Continuity, consolidation and change : towards a European era of vocational education and training.
Date: 2009-06-22
Institutions: Cedefop
Subjects: comparative education, comparative study, education policy, educational system, teaching quality, vocational training

Continuity, consolidation
and change

Towards a European era 
of vocational education and training

Cedefop Reference series; 73
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009

A great deal of additional information on the European Union 

is available on the Internet.

It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu).

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: 

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009

ISBN 978-92-896-0585-4

© European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 2009

All rights reserved.

Designed by Rooster Design - Greece

Printed in the European Union

The European Centre for the Development 
of Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union's 
reference centre for vocational education and training. 
We provide information on and analyses of vocational 
education and training systems, policies, research and practice.
Cedefop was established in 1975 
by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75.

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea), GREECE
PO Box 22427, 551 02 Thessaloniki, GREECE
Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020
E-mail: info@cedefop.europa.eu
www.cedefop.europa.eu

Aviana Bulgarelli, Director 
Christian Lettmayr, Deputy Director 
Juan Menéndez-Valdés, Chair of the Governing Board 

Foreword

Despite the current economic crisis, the skills of Europeʼs workforce remain
crucial to its economic recovery. They are needed to respond to the new
economic structures that will emerge. They are needed to fill the new jobs
that will be created, to stimulate innovation and develop new goods and
services. Economic uncertainties strengthen Europeʼs need to anticipate
more effectively its future skill needs over the long, and not just the short
term.

Beyond the current downturn, there remains strong evidence that by 2020
there will be more and different jobs in the EU than there were in 2006.
However, the content and structure of these jobs may be very different.
Many new jobs are expected to require the highest qualifications levels
including those acquired through vocational education and training (VET).
Most job opportunities, however, will be for those with medium level, especially
vocational qualifications at upper and post-secondary level. In 1996, 31 %
of jobs needed low level or no qualifications. By 2020, this proportion is
expected to fall to around 18 %.

Europe already has too many unskilled people. Around 78 million – a
third of its working age population – have no or only the lowest level of
qualifications. At their meeting in Bordeaux in November 2008, ministers
responsible for vocational education and training together with the European
Commission and European social partners underlined that investment in
skill development remains paramount. Consequently, this period should be
seen as an opportunity not only to restructure the economy but also to find
ways for people to renew their skills throughout their working lives.

Against this background, Cedefop has analysed the challenges and
progress made in reforming VET systems in line with the mandate received
in the Helsinki communiqué. On the eve of 2010, when the current Lisbon
strategy will come to the end, this report also takes a brief look into the
future.

VET is undergoing systemic change strongly supported by European
policy cooperation. Work on common European tools and principles has
advanced significantly. The recommendation on a European qualifications
framework is a major step. As a main pillar of lifelong learning, VET has a
crucial role to play in Europeʼs effort to raise the skills of its citizens.

In their efforts, Member States have been supported by the European
Commission and social partners at all levels. Cedefop, too, has played its
part collecting information and analysing progress made to provide evidence
and insights to inform policy-making. This cooperation has made the objective
of raising the skill levels of the workforce a truly European endeavour.

Recognising that common principles, tools, and policy learning help to
tackle challenges they share, countries expressed their wish to continue
their cooperation on VET, also beyond 2010 knowing there remains a long
way to go. Barriers to lifelong learning for adults and older workers still need
to be brought down. More people need to be attracted to VET. Demographic
change points to a substantial fall in VET graduates, precisely the type of

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

2

people the labour market will need in the future. New financing methods are
needed to increase investment in human resources through a fair sharing
of costs. Guidance services need strengthening to support further learning,
career management, smooth transitions between jobs and encourage labour
market participation. Quality of VET needs to be improved and its links with
the labour market strengthened.

With forthcoming recommendations on a European quality assurance
framework and a credit system for VET, focus will shift to implementation.
Ministers for Higher Education were invited to the meeting in Bordeaux to
strengthen cooperation in VET.

Effective implementation requires high-quality analysis, information and
expertise to support and complement action. Cedefop will continue to support
the  Copenhagen  process  in  line  with  its  mandate  in  the  Bordeaux
communiqué. In 2010, when the European Union devises its new priorities
for the post-2010 Lisbon strategy and updated strategic framework on
education and training, Cedefop will take stock of Copenhagen process
achievements since 2002. This will be done in close cooperation with the
Belgian Presidency, the European Commission, Cedefopʼs reference network
(ReferNet), social partners and Directors-General for Vocational Education
and Training.

Since launching the Copenhagen process in 2002, European VET policy
cooperation has seen remarkable progress. However, much remains to be
done.

Europe must continue to build up the skills of its people, consolidate
progress made to date, and continue to modernise what, how, when and
why we learn. As this report shows, Europe cannot afford to do otherwise.

Aviana Bulgarelli
Cedefop
Director

João Delgado
European Commission
Head of Unit
Vocational Education and Training Policy, 
Leonardo da Vinci Programme  

Acknowledgements

3

Acknowledgements

This report is the result of a team effort. Cedefop would like to thank Maria
Hrabinska, Gyorgy Ispanki, Patrycja Lipińska, Katja Nestler, Irene Psifidou,
Eleonora Schmid, Alex Stimpson and Manfred Tessaring who carried out
the analysis and drafted various chapters of this publication.

The analyses presented in this report rely for a great part on the input
and advice of Cedefopʼs experts Steven Bainbridge, Tina Bertzeletou, Jens
Bjørnåvold,  Sandra  Bohlinger,  Mara  Brugia,  Pascaline  Descy,  Torsten
Dunkel,  Jose  Manuel  Galvin Arribas,  Rocío  Lardinois  de  la Torre,  Mika
Launikari,  Isabelle  Le  Mouillour,  Clara  Mughini,  Tormod  Skjerve,  Peter
Szovics, Guy Tchibozo, Philippe Tissot, Jasper Van Loo, Loukas Zahilas
and Alena Zukersteinova.

Cedefop also acknowledges the contributions and advice of:

•  the Directors-General for Vocational Education and Training who provided
self-assessment, at policy level, on progress in implementing national
VET priorities, as set in the Copenhagen process,

•  the  European  network  of  reference  and  expertise  (ReferNet) who
submitted  detailed  information  on  VET  policy  implementation  in  their
countries and provided valuable comments on the final draft of the report.

The report benefited from discussions with members of the Enlarged
Coordination Group Policy Reporting and the ReferNet Core Group who
shared their expertise generously. Support from the European Commission,
as well as the French Presidency, in particular Françoise Divisia, is grate -
fully acknowledged.

Cedefop  would  like  to  thank  the  European  Training  Foundation  for

providing complementary information on EU candidate countries.

Special  thanks  go  to  Sarah-Elson  Rogers  who  was  involved  in  the

preparation of this report in the initial phase.

Thanks  are  also  due  to  Walter Atzori  for  his  input  into  analysis  and
drafting as well as to Ismini Vouyouka and Catherine Wintrebert for their
assistance in preparing the report for print.

The main outcomes of the report – summarised in the flyer In the finishing
straight: from Copenhagen to Bordeaux – were presented at the informal
meeting of the European Ministers for Vocational Education and Training,
Ministers for Higher Education, European Commission and European social
partners, held on 26 November 2008 in Bordeaux. The final report was
presented during Cedefopʼs Agora conference ʻContinuity, consolidation
and change: towards a European era for vocational education and trainingʼ,
held on 16 and 17 March 2009 in Thessaloniki.

NB: Countries listed in brackets throughout the text are examples and not all-inclusive.

Table of contents

Foreword                                                                                                                                            1

Acknowledgements                                                                                                                          3

Executive summary
Towards a European era of vocational education and training                                                          11

CHAPTER 1
Lisbon – Copenhagen – Bordeaux                                                                                                17
1.1.   Education and training key in policies for growth and jobs                                                17
1.2.   Modernising VET: from commitment to implementation                                                    18
         1.2.1.    Implementation under scrutiny                                                                             20
1.3.   Paving the way to the future: an updated policy framework                                              20
1.4.   Aligning national and European priorities                                                                          21

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges                                                                                                   22
2.1.   Changing skill needs                                                                                                         23
         2.1.1.    Future employment trends in sectors, occupations and qualifications                 23
         2.1.2.    Skill mismatch in future labour markets                                                                27
2.2.   Demographic change                                                                                                        28
         2.2.1.    Decline and ageing of populations                                                                        28
         2.2.2.    Migration – Compensation for demographic decline                                            29
         2.2.3.    Fewer students and graduates in VET                                                                 31
         2.2.4.    The need to increase productivity and sustain competitiveness                          34
2.3.   Flexicurity – a response to globalisation, ageing and technological innovation                35

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market                                                                                      38
3.1.   Skills and employment – the current situation                                                                   38
         3.1.1.    Too many youngsters unemployed                                                                       39
         3.1.2.    Better integration of women into the labour market                                              41
3.2.   Building systems for early identification and anticipation of skill needs                            43
         3.2.1.    Methods, approaches and tools                                                                           43
         3.2.2.    Difficulties and obstacles in Member States                                                         44
         3.2.3.    Towards a European approach                                                                             44
3.3.   Strengthening the role of labour market actors in VET                                                     45
         3.3.1.    Involving social partners in VET decision-making and administering                   45
         3.3.2.    Involving companies in VET provision                                                                  46
         3.3.3.    The role of collective bargaining                                                                           48
         3.3.4.    Challenges                                                                                                            49

Table of contents

5

CHAPTER 4
Governance and financing of VET                                                                                                 50
4.1.   Governance of VET systems                                                                                             50
         4.1.1.    Institutional reforms providing legislative and institutional frameworks                50
         4.1.2.    Administrative and management reforms to improve efficiency                           51
         4.1.3.    Focus on VET outcomes and accountability to improve quality                           52
         4.1.4.    Cooperation and partnerships between stakeholders                                          52
4.2.   VET financing                                                                                                                    53
         4.2.1.    Public expenditure on education and training                                                       53
         4.2.2.    Companiesʼ expenditure on CVT courses                                                            55
         4.2.3.    Financing arrangements and changes in funds allocation                                    56
         4.2.4.    Cost-sharing policies and mechanisms – raising additional resources                56
         4.2.5.    Innovative financing mechanisms – policies to improve efficiency 

and equity                                                                                                             58
4.3.   Challenges and obstacles                                                                                                 60

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET                                                                                                 61
5.1.   Features and policies                                                                                                        61
5.2.   Attractiveness of VET – trends and incentives                                                                  62
         5.2.1.    Participation in initial VET and access to higher education                                  62
         5.2.2.    Participation in and provision of continuing vocational training                            65
         5.2.3.    Reasons why Europeans participate or not in lifelong learning                            66
5.3.   Incentives to increase attractiveness                                                                                69
         5.3.1.    Motivating people to participate in VET                                                                69
         5.3.2.    Incentives to increase VET provision of employers                                              71

CHAPTER 6
Increasing access to VET by addressing equity                                                                          72
6.1.   Opening new ʻgatesʼ for early school leavers                                                                    73
6.2.   Low-skilled and older persons                                                                                           74
         6.2.1.    Upskilling the low skilled                                                                                       74
         6.2.2.    Addressing needs of older workers                                                                      75
6.3.   Special initiatives for vulnerable groups                                                                            77
         6.3.1.    Students with special educational needs                                                              77
         6.3.2.    Migrants                                                                                                                78
         6.3.3.    Ethnic minorities                                                                                                   78
         6.3.4.    Prisoners                                                                                                               79

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET                                                                                                       80
7.1.   Easing transfer between VET pathways                                                                           80
         7.1.1.    Strategic developments                                                                                        80
         7.1.2.    Mobility of VET students                                                                                       83

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

6

7.2.   Lifelong guidance                                                                                                              84
         7.2.1.    Implementing lifelong guidance systems                                                              85
         7.2.2.    Broadening access to guidance                                                                           86
         7.2.3.    Strengthening quality of guidance                                                                        87
         7.2.4.    Supporting acquisition of learning and career management skills                       87
         7.2.5.    Strengthening structures for guidance policy and system development              88
7.3.   Validation of non-formal and informal learning                                                                  88
         7.3.1.    Implementation and acceptance                                                                           89
7.3.2.Challenges and the way forward                                                                                       91

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET                                                                                                                93
8.1.   Quality of VET − a sine qua non                                                                                        93
         8.1.1.    Systemic changes and strategies to improve quality of VET                                93
         8.1.2.    Different quality cultures in a common frame                                                       93
         8.1.3.    Assuring quality by defining expected outcomes                                                  95
         8.1.4.    Towards output-based steering                                                                            95
         8.1.5.    Monitoring and evaluating performance: how and by whom                                96
         8.1.6.    Fostering evaluation cultures and common learning                                            98
         8.1.7.    Quality assured certification                                                                                 98
         8.1.8.    Standards as a quality and steering tool                                                              99
         8.1.9.    Against the odds                                                                                                   99
8.2.   Teachers – Guarantors of quality                                                                                    100
         8.2.1.    VET teachers and trainers at the heart of VET reforms                                      101
         8.2.2.    Towards a strategic vision of teachersʼ and trainersʼ roles 

and professional development requirements                                                      101
         8.2.3.    Raising qualification levels                                                                                 102
         8.2.4.    Towards a more consistent system for initial, induction 

and in-service training                                                                                         103
         8.2.5.    Making the teaching profession more attractive                                                 103
         8.2.6.    Addressing vocational and pedagogical skill mismatches                                  104
         8.2.7.    Overcoming inertia                                                                                              105

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools                                                            106
9.1.   The shift to learning outcomes                                                                                        106
9.2.   Europass and the role of national Europass centres                                                       108
         9.2.1.    Europass making a difference to individuals                                                      109
         9.2.2.    Europass: successful present, prominent future                                                109
9.3.   The European qualifications framework: towards national implementation                     110
         9.3.1.    Convergences and divergences in emerging national 

qualifications frameworks                                                                                    110
         9.3.2.    EQF beyond European borders                                                                          114
9.4.   European proposal for the European credit system for VET                                           114
         9.4.1.    ECVET: opportunities and challenges                                                                 114
         9.4.2.    Opening the way to ECVET                                                                                115
9.5.   Challenges and further steps                                                                                           116

Table of contents

7

CHAPTER 10
Statistics and indicators – the way forward                                                                                118
10.1. Achievements at European level – Improving education and training statistics              118
10.2. Developments in the European statistical framework                                                      119
         10.2.1.  Better use and improvement of statistical sources                                             119
         10.2.2.  New developments needed                                                                                119
10.3. Achievements in Member States                                                                                     120
         10.3.1.  New political and statistical tools for VET statistics                                            120
         10.3.2.  Remaining gaps                                                                                                  121
10.4. Ways forward in VET statistics                                                                                        121

CHAPTER 11
VET beyond 2010                                                                                                                          123
11.1.  Looking ahead beyond 2010                                                                                           123
11.2.  Perennial issues                                                                                                              123
11.3.  Towards better use of evidence                                                                                       125
11.4.  Issues not on the menu                                                                                                   126
11.5.  Research for future VET policy-making                                                                           126

List of abbreviations                                                                                                                     128

Annexes
1. Status of national qualification frameworks in 32 European countries                                     130
2. Performance in five EU benchmarks                                                                                        135

References

136

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

8

List of tables, figures and boxes

Tables

1.     GDP, employment and labour productivity growth (annual averages, %)
2.     Expenditure on CVT 1993-2005 (% of labour costs)
3.     Strategies to facilitate transfer between VET pathways
4.     Objectives of EU instruments
5.     Europass instruments: statistics and practice
6.     Types of emerging national qualifications frameworks
7.     The added value of NQF/EQF developments: countriesʼ points of view
8.     Preconditions for successfully implementing EQF: countriesʼ points of view

Figures

1.     Employment trends by broad sectors, EU, Norway and Switzerland 

1996-2020 (net change in millions)

2.     Demand by broad occupational groups, EU, Norway and Switzerland, 

2006-2020 (change in millions)

3.     Qualification requirements by level of qualification, EU, Norway and Switzerland, 

1996-2020 (millions and %)

4.     Expansion and replacement demand by level of qualifications, 

EU, Norway and Switzerland, 2006-2020 (million jobs)

5.     Employment trends by level of qualification and broad sectors, 

EU, Norway and Switzerland, 1996-2020 (million jobs)

6.     Total requirement (in millions), 2006-2020, by broad occupational groups 
and level of qualification, EU, Norway and Switzerland (million jobs)

7.     Growing median age (years) of the European population, baseline scenario, 

2000, 2015 and 2030

8.     Education level of recent third-country born migrants aged 25 to 64

by ISCED level, 2007 (%)

9.     Education level of third-country-born (non-EU-born) migrants aged 25 to 64

by ISCED level, 2007, EU (%)

10.     Projected number of students aged 15 to 24 in initial pre-/vocational 

and vocational streams, by ISCED level, EU-27, 2005-2030 (thousands)

11.     Projected numbers of graduates aged 15 to 24 in pre-/vocational and 

vocational streams, by ISCED level, EU-27, 2005-2030 (thousands)

12.     Ratio between the number of IVET graduates and employment 
in 2020 (horizontal axis) and 2030 (vertical axis), 2005=1
13.     Change in Competitiveness indicator between 2004 and 2008
14.     Employment rate of population aged 15 to 64 years, 

2000 and 2007 (annual average in %)

15.     Change in employment of population aged 25 to 64 years 

by highest education level, 2000 and 2007 (change in %)

16.     Unemployment rates of young and older persons 
by highest education level, EU–27, 2000-2007 (%)
17.     Unemployment rate of population aged less than 25 years 

by highest education level, 2007 (annual average in %)

18.     Female employment rates aged 15 to 64, 2000 and 2007 
compared with male employment rates, 2007 (%)

34
56
81
106
108
111
112
113

24

24

25

25

26

26

29

30

31

32

32

33
35

38

39

39

40

41

Table of contents

9

19.     Gender gap in the labour market by highest education level

(people aged 25 to 64), 2007 (%)

20.     Training enterprises with an agreement on CVT, EU, by size (%)
21.     Total public expenditure on secondary education by programme orientation, 

2005 (% of GDP)

22.     Expenditure on public and private educational institutions in secondary education, 

2005 (EUR PPS per student)

23.     Expenditure on CVT courses as % of total labour costs (all enterprises), 

1999 and 2005 (%)

24.     Expenditure on CVT courses by size class, EU, 1999 and 2005 

(% of total labour costs; all enterprises)

25.     Students enrolled in vocationally oriented upper secondary education (ISCED 3),
2002 and 2006 (% of all students enrolled in upper secondary education)
26.     Growth in enrolments in education and training by programme orientation 

1998-2006, EU–27

27.     Students enrolled in upper secondary education programmes giving access 

to both labour market and higher education (ISCED 3A and ISCED 3B programmes), 
2006 (% of all students enrolled in ISCED 3 programmes)

28.     Employees (all enterprises) participating in CVT courses by gender, 

2005 (% of all employees)

29.     Participation in continuing vocational training in Member States, 

1999-2005 (% of employees in all enterprises)

30.     Ratio of enterprises providing CVT compared to all enterprises, 1999-2005 (%)
31.     Non training enterprises as % of all enterprises by reason for non training, 

EU– 27, 2005 (%)

32.     Distribution of reasons of participation in non-formal education and training 

by education level, EU*, 2007 (%)

33.     Selected reasons of participation in non formal education and training 

among medium skilled adults aged 25 to 64, 2007

34.     Participation of low skilled and older persons in lifelong learning, 2007 (%)
35.     Low-skilled adults as a percentage of total working age population 

(aged 25 to 64), 2007 (%)

36.     Participation of employees in CVT courses organized in enterprises 

by age group, 2005 (%)

37.     Number of students enrolled in initial VET participating in Leonardo da Vinci 

programme and total number of participants in Leonardo da Vinci programme, 
2000-2007

42
48

54

54

55

55

63

63

64

65

65
66

67

67

68
75

75

76

83

Boxes

1.     Opportunities, access and solidarity in 21st century Europe
2.     From Copenhagen to Bordeaux
3.     Global financial crisis
4.     Early identification of skill needs at European level
5.     Future skill needs for the ʻgreen economyʼ
6.     Preparation for ageing for 2008-2012 – the Czech National Programme as an example
7.     Basic data on migration
8.     The Leitch review of skills in the UK
9.     Promoting apprenticeship – country examples

10.     Country examples: institutional reforms

18
19
22
23
27
29
30
43
46-47
50-51

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

10

11.     Country examples on innovative financing mechanisms
12.     Centres of vocational excellence in England
13.     The Skillnets approach – Ireland
14.     Opening up pathways and linking VET and higher education
15.     Globalisation and Australian VET
16.     Highlights of recent guidance studies in Europe
17.     Better quality as a driver of VET reforms – country example
18.     Building comprehensive quality assurance approaches based on CQAF
19.     Using sets of indicators to evaluate performance in IVET – country example
20.     Using targets and indicators as management tool in IVET – country example
21.     Towards an evaluation culture
22.     Critical friends from outside – External evaluation through peer review
23.     Better evidence for policy making
24.     Incentives to attract/retain VET teachers
25.     Making teachers and trainers technically and methodologically fit
26.     Building on the past
27.     Informing workforce training policies
28.     From ʻtrial and errorʼ to sound evidence
29.     Five future issues for VET research

59
69
71
82
84
86
93
94
95
96
97
97
103
104
104
123
124
125
127

Executive summary

Towards a European era 
of vocational education and
training

Vocational education and training (VET) is crucial
to Europeʼs efforts to reposition itself in the global
economy and respond to the challenges posed
by ageing societies. To provide the knowledge
and  skills  base  for  Europe  to  prosper,  31
European ministers responsible for VET, the
European Commission and European social
partners agreed a policy agenda for VET in the
Copenhagen process in 2002. Cedefopʼs biennial
reviews have monitored progress within the
Copenhagen process. In line with the mandate
received  in  the  Maastricht  and  Helsinki
communiqués 2004 and 2006, Cedefop presents
this third review of progress in European VET.
The report is based in particular on a survey of
the Directors-General for Vocational Education
and Training and country reports provided by
Cedefopʼs network of reference and expertise
(ReferNet).

Continuity

The need to continue enhanced
cooperation
There is general agreement and commitment of
countries to continue the enhanced cooperation
in VET beyond 2010. While developments within
the Copenhagen process have been rapid until
this stage, some VET challenges contributing to
the European target making lifelong learning a
reality for all still lie ahead.

Success of the open method 
of coordination: national priorities are
aligning with European priorities
Analysis  has  shown  that  the  Copenhagen
process led countries to focus on VETʼs quality,
attractiveness, good governance, and efforts to

meet  target  dates  to  implement  common
European principles and tools. Countries have
worked on these areas emphasising equity and
relevance to the labour market, but also made
efforts to increase excellence in VET. Cedefopʼs
analysis and countriesʼ self-assessment show a
close alignment of national priorities and the
European agenda. Although progress varies, a
European VET area is emerging. This confirms
that implementation of the open method of
coordination in education and training to reach
Lisbon targets is successful.

Securing adequate financial resources and
ensuring efficiency, equity and
sustainability
Securing adequate financial resources and
ensuring their efficient allocation, equitable
distribution and sustainability is a prerequisite for
successful implementation of VET strategies.
However, investment in VET is not always seen
as a priority.

At secondary level of education, Member States
spend more of their GDP on general programmes
than VET. The third European continuing vocational
training survey (CVTS3) revealed that companiesʼ
expenditure on CVT as a percentage of total labour
costs even decreased from 1999 to 2005. Only
eight Member States, one third of the countries
participating  in  the  survey,  experienced  an
increase.

In view of limited public resources and a
downward trend in companiesʼ spending on CVT,
countries continue to develop, experiment and
implement various cost-sharing approaches, such
as securing a certain level of investment in
training through levies and providing financial
incentives  for  companies:  tax  incentives,
vouchers, learning accounts, saving schemes,
low  cost  loans.  These,  in  general,  prove
successful in raising provision of, as well as
participation  in,  learning  and  encouraging
demand-led behaviour. However, each of these
financing  mechanisms  carries  a  risk  of

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

12

deadweight effect and specific target groups
might be difficult to reach. In response, countries
adjust  existing  financing  arrangements  or
introduce new schemes to target better groups;
combine different financing instruments into a
single model to reach a larger share of the
population; or harmonise various financing
instruments to ensure their complementarity and
synergy.

The future success of European tools, among
other factors, will much depend on the ability to
sustain these initiatives and their permanence.
One key issue for the period 2008-10 is to what
extent framework developments in the Education
and training 2010 and Bologna processes can
be better coordinated. Undoubtedly, Europass,
EQF and ECVET foster policy learning and drive
national change.

Consolidation

Significant progress in developing
European tools
Developing common European tools, principles
and guidelines is central to the Copenhagen
process. Since 2006 Member States have made
remarkable progress in implementing them.

The European qualifications framework (EQF)
is now broadly accepted by most countries.
Almost all countries are rapidly developing
national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) and
link their qualifications to the EQF. Countries with
established national frameworks are deepening
their implementation and bringing them in line
with the Bologna framework and EQF. Even
outside the EU/EEA area, the EQF is increasingly
regarded as a reference point.

Europass is now used in all 32 countries
participating  in  the  Copenhagen  process,
addressing half a billion citizens. Its success is
demonstrated by its steadily increasing use.
Cedefopʼs Europass website is now available in
26 languages (http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu).
By December 2008, 4.2 million curricula vitae
were completed online and another 5.7 million
CV  templates  downloaded.  Well  above
expectations.

Credit systems are not yet commonplace in
European VET systems. Bringing the European
credit system for VET (ECVET) to maturity still
requires  substantial  work  and  investment.
Promising results are expected from pilot projects
testing this instrument.

Validation of non- and informal learning is a
priority in almost all countries. In some, individuals
can already have their learning experience
identified, assessed and validated. Others are
still in a discussion and planning phase.

Launching reforms of education and
training based on learning outcomes
Increasingly, European tools are part of a VET
policy mix. As a result of the European initiatives
on Europass, EQF and ECVET, general and
comprehensive reforms of national education
systems have intensified. These mainly focus on
increased orientation towards learning outcomes.
The shift to emphasising learning outcomes is
influencing the content and organisation of
education  and  training  in  Member  States,
including such areas as teacher training, or
curricula student assessment.

Generally, there is an obvious trend towards
output-based steering through educational and/or
occupational standards, external exams and
performance-based funding. However, this
process is slow; in particular continuing vocational
training still seems predominated by input-
orientation.

Balancing excellence and equity 
to increase VET attractiveness
Social exclusion inhibits both social cohesion and
economic growth. Many European policies and
visions advocate a social role for VET. Countries
have launched many initiatives easing access of
various vulnerable groups to better and more
appropriate education. Improving access to
education for all is a guiding principle highlighted
in national laws and strategic documents of all
countries following the Lisbon and Copenhagen
agendas.

Although there are some differences in levels
and  priorities  of  actions,  the  main  issues
addressed by Member Stares are fairly similar.
Most new initiatives aim primarily at specific target
groups, especially early school leavers and other
youngsters not in education, employment or
training (NEET), as well as low-skilled, older

workers  and  migrants.  To  ensure  good
accessibility of VET for all, thereby guaranteeing
various pathways as well as individualisation and
flexibility has gained in importance.

However, VET cannot be considered as a
social  panacea  to  combat  all  problems  of
exclusion or lack of social cohesion. Further, there
is also a need to focus on more excellence in
VET and attract more talent to this sector. To
increase the attractiveness of VET, countries
have put considerable emphasis on developing
new vocational training and retraining courses,
establishing well-equipped training centres,
validation  centres  or  external  examination
commissions; introducing higher educational and
post-secondary programmes to reduce dead-
ends and increase the level of qualifications;
progressively developing counselling offices and
organising networks.

Quality of VET among top priorities
Quality is an ingredient of accountability in
decentralised governance schemes. Quality
assurance is increasingly understood as an
objective as well as a means to ensure that:
•  VET programmes are more attractive and

effective, equitable and efficient;

•  learners, employers and education providers
within a country and across borders trust in the
value of learning outcomes − a prerequisite for
common European tools and mechanisms to
succeed.
Policy measures focus on:

•  implementation and further development of
quality assurance mechanisms in line with the
common quality assurance framework;

•  quality in VET as an objective and integral
component of VET reforms and strategies.
However,  developing  coherent  national
approaches across educational sectors and levels
that strike the right balance between trust and
control is still a challenge for many countries.
More holistic and systematic approaches towards
quality assurance in VET will be necessary in the
future. Little is known about quality assurance in
particular 
forms
(apprenticeship).

in  alternate 

training 

Executive summary

13

VET teachers increasingly recognised as
key agents of change and quality
Countriesʼ policy priorities increasingly include
competence development of VET teachers. There
is a trend towards more strategic and coherent
approaches which better integrate different forms
of competence development (initial, induction,
in-service training, and on-the-job learning).
However, there is still room for improvement.

Despite differences in initial training of VET
teachers and trainers, qualification requirements
and opportunities for ongoing professional
development,  countries  share  a  common
concern: how to keep their technical competences
and  teaching  skills  updated.  Competence
frameworks,  standards,  certification  and
registration processes also impact on teachersʼ
and trainersʼ competence and qualification
requirements, and require speedy adjustment.
Although increased attention has recently been
paid to in-company trainers, more needs to be
done to support their professional development
and fully equip them for their role as learning
facilitators at the workplace. Strategies to improve
their status require increased efforts to provide
them with formal qualifications. Peer learning at
policy level can help define how informally
acquired  competences  through  on-the-job
learning  can  be  transformed  into  a  formal
qualification.

Lifelong guidance – the need to bridge
policy and practice
Member  States  have  strengthened  their
commitment to establishing holistic lifelong
guidance systems at national and regional levels
across sectors with high equity, efficiency and
quality. National lifelong guidance policy forums
have been set up to improve policy- and decision-
making, to build leadership capacity, to manage
reform and innovation processes and to rethink
demanding 
cooperation
cross-sectoral 
arrangements.

However,  the  evidence  base  to  support
guidance policy- and decision-making is still rather
weak and fragmented in most countries. The
particular role of research in bridging policy and
practice will have to be further reinforced. A future
challenge will be to find ways to promote formal
and informal dialogue and debate among all key

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

14

players  and  stakeholders  on  current  and
emerging issues related to lifelong guidance.
Measures to involve citizens with diverse needs
more systematically in design, evaluation and
management of guidance services should also
be developed. Further, the professionalisation of
guidance practitioners will have to continue as
they have a crucial role in guidance service
delivery and development.

Governance and financing between
decentralisation and a shift to output
management
Through delegating responsibilities to regional
or local levels and giving more autonomy to VET
providers, countries aim to achieve more effective
decision-making and better responsiveness of
VET. There is a clear and continuing trend
towards reinforcing regional and local networking
and learning partnerships among stakeholders.
A range of new bodies have been set up and
responsibilities of different VET actors (re)defined.
Changes  aim  particularly  at 
improving
interministerial  cooperation,  strengthening
institutional arrangements at regional, sectoral
and  local  levels  as  well  as  broadening
participation and increasing the role of various
stakeholders in VET – social partners, business,
non-governmental organisations, teachers and
trainers, learners.

