas: 
Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  Low  achievers  in  reading,  mathematics  and 
science  and  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training.  The  Upper  secondary  completion 
rate, however, is below the EU average and has shown a downward trend in the period 2003-
2006. Since 2006 the rate is, however, increasing.  

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While  there  is  a  lack  of  data  on  trends  as  regards  the  number  of  MST  graduates  in 
Luxembourg, when it comes to the share of female MST graduates Luxembourg performs at 
EU average.  

Measured in percentage points, Luxembourg is the country that, after Ireland, has progressed 
most in the EU as regards Higher education attainment.  

As  concerns  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Luxembourg  has  made  significant 
progress too, but still performs below the EU average. 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  has  slightly  dropped  since  2000  and  is  now 
below EU average. However, it has to be considered that in the case of Luxembourg, the data 
do not include spending on higher education (on EU average about 1.1% of GDP).  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The competence approach has been introduced at kindergarten, primary and secondary level 
since 2005 via pilot projects and has had a legal basis since December 2008 with the vote of 
the  law  concerning  the  reform  of  VET.  Since  2009  a  new  law  regulating  fundamental 
education (kindergarten and primary school) is also in force. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The law of fundamental education will establish 4 teaching cycles of 2 years each (covering 
age  4  years  to  12  years).  Competencies  (basic  and  additional  competencies)  are  defined  for 
each of the 4 cycles. A national language plan was launched in 2007 and has as main issues a 
competence based approach and takes into consideration the Common European Framework 
of Reference for Languages. 

All  transversal  competencies  of  the  European  Reference  Framework  will  be  part  of  the 
curricula  of  compulsory  education.  They  encompass  basic  intellectual  processing,  learning 
methods, relation attitudes and emotional attitudes. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Several measures have been or are in the process of being implemented to target early school 
leavers.  The  main  are:  a)  individualised  special  follow-up  of  dropouts  organised  as  soon  as 
they leave school; b) specific classes for the 9th class (9ième) for pupils with grade retention; 
c) special classes for potential dropouts; d) the opening of a second chance school is foreseen 
in September 2010.  

Since September 2005, a special task force has been in existence at the Ministry of Education 
and  Training,  which  assesses  the  competencies  of  pupils  of  migrants,  most  appropriate 
education or training opportunities. Special classes have been implemented to provide these 
pupils with a suitable education and training curriculum. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Continuing training for teachers is mainly focused on the challenges which are introduced in 
the reform processes (competence based learning and assessment, differentiation of methods, 
teamwork).  The  teachers  involved  in  the  reform  of  the  VET  receive  specific  training  by  2 

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foreign  expert  organisations  in  education  which  are  mandated  by  the  Ministry  of  Education 
and Training. 

The  formative  assessment  approach  is  important  as  primary  school  is  organised  in  learning 
cycles.  The  learner's  progress  is  based  on  a  competencies  approach  which  enables  the 
identification of strengths and weaknesses at an early stage in order to take corrective action 
as soon as possible. Pilot projects have been undertaken in post primary education but only at 
a starting level. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  evaluations  of  key  competences  are  based  on  the  participation  in  international 
comparative  surveys  (PISA,  PIRLS).  At  the  national  level,  the  outcomes  of  learning  in 
relation  to  several  key  competences  (French,  German,  mathematical  literacy)  are  already 
partially evaluated by national standardized tests organised by the University of Luxembourg. 
Follow-up of the implementation of the reforms in fundamental education is also provided by 
several foreign universities. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The  development  of  education  and  training  systems  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
issues  for  the  Government  for  the  last  few  years.  Competence  based  approaches  have  been 
introduced  at  different  levels  in  order  to  modernise  and  to  adapt  the  Luxembourgish 
educational  system  to  the  needs  of  the  learner.  These  have  not  been  formulated  in  a  single 
strategic document.  

A  new  learning  culture  needs  a  modular  approach  of  courses  combined  with  credit 
accumulation, a system of validation of non formal and informal learning, specific measures 
to  reintegrate  early  school  leavers  an  a  strong  "formalized"  partnership  between  the  key 
players involved in education and training. 

The  national  system  of  validation  of  non  formal  and  informal  learning  is  based  on  the 
common European principles, with a particular attention paid to transparency of qualifications 
and  competencies.  At  this  stage,  a  national qualification  framework  linked  to  the  EQF  does 
not yet exist. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The law on VET of 2008 will implement a competencies-based approach and allow validation 
of  prior  experience  at  the  different  levels:  basic,  initial,  and  continuous  and  reconversion 
training. 

Basic vocational training will allow low achieving learners to get access to a qualification. In 
initial  vocational  training,  learners  can  collect  modules  and  prior  experience  towards  a  full 
diploma.  Reconversion  training  is  mainly  provided  at  the  National  Centre  for  Continuing 
Vocational  Training  (CNFPC)  in  order  to  improve  employability  of  people  who  have 
employment difficulties. 

For  people  who  have  difficulties  in  finding  a  job,  there  are  special  courses  for  social 
integration;  adult  apprenticeships  and  vocational  reconversion  measures.  Since  2000  private 
enterprises  that  organise  training  for  their  employees  can  have  grants  or  tax  deduction;  and 

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since  2008  individual  training  leave  is  available  for  employees.  Most  commissions 
responsible for the follow-up of these instruments are of tripartite composition. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The creation of the new University of Luxembourg (2003) has been a major policy initiative 
in  modernisation  of  HE.  Despite  the  fact  that  more  and  more  learners  choose  to  study  in 
Luxembourg, most students study abroad. All bachelor students of the university are legally 
bound to spend one semester abroad. 

The  university  has  several  income  streams:  state  budget,  contracts  with  private  or  public 
institutions,  own  assets,  project  grants  by  the  Fonds  National  de  la  Recherche,  student  fees, 
etc. The law foresees a procedure of validation of prior learning and professional experience 
giving  access  to  university  studies  through  submission  of  a  dossier  or  passing  an  admission 
examination. 

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HUNGARY 

Hungary 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

93.9% 

95.1%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

22.7% 

20.6%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

21.2%06 

15.0%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

13.9% 

11.7% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

83.5% 

83.6% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

29.4%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

22.6% 

26.8%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

14.8% 

22.4% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

4.5% 03 

 3.1%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

4.42% 

5.41%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Hungary  performs  better  than  the  EU  average  in  all  the  four  school  related  areas: 
Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  Low  achievers  in  reading,  mathematics  and 
science,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary  attainment.  Since 
2000 it succeeded in decreasing the share of low achievers in reading, so that it is now below 
the EU average.  

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In the area of MST graduates the increase in the number of graduates has been higher than the 
EU  benchmark,  but  below  the  EU  average.  The  progress  in  increasing  the  share  of  females 
has been faster in Hungary then in the EU average. Higher education attainment is far below 
the EU average, although Hungary has improved significantly in the area.  

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Hungary's  performance  was  below  the 
EU  average  in  2003  and  since  then  it  has  worsened.  The  benchmark  indicator,  which 
measures  the  frequency  of  participation,  is  now  less  than  one  third  of  the  EU  average  and 
among the lowest in the EU.  

Public investment in education, as a % of GDP, changed considerably since 2000, whereas in 
the EU as a whole it has just slightly increased; as a result of this Hungary is now above the 
EU average performance.  

Hungary  performs  above  the  2020  EU  benchmark  in  Participation  in  early  childhood 
education and above the EU 2010 benchmark as regards the Increase in MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  key  competences  have  been  included  in  the  National  Core  Curriculum,  without  setting 
priorities  among  them.  Mathematics  and  Natural  Sciences  have  been  defined  as  separate 
competences. The National Core Curriculum defines ten "cultural domains", which are larger 
and more comprehensive than the traditional subject distinctions. It also precisely sets out the 
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for every key competence.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

A restructuring of teaching tools, evaluation methods and organisation of education took place 
between 2004-2008. Programme packages have been developed for all twelve grades within 
public education, for literacy, numeracy, foreign languages and ICT. After a trial phase with 
three hundred institutions, the packages will now be generally implemented.  

The  National  Core  Curriculum  includes  a  new  formulation  of  the  development  of  initiative 
taking and entrepreneurship and the teaching of entrepreneurship. The programmes launched 
so  far  focus  on  financial  knowledge.  In  the  new  National  Register  of  Vocational 
Qualifications, a separate entrepreneurship module was added to most of the trades. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The  existing  Integrative  System  of  Pedagogy  is  a  legal  framework  relating  to  special 
pedagogical methodologies. Pupils with multiple disadvantages receive extra help within the 
mainstream class community, so that they are able to successfully complete their schooling. 
This  is  based  on  an  individual  development  plan,  which  identifies  areas  where  the  learner 
needs to improve. 

Numerous projects inform adult citizens of training-related opportunities and aim to improve 
their  motivation,  but  reaching  the  groups  with  the  greatest  needs  is  problematic,  as  only  a 
small  proportion  takes  part  in  the  supported  training  programmes  and  their  learning 
motivation  is  low.  Although  steps  have  been  taken  to  develop  the  necessary  data  base, 
information on adults participating in various forms of education is incomplete. The current 
target  groups  of  programmes  include  job-seekers,  people  with  multiple  disadvantages  and 
SMEs. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Initial  teacher  education  was  restructured  in  2006,  according  to  the  Bologna  system  and 
follows  the  competence-based  approach.  Disciplinary  studies  are  followed  at  undergraduate 
level, as well as orientation courses in education and psychology. At master level students can 
opt  for  teacher  training.  Teacher  trainees  must  complete  an  uninterrupted  one-semester  in-
service training and a mentoring system is envisaged.  

The learning outcomes at master level follow the competence-based approach. In the first four 
grades of public education descriptive assessment is mandatory in the school reports, instead 
of based solely on marks as before. In-service training is mandatory for teachers (120 hours in 
every 7 years). Schools are required to prepare in-service training plans, based on local needs. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Two key competences (reading comprehension and mathematics) are tested in a standardised 
way, in grades six, eight and ten, involving all students. Results are published in the internet, 
with access to results per institution and to individual results. Schools not performing well in 
the test can apply for additional support. 

Hungary participates in international surveys such as PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The Hungarian government adopted its lifelong learning (LLL) strategy in 2005. The strategy 
provides  a  guideline  for  education  and  training  policy  and  related  fields  for  the  period  to 
2013. It is based on the international knowledge accumulated by the OECD and EU. There are 
qualifications frameworks for the subsectors of education system but only implicit links exist 
among  them.  The  establishment  of  the  single  qualification  framework  encompassing  all 
subsectors is in progress. In primary, secondary and tertiary education the learning outcome 
based approach necessitates further development in order to make them fully compatible with 
competence and achievement based requirements. This is not only a major challenge for the 
NQF development but also for the EQF referencing process.  

Validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  features  as  a  goal  in  several  strategic 
documents.  

The  2007  government  report  on  the  implementation  of  the  LLL  strategy  highlighted  the 
continued poor collaboration between the responsible government actors. The current concept 
of  Hungarian  public  and  higher  education  is  not  yet  based  on  learning  outcomes  approach, 
and this presents a challenge to the introduction of the EQF and the development of the NQF. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

A  module-type  structure  of  professions  has  been  developed  to  increase  the  flexibility  of 
vocational  training  outputs.  Competence-based  curricula  have  been  developed,  adjusted  to 
new  examination  requirements.  The  government  is  planning  to  strengthen  links  between 
training and the labour market and feeding labour market information into vocational training. 
Regional  Training  and  Development  Committees  define  for  each  region  a  number  of 
professional areas where demand from the labour market is higher than the supply from VET 
institutions. There are incentives for training in these professional areas.  

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A multi-annual project for the creation and implementation of a career guidance system and a 
career tracking system started at the end of 2008. The government has launched a vocational 
training scholarship programme, which provides scholarships for students enrolling in courses 
offering training in professional areas where regional shortages are experienced.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  2005  Higher  Education  Act  and  its  amendments  in  2007  and  2008,  were  aimed  at  the 
modernisation of higher education. The purpose of the amendments was to make state funding 
more calculable, to ensure the quality of education, to review the system of student benefits, 
and to expand research and development. It highlighted a dual effort to diversify the sources 
of income and to make the stream of state funds more predictable. Higher education financing 
is multi-channelled, with the dominant portion of funds contributed by state subsidy. Most of 
the  funds  in  the  budget  of  HEIs  are  contributed  by  normative  per  capita  support  from  the 
national  budget  and  tuition  fees  paid  by  the  self-financing  students  only.  Income  from  own 
enterprises or entrepreneurial activities is modest.  

HEIs can participate in adult education and can offer their programmes as adult education and 
training.  HEIs  are  typically  not  involved  in  adult  education  in  large  numbers.  One  of  the 
reasons is that they are not entitled to receive normative per capita support for adult education 
courses from the national budget. The modular construction of programmes which would be 
necessary  for  adjusting  to  different  career  pathways  is  not  yet  typical.  Higher  education 
primarily  contributes  to  adult  education  with  advanced  training  programmes  and  special 
postgraduate training courses.  

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MALTA 

Participation 
education 

in  early  childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of 
comp. primary) 

Malta 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks  

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

100.0% 

98.8%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early  leavers  from  education  and 
training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

54.2% 

39.0% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

40.9% 

53.0% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase 
2000  

since 

- 

69,3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

26.3% 

37.8%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult  participation 
learning 

in 

lifelong 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public  spending  on  education,%  of 
GDP 

(7.4)u% 

21.0% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

4.3%04 

6.2 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

4.49% 

6.7605 b 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003,  04= 2004,  05= 2005,  06 = 2006,  07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=unreliable figure because of small 
sample size 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

EN 

204 

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In  school  related  areas,  Malta  performs  above  the  EU  average  on  participation  in  Early 
childhood  education.  However,  Malta  has  the  highest  percentage  of  Early  leavers  from 
education  and  training  in  the  EU  and  the  second  lowest  Upper  secondary  attainment  rate. 
However, on both indicators there has been remarkable progress over the period 2000-2008.  

It  is  notable  that  Malta  has  a  strong  growth  on  MST  graduates.  Nevertheless,  Malta  has  a 
relatively  low  Higher  education  attainment  rate,  but  it  is  the  EU  country  with  the  highest 
growth rate since 2000.  

As  concerns  Investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP,  Malta  is  above  the  EU  average 
performance. 

Malta performs above the 2010 benchmark level on MST graduates; and even above the 2020 
benchmark levels on Participation in early childhood education. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

The  Directorate  for  Quality  and  Standards  in  Education  (DQSE),  established  through  the 
Education Act, sets standards and ensures the quality of education. The DQSE has prepared a 
National Policy and Strategy for the Attainment of Core Competences in Primary Education, 
to tackle core competences attainment in Literacy, eLearning and Mathematics. 

At  secondary  and  tertiary  level,  key  competencies  continue  to  be  developed  through  the 
different subjects and across learning areas. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The Maltese National Minimum Curriculum, Creating the Future Together (2000) is currently 
under review. The updated framework to be completed by 2010 will adequately cater for the 
development of key competences in compulsory education. Students continue building on the 
cross-curricular key competences during their post-secondary education. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

In  the  primary  cycle,  the  implementation  of  the  policy  focusing  on  the  attainment  of  core 
competences for all learners (literacy, numeracy and digital literacy) hopes to ensure that all 
learners master these key competences in the first years of compulsory education. Individual 
learning  plans  will  be  activated  for  learners  who  continue  to  show  difficulty  after  the  first 
three years. Support is given by complementary teachers and core competences co-ordinators, 
Maltese, English and Mathematics currently also form part of the Basic Skills and Foundation 
programmes  which  are,  targeted  at  disadvantaged  students  in  secondary  schools.  Education 
Officers visit schools on a regular basis to support teachers and students in class. Activities 
for the high achievers in Mathematics are also carried out on a regular basis. 

A  number  of  education  and  training  institutions  at  post  compulsory  education  level  provide 
courses at foundation level where key competences are given due importance in preparation 
for  a  higher  level  training.  Evening  courses  are  offered  to  students  who  do  not  succeed  in 
obtaining  appropriate  formal  certification  in  the  key  competences  by  the  end  of  their 
compulsory education. There are new initiatives for courses among the increasing immigrant 
community, mainly in English and basic social and civic competences. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The Faculty of Education at the University, responsible for initial teacher education, together 
with stakeholders, has drawn up a set of competences required by newly qualified teachers. 
These  competences  are  being  considered  by  Boards  of  Studies  while  reviews  of  current 
programmes are being conducted.  

The education authorities are giving increasing importance to formative assessment, including 
the training of future teachers and the in-service training of teachers on assessment methods. 
In  the  first  three  years  of  primary  education,  assessment  is  formative  and  is  carried  out 
informally.  In  the  last  three  years  of  primary  education,  assessment  is  both  formative  and 
summative.  Students  in  secondary  schools  are  assessed  on  a  continuous  formative  basis  as 
well  as  on  a  summative  basis.  There  are  half-yearly  school-based  examinations  and  annual 
examinations on national basis in the state sector. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  commissioned  a  group  of  experts  in  assessment  to  review  the 
transition  mechanism  from  primary  to  secondary  education  and  to  suggest  alternative 
methods. The report proposes the setting up of a national benchmarking system at the end of 
primary schooling for feedback purposes, the validation of school-based assessment alongside 
summative assessment and the transformation of the reporting system from marks and grades 
to levels of achievement 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

From year 4 in primary education up to the final year in the compulsory secondary education, 
the  annual  examinations  in  state  schools  are  used  to  inform  schools  and  the  national 
authorities about the students' attainment and acquisition of key competences. The schools use 
this  information  to  take  up  remedial  initiatives  to  be  included  in  the  School  Development 
Plans. 

To date, Malta has participated in TIMSS with grade 8 students and is currently exploring the 
possibility of extending its participation to other international studies in the near future, 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Most of the LLL policies in Malta are being implemented through the National Qualifications 
Framework  (NQF),  set  up  in  2007.  The  NQF  clarifies  progression  routes  and  facilitates  the 
validation of non-formal learning. The Malta Qualifications Council (MQC) is responsible for 
the recognition of qualifications as well as the validation of informal and non-formal learning.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The  attractiveness  in  VET  in  Malta  has  mostly  been  increased  through  the  creation  and 
growth of the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) and the success of 
the  Institute  of  Tourism  Studies.  Both  institutions  communicate  with  the  relevant  state 
agencies  and  the  Employment  and  Training  Corporation  (ETC).  This  process  allows  both 
institutions  to  adapt  to  changing  economic  and  industrial  scenarios,  based  on  information 
about the demand for different, often higher, skills in industry. 

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The ETC considers training as part of the lifelong learning process and aims to anticipate and 
respond to the changing economic and social environment. The ETC continuously revises its 
courses to adapt to the needs of the current labour market.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The Government intends to provide incentives for the University of Malta to establish a Trust 
Fund to receive donations and endowments from benefactors, including corporate and private 
bodies, in order to fund innovative research activity beyond the reach of the annual allocations 
from  the  Government.  The  University  of  Malta  intends  to  pursue  more  entrepreneurial 
avenues,  including  providing  joint  degree  programmes  in  partnership  with  leading  world 
institutions at commercial rates. The University of Malta, the Malta College of Arts, Science 
and Technology (MCAST) and the Institute for Tourism Studies (ITS) provide a wide range 
of  short  and  part-time  fee-paying  evening  courses  open  to  students  of  all  ages  within  a 
lifelong learning context. The University runs also the University of the Third Age for persons 
who are interested in enriching their education and culture beyond retirement age. 

The Government has  in  place  a  number of schemes which provide the support for adults to 
participate in education and training programmes, such as the scholarships for post-graduate 
courses, for promotion of further specialisation at higher levels of education. State higher and 
further  professional  and  vocational  education  and  training  institutions  offer  substantial 
financial  support  for  the  continuing  professional  development  of  their  academic  staff.  New 
full-time  and  part-time  courses  are  being  introduced  by  further  and  higher  education 
institutions. 

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THE NETHERLANDS 

Netherlands 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

99.5% 

98.9%07 b

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(9.5%) 

15.1%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

11.5%06 

13.0%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

15.4% 

11.4%b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

71.9% 

76.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

40.2%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

17.6% 

18.9%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

26.5% 

40.2% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

16.4% 03

17.0 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

4.96% 

5.46%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

The Netherlands performs above the EU average in three school related areas: Participation 
in early childhood education, Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science and Early 
leavers from education and training. The Upper secondary completion rate, however, is still 
below EU average, although the Netherlands have made significant progress in increasing this 
rate.  

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Another area in which the Netherlands has made good progress is in increasing the number of 
MST  graduates,  for  which  the  growth  rate  has  been  above  the  EU  average.  However,  the 
Netherlands has the lowest share of female MST graduates of all EU countries. The share of 
the  population  with  Higher  education  attainment  has  strongly  improved  since  2000  and  is 
now among the higher ones in the EU.  

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  the  Netherlands  shows  relatively  high 
participation rates, but in the last 5 years there has been limited progress in increasing these 
further. However, after a decline in the period 2004-2006 the participation rate has increased 
since then from 15.6% to 17%. 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  in  the  Netherlands  has  increased  by  half  a 
percentage point since 2000 and is now clearly above the EU average. 

The Netherlands performs above, or near to, four of the present five EU benchmarks for 2020: 
Participation  in  early  childhood  education,  Low  achievers  in  reading,  math  and  science 
literacy,  Higher  education  attainment  and  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning.  The 
Netherlands performs above the 2010 EU benchmark in the field of increasing the number of 
MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

Since  2006  basic  skills  and  key  competences  have  been  integrated  in  the  curricula  of  the 
whole education system. In primary and secondary education most of the 8 key competences 
have  been  incorporated  in  the  attainment  targets.(with  the  exclusion  of  entrepreneurship)  In 
adult and vocational education work on key competences has been integrated in qualification 
guidelines. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Literacy and numeracy have priority in primary and secondary education. Work is in progress 
on  the  implementation  of  reference  levels  in  education  law,  .  These  reference  levels  define 
what a child should have learned at the end of primary school and in the middle and the end of 
secondary  schoool.  A  considerable  extra  budget  is  available  for  this.  In  addition  primary 
schools  are  given  scope  to  specialise  in  other  key  competences.  The  attainment  targets  for 
secondary education build on the primary education targets. In adult and vocational education 
an action plan has been made to combat poor literacy. 

Transversal competences have been translated into attainment goals in primary and secondary 
education. A non-profit placements programme has been set up for all school pupils to acquire 
social  and  civic  competences.  In  adult  and  vocational  training  core  competences  apply, 
depending  partly  on  the  requirements  reflected  in  each  set  of  qualification  guidelines. 
Throughout the education system high priority has been placed on entrepreneurship. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The  foundation  for  preventing  dropout  and  combating  illiteracy  and  innumeracy  is  laid  in 
primary  education.  Primary,  secondary  schools  receive  extra  funding  to  cope  with 
educationally disadvantaged pupils from different backgrounds. There are extra resources in 
vocational education for language and numeracy. The LLL policy focus is on reducing drop-
outs by 50 percent by 2012. 

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An  adequate  regional  infrastructure  for  adult  education  has  been  developed  by  the 
Interdepartmental Project Unit on Learning and Working, focusing on programmes combining 
work  and  study,  recognition  of  prior  learning  and  building  an  LLL  infrastructure  in  45 
regions. The main focus for 2008-2011 will be on young workers (18-24 years old) without 
vocational qualifications at basic level, jobseekers, employees threatened with redundancy. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

In 2006 on the initiative of the Teachers’ Association, standards of competence were defined 
for  teaching  staff  and  will  be  reviewed  every  6  years.  One  of  the  core  competences  is  to 
prepare  young  people  to  take  their  place  in  society  after  initial  education.  These  standards 
form  the  basis  of  teacher  training  curricula,  but  also  act  as  a  guide  throughout  a  teacher's 
career. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

A  new  cohort  study  started  in  2007-2008,  following  pupils  progress  through  the  education 
system  from  5  until  18  years  old  on  Dutch,  English  and  maths,  social  skills  and  emotional 
development.  In  primary  education  both  key  competences  of  pupils  and  the  schools  are 
systematically  evaluated,  including  the  participation  in  TIMSS  and  PIRLS.  In  primary  and 
secondary  education  international  studies  as  PISA  and  TIMSS  are  also  sources  to  assess 
performance,  all  subjects  are  tested  in  the  final  examinations.  In  vocational/adult  education 
the  Inspectorate  monitors  quality  of  provision.  For  all  sectors  the  findings  are  published 
yearly and submitted to Parliament. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

the  Netherlands  has  with 

the 
Since  2005 
interdepartmental  Project  Unit  for  Learning  and  Working  a  fully  comprehensive  framework 
for LLL. The NQF for higher education is compatible with the QF-EHEA. The NQF will be 
aligned with the EQF by end 2010. Development and implementation of Recognition of Prior 
Learning  (non  formal  and  informal)  services  is  a  core  instrument  in  the  Dutch  lifelong 
learning policy.  

its  sector  strategies  and 

the  work  of 

Through  a  subsidy  scheme,  45  regional  partnerships  have  been  set  up  between  educational 
institutions, local/provincial government, the Employment Service and business. In all regions 
education  institutions  have  increased  possibilities  for  Recognition  of  Prior  Learning  (RPL) 
and (tailor-made) learning and working programmes and training/employment helpdesks have 
been developed. At national level a knowledge Centre for RPL was set up, as well as a portal 
containing all available training and awareness campaigns on LLL.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Matching  education  supply  with  labour  market  demand  has  traditionally  been  one  of  the 
strengths  of  the  Dutch  vocational  system.  There  are  18  centres  of  expertise  on  vocational 
education, training and the labour market, in which representatives of employers, employees 
and  educational  institutions  develop  qualification  guidelines  for  official  approval  by  the 
Minister  of  Education.  An  internet-tool  has  been  developed  containing  all  available  options 
for work placements and working-learning arrangements. Furthermore in 2006 a pilot scheme 
for  "associate  degree  programmes"  was  launched  (a  2-year  programme  leading  to  a 
recognised  higher  vocational  training  qualification)  aiming  to  increase  the  participation  of 

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working  people.  Extra  funding  has  been  made  available  for  stimulation  of  co-operation 
between schools and business. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Since  2005  the  LLL  infrastructure  has  been  reinforced,  including  in  higher  education.  The 
government  focus  is  now  on  upgrading  working  people  with  secondary  vocational 
qualifications  to  higher  professional  education.  New  tailor-made  RPL  programmes  for 
working  people  will  be  stimulated  by  the  grant  schemes  provided  by  the  Project  Unit  for 
Working  and  Learning.  Furthermore  a  positive  evaluation  of  "associate  degrees"  by  2010 
could increase the number of working people in higher professional education.  

The  Netherlands  is  heading  towards  more  diversified  funding,  although  the  private  part  of 
funding  still  remains  relatively  low  compared  to  countries  such  as  the  US.  Universities  and 
institutes  of  higher  vocational  education  are  mainly  funded  by  government  contribution:  168 
initial  lump  sum  funding  represents  70  %  of  all  funding,  supplemented  by  tuition  fees.  A 
second  source  of  funds  is  (research)  grants  supplied  by  government  institutions  and  the 
increasing third source of funds is grants supplied by  business, the  EU and  others.  A major 
challenge is to keep the spending on education at a sufficient level against the backdrop of the 
current financial crisis. 

168 

Financial annual reports of institutes of higher education for the year 2007 

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211 

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AUSTRIA 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Austria 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

84.6% 

88.8%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

19.3% 

21.5%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

20.0%06 

16.3%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

10.2% 

10.1%b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

85.1% 

84.5% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

54.6%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

19.9% 

23.8%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

15.9% 

22.2% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

8.6% 03 

13.2 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.74% 

5.44%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Austria performs better than the EU average in three school related areas: Low achievers in 
reading,  mathematics  and  science,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper 
secondary  attainment,  despite  the  fact  that  recent  trends  have  been  in  some  cases  in  the 
direction  of  a  lower  performance.  Participation  in  early  childhood  education  has  increased 
but is slightly below EU level. 

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212 

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Austria performs significantly above the EU average in the area of MST graduates, in which 
the increase has been notable. The share of female graduates, even if improved, has however 
not reached the EU level. In the area of Higher education attainment there has been progress, 
but Austria is still below the EU average performance levels. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  progress  has  been  faster  than  the  EU 
average and Austrian performance exceeds the EU average in this area. 

Investment in education, as a % of GDP, has decreased since 2000 in Austria but is still above 
the EU average. 

Austria  already  performs  above  the  EU  2010  benchmarks  in  MST  graduates  and  Adult 
participation in lifelong learning. It is very close to that level of performance in the area of 
Early leavers from education and training and Upper secondary attainment. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  implementation  of  the  Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  has  been  taken  up  in 
various  educational  and  VET  fields,  which  are  currently  under  development,  such  as 
standards for education and training, LLL strategy, Lifelong Guidance Strategy, NQF, etc. A 
wide range of stakeholders (social partners, universities, school councils, staff representatives, 
experts, and parents' associations) are involved in this process. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The  key  competences  are  included  in  all  curricula,  but  this  varies  depending  on  the  school 
type. In October 2008 an extensive project started aiming at focusing the so-called teaching 
principles (Unterrichtsprinzipien) on the eight key competences. The architecture of curricula 
for the lower secondary school level will be reviewed by end 2010.  