To  ensure  administrative  efficiency  and
strengthen VET capacity some countries promote
mergers  of  VET  providers,  such  as  school
networks or combined labour market and training
centres. This often results in high-quality, multifield
units providing both initial and continuing VET,
and serving specific groups (SMEs). To improve
management of VET several countries try to
reduce bureaucracy and steer the behaviour of
lower level authorities and/or providers by results
rather than complex rules. Policies often focus
on output management.

For the future, countries recognise in particular
the  need  to  ensure  better  coordination  of
policies/practices developed by different bodies,
greater stability of governance structures as well
as continuity of policies.

More accurate evidence as an inevitable basis
for monitoring of progress
The Council agreement on a coherent framework
of indicators and benchmarks to follow up the
Lisbon objectives in education and training has
created favourable conditions for monitoring
progress in education and training in the EU.
However,  work  on  development  of  its  VET
dimension considering its political weight needs
to be speeded up.

European benchmarks for education and
training are recognised as a powerful instrument
contributing to fulfilment of European economic
and social targets. Eleven Member States as well
as Turkey, Iceland and Norway would be in favour
of extending the current benchmarks or adding
new ones specifically to cover VET.

Despite recent improvements of statistical
sources, remaining shortcomings include data
gaps (on, for example, mobility of VET students,
finance, teachers and entrants), better exploitation
and provision of data. The ongoing attempt to
revise ISCED97 needs to be closely followed to
support and ensure the correct and complete
mapping  of  various  dimensions  of  VET
programmes.

Change

Increasing the role of VET in the present
economic crisis
Education and training are seen more and more
as important instruments which in the medium-
to longer term are indispensable to contribute
significantly to managing the present global crisis.
They generate human capital with relevant skills
and  hereby  improve  competitiveness  and
adaptation to new demands. Research has
provided  clear  evidence  of  the  significant
contribution of education and training to economic
growth,  productivity  and  social  cohesion.
Therefore, stronger investment in education and
training becomes a sine qua non.

Executive summary

15

There is evidence that collective bargaining
can play an important role in promoting CVT.
Thus, 
fewer  companies  with  collective
agreements in the period 1999 to 2005 is of
concern. To have more enterprises with collective
agreements could increase CVT provision.

Many initiatives have been taken to improve
cooperation  between  VET  institutions  and
companies and encourage integration of learning
with  working,  in  particular  apprenticeship.
Nevertheless, some countries still have relatively
weak links between labour market and education
and face difficulty to involve employers in VET
policy-making and securing work placements for
students/apprentices.

Making lifelong learning a reality – 
why Europeans do not participate more 
in lifelong learning
Progress towards the European benchmark –
12.5 % of adults aged 25 to 64 participating in
lifelong learning in the EU by 2010 – is slow, with
stagnating or decreasing participation in some
countries. In 2007, only 9.7 % of Europeans in
this age group participated in lifelong learning.
Of enterprises, 40 % did not provide any
training to their employees in 2005. Almost three
quarters of them did not see any need for training.
To meet their skill needs, non-training enterprises
predominantly recruit people with the required
skills and competences (54 % in the EU) rather
than invest in CVT on their own. One in three
European enterprises surveyed said that lack of
time constituted an important reason why training
was not provided.

In  contrast,  and  according  to  the  adult
education survey (2007) the main reasons for
adults to participate in non-formal education and
training, including continuing vocational training,
were to perform their job better and/or improve
their career, to increase their knowledge/skills in
an 
to  acquire
interesting  subject  and 
knowledge/skills useful for everyday life.

Further analysis is necessary to transfer these
and other findings of two most recent Eurostat
surveys  into  overarching  lifelong  learning
strategies.

Changing skill needs – be more efficient 
by increasing skills match
The relaunched Lisbon strategy and other policy
documents, most recently a Communication of
the Commission on New skills for new jobs
(European Commission, 2008i), stresses the
need to anticipate changing skill needs and
shortages in Europe. Cedefopʼs forecast shows
that skill needs are increasing in all sectors and
occupations. Further, replacement demand in
the next decade will amount to a high number of
job  openings  –  particularly  for  people  with
intermediate and vocational qualifications. It is
therefore necessary to raise overall skill levels
and continue to anticipate emerging skill needs
and skill gaps in European labour markets.
Forward-planning mechanisms focusing on jobs
and skills, identification and avoidance of skill
mismatch, gaps and shortages and responding
to future skill and competence needs have also
been defined as a priority in the Bordeaux
communiqué (European Commission, 2008a).
VET is fundamental for providing European
citizens with the skills the labour market and more
broadly the knowledge-based society needs. To
respond to the needs in this area is one of the
most important challenges for VET in the next
decade. Early identification and anticipation of
skills  in  a  changing  social  and  economic
environment is a very important push factor.

New challenges of the labour market – 
how to manage turbulences
Involving stakeholders is crucial if VET is to
respond effectively to labour market needs. Many
countries  have  a  longstanding  tradition  of
cooperation with social partners. The others (in
particular newer Member States) still face the
challenge of improving the links with labour
market actors.

In recent years, countries have implemented
many measures to involve social partners, sectors
and  enterprises  in  VET  decision-making,
managing and provision. Several bodies have
been established or enlarged and social partnersʼ
functions have been expanded. Social partnersʼ
participation  ranged  from  formulating  VET
strategies and policies and anticipation of future
labour market skills to assessment of learnersʼ
competences.

The world economic crisis is likely to have
negative impact on VET cost-sharing mechanisms
as countries try to balance their public finances
(particularly newer Member States). Some VET
cost-sharing mechanisms in countries could be
reduced  or  abandoned.  However,  reduced
capacity to finance VET could stimulate greater
attention to effectiveness, efficiency, quality and
equity of cost-sharing schemes.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

16

Imagine, create, innovate – a new shift 
of VET policies
The  2009  European  year  of  creativity  and
innovation (EYCI) aims to raise awareness of the
importance of creativity and innovation as key
competences for personal, social and economic
development. It has acquired a special meaning
in the current economic slowdown – the message
it should convey is that Europe should not react
to the crisis by reducing investment in skills and
innovation. The need to focus on development
of innovation and creativity in VET strategies is
a major VET challenge for the future.

VET cost-sharing mechanisms – an efficient
policy tool to improve private financing and
participation in VET
Further research into the functioning of VET cost-
sharing approaches is needed. Better results
could be achieved once the governance of VET
cost-sharing mechanisms across countries
improves and more evaluation and monitoring
data become available.

CHAPTER 1

Lisbon – Copenhagen – Bordeaux

1.1.  Education and training  –
key in policies for growth
and jobs

A  commitment  to  high  quality,  open  and
transparent VET systems – this marked the start
of the Copenhagen process in 2002 (European
Commission, 2002a). As a main pillar of the
Education and training 2010 work programme
(Section 1.2), it set out to contribute to the Lisbon
agenda (Council of the EU, 2000). It is based on
consensus that Europeʼs future competitiveness
depends on knowledge-based growth, not in
competing based on low labour costs (Potočnik,
2008). Education and training was identified as
one of the policy levers in the Lisbon strategy.

To achieve the objectives in areas that fall
within their competence, such as employment,
social protection, social inclusion, education and
training and youth, Member States agreed to use
an open method of coordination (OMC) and ʻsoft
lawʼ measures. They jointly identify and define
objectives to be achieved, establish measuring
instruments (statistics, indicators, guidelines),
use benchmarking to compare performance and
exchange best practices. The Commission has
a surveillance role (1).

After initial moderate results, the Lisbon
strategy was relaunched in 2005. At the end of
2007, the European Council emphasised the
need to keep up the pace of change despite
progress, especially as global economic growth
was  expected  to  slow  down  (European
Commission, 2007a and 2007i.

More and more recognised as a key driver in
achieving  Europeʼs  economic,  social  and
environmental objectives, education and training
has  moved  to  centre  in  the  Lisbon  strategy
(Council of the EU, 2007c and 2007e). Businesses
need proficient and creative people to research,
innovate, grow and compete in globalised markets.

The  European  Commissionʼs  integrated
guidelines  for  countriesʼ  national  reform
programmes for growth and jobs (European
Commission, 2007e) stress the necessity to
invest in human capital and to improve the skills,
adaptability and employability of workers. The
spring European Council 2008 (Council of the
EU, 2008c) reiterates the need to invest more
effectively in creativity and high quality education
throughout  peopleʼs  lives  based  on  sound
future  skills
assessment  of  Europeʼs 
requirements. Considering the progress achieved
in  the  Education  and  training  2010  work
programme and the European Pact for Youth,
(Council of the EU, 2008c, 2008e and 2008f), it
calls for a more determined effort to:
•  drastically reduce early school leaving and
provide young people with adequate skills;
•  improve  achievements  of  learners  from
disadvantaged  groups  or  with  migrant
backgrounds;

•  attract more adults, notably low-skilled and
older workers, into education and training.
The European Social Fund with its 2007-13
priority  for  human  capital  supports  these
objectives (2). To tackle areas where progress
has been low, the renewed social agenda is
combining  competitiveness,  solidarity  and
sustainability through common reinforcing policies
(European Commission, 2008g).

The EU has also launched a comprehensive
initiative to help design better employment,
education  and  training  policies  and  inform
individual  career  choices.  It  includes  a
comprehensive assessment of skills requirements
up to 2020, as requested by the 2008 Spring
European Council, based on a Cedefop forecast
(see  Chapter  2).  The  effectiveness  of  the
measures  under  this  new  initiative  will  be
evaluated for the first time in 2010.

(1)  See Europa – glossary: http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/

(2)  See http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/esf/fields/

open_method_coordination_en.htm [cited 16.1.2009].

education_en.htm [cited 18.1.2009].

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

18

Box 1.  Opportunities, access and solidarity

in 21st century Europe

Europe’s renewed social agenda − a package of 19
policy initiatives in seven priority areas:
(a)  children and youth – tomorrow’s Europe;
(b)  investing in people: more and better jobs, new

skills;
(c)  mobility;
(d)  longer and healthier lives;
(e)  combating poverty and social exclusion;
(f)  fighting discrimination and promoting gender

equality;

(g)  oppportunities, access and solidarity on the global

scene.

Three interrelated goals that are equally important:
(cid:129)  creating opportunities: generating more and better

jobs and facilitating mobility;

(cid:129)  providing access: all Europeans should have access
to education and skills development throughout
life;

(cid:129)  demonstrating solidarity: fostering social inclusion

and integration.

Source: European Commission, 2008g.

As the 2008 global financial crisis also hit
Europe, the European Commission developed
an  economic  recovery  plan  (European
Commission, 2008c). It calls for increased, not
just maintained investment in research and
development and in education and (re)training.
The 
a
plan 
comprehensive set of policies and strategies
which the EU and Member States agreed in 2008
(see Chapter 2).

complements 

recovery 

In 2010, the current Lisbon strategy will come
to an end. In the finishing straight, focus is on
implementation of this policy package to improve
the qualifications of European citizens (European
Commission, 2007b and European Commission
2008g).

1.2.  Modernising VET: 

from commitment to
implementation

VET plays a key role in providing the skills,
knowledge and competences needed in the
labour  market.  Recognising  its  value,  the
ministers responsible for VET, the European
Commission and the European social partners
committed themselves to making Europeʼs VET
the best in the world (Copenhagen declaration,
European Commission, 2002a). They agreed to
make the diverse VET systems and qualifications
more transparent, effective and attractive through
common priorities, cooperation and regular
progress reviews. To create a European VET
area,  it  was  essential  to  improve  quality,
information and guidance and recognition of
peopleʼs skills and competences. Common tools,
reference levels, mechanisms and principles were
seen as effective ways to achieve this goal.

As part of the Lisbon agenda, the European
Council agreed a roadmap and five benchmarks
to make Europe a reference for education and
training through access for all to high quality
systems  which  open  up  to  the  wider  world
(Council of the EU, 2001 and 2003b; European
and
Commission, 
comprehensive lifelong learning strategies were
to be in place by 2006. As a main part of the
overall  work  programme,  the  Copenhagen
process contributes to making lifelong learning
a reality and promotes educational, occupational
and geographical mobility.

2002b).  Coherent 

Progress has been reviewed biennially. The
2004 review led to setting European and, for the
first time, also national priorities. It was also
agreed to take the social partnersʼ ʻframework of
actions  for  the  lifelong  development  of
competences and qualificationsʼ (UNICE (3) et
al., 2002) into account.

The Maastricht communiqué (2004) and the
joint interim report of the Commission and the
Council  (Council  of  the  EU,  2004c)  gave
momentum 
to  developing  a  European
qualifications framework (EQF) and a credit
system for VET (ECVET). It also underlined the

(3)  Now BusinessEurope.

CHAPTER 1
Lisbon – Copenhagen – Bordeaux

19

need to ensure VET teachersʼ and trainersʼ
competences as key for successful VET reforms
and to improve the evidence base for VET policy-
making. Countries agreed to make their VET
pathways more flexible and responsive to learner
and labour market needs, reinforce partnership
approaches and improve investment in and
incentives for VET.

Reaffirming the 2004 Maastricht priorities, the
Helsinki communiqué in 2006 put particular
emphasis on quality and attractiveness of VET
and good governance. It set clear target dates
(2010) for implementation of the agreed common
tools.  To  keep  momentum  and  ensure
implementation, focus, continuity and reaching
out to all involved in VET were identified as key.
As  already  evident  from  the  Finnish
Presidencyʼs and Cedefopʼs 2006 review, the
voluntary and bottom-up cooperation process
triggered significant developments. Still rather
diverse in 2004, two years later national progress
in VET was aligning with the shared policy
agenda. Strategic approaches were emerging to
tackle interlinked VET policy areas. Stakeholders,
notably  social  partners,  were  becoming
increasingly involved in steering and governing
VET. Progressively, countries used common tools
and principles to support policy development.
Already in 2006, NQFs were moving to the
forefront of the debate in many countries.

The French Presidencyʼs and Cedefopʼs 2008
review confirm this trend and point at the rapid
development since 2005-06. The joint effort to
develop an EQF based on learning outcomes is
influencing governance and organisation of VET.
The common tools and principles, which were
developed with Cedefopʼs initiative and support,
foster cooperation and coordination across
sectors and policy areas. Adoption of the EQF
(European Council and European Parliament,
2008) provides an opportunity to clarify the role
of VET in relation to other forms of education and
training.

The need to ensure the quality and relevance
of  education  and  training,  to  analyse  and
anticipate skill developments, to validate the
knowledge, skills and competences people
acquire outside formal education and training,
notably at work, and to support (potential) learners
through  comprehensive  lifelong  guidance

approaches have become transversal themes,
as the 2008 joint progress report of the ʻEducation
and training 2010ʼ work programme proves
(Council of the EU, 2008d).

Box 2.  From Copenhagen to Bordeaux

Copenhagen declaration 2002
(cid:129)  strengthen the European dimension;
(cid:129)  improve transparency, information and guidance

systems;

(cid:129)  recognise competences and qualifications;
(cid:129)  promote quality assurance.

Maastricht communiqué 2004: national and 
EU-level priorities
(cid:129)  put Copenhagen tools into practice;
(cid:129)  improve public/private investments;
(cid:129)  address the needs of groups at risk;
(cid:129)  develop progression and individualised paths;
(cid:129)  strengthen planning and partnerships;

identify skill needs;

(cid:129)  develop learning methods and environments;
(cid:129)  expand teachers’ and trainers’ competences;
(cid:129)  EQF, ECVET; improve VET statistics.

Helsinki communiqué 2006
(cid:129)  improve image, status, attractiveness of VET;

good governance;

(cid:129)  develop further, test and implement common tools

by 2010;

(cid:129)  more systematic mutual learning; more and better

VET statistics;

(cid:129)  take all stakeholders on board.

Bordeaux communiqué 2008
(cid:129)  implement tools and mechanisms;
(cid:129)  raise quality and attractiveness;
(cid:129)  improve the links between VET and the labour

market;

(cid:129)  strengthen cooperation arrangements.

Recognising the value of cooperation on
common priorities, countries wish to continue
their joint work through the open method of
coordination. Acknowledging  its  value,  the
Bordeaux  communiqué  (2008)  advocates
increasing its efficiency and effectiveness and
promotes improved links with other education

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

20

sectors. VETʼs value and achievements should
be made more visible in the overall education
and training framework.

The  focus  of  the  communiqué  is  on
implementation. By 2010, countries should relate
their national qualification systems to the EQF,
as stated in the respective recommendation
(European Council and European Parliament,
2008). The implementation period for the Council
recommendations on ECVET (see Chapter 9)
and a new European quality assurance reference
framework (EQARF) (European Commission,
2008l and 2008m) is expected to be longer.

In areas where progress is lagging behind,
efforts need reinforcing. VET needs to become
more attractive and equitable. Its quality needs
to be improved further, its links with the labour
market need strengthening. All parties subscribing
to the communiqué underlined the necessity to
encourage investment in the ʻdown-timeʼ (see
Chapter 2).

Work on guidance and counselling which is to
support citizensʼ more varied and flexible working
and  learning  paths  got  new  impetus  (see
Chapter 7). The new impulse to step up mobility
for learners in VET is part of a large-scale initiative
which aims at making learning abroad the rule
rather than the exception (European Commission,
2008o; see Chapter 7) (4).

The communiqué also encourages the initiative
of European universities to engage more in
continuing training, open up to more diverse
groups of learners and to adapt learning to the
needs of adults (European University Association,
2008). To bring higher education and VET closer
together, European ministers of both sectors, for
the first time, met in Bordeaux.

The continued commitment to improve the
capacity to forecast, anticipate and match skills
and labour market needs, specifically supported
by the UK jointly with Denmark, the Netherlands,
Finland and Sweden, is a further step towards a
concerted regular comprehensive assessment
of future skill needs (see above and Chapters 2
and 3).

(4)  Several studies and projects on mobility in VET have been
carried out upon initiatives by the European Parliament. See
Cedefop;  Lipińska,  P.  et  al.  (2007),  Section  6.4. A  report
drafted  by  a  high  level  group  also  includes  quantitative
targets: for VET these would be just over 1 % of VET trainees
in 2012 and 3.5 % in 2020 (European Commission, 2008o).

1.2.1.  2010 − Implementation under

scrutiny

Concluding, the Copenhagen process has been
very successful so far. However, development in
education and training takes time. Real impact
and fruit of current reforms will be visible only in
the  medium  to  longer  term.  Continuity  and
consolidation  of  achievements  so  far  are
paramount in the coming years. But, in times of
crisis, it is important not to lose sight of the long-
term  objectives  but  to  keep  the  course  and
proactively drive the change towards recovery.

In 2010, implementation will be under scrutiny.
This year will mark the end of the 2000-10 Lisbon
strategy for growth and jobs. A large-scale
evaluation is to be expected, as the EU will need
to devise its new strategy for Europe.

Also  the  current  work  programme  for
education and training and, as one of its major
strands, the Copenhagen process, will come to
an end. At the 2010 ministerial meeting in Bruges,
where the first initiative for the Copenhagen
process was taken, its effectiveness will be put
to the test.

1.3.  Paving the way 

to the future: an updated
policy framework

With its communication on an updated strategic
framework for European cooperation in education
and training (European Commission, 2008h), the
European Commission has taken an initiative to
bridge current and future policy cooperation. It
suggests combining:
•  a limited set of long-term strategic challenges
to be addressed from the lifelong learning
perspective in all education and training sectors
in the period up to 2020; with

•  more specific objectives to focus on in shorter-

term blocks.
The proposal also includes revised and new
benchmarks. The framework should be flexible
to allow work to continue and adjust to future
emerging issues and future strategy for Europe.
Policy cooperation might therefore focus on the
following priorities:
•  make lifelong learning and learner mobility a

reality;

CHAPTER 1
Lisbon – Copenhagen – Bordeaux

21

Guidance and counselling has received much
attention, as countries are aiming to establish
more holistic approaches. In many national
contexts,  work  on  guidance,  together  with
validation of prior learning is linked to an increasing
emphasis on access to lifelong learning, mainly
for adults and, in particular, disadvantaged groups.
Validation and access are high on the policy
agenda in all countries.

More  and  more,  countries  are  using
comprehensive approaches and different policy
mixes to address challenges. Increasingly,
European tools and principles are part of these
policy mixes. They are thus both a policy priority
in their own right and a method to tackle other
challenges. In some cases, work on national
qualifications  frameworks  (NQFs)  is  also
presented as a method to improve access to
lifelong learning, or to promote validation of non-
formally acquired competences. Although nearly
all countries are working on NQFs, these were
not necessarily included in the priority list; most
likely, because the survey included a specific
section on progress in implementing EQF/NQFs.
Countriesʼ current priorities are aligning with
the priorities established in Maastricht and
Helsinki. While the Directors-General reports tend
to be very closely aligned to the Copenhagen
priorities, ReferNet country reports present a
somewhat more differentiated picture. The first
usually focus more on the strategic objectives,
while the latter often provide deeper insight into
the specific objectives, the measures taken to
achieve them and the obstacles which hamper
progress.

•  improve the quality and efficiency of provisions

and outcomes;

•  promote equity and active citizenship;
•  improve innovation and creativity, including

entrepreneurship.
The Bordeaux communiqué is consistent with
this framework. Both aim to develop excellence
and ensure all learners can develop the key
competences needed. Both accentuate the need
to foster creativity and innovation, promote
entrepreneurship and language learning in VET.
They also share the goal to improve policy
cooperation and strengthen common learning.

1.4.  Aligning national and
European priorities

In Cedefopʼs survey, Directors-General for VET
were asked to assess progress in the priority
areas as they saw it. Most reported progress in
quality assurance since 2006, a third claim to
have advanced significantly since then. This
strong emphasis is also reflected in countriesʼ
policy priorities as reported by the Directors-
General and Cedefopʼs ReferNet (2008).

In two thirds of the countries, assuring quality
in VET is among the top policy priorities. The
proposed recommendation on a European quality
assurance reference framework in vocational
education (EQARF) ties in with this increasing
focus. This goes hand in hand with growing
attention on teachers and trainers. Interestingly,
however, the self-assessment indicates significant
progress only in some countries.

A third claim to have progressed considerably
is making VET more relevant to labour market
needs.  As  the  detailed  analysis  confirms
(Chapters 3 and 4), stakeholders have been
involved on a broader level and measures to
improve information on countriesʼ skill needs have
been stepped up. Analysis of policy priorities also
indicates that reinforcing the links between VET
and the labour market is top of the agenda.

CHAPTER 2

Main socioeconomic challenges

The scale of current economic and social change,
the strategic goal of transition to a knowledge-
based society requiring higher and different kinds
of skills, globalisation, demographic pressures
resulting from an ageing population, climate
change and its consequences for all spheres of
life are all challenges which require a new
approach to VET as an integral part of the
European lifelong learning strategy.

These persisting challenges are currently
overshadowed by a global financial crisis turning
into  a  severe  economic  crisis,  affecting
production,  trade,  consumption,  and  in
consequence labour markets and prosperity.

Education and training are seen as more and
more important instruments which in the medium
to longer term are indispensable to contribute
significantly to managing the present global crisis

Box 3.  Global financial crisis

The crisis that started in the US at the end of 2007 has
sent shock waves around the globe and spread very
rapidly to the world economy and financial markets,
including European ones.

Inevitably, the financial crisis is increasingly affecting
the ‘real’ economy – with impacts on individuals,
households and businesses. Economic growth has slowed
sharply and in some EU Member States, unemployment
has begun to increase for the first time in several years.
Recent economic forecasts expect zero growth and
risks of contraction for the EU economy in 2009, with
unemployment rising by some 2.7 million in the next
two years, assuming that no corrective actions are taken
or are successful. Also, in future, financial market
conditions will remain fragile, and are likely to be tighter
for longer than expected. The euro area and several
Member States were already in recession in 2008.

The turmoil has prompted action at many levels, by
national governments, the European Central Bank and
the Commission. All have been working closely together
to protect savings, maintain a flow of affordable credit
for businesses and households and put in place a better
governance system for the future.

On 26 November 2008, the European Commission
responded to this situation by proposing A European
economic recovery plan(European Commission, 2008c)
which has two key pillars and is based on one underlying
principle.

The first pillar is a major injection of purchasing power
into the economy, to boost demand and stimulate
confidence. The Commission proposed to Member States

and the EU to agree on an immediate budgetary impulse
amounting to EUR 200 billion (1.5 % of GDP), to boost
demand in full respect of the Stability and Growth Pact.
The second pillar rests on the need to direct short-
term action to reinforce Europe’s competitiveness in the
long term. The plan sets out a comprehensive programme
to direct action to ‘smart’ investment. Smart investment
means investing in the right skills for tomorrow’s needs.
The fundamental principle of this plan is solidarity
and social justice. It is stressed that EU action must be
geared to help those most in need, to work to protect
jobs through action on social charges and to immediately
address the long-term job prospects of those losing their
jobs, including addressing the needs of those who cannot
yet use the Internet as a tool to connect.

Issues of the economic and financial situation also
dominated the European Council meeting in autumn
2008. Moreover, global actions were undertaken, on top
of the G 20 Summit (Washington, 15 November 2008)
to address the problem.

As a response to the financial crisis, Member States
are increasingly using the possibilities offered by the
recently revised EU State aid rules. Over the past 25
years, the overall level of EU State aid has fallen from
more than 2 % of GDP in the 1980s to around 0.5 % in
2007. But the financial crisis may reverse the trend. EU
governments already rushed to spend billions of euros
in emergency aid in 2008 to save troubled banks and
companies, and they are also prepared to spend more
on stimulus packages.

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

23

by generating human capital with relevant skills
and thereby improving competitiveness and
adaptation to new demands. Most recently, this
was explicitly stressed in the communication on
New skills for new jobs which also calls for better
anticipation of changing skill needs (European
Commission, 2008i).

2.1.  Changing skill needs

As already mentioned in Chapter 1, identification
and anticipation of skill needs is high on the
European political agenda. Forward-planning
mechanisms  focusing  on  jobs  and  skills,
identification and avoidance of skill mismatch,
gaps and shortages and responding to future skill
and competence needs have been defined as a
priority area in the Bordeaux communiqué (2008).
Similarly, Integrated guidelines for growth and
jobs 2008-10 (European Commission, 2007c)
identified anticipation of skill needs and mismatch
as crucial to ensure inclusive labour markets and
matching their needs. This need has also been
reflected by the EU Council in its resolution on
New skills for new jobs (November 2007; Council
of the EU, 2007d). As follow-up, the European
Commission presented a communication on New
skills for new jobs in December 2008 (European
Commission,  2008e),  which  provides  a
comprehensive overview and proposals for action
to anticipate future skill needs at European and
national levels.

2.1.1.  Future employment trends 
in sectors, occupations and
qualifications

Europe has experienced considerable structural
change over past decades resulting in continuing
shifts away from the primary sector (mainly
agriculture) and traditional manufacturing towards
services and knowledge-intensive jobs. Although
carried out before the economic crisis, Cedefopʼs
first pan-European forecast (5) of occupational
skill needs for 2006-20 suggests this structural
change will remain a key feature in the coming
decade (Cedefop, 2008i).

(5)  The forecast covers EU Member States (except Bulgaria and

Romania), Norway and Switzerland.

Box 4.  Early identification of skill needs 

at European level

In the recent past, some new activities and initiatives
on early identification of skill needs were carried out
at European level. Cedefop developed a first pan-
European forecast of skill needs and will present a
complementary forecast of skill supply to identify
potential labour-market imbalances in the course of
2009. This is accompanied by a broader assessment
of different types of skill mismatch. Another Cedefop
initiative explores the possibility to use employers’
surveys as a tool for identification of skill needs in
Europe. The Directorate-General for Employment
launched a comprehensive sectoral analysis of
emerging competences and economic activities in
the EU covering 16 sectors sensitive to restructuring
and skill needs. The new Commission initiative ‘New
skills for new jobs’ introduced within the renewed
social agenda (European Commission, 2008g) called
for further steps to anticipate future needs at European
level. Cedefop, supported by experts of its network
Skillsnet, has played an active role by supporting the
European Commission and Member States in this
endeavour from the very beginning.

In the reference scenario, European countries
expect almost 20 million jobs to be created
between 2006 and 2020. This is despite losing
almost three million jobs in the primary sector
and 800 000 in manufacturing. The distribution
and  transport  sector,  including  hotels  and
catering,  will  create  more  than  4.5  million
additional jobs; employment in non-marketed
services, including health and education, is
projected to grow at a similar rate. The best
prospects for employment lie in business and
related services with more than 14 million jobs
being created by 2020 (Figure 1).

Despite a significant decrease in employment,
the primary sector (with a total of almost 8.7
million jobs) and manufacturing (more than 33
million jobs) will remain in 2020 important areas
of employment and crucial components of the
economy. However, skill requirements for jobs in
these and the other sectors will change.

In 2006, almost 77 million of the 204 million
employed people in Europe performed high-
skilled non-manual jobs such as management,

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

24

Figure 1.  Employment trends by broad sector, EU, Norway and Switzerland, 1996-2020 

(net change in millions)

NB: EU without Bulgaria and Romania. Sectors according to NACE.
Source: Cedefop, 2008i.

professional work or technical support of those
activities. Demand in these occupations is
expected to increase further. This is also true for
elementary occupations. However, even in areas
where employment is expected to fall there will
still be significant numbers of job openings, thus
creating a need to provide adequate education
and training. This is reflected in estimates of
replacement demand by occupation (Figure 2).

While the projection suggests job losses for
several occupational categories, in particular for
clerks and some skilled manual occupations, in
all cases these losses are more than offset by
the estimated need to replace most of those
retiring or leaving the labour market for other
reasons. Of course, the nature of those jobs and
their skills requirements is changing.

Figure 2.  Demand by broad occupational groups, EU, Norway and Switzerland, 2006-2020

(change in millions)

NB:  EU without Bulgaria and Romania. Occupations according to ISCO.
Source: Cedefop, 2008i.

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

25

Figure 3.  Qualification requirements by level of qualification, EU, Norway and Switzerland,

1996-2020 (million jobs and %)

NB:  EU without Bulgaria and Romania. Qualification according to ISCED.
Source:  Cedefop, 2008i.

Figure 4.  Expansion and replacement demand by level of qualifications, EU, Norway and

Switzerland, 2006-2020 (million jobs)

NB:  EU without Bulgaria and Romania.
Source:  Cedefop, 2008i.

Qualification requirements (6) of most jobs will
experience a dramatic increase. The total net
increase of employment (expansion demand) in
Europe between 2006 and 2020 comprises
around 20 million additional jobs at the highest

(6)  Educational attainment/formal qualification according 
to ISCED. Low = ISCED 0-2; medium = ISCED 3+4; 
high = ISCED 5+6.

qualification level and, further, 13 million jobs at
medium level, which are mostly vocational
qualifications. On the contrary, the number of
jobs for those with low qualifications will fall by
more than 12 million. In 2020, 31 % of jobs will
need high qualifications, and 50 % medium
qualifications. The demand for low qualifications
will fall from a third in 1996 to less than 19 % in
2020 (Figure 3).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

26

Figure 5.  Employment trends by level of qualification and broad sectors, 
EU, Norway and Switzerland, 1996-2020 (million jobs)

NB: EU without Bulgaria and Romania.
Source:  Cedefop, 2008i.

Figure 6.  Total requirement by broad occupational groups and level of qualification, 

EU, Norway and Switzerland, 2006-2020 (million jobs)

NB:  EU without Bulgaria and Romania.
Source:  Cedefop, 2008i.

In addition to new jobs created, over the period
2006-20 around 85 million jobs will become avail-
able  to  replace  jobholders  leaving  the  labour
market  for  retirement  or  other  reasons.  This
replacement demand will accelerate due to demo-
graphic change and will involve all qualifications.
Almost half of all these jobs (almost 42 million) are
expected to require medium-level qualifications,
which traditionally include vocational qualifications.

For another 21 million jobs high qualifications will
be necessary to replace those leaving the labour
market.

Total job openings – expansion and replacement
demands taken together – will amount to around 55
million for medium qualifications – 52 % of the total
105 million job openings – requiring in particular
vocational qualifications. Another 41 million job
openings  are  expected  to  require  higher

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

27

qualifications. As many of the leavers with low
qualifications will not be replaced, total job openings
for this group will amount to less than 10 million
(Figure 4).

Cedefopʼs forecast has shown that high-level
qualifications will be mostly required in the service
sector, while medium qualifications will be highly
represented in all sectors – increasingly in the
service sector. The number of jobs with low
qualification requirements will be decreasing
rather evenly across all sectors except for some
service sectors (Figure 5).

Similar  developments  are  expected  for
qualifications required in occupational fields.
However, formal qualification requirements are
also  expected  to  increase  in  elementary
occupations (Figure 6). Further analysis is needed
on the underlying reasons, such as whether this
is really due to rising skill requirements in these
ʻsimpleʼ jobs, or whether it reflects a certain
degree of ʻoverqualificationʼ.

Box 5.  Future skill needs for the ʻgreen

economyʼ

Which generic and specific skills are new and emerging
in ‘green jobs’? How to develop and make education
and training systems responsive to continuously
changing requirements? These are some of the
questions in the context of education and training
policies needed to cope with climate change and
sustainable development (a).

Climate change and sustainable development are
increasingly seen as a major issue by policy-makers,
social partners and society at large. Adaptation and
mitigation of climate change has remained top priority
– also in times of the financial crisis. It brings new
challenges for educational systems and labour market
requirements. Shortages of skilled workers in this area
are apparent in several key sectors including energy,
construction, manufacturing and transport. The
challenge for training systems is not so much to identify
new professions in this field but rather to redefine
existing job profiles across numerous – if not all –
sectors and occupations of the economy, and the skills
required, for example, for increasing energy efficiency,
renewable energy implementation, reduction of carbon
dioxide emissions and protection of biodiversity.

(a)  Cedefop started, in 2008, work on investigating new skills in

‘green’ jobs.

Cedefop also calculated alternative scenarios
–  a  negative  and  a  more  positive  one  –  to
encapsulate different likely paths of economic
and structural developments. Which of these
scenarios will become more likely – in particular
given the current financial crisis and the expected
economic recession in the next few years –
cannot yet be answered (7).

2.1.2.  Skill mismatch in future labour

markets

Skill mismatch is both a complex and a pervasive
problem in Europe. Research shows that for the
majority of workers in Europe, some imbalance
between the skills they possess and the skills
demanded in the workplace exists. It is important
to recognise that not all skill imbalances represent
real problems. Overeducation occurring early in
the career, if it does not persist, may be seen as
a natural part of the matching process which is
remedied by mobility to better matching jobs. For
other groups on the labour market, however, there
are  more  serious  consequences.  The
combination of rapid change in technology and
workplace organisation and insufficient updating
of skills for ageing low-skilled workers contributes
to skills obsolescence, putting these workers at
risk of job loss and social exclusion. High-skilled
migrants  may  find  themselves  trapped  in
situations where their skills are not fully utilised.
Skill mismatch not only has detrimental effects
on job satisfaction and motivation, but also implies
that  societies  are  wasting  valuable  human
resources. More research on these issues can
provide policy-makers with valuable insights into
shaping and implementing innovative policies
and measures aimed at preventing or addressing
skill mismatch problems (8).

Given the trends towards increasing skill
requirements in all sectors and occupations, there
are  concerns  about  potential  mismatches
between labour force education and skill levels
on the one hand, and job requirements in the
labour  market  on  the  other.  Workers  are

(7)  Cedefop  intends  to  update  its  forecasts  every  two  years,
starting  in  2009. These  updates  foresee  inclusion  of  new
data, improvement of specific methods and the subsequent
gradual prolongation of the forecast period.

(8)  To contribute to a better understanding of skill mismatch,
Cedefop has recently launched a new four-year research
programme.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

28

increasingly more likely to perform different tasks
and jobs during their working lives. Consequently,
they need to be supported to cope with these
transitions by a series of measures, including
continuing training and guidance.

At present, some regulatory barriers to realising
a single European labour market exist, such as
insufficient comparability and recognition of
qualifications and restrictions on the transfer of
pensions and social benefits. This does not allow
for an efficient matching of labour market needs
and hampers effective solutions to resolve skill
gap problems. Removing these obstacles will
complement Member Statesʼ efforts to promote
better use of skills and contribute to alleviate and
prevent skill mismatches.

In response to identified needs and policy
priorities,  the  European  Commission  in  its
communication of 26 November 2008 New skills
for new jobs: better matching and anticipating
labour market needs, which is closely linked to
the package of measures for growth and jobs
and which complements the European economic
recovery plan, proposed a series of actions to
match skills with vacancies, organise skills
assessments on a permanent basis, pool the
efforts of Member States and other international
organisations, and develop better information on
future needs.

The new skills for new jobs agenda aims to
improve monitoring of short-term trends and to
develop tools for better matching of skills and job
vacancies on the European labour market,
including better information on needs in the EU
in the medium and long term, with regularly
updated projections of future labour market trends
(done by Cedefop) and analysis of skills needs
by sector. Moreover, the Commission will help
Member  States  and  regions  and  all  actors
involved in upgrading and matching skills by
mobilising existing Community policies and funds,
especially the European Social Fund (European
Commission, 2008e).

Concluding, education and labour market
policies will face enormous challenges to cope
with structural change, and occupational and
sectoral mobility needs. This includes adapting
workforces and skills to new requirements by
retraining and continuing training – in particular
of adults and people at risk of unemployment and

those in precarious sectors and occupations.
Implementation of lifelong learning strategies and
policies to reconcile flexibility and security take
on a new dimension. To improve human capital
and employability upgrading skills will be essential
especially  with  the  financial  crisis  adding
exceptional unpredictability to the future of the
world economy (European Commission, 2008e).

2.2.  Demographic change

As a result of changing demographic features of
the EU population, and in particular the baby
boomers moving to retirement age, working age
populations will decline considerably in the
coming years and decades.

From a worldwide perspective, Europe will be
the first continent to face a population decline and
severe population ageing in the near future
compared to other continents. But other continents
and non-European countries will follow similar
paths in the longer term, some even at higher
speed (Tessaring, forthcoming).

2.2.1.  Decline and ageing of populations
Although age structures differ between countries,
the  demographic  challenge  is  apparent
everywhere. In the next 40 years, the average
age will increase all over Europe and despite
increasing participation rates, labour supply will
decrease.

According to recent Eurostat forecasts (2008b),
the EU–27 population is projected to increase from
495 million on 1 January 2008 to 521 million in
2035, and thereafter gradually decline to 506
million in 2060 (9). From 2015 onwards, deaths
will outnumber births, and hence natural population
growth will cease. From this point onwards,
positive net migration will be the only source of
population growth. However, from 2035 positive
net migration will no longer be able to compensate
for negative natural demographic change, and the
population is projected to start falling.

(9)  Eurostatʼs Europop2008 ʻconvergence scenarioʼ is based on
the population on 1 January 2008 and on the assumption
that  fertility,  mortality  and  net  migration  will  progressively
converge between Member States in the long run. Alternative
assumptions in a different conceptual framework would yield
different results.

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

29

Figure 7.  Growing median age (years) of the European population, baseline scenario, 

2000, 2015 and 2030

Source:  ESPON project 3.2, spatial scenarios and orientations in relation to the ESDP and cohesion policy, October 2006.

Further and due to persistently low fertility rates
and increasing longevity, the EU–27 population
will continue to grow older. The share of the
population aged 65 years and older will rise from
17.1 % to 30.0 % in 2060.

The aging process, however, will not affect all
countries in the same way. Spatial scenarios
show considerable demographic variations not
only from one country to another but also within
single countries. Figure 7 shows that, by 2030,
regions with the highest median age will be found
in northern Spain and Italy, Portugal, and central
Europe.

On working age population (age 15-64),
Eurostat forecasts are even more pessimistic.
By 2060, the working age population (15-64) of
the EU will fall by almost 50 million even if net

immigration continues similar to historical levels.
Without immigration, the working age population
in 2060 would be around 110 million lower than
today. Given the increasing number of people
aged 65 and older, old-age dependency will
increase: employed persons will have to finance
a larger number of elderly people.

Against this backdrop, migration has become
a major determinant of demographic evolution
in the EU to compensate natural demographic
decline (Eurostat, 2008a).

2.2.2.  Migration – Compensation 

for demographic decline

Immigration will continue to play an important
role in addressing labour market needs and skills
shortages. Demand for migrants, particularly

Box 6.  Preparation for ageing for 2008-12 – the Czech national programme as an example

In January 2008, the Czech government adopted the strategic document on national preparation for ageing Quality
of life in old age(Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, 2008). This document specifies and further develops measures
stated in the national programme of preparation for ageing for 2003-07. Educational measures are included in several
strategic priorities. The document works out measures to increase lifelong learning opportunities and availability,
including special retraining programmes and counselling and guidance for older people. ESF funds should be used
for expanding lifelong learning opportunities in the schools network. Promoting the development of individual further
education in ICT and foreign language competences should be implemented.

Source:  ESPON project 3.2, spatial scenarios and orientations in relation to the ESDP and cohesion policy, October 2006.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

30

Box 7.  Basic data on migration

On 1 January 2006 the total population of EU–27 was close to 493 million. Of these, 18.5 million were third-country
nationals, equivalent to 3.8 % of the total population (a). The most important groups of third-country nationals come
from Albania, Algeria, Morocco, Serbia and Turkey. These figures of course exclude immigrants and their descendants
who have been naturalised in the past.

Statistics on the stock of irregular migrants are difficult to obtain. However, data on refusals at the border,
apprehensions in the territory and deportations provide some information of irregular migration. While refusals at
the border and deportations have decreased between 2003 and 2006, apprehensions have increased by 20 %.
Further, at least 3.75 million immigrants have been regularised since the early 1980s.

(a)  This is likely to be an understatement of migrant population, as many third-country nationals have obtained nationality of their new countries
of residence. Analysis of migrants is severely hampered by scarcity of relevant data, as many sources provide no information on country of birth.

Source:  European Commission, 2008d.

Figure 8.  Educational attainment of recent third-country born migrants aged 25 to 64 

by ISCED level, 2007 (%)

NB:  Third-country born (non EU) migrants residing in a European country less than 10 years.
Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 18.12.2008.

those with specific skills, is likely to increase with
demographic change. Currently, net migration is
generally less than 1 % of total population per
year, with, however, large differences between
individual Member States. In Ireland, Spain, Italy
and Austria, migration has doubled recently, while
in the Netherlands net migration has decreased
dramatically and has been negative since 2004.
Overall, the EU (10) tends to attract mainly less

(10)  EU-27  excluding  Bulgaria,  Germany,  Ireland  and  the  UK
(also  excluded  due  to  incomplete  coding  of  foreign
qualifications).

skilled immigrants. Although the proportion of
migrants with tertiary-level education tends to be
very similar among EU born and non-EU born,
third country working-age migrants have more
often lower levels of skills (45 % are low-skilled),
whereas the largest share (45 %) of EU-born
migrants have medium skills. This partly reflects
past labour demand for low-skilled workers in the
manufacturing sector. Only one in five is high
skilled (2008 employment report).

Recent migrants are generally higher qualified
than migrants which came to the EU earlier
(Figure 9).

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

31

Figure 9.  Education level of third-country born (non-EU born) migrants aged 25 to 64

by ISCED level, 2007, EU (%)

Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS) 2007, date of extraction: 18.12.2008.

In particular, upskilling lower skilled immigrants
and their successful integration into the labour
market  and  society,  also  in  their  second
generation,  is  one  of  the  most  important
challenges for VET (see Chapter 6).

Post-war migration flows in western European
countries have created substantial foreign origin
or ethnic minority populations in many countries.
However, in the majority of countries, residential
segregation and lack of integration into the social
and economic system has persisted into the
second generation.

Considering developments during the past
decade, the need for a common, comprehensive
immigration  policy  has  been  increasingly
recognised in the EU. As a result, the Commission
proposed  in  2008  concrete  principles  and
measures – accompanied by a new strategy on
immigration governance – which could be a base
for  further  development  of  the  common
immigration  policy  over  coming  years. The
communications A common immigration policy
for Europe: principles, actions and tools and Policy
plan on asylum – an integrated approach to
protection across the EU set out several initiatives
designed to ensure that economic migration is
well managed in partnership with Member States
based on commonly agreed principles grouped
around issues of prosperity, solidarity and security.
Integration is one of the key principles (European
Commission, 2008d and f).

2.2.3.  Fewer students and graduates 

in VET

Projections reveal that demographic change will
lead to declining numbers of VET students and
graduates  (Cedefop,  2008i).  The  overall
demographic downturn and increasing skill
requirements indicate potential and increasing
shortages and skill mismatch. This section
demonstrates which impact demographic change
alone will have on the future numbers of VET
students  and  graduates. At  this  stage,  the
question  remains  open  which  change  in
participation rates (in VET and correspondingly
in other educational pathways) will be likely or
necessary to compensate for the effects of
demographic decline (11).

(11)  The  analysis  concentrates  on 

the 

impact  of  pure
demographic trends. The projection model – participation
ratio  method  –  combines  the  2006  Eurostat  population
projection (baseline variant) with observed VET participation
and graduation rates. The data on VET are primarily derived
from  the  Eurostat  database.  Calculations  were  made
separately for two age groups (15-19 and 20-24). Since VET
participation rates are not equal in these age groups, the
future number of VET students and graduates depends on
the  future  sizes  of  the  population  in  these  age  groups.
Observed  participation  rates,  averaged  by  (single)  age,
gender, 
level  and  programme  orientation
(prevocational and vocational) over the period 1998-2004
(for  which  historical  time  series  are  available)  are  kept
constant over the whole projection period. The reason was
that past time series did not show clear trends - possibly due
to  a  short  observation  period  -  and  did  not  allow
extrapolating historical trends of educational participation
(see Section 5.2.1).

ISCED 

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

32

Figure 10.  Projected number of students aged 15 to 24 in initial pre-/vocational streams, 

by ISCED level, EU-27, 2005-2030 (thousands)

Source:  Cedefop, 2008i, based on Eurostat, 2006 (baseline variant; constant participation rates 2006).

Figure 11.  Projected numbers of graduates aged 15 to 24 in pre-/vocational streams, 

by ISCED level, EU-27, 2005-2030 (thousands)

Source:  Cedefop, 2008i, based on Eurostat (baseline variant; constant graduation rates 2006).

If pure demographic change is considered as
the only factor of influence, the number of
students in prevocational and vocational streams
at ISCED 2-5 levels is expected to decrease from
14 million in 2005 to less than 12 million in 2030
– a decline of 17 %, according to the 2004
Eurostat baseline variant. In Eurostatʼs high and
low population variants the number of students
will fall to 13.7 and 10.2 million respectively.

The number of VET students is expected to
decrease particularly at upper secondary level

(ISCED 3), from 11.5 million in 2005 to 9.6 million
in 2030 – a decline of almost 2 million (Figure 10).
To keep the number of students at current
levels – thus preventing potential contraction of
the current VET system capacity – would require
a 20 % increase of participation rates in initial
VET by 2030 (baseline scenario). Since education
participation rates are already rather high,
particularly in age group 15-19, this would mean
a substantial shift of enrolment from general to
prevocational and vocational streams.

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

33

Figure 12.  Ratio between the number of IVET graduates and employment in 2020 

(horizontal axis) and 2030 (vertical axis), 2005=1

Source:  Cedefop, Fourth VET research report, forthcoming (c).

Demographic change will similarly result in a
decreasing number of graduates of initial VET.
The scenario based on Eurostatʼs baseline variant
for 2030 expects more than 600 000 graduates
(at ISCED 3-5 levels) less than in 2005, of these
almost 500 000 at ISCED 3 alone (Figure 11).

Smaller future numbers of VET graduates
mean fewer entrants with VET qualifications into
the labour market. However, as shown earlier,
more  graduates  with  ISCED  3  and  higher
qualifications will be required in European labour
markets until 2020, due to new jobs created and
high replacement demands.

Figure 12 gives an overview of possible labour
shortages and surpluses by presenting the ratio
between standardised number of VET graduates
(2005=1) and standardised employment for
younger workers (2005=1) for 2020 (horizontal
axis) and 2030 (vertical axis) (12). For the EU as
a whole and 11 Member States individually,
potential labour-market shortages for both 2020
and 2030 are projected. The potential labour-
market shortage is most pronounced in Poland,
Romania, Slovakia and Sweden. In the Czech
Republic, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Luxembourg,
Portugal and Slovenia both in 2020 and 2030,
labour-market surpluses might occur. Only a few

(12)  When the index is smaller than 1, there is potential labour-
market  shortage  for  graduates;  an  index  greater  than  1
indicates a potential labour-market surplus of graduates.

Member States (Italy, Bulgaria) go from a potential
surplus in 2020 to a potential shortage in 2030
or vice versa.

Concluding, the impact of demographic change
on the size of the labour force cannot be easily
overcome. Basically, there are only few options,
such  as  increasing  birth  rates,  increasing
immigration  and  increasing  labour-force
participation as well as increasing productivity.
Of  the  available  policy  options,  current
evidence suggests that increasing birth rates is
the most unlikely scenario. Also increasing
immigration could not be a panacea for ageing:
migration flows would need to be very large and
come from outside Europe if the current age
structure is to be maintained.

However, migration could serve as a policy
option aiming at balancing short-term skill or
labour shortages by aligning skill needs to
newcomersʼ capacities. Since immigrants are
generally found to have lower employment and
higher unemployment rates than the native
population, often due to lack of adequate skills
and language proficiency, there is a key role for
VET to support them in their upskilling and provide
tailored guidance and counselling and training
opportunities.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

34

Table 1.  GDP, employment and labour productivity growth (annual averages, %)

1.  GDP

2.  Employment

3.  Labour productivity (per worker)

4.  Hourly labour productivity

1997-2000

2001-03

2004-06

EU-27

3.1

1.1

2.2

US

4.2

2.1

2.1

2.1

EU-27

1.5

0.3

1.1

1.6

US

1.6

0.0

2.0

2.7

EU-27

2.4

1.1

1.5

1.4

US

3.2

1.6

2.1

2.3

Source:  Council of the EU (EPSCO), 2008 (Employment report).

Increasing participation in employment is
therefore the most adequate way to compensate
(at least partly) for demographic decline. This
refers particularly to women and older people,
but could also be triggered by increasing skill
requirements: as skilled and higher skilled people
have higher participation rates (if sufficient jobs
are available), the expected increase in skill
needs (see above) per se could have a positive
effect on overall employment rates.

As the population is getting older, the relevance
of continuing VET in developing adultsʼ skills and
flexibility to remain active longer and to be able
to switch between professional pathways is
increasing.

It is important to note that demographic change
should not be seen as a threat or risk but might
yield new opportunities. Budget relief caused by
reduced numbers of students could be used to
improve quality and effectiveness of VET systems.
This might include increased and targeted learner
support, lower student/teacher ratios, more and
better  continuing  training  and  competence
development of teachers and trainers throughout
their careers, better buildings and technological
equipment. In addition, more targeted training
could be provided to specific disadvantaged
groups, underrepresented in training and/or
employment participation. Thus, demographic
change offers an attractive opportunity to deepen
rather than widen investment in human capital.
Ways should be sought and constructive policies
designed  to  use  the  impact  of  negative
demographic trends for positive actions.

2.2.4.  The need to increase productivity
and sustain competitiveness
Another option to bridge population decline and
ageing is productivity increase. However, this
seems to be an efficient and realistic option mainly
in the manufacturing and agricultural sectors, but
harder to achieve in labour-intensive service
sectors (Berkhout et al., 2007).

Since the 1980s, average labour productivity
growth in the EU has been decreasing from
around 2 % per year in the second half of the
1990s, to around 1 % between 2001 and 2003.
Over  the  same  time  the  US  has  sustained
productivity growth rates of some 2 % on average.
Since 2003 however, decline in productivity
growth in Europe was reversed (Table 1).

One important means of improving labour
productivity is investment in human capital, in
particular increasing skill levels. This is also in line
with Cedefopʼs skill needs forecast (see above).
Skills and R&D are crucial for competitiveness.
Figure 13 ranks European countries and some
major competitors according to a composite
competitiveness indicator, based on economic
performance, government efficiency, business
efficiency and infrastructure in the years 2004
and 2008 (IMD, 2008) (13).

(13)  The IMD indicator is based on more than 300 criteria which
are  revised  regularly  as  new  research  and  data  become
available. Therefore criteria used in 2008 may, to a certain
extent,  be  different  from  those  used  in  2004.  Countriesʼ
composite competitiveness score is calculated against the
US score (US=100).

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

35

Figure 13.  Change in competitiveness indicator between 2004 and 2008

*  EU score is an unweighted average of EU Member States concerned (not including Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania and Malta).
NB:  Countries’ scores are calculated against US=100; Bulgaria’s and Croatia’s score in 2006 is used instead of 2004.
Source:  IMD, World competitiveness yearbook, 2004 and 2008.

There  are  substantial  differences 
in
performance and progress between European
countries. Some countries have proved to be
able to sustain (Denmark, and, to a lesser extent
the UK) or improve their competitive position (the
Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden and
to a lesser extent Germany), while other countries
in  southern  Europe  (Greece,  Spain,  Italy,
Portugal, Romania) as well as Hungary declined
from their already comparatively weak positions
over the period concerned. The Czech Republic
and Poland and, to a lesser extent Slovenia and
Slovakia are clearly improving their competitive
position and are quickly catching up. Estonia
continues to be the most competitive country
among the newer Member States, and stands
well above the EU (unweighted) average and
close to Japan. However important competitor
countries like China, Hong Kong, Singapore and
Switzerland,  are  also 
their
competitiveness position, whereas others like

improving 

Australia, Canada and Taiwan, despite a decline
in their relative position still remain far more
competitive than most EU Member States.

2.3.  Flexicurity – a response 

to globalisation, ageing and
technological innovation

Overall, globalisation and technological innovation
are beneficial for growth and employment, but
the change they bring requires rapid responses
from enterprises and workers. In this situation,
mastering  new  skills  becomes  ever  more
important. Workers are increasingly likely to
perform various tasks, and work for various
employers, during their longer working lives.

The European concept of flexicurity is a
response to this situation. It is an attempt to
combine the need of companies continuously to

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

36

face  globalisation  and 

adapt their production methods and workforce
increasing
to 
competitiveness and the need of workers for new
kinds  of  security  that  help  them  remain  in
employment while ensuring safe transitions into
new jobs.

Flexicurity, an integrated strategy to improve
simultaneously flexibility and security in the labour
market, is now also a key priority for implementing
the new integrated guidelines for 2008-10.

Four components of flexicurity have been
identified at European level and endorsed by the
European Council in December 2007:
(a)  flexible and reliable contractual arrangements
from the perspective of the employer and the
employee, of ʻinsidersʼ and ʻoutsidersʼ;
(b)  comprehensive lifelong learning strategies
to ensure the continual adaptability and
employability of workers;

(c)  effective active labour market policies that
help people cope with rapid change, reduce
unemployment spells and ease transitions
to new jobs;

(d)  modern social security systems that provide
adequate  income  support,  encourage
employment and facilitate labour market
mobility (European Commission, 2007d).
However, still more needs to be done within
comprehensive flexicurity approaches to improve
the functioning of European labour markets and
to ease transitions with the aim of eliminating
barriers to employment. Most Member States
have  now  developed  or  are  developing
comprehensive  flexicurity  approaches.  In
particular, labour market segmentation remains
a significant problem in many Member States,
even though many Member States are starting
to reform existing mainstream labour legislation.
For the first time, Member States have been
requested to report on their flexicurity policies in
the  Lisbon  national  reform  programmes,
considering their different national contexts. In
particular, the crucial role of the social partners
and social dialogue in implementing national
flexicurity pathways has been underlined by all
Member States in their 2008 reports (14).

(14)  Source: Lisbon national reform programmes 2008.

(a)  The  government  of  the  Netherlands is
promoting entrepreneurship by making it
easier to change from being an employee to
becoming an entrepreneur and vice versa.
To support employability of the worker the
government wants to achieve a ʻclimate of
trainingʼ in which it is considered normal to
take training. In addition, the cabinet has
plans to shape the principle ʻfrom work to
workʼ by concluding working agreements with
employers and employees.

improving 

(b)  The French approach to flexicurity is based
on  the  concept  of  career  paths  and  on
measures to secure them, making a key
connection between reform of employment
contracts and reform of employment services
and the vocational training system.
Different instruments put in place which aim
at securing transitions in the labour market,
such as the individual right to continued
the  new  public
learning, 
employment  service  and 
reforming
termination  of  employment  contracts
(negotiated  termination  of  employment
contracts) are important elements of the
French 
flexicurity  approach.  Reform
measures  in  vocational  training  and
unemployment insurance will or have already
(such as the concept of ʻreasonable job
offeringʼ) been put in line with the flexicurity
concept.
Some detailed measures are: creation of a
new non-renewable fixed-term contract (18
to 36 months) for engineers and executives,
interprofessional negotiations on the forward-
looking  career  and  skills  management
system;  upcoming  negotiations  on
ʻemployment careersʼ – a system which
governs 
triangular  employment
relationship between the customer company,
the employment career and the independent
contractor (on a temporary contract).

the 

CHAPTER 2
Main socioeconomic challenges

37

(c)  For job-seekers in Belgium, more emphasis
has been put on the importance of having
professional experience: several measures
have a stronger onsite training component
than before, and some have become more
concentrated on different at-risk groups. On-
the-job training is encouraged by the social
partnersʼ agreement to devote 1.9 % of the
wage bill to it (though much effort is still
needed to reach the target), and by providing
training vouchers.

(d)  The Slovakian government strives, through
active labour market policies, to create
conditions which will support the process of
modifying the skills and knowledge of the
labour force to the changing needs of the
economy. At the same time, they will create
preconditions for finding other work (external
flexibility) and conditions for working time
flexibility (internal flexibility).

The government will create conditions for
operating a unified system of lifelong career
counselling  so  citizens  can  acquire
comprehensive information on the possibilities
of education and employment throughout their
lives. The system will guide individuals in their
selection of the type and level of education in
relation to the job.

To  implement  this  goal,  a  database  of
information for citizens and institutions providing
counselling services will be created.

Measured development of one-stops aims at
full introduction of the one-stop shop system for
start-up companies. Entrepre neurial education
will be introduced by acquiring basic knowledge
of business and economics at secondary schools.

CHAPTER 3

Reinforcing links with the labour market

3.1.  Skills and employment –
the current situation

Supported by strong economic expansion in
recent years, employment growth recorded the
strongest increase since the 1990s with nearly
four million jobs being created in 2006 and the
overall employment rate climbing to 64.5 %. In
2007, the employment rate increased further by
0.9  %  and  reached  65.4  %.  Employment
expansion took place in an environment of
accelerating productivity growth. Progress has
been widespread but was in particular driven by
a handful of Member States. The 2010 objective
of a 70 % employment rate was already achieved
by Denmark, Cyprus, the Netherlands, Austria,
Finland, Sweden and the UK (Figure 14).

Generally, the educational level of employees
is increasing. As shown in Figure 15, from 2000
to 2007, employment of low skilled decreased in
the EU by about 5 %; the decrease occurred in

all European countries, except Denmark, Latvia
and Norway. As regards the medium skilled,
including traditional vocational qualifications, their
employment at EU average slightly increased;
however, it also decreased in nine countries. In
all countries, more persons with high qualifications
at working age were employed in 2007 compared
to 2000. The increase in employment of high
skilled was in particular significant in Ireland,
Estonia, Luxembourg, Malta and Poland (more
than 5 %). These data clearly confirm that the
labour market needs or is able to absorb workers
with higher qualifications and that the younger
generation of employees is higher qualified than
older workers.

However, it can be expected that the present
global  financial  crisis  and  the  subsequent
recession will have a negative impact on future
employment. Some data published by Eurostat
or  at  national  level  already  confirm  this
presumption.

Figure 14.  Employment rate of population aged 15 to 64, 2000 and 2007 

(annual average in %)

NB: Croatia – 2002 data instead of 2000; no 2000 data for Turkey.
Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS),2007, date of extraction: 9.12.2008.

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

39

Figure 15.  Change in employment of population aged 25 to 64 by highest education level,

2000 and 2007 (%)

NB:  Lithuania – 2001 data instead of 2000.
Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 9.12.2008.

Figure 16.  Unemployment rates of young and older persons by highest education level,

EU–27, 2000-2007 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 7.1.2009.

3.1.1.  Too many youngsters unemployed
Youth unemployment – EU-27: 15.3 % of young
persons aged 15 to 24 in 2007 – remains a
problem in many Member States. Although the
youth unemployment rate decreased by 2.8 %
between 2000 and 2007, it is still almost three
times higher than the unemployment rate of the
older workforce. Young people are therefore one
of the biggest groups of the population at risk to
be unemployed.

Figure 16 displays the extent to which the gap
between unemployment rates of younger and
older persons has changed from 2000 to 2007
considering the highest education level attained.
As regards the low-skilled, the unemployment
gap between younger and older people has
slightly increased in favour of older workers. On
the  other  hand,  unemployment  among  the
medium skilled has clearly decreased for both
age groups, although for the most part among

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

40

Figure 17.  Unemployment rate of population aged less than 25 years 

by highest education level, 2007 (annual average in %)

NB: Croatia – 2002 data instead of 2000.
Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 7.12.009.

youngsters (-4.6 %). This led to a narrowing gap
of unemployment levels. For highly-skilled people,
unemployment rates have slightly decreased for
both age groups, but the gap has remained
substantially unchanged.

The situation in individual countries differs
significantly (Figure 17). So far, young people
have not benefited enough from the favourable
economic environment until recently; in general
they remain more than twice as exposed to
unemployment as the overall workforce. Figure
17 also shows that, as a general rule, young
people with a low level of educational attainment
(ISCED 0-2) are more likely to be unemployed
in the majority of countries. Although this is a
long-standing trend, significant differences exist
between the various countries. There are four
countries in particular (Greece, Portugal, Turkey,
and to a lesser extent, Romania), where highly-
skilled youngsters are currently facing more
difficulties in entering the labour market than
their lower skilled peers. This feature is most
likely the consequence of an underdeveloped
labour market, but also a warning sign of a
considerable  mismatch  between  the  high
education system and the skills needed to meet
the  changing  demand  of  highly-skilled
professional profiles.

Finally, many Member States still fall short of
the new activation targets and the Lisbon priority

since 2006. Given the importance of the young
generations in the context of future demographic
decline Europe cannot afford any longer to waste
its human resources.