All transveral key competences are included in curricula in different ways: as thematic entities 
across subjects or as thematic entities within subjects. Of particular relevance is the initiative 
"25plus"  (Initiative  "25plus"):  a  reduction  class  size  combined  with  individualisation  of 
learning and teaching. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Early language support is provided in kindergarten for children with inadequate knowledge of 
German.  The  pilot  project  New  Middle  School  (Neue  Mittelschule)  started  in  2008  as  a 
measure to provide alternatives to early tracking. It offers individual learning approaches and 
coaching with the aim of developing a new learning culture. 

The budget for adult education has been increased by one third in order to support access to 
basic education and the acquisition of school leaving certificates. Specific measures have been 
implemented  for  educationally  disadvantaged  (bildungsferne)  women  (e.g.  mobile  ICT 
workshops) and migrants (coaching and language support). Other key competences, such as 
social  and  civic  competence,  ICT,  learning-to-learn  are  embedded  in  these  courses  with  the 
aim of improving their sustainable impact.  

EN 

213 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Pedagogical colleges (Paedagogische Hochschulen) have been set up for the initial education 
and  training  of  teachers.  This  will  be  combined  with  a  learning  outcome  oriented  and 
competence based curricular reform.  

Summative evaluations have been introduced as a first step in the implementation of external 
evaluations. Educational standards are used as a monitoring-tool and have been introduced at 
the beginning of the school year 2008/2009. In addition, tools for formative evaluations are in 
development.  A  balanced  system  of  summative  and  formative  assessments  should  give 
feedback to teachers on the competences of pupils. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The participation in international studies, such as PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS provided a solid 
base  for  the  development  of  educational  standards,  whose  implementation  started  in  the 
academic year 2008/09. In addition, a standardised school-leaving examination (Reifeprüfung, 
giving access to tertiary education) has been in a trial stage for two years. In 2009, the first 
national  report  on  education  (Nationaler  Bildungsbericht  2009)  was  published.  It  contains 
data  and  indicators  on  the  educational  system  together  with  the  analysis  of  some  key 
competences and is designed to foster evidence-based policy.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

A strategy paper on LLL has been drafted, which is currently in a consultation process. By the 
end of 2009 the consultation results will be presented to the council of ministers, followed by 
the  approval  of  further  steps.  Ongoing  work  on  lifelong  guidance  is  closely  related  to  the 
development and implementation of the LLL strategy. 

Consultations  on  the  national  qualifications  framework  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  2008. 
The  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  is  integrated  in  the  development  of  the 
national qualifications framework: work is more advanced with regard to non-formal learning; 
the validation of informal learning has still to be tackled. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Austria has a high proportion of people in initial vocational training at secondary level. The 
strength  of  Austria's  VET  system  is  its  serious  theoretical  foundation  and  practical  training 
content (in particular in the so-called "dual system").  

Vocational  training  graduates  have  increasingly  gained  further  qualification  prospects  by 
being  given  access  to  tertiary  education  (Berufsreifepruefung).  In  addition,  a  new  initiative 
(Lehre  mit  Matura)  offers  VET  certification  and  a  certificate  for  university  entrance  in 
parallel.  The  modularisation  of  training  for  apprentices  aims  at  enhancing  the  flexibility  of 
VET and thus responding better to the needs of the labour market. The establishment of non-
company  based  (überbetriebliche)  VET  addresses  young  people  with  difficulties  in  finding 
apprenticeship placements.  

EN 

214 

   EN 

 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The Law on Universities, adopted in 2002 and implemented from 2004, gave more autonomy 
to universities, made the sources of funds more predictable and developed transparency and 
accountability.  Universities  for  Applied  Studies  (Fachhochschulen),  focusing  on  disciplines 
such  as  engineering,  business  management  and  ICT,  are  receiving  a  growing  number  of 
applicants. 

In 2007, 77 % of the budget for Higher Education Institutions was financed from the federal 
budget.  Major  additional  funding  comes  from  revenues  from research projects. Fundraising, 
sponsoring  and  private-public-partnerships  have  been  expanding,  but  due  to  the  reform  of 
student fees, the income from this source will decrease. A number of initiatives, in particular 
study  programmes  for  people  in employment  (berufsbegleitend) aim to open  up universities 
for life long learners. 

EN 

215 

   EN 

 
POLAND 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Poland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

58.3% 

66.8%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

23.2% 

16.2%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

19.8%06 

17.0%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

7.4%01 

5.0% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

88.8% 

91.3% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

123,3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

35.9% 

39.2%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

12.5% 

29.7% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

5.0% 04 

4.7 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

4.89% 

5.25%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Poland  performs  above  the  EU  average  in  three  school  related  areas:  Low  achievers  in 
reading,  mathematics  and  science,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper 
secondary attainment. Progress has been notable In 2008, Poland is the best performer in the 
EU as for Early leavers from education and training and among the best on Upper secondary 

EN 

216 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
attainment. Despite visible increase in Participation in early childhood education, it is still far 
below EU average and the country with the lowest rate among the Member States.  

Another area in which Poland has made notable progress is in increasing the number of MST 
graduates, for which the growth rate has been more than three times the EU average. Also the 
Gender  balance  improved.  At  the  same  time  the  share  of  the  population  with  Higher 
education attainment has strongly increased, but is still slightly below the EU average. 

Adult participation in lifelong learning has decreased a little. The gap between Poland and the 
EU average has widened.  

Investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  has  increased  since  2000  and  is  now  significantly 
above the EU average.  

Poland already performs above the 2010 EU benchmark in Early leavers from education and 
training, Upper secondary attainment and MST graduates.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

The role of key competences in the development of the educational system with reference to 
curriculum changes in general and vocational education has been highlighted in the Strategy 
for development of education for the years 2007-2013 adopted in the year 2005. The strategy 
encompasses the whole educational system from pre-school to adult education.  

Currently,  work  is  in  progress  on  a  lifelong  learning  strategy  which  aims  to  highlight  two 
dimensions  of  LLL  –  lifewide  learning  (taking  account  of  the  potential  of  non-formal  and 
informal  learning)  and  the  learning  outcomes  (indicating  the  need  for  assessment  and 
recognition  of  the  competences  as  learning  outcomes,  irrespective  of  the  method,  place  and 
time  of  their  acquisition).  Elements  of  the so  designed  LLL  strategy  are  already  now  being 
implemented on the basis of the National Reform Programme (NRP) for 2005-2008 and for 
2008-2011. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

All  eight  competences  are  integral  part  of  the  curricula  in  general  education  and  vocational 
education and training. A new core curriculum specifying the requirements to be met at the 
end  of  each  education  stage  and  new  school  manuals  will  be  gradually  introduced  from 
September 2009. This shall increase the autonomy of schools with reference to organisation 
of  the  educational  process.  The  new  offer  emphasizes  the  development  of  autonomy, 
creativity and responsibility in learning. The reform will encompass all types of schools. The 
transversal  competences  such  as  social  and  civic  competence,  entrepreneurship  will  be 
developed  via  a  number  of  individual  subjects.  New  importance  will  be  given  to  art-related 
activities. Digital competencies are emphasised from the start of compulsory education. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

There  are  several  comprehensive  national  education  development  programmes  targeted  at 
provision  of  key  competences  to  disadvantaged  groups,  e.g.  from  rural  areas  to  eliminate 
barriers in the access of rural areas inhabitants to a good quality educational, cultural, IT and 
sports offer. This includes shaping of basic life skills and fostering educational development, 
the  provision  special  scholarships,  or  providing  partial  financing  for  classes  aimed  at 
development of knowledge and skills, as well as interests, hobbies and talents. The Voluntary 

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217 

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Labour  Corps  provide  education  and  training  to  youth  from  at  risk  of  exclusion,  offering 
training allowing the unemployed from rural areas to take up non-agricultural jobs.  

The  target  groups  for  adult  education  are  among  others  unemployed,  old  workers, 
disadvantaged groups, disabled people, the poor, homeless foreigners; formerly imprisoned or 
drug  users.  The  activities  provided  include  training,  guidance,  organisation  or  clubs  and 
integration centres, financial grants, counselling and refunding of training costs.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

A  reform  of  initial  and  in-service  teacher  education  in  higher  education  institutions  was 
introduced in 2004. According to the regulations, teacher education should be related to the 
changes made to general curriculum in the direction of teaching competences. Such education 
is provided by post-graduate studies licensing teachers. The core curriculum and the teacher 
initial and in-service education system emphasize a cross-subject attitude to the development 
of transversal key competences.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  system  of  monitoring  and  assessment  of  the  outcomes  of  education  and  training 
encompasses the assessment system of the outcomes of education based on the combination 
of  external  system  of  tests  and  exams  with  the  internal  school  assessment  (the  two  systems 
encompass  both  summative  and  formative  assessment)  and  with  the  system  of  pedagogical 
supervision, accreditation system and  educational research  (including international surveys). 
In the external tests and exam system an increased role is given to feedback.  

The  importance  of  formative  assessment  in  the  form  of  current  assessment  at  schools  is 
emphasized  in  the  information  materials  sent  to  all  schools  and  differences  between 
summative  and  formative  assessment  are  taken  into  account  in  the  initial  and  in-service 
teacher  training.  At  vocational  schools  state  external  exams  are  additionally  conducted 
confirming vocational qualifications.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Currently a comprehensive LLL strategy is developed, based on the Education Development 
Strategy  for  2007-2013  and  a  complete  LLL  strategy  encompassing  the  period  of  up  to  the 
year 2020 should be ready by the end of 2009. A project co-financed from the EFS is focused 
on  the  development  of  the  NQF.  There  are  some  elements  of  validation  of  non-formal  and 
informal learning outcomes e.g. in a system of extramural exams for adults, exemption from 
external national exams on the basis of achievements in national and international Students’ 
Olympics  and  school  subject  contents,  or  the  system  of  exams  for  apprentices  organised  by 
vocational associations.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

An  ongoing  VET  core  curriculum  modernisation 
initiative  (together  with  sectoral 
organisations,  social  partners  and  employers)  aims  to  align  better  the  general  and  the  VET 
curriculum, to increase flexibility and VET job classification, to improve VET counselling, to 
have a system for validation of vocational qualifications obtained through formal, non-formal 
and informal learning; to enhance long-distance learning offer in VET, increase flexibility of 
VET  financing  and  VET  promotion  and  to  include  employers  to  the  process  of  planning, 
implementation and validation of vocational qualifications.  

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218 

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The  National  Centre  for  Supporting  Vocational  and  Continuous  Education  is  training 
vocational advisers and elaborating and disseminating didactical materials based on a concept 
of lifelong guidance it developed. There are projects and research carried out to diagnose the 
demand for qualifications and skills on the regional and local employment market, to trace the 
graduates' life-paths, and forecast changes on the employment market and their results will be 
published in a good practice catalogue.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Current  reforms  aim  to  develop  closer  links  with  regions,  businesses  and  research  and  to 
increase the relevance of provision to the labour market, to increase the autonomy of higher 
education institutions, to enable students to take various studies paths and forms of learning, 
providing  incentives  for  its  continuing,  diversity  of  studies,  improve  attractiveness  of 
technical  and  natural  science  faculties  and  to  encourage  innovative  solutions  including 
problem-based and project-based learning.  

Higher  education  institutions  are  financed  from  the  state  budget,  and  through  own  sources, 
including tuition fees. A planned reform aims to simplify the granting of tax free scholarships 
by  regional  government  bodies  to  students  and  doctoral  students  and  academic  workers.  It 
also  focuses  on  encouraging  higher  education  institutions  to  apply  for  competitively-based 
funding for their development policy. Third Age Universities functioning in higher education 
institutions,  classes  for  young  pupils  (in  the  form  of  Children’s  Universities)  and  for  gifted 
pupils  of  primary  and  secondary  schools,  as  well  as  flexible  delivery  of  courses  (distance 
learning),  expanding  the  educational  offer  in  response  to  the  economy  and  labour  market 
needs, are the main means to open up higher education institutions to lifelong learning.  

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PORTUGAL 

Participation 
education 

in  early  childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of 
comp. primary) 

Portugal 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

78.9% 

86.7%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

26.3% 

24.9%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

30.7%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early  leavers  from  education  and 
training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

43.6% 

35.4% p 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

43.2% 

54.3% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase 
2000  

since 

- 

164.0%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST  graduates 
(higher 
education) 

Share of females  

41.9% 

34.8%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult  participation 
learning 

in 

lifelong 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public  spending  on  education,%  of 
GDP 

11.3% 

21.6% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

4.3%04 

5.3%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.42% 

5.25%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Portugal performs below the EU average in four school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education, low achievers in reading literacy and mathematics, Early leavers from 

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education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary  attainment,  however,  its  performance  has 
improved significantly during the period 2000-2008.  

Portugal  has  made  spectacular  progress  in  increasing  the  number  of  MST  graduates,  about 
five times higher progress than the EU average. The share of females in this field has however 
decreased  but  it  is  still  above  the  EU  average.  While  the  proportion  with  High  education 
attainment is below the EU average, it has nearly doubled since 2000. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Portugal  is  performing  below  the  EU 
average although progress also in this field has been made since 2000.  

On Investment in education as a % of GDP, Portugal is performing above the EU average but 
investment rates appear to stagnate. 

Portugal performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number 
of MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

The  development  of  basic  skills  (Portuguese,  mathematics  and  study  of  the  environment)  is 
the core function of the 1st cycle of basic education, more recently the offer has been extended 
to  curriculum  enriching  activities  such  as  foreign  language  learning  (English),  music  or 
physical activities.  

Portugal  has  initiated  a  major  restructuring  of  its  education  system  partly  supported  by  the 
Structural Funds.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The reorganization of the basic education curriculum, initiated in 2001, focused on improving 
basic  skills  and  social  competences,  as  well  as  preventing  early  school  failure  and  leaving. 
More specific recent measures concerning literacy and numeracy in basic education are: the 
National  Plan  for  the  Teaching  of  Portuguese,  the  Action  Plan  for  Mathematics  and  the 
Teacher  Training  Programmes  for  1st  cycle 
teachers  of  Mathematics,  Portuguese, 
Experimental  Teaching  of  Sciences  and  ICT.  The  ongoing  secondary  education  reform, 
initiated  in  2004,  includes  the  reorganization  of  curricula  and  the  definition  of  alternative 
learning paths. The reform of VET has also involved major curricular development, especially 
due to the introduction of education and training courses (EFA), structured around a learning 
outcomes based qualifications approach. 

All the key competencies included in the EU Recommendation are covered by the curricular 
and non curricular areas, both in general education and VET. A particular focus has been on 
digital competence through initiatives like e-escolinha, e-escola or e-professor, supporting the 
use  of  new  pedagogical  materials  and  the  familiarisation  with  the  new  information  and 
communication technologies. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Targeted approaches to disadvantaged groups include: provision aimed at 15 year olds more 
at  risk  of  leaving  school  or  who  have  left  school,  as  well  as  those  who,  after  12  years  in 
school, have not acquired a qualification; the Action Plan for the Integration of People with 
Disabilities,  which  comprises  the  development  and  implementation  of  Individual  Transition 

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Plans  for  12+  year  olds  with  a  view  to  promote  the  transition  to  life  after  school  and, 
whenever possible, to a professional occupation; and the Plan for the Integration of Migrants 
2007-2009. 

Under  the  Novas  Oportunidades  initiative  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  certification  of 
adult competences, in the period 2006-2008, with 152 000 school education certificates at 9th 
or 12th grade, and circa 20 000 certifications through Adult Education and Training Courses 
(EFA).  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The new initial teacher training policy is focused on: learning outcomes, new demands on the 
teaching profession, the acquisition of knowledge in the subjects to be taught, evidence based 
teaching practice and the introduction to professional practice in a school context. To cater for 
the improvement of quality in teacher training two significant measures have been adopted: 
the  reform  of  the  regulation  on  access  to  the  teaching  career  and  the  reorganisation  of  the 
Schools Associations Training Centres. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

In  basic  education,  graded  tests  in  the  1st  and  2nd  cycles  and  national  examinations 
(Portuguese  and  Maths)  in  the  3rd  cycle,  as  well  as  national  examinations  (e.g.  Maths, 
Biology,  Physics  and  Chemistry,  History  or  Portuguese  Literature)  in  secondary  education 
provide  the  relevant  data  on  pupils  and  students  performances.  Graded  test  results,  made 
available to pupils, schools and teachers, and national examinations results, which are public, 
support policy decision making. Qualitative external assessments of curricula by expert panels 
are  also  a  means  to  support  specific  reforms  or  reorganisations.  International  comparative 
evaluations also constitute an input for curriculum reorganisation, as it was the case for PISA 
in the preparation of the revision of the Portuguese programme in 2007. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Although  PT  has  not  adopted  a  formal  document  setting  out  a  national  lifelong  learning 
strategy, all the major policy developments in education and training in the last few years are 
consistent with such an approach.  

In this context, a major step has been taken through the reform of the VET system in 2007, 
including  the  creation  of  the  National  Qualifications  System,  the  adoption  of  the  National 
Qualifications  Catalogue,  the  drafting  of  the  National  Qualifications  Framework,  which  has 
just  been  the  subject  of  public  consultation,  and  the  creation  of  the  System  for  the 
Recognition,  Validation  and  Certification  of  Competences  under  the  Novas  Oportunidades 
initiative. Other important steps are the rapid expansion of the Novas Oportunidades network, 
the offer of double certification courses, the diversification of VET offers, the modularisation 
of courses and the flexibilisation of VET learning paths. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

One  of  the  main  objectives  of  the  VET  reform  was  to  increase  the  participation  of  young 
people  and  adults  and  to  strengthen  the  sector's  contribution  to  the  competitiveness  and 
innovation capacity of enterprises. The public school system has since 2006/2007 developed, 
improved  or  enlarged  its  offer  of  professional  and  apprenticeship  courses,  and  has 
implemented  guidelines  for  the  reorientation  of  secondary  student  training  paths,  while 

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universities have increased the offer of Technical Specialisation Courses (CET). On the other 
hand,  continuing  vocational  training  is  provided  by  instruments  like  "Programa  Formação-
Acção para PME" and "Formação para Inovação e Gestão".  

The  availability  of  a  wide  array  of  courses,  especially  Technical  Courses,  adapted  to  local 
needs aims to improve the relevance of VET programmes to the labour market. The adoption 
of  the  National  Qualifications  Catalogue  and  the  establishment  of  Sectoral  Qualifications 
Councils are also important tools in adapting the training offer to labour market needs. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Portugal  initiated  in  2005  a  major  reform  of  HE.  Some  of  the  most  significant  legislative 
measures include the new Legal System of Higher Education Institutions, the setting up of a 
quality assurance system, the new rules for the admission of adults to HE and the new rules 
on non-refundable scholarships. 

Portugal has implemented a new legal system which reinforces the autonomy of universities, 
including  the  possibility to change their statute, becoming foundations and opening  up their 
possibilities of a more autonomous financial, assets and human resources management. A new 
system of loans with state guarantee has been set up. The creation of Technical Specialisation 
Courses  (CET,  level  4)  offers  the  possibility  to  enrol  in  HE  to  a  wider  public  and  the 
legislation  setting  out  the  conditions  of  access  to  HE  of  people  older  than  23  has  also 
significantly widened the target population.  

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ROMANIA 

Romania 

EU average 

EU 
Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

67.6% 

81.8%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

41.3% 

53.5%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06  17.0 % 15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

52.7%06 

46.9%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

22.9% 

15.9% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

76.1% 

78.3% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

58,6%07 

- 

33.6%07  +15 %

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

35.1% 

40.0%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

8.9% 

16.0% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

1.4%04 

1.5 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 15% 

2.86% 

3.48%05 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 04 = 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

In the area of school education, Romania's performance on low achievers is the lowest within 
the  EU  and  has  deteriorated  since  2000.  On  participation  in  early  childhood  education  and 
early  leavers  from  education  and  training  Romania  has  progressed  significantly  over  the 
period  2000-2008  and  is  now  performing  just  below  EU  average  performance.  On  upper 
secondary attainment Romania performs close to EU average levels.  

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One area in which Romania has made more progress is in increasing the MST graduates for 
which  the  growth  rate  has  been  above  the  EU  average,  and  there  has  also  been  an 
improvement in the gender balance.  

Considerable  progress  has  been  made  with  regard  to  higher  education  attainment,  but 
Romania performs close to the lowest level in the EU. This is also the case for investment in 
education, higher education attainment and adult participation in lifelong learning. Romania 
is, however, improving in all these areas. 

Romania performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number 
of MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  transition  to  a  curriculum  based  on  key  competencies  is  a  central  part  of  current 
educational reforms. The orientation towards learning outcomes has been stronger in the area 
of VET. A major reform of education is currently being prepared, aiming to raise the quality 
of provision. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

A  curricular  reform  planned  for  2009  aims  to  better  link  the  curriculum  in  compulsory 
education to the key competencies framework.  The  modular  VET  curriculum,  introduced  in 
2005,  already  includes  competence  units  correlated  with  the  eight  domains  of  key 
competences. All students study two modern languages during compulsory education.  

The  2003  and  2005  curricular  reforms  introduced  ICT  and  entrepreneurship  as  subjects  in 
compulsory  education.  The  current  school  based  curriculum  offer  largely  targets  social  and 
civic competencies. Entrepreneurship education is included in the VET curriculum, including 
through simulated firms exercises. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The Rural Education Project has provided support for children in rural areas. Teacher training, 
methodological guidelines and materials support the development of inclusive approaches for 
pupils  with  special  needs  and  their  inclusion  in  mainstream  classes.  A  flexible  system  of 
second  chance  education  based  on  a  modular  curriculum  and  integrating  the  validation  of 
experiential learning aims to compensate the high early school leaving. 

Key competencies are included in the occupational standards which guide the offer of adult 
education.  Social  partners  and  stakeholders  participate  in  the  definition  of  occupational 
standards and in the authorisation of training providers. A growing supply of courses targets 
specifically  key  competencies,  including  transversal  ones.  Evening  and  distance  courses  are 
provided for adults, covering the lower and upper secondary curriculum.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Initial teacher training has been restructured during the transition to the Bologna system, but 
the  content  of  teacher  training  curricula  can  be  further  adapted  to  a  competence-based 
approach. Team teaching has been provided for in regulations since 1998, but has so far been 
lagging behind in implementation. There is a wide offer of in-service teacher training focused 
on the key competencies, including for VET teachers. Vocational training standards used in 

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initial  VET  systematically  combine 
competencies. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

the  formative  and  summative  assessment  of 

The  results  of  national  examinations,  presented  in  annual-based  national  reports,  sample-
based standardised tests at the end of primary education, as well as the results of international 
tests  (PISA,  PIRLS  and  TIMSS)  are  used  for  assessing  the  achievement  levels.  Quality 
assurance authorities were established in 2005 and 2006 for both pre-university and university 
education.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Romania  is  committed  to  adopting  a  lifelong  learning  strategy,  based  on  a  process  of 
stakeholder consultation. The development of a national qualifications framework is based on 
a  social  pact  from  2005  and  involves  the  social  partners  through  the  sectoral  committees 
involved in the definition, updating and validation of qualifications. 

The  National  Council  for  Adult  Training  will  be  reorganized  as  the  National  Qualifications 
Authority.  A  methodology  for  the  National  Qualifications  Framework  for  Higher  Education 
has  been  piloted  and  is  currently  pending  approval.  A  compulsory  portfolio  for  lifelong 
learning was introduced in compulsory education in 2000. The validation of non-formal and 
informal  learning  is  organised  in  42  authorised  evaluation  centres  for  adults,  as  well  as 
through the second chance education programme. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Romania is currently reforming the initial VET system, aiming to simplify pathways and to 
issue  qualifications  for  all  levels  of  initial  VET.  Sectoral,  regional  and  local  consultative 
bodies  including  the  social  partners  and  the  professions  are  involved  in  the  design  of  VET 
programmes. 

Tracer studies, aiming to provide information on the transition to work and skills forecasting 
exercises are planned for improving transition to the labour market. Existing annual plans of 
action for education aim to correlate the VET provision to demand on the labour markets at 
regional and local levels, based on consultations with stakeholders.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Higher  education  reforms  have  been  centred  on  the  implementation  of  the  Bologna  process 
and on the introduction of quality assurance mechanisms. Public HEIs rely mainly on public 
funding, disbursed on a per-capita basis. Tuition fees exist both in public and in private HEIs. 
Regulations on private scholarships were introduced in 2004 and a student credit system is in 
the pipeline.  

The  opening  of  institutions  to  lifelong  learners  is  mainly  focused  on  graduate  studies. 
However,  increasing  provision  of  distance  and  evening  courses  facilitates  broader  access  to 
higher  education.  A  national  student  matriculation  system,  under  development,  will  provide 
information on participation to higher education. 

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SLOVENIA 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Slovenia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

85.2% 

89.2%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

16.5%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

17.7%06 

13.9%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

6.4%01 

5.1% u 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

88.0% 

90.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase 
2000  

since 

- 

8.3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

22.8% 

25.0%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

18.5% 

30.9% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

13.3 %03

13.9 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.89%01 

5.72%06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=data lack reliability because of small sample 
size 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Slovenia performs considerably better than the EU average in two school related areas: Low 
achievers in reading, mathematics and science and Upper secondary attainment. As for Early 
leavers from education and training its performance is better than the EU average but data are 
to  be  used  with  caution,  as  there  are  questions  about  their  reliability.  In  the  area  of 

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Participation  in  early  childhood  education  Slovenia  has  progressed  and  is  close  to  the  EU 
average. 

As for MST graduates, the growth rate has been well below the EU average, while the share 
of female graduates, even if it has improved, has not reached the EU average level. In the area 
of  Higher  education  attainment  there  has  been  considerable  progress  and  Slovenia  is  now 
approaching the EU average. 

As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Slovenia’s performance is well above the 
EU average despite limited increases in recent years.  

Investment in education, as a % of GDP, has slightly decreased in Slovenia while in the EU as 
a whole it has slightly increased. However, Slovenia is above the EU average. 

Slovenia performs better than EU 2010 benchmarks in a number of areas: Low achievers in 
reading;  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training,  Upper  secondary  attainment  and  Adult 
participation  in  lifelong  learning.  It  exceeds  the  2020  benchmark  for  Low  achievers  in 
science.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  modernization  of  the  curricula  in  Slovenia  is  in  line  with  the  Recommendation  of  the 
European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  Key  Competences.  The  principles  of  the 
Recommendation were discussed with stakeholders and also used as the basis for the reforms 
in different areas of education.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The updating of curricula in basic schools (ISCED 1 and 2) and “gimnazije” (general upper 
secondary  schools  -  ISCED  3A)  began  in  2006  as  an  upgrade  of  the  1996-1998  curricular 
reforms.  The  explicit  demand  to  take  into  account  a  competence  approach  is  among  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  update.  The  focus  of  the  above  mentioned  updating  of  the 
curricula was literacy, numeracy and foreign language. 

Slovenia  addresses  transversal  key  competences  (linguistic,  social  and  civic,  environmental, 
technical) in general education, primarily through the promotion of a coherent approach to the 
work  of  preschool  institutions  and  schools  as  a  whole.  In  VET  new  organizational  and 
didactic  approaches  are  developed  aiming  at  transversal  key  competences,  linked  to  the 
implementation of new curricula.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

A  document  on  Working  with  Pupils  with  Learning  Difficulties  has  been  adopted  and  is 
competence  oriented.  It  focuses  primarily  on  reading,  mathematical  and  motor  competences 
(grapho and loco). Teachers are trained to deliver specific competences for learners with SEN. 

The Slovenian Statistical Office is collecting data on the participation in non-formal education 
by age and gender as well as by education area. In collaboration with the Ministry of Labor 
(MLFSA), the Ministry of Education (MOES) is preparing annual adult education programs 
(implemented by private and public adult education institutions and public upper general and 
VET secondary schools) with special attention to low skilled, older people and unemployed 
workers.  

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

On the basis of the Higher Education Act (2006) the Council for Higher Education adopted 
Criteria for the Accreditation of Study Programs for Teacher Education based on cognitive, 
action, emotional and motivational competences. At present no major changes in methods of 
assessment  are  envisaged:  teaching  is  based  on  seminars,  and  assessment  on  practice  in 
schools and examinations. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Slovenia has in the last twenty years developed a structured system of external examinations 
at  the  end  of  obligatory  primary  education  and  with  an  external  baccalaureate  as  the  final 
exam  of  gimnazija  at  the  end  of  general  upper  secondary  education.  A  combination  of 
external  examinations  and  internal  final  examinations  is  in  place  also  in  VET.  The  first 
evaluations  of  redefined  key  competencies  in  VET  took  place  in  2008,  which  will  form  the 
basis for changes in VET curricula. Slovenia participates in TIMSS and PISA. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The Lifelong Learning Strategy for Slovenia was adopted in 2007. The strategic development 
vision states that its fundamental objective is to "create the appropriate conditions to ensure 
every  person  the  opportunities  for  a  full  development  of  their  abilities”.  Specific  objectives 
(positive attitude towards learning, higher level of all kinds of literacy, integration of different 
levels  of  education)  were  taken  into  account  when  the  guidelines  for  reform  of  all  types  of 
education programmes across all levels were drawn up during the reporting period.  