Only about half the Member States have seen
an improvement in youth unemployment in past
years. The pattern changed significantly: several
(mostly newer) Member States with extremely
high  rates  in  2000  –  which  in  some  cases
exceeded  30  %  –  decreased  their  rates  to
percentages below EU average. This could also
be influenced by the fact that demographic
decrease in youth age cohorts 15-24 was sharper
in most Member States which joined the EU
recently. However, in the majority of older Member
States,  youth  unemployment  rates  have
increased, partly significantly.

To reduce youth unemployment, countries
have  reported  several  categories  of  policy
measures (ReferNet, 2008):
(a)  a frequent measure is linked to education
and training, in particular to improve VET
pathways (Belgium, Estonia, Luxembourg
and  Austria);  creation  of  employment
pathways (Malta) specific guidance for at-
risk school leavers (Belgium, Germany,
France, Luxembourg and Slovenia); specific
contract schemes with a training component
(Luxembourg)  and  tax  promotion  for
apprenticeship places (France, Austria);

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

41

Figure 18.  Female employment rates aged 15 to 64, 2000 and 2007 compared 

to male employment rates, 2007 (%)

NB:  UK – provisional data for 2000; Croatia – 2002 data instead of 2000; no 2000 data for Turkey.
Source: Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 7.1.2009.

(b)  another group of measures is focused on
intensified and personalised guidance and
job-search support (Portugal) and specific
guidance for at-risk school leavers (Belgium,
Germany, France, Luxembourg and Slovenia);
(c)  other measures (for all unemployed) include
reduction  of  employersʼ  social  security
contributions (Belgium, Spain, Hungary,
Sweden); and wage support for recruitment
of long-term unemployed (Germany). This
measure is partially linked to education. The
Czech Republic, for example, strengthened
the conditions for social or unemployment
benefits, and France reduced taxation of
studentsʼ jobs (Council of the EU (EPSCO),
2008).

3.1.2.  Better integration of women into 

the labour market

During  past  decades,  female  labour  force
participation (aged 15 to 64) has risen in most
European countries. The Lisbon target for 2010
is to reach an employment level of 60 % for
females, on average.

In 2007, the female employment rate stood at
58.3 %. In the past three years, annual growth
was exceptionally high – female participation has
risen by 1 % each year.

In Europe, there are structural differences in

female labour markets (Figure 18). In most
countries, female employment rates are 10-15
percentage points lower than male employment
rates; in Turkey, Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Italy,
Spain and Ireland, the ʻgender gapʼ is much
larger. Female employment is still highest in
Denmark and Sweden at 73.2 % – even higher
than male employment rates in several other
Member States.

Figure 19 shows male and female employment
rates by highest level of educational attainment.
The message is clear. The lower the (formal)
qualification, the larger the gender gap in terms
of active participation in the labour market.
(a)  As far as low-skilled people are concerned,
there  are  countries  where  the  gap  is
comparatively narrow (Slovakia, the Czech
Republic – where the low-skilled population
is very small – and the Nordic countries except
Sweden). On the other hand, in a considerable
number of countries the gender gap is far
above 15 percentage points and in some
cases even exceeds 30 percentage points
(Spain, Italy, Greece, Malta and Turkey).
(b)  For medium-skilled people the gender gap
appears narrower, although there is a group
of countries where the gap is beyond 20
percentage points (Ireland, Malta, Greece
and Turkey).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

42

Figure 19.  Gender gap in the labour market by highest education level, 

(people aged 25 to 64), 2007 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 2.12.2008.

(c)  The gender gap for high-skilled people is well
in  a
five  percentage  points 
below 
considerable number of countries (Slovenia,
Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, the UK, Croatia

and Nordic countries). However, there is a
group of countries where the gap exceeds
10 percentage points (Hungary, Slovakia, the
Czech Republic, Italy, Greece and Turkey).

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

43

3.2.  Building systems for early

identification and
anticipation of skill needs

Recent economic developments, decreasing
supply of skills and increasingly felt shortage of
workforce in many Member States have become
an important push factor in developing systems
for identification and anticipation of skill needs.
The recent EU-level resolutions and initiatives
and national programmes for implementation of
the Lisbon strategy have triggered development
of  such  systems.  In  several  countries
identification of skill needs has been incorporated
into  legislation  and  national  development
strategies.

There is a clear trend across Europe towards
a holistic approach in identifying skill needs.
Various methods are being combined to deliver
robust and reliable information on the kind of
skills required and the changes of job contents
in different occupations. This is the case in
Germany, France, the Netherlands, Austria,
Sweden and the UK while the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Italy and Poland are on the way to
develop such approaches. Developing more
sophisticated and complex approaches have
encouraged sharing information (often through
ICT), cooperation and networking between
different institutions and experts at sectoral,
regional and national levels. Consequently,
awareness of different research activities and
methods increased.

3.2.1.  Methods, approaches and tools
Methods for identifying skill needs vary across
Europe; each has its advantages and disadvan-
tages. The following approaches can be distin-
guished [Cedefop, 2008m (working paper 1)]:
•  quantitative  and  semi-quantitative  –
econometric forecasting models, surveys
among employers, skills audits;

•  qualitative – Delphi method, case studies, focus
groups,  sector  scouting  and  determining
qualification requirements among trendsetting
companies;

•  combined/holistic approaches – foresights,
shared diagnosis, scenarios, observatories
(sector, regional);

•  others – sector studies, alumni surveys and
monitors, specific branch/type of activity/
occupation/field of qualification studies, studies
on skill requirements for specific target groups
(unemployed, disabled, low/non-qualified,
ethnic minorities, foreign workers).
Vocational qualification focused research is
predominant in Germany and Austria. Scenarios
and strategies are used more frequently in Anglo-
Saxon and sometimes Nordic countries, while
observatories (sectoral and regional) using
(semi-) qualitative surveys and involving several
different actors are frequent in France and
southern Europe.

Quantitative econometric forecasting combined
with elements of qualitative research and sector
studies are typical for the Netherlands, where
elaborate forecasting produced by the Research
Centre for Education and the Labour Market

Box 8.  The Leitch review of skills in the UK

The UK Government commissioned Lord Leitch in
2004 to undertake an independent review of the UK’s
long-term skills needs. In particular, the review was
asked to examine the UK’s optimum skills mix to
maximise economic growth and productivity, and
consider the different trajectories of skill level the UK
might pursue. The final report of the Leitch review of
skills, Prosperity for all in the global economy – world
class skills, was published on 5 December 2006
drawing on evidence from many sources (a call for
evidence was sent to over 250 organisations, including
employers and their representatives, unions and
organisations providing education and training). The
review team worked with key stakeholders, including
government, agencies, education and training
providers, businesses and trade unions.

The review sets out a compelling vision for the UK.
It shows that the UK must urgently raise achievements
at all levels of skills and recommends that it commit
to becoming a world leader in skills by 2020,
benchmarked against the upper quartile of the OECD.
This means doubling attainment at most levels of
education. It also recognises that responsibility for
achieving  ambitions  must  be  shared  between
government, employers and individuals.

Source:  Leitch (2006).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

44

(Research centrum voor onderwijs en arbeids -
incorporates  spatial
markt:  ROA)  now 
disaggregation to meet regional information
needs. Results of national forecasts published
as labour-market indicators adjusted to usersʼ
needs are disseminated through the career
guidance and vocational counselling system.

A more policy-oriented approach has been
recently adopted in the UK where the government
commissioned a special review of skills (the Leitch
review) to identify the UKʼs optimal skills mix in
2020 to maximise economic growth, productivity
and social justice, and to consider the policy
implications of achieving the level of change
required (Box 8).

Newer Member States use various methods but
they are mostly in a developing and testing phase.
Methods are often developed in cooperation with
some older Member States and thus some features
of the ʻhostʼ system are ʻborrowedʼ. Research into
identifying skill needs in these countries is often
developed around standards, updating curricula
and setting up qualification frameworks.

In several countries, a permanent monitoring
system of labour-market needs is linked to online
provision of results, sometimes interactively
(planned in Italy; Austriaʼs skills barometer). In
some cases, efforts are made to provide online
information on jobs and occupations on the labour
market – used also in career guidance – e.g.
integrated system of typical working positions in
the Czech Republic. In Slovakia a similar system
is also in progress, based on Czech know-how.
Each national system combines features of
several types. Therefore, allocating countries to
a particular type is tentative and depicts only a
predominant line of current development:
(a)  decentralised  system.  The  system  is
developed mostly at trade, sector or local
levels. Systematic anticipation of skill needs
at national level is not very pronounced
(Denmark, Greece, Spain, Latvia, Lithuania,
Hungary, Portugal, Slovenia, Slovakia);
(b)  coordinated non-holistic system. The system
is  well-developed  around  quantitative
forecasting which is a major building block
of the system, although some qualitative
elements are incorporated into the forecast
and qualitative surveys are conducted in
parallel (Ireland, Cyprus, Finland);

(c)  building a coordinated holistic system. The
system is mostly based on medium-term
macro-level quantitative forecasting which
incorporates some qualitative elements of
sectoral  and/or  other  trend  projections
(Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Italy,
Poland). These countries attempt permanent
skill needs monitoring;

(d)  coordinated holistic system. This applies to
countries with very well-developed and long-
established systems based on medium and/or
short-term macro level forecasts, system of
sectoral studies, regular questionnaire skills
surveys among employers, regular regional
surveys on employment, and with an efficient
system of dissemination and application of
findings to policy and practice (Germany,
France, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK).

3.2.2.  Difficulties and obstacles 
in Member States

Several problems are reported by Member
States. These include:
•  lack of coordination of different activities; there
are still very few collaborative teams/networks
which have access to various information
sources and use diverse tools and methods;
•  time lag between producing analyses (detailed
and robust) and incorporating the knowledge
into VET courses;

•  insufficient flexibility and capacities in education
and training institutions to transfer the information
on labour market needs into study programmes;
•  inadequate funding (although ESF contributes

significantly);

•  insufficient human resources and expertise

(particularly in newer Member States);

•  insufficient statistics collection and database

development;

•  resistance and inactivity of employers (mainly

SMEs) in identifying skill needs.

3.2.3.  Towards a European approach
Despite similarities in features and development
trends, systems for anticipating skill needs still
differ considerably between countries. Diverse
methodologies lead to results which cannot be
compared at European level.

With greater mobility of labour in Europe,
knowledge  on  future  skills  demand  of  the

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

45

European labour market is essential. A European
system of early identification of skill needs with
an adequate capacity to produce robust, reliable
and regular information at European level is
needed. Such a system requires continuous input
from Member States and a holistic approach,
combining quantitative and qualitative surveys
at European level. More cooperation among
European institutions and larger investments
would be required to achieve the aim.

As evident from DGVT responses (2008),
Member  States  are  rather  positive  about
developing a common approach or a common
European tool for anticipating skill needs. As
a main problem most countries mention the
diversity and differences in current methods,
tools, statistics, definitions, but also different
stages of economic development. Such a
common approach should complement rather
than substitute national activities as well as
represent added value for Member States by
pulling  together  existing  analyses  and
research.

3.3.  Strengthening the role 
of labour market actors 
in VET

Dynamic  and  close  cooperation  with  social
partners/sectors/enterprises is a prerequisite if VET
is to respond effectively to labour market needs.
Many countries, and in particular those with dual
VET systems, have a longstanding tradition of such
cooperation (Austria, Denmark, Germany, Finland,
France, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway). Nevertheless, they take continuous
actions to improve collaboration with relevant
stakeholders to respond to rapidly changing labour
market requirements. Newer Member States used
to have their VET systems strongly linked to industry
but, as a result of transformation of their economies
in the 1990s, these links were severely weakened/
cut. Reestablishing cooperation with labour market
actors  is  one  of  the  major  challenges  those
countries face.

As evident from DGVT and ReferNet reports,
Member  States  have  put  much  effort  into
increasing involvement of representatives of the
world of work in developing VET. The measures

introduced aimed at strengthening the role of
labour market actors in VET decision-making,
VET administering/managing and VET provision.

3.3.1.  Involving social partners in VET

decision-making and administering

There is a clear trend of increasing the role of
social partners in VET development at all levels:
national, regional, sectoral and local. In some
countries, recently introduced new or amended
VET legislation (laws, acts, regulations, tripartite
or bipartite agreements) laid the foundation and
provided mechanisms for further strengthening
social partnersʼ involvement (the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal).

Several new bodies have been established or
enlarged and social partnersʼ functions have been
expanded (see Chapter 4).
•  In the Czech Republic, sector councils – based
on  the  UK  model,  composed  of  experts
nominated by employers and their organisations
in close cooperation with ʻcentral administration
authoritiesʼ – are being gradually established.
•  In Finland, in 2007, national education and
training committees were set up (required in
vocational upper secondary, adult and higher
education) to promote interaction between
training and the labour market. They comprise
representatives of the national education and
training administration, teachers, employers
and employees. The committees can be sector-
or qualification/ programme-specific.

•  In Sweden, as of 2010, programme councils
for all upper-secondary education and training
will be introduced to improve its relevance and
increase completion rates. Programme councils
will be created at national and local levels and
will  have  to  include  representatives  of
employers and employees (and other experts).
•  In  Hungary,  the  role  of  the  chambers  of
commerce and industry in VET decision-making
has been improving considerably since 2002.
Following the agreements of 2006 and 2007
the chambers took on some tasks which had
previously been the responsibility of ministerial
administration (delegating the president to
examination boards in selected vocational
qualifications, management and coordination
of national competition ʻoutstanding student of
the tradeʼ).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

46

•  In Spain, General Council of the National
Employment System was created in 2008,
composed of public authorities and social
partners. It is an advisory body for employment
policy, thus also for training for employment.
•  The UK Commission for Employment and
Skills, established in 2008, plays an advisory
role to the government.

•  In 2008, in Estonia, further to amending the
Vocational Education Institutions Act in 2006,
the board of VET institutions needs to have
over 50 % participants among social partners.
Thus, social partners have a considerable
influence on running VET institutions.
Other examples of recent increased social
partners involvement include establishment of
skills academies (UK), national reference centres
(Spain), ESF monitoring committees (newer
Member States), VET (polytechnic) institute
operated by social partners (Iceland).

Through consultation or direct involvement in
tripartite decision-making, social partners are
increasingly involved in shaping VET. They
participate in a wide range of activities: formulating
VET strategies, policies and planning documents;

designing and assessment of VET programmes;
planning students admission; development and
validation  of  qualifications  and  standards;
assessment of learnersʼ skills and competences
(examination  commissions);  guidance  and
information; quality assurance; anticipation of
labour market skills and competence needs;
managing training funds, financing VET.

3.3.2.  Involving companies in VET

provision

Many initiatives have been taken to improve
cooperation  between  VET  institutions  and
companies, encouraging integration of learning
and working. Increasing emphasis is put on
promoting workplace training and apprenticeship.
The latter takes the form of introducing incentives
for employers to recruit apprentices, modernising
existing apprenticeship systems or developing
new (innovative) apprenticeship models/ schemes.
The measures aim at increasing attractiveness of
VET  (for  both,  individuals  and  employers),
addressing specific groups (e.g. dropouts, older
workers, SMEs) and promoting excellence of VET
(e.g. developing apprenticeship at tertiary level).

Box 9.  Promoting apprenticeship – country examples

(cid:129) In Austria, experts from companies (and also research
institutes) are continuously involved in development of
apprenticeship.  Since  2000,  some  30  new
apprenticeships have been set up. In 2006, the
Vocational Training Act was amended, providing a legal
basis for modularising apprenticeship which aims at
making VET system more flexible (better linking IVET
and CVET) and responsive to sectoral needs as well as
increasing the number of training enterprises. Modular
apprenticeship consists of a basic module as well as
main and specialised modules, allowing acquisition of
qualifications according to special production modes
and services of particular sectors.
To attract new
training providers, apprenticeship advisors have also
been employed and a nationwide network comprising
a total of 18 apprentices’ advisors was set up in 2004,
whose task consists of opening up additional company-
based training slots by establishing relevant contacts
and conducting targeted acquisition activities. This
provision was very well received by companies: until
September 2006, more than 13 000 companies were

contacted and about 5 700 commitments for admission
of apprentices obtained.

(cid:129) In Cyprus, due to low attractiveness of apprenticeship
(steady reduction in the number of trainees, low
completion rates – around 60 %, limited number of
specialisations, lack of interest of teachers/instructors
and employers) upgrading of the apprenticeship system
has been a policy priority since 2004. Short-term
measures (developed in 2008, cofinanced by the ESF)
include revising curricula, reviewing analytical
programmes, training teaching staff, acquiring software
and improving administration and management of the
system. In the long run, a new, modern apprenticeship
system will be introduced, with changes in the
philosophy, structures and processes. The proposal
was approved by the Council of Ministers in 2007 and
the new scheme will become fully operational in 2010.
As of 2011, post-secondary apprenticeship will be
incorporated into the system.

(cid:129) In Denmark, in 2006, new apprenticeship was
introduced as an alternative pathway into IVET and is

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

47

a part of government’s strategy for reducing dropouts.
Students will typically spend the first year of their
education receiving practical training in an enterprise.
The initiative is aimed in particular at students who
may struggle or lack motivation to complete more
theoretical school-based education without first
gaining  a  practical  insight  into  the  field.  New
apprenticeship has been introduced within all areas
of IVET. The school and the enterprise, along with the
student, are responsible for planning and organising
the form and content of practical training and
developing the student’s personal education plan.
(cid:129) In Estonia, two pilot projects were implemented to
introduce apprenticeship (Phare 2002 and ESF 2005-
08). Some 16 VET institutions and around 180
enterprises were involved. The evaluation study reveals
that particularly small enterprises value the project:
83 % of enterprises with up to four employees and
67 % of enterprises with 5-10 employees consider it
‘extremely necessary’. The legal basis to regulate
apprenticeship  as  a  new  form  of  study  in VET
institutions was passed in 2006 and 2007.

(cid:129) In France, the government aims at increasing the
number of young people in apprenticeship. The target
was set of 500 000 apprentices in 2009. Modernisation
of apprenticeship takes the form of financial incentives
(tax exemptions for individuals and employers),
developing apprenticeship in the services sector and
higher education. Professionalisation of training
programmes provided at universities was at the centre
of debate in 2006.

(cid:129) In Germany, to attract new companies to engage in
IVET and to maintain the attractiveness of dual system,
the Federal Government began to implement an
innovation package for VET: 
(a)  in consultation with social partners and Lander,
approximately 340 training occupations have been
consolidated into occupational groups, common
core skills have been identified, and on this basis
opportunities and routes for specialisation have
been created;

(b)  CVT and IVET will be dovetailed more effectively
to enable high-achieving young people to advance
more rapidly; 

(c)  a sector-specific early identification of skill needs
initiative will enable transfer of labour market
requirements into VET provision; 

(d)  training programmes abroad in VET will be doubled

by 2015.

(cid:129) In Ireland, FAS (Foras Aiseanna Saothair: Irish Training
and Employment Authority) has recently revised its
curricula for all apprenticeship trades and has agreed
three additional ones. Under the national development
plan 2007-13, apprenticeships in further occupations
will be introduced. The national partnership agreement
‘Towards 2016’ has recommended that measures should
be introduced to promote take-up of apprenticeship by
older workers. To progress links between apprenticeship
and higher education, an innovative six-month science
challenge intern programme was introduced. The interns
(including apprentices at phase 5 on the apprenticeship
programme) will have the opportunity to work in world-
class institutions and private sector companies in the
USA. The science challenge up-skilling programme for
graduate apprentices who have a minimum of three
years work experience offers theoretical and on-the-
job training with leading US companies for qualified
crafts people.

(cid:129) In Italy, ‘high apprenticeship’ was experimented
between 2004 and 2008. It is targeted at individuals
aged 18-29 and allowed them to obtain a university
degree, higher training qualifications or higher technical
specialisation. The innovative element is involving
training institutions in defining training programmes
and issuing certificates.

(cid:129) In Portugal, the ‘Vocational apprenticeship programme’
was subject to adjustments in 2005. The programme
was designed for people aged 16-30 having a higher
or intermediate level qualification, who were: (a)
unemployed looking for their first job, not performing
a professional activity for more than one year, (b)
unemployed looking for a new job, who have in the
meantime acquired a qualification but did not have
any professional experience in this field for more than
one year. Over 85 000 individuals were covered by
the  programme  between  2000  and  2006. The
programme was included in active labour market
policies and lasted nine months. The programme INOV-
JOVEM supports apprenticeship in SMEs and is
targeted at young people (up to 35) with higher
qualifications in innovation and management in SMEs.
It lasts 12 months.

(cid:129) In Sweden, the government launched apprenticeship
in 2008 as a pilot project. Schools that want to
participate need to establish a local advisory board
with social partners and education representatives as
a quality assurance body. The government intends to
create a similar advisory body at national level.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

48

Figure 20.  Training enterprises with an agreement on CVT, EU, by size (%)

NB:  EU does not include Bulgaria and Romania.
Source:  Eurostat, CVTS2 and CVTS 3, 1999 and 2005, date of extraction: 19.12.2008.

3.3.3.  The role of collective bargaining
Collective  bargaining  both  at  sectoral  and
company  levels  plays  an  important  role  in
VET/CVT promotion. Collective agreements can
include principles of equal access to learning and
thus  contribute  to  achieving  the  Council
benchmark of 12.5 % of adult participation in
lifelong learning by 2010. The positive impact of
collective agreements in terms of participation in
training and training duration was confirmed by
a European survey carried out in 1999 (CVTS).
However, comparison of the results of the surveys
in  1999  and  2005  shows  that  the  share  of
enterprises with collective agreements (as
percentage of all training enterprises) decreased
from  16  %  to  12  %  on  EU  average.  The
downward trend concerns each company size
(Figure 20).

In general, countries having decentralised
bargaining over CVT or a recently established
CVT systems seem to confer a wider role to
company-level good practices. The key issues
are an inclusive approach to older and less
qualified employees, joint development of CVT
programmes with employeesʼ representatives,
paid leave and a strategic approach to increase
competitiveness.

The degree of centralisation of collective
bargaining on CVT is affected, for example, by
the national legal framework and the profile of
sectors leading collective bargaining. Four

national settings of bilateral CVT bargaining can
be distinguished (planned Eurofound-Cedefop
study), with sometimes several models existing
in one country:
•  CVT bargaining is almost absent. This is the
case for Cyprus and Poland. However, both
countries foresee some funds at national level
(Cyprus) or at company level (Poland) where
they are unilaterally managed by the employer;
•  decentralised  model,  where  company
bargaining is prevalent or sometimes exclusive.
This is the case in Germany, Ireland, Hungary,
Malta, Austria, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, the
UK and Baltic countries. This group is rather
heterogeneous: on the one hand there is Malta
and the UK with a voluntary industrial-relations
system  where  collective  bargaining  is
decentralised at company level. On the other
hand, there are countries (such as Austria and
Finland),  with  a  dominant  and  tripartite
regulation on CVT in national labour contracts.
In these countries, CVT is a matter of regular
consultations  rather  than  bargaining  at
company level;

•  national labour contracts, which could regulate
company-level bargaining and CVT activities.
Examples are Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Romania and
Slovenia.  In  Luxembourg,  four  sectoral
contracts foresee CVT activities, with joint
committees at company level;

CHAPTER 3
Reinforcing links with the labour market

49

•  national labour contracts and bilateral training
funds in Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Spain,
Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands (since
2007). These countries allow for company-level
bargaining on CVT and differ on its extent and
on the array of training action set at national
level.

3.3.4.  Challenges
Member States have recently introduced many
initiatives to involve labour market actors more
in VET development. Still, some further actions
are needed to consider the challenges and
obstacles countries report on:
•  insufficient work placement and training of

students (the Czech Republic);

•  need for more trained workplace instructors

(Estonia, Finland);

•  unwillingness of employers to pay for training
their workers or release workers to acquire
VET (Ireland), poor incentives for companies;
•  insufficient  human  resources,  expertise

(Estonia, Latvia);

•  conflicting interests: industry might protect its
interest rather than contribute to changes in
curricula, i.e. abolishing/amending programmes
(Denmark);

•  unclear  division  of  responsibilities  (for

apprenticeship in the Netherlands);

•  difficulty to involve employers due to institutional
changes (new law) and insufficient financial
resources (Slovenia).

CHAPTER 4

Governance and financing of VET

Improving quality, efficiency and effectiveness of
VET and making it more responsive to labour
market needs are countriesʼ main motives for
reforming governance and financing of VET.

4.1.  Governance of VET

systems

4.1.1.  Institutional reforms providing

legislative and institutional
frameworks

In the period 2006-08, many countries developed
or amended legislation which provided the basis
for (broad) VET reforms. Examples include new
laws/acts on VET (Lithuania, Hungary, Slovenia,
Finland); on education, where VET is an integral

part  (Slovakia);  on  adult  education,  which
involves  CVT  (Belgium);  on  adult  training
(Hungary), on validation and recognition of
outcomes of CVT (the Czech Republic) or on
State budget, which had implications on VET
funding (Bulgaria).

New legislative frameworks in countries gave
impulses  for  changes  in  VET  structures,
curriculum development, improving VET funding
arrangements or strengthening the role of VET
in  regional  development.  Some  legislative
changes  allowed  streamlining  of  VET.  For
example, in Denmark, agricultural, social and
health care programmes were included in the Act
on  VET  in  2007,  creating  coherence  in
programmes and institutional regulation.

Box 10.  Country examples: institutional reforms

Inter-ministerial cooperation
In Ireland, an interdepartmental committee, chaired by
the Minister for LLL, was established in 2008 for
coordinated implementation of a national skills strategy.
Additionally, a high level interdepartmental group was
set up to examine the needs of different groups
experiencing social exclusion and to carry out a
fundamental review of training and employment
measures. The group includes representatives from
ministerial departments of enterprise, trade and
employment, social and family affairs and FAS (Ireland’s
National Training and Employment Authority).

Consolidation under one ministry
In Hungary, since 2006, vocational training and adult
training have been (re)assigned to the same ministry,
the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour. Consequently,
the National Vocational Training Council and the National
Adult Training Council, which previously functioned as
consultative bodies for the two competent ministers
were replaced by the National Vocational and Adult
Training Council. The number of employer representatives
in the Council increased from six to nine.

Transfer of decision-making
In Portugal, as a result of a tripartite agreement, a National
Qualifications Agency was created in 2007 to coordinate
and execute VET policies, develop and manage a system
of competences validation and certification (authorising
creation of new opportunity centres, regulating the
condition for their operation and carrying out their
evaluation and supervision).

Strengthening institutional arrangements 
at regional level
In Hungary, from 2008, regional development and training
committees will coordinate VET capacities at regional
level and decide on distribution of financial resources
from the training fund – ‘development funds’.

Establishing new consultative bodies 
at national level
In Lithuania, a Vocational Guidance Council (advisory
institution) was established in 2006 to assist the Ministries
of Education and Science and Social Security and Labour
in developing a vocational guidance system. The council 
is composed of representatives of State institutions,

CHAPTER 4
Governance and funding

51

municipalities, VET and general education schools,
employers’ and employees’ organisations, learners
(youth, adults) and non-governmental organisations.

Strengthening the role of stakeholders
In the Czech Republic since 2005, it has become
mandatory for every school to set up its school council
(based on the School Act 2004). The council allows
different stakeholders to participate in school governance.
One third of the members are appointed by the founder
of the school (who decides on the total number of
members), one third are elected by pedagogical staff

As  reported  by  countries,  some  further
changes in legislation are foreseen. For example,
Latvia, Croatia and Poland are preparing a new
version of the law on VET; the Netherlands is to
review the law on VET and adult education to
introduce competence-based education from
2010 and allow experiments in VET; the Slovakian
Ministry of Education decided to complement a
new Education Act (2008) with a new act on VET,
which should prove an excellent opportunity to
address specific needs of VET.

Institutional reforms involved setting up a range
of new bodies and (re)defining responsibilities of
different VET actors to modernise and strengthen
the role of VET (Box 10). The changes concern:
•  improving interministerial cooperation in VET;
•  consolidating different types of VET under one

body (ministry);

•  horizontally transferring decision-making
powers/management in specific VET areas to
(non-ministerial) agency;

•  establishing new consultative bodies at national

level;

•  strengthening institutional arrangements at
regional, sectoral and local levels (regional
councils/committees,  sectoral  councils/
committees, school boards/councils);

•  broadening participation and strengthening the
role of various stakeholders in VET (including
social partners, business, non-governmental
organisations, teachers and trainers, learners).

and one third by students and parents. The council
approves the annual report of the school, discusses its
budget proposal, comments on the management report
and submits proposals for improvement. It also comments
on proposed education programmes, approves the rules
evaluating results of education of students, approves
the school rules and scholarship rules and discusses
inspection reports. In 2007, the councils were set up in
98 % of schools.

4.1.2.  Administrative and management

reforms to improve efficiency

4.1.2.1.  Decentralisation and autonomy
Seeking  greater  efficiency,  countries  alter
administrative  structures  of  VET  systems.
Delegating  responsibilities  (staff,  budget,
curriculum) to regional/local level, following the
principle that regionally/locally-based decision-
making  is  more  effective  and  tailored  to
regional/local needs, has been one of the most
dominant changes in VET governance in past
years. Currently, many countries have (highly)
decentralised VET systems, which in some cases
is a result of recent reforms in the early 2000s
(Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Romania). In
some Member States, the process is still going
on (Lithuania, Austria, Slovakia).

A  further  common  pattern,  related  to
decentralisation, is a trend towards institutional
autonomy of VET providers. While the State
defines the overall education/VET strategy and
provides broad guidelines – through legislation,
funding, curricula and qualification frameworks
– individual VET providers are given discretion
on the practical arrangements for VET provision,
such  as  training  offer/content  including
development of new pathways, tailor-made
courses, selection of target groups or staff
recruitment. In some countries, institutional
autonomy  involves  also  funding  (Bulgaria,
Germany, Austria) where VET providers can
increasingly  take  independent  budgetary
decisions. They are granted more flexibility in
generating own funding and in allocating funds

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

52

according to their specific needs. Some are in
an  initial  stage  of  planning  and  debate  on
autonomy process (Cyprus).

4.1.2.2.  Mergers
To  ensure  administrative  efficiency,  and
strengthen VETʼs capacity and responsiveness,
some  countries  promote  mergers  of  VET
providers. Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and Slovakia
have  merged  State-owned  VET  schools  to
optimise financial and human resources as well
as to increase quality of and accessibility to VET.
To reduce large-scale fragmentation of IVET
structure, the government of Hungary offered
financial support to voluntary emerging VET–
development associations and societies. The
initiative launched a massive process of capacity
integration: altogether 100-150 regional integrated
vocational training centres are expected to be
set up by 2010. In Denmark vocational colleges
and  labour  market  training  centres  were
encouraged to merge to improve interaction with
local and regional business and strengthen the
dialogue among training providers and end-users,
including both VET learners and business. In
Northern Ireland, further education colleges were
consolidated to provide high quality customer-
focused education and training, able to meet the
needs of individuals and employers. Finnish
development plans (2003-08 and 2007-12) aim
at  strengthening  VET  providers  networks,
removing overlaps and supporting high-quality
units. The new merged structures are often turned
into multifield regional centres, providing both
IVET and CVT and serving SMEs.