The National Vocational Qualifications Act adopted in 2000 and amended in 2006 introduced 
a system for the assessment and certification of NVQs which is based on learning outcomes, 
irrespective of the “location” at which knowledge, skills or abilities are obtained. It allows the 
combination  of  formal  and  non-formal  education  and  work  experience,  and  ensures 
partnership  and  cooperation  in  the  development  of  NVQs,  their  promotion  and  transfer 
between different areas and levels of education and training. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Slovenia  is  pursuing  measures  to  increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET  programs  and  their 
connection to the labour market. These include competence-oriented and modular educational 
programs,  the  establishment  of  inter-business  educational  centres  and  the  recognition  of 
knowledge  and  skills  acquired  through  non-formal  routes.  At  the  same  time  efforts  are 
underway to increase the attractiveness of VET by improving its reputation, providing better 
information  (organizing  joint  presentations  of  different  professions;  sponsoring  broadcasts 
promoting VET) and working closely with vocational guidance professionals.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The curricular reform, undertaken within the first decade of the Bologna process, is completed 
as  all  study  programmes  announced  in  2009-2010  academic  year,  are  Bologna  study 
programmes. One of the remaining key challenges, requiring further work in coming years, is 
quality assessment and control. 

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75%  of  HEI  funding  comes  from  the  national  budget.  Additional  funds  come  from  public 
tenders, related to the cohesion policy and ESF, and from fees and sale of goods and services 
on the market (6% in 2007).  

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SLOVAKIA 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

from  education  and 

Early 
training  

leavers 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

Slovakia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

76.1% 

79.4%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

- 

- 

- 

27.8%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

20.9%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

6.7%02 

6.0% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

94.8% 

92.3% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

129.9%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
graduates 
(higher education) 

Share of females  

30.1% 

35.4%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

10.6% 

15.8% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

3.7% 03 

3.3 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

3.93% 

3.79% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

02= 2002; 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Slovakia  performs  notably  better  than  the  EU  average  in  two  school  related  areas:  Early 
leavers from education and training and Upper secondary attainment. In the latter field it has 

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the  top  performance  among  EU  countries.  As  for  Low  achievers,  the  situation  is 
differentiated: poor performers in reading are more frequent than in the EU as a whole, while 
the  performance  on  Low  achievers  in  mathematics  is  above  the  EU  average,  in  the  area  of 
science the performance is equal to the EU average. As for Participation in early childhood 
education the rate of Slovakia is significantly below the EU average. 

Progress in the area of MST graduates has been extremely positive, with a growth rate almost 
4 times the EU average and a share of female graduates above the EU level. Despite recent 
progress, in the area of Higher education attainment Slovakia is below the EU average and in 
2008 had the second lowest share of 30-34 years old with tertiary attainment in EU. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  it  was  below  EU  average  in  2003. 
Thereafter  a  further  decrease  took  place,  so  that  the  distance  from  the  average  is  now  even 
greater.  

Investment in education, as a % of GDP, has decreased since 2000, while it has risen in the 
EU as a whole. Therefore Slovakia is below the EU average and the gap has increased. 

Slovakia  already  performs  above  the  EU  2010  benchmarks  in  Early  leavers  from  education 
and  training,  Upper  secondary  attainment  and  the  increase  in  MST  graduates.  The  country 
furthermore succeeded in improving gender balance in MST.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The main policy and implementation tool for the development of the key competences is the 
School  act,  adopted  in  2008,  which  reformed  the  curricula  in  primary  and  secondary 
education.  The  key  competences  are  perceived  as  the  outcome  of  formal,  non-formal  and 
informal  learning  and  considered  to  be  a  basic  foundation  for  lifelong  learning  and  for 
improving peoples' employability.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

All eight key competences are integral part of both state (national framework curricula) and 
school  educational  programmes  in  the  curricula  for  pre-primary,  primary,  lower  secondary 
and  upper  secondary  education  (including  VET  at  upper  secondary  level).  The  School  act 
explicitly  stipulates  the  educational  objectives  for  communication  in  the  state,  mother  and 
foreign languages, mathematical and technical sciences and technologies as well as ICT. 

The development of the transversal key competences is included as a horizontal issue across 
the  curricula  of  various  subjects.  There  are  specific  initiatives  such  as  Junior  Achievement, 
Training Firms to develop entrepreneurship competences, as well as competitions focused on 
the development of ICT skills. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Special educational programmes are designed for children with health disadvantages and for 
children from socially or culturally disadvantaged backgrounds. The provision of training for 
groups at risk (jobseekers, low skilled, disabled) is organised by Public Employment Services 
(Ministry  of  Labour).  Specific  programmes  for  talented  children  will  be  introduced  in 
September 2009. 

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The basic framework for the development of key competences of adults is set by the Lifelong 
learning strategy in 2007 and its accompanying Action Plan which describe the priorities and 
objectives  for  lifelong  learning  (with  a  special  focus  on  non-formal  learning).  There  is  a 
system to gather statistics on participation of adults in non-formal learning. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Qualitative  indicators  developed  for  all  key  competences  serve  as  a  methodological 
instrument  for  teachers  in  developing  student  competences,  and  as  a  baseline  for  their 
evaluation.  Apart  from  summative  and  formative  assessment,  criteria  and  authentic 
assessment  are  also  used.  The  in-service  training  programmes  for  pedagogical  staff  are 
designed  and  implemented  to  equip  them  with  approaches  to  develop  students’  key 
competences. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Slovakia carries out an external annual nationwide evaluation of students of the 9th grade to 
measure the qualitative level of learning outcomes in mathematics and the school's language 
of  instruction.  The  feedback  is  used  in  policymaking  for  the  design  of  legislation  for 
education  and  VET.  The  country  is  involved  in  a  number  of  international  studies,  such  as 
OECD PISA, OECD TALIS, IEA PIRLS, IEA TIMSS, ICCS aimed at evaluation of specific 
key competences. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The strategy for lifelong learning and lifelong guidance was adopted in 2007 together with the 
Action Plan which sets out concrete steps and instruments for the implementation of lifelong 
learning, NQF, EQF, validation of non-formal and informal learning and lifelong guidance. 

The Act on lifelong learning, currently in preparation, will focus on quality and validation of 
non-formal and informal learning with the aim to interconnect them to the formal system and 
so to create an open system of lifelong learning. The implementation of EQF in Slovakia will 
be carried out through a 5-year ESF national project to be launched in the beginning of 2010 
aimed  at  the  design  of  the  NQF  referenced  to  the  EQF  levels.  The  National  System  of 
Qualifications and the National System of Occupations will be designed in parallel.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The  new  law  on  VET  adopted  in  April  2009  establishes  the  basic  conditions  to  improve  its 
quality  and  relevance  to  the  labour  market  needs.  Complementary  to  the  curricular  reform 
established  by  the  School  act,  the  new  law  on  VET  will  introduce  incentives  for  increasing 
VET  funding,  clarify  the  role  of  national  and  regional  administrations,  employers  and 
employees, and create suitable coordination structures for the VET system (national, regional 
and sectoral skills councils). 

In  terms  of  the  attractiveness  of  the  VET  system,  attention  is  given  to  flexible  learning 
pathways, permeability from secondary VET to HE, and organisation of a number of national 
skills  competitions  as  well  as  participation  in  EuroSkills.  The  attractiveness  of  the  VET 
system  is  also  determined  by  its  relevance  to  the  labour  market  needs.  To  ensure  this 
relevance, Slovakia is now developing a system for monitoring and forecasting labour market 
needs.  

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4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

A  number  of  legislative  reforms  and  concrete  initiatives  have  been  launched  in  Slovakia 
related  to  the  modernisation  of  higher  education.  The  challenges  are  related  to  increased 
quality  of  HE  institutions,  improved  governance  of  HE  institutions,  closer  links  with 
businesses and research, as well as increased and performance-based funding. 

The new status of HE institutions enables them to acquire funds from various sources such as 
international or EU funds, businesses and other organisations in order to improve the quality 
of  education  process  and  research  activities.  HE  institutions  are  allowed  to  make  profit  and 
charge  tuition  fees  according  to  specific  rules.  There  is  an  emergence  of  adult  learning  – 
"universities of third age" – at HE institutions. The implementation of the strategy for LLL (in 
particular  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning)  and  lifelong  guidance  should 
contribute to the opening up of HE institutions to lifelong learners.  

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FINLAND 

Finland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 
and goals 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

55.2% 

69.8%07

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Low achievers  

Reading 

7.0% 

4.8%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

6.0%06 

4.1%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

9.0% 

9.8%b,p 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

87.7% 

86.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

23.2%07

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(tertiary education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

27.3% 

28.9%07

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

40% 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

% of GDP 

40.3% 

45.7% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

22.4% 03

23.1% 

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

5.89% 

6.14% 06

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Finland  performs  above  EU  average  in  almost  all  education  areas.  Adult  participation  in 
lifelong learning  in  Finland  is  more  than  twice  the  EU  average  and  in  the  benchmark  areas 
Early  school  leavers  and  the  Upper  secondary  attainment  Finland  is  performing  above  EU 
average.  However  further  progress  has  been  limited.  When  it  comes  to  Low  achievers, 

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Finland succeeded to reduce the lowest rate in EU countries even further since 2000 whereas 
the  rate  increased  in  most  other  EU  countries  during  the  same  period.  Performance  in  the 
skills areas mathematics and science is at a similar high level. 

Finland  has  one  of  the  highest  Higher  education  attainment  rates.  The  absolute  numbers  of 
MST graduates has increased less than the average for EU since 2000 and the share of female 
graduates in MST is lower. 

Investment  in  education  as  a  %  of  GDP  is  relatively  stable  in  Finland  and  exceeds  the  EU 
average by about 1 percentage point. 

When it comes to Early childhood education, Finland is 20 percentage points below the EU 
average, but with considerable progress since 2000. It should be noted that statistical data for 
Finland  in  this  field  is  currently  being  improved  because  of  concerns  about  validity  and 
comparability with other EU countries 

Finland performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on Upper secondary attainment; and 
above the 2020 EU benchmark levels on Low achievers in reading, science and mathematics, 
Early  leavers  from  education  and  training,  Higher  education  attainment  and  on  Adult 
participation in lifelong learning. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Transversal key competences are included mainly as thematic entities across subjects. These 
competences have a prominent role in pupil assessment: the core curriculum defines the level 
"good"  and  describes  this  as  broad  dispositions  including  learning  skills;  digital  and  social 
skills and ability to take inititiative and maintain an "entrepreneurial minset" in working. The 
core curriculum for compulsory education integrates theory with practical learning.  

In the field of VET and adult learning the system of competence-based qualifications offers a 
flexible way to demonstrate vocational skills through competence tests, regardless of whether 
the skills have been acquired through work experience, studies or other activities.  

Recent  initiatives  in  VET  include  a  'well-being  at  work  passport'.  It  helps  young  people  in 
initial  vocational  training  learn  to  take  care  of  their  occupational  health,  develop  their 
collaboration skills and plan ahead for further learning and development.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Initial Vocational qualifications will be renewed to better correspond to the requirements of 
the  world  of  work.  More  options  will  be  given  to  demonstrate  competences  and  obtain 
qualifications.  The  descriptions  and  assessment  criteria  of  learning  outcomes  in  the  new 
curricula will follow the EQF approach. 'Vocational Start' will be mainstreamed as of 2010. It 
aims to enhance learning to learn skills, help transition and choose the right field of training.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

A considerable subsidy has been allocated to various adult education providers since 2006 for 
promoting  civic  participation.  The  'Noste'  project  (2003-2009)  has  provided  least  educated 
adults training for completing vocational qualifications and the 'ICT Driver's Licence' for free. 

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Immigrants,  the  unemployed  and  other  disadvantaged  groups  have  been  given  vouchers  to 
continue  learning  in  liberal  adult  education.  Similarly,  drop-outs  from  universities  receive 
vouchers to continue in summer universities. Vouchers amount now up to 5% of all funding 
of liberal adult education. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The key principles of the teacher education curricula established in 2005-06 include: profound 
knowledge of learning and teaching; subject knowledge and specific didactics; social, cultural 
and  ethical  aptitude  for  teaching,  reseach-orientation  and  ability  for  self-reflection  and 
practical skills. The Ministry has funded in-service training on e.g. entrepreneurship, gender 
and equality issues, multiculturalism and migration, ICT/IS-technologies and SEN.  

The  guidelines  for  continuous  assessment  of  learning  inlcude  the  'Learning  to  learn' 
competence;  similarly,  summative  assesment  emphasises  e.g.  initiative  taking  as  part  of  the 
criteria for progress. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

National  evaluation  is  made  on  a  sample  basis,  but  also  by  longitudinal  monitoring.  A  rich 
data  base  includes  basic,  contextual  and  trend  indicators.  Benchmarks  are  used  at  national 
level,  and  also  in  steering  e.g.  higher  education  institutions.  Self-evaluation  is  an  obligation 
for providers of education and training.  

Finland takes part in international comparative studies, e.g. PISA, TIMMS, PIRLS and IEA 
reviews. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The  Finnish  Development  Plan  for  Education  and  Research,  adopted  for  5-year  periods, 
serves as a comprehensive LLL strategy. A new National Qualifications System, compatible 
with the EQF, is projected to be ready by 2010. The quality assurance dimension is also being 
addressed.  

Quality  criteria  for  compulsory  education  are  being  developed.  A  national  framework  for 
qualifications and other learning, compatible with the EQF, is projected to be ready by 2010. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The  overall  popularity  of  VET  has  grown.  Existing  differences  between  regions,  providers 
and fields of study are being addressed by various media campaigns. The introduction of an 
electronic application system provides applicants with broad information on available options 
and increases the overall efficiency of the application process. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

In  2007  research  and  development  expenditure  represented  3.5%  of  the  gross  domestic 
product, which puts Finland among the OECD top. The new Universities Act forms part of an 
overall  reform  of  higher  education,  which  includes  a  reform  of  higher  education  structures, 
strategy  formation,  internationalisation  and  a  reform  of  the  funding  model.  A  new  Act  will 
take effect in 2010 and will make universities corporations under public law or foundations 

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under  private  law.  This  will  help  them  acquire  more  private  funding  and  collaborate  with 
business and other research and innovation partners. 

New  University  Act  includes  the  mission  of  lifelong  learning  to  universities.  Also  new 
Polytechnics Act includes a mission for lifelong learning. The reform of vocationally oriented 
adult  education  includes  proposals  for  developing  further  training  of  higher  education 
graduates.  The  aim  is  to  provide  a  flexible  system  allowing  for  studying  parts  of  degree 
programmes without having to apply for a full study programme and combine further studies 
with  work.  The  higher  education  institutions  may  also  sell  degree  modules  to  employers  as 
staff-development training. Open university and open polytechnic studies are offered in most 
subject fields. 

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SWEDEN 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Sweden 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

83.6% 

94.0%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

12.6% 

15.3%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

18.3%06 

16.4%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

7.3% 

11.1% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

85.2%, b

87.9% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

14.3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

32.1% 

33.1%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

31.8% 

42.0% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

31.8%03 

32.4%07 

8.5%03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

7.21% 

6.85% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Sweden is performing above the average EU level in all the areas of school education and in 
early childhood education, but progress is mixed. The share of Low achieving 15 year-olds in 
reading  increased  from  2000  to  2006,  but  it  is  still far below the EU  average.  The share of 
Early leavers from education and training has increased in Sweden since 2000 reaching more 
than 11% in 2008, while during the same period Upper secondary attainment increased.  

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Although  Sweden  has  a  relatively  high  attainment  level  in  higher  education  and  shows 
substantial progress in the field, the growth in MST graduates was in the period 2000-2007 
less  than  half  of  the  average  growth  in  the  EU.  The  female  share  of  MST  graduates  on  the 
other hand is clearly above EU average and gender balance has significantly improved since 
2000.  

Adult participation in lifelong learning in Sweden is the highest in the EU and it is increasing.  

Sweden  allocates nearly  7% of GDP to education,  and  hence has the second highest rate of 
investment in education (after Denmark) among the Member States.  

Sweden performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Low achievers in reading, Upper 
secondary  attainment  and  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning;  and  above  the  2020  EU 
benchmark  levels  onHigher  education  attainment  and  on  Adult  participation  in  lifelong 
learning. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences  

Sweden already has a curriculum based on learning outcomes and existing educational goals 
generally match the key  competencies  framework. Current  reforms aim at  strengthening the 
acquisition of basic skills through  the introduction of compulsory national tests  in Swedish, 
Swedish  as  a  second  language  and  mathematics  in  school  years  3,  6  and  9,  as  well  as  in 
science in year 9.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

Clarification of the learning objectives in the curricula is currently carried out by the National 
to 
Agency  for  Education.  Additionally,  Sweden  has 
municipalities  and  schools  for  reinforcing  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  2008-09,  and  for 
mathematics,  science  and  technology  2009-11.  Digital  competences,  previously  supported 
through a series of programmes are currently mainstreamed across subjects.  

introduced  special  subsidies 

Transversal  key  competences,  especially  social  and  civic  competences  and  initiative  taking 
are  generally  included  among  the  overarching  goals  of  the  curriculum  and  schools  enjoy  a 
wide  autonomy  in  implementation.  Learning  to  learn  is  supported  through  compulsory 
individual  development  plans.  A  subsidy  for  cultural  initiatives  in  schools  is  currently 
available. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Pupils  lagging  behind  are  assisted  to  reach  the  educational  goals  through  individual  action 
plans,  enabling  them  to  receive  special  support.  The  individual  programme  in  upper 
secondary schools targets pupils who do not meet eligibility criteria for upper secondary level. 

Sweden  has  very  high  rates  of  adult  participation  in  education  and  a  well  developed 
infrastructure. The provision of key competences is offered through the extensive network of 
municipal adult education corresponding to primary and secondary levels. The right to basic 
adult education was extended in 2007 to those with learning difficulties. Several are targeting 
improved quality and graduation rates in the system of Swedish tuition for adult migrants. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Sweden introduced in 2007 a major programme for continuous professional development of 
teachers  ("Lärarlyftet"),  providing  specially  designed  university  courses  linked  to  school 
subjects  and  key  competences.  A  number  of  reforms  aim  at  reinforcing  the  assessment 
framework, through the introduction of grades and written assessments from lower grades, as 
well as through national standardised tests.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Sweden  has  introduced  standardised  national  tests,  facilitating  the  identification  of  pupils 
lagging behind and aims to extend the awarding of grades in earlier school years than today, 
in  year  8.  Sweden  participates  in  international  tests  (PISA,  PIRLS,  TIMSS,  PIAAC)  and 
publishes national analyses of the results and trends which are fed into policymaking. A new 
national school inspectorate was set up for improving supervision and quality assessment of 
education.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Sweden  has  not  developed  a  strategy  for  lifelong  learning,  but  has  a  well  developed  and 
coherent  lifelong  learning  sector.  The  newly  established  National  Agency  for  Higher 
Vocational  Education  (NAHVE),  established  in  July  2009,  will  coordinate  and  support  a 
national  structure  for  validation,  based  on  the  participation  of  the  education  and  business 
sectors  in  the  development  of  validation  strategies,  methods  and  information.  Validation  of 
experiential  learning  was  introduced  for  applicants  to  higher  education  in  2003  and  can  be 
used  for  awarding  study  credits.  Current  reforms  aim  to  improve  validation  of  overseas 
education and qualifications, especially higher education, through a new knowledge base for 
assessing overseas education and through providing better study and career guidance.  

Sweden  has  decided  to  implement  the  EQF,  relating  it  to  the  public  education  and  training 
system  as  a  first  step.  The  newly  established  NAHVE  has  been  appointed  national 
coordination point for EQF.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Sweden has a school-based initial vocational education system. For addressing quality issues, 
such  as  the  relatively  high  rate  of  early  school  leaving  in  initial  vocational  education,  the 
government  has  proposed  a  reform  of  the  upper  secondary  education,  including  initial 
vocational  education  and  training.  When  it  comes  to  the  vocational  study  paths,  the  reform 
will  increase  the  vocational  part  of  the  curriculum,  will  introduce  a  vocational  diploma  and 
will  strengthen  the  involvement  of  social  partners  and  sectoral  dialogues  for  making  VET 
programmes  more  relevant  for  the  labour  market.  An  upper  secondary  apprenticeship  track 
has been piloted since 2008 and is planned to be mainstreamed starting in 2011.  

,  In  order  to  secure  quality  in  post  secondary  education  and  training  the  Government  has 
introduced a common framework of Higher Vocational Education as of July 1st 2009, to be 
administered by the NAHVE  aiming to offer education which leads directly to employment 
and corresponds to the needs of the labour market. 

As  a  measure  to  address  the  economic  crisis,  the  government  has  substantially  increased 
training  provision  within  Higher  Vocational  Education  and  introduced  a  major  subsidy  in 

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order to increase VET training for adults in the public municipal adult education framework. 
The  Government  has  also  allocated  resources  for  a  temporary  increase  in  opportunities  for 
unemployed people to obtain the higher rate of upper-secondary student aid in 2009 and 2010 
aiming to upgrade the skills of the unemployed over 25 year olds.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  process  of  modernisation  of  universities  has  continued  and  a  new  bill  introduces  a 
number of measures to increase the internationalisation of HEIs, announcing the intention to 
introduce tuition  fees for students coming from  countries  outside  the  EEA  and  Switzerland. 
Research funding already represents a large part of HEI funding. The possibility of tax relief 
for  donations  to  research  and  the  possibility  to  increase  the  autonomy  of  HEIs  were 
investigated by committees of inquiry. 

Sweden already has a tradition of participation of adult learners in higher education, based on 
flexible  study  programmes,  flexible  financial  support  for  students,  validation  of  work 
experience and on distance and evening courses. HEIs in areas suffering the consequences of 
the  economic  crisis  have  received  additional  funding  for  increasing  the  participation  of 
recently  unemployed  workers  and  guidance  was  offered  within  enterprises  undergoing 
restructuring. 

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UNITED KINGDOM 

United Kingdom 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

100% 

90.7%07 b

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(12.8%) 

19.0%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

19.8%06 

16.7%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

18.2% 

17.0% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

76.7% 

78.2% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

17,6%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

32.1% 

31.1%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

29.0% 

39.7% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

27.2%03 

19.9% b  

8.5% 03

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

4.46% 

5.48% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

The UK performs near to the EU average in most school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood  education,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  the  Upper  secondary 
completion rate but has progressed in these areas slightly less than the EU as a whole. 

Results for low achievers are slightly better than for the EU (comparability to 2000 results is 
limited).  

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The  UK  has  a  relatively  high  higher  education  attainment  rate,  which  has  increased 
considerably since  2000. However, growth  in the number of  MST graduates  was below  EU 
average.  

As  concerns  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  which  measures  the  frequency  of 
participation,  the  UK  shows  good  performance  with  participation  rates  more  than  twice  the 
EU  average.  If  breaks  in  time  series  are  taken  into  consideration,  the  participation  rate  has, 
however, not changed much since 2000. Results from the European Adult Education Survey, 
however,  imply  that  the  number  of  instruction  hours  spent  per  participant  is  below  EU 
average. 

Public investment in education as a % of GDP has shown a significant growth since 2000 and 
is now above EU average.  

The UK performs above the 2010 EU benchmark on Increasing the number of MST graduates 
and above the 2020 EU benchmark on Adult participation in lifelong learning. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

All the eight competences listed in the European Reference Framework have been embedded 
in UK school curricula for some time. The UK has strategies to increase the numbers of adults 
with basic level literacy and numeracy skills.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The  English  National  secondary  Curriculum  has  been  revised  to  highlight  connections 
between  subjects  and  cross-curricular  themes,  to  provide  for  more  personalised  learning  - 
especially  in  literacy,  numeracy  and  ICT  -  and  focus  on  skills  for  life,  learning  and  work. 
Transversal  competences  such  as  learning  to  learn  and  entrepreneurship  are  explicitly 
covered.  Languages  will  be  a  part  of  the  statutory  Key  Stage  3  (primary)  curriculum  from 
September 2011. 

The Scottish National Curriculum has been revised to be more coherent, flexible and rich; it 
includes  all  eight  Key  Competences;  together  with  a  new  Lifelong  Skills  Strategy  and  new 
Early  Years  Framework  published  in  January  2009,  it  is  designed  to  create  a  coherent 
framework for the development of key competences for lifelong learning from age 3 to 18 and 
beyond. There is a revised curriculum in Wales.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

To  ensure  that  all  young  people  acquire  skills,  four  alternative  learning  routes  have  been 
developed:  the  revised  GCSE  (General  Certificate  of  Secondary  Education)  and  A-Level 
qualifications system; a new system of more practically oriented Diplomas; apprenticeships; 
and the Foundation Learning Tier. 

The  government  has  legislated  to  raise  the  school  leaving  age  to  17  by  2013  and  to  18  by 
2015. England has published a strategy to reduce the proportion of young people who are not 
in  education,  employment  or  training  (NEET).  It  includes  a  guarantee  to  offer  every  school 
leaver a suitable place to continue in learning.  

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Learning support for young people with learning difficulties and /or disabilities (LLDD) has 
been  improved  e.g.  via  an  on-line  toolkit  and  exchange  of  good  practice  to  help  this  group 
into employment. 

A 2009 White Paper ‘The Learning Revolution’ revises the English strategy for informal adult 
learning.  It  aims  to  widen  participation,  open  access  to  new  learning  places,  support  self 
organised  learning,  and  harness  the  benefits  of  technology  and  broadcasting.  England  is 
targeting additional funding at people who are unemployed and on benefits; low-skilled adults 
in employment; offenders in custody and those supervised in the community and other groups 
at risk of social exclusion 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Particularly  in  England  and  Scotland,  formative  approaches  to  assessment,  in  a  context  of 
individualised  learning,  have  been  a  key  feature  of  compulsory  education  for  many  years. 
This  approach  ensures  that  learning  is  meaningful  for  all  pupils,  teaching  is  effective  and 
outcomes are improved. It equips teachers to fine-tune their understanding of learners’ needs 
and tailor their teaching accordingly.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

In  England,  standardised  assessments  of  certain  pupil  competences  are  organised  at  ages  7 
and 11; public examinations are organised in the final years of secondary schooling. Results 
are analysed at pupil, school and Local Authority level; a Contextualised Value Added model 
takes into account factors such as gender, mobility and levels of deprivation. This information 
provides  context  and  feedback  for  policymaking  and  public  accountability.  The  Scottish 
Survey of Achievement is a sample survey which monitors how well pupils in Scotland are 
learning, focussing each year on a different aspect of the curriculum. England and Scotland 
regularly take part in PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

Each  UK  country  has  published  its  own  lifelong  learning  strategies,  each  based  upon  a 
number of key documents.  

There will be a new framework for accrediting qualifications in England, Wales and Northern 
Ireland,  linked  to  the  European  Qualifications  Framework.  The  framework  for  higher 
education  qualifications  has  been  revised  and  is  compatible  with  the  Framework  for 
Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area. The Scottish Credit and Qualifications 
Framework (SCQF) is the lifelong learning framework which recognises academic, vocational 
and general qualifications using a scale of 1 to 12. The Credit and Qualifications Framework 
for  Wales  (CQFW)  is  an  overarching  meta-framework.  Wales  has  a  credit  system  based  on 
learning outcomes and level. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

England is undertaking a major reform of the vocational qualifications system to increase the 
attractiveness  and  relevance  of  VET.  This  includes  rationalised  system  of  qualifications  for 
ages 14-19; development of a Qualification and Credit framework; sector skills councils that 
develop  qualifications  relevant  to  the  labour  market;  development  of  national  skills 
academies;  expanded  apprenticeship  programmes.  Scotland  has  increased  apprenticeship 

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funding,  extended  support  for  people  facing  redundancy,  and  funded  trades  union  learning 
representatives to encourage workplace learning. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The  English  Higher  Education  sector  already  has  a  very  diverse  range  of  income  streams 
(multiple  streams  of  public  funding,  domestic  and  international  tuition  fees  and  university 
private revenues). Half of universities’ income is from Funding Council grants for research or 
teaching or from EU/UK student fees; half comes from other sources.  

To further diversify streams, government will match-fund voluntary donations to universities, 
and  a  special  fund  will  enable  universities  to  provide  tailored  training,  development  and 
professional support to vulnerable groups.  

The Government is investing to encourage employers and universities to co-develop and co-
fund provision for high level skills to develop Higher Education that is flexible, relevant and 
responsive  to  the  needs  of  learners  and  employers.  Enrolments  in  Foundation  Degrees  - 
flexible work-focused and demand-led qualifications – are increasing.  

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CROATIA 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4  years  old  -  year  before  start  of  comp. 
primary) 

Croatia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

54.1%03 

65.2%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

21.5%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

28.6%06 

17.0%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

8.0%02 

3.7% u 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

90.6%02 

95.4% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

- 

- 

41,9%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 %

34.9%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

16.202% 

(18.5)% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

1.8% 03 

2.2%  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

3.72%02 

4.11% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

 03

02= 2002,
sample size  

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=data lack reliability because of small 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" 

Croatia performs better than the EU average in three school related areas: Low achievers in 
reading  and  science,  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  and  Upper  secondary 
attainment.  For  upper  secondary  attainment  and  for  early  leavers  from  education  Croatia's 
performance is among the best in Europe  

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The results for early leavers from education, however, lack reliability because of small sample 
size. Participation in early childhood education in Croatia is on the other hand far below the 
EU average. 