4.1.2.3.  Reducing administrative burdens –

debureaucratisation

In several countries, reducing bureaucracy is a
policy option to improve administration and
management of VET (Denmark, Estonia, Austria,
Poland Slovenia, Finland, the UK). In Denmark,
a committee for ʻdebureaucratisationʼ was set up
in 2007 to simplify rules and procedures. The
committee provided recommendations in four
areas: organisation of VET programmes and
teaching; quality assurance and evaluation;
budgeting, financial reporting and administration;
ad hoc reporting and analyses. A new law (2007)
in Poland makes the rules for pedagogical

supervision less bureaucratic. The UK introduced
a  lighter  inspection  regime  (collegesʼ  own
assessment) and more streamlined planning and
funding, the benefits of which can be already felt.
Overall, it can be observed that governments
tend  to  steer  the  behaviour  of  lower  level
authorities and/or providers by results rather than
complex rules.

4.1.3.  Focus on VET outcomes and

accountability to improve quality

Delegating decision-making power to lower levels
calls for quality assurance. Danish policy focuses
on ʻoutput managementʼ, regulating the results
and quality of VET provision through quality
management and incentive structures. Austria aims
at improving efficiency of school inspection and
considers introducing peer reviews and external
evaluation. The UK government is working with
colleges to develop accountability frameworks.
Finland intends to increase the proportion of
performance-based  funding  in  core  VET
financing (15)  and  develop  further  relevant
indicators  and  performance  measurement
methods; from 2009, performance-based funding
is also to be applied to CVT (development plan for
education and training 2007-12). The importance
of quality assurance when delegating decision-
making powers is particularly highlighted by the
Slovakian example. The country reports that
ʻpositive effects of decentralisation and per-capita
funding have been harmed by failure to introduce
strict quality checking to prevent deteriorating
quality of graduates and long lasting low investment
in educationʼ (ReferNet Slovakia, 2008).

4.1.4.  Cooperation and partnerships
between stakeholders

The success of VET requires active involvement
of all VET actors at EU, national, regional, sectoral
and  provider  levels.  As  reported  by  some
countries (Belgium, the Czech Republic, Austria)
implementation of major national VET/educational
policy objectives and guidelines inspired/initiated
by the EU – such as development of NQF (in line
with the EQF), elaboration of a national LLL

(15)  Currently 2 % of the total amount of VET funding is allocated
based  on  performance  criteria,  measured  by  graduation
rates and placement of qualification-holders in employment
and further studies.

CHAPTER 4
Governance and funding

53

strategy, consultation process on ECVET – has
fostered  partnerships  and  brought  various
stakeholders together in recent years.

There are many institutionalised working
arrangements between different ministries (mainly
education, labour and social affairs, but also
finance), different governmental bodies, social
partners and other actors. Many countries have
a long tradition of involving social partners, often
based on tripartite cooperation principles. Several
newer  Member  States  have  more  recently
introduced  a  law  or  set  up  arrangements
strengthening responsibilities of social partners
in VET development (Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania,
Latvia, Poland).

Sometimes  cooperation  between  actors
concerns part of a VET system. Increasing
emphasis is put on promoting CVT/adult learning.
In Denmark, government and social partners
agreed (2007) on the overall objective in adult
learning  and  CVT  and  will  jointly  monitor
developments.  Belgium,  from  2006,  has
promoted cooperation between public education
and training organisations for adults, focusing on
CVT. The tripartite agreement between the
Ministry of Labour, regions and social partners
in  Italy  (2007)  calls  for  creating  a  national
continuing training system that is progressively
organised, non-competitive, but integrated, thus
promoting coherence and synergy of different
(funding) approaches and instruments in CVT.

In line with progressive decentralisation of VET
systems and autonomy of VET providers, there
is a clear trend towards strengthening regional
and local networking and learning partnerships.
The German programme Learning regions –
providing support for networks (2001-08) supports
establishing and expanding networks at regional
level across different institutions and areas of
education and training systems to develop, test
and implement innovative and integrated services
for LLL. At the moment, the programme involves
76 regions. Wide differences among regions in
Slovakia caused the government to launch a
national programme for learning regions (2007)
the objective of which is to link better LLL to local
and regional labour market needs. The initiative
involves schools of all levels, institutions of
continuing  education,  employers,  self-
government, professional associations and

chambers.  It  aims  at  developing  regional
innovation strategies for closer cooperation
between key players and provision of tailored
educational programmes. Similarly, in the UK,
regional  skills  partnerships  bring  together
government agencies, employers and education
and training providers to develop coherent
approaches to skill changes in the regions.
Locally, the initiative Aimhigher partnerships –
where trade unions play a prominent role – seeks
to  widen  participation  in  higher  education,
including vocational routes.

4.2.  VET financing

4.2.1.  Public expenditure on education 

and training

Public expenditure on education and training as
percentage of GDP increased from 4.9 % in 2000
to 5.0 % in 2005 in EU–27.

There are significant differences between
countries. In 2005, Denmark had the highest
expenditure (8.3 % of GDP), followed by Sweden
and Cyprus as well as Iceland and Norway with
around 7 %. In Greece, Luxembourg, Romania
and Slovakia expenditure was (slightly) below
4 %. Considering both, the level and growth of
expenditure on education and training as a
percentage of GDP, Estonia, Lithuania, Italy,
Slovakia, Spain and Germany are falling behind
the EU average while Cyprus, Finland, Hungary,
the Netherlands, Poland and the UK are the
countries moving ahead.

In 2005, public expenditure on educational
institutions as percentage of total expenditure
reached around 88 % on EU average. Private
funding accounted for 12 % and was estimated
at 0.7 % of GDP. In Germany, private expenditure
on educational institutions was close to and in
Cyprus and the UK exceeded 1 % of GDP.

Concerning secondary education (lower-,
upper,- and post-secondary levels, ISCED 2-4),
all Member States for which data were available
in 2005 spent more on general programmes than
on pre-/vocational programmes, except the
Netherlands where the respective spending was
equal  (Figure  21).  Expenditure  on  general
programmes varied from 1 % in the Netherlands
to 2.7 % in Cyprus, whereas expenditure on

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

54

Figure 21.  Total public expenditure on secondary education by programme orientation,

2005 (% of GDP)

Source: Eurostat, UOE data collection, date of extraction: June 2008.

Figure 22.  Expenditure on public and private educational institutions in secondary

education, 2005 (EUR PPS per student)

Source:  Eurostat, UOE data collection, date of extraction: June 2008.

pre-/vocational programmes ranged between
0.1 % in Malta and 1.1 % of GDP in Finland. The
Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Austria
allocated  1 %  of  GDP  to  pre-/vocational
programmes.

Concerning expenditure per student (EUR,
in PPS), eight of 13 countries for which data are
available in 2005, spent a higher amount per
pupil in pre-/vocational than general programmes
(Figure 22). The difference was exceptionally

high in Germany, where expenditure per pupil
in pre-/vocational programmes was double the
expenditure per pupil in general programmes,
and in France which had the highest expenditure
per pupil in pre-/vocational programmes, at
around EUR 10 750. Bulgaria had the lowest
in  pre-/vocational
spending  per  pupil 
programmes, at EUR 1 600.

CHAPTER 4
Governance and funding

55

Figure 23.  Expenditure on CVT courses as % of total labour costs (all enterprises), 

1999 and 2005 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS2 and CVTS3, date of extraction: 22.12.2008.

Figure 24.  Expenditure on CVT courses by size class, EU, 1999 and 2005 

(% of total labour costs; all enterprises)

NB:  EU does not include Bulgaria and Romania.
Source:  Eurostat, CVTS2 and CVTS3, date of extraction: 22.12.2008.

4.2.2.  Companiesʼ expenditure on CVT

courses

Companiesʼ expenditure on CVT courses in
percentage of the total labour costs decreased
from 2.3 % in 1999 to 1.6 % in 2005 on EU
average (16). In 2005, CVT expenditure varied
from 0.6 % in Greece to 2.7 % in Denmark. Only

(16)  Eurostatʼs second and third continuing vocational training

survey, CVTS2, CVTS3.

in one-third (8) of the countries participating in
the CVT survey, mostly newer Member States,
the share of the costs of CVT courses in total
labour costs did increase. Hungary experienced
the highest increase: from 1.2 % to 2.6 %.
Companiesʼ expenditure fell sharply in Finland,
the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden – even
below EU average (Figure 23).

Expenditure on CVT courses as percentage
of labour costs decreased for all company sizes

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

56

Table 2.  Expenditure on CVT 1993-2005 (% of labour costs)

EU27

:

2.3

1.6

BE

1.4

1.6

1.6

1993

1999

2005

DK

1.3

3.0

2.7

DE

1.2

1.5

1.3

IE

1.5

2.4

:

EL

1.1

0.9

0.6

ES

1.0

1.5

1.2

FR

2.0

2.4

2.3

IT

0.8

1.7

1.3

LU

1.3

1.9

2.0

NL

1.8

2.8

2.0

PT

0.7

1.2

1.1

UK

2.7

3.6*

1.3

(:)  Missing or not available.
(*)  UK data for 1999 are not comparable with other countries due to the omission of indirect cost in the total labour cost.

Source:  Eurostat (CVTS), date of extraction: June 2008.

but the biggest drop, from 2.4 % to 1.4 %, was
in medium-sized companies (Figure 24). In 1999,
the difference between respective expenditure
of medium and large companies was relatively
small at 0.1 %; in 2005 the difference widened
to 0.5 %.

Comparison of the results of CVT surveys
carried out by Eurostat in 1993 (CVTS 1), 1999
(CVTS2) and 2005 (CVTS 3) reveals that in all
countries participating in all three surveys (12
Member States), except Greece, companiesʼ
expenditure on CVT courses increased from 1993
to 1999 (Table 2). This positive trend did not
continue in the countries concerned in the period
1999-2005 (17).

4.2.3.  Financing arrangements and
changes in funds allocation

Some countries (ReferNet, 2008) reported there
have  been  no  major  changes  in  their  VET
financing arrangements/structures, particularly
in the period 2006-08 (Austria, Croatia, the Czech
Republic, Denmark for IVET, Greece, Hungary,
Ireland, the Netherlands).

Some countries have changed the mechanism
for allocating resources for VET. In the past few
years,  several  newer  Member  States  have
introduced per capita funding (Bulgaria, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia), often differentiated by
type of school and professional field. Since 2004,
Slovenia has carried out pilot projects to develop
per capita funding. At present the scheme is based
mainly on inputs but a long-term goal is to focus on
outcomes by performance indicators. The scheme
is being implemented voluntarily. It is planned that
by the end of 2008, all schools (including higher
vocational) will apply the new financing model.

(17)  Progress report 2008.

Estonia  is  continuously  increasing  its
expenditure per student in VET – the ratio in
funding vocational versus general education is
currently 1.4:1 (formerly 1:1, target: 1.5:1). Since
2007, State-funded study places are approved
for the next three years instead of one year to
increase flexibility and autonomy of Estonian VET
schools, which have been granted the right to
decide on the number of the new applicants. At
the same time, schools are obliged to fill all the
state-funded study places. The aim of this
measure is to encourage schoolsʼ responsibility
for drop-outs. The Netherlands is currently
working on a second counting of students (in
February, apart from October) to make funding
more accurate.

4.2.4.  Cost-sharing policies and

mechanisms – raising additional
resources

Analysis of country reports provided by ReferNet
(2008) reveals that increased emphasis is put
on adult learning. Many Member States report
on greater investment in this area (Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Germany,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia,
Poland).  To  ensure  an  adequate  level  of
investment, private contributions are needed in
view of limited public resources. Meanwhile,
however, there has been a downward trend in
the level of companiesʼ expenditure on CVT
courses (Section 4.2.2). To address this, countries
continue  developing  various  cost-sharing
approaches (18), such as:

(18)  For further details refer to http://agora.cedefop.europa.eu/
vetfinancing2008/ (Cedefopʼs conference on VET financing);
www.cedefop.europa.eu/index.asp?section=3&read=2900
(Cedefop seminar on individual learning accounts).

•  securing certain level of private investment in

training by companies through levies;

•  providing financial incentives for companies
and individuals to invest in learning, such as
tax incentives, vouchers, (individual) learning
accounts, saving schemes, (low cost) loans;
•  promoting apprenticeship/ workplace training,
through subsidies, tax relief for companies
offering places.

(a)  Levies are the main source of income of
training funds which are set up in several
countries at national or, voluntarily, at sectoral
level (Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain
and the UK). Social partners play an important
role here, by financing training (contribution
of companies varies between 0.1-2.5 % of
payroll)  and  managing,  sometimes  in
cooperation with governments, on a tripartite
basis, (multi) sectoral training funds.
As a Cedefop study (Cedefop, 2008k) shows,
training funds contribute to reinforcing social
dialogue,  increasing  awareness  of  the
importance of training and strengthening
commitment to training. Sectoral training
funds proved helpful to improve the quantity
and quality of training supply by aligning it to
specific  sector  needs.  Mutualisation  of
financial resources in training funds solves
several potential training market failures that
may cause underinvestment. These include
the risk of poaching skilled workers and
reduced availability of training opportunities
for specific groups. The weak point of training
funds is red tape, which can deter SMEs from
using the funds. The focus on sector-specific
needs rather than transversal skills, though
most likely to be beneficial for a company,
may hamper mobility of workers.

(b)  Tax incentives can be offered to individuals
or companies requesting training, but also to
training providers. Tax incentives are present
in the majority of Member States and take
the form of tax allowances/credit/exemptions/
deferrals or rate relief.
Evidence – evaluation of tax deductions in
the Netherlands – shows that tax incentives
for individuals can have a positive net effect
on training participation. Tax incentives

CHAPTER 4
Governance and funding

57

targeted  at  companies  carry  a  risk  of
substitution  effect.  In  the  Netherlands,
preferential tax treatment of expenses for
training of employees over 40 resulted in less
training being offered to those under 40.
Thus, instead of generating more training,
the financial measure caused one group
replacing another. An advantage of tax
incentives is little additional administrative
costs as the scheme is mainly based on
existing institutional arrangements.
Available data shows that tax expenditure in
education and training activities (defined as
the loss of public revenue as a consequence
of introducing the incentives) are not the
backbone of public education and training
policies. In fact, they account for a very small
percentage of total public expenditure on
education and training, as most EU Member
States opt for direct funding and provision of
these services. A planned report by Cedefop
shows  that  tax  policies  are  largely
unconnected with education and training
policies. However, in the past few years,
increasing attention has been devoted to the
role that tax policies can play as a tool to
influence  and  support  enterprises  and
individualsʼ investments in education and
training. In this sense, experiences from
some countries show that tax incentives are
considered more effective where they are
used in concert with other policy measures
rather than on their own. Some countries
(Germany, the Netherlands, Austria) have
developed special tax incentives that favour
not only training required for current jobs but
also activities preparing people for future
occupational changes, always from a long-
term employability perspective.
Despite important differences among analysed
countries, tax incentives show many strong
points and are appreciated by employers and
enterprises, particularly for effectively reducing
education and training costs and for their low
levels of red tape. However, tax incentives
are often criticised for their high deadweight
effect, especially among large enterprises and
highly qualified individuals. They often have
perverse redistribution consequences as they
end up favouring groups already with best

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

58

access to education/training. In this sense, it
is argued that public authorities should try to
introduce  specific  and  well  thought  out
incentives for groups which benefit less (small
enterprises and their employees, low-income
people, low-skilled workers, etc).

(c)  Vouchers/learning accounts are direct, fixed
government payments where (one-off) copayment
by beneficiaries may be required. The amounts
of government funding vary, but mostly are
relatively small. The measure is usually for indi-
viduals (total adult population or specific groups),
to  companies.
but  can  also  apply 
Vouchers/learning accounts are implemented
in several countries [Belgium, Germany, Ireland,
Spain (Basque country), Italy, the Netherlands,
Austria, the UK (England, Scotland, Wales)],
but often experimentally – many schemes are
pilot projects.
In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,
the agency for the promotion of entrepreneurship
through its regional network has been running
a voucher system which provides SMEs with
access to training and advisory services free
of charge or on a cost-sharing basis.
Vouchers learning accounts enable beneficiaries
to choose the training that they want. This posi-
tively influences attitude, motivation, personal
development and participation in training. By
promoting investment in subjects prioritised
by learners, vouchers and learning accounts
are considered to bring the greatest advantage
to learners and respond well to labour market
needs.
Although the measure allows a more targeted
approach, it may not be effective for all disad-
vantaged groups. Experience in the Italian
regions Piedmont and Alto Adige shows that
vouchers helped to increase training participation
of some groups, in particular women, workers
with temporary/atypical contracts and small
enterprise employees while low-educated,
aged over 40 and blue collar workers remained
underrepresented. Information and counselling
as well as marketing and communication are
particularly important.

(d)  Saving schemes and loans. Saving schemes
involve regularly setting money aside over a
longer period of time. Individual savings may
be matched by contributions from government,

employer or both (Austria). Savings may also
concern working time (apart from financial
resources). This entails accumulating hours
which can be spent on training over a certain
period (France).
Loans for adult learning are less frequent
than for IVET participants. Sometimes, loans
are  provided  by  commercial  financial
institutions rather than the public sector.
However,  they  can  be  subsidised  by
government, in the form of a guarantee in
case of default or payment of interest rate
over a certain period (the UK).
Both saving schemes and loans appear more
successful for those with a high level of
education/income and less used by low
educated/ low income people although the
measure should provide support for those
who lack financial resources. They seem
more suitable for financing higher education
and expensive CVT courses rather than
short-term or less expensive ones.
Without additional incentive, savings may
have a relatively low take-up for training
purposes  due  to  competition  between
different motivations to save (e.g. retirement).
However, they can be more effective when
combined with other financial incentives
promoting  learning,  such  as  loans  or
vouchers.

4.2.5.  Innovative financing mechanisms –

policies to improve efficiency and
equity

Cost sharing policies/mechanisms are being
increasingly  promoted,  experimented  and
implemented in European countries to raise
participation in learning and encourage demand-
led behaviour. However, as evidence shows, their
cost-efficiency and net impact are difficult to
assess as the results differ across schemes. Each
mechanism discussed above carries a risk of
deadweight effect and specific target groups
might be difficult to reach. In response, countries
adjust existing financing instruments (often based
on evaluations) or introduce new schemes to
target groups better (Belgium, Ireland, Cyprus,
the UK) or combine different financing instruments
into a single model to reach a larger share of the
population  and  various  groups  (Germany,

CHAPTER 4
Governance and funding

59

Box 11.  Country examples on innovative financing mechanisms

Targeting groups
(cid:129)  In Belgium (Flemish community) in 2002, ‘training
vouchers for employers’ were introduced. In the
beginning  the  measure  was  addressed  to  all
companies. To reduce deadweight effect (which could
reach up to 80 %), vouchers were replaced in 2006
by the ‘budget for economic advice’ targeted at SMEs.
Support can be provided for training, counselling, and
tutorage for talented entrepreneurs and knowledge
transfer. Every two years, SMEs can receive a total
maximum subsidy of max EUR 5 000 (35 % of the
costs). The amount for training is limited to EUR 2
500. Obligatory training (regulated by law) is not
eligible for support.

(cid:129)  In Ireland, since 2007, State support for training people
in employment has focused particularly on low-skilled
and SMEs. The ‘back to education’ initiative, under
which government provides funds for part-time
learning and community-based education and for
childcare, was amended as a financial barrier for the
low-skilled persisted. Free tuition was introduced for
any adult with less than upper secondary education.
(cid:129)  In the UK, since 2005, there has been a switch in
public funding from general provision for adults to
provision for young people and major government
priority programmes for adults. Measures have been
taken to increase private contributions to fees where
learners are not undertaking priority courses. Private
share will increase from 32.5 % in 2006/07 to 42.5%
in 2008/09. It is expected that by 2010/11, non-
entitlement groups of learners/employers will be
contributing 50 %.
From 2008/09, three new funding models will be
introduced: (a) for 16-18 year-olds; (b) ‘adult learner
responsive model’; (c) ‘employer responsive model’.
This includes introduction of a diploma for those aged
16-18, expansion of apprenticeship and making
funding more demand-led for adults. Through the
‘adult learner responsive model’ the government will

invest GBP 1.5 billion in each of the next three years
in learning below level 2 and progression learning,
to support low-skilled and unemployed adults. Skills
accounts will be introduced putting purchasing power
in the hands of the learner. The ‘employer responsive
model’ is directed at learners who are employed.
Support is provided for apprenticeships, basic literacy
and numeracy skills, full levels 2 and 3. Increased
funding will be channelled through the train to gain
programme where employers are involved.

Combining different financing instruments
(cid:129)  In Austria, a saving scheme for education and training
has been in place since 2005. If an individual saves
for six years, a government bonus of EUR 210 is
offered, in addition to the interest rate. It is a possible
to receive a loan at a preferential rate of interest,
maximum 6 %. No repayment during learning is
required; it starts six months after graduation/
completion. To make the instrument more attractive,
it is proposed to raise the government bonus or offset
repayment against tax.

(cid:129)  In Germany, a new model to finance CVT was agreed
by  the  federal  government  in  April  2008,  for
implementation from October 2008. The model
encompasses three components: (a) State subsidy
(maximum EUR 154) granted to each beneficiary,
conditional upon their contribution in equal amount
(to finance participation fee); (b) facility to withdraw
savings deposits for CVT purposes before the end of
a lock-in period without losing the employee saving
bonus, by amending the Capital Formation Act. Under
the saving scheme, it is possible to build up a deposit
of EUR 3 500-4 000; (c) loan at preferential interest
rate, after an obligatory guidance consultation but
without any individual credit check. The model will
run initially for three years, with no regional limitation.
EUR 45 million are available for the initial phase.

Austria). While continuously stimulating private
contributions (particularly from those who can
afford it), governments direct available public
funding  to  areas  of  demonstrated  market
failure/priority areas. This often involves free
tuition fees for training specific groups (young
people, the low-skilled). Some countries make
particular  efforts  to  harmonise  different

(co)financing  instruments  to  ensure  their
complementarity and synergy, thus to improve
effectiveness of VET financing (Italy, Austria).

As a planned Cedefop study shows, VET cost
sharing mechanisms are a good policy tool to
improve private financing and participation in
VET. Further research into how VET cost-sharing
approaches function is needed. Better results

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

60

could be achieved once governance of VET cost-
sharing  mechanisms  across  countries  (in
particular newer Member States) improves and
more evaluation and monitoring data become
available.

The world economic crisis of 2008 is likely to
have a negative impact on VET cost-sharing
mechanisms as countries try to balance their
public finances (particularly newer Member
States). As a result, some VET cost-sharing
mechanisms in some countries could be reduced
or  abandoned.  On  the  positive  side,  the
worsening  capacity  to  finance  VET  could
stimulate greater attention to effectiveness,
efficiency and equity of cost-sharing schemes.

4.3.  Challenges and obstacles

Some Member States report positive effects from
the changes they have introduced in governance
and financing of their VET systems, which
resulted in increased efficiency, quality and/or
accessibility of VET provision. Some indicated
that the impact of the policies and initiatives they
reported on cannot be assessed as the measures
are too recent. Irrespective of this, further efforts
are needed to improve VET governance and
funding since many countries face important
challenges. These include (ReferNet, 2008):
•  lacking or out-of-date legislation on VET

(Bulgaria, Croatia, Latvia);

•  unsatisfactory coordination of policies/practices
developed by different governance bodies/ VET
actors, often at different levels (France, Italy,
Slovakia);

•  instability  of  governance  structures  and
discontinuity of policies (Estonia, the UK);
•  insufficient motivation and participation of
employers/social partners in development of
VET/cooperating  with  VET  institutions/
organising practical training (Bulgaria, the
Czech Republic, Romania);

•  lacking financial and/or human resources
(expertise) to implement broader VET policies/
specific initiatives, to ensure adequate capital
investment (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary,
Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Romania);

•  (foreseen) decrease in investment in VET due
to downward demographic trends (Poland,
Slovakia) or restrictive government fiscal
policies – reducing/preventing public deficit,
such as in view of joining Eurozone (Hungary,
Slovakia);

•  lacking or insufficient incentives for private
investment (Slovakia, the Czech Republic);
•  law awareness of newly introduced financing

mechanisms (Lithuania, Poland);

•  difficulty in reaching specific target groups

through financing incentives in place.
Countries  plan  to  implement  corrective
measures. Some declare that they will introduce
changes based on evaluations, which in itself is
a positive outcome in the wish to achieve more
evidence-based policy-making.

CHAPTER 5

Raising the attractiveness of VET

5.1.  Features and policies

from 

Making VET systems more open, flexible and
attractive is identified as an important part of the
Copenhagen process of enhanced cooperation
in VET as well as the European economic,
employment and social agenda generally. The
communication 
the  Commission
Modernising education and training: a vital
contribution to prosperity and social cohesion in
Europe (European Commission, 2005b) stressed
that improving the quality and attractiveness (19)
of VET continues to be a key challenge for the
future. The Helsinki communiqué (2006) called
for more attention to be given to the image, status
and attractiveness of VET (Lasonen and Gordon,
2008), which was further emphasised by the
Bordeaux communiqué (2008). According to the
Bordeaux  communiqué,  attractiveness,
accessibility and quality should allow VET to play
a major role in lifelong learning strategies, with
a twofold objective: (a) simultaneously promoting
equity, business performance, competitiveness
and innovation; (b) enabling citizens to acquire
the skills they need for career development, to
take up training, be an active citizen and achieve
personal  fulfilment.  VET  should  promote
excellence and at the same time guarantee equal
opportunities.

As  stated  in  the  2008  joint  report on
implementation of the Education and training
2010 work programme, further work still needs
to  be  done  to  improve  the  quality  and
attractiveness of VET and progress, including
reducing obstacles to progression from VET to
further or higher education (Council of the EU,
2008a).

From a research point of view, attractiveness
of VET is characterised as a cumulative process,
which means that the more VET looks attractive,
the more people and stakeholders use it and, in

turn, the more VET is used by these parties, the
more  it  is  attractive  to  others  (Cedefop,
forthcoming (c)). Increasing the number of
stakeholders  involved  in  VET  is  therefore
essential to VETʼs attractiveness.

Potential stakeholders may either be users or
providers  of  VET  and/or  be  involved  in  its
governance. Billett and Seddon (2004) have
emphasised the importance of partnership-based
governance at local level to reconcile conflicting
approaches, build commonality of interests,
promote 
the
consequences of action, implement decisions and
finally 
in  VET
improve  decision-making 
governance.

responsiveness, 

realise 

Attractiveness of educational institutions,
settings or tracks at the level of upper secondary
education  depends  on  three  groups  of
determinants (20):
(a)  the schooling content and context including
institutional  control  (public  or  private),
reputation  of  the  institution,  track  or
programme, and the style of governance
(practice of quality assurance, transparency);
information and communication technologies
(ICTs) and foreign languages in curricula and
training programmes;

(b)  economic determinants: attractiveness of
educational pathways or institutions can be
encouraged or discouraged through tuition
fees or tax arrangements;

(c)  opportunities for further educational and
career  development  including  gainful
employment  of  training  leavers,  their
earnings,  job  satisfaction,  and  the  job-
education skill match.

The EU policy of VET attractiveness is based

on four pillars:
(a)  individualisation  of  VET  pathways  and
delivery to consider the various capacities
and  interests  of  individuals  (see  also

(19)  Attractiveness is meant for the preferences, attitudes and
related behaviour of individuals and groups as well as their
families.

(20)  See  research  literature  on  attractiveness  reviewed  in
Cedefopʼs fourth VET research report, forthcoming (a).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

62

Chapter 7). Individualisation of VET implies
differentiation and flexibility (Cedefop, Descy
and Tessaring, 2001). Internal differentiation
relates to the teaching and learning process,
whereas external differentiation refers to
creation of new programmes/settings better
to accommodate the needs and preferences
of students. Flexibility induces possibilities
for individuals and for the system itself to react
rapidly in case of unforeseen developments/
changes;

(b)  increasing attractiveness by providing people
with a growing range of opportunities at the
end of VET pathways. These opportunities
can be of educational nature (workplace
learning or access to higher education), or
related to employment (job opportunities,
career development, opportunities resulting
from policies of gender equality);

(c)  increasing the attractiveness of VET through
modernising  its  governance.  The  EU
approach is based on the idea that modern
governance  implies  streamlining  and
clarifying the educational offer, which may
smooth and stimulate use of VET, thus
favouring cumulative attractiveness. This view
also recalls that modern governance means
improving partnerships especially at local
the  steering  and
improve 
level 
development of the VET system;

to 

(d)  action on image and status of VET includes
promoting its parity of esteem with general
and higher education, and encouraging
excellence in skills, for example by applying
world-class  standards  or  through  skills
competitions.

National policies implemented in Member
States (DGVT, 2008; ReferNet, 2008) reflect – at
least partly – EU priorities. In several countries,
the VET offer has been diversified, educational
routes more suited to lower-ability students have
been opened, and modularised settings created.
VET students have also been offered more options
to reenter general education at secondary level
or to enter tertiary education, to make the choice
for  VET  reversible  and  thus  increase  VET
attractiveness. Governance of VET systems has
also been modernised by introducing quality
assurance procedures, qualification frameworks
for more transparency, and partnerships for more

responsiveness, in order to raise the usefulness
and attractiveness of VET to more stakeholders.
Finally, attempts are being made to bring academic
education and VET closer together to fill the gap
of esteem between both educational pathways.
To  increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET,
countries have put considerable emphasis on
development of their vocational training and
retraining courses. Examples for institutionalised
solutions include (ReferNet, 2008):
(a)  establishment of well-equipped training
centres (Bulgaria, Estonia, Italy, Lithuania,
Hungary);

(b)  establishment of validation centres (Portugal)
or  external  examination  commissions
(Poland);

(c)  introduction of higher educational and post-
secondary programmes to reduce dead ends
and  increase  the  level  of  qualifications
(Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Norway);
(d)  progressively developing counselling offices
and organised networks in the majority of
countries (Section 7.2).

Problems  remain  however.  First,  not  all
priorities set up in the Copenhagen process have
led to concrete measures. Lower achievement
relates to providing VET students with individual
guidance  and  support.  Similar  applies  to
increasing  VET  studentsʼ  labour  market
opportunities; involving social groups, teachers
and students in the governance of VET systems;
and taking action to improve the image of VET.
A consistent approach is needed since the
simultaneity of initiatives taken at national or
institutional levels in terms of vocationalism,
academisation or differentiation (Dunkel and Le
Mouillour, 2008) might be counterproductive.
Finally, systematic evaluation of implemented
attractiveness policies is also lacking.

5.2.  Attractiveness of VET –
trends and incentives

5.2.1.  Participation in initial VET (IVET) and

access to higher education

At present, more than half the students enrolled
in  upper  secondary  education  (ISCED  3)
participate  in  vocational  or  prevocational
programmes. The proportion of students enrolled

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET

63

Figure 25.  Students enrolled in vocational upper secondary education (ISCED 3), 

2002 and 2006 (% of all students enrolled in upper secondary education)

NB:  EU average excludes France and the UK; Croatia 2004 instead of 2002.
(a)  ISCED 3 vocational and ISCED 3 prevocational.
Source:  Cedefop’s calculations based on Eurostat, UOE data collection, date of extraction: 13.1.2009.