In  the  area  of  MST  graduates  the  increase  has  been  lower  than  the  EU  average.  Higher 
education attainment in Croatia is below the EU average and has improved little since 2000. 

As  concerns  Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Croatia's  performance  is  clearly  below 
the EU average and has improved little since 2000.  

Public investment in education, as a % of GDP increased in Croatia significantly since 2000, 
but is still nearly one percent of GDP below the EU average. 

Croatia has already reached the 2010 EU benchmarks as regards early leavers from education, 
upper secondary attainment and increasing the number of MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

Croatia  encourages  the  development  towards  a  knowledge  based  society  and  economy.  The 
national  curriculum  includes  all  the  key  competences.  The  concept  of  lifelong  learning  is 
accepted  as  a  basis  of  the  education  system  for  the  purpose  of  realizing  permanent 
employability  and  active  citizenship.  The  shift  from  content-based  to  competence-based 
education has been presented to school principals and teachers in numerous plenary sessions 
and workshops. Key stakeholders are involved in the development of strategic documents. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The  quality  of  education  based  on  competences  is  set  as  a  goal  and  a  principle  of  Croatian 
education  policy.  The  new  competence-based  draft  National  Curriculum  Framework  (2009) 
includes  all  key  competences  contained  in  the  EU  Reference  Framework.  The  new  school 
curriculum Framework will be based on the National Curriculum Framework. 

The  Strategy  for  the  Development  of  the  National  Curriculum  is  competence  based  and 
promotes 
transversal  competences.  "Compulsory  democratic 
citizenship" is included as a cross-curricular topic at all levels of education as well as as an 
optional subject.  

the  acquisition  of 

the 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

A  number  of  programmes  target  different  groups  of  adults:  the  unemployed,  war  veterans, 
illiterate  persons,  young  people  with  inadequate  education,  the  disabled,  victims  of  family 
violence,  young  adults,  adults  without  primary  or  secondary  education,  senior  citizens  and 
adults with special needs, minority groups, women, etc. 

The Act on Vocational Education and Training adopted in 2009 defines a set of knowledge 
and skills necessary to meet basic needs, developing social cohesion, democratic society and 
employment.  Its  main  goal  is  to  enable  people  to  acquire  key  competences  as  well  as 
vocational competences. 

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1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Continuous professional education and training are compulsory. Experts from universities and 
NGOs  are  developing  a  project  to  reform  compulsory  teacher  training.  Professional 
supervision  is  organised  for  beginning  teachers  during  their  first  working  year.  Specialised 
training at national and regional level is organised to familiarise teachers with the changes in 
different  fields  of  the  education  system,  with  new  methods  of  active  teaching  and  learning, 
with the new modules of the curriculum and other educational topics. Teacher training is also 
offered at county level by Teacher Councils for each subject or cross-curricular subject such 
as democratic citizenship. Specialised training is offered to teachers and principals of primary 
and secondary schools and student dormitories 

The teacher training programme for VET teachers is based on competences, interdisciplinary, 
multi-functionality,  new  approach  to  teaching,  orientation  towards  pupils,  cooperation 
between  colleagues,  creativity,  individual  approach,  flexibility  of  modular  curricula, 
combination  of  the  theoretical  and  the  practical  work  and  self-development.  The  training  of 
VET teachers can be carried out in relevant companies. 

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  State  Matura  is  a  standardized  instrument  for  quality  assessment  and  improvement  in 
education, which will gradually replace admission exams at many HE institutions.  

National  exams  will  ensure  harmonization  of  pupils'  academic  achievement  nation-wide. 
Croatia participated in 2006 for the first time in the OECD PISA test. 

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies  

The strategy for adult education is aimed at developing measures, organisational and financial 
conditions  for  realizing  LLL  as  a  right  and  an  obligation  for  all  citizens;  offering  equal 
opportunities for quality learning throughout life for all; developing measures for joint action 
of  the  relevant  ministries,  social  partners  and  educational  institutions;  creating  legal  and 
professional prerequisites for comprehensive adult education as an integral part of the Croat 
education system. 

The  Croatian  Qualification  Framework  is  based  on  the  Croatian  educational  tradition,  the 
guidelines  of  the  EQF  and  the  international  regulations.  It  sets  out  clear  quality  criteria  for 
gaining a set of competences that a learner can expect to have after completing education for a 
qualification  of  a  certain  level  and  volume.  It  is  a  unified  system  that  allows  for  learning 
outcomes to be measured and compared to each other. 

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The  VET  Strategy  (2008)  is  based  on  the  principles  and  goals  of  EU  education  strategies, 
LLL  and  partnership.  The  system  is  oriented  to  learning  outcomes  and  also  guarantees 
horizontal  and  vertical  mobility.  The  strategy  is  based  on  the  concept  of  flexibility  and 
adjusting education to the labour market needs. In 2006, 13 sectoral councils were established 
in  order  to  reinforce  the  link  between  the  VET  and  the  labour  market.  They  have  been 
working on restructuring existing vocational qualifications.  

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4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

The Act on Scientific Activity and Higher Education enables HEIs to establish and perform 
LLL  activities  and  programmes.  A  number  of  universities  have  opened  up  to  LLL  centres 
catering for the needs of their communities.  

Lump-sum  financing  of  universities  with  a  mechanism  for  long-term  strategic  planning  as 
well as a greater degree of autonomy was introduced in 2007. In 2007 amendments to the Act 
of  Scientific  Activity  and  Higher  Education  introduced  significant  changes  to  the  system  of 
incentives for enterprises to invest in higher education, which facilitated the input of private 
funding.  Greater  autonomy  which  will  further  facilitate  diversification  of  income  streams  is 
planned in upcoming changes of university law. 

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ICELAND 

Iceland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4  years  old -  year before start of comp. 
primary) 

91.8% 

95.4%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

14.5% 

20.5%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

16.8%06 

20.5%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

29.8% 

24.4% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

leavers  from  education  and 

Early 
training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

46.1% 

53.6% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

29.9%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST  graduates 
(higher 
education) 

Share of females  

37.9% 

34.2%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve 

gender 
balance 

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

ICELAND 

32.6% 

38.3%07 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

29.5% 03

25.1 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

5.81% 

7.55% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Iceland performs slightly above the EU average in the school related areas: Participation in 
early childhood education, Low achievers in reading and mathematics and Early leavers from 

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education and  training.  On  Early leavers from education and training Iceland  is improving 
but still has a significantly higher share than the average in the EU. Also the share of Upper 
secondary attainment is increasing, but Iceland still performs below the EU average.  

Iceland has made progress is in increasing the number of MST graduates, however the growth 
rate  has  been  slightly  below  the  EU  average  figure.  At  the  same  time  the  share  of  the 
population with higher education attainment has also improved.  

As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Iceland has decreased its share, but from 
a high level and still performs above the EU average.  

Investment in education as a % of GDP has increased significantly since 2000, reaching one 
of the highest levels among the EU Member States. The increase in Iceland is higher than for 
the EU, therefore the gap between Iceland and EU average performance has grown. 

Iceland  performs  above  the  2010  EU  benchmark  level  on  Low  achievers  in  reading  and 
mathematics, MST graduates and Adult participation in lifelong learning.  

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

A new legislation has been adopted for all school stages as well as teacher education and the 
revision  of  curricula  for  pre-schools,  compulsory  schools  and  upper-secondary  schools  is 
ongoing.  The  revision  is  based  on  national  development  of  the  eight  key  competences.  The 
key  competences  are  a  fundamental  part  of  the  Comprehensive  National  Lifelong  Learning 
Strategy and a foundation for formal, informal and non-formal lifelong learning. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The  aim  of  the  developments  is  to  have  the  Curriculum  Guides  in  place  before  the  end  of 
2010. Teacher education is also being redesigned so as to be in line with the Comprehensive 
National Lifelong Learning Strategy (see 1.3 below). 

The revision of the curricula for the three school stages is based on national development of 
the  eight  Key  Competences  set  out  in  the  EU  Framework.  This  work  started  during  the 
summer  2008  after  the  adoption  of  the  new  law.  The  Key  Competences  will  be  continuous 
through all school stages and adult education.  

Curriculum  development  for  general  studies,  VET,  art  studies  and  special  education  will  be 
further decentralised, and schools will propose lines of study and describe their content. The 
proposed study lines have to be certified by the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. 
This  will  open  up  the  possibility  for  direct  cooperation  between  labor  market  actors  and 
schools in the creation of new study lines.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The  revised  Curriculum  Guides  will  include  provisions  for  learning  support  for  pupils  in 
special  education,  including  the  use  of  individual  curriculum  for  each  pupil.  After  the 
publication of the Curriculum Guides the focus will be on the production of learning materials 
taking  into  account  the  different  needs  of  individual  pupils  so  that  each  can  maximise  his 
abilities for the best results in preparation for adult life. 

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The government has set national targets relevant to the adult learning sector including plans to 
increase  the  number  of  people  with  upper  secondary  education,  decrease  the  drop-out  from 
upper secondary schools and provide more flexible pathways. Creating new opportunities and 
ensuring  access  for  all  individuals  to  the  education  system,  is  considered  very  important  in 
this  context.  The  policy  is  to  ensure  equal  opportunities  for  participation  in  the  knowledge 
society  for  people  that  have  for  some  reason,  e.g.  economical  situation,  dyslexia  or  other 
study difficulties, dropped out of school and wish to update their skills. 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

Teacher  education  is  being  redesigned  taking  into  account  initial-  and  in-service  training, 
school development, assessment procedures, production of learning material and support for 
schools and teachers to develop and adopt a competence based approach. The legislation from 
2008 upgrades teacher education and all new teachers must undergo five years’ study, leading 
to a master degree, instead of three years bachelors degree that was previously required.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Currently  the  assessment  of  pupils'  progress  and  competence  is  mainly  the  responsibility  of 
the  teachers  but  schools’  internal  evaluations  also  play  a  role.  National  coordinated 
examinations are held in 4th grade (9 year olds/Maths and Icelandic), 7th grade (12 year olds/ 
Maths  and  Icelandic)  and  10th  grade  (15  year  olds/  Maths,  Icelandic  and  English)  of  the 
Compulsory School.  

Iceland  has  participated  in  international  assessments,  such  as  PIRLS  and  PISA,  for  many 
years.  The  results  are  used  when  the  Curriculum  Guides  are  revised  and  for  other  policy 
developments.  In  2009  the  Ministry  offered  grants  to  Upper  Secondary  Schools  to  develop 
study  programmes  based  on  the  new  Act  on  Upper  Secondary  Schools  (no.  92/2008),  to 
prepare  for  structural  change.  The  basis  for  their  work  is  the  NQF,  the  national  Key 
Competences and the Framework of Learning Outcomes.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

A Comprehensive National Lifelong Learning Strategy is being implemented on the basis of 
new  legislation  for  all  school  stages  and  teacher  education.  An  important  part  of  the 
implementation  is  the  revision  of  the  curricula  for  the  three  school  stages.  A  new  Bill  on 
Adult  Education  will  include  provisions  for  building  bridges  between  the  system  for 
validation of non-formal and informal learning and the formal school system. This system is 
already  being  piloted  and  it  focuses  particularly  on  reaching  out  to  people  on  the  labour 
market  without  formal  qualifications.  The  goal  is  to  bring  them  back  to  VET,  recognising 
what they have learnt in the work place thus allowing them to complete their skills in order to 
attain qualification. 

The  concepts  of  NQF,  EQF  and  Key  Competences  have  been  presented  and  discussed  with 
stakeholders  preparing  them  for  their  role  in  the  structure  of  the  study  programmes.  A 
framework of Learning Outcomes has been produced to help schools to formulate their study 
programmes. The framework aims at increasing the focus of secondary education on student 
competences and encouraging schools to review and define their study programmes focusing 
on learning outcomes. 

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3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The upper secondary education system in Iceland has  been restructured  in order to promote 
the  attractiveness  of  VET.  There  is  only  one  system  in  Upper  Secondary  Education 
encompassing  both  academic  education  and  VET  and  the  new  legislation  makes  the 
integration  of  academic  and  VET  courses  more  flexible.  There  are  provisions  in  the 
legislation  for  structural  reform/changes.  Pupils  in  VET  will  have  easier  access  to  higher 
education than before and dead ends in the system are being eliminated. The new legislation, 
moreover,  gives  Compulsory  Schools  (6-16  year  olds)  the  opportunity  to  introduce  VET 
courses in cooperation with Upper Secondary Schools or with local firms for students 14-16 
years old. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

In  recent  years  the  government  has  placed  emphasis  on  decentralisation  and  increased 
autonomy of universities.  

HEIs in Iceland are either run as public, private non-profit organisations or as limited public 
companies. All HEIs both public and private that are accredited by the Ministry of Education, 
Science and Culture receive state funding through a contract with the Ministry, for teaching 
and research. Private HEIs can collect tuition fees, but public HEI´s are not permitted to do 
so. It is defined by law which additional income public HEIs can generate. There are means to 
diversify  the  income  streams  of  public  HEIs  where  they  can  i.e.  become  a  partner  in  a 
shareholding  company,  a  non-profit  organisation  or  a  limited  liability  company,  subject  to 
agreement by the Minister. 

HEIs  have  been  effective  in  reaching  out  to  mature  students  both  in  undergraduate  and 
graduate  programmes,  as  well  as  continuing  education.  The  total  number  of  registered  HEI 
students has increased significantly in recent years and the increase in percentage of mature 
students is even higher than for the younger students. As a reaction to the financial crisis the 
government has appealed to HEIs to open their doors for those who have lost their jobs. 

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NORWAY 

Norway 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

79.7% 

94.3%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

17.5% 

22.4%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 % 

15% 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

22.2%06 

21.1%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

12.9% 

17.0% b 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

95.0% 

70.1% b 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

9.8%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

26.8% 

28.6%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

37.3% 

46.2% 

24.3% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

17.1% 03 

19.3 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 % 

15% 

6.74%01 

6.55% 06 

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Norway  performs  above  the  EU  average  on  Low  achievers  in  Reading  and  mathematics 
although  the  share  of  low  achievers  has  increased  since  2000.  In  the  other  school  related 
areas: Participation in early childhood education, Early leavers from education and training 
and Upper secondary attainment, Norway performs below the EU average. There has been a 
significant increase in early childhood education, and it is now  above the average of the EU. 

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Early leavers from education and training and Upper secondary attainment Norway show a 
reduction in performance compared to 2000 even allowing for a break in the data series.  

The Adult participation in lifelong learning is among the highest in the EU and increasing.  

On  Higher  education  attainment  Norway  has  among  the  highest  shares  in  the  EU  and 
progress since 2000 has been strong. The growth in Graduates in MST since 2000 is less than 
10% and far below the average in the EU. The share of female MST graduates is below the 
EU average and the gender balance has been almost unchanged since 2000. 