Figure 26.  Growth in enrolments in education and training by programme orientation 

1998-2006, EU–27

NB:  1998=100 – Upper secondary education excludes France and the UK; tertiary with occupational orientation excludes the UK.
Source:  Eurostat, UOE data collection, date of extraction: 19.12.2008.

in VET programmes at ISCED 3 has increased
in  eight  countries  between  2002  and  2006
(Figure 25). Especially Ireland, Spain, Finland
and Sweden witnessed a stable increase in the
share of students in vocational programmes. In
many Member States, however, trends of VET
participation are decreasing.

The  most  noticeable  decrease  in  VET
participation can be observed in Hungary; however,

these figures result mainly from a change in the
categorisation of existing programmes moving
some vocational training programmes from ISCED
3 to ISCED 4 level. It still has to be noted though
that there is a trend of decreasing participation in
Hungarian upper secondary level VET due to the
falling prestige of vocational schools, as well as
social and policy demand for expansion of higher
education (ReferNet Hungary, 2008).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

64

Figure 27.  Students enrolled in upper secondary education programmes giving access 

to both labour market and higher education (ISCED 3A and ISCED 3B
programmes), 2006 (% of all students enrolled in ISCED 3 programmes)

Source:  Eurostat, UOE data collection, 2006, date of extraction: 19.12.2008.

When looking at post secondary non-tertiary
education and tertiary education, we see that in
particular studies in tertiary education with
occupational orientation (21) attracted more
Europeans – from 1998 to 2006 enrolments in
tertiary education with occupational orientation
grew by 37 % in contrast to 27 % growth in total
enrolments in tertiary education (Figure 26).

A possibility to increase attractiveness of VET
for students and their parents is to introduce more
programmes at ISCED 3 level which allow both
access to the labour market as well as higher
education (see Chapter 7). This trend can be already
observed. Figure 27 shows that in 2006 almost
80 % of all students in upper secondary education
(ISCED 3) were enrolled in programmes providing
an opportunity to access both higher education and
the labour market– either directly or later in life. Of
these students, about 10 % were enrolled in ISCED
3B  programmes  giving  direct  access  only  to
vocationally-oriented tertiary education.

There are significant differences at country
level ranging from all or almost all programmes
at ISCED 3 giving access to both labour market
and higher education (Bulgaria, Estonia, Cyprus,
Lithuania, Portugal and Finland as well as Turkey)

(21)  See  research  literature  on  attractiveness  reviewed  in
Cedefopʼs fourth VET research report, forthcoming (a).

to about half of such programmes in Belgium.

Another feature of improving attractiveness of
VET is the better integration or redirection of
females into specific VET programmes in which
they are underrepresented. Member States
reported only minor developments since 2006.
One  reason  is  that  numerous  policies  and
measures in this area had been introduced
already some years ago.

For example, in Austria, a large number of
political measures have been launched since
2002, including targeted educational counselling
measures for girls and women; technology
specific womenʼs programmes (ʻWomen in the
crafts and technologyʼ from 2006 to 2008);
creation of attractive learning provisions for
women in rural regions who are less likely to
access education (ʻdifficult to reachʼ) and at a
disadvantage; promotion for girls and women in
technical and scientific higher education study
programmes.

In the framework of the 2000-06 ESF planning
period, Italy has introduced several innovative
instruments such as tele-work, part-time work,
job rotation and sharing, actions to support family
management, development of replacement
services for self-employed women and actions
to foster regularisation of illegal work.

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET

65

Figure 28.  Employees (all enterprises) participating in CVT courses by gender, 

2005 (% of all employees)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS3, 2005, date of extraction: 4.12.2008.

Figure 29.  Participation in continuing vocational training in Member States, 

1999-2005 (% of employees in all enterprises)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS2 and CVTS3, 1999 and 2005, date of extraction: 4.12.2008.

5.2.2.  Participation in and provision 

of continuing vocational training
In 2005, 33 % of all employees participated in
CVT courses organised by enterprises (measured
by the number of participants in CVT courses as
percentage of all employees in all enterprises).
Figure 28 shows that there is a large variation
across the EU with respect to participation in
training courses, ranging from almost 60 % in

the Czech Republic to 14 % in Greece. Men are
slightly more likely to participate, with 34 %
compared to 31 % of women, a trend that is
evident in 17 of the 27 countries for which data
are available. The highest variation exists in the
Czech Republic and Slovakia, where men are
significantly more likely to follow training courses
than women (11 percentage points higher). On
the  contrary,  in  Denmark  and  Slovenia,

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

66

Figure 30.  Ratio of enterprises providing CVT compared to all enterprises,

1999-2005 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS2 and CVTS3, 1999 and 2005, date of extraction: 4.12.2008.

significantly more women follow CVT courses
than men.

The  comparison  of  participation  in  CVT
courses in 2005 and 1999 reveals that newer
Member  States  are  catching  up,  some  by
investing more in human resources. For example
in Slovenia and the Czech Republic, participation
rates in CVT courses have increased by 36 %
and 28 % respectively. However, in the majority
of newer Member States, despite a significant
increase, participation in CVT is still  low.

However, participation rates decreased in
some countries with traditionally high participation
of employees in continuing training, such as
Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the UK. Despite
this downward trend, these countries still belong
to best performing countries in this area.

The reasons for these variations of CVT
participation need to be analysed further. In 2008,
Cedefop initiated an analysis of CVT participation
and expenditure; results will be available in
autumn 2009.

The training incidence (the ratio of enterprises
providing CVT compared to all enterprises)
remained stable between 1999 and 2005, with
61 % of enterprises providing any type of training
(Figure 30). Leading countries in 2005 include
Austria and the UK (up slightly in 2005 compared
to 1999), the Netherlands and Sweden (which
both lost ground). Countries where training
incidence seems lower include Italy, Portugal and

Romania, though each has seen increases
compared to 1999. Greece had low training
incidence in enterprises in both 1999 and 2005.

5.2.3.  Reasons why Europeans participate

or not in lifelong learning

As  can  be  seen  in  previous  sections  and
supported by evidence measuring progress
towards the European benchmark – 12.5 % of
adults aged 25 to 64 years participating in lifelong
learning in the EU by 2010 – progress in lifelong
learning of adults is slow, with stagnating or
decreasing participation in some countries. In
2007, only 9.7 % of Europeans aged 25 to 64
participated in lifelong learning (formal and non-
formal learning).

Two Eurostat sources provide information on
why individuals do not learn more in their life
course: the continuing vocational training survey
(CVTS) and the adult education survey (AES).

In the CVTS3 survey 2005, reasons why
enterprises do not provide training for their
employees  were  asked  for.  Non-training
enterprises were requested to highlight the three
most important reasons. Results show that above
all, there was a perception that no training was
needed, evident in nearly three quarters of all
non-training  enterprises.  The  predominant
response to identified needs was to recruit
individuals  with  the  required  skills  and
competences (54 % in the EU), thus relieving

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET

67

Figure 31.  Non-training enterprises as % of all enterprises by reason for non-training, 

EU-27, 2005 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS3, 2005, date of extraction: 15.1.2009.

Figure 32.  Distribution of reasons of participation in non-formal education and training 

by education level, EU*, 2007 (%)

NB:  Data for EU were calculated as the weighted average of countries for which data are currently available in the adult education survey 

(BG, DE, EE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LV, LT, HU, AT, PL, SK, FI, SE, UK). Data for France and Slovakia are provisional.

Source:  Eurostat, adult education survey, 2007, date of extraction: 16.1.2009.

them of investing further in CVT. One in three
European enterprises said that lack of time
constituted an important reason why training was
not  provided  (Figure  31).  About  10  %  of
enterprises  explained  they  do  not  provide

continuing vocational training because they focus
more on provision of initial vocational training.

In contrast to the CVTS3 survey, in the adult
education survey (AES) individuals were asked
why they participated in non-formal education

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

68

Figure 33.  Selected reasons of participation in non-formal education and training among

medium-skilled adults (aged 25 to 64), 2007

NB:  Data for Slovakia are provisional; data for France are not included because not comparable for methodological reasons; 

data for the UK are not included due to the high number of non-respondents.

Source:  Eurostat, adult education survey, 2007, date of extraction: 13.1.2009.

and training, including continuing vocational
training.

The three most important reasons reported by
participants in the EU were that they wanted to
do their job better and/or improve their career
(43 % in the EU), to increase their knowledge/
skills on an interesting subject (31.8 %) and to
get knowledge/skills which are useful for the
everyday life (25.4 %).

About 50 % and more than 65 % respectively
of participants in non-formal education, including
continuing vocational education, in Hungary and
Slovakia as well as slightly more than 40 % in
Norway reported that they participated in training
because they were obliged to for various reasons,
for example execution of regulated professional
occupations and activities. On the contrary, this
reason was not so important in Bulgaria, Spain
and Poland where less than 10 % of participants
in non-formal education declared this reason.

A relatively low percentage of participants
(2.5 % in the EU) indicated that they participated
in training because they wanted to start their own
business.

In some countries like Latvia, Austria and
Sweden, more than 20 % of participants said
they participated in non-formal education because
they  wanted  to  meet  other  people.  This
percentage was even higher in Finland (almost
30 %).

Figure 33 shows the three most important
reasons  why  participants  with  medium
educational attainment participated in non-formal
education and training. These three reasons
were: to do the job better and to improve career
prospects; to increase knowledge/skills on an
interesting subject and to get knowledge/skills
useful in everyday life.

Differences between countries are significant.
They range for example from about 26 % of
Bulgarian participants (all levels of qualifications)
declaring as a reason to do their job better and
improve career prospects to about 80 % in
Estonia. However, except for Bulgaria and
Cyprus, this reason was very important in the
majority of countries for which data are available
(for  about  50  %  to  more  than  70  %  of
participants).

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET

69

5.3.  Incentives to increase

attractiveness

Each country applies several financial and non-
financial incentives to increase attractiveness of
VET. Some measures have been available for
several  years;  others  have  been  recently
developed or are in their pilot phase. This section
focuses mainly on most recent developments;
however, in case of significant results or impacts,
previous measures will also be addressed.

5.3.1.  Motivating people to participate 

in VET

It is impossible to give a complete overview of
all existing measures, because each country

has its own supporting and granting system for
the different IVET pathways and CVT courses
(see Chapter 4). However, there are several
initiatives introduced or becoming widespread
only recently which are of common interest.
Some examples:
(a) educational maintenance allowances (EMA)
of the UK are available to 16 and 17 year-
olds from low income families who stay in full-
time education. Their purpose is to encourage
such  young  people  to  stay  in  learning;
payment is conditional on a good attendance
record. EMAs were introduced as a pilot in
some areas for young people who reached
the age of 16 in 1999. The EMA scheme was
extended to the whole of England in 2004

Box 12.  Centres of vocational excellence in England

Centres of vocational excellence, introduced by the
Learning and Skills Council from late 2001 in England,
were initially intended to be specialist centres of vocational
provision, with focus on high level skills and close links
between these centres and business and employment
partners. The aims of the programme included:
(cid:129)  significant expansion in vocational learning, particularly

at Level 3;

(cid:129)  increased effectiveness in addressing skills priorities;
(cid:129)  increased collaboration among learning providers and
promotion of excellence and continuous improvement;
(cid:129)  examples of innovation and flexibility to meet the

needs of employers.
Centres of vocational excellence were spread
throughout England, with many based in further education
colleges. Each centre focused on a specific area of
technology, which might be very broad (for example,
business and management or hospitality and catering)
or more specialised (for example, biotechnology or digital
imaging). Each centre was given additional funding of
up to GBP 500 (EUR 600) for a three-year period.

An early evaluation in 2003 (Learning and Skills
Council, 2003) found that these centres had made good
progress towards meeting the aims of the programme.
Two other surveys found that most employers who had
used centres were very positive about their flexibility
(including flexible opening times), their ability to offer
specifically tailored training and their reputation for
quality, reasonable price, specialist staff, and high-quality
equipment and facilities. Users reported increases in

staff confidence, motivation and morale as a result of
the training provided.

In its 2004-05 annual report, the Adult learning
inspectorate said that most centres of vocational
excellence had done good work in identifying skills
priorities, improving consultation with employers and
developing flexible provision and were delivering good
quality education and training. In most centres, however,
there had been little improvement in rates of achievement
at Level 3.

Despite the initially favourable reports, a review in
2006 by Madeleine Wahlberg of the Centre for Education
and Industry at the University of Warwick found that:
(cid:129)  there was little evidence of a formal strategy for
evaluating centres of vocational excellence policy;
many of the published evaluations dealt with only
limited aspects of their implementation and their
evidence base was often weak;

(cid:129)  there had been ‘mission drift’ in centres of vocational
excellence policy, especially the late addition of social
inclusion as an aim;

(cid:129)  there were ‘turf wars’ over who should control policy

and funding;

(cid:129)  there were conflicts between centres of vocational

excellence policies and other policies;

(cid:129)  students had become ‘second tier’ beneficiaries, unable
to gain a transferable, whole qualification if employers
chose to fund only parts.

Source: UK ReferNet, 2008.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

70

following a three-year evaluation which
showed that it had been effective in raising
staying rates. From April 2006, EMAs were
extended to entry to employment (E2E) and
apprenticeship programmes;

(b)  to improve the social conditions of initial
vocational education students in Latvia, their
scholarships  on  average  have  been
increased. In the period between 2007 and
2013 it is planned to spend more than EUR
14.2  million 
for
from  ESF 
scholarships to those vocational education
students who show good results in studies
and examinations.

funding 

Even though specific focus on talents could
also increase VET attractiveness, only few
Member States reported on particular talent
management measures and priorities. One
example is Germany, where an advancement
bursary is available to talented completers of
dual-system apprenticeships wishing to proceed
directly  into  higher  education.  Further,  a
vocational training programme for the highly
talented (Begabtenförderung berufliche Bildung)
supports the continuing education of particularly
high-achieving young employees possessing a
recognised vocational qualification. Since 2008,
the  programme  also  gives  specific  degree
courses for those vocationally qualified individuals
who wish to complement their initial vocational
training with a higher education degree without
holding a formal higher education entrance
qualification. The VET programme for the highly
talented reached around 13 900 recipients by
the end of 2007 (BMBF, 2008). There were mixed
experiences with a similar initiative in the UK, as
described in Box 12.

As far as other non-financial incentives are
concerned, various elements making the given
training path or course attractive are even wider.
Apart  from  already  mentioned  factors  like
flexibility,  modularity,  quality  of  courses,
qualifications, teachers and premises there are
some other, similarly important social benefits
and allocations in kind.

In IVET, motivating effects are national and
international competitions of students, geo graphical
mobility and exchange programmes, free textbooks
and  school  transportation,  as  well  as  free
accommodation at student dormitories (in Croatia).

In Ireland, to attract people whose enrolment
and  attendance  is  currently  prevented  by
childcare responsibilities, assistance is provided
for childcare expenses of participants in the
vocational  training  opportunities  scheme,
Youthreach  and  Senior  traveller  centre
programmes.

Apart from the examples above, several other
countries use training funds, vouchers and
individual learning accounts to make VET more
attractive (Section 4.2). Besides, the importance
of specific Community initiatives EQUAL and ESF
should  also  be  underlined.  These  multidi -
mensional  financial  support  channels  are
overarching and interconnecting local strategies
and actions, hence they are important drivers of
development and change.

The most widespread incentives for adult
learning  are  related  to  educational  leave;
however, specific target groups might receive
extra financial support promoting their time spent
in education and training.
•  In Austria, within the reform of educational
leave, the minimum employment duration
required for entitlement has been significantly
reduced (from three to one year) and the CVT
allowance is raised from previously EUR 436
per  month  to  the  amount  of  the  notional
unemployment  benefit.  On  average,  this
corresponds to an increase of 70 %. Seasonally
employed people (with interrupted employment
relationships) are now also entitled to conclude
an agreement on educational leave under
certain conditions.

•  Unlike Austria, there is no legislative entitlement
to paid CVT leave in Ireland. In general, no
public funds are distributed directly to the
population for adult learning, which usually is
paid for directly by individuals themselves.
While participation in full-time further education
(post leaving certificate courses), and higher
education does not require payment of tuition
fees,  this  is  not  the  case  for  part-time
participants. Tax relief is available for persons
attending recognised third level courses; limited
tax relief is also available for fees paid for
attendance at approved CVT courses aiming
to improve ICT and foreign language skills.
•  In France, the individual training entitlement
(droit individuel à la formation – DIF), in place

CHAPTER 5
Raising the attractiveness of VET

71

in private sector companies since 2004, gives
every employee the right to 20-24 hoursʼ
training, depending on sectoral agreements,
each year. Training activities are financed by
employers, and annual entitlements may be
accumulated for up to six years. In 2006, 358
000 employees benefited from the scheme.
For training hours obtained during working
hours, employees receive their normal salary;
other hours of training are paid at a rate of 50 %
of the net salary. Employees must take the
initiative to implement their rights to training
although this must be covered by a formal
agreement with the employer.

•  In Italy, in the framework of prepaid cards,
individual learning accounts (ILA) have been
conducted on an experimental basis. With the
ILA card, entitled citizens are given a maximum
credit of EUR 2 500 (divided into single EUR
500 spending limits) for a period of two years
to be spent on participation in formal and
informal learning activities chosen by individuals
themselves, assisted by guidance and tutoring
services provided by employment centres (22).
•  In Slovakia, a specific financial benefit became
available for disabled jobseekers in May 2008.
The financial provision aims at increasing their
motivation to participate in education and
training programmes lasting more than one
month. The benefit is provided for a calendar
month and equals to the minimum subsistence
allowance.

5.3.2.  Incentives to increase VET provision

of employers

Involvement of enterprises in VET provision is a
rather challenging and complex task in most
countries, even though there is continuously
increasing demand for enterprisesʼ participation
in apprenticeship, curriculum and qualification
development, in line with market needs. However,
due to time and financial constraints, lack of
experts to investigate skill needs in given VET
fields, and the occasional surplus of human
resources, enterprises are not always keen on

(22)  The project is linked to another training initiative, ʻGILAT-
Guidance  for  ILA  in  Tuscanyʼ,  promoted  by  the  Tuscany
regional  authority  under  the  Community  programme
ʻLeonardo  da  Vinciʼ  and  implemented  with  the  regional
authorities of Piedmont and Umbria.

being involved. For example, in Slovakia only
financially strong enterprises and booming
sectors have enough resources to run skills needs
and occupation needs studies. In 2003, 72 % of
Slovakian enterprises declared no need to assess
CVT needs (highest share in the EU). To stimulate
further the interest of enterprises, it might be
worth considering possible financial and non-
financial incentives governments can provide.

Such  initiatives  can  be  found  in  some
countries, such as in Ireland, where employer
organisations such as IBEC (Irish Business and
Employers Confederation), ISME, (Irish Small
and  Medium-Sized  Enterprises),  and  the
Construction Industry Federation (CIF), all
provide either financial or other incentives to
promote training practices among their members.
They also make a contribution to enterprise-
based CVT activities through their participation
in the industry-led ʻSkillnetsʼ training networks
programme to identify and make provision for
training needs.

Box 13.  The Skillnets approach – Ireland

The Skillnets approach is based on the strengths and
synergies of networking and partnership led and
managed by enterprises themselves and has created
and delivered training programmes across a broad
range of industry and service sectors nationwide. A
‘Skillnet’ is a group of three or more enterprises that
decide to cooperate to undertake a training project
that individual members of the group would be unable
to undertake alone. Based on positive results from
the original pilot project 1999-2000, Skillnets was
commissioned to continue the programme in 2002.
There are 127 new training networks included in the
2008-09 programme, and in line with national policy,
many of these networks will have a strong focus on
the training needs of the lower skilled.

Increasing the number of training places is
also  supported  in  Austria,  where  training
allowances  have  been  introduced  both  for
external (since 2000) and for in-house training
(since 2002). According to CVTS3, the course
attendance rate in companies with 10 employees
or more increased between 1999 and 2005 from
31 % to 33 % (Statistik Austria, 2007).

CHAPTER 6

Increasing access to VET 
by addressing equity

Improving access for all is a guiding principle
highlighted  in  national  laws  and  strategic
documents of all countries following the Lisbon
and Copenhagen agendas. Depending on the
historical and socioeconomic background, there
are some differences in levels and priorities of
actions; however, the main issues addressed are
fairly similar. Most new initiatives aim primarily
at specific target groups, especially early school
leavers and other youngsters not in education,
employment or training (NEET), as well as people
with a low level of educational attainment,
especially older workers and migrants.

Examples of good practice range from specific
training programmes and educational counselling
to inclusive education of students with special
needs and a more tailor-made training of low-
skilled workers. Measures to help migrants
succeed in VET increasingly include targeted
support and language learning. Some countries
are  also  (re)introducing  apprenticeship  or
alternance training.

Although availability of well-prepared teachers
and trainers is indispensable for increasing equity
in education and training, provision of specific
teaching competences for target groups is in
serious shortage in many countries. To solve this
problem, several teacher training initiatives have
been introduced in some countries. For example
in Latvia, teacher students are provided with study
courses fostering teachersʼ competences for
education and training students with special
educational needs. Similarly, in Estonia, training
is provided for teachers to cope with specific target
groups, especially students with disabilities (for
more details on teacher training see Section 8.2).

ʻEasing access for all to education and training
systems ʼ(23) is one of the three objectives set by
the Stockholm European Council (2001) and
spelled out in specific objectives at the Barcelona
European Council (2002). In the Education and
training  2010  work  programme  (European
Commission, 2002b), the environment and
attractiveness of learning as well as support of
active citizenship, equal opportunities and social
cohesion gained particular importance.

In line with the strategic objective of easing
access for all to education and training, the
importance  of  key  issues  such  as  equal
opportunities, guidance, flexibility of learning and
validation of former experiences has also been
identified.  Two  out  of  the  five  education
benchmarks agreed by the European Council in
2003 were in particular devoted to this objective:
increasing participation of adults in lifelong
learning (at least 12.5 % in 2010) and reducing
early school leavers (no more than 10 % in 2010).
According to a Eurobarometer survey in 2006
most Europeans (79 %) believe that the EU has
a positive impact on access to education and
training. Most common obstacles to training relate
to  financial  and  temporal  restrictions.  Of
Europeans who say they are unable to undertake
training 37 % state that they cannot fund training
themselves; 26 % mention problems in balancing
their work and family responsibilities. Similar
numbers of interviewees say that their employer
will not support them (18 %), that it is difficult to
fit training in working hours (17 %) or mention
problems of distance from the training site (16 %)
(European Commission, 2006a).

(23)  In this publication, similar to the definition of the European
Commission, (2006d), ʻaccessʼ is understood as a right to
participate  (ʻparticipationʼ).  Participation  means  that  an
individual has a real opportunity to undergo education or
training. It is different from another, more ʻformalʼ definition
of access, which stresses the importance of having the right
to  participate  in  education  and  training,  without  being
concerned with whether this right can actually be exercised
in practice.

CHAPTER 6
Increasing access to VET by addressing equity

73

6.1.  Opening new ʻgatesʼ 

for early school leavers

European countries agreed to reduce the share
of early school leavers to no more than 10 % by
2010 (EU benchmark). In 2007, this share in the
EU decreased to 14.8 % (Annex 2). However,
progress is slow and there are considerable
differences between countries.

The  Czech  Republic,  Lithuania,  Poland,
Slovakia and Finland have already achieved the
benchmark. The same can be presumed for
Slovenia for which the most recent reliable data
are available only for 2001. But most Mediterra -
nean countries, namely Spain, Italy, Malta and
Portugal, as well as Romania, are lagging far
behind, with early school leaving rates of around
20 to more than 30 %. Sweden already reached
the 2010 benchmark of 10 % more than a decade
ago. However, since 2001 it has exceeded the
benchmark several times. Also in other countries,
like Denmark, Spain and Austria the rate of early
school leavers has slightly increased since 2000
(Eurostat, labour force survey, 2007).

There is evidence from some countries that
vocationally-oriented training programmes and
pathways can encourage young people to remain
in or return to formal education; hence, countriesʼ
interest  in  such  programmes  is  increasing
(European Commission, 2008d). Significant and
gradual progress can be observed in several
apprenticeship and alternance training fields (see
Chapter 3):
•  modularisation of apprenticeship training

(Austria);

•  introduction of young apprenticeship (England)
and new modern apprenticeship (Cyprus);
•  work-based learning pathways pilots (Wales);
•  more provision of apprenticeship training,
especially for ethnic minorities (Denmark);
•  substantial further development of existing
apprenticeship  programmes  (in  several
countries, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany,
Latvia, Norway and Sweden);

•  a new law on or legitimising apprenticeship

(Estonia, Lithuania).
To  reach  pupils  who  lack  motivation  to
complete a more theoretical, school-based
education without first gaining a practical insight
into  the  field,  Denmark  introduced  a  new

apprenticeship (ny mesterlære) pathway, where
students, in the first year of their education,
receive practical training in an enterprise; school-
based training is provided only afterwards.

As a pilot initiative, the UK (England) has
introduced an increased flexibility programme
(IFP) to motivate pupils who had become bored
with school. Between 2002 and 2007, the IFP
provided opportunities for pupils in approximately
2000 schools to spend one or two days per week
in vocational learning. The aims are to raise
student attainment, develop their social learning,
improve attendance and increase post-16 year
old studentsʼ retention in education and training.
As a result, 87 % of participants went on to post-
compulsory learning, and they felt more confident
and better prepared for working life. Derived from
the success of the pilot, schools and colleges have
continued to offer programmes based on the
curricula developed; the lessons learned have
influenced other developments for the age group
14-19.

The UK also reports on special initiatives
targeted at young people not in education,
employment or training (NEET) to decrease their
number in future (ReferNet UK, 2008).

Other, corresponding measures include:
•  integration or approximation of general and
vocational education (Denmark, Norway, Spain)
as well as strengthening links with basic
education ensuring better career orientation
(Finland);

•  raising the limit of compulsory education to the
age of 16 (Italy) or even to 18 (England,
Hungary, the Netherlands) (24);

•  education  guarantee  until  the  age  of  18

(Austria);

•  introducing vocational training for those lacking
appropriate entrance qualification to VET
(Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary);

•  ʻsecond  chanceʼ  programmes  (Germany,

Ireland, Greece, France).

(24)  In  most  European  countries,  the  age  limit  of  compulsory
schooling has long been 16, except for the Czech Republic,
Greece, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Austria, Portugal
and Slovenia, where it is still 15. In Hungary the age limit of
compulsory  schooling  was  increased  to  18  in  1996,
however, the first group affected was the 1998/99 cohort
which  started  its  11th  year  of  school  in  the  2008/09
academic year.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

74

There  have  also  been  developments  in
individualisation, modularisation and flexibility
(Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg, Norway, Romania,
Spain and Sweden; see Chapter 7). However, a
recent analysis in Denmark underlines that
individualisation and modularisation requires
increased orientation and guidance services
especially for those who can not handle increased
responsibility for their learning pathways.

Several countries underlined that in spite of
any policies and procedures in place, the number
of early school leavers is hard to bring down
further without additional measures at regional
and local levels.

6.2.  Low-skilled and older

persons

Some countries are more successful than others
in increasing participation in LLL of low-skilled
and older persons (Figure 34).

Two clusters of countries can be observed: a
small group of European countries (Denmark,
Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands and the UK)
are more equitable and able to provide learning
opportunities for older and low-skilled people. In
the majority of EU Member States, participation
of these groups in lifelong learning is rather low
– far below the EU benchmark for the working
age population (12.5 % by 2010).

6.2.1.  Upskilling the low skilled
Despite progress, in particular as regards the
younger generation, low-skilled people still
represent almost one third (78 million) of the
European working age population aged 25-64
(Figure 35). However, the EU average masks
significant differences at national level ranging
from about 10 % in the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Lithuania and Slovakia, to more than 70 % of low
skilled in Malta and Portugal.

To tackle this problem, countries introduced
new training pathways or flexible programmes.
For example, the aim of the ʻStep one step
aheadʼ (SOSA) programme in Hungary is to
increase the educational level of adults of working
age, improve their chance to find a job and thus
to help unemployed and inactive people to enter

the labour market and provide workers for certain,
high-demand professions. The programme
targets those with less than upper secondary
education; people with outdated vocational
qualification; those who wish to take part in further
training in their occupation; and those having a
secondary school leaving exam certificate and
no vocational qualification. The programme
provides training free of charge in high-demand
occupations; its duration is between 150 and
1 000  hours.  Upon  successful  completion,
participants receive a monthly minimum wage.
The drop-out rate of the first course was only
2 %, and the rate of satisfaction was high among
participants. Of the participants, 60 % could find
a job following the training.

Similar programmes have been introduced in
other countries, such as the Noste programme
in Finland and the Upgrading Training Assistance
Act (Aufstiegsfortbildungsförderungsgesetz,
AFBG) in Germany. The Noste programme
targets poorly trained adults to improve their
career prospects and satisfaction at work, while
the  AFBG  supports  the  extension  and
development of vocational skills.

In Ireland, specific training programmes are
available for young and adult travellers (27) who
left school early. Besides core skills of literacy
and numeracy, the senior traveller training
programme provides travellers with the skills to
manage successfully transition to work and to
participate fully in their communities. Certification
of courses provided in traveller training centres
and workshops ensures a range of progression
opportunities for participants. These programmes
give several skills to trainees and endeavour to
break the vicious circle of illiteracy and social
deprivation.

Distance learning incentives have also been
implemented in some countries. In Belgium, for
example, a supervised individual study (Begeleid
Individueel Studeren: BIS) supports individual
learning of adults via distance learning. The
course comes to the course participant; timing
and  pace  can  be  set  by  the  individual.  In
Romania, access to initial VET has also been
widened  by  development  of  the  necessary

(25)  Travellers  are  an  itinerant  people  of  Irish  origin  living  in

Ireland and Great Britain.

CHAPTER 6
Increasing access to VET by addressing equity

75

Figure 34.  Participation of low-skilled and older persons in lifelong learning, 2007 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, EU labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: May 2008.

Figure 35.  Low-skilled adults as a percentage of total working age population 

(aged 25 to 64), 2007 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, labour force survey (LFS), 2007, date of extraction: 4.12.2008.

premises for distance education programmes.

In all countries, many CVT initiatives for the
employed are also available for the unemployed.
Further, a wide spectrum of training programmes
for the unemployed is provided with special
emphasis on the low skilled.

6.2.2.  Addressing needs of older workers
As discussed in Chapter 2, the number of older
people will increase substantially in coming
decades. It is therefore essential to design now
suitable CVT programmes and validate the skills
and experience of older workers. At present,

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

76

Figure 36.  Participation of employees in CVT courses organised in enterprises 

by age group, 2005 (%)

Source:  Eurostat, CVTS 3, 2005, date of extraction: 3.12.2008.

however, older workers tend to accumulate
disadvantages:  they  are  on  average  less
educated than younger age groups; they receive
less formal and non-formal/continuing training,
and  their  work  experience  and  informal
competences they have acquired during their
working lives are not always properly valorised
(Cedefop, Nyhan and Tikkanen, 2006).

A special Eurobarometer survey 2006 on
discrimination in the EU indicates that 57 % of
EU citizens feel that in their country people aged
over 50 are considered no longer capable of
working efficiently. Country results show that
agreement with this view is most widespread in
Portugal (78 %), followed by Slovakia (73 %) and
Germany (71 %). This contrasts significantly with
public opinion in Denmark (35 %), Cyprus (36 %)
and the Netherlands (37 %), where only around
one third of citizens agree with this statement
(European Commission, 2007b).

the  same  subject,  belief 

According to the 2008 special Eurobarometer
on 
that  age
discrimination is widespread dropped by 4 %
points since 2006; however, it is still at a high
level (42 %). This suggests that Europe has
made some moves towards combating age
discrimination, but there is still some way to go
(European Commission, 2008i).

As shown in the CVTS3 survey, participation
of older employees in continuing vocational
training (CVT) in enterprises in 2005 was still
rather  low  in  several  EU  Member  States,
especially Bulgaria, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania,
and Hungary (Figure 36). However, in these
countries low CVT participation also applies to
other age cohorts.

According to the DGVT and ReferNet reports
(2008), there were only few new measures
specifically devoted to older workers. Most
existing or currently introduced initiatives cover
several other target groups as well. Besides this,
the reports underline the importance of guidance,
counselling, information campaigns, and other
targeted tools.

In Belgium an ʻAge and work expertise centreʼ
was established, playing an informing, stimulating,
supporting and policy-preparing role on age and
careers.  In  addition  and  supported  by  the
European Social Fund, the Government of
Flanders  and  the  social  partners  plan  to
encourage older workers to contribute to the
competence  development  of 
less
experienced (younger) colleagues by mentoring.
In Poland, an interesting combination of
measures was introduced by a project aiming to
provide unemployed female older workers (aged
50+) with social working skills to assist disabled

their 

CHAPTER 6
Increasing access to VET by addressing equity

77

persons and elders. The objective of the project
is  to  gain  new  vocational  skills,  increase
qualifications and support beneficiaries on the
labour market.

A workshop on working at old age organised
by Cedefop in 2008 (26) concluded that it is in
employersʼ own interests to take the impact of
demographic change on recruitment, working
culture  and  training  seriously.  Negative
relationships between age and work performance
are not confirmed by empirical research and a
conducive workplace environment can support
ageing workers to acquire and update the skills
that work demands.

Empirical research confirms there is no single
relationship between age and overall work
performance/productivity. The fear that population
ageing  will  lead  to  less  innovation,  slower
adoption of new technologies and less long-term
investment in education, training and R&D is not
supported by empirical evidence (Cedefop, fourth
VET research report, forthcoming (c)).

Not only experience and expertise, but also
motivation, dedication and curiosity are crucial.
Research shows that chronological age is far
less important than workersʼ individual learning
biography, their ability, willingness and attitude
towards learning and applying their knowledge,
skills and competences. Continuing VET can act
as an enabler, by opening up opportunities for
workers of all ages, tailoring training to ageing
workersʼ specific learning needs and supporting
work  arrangements  that  are  conducive  to
learning. An important task for future research is
to address the major shortcomings in the current
understanding of the mechanisms that enable
successful working and learning at old age.

6.3.  Special initiatives 

for vulnerable groups

Provision of equal educational opportunities is a
central political goal in all European countries.
However,  research  repeatedly  shows  that
educational  opportunities  continue  to  be
distributed rather unevenly in all countries (Pfeffer,

(26)  Proceedings will be published in 2009.

2007). Particularly ethnic minorities, people with
disabilities and learning difficulties, as well as
those having problems in reconciling their work
and family commitments are often disadvantaged
in  accessing  education  or  increasing  their
educational attainment. To ensure their social
integration and equity considerations, specific
policies and measures have been developed and
applied across Europe.

6.3.1.  Students with special 

educational needs

There  is  growing  consensus  that  equity
considerations require the integration of pupils
with special educational needs. Their education
should be provided in regular, mainstream
classrooms, wherever possible. This consensus
stems from realisation that educational and social
experiences provided by special schools on the
one hand, and mainstream schools on the other,
are  often  different.  Such  differences  often
translate into inequities, especially in pupilsʼ
access to post-compulsory education and to the
labour market (European Commission, 2008b).
Integration of special needs education into
mainstream education is initiated by several
countries. For example, in Finland, special needs
education  in  VET  is  planned  to  be  further
developed so students in need of special support
will mainly be studying with other students in the
same learning environments. Organisation of
education for seriously disabled people will focus
on special vocational educational institutions.

In Latvia, integration of pupils with special
needs into the mainstream education system is
also fostered by particular study courses included
in teacher study programmes. So more education
establishments  have  become  prepared  for
receiving children with special needs. In the ESF
project ʻdevelopment of support centres for
providing vocational rehabilitation services for
persons with special needsʼ (2005-08), eight
centres of suitability have been founded at
vocational establishments with qualified staff and
different forms of educational programmes (full-
time, part-time, distance learning).

In Iceland, a study programme for the disabled
(Starfsbraut) is offered as a specific path in
mainstream  upper 
school
(Borgarholts skóli), since 2005. The studies last

secondary 

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

78

up to four years. Main emphasis is on maintaining
and improving the knowledge students already
have and improving their connection to the labour
market by on-the-job training as integrated parts
of their studies. Special emphasis is laid on arts
and vocational knowledge. Tuition takes place
in a special department but, if possible, disabled
students attend courses with other students, with
a view to integrate them into general schoolwork.
Students with dyslexia get special assistance
and students with other special needs are also
assisted in their integration into the labour market.
To help people with health problems and
disabilities to enter work, a so-called ʻpathways
to work programmeʼ was piloted in Northern
Ireland. The programme was rolled out province-
wide in 2008, providing its target groups with a
comprehensive framework of practical and
financial help, including mandatory, work-focused
interviews.

As far as other measures are concerned, an
extensive range of programmes are available
across  Europe,  introduced  and  running
successfully for a long time, focusing on different
target groups requiring special attention, including
disabled, as well as talented pupils.

6.3.2.  Migrants
In the course of EU enlargements, considerable
working mobility has taken place especially in
those  countries  which  opened  their  labour
markets  to  new  EU  Member  States.  Some
countries are also facing a gradually increasing
number of immigrants from less developed third
countries (Section 2.2.2).

As regards younger immigrants and their
education, there is evidence that migrant youth
is overrepresented in vocational schools not
giving access to higher education.

Further,  in  many  countries  migrants  are
overrepresented in the category of ʻdropoutsʼ,
students who finish school without a diploma. To
help them complete education and training, most
training provision for migrants focus on language
learning, social integration and citizenship. For
example, according to a new core curriculum
introduced in Finland, preparatory education is
organised for migrants within initial VET. It
provides students with language skills and other
abilities needed for transition to vocational studies

but it does not lead to a formal qualification. In
Austria, language courses are also available for
migrant parents of schoolchildren and in Ireland
interpreters are available for several specified
courses. In Portugal, 5 000 migrants were trained
in 2007 and this figure is planned to double by
2009.

6.3.3.  Ethnic minorities
Special programmes for ethnic minorities are
mainly featured in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia
(mainly for Roma); Ireland and the UK (mainly
for travellers); and Estonia (mainly for Russians).
In central Europe, the most difficult groups to
integrate into initial and continuing vocational
training are the populations of regions lagging
far behind, where unemployment is very high and
participation in training is discouraged by the
habit of living without work and poor socialisation
patterns.

The proportion of Roma is especially high
among them. In Slovakia for example, according
to the 2001 population census, only 19.9 % of
Roma aged 20-24 have attained at least ISCED
3C level of education compared to 89.4 % among
all young inhabitants (ReferNet Slovakia, 2008;
Slovak Statistical Office, 2001). Hence, the main
aims of these countries are to increase the
proportion of Roma children attending school,
improve  their  success  rate,  ensure  equal
opportunities and consequently contribute to
successful integration of Roma children and
adults into society. These aims are also supported
by special training programmes and other social
policies and measures.

To increase participation of Roma children in
education, the Slovenian State offers additional
financial resources for individual and/or group
work with Roma children in the school process
and provides specific occupational programmes
for  training  Roma  assistants  and  Roma
coordinators. These persons provide assistance
in work with Roma children and offer them
emotional and language help. They also provide
support for better participation of adult Roma in
different  activities  and  institutions.  Roma
assistants are also trained in the Czech Republic
and Slovakia.

CHAPTER 6
Increasing access to VET by addressing equity

79

prison vocational school. According to the 2006
amendment  of  the  Vocational  Education
Institutions Act, VET in prisons is now offered by
regular vocational schools. This means that the
quality of teaching is comparable to quality
provided in regular schools and it is impossible
to  discriminate  against  the  person  later  in
employment  based  on  the  diploma.  Prison
schools have been closed and vocational schools
have  taken  over  the  responsibility  to  train
prisoners.

In Latvia, in the framework of the EQUAL
programme (2005-07), additional general and
vocational education programmes have been
designed for prisoners to foster their future
employability.

6.3.4.  Prisoners
Increasing  the  educational  attainment  of
prisoners, hence contributing to their better
reintegration into society is an important policy
aim in several countries.

to 

In  Finland,  according 

its  2007-12
development  plan,  vocational  education  of
prisoners will be developed by making it more
flexible and by increasing the cooperation of those
involved in organising vocational education. In
Italy, social reintegration of convicts sentenced to
penalties outside prison is on the agenda. Related
measures concern employment, guidance and
business start-up for the post-prison future.

In Estonia, a unique measure was taken to
improve the quality of VET studies in prisons. In
the past, diplomas were issued by a so-called

CHAPTER 7

Lifelong learning through VET

As part of the Lisbon strategy, the Helsinki
communiqué (2006) underlines the key factors
that support creation of a lifelong learning area
and culture. It requires countries to create ʻopen
VET systems which offer access to flexible,
individualised  pathways  and  create  better
conditions  for  transition  to  working  life,
progression to further education and training,
including higher education, and which support
the skills development of adults in the labour
marketʼ. Equally, the Bordeaux communiqué
(2008)  requests  to  build  bridges  between
educational pathways and value all forms of
learning – formal, non-formal and informal. ʻThe
principle of shared responsibility between the
State, social partners, local actors and citizens
requires participation of all these stakeholders
in VET policies.ʼ

7.1.  Easing transfer between

VET pathways

Phenomena such as rising levels of educational
attainment and skill needs, increasing female
educational and labour force participation rates,
demographic  downturn  and 
information
technologies all emphasise the transformation
of education and society, under various labels,
from internationalisation and globalisation to
transnationalisation.

In particular the ongoing increase in skill
requirements  suggests 
that  educational
processes and outputs need to be reformed.
Several shifts can be identified:
•  shifts away from job-specific skills and formal
classroom training towards broader and key
skills  and  non-formal/informal  learning
processes;

•  shifts 

towards
from  routine  activities 
autonomous work in multiple social contexts;

•  shifts from production jobs to services.

7.1.1.  Strategic developments
To increase the attractiveness of VET and to
ensure good accessibility for specific target
groups (Chapter 6), guaranteeing the variety of
pathways,  as  well  as  individualisation  and
flexibility has gained importance. The DGVT and
ReferNet reports (2008) observe remarkable
progress since 2006 in the majority of countries.
This refers mainly to measures and acts related
to recognition of prior learning (Belgium, the
Czech Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Hungary),
attempts to improve vertical and horizontal
mobility within VET systems and between VET
and higher education (Croatia, Estonia, Ireland,
Italy,  Lithuania,  Romania,  Sweden)  and
implementation of strategies to foster lifelong
learning (Austria). Some countries (Bulgaria,
Estonia, Slovenia, the UK) indicate that mobility
between pathways is already an integral part of
the education and qualification system while
others (Malta, Slovenia, Slovakia) report that only
minor progress has been possible due to an
overall reformulation of the education system.

To improve a pan-European lifelong learning
area in VET, countries have developed a large
variety  of  strategies  the  core  of  which  is
development of national qualifications frameworks
(NQFs) and establishment of credit point systems.
Table 3 indicates the most relevant strategies
implemented by countries:

The most important strategy seems to be
implementation of qualification frameworks
(Chapter 9), based on learning outcomes and
establishment of credit systems to overcome
several obstacles. These obstacles are, first,
missing flexibility between pathways and a fixed
link between qualifications and entitlement and
also  access  to  employment  positions  and
educational programmes (Ireland, Spain, Austria).
Second, VET programmes, certificates and
qualifications still have a poor reputation and
(legal and/or formal) acceptance several countries
(Belgium, Latvia, Hungary) which becomes visible
in low participation rates in lifelong learning and

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

81

Table 3.  Strategies to ease transfer between VET pathways

Expansion/development and implementation of NQF

AT, CZ, DK, DE, ES, HU, IE, LT, RO, HR

Development of accreditation systems for VET and/or higher education

ES, DE, HU, BG

Competence and outcome orientation

AT, RO, DE, ES, HU

Implementation/realisation of lifelong learning strategies for special 
target groups (disadvantaged, older workers, women)

AT, BG, CY, DE, EL, IS, NO, SK

New decree to simplify recognition of prior learning

AT, BE, CZ, EE

General education as part of all VET programmes (ISCED 3 and 4)

AT, CY, CZ, SK

VET as optional part of general education

EE, NO

Integration of IVET and CVT: implementation of one coherent system

BG, CY, DK, ES, FI, IS, LT, SK

Modularisation/double qualification

AT, BG, DE, EE, FR, HU, LV, LT, SI, UK

Financial subsidies

Source:  ReferNet, 2008.

DE, BE

insufficient  application  of  the  principles  of
accrediting prior learning. This might be linked
to lack of motivation and orientation of individuals
which prevents learning participation.

Apart from this, in the past two years, most
countries have implemented several strategies,
measures  and  reforms  to  improve  lifelong
learning through VET. Several national examples
clearly indicate the immense progress towards
easing the transfer between VET pathways which
is crucial to raise attractiveness of VET (see
Chapter 5):
•  in Estonia, mobility of trainees in VET was
eased by the Vocational Education Institutions
Act where students can move easily between
institutions, provided there are vacancies. To
do so, students have to pass exams that were
not part of the curriculum in their previous
school or training. Spain has chosen a similar
approach  referring  to  individual  training
(Permisos Individuales de Formación or PIF)
which authorises companies to provide practical
training  corresponding  to  diplomas  and
certificates;

•  in other countries such as Finland, Lithuania,
Norway  and  Sweden,  mobility  between
pathways has always been an integral part of
the educational system. In Norway, from 1950
mobility opportunities were regularly adapted
to current labour market and educational needs.

In  Finland,  higher  education  legislation
guarantees eligibility for all to higher education
including those who have at least a three-year
vocational  qualification  or  comparable
qualification. Similar approaches can be found
in Denmark and Sweden (integrated upper
secondary vocationally-oriented programmes
in Sweden and Danish reform of the higher
education sector). In Lithuania provisions for
regulating assessment of prior learning and
easing mobility were included in a new edition
of law on VET in 2007;

•  Denmark,  Estonia  and  Austria  have
implemented integrative VET structures as well
as  a  legal  basis  for  modularising  the
apprenticeship  training  system,  double
qualifications (higher education entrance exam
plus  apprenticeship)  and  educational
standards.  Double  qualifications  and
modularisation have also become an integral
part of the Bulgarian VET system where two
key  reform  projects  focus  on  preventing
dropouts and use of ICT (ʻnational education
portalʼ). Similar approaches – although with
stronger focus on adult learners – can be found
in  Latvia  and  Slovenia. 
In  Hungary,
modularisation in CVT was addressed by the
government  in  2005  when  it  set  forth
development  of  modular  adult  training
programmes;

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

82

•  modularisation and double qualification are
also part of the French vocational training
system where dispensation from exams is
granted  if  the  candidate  already  holds  a
qualification at the same level. Expansion of
modular structures is also under discussion
and is being tested in pilot projects to reduce
the number of early school leavers as well as
to encourage a three-year course for the
vocational baccalaureate as opposed to the
current four-year course;

•  another strategy is integrating secondary
general, secondary technical and vocational
education which was realised, for instance, in
Estonia (see above) as well as Cyprus. In Italy,
this strategy is implemented by a ministerial
programme  on  ʻdevelopment  and  imple -
mentation  of  devices  for  easing  transfer
between VET pathwaysʼ which was started in
2004. Ireland has initiated a ʻpost-leaving
certificate programmeʼ that aims to provide a
bridge between school and work for those who
need further initial education to improve their
employment opportunities;

•  broader approaches were chosen in Iceland and
Slovakia. In Iceland, a bundle of actors (Ministry
of  Education,  Science  and  Culture,
municipalities, upper secondary schools and
universities, social partners and local NGOs)
established regional centres of lifelong learning
which have been in operation since the late
1990s. Regular evaluations of the centresʼ impact
have shown their success in the increased
number  of  people  attaining  courses  and
graduating. In Bulgaria, a community programme
on lifelong learning was initiated in 2007;

•  in the UK, mobility between pathways has a
long tradition and was realised – among others
– by establishing foundation degrees which are
vocationally oriented higher education courses
below the level of a Bachelorʼs degree, requiring
the equivalent of two yearsʼ full-time study. They
include the option of recognising informal and
non-formal learning as well as work-based
learning.  To  allow  more  young  people  to
participate in these degree programmes and in
VET in general, 150 new local authority services
were established over the past two years. It is
hoped that these authorities will be able to
maintain the same standards of delivery as

Box 14.  Opening up pathways and linking
VET and higher education

A study on developments in opening up VET pathways
(in countries participating in the Copenhagen process)
finalised by Ecotec for the European Commission in
2008 (Ecotec, 2008), shows that systems to a certain
extent are structured to allow for horizontal transfer
from vocational to general education (and vice versa)
and also vertical progression for VET students, either
onwards to higher levels of VET or into academic
streams. But this does not mean that individuals find
it easy or straightforward to move between the two
subsectors of education and training (Cedefop and
European Commission, 2008a).

Individual pathway choices depend on various factors
such as weighing up the costs and benefits and the
perception of opportunities – the latter being mainly
affected by society, culture and the individual’s
environment. Member States need a more systematic
and evidence-based understanding of why certain VET
routes are more popular than others.

While some countries have problems with misleading
trajectories (‘dead ends’) in IVET systems, the main
difficulties that refer to pathways lie in the extent to
which education and training systems are open for
people to move between VET and higher education and
to return to education and training later on in their lives.
Member States need to focus on encouraging use of
existing pathways and ensuring that pathways are
genuinely open by dealing with problems of failure to
progress, and by offering effective guidance services
to assist individuals to make the right decisions now
that greater choice is open to them.

To open up pathways and linking VET and higher
education, the Ecotec study points out four overall
patterns of change that could be observed in the past
years:
(cid:129)  expansion of tertiary provision, often with little regard
paid to the role that VET may play in it, and mainly
in enrolments in academic fields;

(cid:129)  development of higher level (technical) vocational
provision and post-secondary provision as a tool for
further competence development;

(cid:129)  decline in popularity of lower level school-based VET
–  and  in  some  cases  its  repositioning  as  a
prevocational option;

(cid:129)  development of apprenticeships by ensuring proper
integration with other parts of the education and
training system.

Source: Cedefop and European Commission, 2008a.

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

83

Figure 37.  Number of students enrolled in initial VET participating in the Leonardo da Vinci

programme and total number of participants in the Leonardo da Vinci programme,
2000-2007

Source:  European Commission, 2008o.

were developed by the previous 47 so-called
ʻpartnershipsʼ. To provide a steer, government
published standards for delivery of information
advice and guidance services (IAG) for young
people;

•  apart from that, providing financial incentives
and improving indicators and statistics on
lifelong learning and particularly on learning
pathways are also important steps to raise
participation levels, mobility and visibility
although they are mentioned by only few
countries (Belgium, Germany).

7.1.2.  Mobility of VET students
Mobility of labour is not only essential to promote
European  economic  integration  and  other
measures to create a single internal market for
goods  and  services,  but  also  to  improve
transnational exchange of experience and move
closer to a European identity. Economic realities,
however, are far from meeting requirements
necessary to achieve these aims.

Despite obvious progress and benefits, mobility
of VET students, including apprentices within
Europe is still rather a marginal phenomenon.

A most important channel for mobility of VET
students is the Leonardo da Vinci programme,
supporting mobility of people in initial vocational
training, adults undertaking training while they
are in the labour market (this can either be in an
employed  or  unemployed  capacity);  and

exchanges among vocational trainers. As shown
in Figure 37, in 2007, it funded moves by 51 000
young people in initial vocational training. About
20 000 moves took place under the scheme for
trainees in the labour market. It should, however,
be noted that the divide between initial education
and training on the labour market is not always
clear. The fact that only 41 % of labour market
trainees were aged over 25 would suggest that
the majority under this scheme undertake mobility
either when in transition to the labour market or
soon afterwards.

The number of VET professionals – which can
include trainers and guidance staff and human
resource managers – undertaking short duration
Leonardo mobility moves was 17 000 in 2007.
In addition to mobility under the Leonardo
programme, it is worth pointing out that the
European Social Fund has supported creation
of bilateral or multilateral partnerships between
regions for vocational training. However, while
individual actions are clearly of interest, there is
no overall picture of the extent of these actions
or of their contribution to training.
Europeʼs  VET  systems 

represent  a
considerable resource, the importance of which
is set to increase as skills shortages are likely to
increase. Mobility is, in comparison with the
university sector, less established as an element
in VET education and training.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

84

There are several factors which explain this.
The language barrier, a factor limiting mobility in
all spheres, is a bigger limitation in this sector
than in the university world, reflecting the fact
that language teaching has a lower priority in
VET curricula than in the academic strand of
education. Complex structures of vocational
training, which vary according to regulations,
certification and validation procedures, degree
of  formalisation,  institutional  providers  of
education  and  training,  and  allocation  of
responsibilities, make it difficult to move between
systems. This in turn accounts for a lack of
transparency of skills gained in the course of
placements spent abroad.

Barriers related to social security and tax status

of apprentices are also a factor.

Business plays a central role in vocational
education.  The  track  record  of  business
participation in Leonardo mobility is mixed –
enterprises have been quite responsive when
approached to act as host organisations, much
less so as applicants to send trainees abroad.
There seems in particular to be a problem in
convincing them of the business case to invest
in such mobility programmes. Businesses have
also pointed frequently to the complexity of
procedures in Leonardo. It is seen as being
particularly off-putting for SME participation.

Overall, it seems clear that the Copenhagen
process has not yet created the same favourable
framework for mobility as the Bologna process
has  in  the  university  world.  Nevertheless,
notwithstanding the difficulties and barriers, there
is clear evidence of an unmet demand for mobility
support. Programme managers report that the
number of applications under all calls is very high,
leaving in each case a large number of good but
unsuccessful candidates (European Commission,
2008n).

As a consequence, participation in exchange
programmes often tends to remain a luxury, since
periods of VET spent abroad are not in all
countries recognised as an integral part of
education. In higher education, by contrast, this
problem is better solved by adoption of the
European credit transfer and accumulation
system (ECTS), developed under the Erasmus
programme (Fietz et al., 2007).

Box 15.  Globalisation and Australian VET

Because globalisation also presents many opportunities,
Australia has reacted quickly to grasp its potential in
some areas, particularly in provision of education.
Among OECD countries, Australia has by far the highest
proportion of overseas students among its higher
education intake at 18.7 %, well in excess of the OECD
average of 7.2 %.

In recent years, the technical VET (TVET) sector in
Australia has followed the lead of the higher education
sector and also begun to internationalise. In 2005, 66
100  visas  were  issued  by  the  Department  of
Immigration for overseas students to enrol in a VET
course in Australia, up from 57 300 one year earlier.
The top five intake countries were China, Thailand,
Japan, Indonesia and South Korea.

Offshore delivery is also growing, with estimated
23 300 students taking part in courses delivered by
TAFE (technical and further education) institutes in
2004, up from 18 300 one year earlier. Two thirds of
students studying in Australian TVET courses came
from China.

However, opening Australian training markets to
foreign students lags considerably behind that of higher
education. This most likely reflects the dominant mode
of designing TVET provision to match domestic needs
(whereas Australian universities have much more
autonomy in planning course delivery) and the extent
to which Australian higher education qualifications are
valued internationally in comparison with Australian
TVET qualifications: under the Australian qualifications
framework these do not include degrees or associate
degrees.

Source:  Cully, 2006.

7.2.  Lifelong guidance

There is political consensus that guidance and
counselling are key strategic components for
implementing lifelong learning and employment
strategies at regional and national levels (OECD,
2004). Recent policy and strategy developments
in lifelong guidance in Europe have been led by
a clear vision. There have been several important

milestones, high-level initiatives and development
processes (27 ) along the way to strengthening
the  role  of  guidance  in  enforcement  of  EU
education and employment policies. Also the joint
progress  report  on  implementation  of  the
Education and training 2010 work programme
(Council of the EU, 2008c) addresses integrated
lifelong guidance systems in the context of lifelong
learning, future skills and qualifications, social
inclusion and immigration.

In November 2008, the Council resolution on
better integrating lifelong guidance into lifelong
learning strategies was adopted (28). The new
resolution reinforces the mandate that lifelong
guidance currently has in European education,
training and employment policy development and
implementation as well as the key role that high
quality guidance and counselling services play
in supporting citizensʼ lifelong learning, career
management and achievement of their personal
goals. The considerable progress made by the
Member States in developing and implementing
lifelong guidance policies during the past few
years has been fully acknowledged in the new
resolution. The following summary highlights
these recent developments and reforms that
Member States have pursued in 2006-08 in the
five priority areas of the prior Council resolution
(Council of the EU, 2004c):
(a)  implementing lifelong guidance systems;
(b)  broadening access to guidance;
(c)  strengthening quality assurance mechanisms;
(d)  refocusing guidance provision to develop
citizensʼ lifelong and lifewide learning and
career management skills;

(e)  strengthening  structures  for  policy  and

strategy developments.

(27 )  The  European  Commissionʼs  memorandum  on  lifelong
learning (2001); international reviews of career guidance
policies  undertaken  by  OECD,  ETF,  Cedefop  and  World
Bank  (2001-03);  European  Expert  Group  on  Lifelong
Guidance (2002-06); joint actions programme (2004-06);
the  forthcoming  official  establishment  of  the  European
lifelong  guidance  policy  network  (2007);  Copenhagen
declaration (2002); Maastricht communiqué (2004), Helsinki
communiqué (2006); the Bologna process (1999-).

(28)  Resolution  of  the  Council  on  better  integrating  lifelong
(2008)
guidance 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pre
ssData/en/educ/104236.pdf

learning  strategies 

lifelong 

into 

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

85

7.2.1.  Implementing lifelong guidance

systems

Several countries have introduced either new
guidance legislation (Denmark, Spain, France,
Italy, Lithuania) or legislation on education and
training (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Greece,
Estonia, Latvia) as well as on employment with
guidance as an integral element (Bulgaria, Italy).
Such laws and acts address, among other things,
developing integrated information and guidance
systems, providing information and guidance
services for citizens with special needs as well
as improving qualifications of unemployed and
working people. Further, there are Member States
that have launched laws on gender equality
(Greece)  and  on  immigration  (Cyprus)  for
supporting social inclusion with guidance-related
measures in both cases. Bulgaria also indicates
that current guidance policies will be analysed
and assessed to develop the countryʼs legal
basis/framework.

Member Statesʼ lifelong learning strategies
often include a strategy for lifelong guidance
focusing on developing key areas, such as quality
assurance mechanisms, staff professionalisation,
service infrastructure, guidance methodologies,
funding system and policy coordination (Austria,
Belgium, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Ireland, Iceland, Latvia, Norway,
Slovakia, Slovenia, the UK). A clear need for
developing a lifelong guidance strategy has been
expressed by Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Italy
and Luxembourg.

National, sectoral and/or thematic evaluations,
research studies and reviews of guidance and
counselling services have been carried out in
several countries (Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Norway,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, the UK).
Often areas of further development have been
identified, for example, fragmented service
structure, inefficient service delivery, no proper
quality assurance mechanisms, insufficient
training of guidance practitioners. Data generated
through these research activities are normally
used for establishing a more solid, profound and
updated evidence base and for supporting
guidance policy- and decision-making at national
and regional levels.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

86

Box 16.  Highlights of recent guidance studies in Europe

In  2008,  Cedefop  published  three  guidance-related
studies (a). From policy to practice(2008) pointed out
that the different rationale and sometimes conflicting
interpretations  of  career  guidance  in  education  and
labour  market  sectors  remain  a  challenge  for
constructing  consistent  and  all  encompassing
guidance systems. The core message of Establishing
and  developing  national  lifelong  guidance  policy
forums was that countries are streamlining guidance
policy- and decision-making processes to support an
integrated  approach  to  social  inclusion,  active
citizenship,  lifelong  learning  and  full  employment  in
knowledge-based  societies.  The  study  Career
development at workconcluded that there is demand
to  create  an  effective  strategy  for  providing  career
development  support  directed  at  adults  and  the
employed.

Recent research on guidance in the EU, in addition
to the above Cedefop studies, has focused on two major
issues.

First, researchers have paid attention to the potential
contribution of guidance to the Lisbon strategy. Borghans
and Golsteyn (forthcoming 2008a) have outlined that
guidance makes perspectives clearer, stimulates study
efforts, and hence improves educational achievement,
knowledge society building and individual innovation
capacity. They have also shown that guidance improves
the efficiency of career-oriented decision-making at
both initial and continuing education levels, thus
potentially favouring social cohesion, employability and
occupational mobility, and providing the economy with

the workforce necessary for competitiveness and
sustainable growth.

The second major issue is fragmentation of guidance
activities and policies. Guidance is not a unified field.
It is split into diverse theoretical and methodological
approaches, practices, target groups, institutions,
objectives, concerns and tasks. In recent years, such
trends as marketisation and decentralisation increased
the field’s patchworkiness. Frade et al. (2006) showed
how, over the past decade, guidance was seen as a
strategic instrument for coordinating education,
vocational training, employment and related social
policies, for example in the European employment
strategy. They made clear that fragmentation of the
field puts steering ‘guidance policy’ into question and
therefore makes questionable the idea of using guidance
as a control instrument for other policies. Researchers
have  also  outlined  how  marketisation  and
decentralisation challenge the principle of constant
quality of guidance services delivery and lead to exploring
ways of standardisation.

(a)  From policy to practice – A systemic change to lifelong guidance
in Europe (Cedefop, 2008), www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_
resources/Bookshop/publication_details.asp?pub_id=505
Establishing and developing national lifelong guidance policy
forums (Cedefop, 2008), www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_
resources/ Bookshop/publication_details.asp?pub_id=508
Career development at work – a review of career guidance to
support people in employment (Cedefop, 2008),
www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_resources/Bookshop/
publication_details.asp?pub_id=504

7.2.2.  Broadening access to guidance
A major challenge to improving citizensʼ access
to guidance is that there rarely is one coherent
lifelong guidance system, but often two parallel
and  fragmented  systems  (education  and
employment).  Cross-sectoral  and  multi -
professional guidance cooperation is seen as a
means to support better service provision and
help clarify responsibilities between education
and employment administrations (Belgium, the
Czech Republic, Germany, Estonia, Spain,
Cyprus, Hungary, Finland, the UK). In some
countries the social partners have become more
actively involved in guidance in providing services

to their members (Germany, Iceland and the UK),
entering  strategic  partnerships  with  State
institutions (Bulgaria) and issuing a competence
agenda including guidance (Belgium).