Concerning  Investment  in  education,  Norway  has  among  the  highest  public  spending  on 
education compared to the average of the EU.  

Norway  performs  above  the  2010  EU  benchmark  levels  on  Adult  participation  in  lifelong 
learning; and above the 2020 EU benchmark levels on Higher education attainment and Adult 
participation in lifelong learning. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  eight  key  competences  defined  in  the  EU  Recommendation  are  defined  in  the  holistic 
learning  perspective  in  Norway.  Basic  skills  are  considered  subject  independent  and  are 
identical for different strands of education. 

1.1. Curricular reforms  

The  “Knowledge  Promotion  Reform”,  a  comprehensive  school  reform,  was  introduced  in 
2006. The reform covers primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education, including 
vocational  education  and  training  (VET).  The  focus  of  this  reform  is  the  strengthening  of 
basic  skills  and  a  shift  to  outcome  based  learning.  “Knowledge  Promotion”  is  a  curriculum 
reform where the curriculum clearly states the objectives for learning outcomes and gives the 
teacher  more  freedom  in  the  choice  of  teaching  methods.  The  new  curricula  are  based  on 
learning  outcomes  approach  and  the  Key  Competences.  The  reform  has  been  subject  to  an 
ongoing evaluation which will end in 2011.  

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

The  Norwegian  Education  Act  states  that  all  pupils  have  the  right  to  individually  adapted 
education. Pupils with special education needs have the right to individually adapted subject 
curricula.  The  teacher  has  the  responsibility  to  adapt  teaching  to  the  pupil's  capacities  and 
needs.  To  promote  integration  and  employability  of  immigrants,  the  Government  has 
introduced  compulsory  Norwegian  and  civics  courses  for  new  immigrants.  Education  at 
primary and lower secondary level is guaranteed to all adults who have this need, irrespective 
of any prior training at this level. All adults aged 25 or above who have not completed upper 
secondary education, have the right to do so.  

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The Government has proposed to reorganise the existing general teacher education program 
into  a  new  system  of  primary  and  lower  secondary  teacher  education,  split  into  two  equal 
programs: one for grades 1-7 and one for grades 5-10. Both programs have a new compulsory 
area of concentration – pedagogy and teacher knowledge of pupils – consisting of 60 credits.  

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In 2009 a new program for in-service teacher education has been implemented linked to the 
new Qualification regulation. Key competences are an essential part of the curriculum of the 
in-service teacher program which will be fully implemented in 2011. Mapping tests in reading 
have  been  introduced  to  better  identify  pupils  who  need  special  attention,  and  teachers  are 
encouraged  to  take  further  actions  if  pupils  fall  behind  in  one  or  more  basic  competence. 
Teachers are asked to inform parents about the results of the assessments.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

Results from national tests are published on a webpage celled "Skoleporten" along with data 
on resources, learning environment and completion rates.  

Norway is involved in a number of international studies, such as OECD PISA, OECD TALIS, 
IEA, PIRLS, TIMSS and ICCS aimed at evaluation of specific key competences. Results from 
the national tests give information on the variation in learning outcomes locally and are used 
toghether with the results from the international surveys as a basis for policy development.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

In  Norway  lifelong  learning  has  been  on  the  political  agenda  for  more  than  a  decade  and 
embedded  into  the  system  through  several  elements,  such  as  universal  access  to  early 
childhood education and care, a legal right to basic education, bridges between different types 
of education and training, no dead ends in mainstream education and training, arrangements 
for validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes.  

Norway  has  taken  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  EQF  and  will  develop  qualification 
frameworks linked to the EQF at the levels of initial and tertiary VET. Norway has developed 
a  qualifications  framework  for  higher  education  based  on  the  EQF  and  the  overarching 
framework for the European Higher Education Area. No decision has been made concerning 
the general upper secondary education and a fully comprehenisve NQF.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

Strengthening basic skills are intended to prepare students and apprentices for future changes 
in  the  labour  market.  All  teachers  and  trainers  are  responsible  for  enabling  students  and 
apprentices  to  develop  basic  skills  through  their  work  in  various  subjects  and  learning 
situations and within all education programs.  

Students  in  VET  programmes  have  a  much  higher  drop-out  rate  than  pupils  in  general 
programs.  In  order  to  reduce  the  drop  out  rate  pupils  at  lower  secondary  level  have  the 
possibility to try out upper secondary programs and to experience work-based learning to give 
them the possibility to develop a special interest for a subject. A certificate of practice which 
allows pupils with poor motivation to gain a formal certificate at a lower level than a crafts – 
or journeyman's certificate has been introduced.  

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

No tuition fees are allowed at state institutions for ordinary degree programmes. Tailor-made 
programs for business and industry can generate income.  

Distance education has increased greatly with the development of ICT-supported learning. In 
addition, ICT is now part of ordinary campus teaching, and since the end of 2004 all public 

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the 

and 
institutions  have 
administration, teaching and learning (LMS).  

larger  private 

learning  management  systems  for  course 

Norway Opening Universities (NU) is an agency with a mandate to stimulate the development 
of flexible lifelong learning in higher education. The main objective for NU is to strengthen 
contact between the world of work and higher education.  

The evaluation of NU will be finalised in 2009 and runs parallel to an analysis of the market 
for decentralised higher education. Both flexible (ICT-supported) learning and decentralised 
education  provide  higher  education  to  the  wider  population.  Therefore,  the  Ministry  would 
like  to  consider  the  two  modes  of  learning  in  conjunction  when  considering  further  policy-
making.  

There  is  a  system  of  admission  to  HE  on  the  basis  of  formal,  non-formal  and  informal 
learning for applicants aged 25 and above, and through the so-called v-path (for all ages) it is 
possible to gain admission to particularly adapted higher education programmes on the basis 
of an upper secondary vocational qualification alone.  

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TURKEY 

Turkey 

EU average 

EU 
Benchmarks 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary) 

11.6% 

26.7%07 

85.6% 

90.7%07 

- 

95% 

Low achievers  

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

Mathematics 

PISA study results) 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

32.2%06 

21.3% 

24.1%06 

17.0 %

15% 

52.1%06 

46.6%06 

- 

- 

24.0%06 

20.2%06 

- 

- 

15% 

15% 

Early leavers from education and training  

59.3% 

46.6% 

17.6% 

14.9% 

10 % 

10% 

(age 18-24) 

Upper secondary attainment  

(age 20-24) 

44.7%07 

47.8% 

76.6% 

78.5% 

85 % 

Increase since 2000  

- 

57.3%07 

- 

33.6%07 

+15 % 

MST 
(higher education) 

graduates 

Share of females  

31.1% 

31.1%07 

30.7% 

31.9%07 

Improve

gender 
balance

- 

- 

- 

Higher education attainment  

(age 30-34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25-64; 4 weeks period) 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

- 

12.4% 

22.4% 

31.1% 

- 

40% 

1.8 % 06 

1.8 %  

8.5% 03 

9.5% 

12.5 %

15% 

2.59% 

2.86% 06

4.91% 

5.05% 06 

- 

- 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" (weighted averages) 

Turkey  performs  below  EU  average  in  all  school  related  areas:  Participation  in  early 
childhood education, Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science, Early leavers from 
education and training and Upper secondary completion rate. However, as regards all school 
related participation rates Turkey has made significant progress since 2000. 

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Another  area  in  which  Turkey  has  made  progress  is  in  increasing  the  number  of  MST 
graduates, for which the growth rate has been clearly above the EU average. At the same time 
the Higher education attainment level is significantly lower than the EU average level.  

As  concerns  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  Turkey's  performance  has  stagnated  in 
recent years, but the participation rate remains one of the lowest in Europe.  

Public investment in education as a % of GDP has increased since 2000 in Turkey, butis still 
clearly below EU average.  

Turkey has already reached the EU benchmark of 2010 as regards the growth in the number 
of MST graduates. 

1. Policies for development of the key competences 

The  rate  of  literacy  is  still  a  problem  in  Turkey;  this  situation  is  particularly  prominent  as 
regards women (19.6% not literate). Since 2006 the country developed its provision for Key 
Competences.  Competence  Based  Modular  Education  Programmes  are  implemented  in 
schools,  are  open  to  all  kinds  of  horizontal  and  vertical  transfer  and  lead  to  a  wide  base  of 
certificate and diplomas encompassing all vocational and technical secondary education.  

1.1. Curricular reforms  

For  mother  tongue  the  education  programme  has  been  updated  in  all  grades  of  general 
education from preschool to the 9th grade by taking the level of students in consideration. For 
vocational education and training the lesson of Communication is included in the framework 
of the education programme. For foreign languages education programmes contain the same 
skills as those in Turkish. First foreign language should be B2+ level at the end of 12th grade 
and  second  foreign  language  will  be  progressively  included  as  compulsory.  In  vocational 
education foreign language subjects are included. For MST lessons are provided through all 
the  school  education  cycle  for  cognitive  development  and  mathematical,  science  and 
technology skills. For digital competence new education programmes are implemented from 
preschool  to  the 9th grade in secondary education institutions and in the scope of the SVET 
project for qualified vocational personnel. 

For learning to learn programmes are student centred to help achieve skills and information as 
well in the general as in vocational education. For social and civic competence qualifications 
are provided through the lessons of social studies on primary level, and history in the level of 
general and vocational secondary education. Initiative taking and entrepreneurship is included 
in  primary  in  the  lessons  of  Turkish,  Maths  and  sciences  with  the  "Technology  and  Design 
Lesson Education Programme", and in vocational education in new modular VE programmes 
within  SVET.  Cultural  awareness  and  expression  are  included  in  the  Visual  Arts  Lesson 
Education  Programme  of  1-8  grades  of  primary  and  in  the  education  programmes  of 
secondary and vocational education. 

1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  

Disadvantaged  groups  (early  school  leavers,  special  needs)  and  adults  (low  skilled,  aged 
workers) may participate in the courses provided within Public Education Centres and Open 
Primary  School,  be  informed  and  assisted  via  internet  Radio  and  TV  and  be  awarded  a 
diploma via distant education methods. Through the national vocational qualification system 

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to  be  established,  information,  skills  and  qualifications  will  be  acknowledged  within  a 
national framework 

1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  

The  concept  of  Support  to  Basic  Education  (TEDP),  created  in  the  frame  of  Financing 
Agreement between Turkey and the EU is to determine of teacher competencies and includes: 
General  Competencies  for  Teachers  put  into  force  in  2006,  Specific  field  competencies 
including performance, put into force in 2008, a School Based Vocational Development guide 
to support the vocational and personal development of teachers along with the determination 
of General Qualifications for Teachers and Specific Field Competencies.  

1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 

The  changes  made  in  the  structure  of  new  education  programmes  implemented  as  of  2004-
2005 included both result-oriented and process-oriented evaluation. In the evaluation carried 
out on national scale (Placement Test), process-oriented evaluation is focused on. Placement 
tests  are  performed  at  6th,  7th  and  8th  grade.  The  use  of  self-evaluation,  peer  evaluation, 
product  file  (portfolio),  observation  etc.  methods  to  observe  the  development  of  children  is 
also  stated  in  the  Regulations  on  Primary  Education  Institutions.  In  VET,  modular 
programmes which are already prepared have been designed to include both “summative” and 
“formative”  student  evaluation.  When  Vocational  Qualifications  Institute  (MYK)  starts  to 
carry out its activities, all vocational standards will be prepared by MYK, social partners and 
sectors.  

2. Development and implementation of LLL strategies.  

The lifelong education strategy has been developed towards increasing the employment skills 
of individuals in line with the requirements of a changing and developing economy and labour 
market. The purpose of “Lifelong Learning Strategy Paper” is to establish a lifelong learning 
system that can respond to the needs and expectations of the society in Turkey and to bring 
this system to a functional and sustainable status.  

Initial  works  towards  the  development  of  National  Qualifications  Framework  (NQF)  in 
Turkey  have  been  initiated  concurrently  with  the  Project  for  Strengthening  the  Vocational 
Education  and  Training  System.  Works  concerning  the  draft  of  Turkish  National 
Qualifications Framework, which is largely in accordance with the EQF and which consists of 
eight levels, have been transferred to Vocational Qualifications Institute. 

With  the  project  of  “Providing  a  Common  Understanding  on  and  Raising  Awareness  of 
Informal  Learning  in  Turkey  within  the  scope  of  Lifelong  Learning"  (2008),  the  issue  has 
been  put  forward  for  discussion  and  first  step  towards  raising  a  common  understanding  is 
taken to provide a validity and certification for informal learning.  

3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vocational Education and Training 

The  system  is  based  on  programme  type  rather  than  the  school  type  in  vocational  and 
technical education, transitions between programmes can be made. The lesson of “Promotion 
and  Guidance”  is  added  to  the  9th  grade  curriculum,  which  is  common  for  all  secondary 
education: the students are aimed to know all the sectors and occupations and to choose the 
best  occupation  according  to  their  interest  and  tendencies.  CD  and  books  promoting  the 
academic and general occupations are for free. Protocols for education establish connections 

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with  labour  market  for  the  vocational  qualifications  of  teachers  in  their  fields/occupation. 
Workforce  market  need  analyses  have  been  performed  via  cooperation  with  social 
stakeholders  and  competency-based  modular  training  system  has  been  implemented  in  the 
direction of need analyses for this labour market. 

Education  and  training  period  of  three-year  general,  vocational  and  technical  high  schools 
were gradually increased to four years in 2005-2006 education year, starting from 9th grade. 
Modular  education  programs  of  42  fields  and  197  branches  are  developed  to  be  used  at 
vocational  and  technical  education  schools  and  institutions  and  modular  education 
programmes have been gradually implemented as of 2006-2007 education year. 

4. Modernisation of Higher Education  

Turkish higher education system is consisting of one type of institutions: universities. As of 
2008, there are totally 130 universities (94 state and 36 non-profit foundations). Enrolment in 
the  foundation  (private)  universities  accounts  for  only  5.7  %  of  the  total.  A  new  funding 
mechanism  for  state-owned  universities  exists  since  2007;  it  is  a  performance-based  budget 
system.  Since  2007,  Turkey  developed  implementations  in  each  topics  of  the  Bologna 
Process. Establishment of NQF for HE should be implemented by the end of 2012. Flexible 
learning paths have been promoted via distance education programmes in various fields and in 
different HEIs. Financing model still has to be re-designed to allow for diversity of resources 
and equal opportunities and efficiency of use of the resources.  

The  major  source  of  income  of  state  universities  is  the  funds  allocated  through  the  annual 
state budget. In addition each university has three more sources of income: services such as 
patient care and contract research, student contributions and a research fund, financed by the 
state. Financial autonomy is still limited and flexibility of use very little. 

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