Special guidance service structures and
institutions have been established both in the
education and employment sectors in several
Member States during the reference period 2006-
08. A regional network-based strategy to provide
lifelong  guidance  seems  to  have  gained
significance. In many cases, regional guidance
centres and partnerships have been set up or
regional cooperation has been strengthened
(Belgium,  Bulgaria,  the  Czech  Republic,

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

87

Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Iceland, Norway,
Slovenia,  Spain,  Sweden).  Labour  market
oriented guidance services have been improved,
modernised and expanded to cater especially for
the diverse needs of adult workers whether they
are low-skilled, unemployed, employed, labour
market entrants or leavers, job changers or
immigrants (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Germany, Greece, France, Hungary,
Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, Spain,
the UK, plus Scotland/Careers Scotland).

In all countries, groups with special needs to
be supported by individualised information,
guidance and counselling were identified. These
groups cover immigrants, disabled, early school
leavers, dropouts, old workers, unemployed, low-
skilled, prisoners, women returning from maternity
leave,  etc.,  at  whom  tailor-made  services,
programmes and projects have successfully been
targeted. Many countries report on paying special
attention  to  supporting  smooth  transitions
(education-to-work, work-to-education, between
occupations,  between  careers,  etc.)  by
implementing innovative guidance measures in
training programmes and at workplaces (Belgium,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, the
Netherlands, Slovakia, Spain).

Availability of on-line guidance services for
young and adult people has increased. Examples
cover study and career guidance with Internet
support (Belgium), information and guidance web
portals (the Czech Republic, Estonia, Spain,
France), labour market databases and websites
with career information (Ireland, Hungary), open
information, counselling and guidance system
AIKOS (Lithuania) as well as Learndirect helpline
(the  UK).  Four  countries  (Bulgaria,  Spain,
Hungary, Romania) also point to promoting,
marketing  and  advertising  guidance  and
counselling services as potential users might not
always be aware of them.

7.2.3.  Strengthening quality of guidance
Professionalisation of guidance counsellors
continues in developing and launching new
training programmes (Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark,
Greece, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,
Slovakia), providing further training for special
groups of practitioners, such as those working in

adult learning (Austria), in vocational training
centres (Croatia) or in public employment services
(Germany). In Germany, the Federal Employment
Agency aims at training 200 new careers advisers
and 200 new apprenticeship advisers in 2008. In
some cases, lack of trained guidance practitioners
remains a challenge (Croatia, Hungary, Iceland),
and in other cases, there are discussions on how
to develop the role of teachers in providing
guidance (Denmark, Germany, Cyprus).

Developing quality standards for guidance
services is currently on the national agenda at
least in Austria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech
Republic, Estonia, Finland and Malta. Lithuania
has established an inventory of requirements for
vocational information and counselling services
(2005) in which, among other things, provision
of services, responsible institutions and their
functions have been defined. Some countries
emphasise that quality of guidance provision can
be ensured by having a sufficient number of
qualified guidance counsellors and they have set
minimum requirements for guidance counsellors
including their professional experience and
training (Estonia, Norway). Institutions like ISFOL
(Italy) and Innove (Estonia) also contribute to the
methodological development of national guidance
systems by introducing best practices from other
countries and carrying out research studies on
qualitative aspects of guidance.

7.2.4.  Supporting acquisition of learning

and career management skills
Much attention in training programmes/curricular
development is given to career choice for young
people as well as labour market familiarisation.
Integrating learning with working and working
with learning to improve students education-to-
work transitions is a shared goal by several
countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus,
the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany,  Greece,  Hungary,  Ireland,  Italy,
Romania, Slovakia, Turkey, the UK). National
occupational databases and classifications of
professions  have  already  been  or  will  be
established in some countries (Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, Hungary,
Norway,  Romania,  Turkey).  Sweden  has
developed a labour market information system
for young people. Career guidance at higher

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

88

education institutions is to be developed to equip
graduates with sufficient career management
skills and support their labour market entry
(Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus and the Netherlands).
It is evident that more adults require guidance
support for recognition of non-formal and informal
learning (Belgium, Iceland), for upgrading their
skills and qualifications (Greece, Hungary), and
for actively participating in lifelong learning
(Belgium, Denmark, Hungary and the United
Kingdom). Iceland also aims at engaging more
employers to offer workplace guidance to their
employees. Cyprus is promoting active ageing
programmes for senior citizens.

Gender-specific/sensitive education and career
choice is in focus in some countries (Germany,
Greece, Cyprus, Austria, Finland), where new
guidance  measures 
for  men/boys  and
women/girls have been taken. For example, the
Cyprus public employment services offer a
personalised approach (including an individual
action plan) for women, who require special
support for labour market participation.

fostering 

Member States are supporting people with
their  skills
special  needs  by 
development. For example, more and more
individualised  and  client-centred  guidance
services, training programmes and language
courses for young and adult immigrants/ethnic
minorities (such as Roma) are on offer (Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, France,
the
Ireland,  Latvia, 
Germany, 
Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia, Sweden).

Iceland, 

7.2.5.  Strengthening structures 

for guidance policy and system
development

The European lifelong guidance policy network
(ELGPN) (29) was established by Member States
and the European Commission in 2007. ELGPN
is a mechanism to promote lifelong guidance
policy coordination and cooperation in Member
States  and  to  support  establishment  of
national/regional structures in implementing the
priorities identified in the Council resolution on
lifelong  guidance  (2004)  in  education  and
employment sectors. Altogether, 29 European

(29 )  European  lifelong  guidance  policy  networkʼs  homepage:

http://elgpn.eu

countries participate in ELGPN cooperation.

The ELGPN network – consisting of individual
national lifelong guidance policy forums – provides
a platform for European and national policy action
based on effective leverage, exploitation and
renewal of alliance knowledge and expertise.
National forums or similar policy coordination
mechanisms can be identified in most Member
States (Cedefop, 2008d). Countries currently
without a national guidance forum are setting one
up (state of play in summer 2008).

The  new  Council  resolution  on  better
integrating lifelong guidance into lifelong learning
strategies (2008) specifically calls for further
strengthening European cooperation on lifelong
guidance provision, in particular, through the
European lifelong guidance policy network
(ELGPN) and in liaison with Cedefop. As Member
States are expected to identify policy approaches
that will support implementation of the new
Council resolution (2008), ELGPN has based its
work programme 2009-10 on activities that focus
on the four priority areas of the resolution:
encourage  lifelong  acquisition  of  career
management skills (priority 1); ease access for
all citizens to guidance services (priority 2);
develop quality assurance in guidance provision
(priority 3); and encourage coordination and
cooperation among various national, regional
and local stakeholders (priority 4).

7.3.  Validation of non-formal
and informal learning

Today, validation of non-formal and informal
learning is high on the political agenda in almost
all European countries. Growing interest this
policy domain has received in recent years is
strongly related to the increasing importance of
lifelong learning.

The priority given to validation results from
countriesʼ aspiration to create more flexible
qualifications systems and frameworks, opening
up learning outcomes acquired outside the formal
education and training institutions. Such systems
would enable individuals to build on their learning
experience – irrespective of where and how
knowledge, competences or skills have been
acquired – and reach their full learning potential.
National policy reforms of validation are

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

89

stimulated to a large extent by developments at
European level. Creation of the EQF, resulting
in a rapid emergence of national qualification
frameworks (NQFs) and a shift towards learning
outcomes,  accelerated  developments  in
validation. A set of common European principles
for identification and validation of non-formal and
informal learning (Council of the EU, 2004a) have
been used by many countries as a reference for
national  developments.  Similarly,  recently
developed European guidelines (Cedefop, 2008c)
are expected to provide a reference point for
developing validation methods and systems and
support systematic exchange of experience and
common learning across Europe.

7.3.1.  Implementation and acceptance
Progress in developing validation varies across
Europe – countries are at different stages of
practical implementation and overall acceptance.
Some countries have advanced significantly and
achieved specific results allowing individuals to
have their experience and skills acquired by non-
formal and informal learning identified, assessed
and validated. Others are still at an initial stage
of discussion and planning. Overall however,
there has been considerable increase in validation
initiatives in the past few years.

Three countriesʼ clusters can be distinguished
according to stage of development of validation
(European inventory in validation of non-formal
and informal learning, European Commission,
2007). Examples are given based on the reports
by DGVT and ReferNet (2008).
(a)  High  level  of  development:  Belgium,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Ireland,
the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania,
Slovenia, Spain, the UK.
Countries that belong to this group have
introduced validation policies and practices
enabling individuals to have their learning
outcomes  identified,  validated  or  both
systematically. A strong policy framework and
legal  structures  supporting  validation
methods are developed in the majority of
countries  concerned.  Validation  as  an
instrument supporting lifelong learning is
broadly accepted. All sectors – public, private
and the third sector – have developed and
applied relevant validation methods.

Examples of recent developments in validation:
(i)    Denmark. Assessment of prior learning is
obligatory as part of a studentʼs introduction
to VET. In adult learning/CVT a new legal
framework for recognition of prior learning
was approved in 2007, which gives all adults
a right to assessment of knowledge skills
and competences (regardless of where they
were acquired) as a basis for designing an
individual  learning  programme  or  for
obtaining  a  certificate.  This  policy
development involves: implementation of
legislation (2007/08); introduction of quality
assurance mechanisms; development of
simple and easily accessible documentation
tools (including ʻmy competence portfolioʼ,
2007); a nationwide information campaign
(including television programmes) in close
cooperation with social partners; providing
practitioners  with  guidelines  and  best
practice examples (a handbook on individual
competence assessment, 2008);

(ii)   Finland.  From  2006,  demonstrations  of
skills  (regardless  of  how  and  where
acquired) were incorporated in all qualifica-
tions completed in VET. In IVET, students
can  have  their  study  shortened  if  their
recognised competences and skills cover a
whole unit of the core curriculum. In adult
education/CVT, students may demonstrate
their vocational skills in competence tests
and  obtain  competence-based  qualifica-
tions. Working life, trade and industry play
a strong role in planning, implementing and
assessing these tests. Since 2006, by law,
a VET provider is required to ensure indi-
vidualisation of entrance to and preparatory
training  for  competence-based  qualifica-
tions,  completion  of  qualifications  and
acquisition of necessary professional skills.
Individualisation  means  customer-based
planning  and 
implementing  guidance,
counselling,  teaching  and  support  meas-
ures.  Any  special  needs  arising  from
different cultural and linguistic backgrounds
or other reasons are also considered. The
future challenge is to incorporate individu-
alisation into funding VET as resources for
VET  providers  may  not  be  sufficient  to
implement individualisation.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

90

      (iii)  Belgium. In Flemish Community, since
November 2006, a system of validating
job-related competences (certificate of
occupational competence), irrespective
of how acquired, became operational.
By  February  2008,  15  assessment
centres for 20 professions were in place
and every six months new ones are
being established; 400 persons have
been  involved  in  the  procedure.  In
Flemish Community, the system became
operational in 2004.
In Flemish Community, in 2007 a new
decree on adult education introduced
prior 
learning  assessment  and
recognition (PLAR) in adult education.
Due attention is given to non-formal and
informal  learning  and  validation  of
competences. By the end of 2008, a
PLAR ʻknowledge networkʼ (including a
website  with  information  on  good
practices, instruments and a discussion
forum) was set up.

(b)  Medium level of development: Austria, the
Czech Republic, Iceland, Italy, Germany,
Hungary, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta,
Poland, Sweden
Validation in these countries is emerging.
Members  of  this  cluster  have  recently
adopted a legal or policy framework for
validation. Practical steps are currently being
taken to implement validation methodologies
or relevant pilot projects have been carried
out, easing adoption of a national approach.
Validation may be restricted to specific
educational sectors or target groups and its
acceptance may vary between different
sectors.

      Examples and recent initiatives of validation:
      (i)   Austria. Since 2007, adult educators
have been able to have their knowledge,
skills  and  competences  validated,
irrespective of how these were acquired,
and obtain a recognised certificate or
diploma. Partial qualification can be
awarded (modular structure) through a
credits system. Competences that adult
educators still lack can be acquired at
various educational institutions for adults.
Counselling is provided.

      (ii)   the Czech Republic. A law on validation
and recognition of the outcomes of CVET,
effective from August 2007, developing
NQF and its tools, foresaw a possibility
for adults to acquire partial vocational
qualifications (registered in NQF) through
validation of individualsʼ prior learning
results (VPL), regardless of the ways and
settings  of  their  acquirement.  The
approach was piloted with the aim to
develop a relevant national scheme. The
EPANIL (30) project (2004-06), which
involved nine partners from six countries,
was to develop and verify appropriate
methodologies and tools drawing on best
European practice. Target groups were
vulnerable  people,  at  risk  of  social
exclusion.  Results  were  used  for
developing standards and UNIV (31) project
(2005-08), within which pilot testing of VPL
took place on a larger scale. Initiatives
included: developing standards and other
tools  for  VPL,  creating  regional  LLL
centres and school networks, training
pedagogical staff including assessors and
counsellors. Social partners were involved
and common European principles served
as a basis.

      (iii)  Sweden. The National Commission on
Validation was established for the period
2004-07  with  the  aim  to  develop
approaches and methods to validate
prior  learning  while  strengthening
regional cooperation. Various solutions
were  tested  on  a  pilot  basis  and
evaluated with involvement of different
stakeholders (business, social partners,
education and training sector). The
results  (final  report)  with  specific
recommendations for more permanent
approaches for validation are currently
being considered by the government and
other relevant stakeholders.

(c)  Low level of development: Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus,  Greece,  Latvia,  Liechtenstein,
Slovakia, Turkey

(30 )  European common principles for accreditation of non-formal

and informal learning in lifelong learning.

(31 )  Recognition  of  the  results  of  non-formal  education  and
informal  learning  by  networks  of  schools  providing  an
education service for adults.

CHAPTER 7
Lifelong learning through VET

91

      Validation is still a relatively new area for the
countries in this group. In some cases, it
encounters controversy and resistance from
national  stakeholders,  including  the
education  and  training  sector.  Even  if
stakeholders recognise the benefits of
validation, little is being done in policy or
practice. Yet, some sporadic validation
activities can be identified. These are often
driven by the European agenda, EU-funded
projects, private or third sectors. Many
countries  link  work  on  validation  to
development of future NQFs.

Examples from selected cluster countries:
(i)      Bulgaria.  Amendments  to  the  law  on
employment, introduced in 2008, foresee
creating conditions to assess and validate
knowledge,  skills  and  competences
acquired through non-formal and informal
learning. The strategy on adult education,
strategy on continuing education and the
draft version of lifelong learning 2008-13
are to help establish the validation system.
By March 2009, a model of validation of
non-formal and informal learning is to be
developed  and  tested  with  help  from
international experts (in April 2008, an
interdepartmental working group started
preparing pilot projects in three professions).
(ii)     Slovakia. Validation has been a subject of
academic discussion for a long time but
there have been no initiatives to introduce
relevant policies. The only experience was
related to some projects of international
cooperation. In 2007, a strategy for lifelong
learning and lifelong guidance was adopted
by the government, identifying validation
of non-formal and informal learning as one
of the strategic priorities. Specific measures
are  intended  to  allow  for  obtaining
qualifications or partial qualification by
accumulating credits from training and
through  recognition  of  prior  learning.
Subsequent legislative provisions will have
to be adopted. Progress is hampered,
however, by lack of an influential promoter.
Reluctance of formal education institutions
and resistance of employers may hinder
the  process  as  well  and  need  to  be
overcome.

(iii)    Latvia. There is no system for validating
skills and competences acquired through
non-formal and informal learning. The rel-
evant system will be introduced in a new
version of the vocational education law,
which is under preparation. Results of the
project ʻDevelopment of a unified method-
ology for quality and improvement of vo-
cational education and involving the social
partnersʼ (2005-07, within the framework
of  ESF  national  programme),  which  in-
cluded development of methodology and
measures  for  recognition  of  non-formal
and informal learning, will be used.

7.3.2.  Challenges and the way forward
Validation activities have significantly increased
across  Europe.  However,  validation  is  a
multispeed process – countries are at different
stages  of  development  and  face  various
challenges.

The main challenge for countries in the third
group is to create a solid basis for validation, to
establish or improve relevant legislation. Those
in the second group mainly face the challenge to
adopt practical solutions – methods and tools for
validation. In the first group, some countries
indicate the need to overcome difficulties in
securing adequate resources – in terms of human
capital (Estonia, Portugal and Romania), financing
(Ireland and Finland ), time (Estonia) – so the
desired level of implementation of validation can
be reached and specific targets achieved.

Overall, understanding the importance and
value of validation has increased, which resulted
in  a  greater  take-up  of  specific  validation
practices. Apart from the public education and
training sector, private sector stakeholders –
social partners and individual companies –
recognise ever more the benefits of validation.
Validation  is  increasingly  used  for  staff
development and to ensure effective allocation
of resources in business. In addition, the third
sector has become involved. Still, in some
countries lack of stakeholdersʼ interest and
insufficient awareness on validation opportunities
and benefits (Bulgaria, Lithuania, Hungary, the
Netherlands, Sweden) creates a serious obstacle
to development of validation. This calls for more
promotion initiatives.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

92

Some countries are still reluctant towards
validation approaches due to fear that the overall
quality of qualifications and educational level may
be reduced by opening up systems to non-formal
and informal learning. To respond to this, it is
necessary to ensure that the same quality criteria
are applied when awarding qualifications based
on any forms of learning – formal, non-formal or
informal. Clear and common standards, defined
as learning outcomes, should be agreed on to
simplify validation.

Strengthening the overall quality of validation
is a concern. Countries highlight the necessity
to incorporate quality assurance mechanisms
(Belgium  and  Spain)  and  develop  reliable
methods/procedures of assessment, so results
(learning outcomes) would be credible, broadly
accepted, and consequently, transferable across
different learning settings (Norway and Sweden).

Methodological experiences, relating to portfolio,
self-assessment and dialogue-based approaches
should  be  systematically  shared  between
countries.

Lastly, some countries call for designing a
national approach and an overall coherent policy.
This  concerns  those  still  experimenting  in
validation (Italy and Hungary) as well as those
where validation has a relatively long tradition,
but has been implemented at a lower level of
government rather than nationally and resulted
in many systems, rules and regulations (Norway).
Developing a national and permanent approach
in countries where validation activity is restricted
to projects and programmes of limited duration
(testing) is of particular relevance. Such an
approach would increase transparency and
predictability of validation.

CHAPTER 8

Improving quality of VET

8.1.  Quality of VET − 
a sine qua non

Box 17.  Better quality as a driver 

of VET reforms – country example

Quality of VET is linked to political, institutional
or individual goals. It generally aims to marry
excellence and equity, and better match training
supply  and  demand.  Increasingly,  quality
assurance strategies are included in general or
specific legislative documents. The objective is
to make VET more attractive and ensure VET
graduates acquire the skills and competences
they need to succeed in the labour market and
continue or reenter learning. Teachersʼ and
trainersʼ knowledge, skills, competences and
commitment are progressively recognised as key
for high quality and equity in VET.

8.1.1.  Systemic changes and strategies 
to improve quality of VET

As already evident in the 2006 review, ensuring
and improving quality has generally become a
main driver for countriesʼ work on VET and lifelong
learning systems. It covers a wide range of areas
and activities depending on the country context:
from devising qualification frameworks, curricula
revision,  and  development  and  revision  of
standards to improving governance and funding,
teacher training and closer cooperation with the
labour market. Often specific quality assurance
strategies are interlinked with these general
efforts (Austria).

State-of-the-art equipment and technologies
is a precondition for high quality VET. As in 2006,
some countries highlight their progress in
increasing investment in infrastructure and equip-
ment (Belgium - Flemih Community, Bulgaria).
To support quality in VET, several countries
use  EU  structural  Funds,  in  particular  the
European Social Fund (ESF) (Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Estonia, Greece, Lithuania, Austria,
Romania). In Slovakia, where quality assurance
in VET had not been explicitly included in the
previous programming period, it has become one
of the priorities for 2007-13. In some cases, these

Areas subsumed under the policy priority ‘promote
quality and efficiency in the education and training
systems’ in Portugal:
(cid:129)  promote teacher and trainer training, in particular
continuing  training,  linking  it  directly  to  the
reorganisation and restructuring of education and
training at national and local levels;

(cid:129)  review the legislative framework to promote
increased social partner participation in vocational
training;

(cid:129)  reform the current national accreditation system of
training bodies: gradually introduce a new system
which certifies the quality of training bodies in terms
of their training practices and results achieved;
(cid:129)  move to performance-based funding; use indicators
which have been developed within the quality
assurance system as an incentive to invest in the
quality of training;

(cid:129)  amend the regulations for tertiary education: promote
a dynamic national quality assurance system and
evaluation of tertiary education; create a national
agency for accreditation and clarify public funding.

Source:  DGVT Portugal, 2008.

EU resources are used extensively for quality in
VET  in  general  through  curricula  reforms,
development  of  standards,  new  forms  of
assessment, etc., and specific quality assurance
measures (the Czech Republic, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia). In others the focus
is on either of these (Croatia – Instrument for pre-
accession assistance).

8.1.2.  Different quality cultures 
in a common frame

Initiatives to develop quality assurance for VET,
had already started prior to the Copenhagen
process and joint work on common principles

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

94

(Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Hungary,
Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden, the UK). In 2005, a
European network for quality assurance in VET
(ENQA-VET) was set up. By October 2008,
ENQA-VET comprised representatives from 23
countries (16 in 2006) (32) and the European social
partners.

Between 2006 and 2008, all participating
countries apart from France had put national
quality assurance reference points in place. Their
task is to disseminate ENQA-VET results and to
inform the European partners on developments
and practices in their countries.

Most countries consider their quality assurance
systems in line with the CQAF or include some
of its major elements (33). Some are currently
rethinking their approaches (Denmark, Italy,
Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden), aligning them more
closely to the CQAF (34). Those that joined the
EU  more  recently  and  did  not  have  a  long
established evaluation culture, have used the
work at EU level to align their VET systems to
the  objectives  of  the  structural  Funds  and
common priorities. They seem closer to the CQAF
principles than some older Member States such
as Greece.

Some  countries  such  as  Romania,  have
adopted a more top-down approach. Others are
granting their VET institutions considerable
autonomy to devise or adapt quality assurance
mechanisms to suit their respective contexts,
based on general guidelines (Denmark, Germany,
the  Netherlands,  Austria,  Finland  for  VET
schools). Countries like Austria and Finland rely
on voluntary commitment of VET institutions.

Since 2006, country reports inform extensively
on quality development and assurance in upper
secondary school-based VET. Information on
mechanisms that apply in alternate training forms/

(32)  At the time of writing, the following EU Member States are
not  members:  Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Greece,  Latvia  and
Poland. From non-EU Member States in the education and
training work programme, only Norway is a member.

(33)  Although  the  CQAF  model  is  not  included  in  legislation,
some VET schools are using its principles to improve their
quality management.

(34)  This alignment also extends to quality assurance principles
outlined in the EQF recommendation and European quality
assurance  reference  framework  for  vocational  education
and training (EQARF), European Commission, 2008m).

Box 18.  Building comprehensive quality

assurance approaches based 
on CQAF

Creating a quality assurance infrastructure in IVET
through interrelated projects and activities (Romania):
(cid:129)  CQAF implementation with active participation of

trade unions and employer organisations;

(cid:129)  agency to accredit quality assurance systems in

pre-university schools;

(cid:129)  toolbox to support schools’ activities (developed in
a Leonardo da Vinci project, Proqavet, by Greek,
Austrian, Romanian and Finnish partners);

(cid:129)  industrialist confederation committee for quality

assurance in VET;

(cid:129)  quality reference standards (government decision)
linking learning in enterprises to specific quality
requirements;

(cid:129)  catalogue of VET providers which meet CQAF

requirements;

(cid:129)  workshops on quality assurance in education and

training including teacher training.

Developing a systematic quality assurance approach
for school-based (initial) VET (Hungary):
(cid:129)  legislation, funding (100 % from State budget) and

specific development plan;

(cid:129)  high commitment to quality improvement both on

system and provider level;

(cid:129)  CQAF coordination committee, leading institutions

to promote the CQAF model;

(cid:129)  model and guide for self-assessment and external
monitoring, including municipalities as ‘school
owners’;

(cid:129)  indicators and benchmarks; benchmarking database
to collect and disseminate best practices at national
level;

(cid:129)  awareness  raising,  training  and  scientific/

methodological support to VET providers;

(cid:129)  revising the approach and its key elements to make

it more user friendly.

Source:  Cedefop; based on ENQA-VET peer learning visits.

apprenticeship, in particular in their enterprise-
based components, is patchy and scarce.

Quality assurance in CVT, which tends to be
more heterogeneous and less regulated than
IVET, and labour market training is not extensively
covered. It generally focuses on provider or

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

95

programme accreditation. Several countries are,
however, moving towards more output-oriented
approaches  (Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  Latvia,
Portugal).

Only a few countries refer to qualification,
certification or validation processes that are
quality assured (Portugal). This is, however,
crucial, if qualification frameworks and validation
of non-formal and informal learning are to be
credible (see below and Chapter 9). But as a
planned  Cedefop  study  points  out,  simply
concluding  that  those  who  do  not  provide
information,  do  not  quality  assure  these
processes, would be false.

8.1.3.  Assuring quality by defining

expected outcomes

The purpose of the CQAF is to improve and help
evaluate output and outcomes, for instance
whether graduates can integrate into the labour
market. This implies setting clear targets and
standards in the planning phase which can be
measured and monitored. These can be shared
points of references or fixed measures against
which results of an activity can be evaluated
(Cedefop 2008a). Indicators, which quantify the
objectives and assess the extent to which they
have been met, are therefore an integrative part
of the CQAF (35).

Although indicators are being widely introduced
in several countries only a few countries have
introduced a coherent set of indicators to improve
the quality of VET, according to a Cedefop study
(Cedefop, 2007b). At system level, these are
mainly Finland, and to a lesser extent Belgium
(Flemish  Community),  Denmark  and  the
Netherlands. In Spain, a set of indicators has
been  developed  at  central  level,  to  be
subsequently implemented in cooperation with
the regions. ReferNet country reports include
only limited information on indicators.

Using ESF support also requires applying
indicators. ESF-funded quality initiatives in Italy,
for instance, include a set of indicators linked to
an  accreditation  system  which  puts  more
emphasis on the quality of learning. The intention
is to guarantee a basic level of quality for training

(35)  See  recommendations  on  a  European  quality  assurance

framework. European Commission, 2008m.

Box 19.  Using sets of indicators 

to evaluate performance in IVET –
Country example

Seven key indicators related to strategic goals and
priorities in terms of context, input, process, output
and outcome used for school-based VET in Slovenia
in 2007/08:
(cid:129)  indicator 1 to monitor the school’s quality assurance

system;

(cid:129)  indicators 2 and 3 focus on teachers: percentages
of those with the required formal attainment levels
and those in continuing training; proportion of school
investment in continuing teacher training;

(cid:129)  indicators 4 and 5 to monitor completion rates
within the given time and success rates at final
exams;

(cid:129)  indicator 6 to monitor transition or progress of
graduates: those in further education, employed or
unemployed six months/one year after completion
of their training;

(cid:129)  indicator 7 to monitor integration of VET schools
into their local environment: share of resources
received through organisation of seminars on
demand of the economy.
These indicators are used for external evaluation.
For mandatory self-evaluation of VET schools there
are recommendations with indicators and guidelines
for 11 areas, but schools are free to add others to suit
their own goals and needs.

Source:  ReferNet, Slovenia, 2008.

provision across all regions and provinces and
to overcome fragmentation.

8.1.4.  Towards output-based steering
Increasing focus on performance and output is
also becoming a strategic management tool at
system level. This is evident from the current
review  and  a  recent  Cedefop  study  which
examines  how  seven  countries  (Denmark,
Germany, Ireland, France, Italy, the Netherlands,
the UK) assure the quality of VET systems by
defining expected outcomes (Cedefop, 2008a).
Output monitoring based on centrally established
indicators is becoming a regulatory mechanism
in otherwise decentralised systems, in other
words some kind of recentralisation.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

96

Box 20.  Using targets and indicators 

as management tools in IVET –
Country example

Nationally set indicators to encourage improvements
rather than to control or sanction, are used in Finland:
VET providers are free to develop their own internal
quality systems to suit local needs. Many providers
for  a  CQAF-based  approach.
have  opted 
Central/national level supports VET providers through
guidelines and tools which help them apply indicators
to improve their quality.

Success is measured against objectives and results
of previous years and then weighted. Weighting criteria
are, for instance: percentage of disabled people among
trainees, geographical location of VET providers
(different indexes apply in the Helsinki region or
Lapland), employment rate of trainees six months
after completion of their studies.

An extensive database on VET is available. It
includes statistical information on employment.
Comparison and benchmarking between VET providers
are easily made. Biannual surveys on quality in VET
and several annual meetings are held to monitor
progress achieved all over the country.

Each institution receives an overall performance
index. It is based on six indicators. Progress in the
quality of the training offer is measured against these
indicators. Of the public funding for VET (all VET is
publicly financed) 2 % is allocated to particularly
successful VET providers. Many decide to distribute
this to their teaching/training staff because ‘they render
quality possible’.

This 2 % can be increased up to 4-5 %. In some
rare cases, VET providers with particularly excellent
scores over several years, can receive up to 15 %.
For  the  212 VET  providers  competing  for  this
performance-based funding, image is a bigger
incentive than financial interest.

Although Finland systematically uses an important
range of indicators, there are no penalties (or only in
extreme cases). The Ministry of Education only rewards
the best, which creates a pull effect for VET provision
in general.

Source:  Cedefop; based on ENQA-VET peer learning visits.

This does not only apply to performance-based
funding (such as using floor targets for learner
outcomes) but also in some cases to additional
financial incentives (Denmark). Whether these
are used as reward, penalty (the Netherlands,
the UK), a more directive tool or a combination
of these, depends on the country (see Chapter 4).

8.1.5.  Monitoring and evaluating

performance: how and by whom
Evaluation is becoming mandatory in more and
more countries (the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Slovenia). Regardless whether it is compulsory
or not, self-evaluation is key in IVET in most
countries. Austria, for instance, has no legally
binding  obligation  but  it  has  developed  a
comprehensive quality assurance strategy which
has self-assessment at its core and a participation
rate of 75 % among its VET schools (36).

To make self-assessment more efficient and

effective, countries:
•  use support, training and incentives to make it

more engaging;

•  provide recommendations, guidelines and
indicators that apply nationally to increase
accountability and better link evaluation results
and steering mechanisms.
Self-assessment reports are usually made
public. As the CQAF indicates, this could help
foster debate and lead to change. In the UK, for
instance, studies are used to complement the
findings of evaluation processes.

In school-based IVET, there is a growing trend
to combine self-assessment and complementary
external evaluation. The first is usually carried
out annually, while the latter takes place less
frequently. In Iceland, for instance, internal
evaluation is quality assured by a five-yearly
external evaluation.

Combining these two evaluation methods is
stipulated in the CQAF, the upcoming EQARF
and  the  EQF  recommendation  to  ensure
evaluation results are robust and will be accepted.
Identifying the right balance between the two
methods is a major challenge.

(36)  This  comprehensive  quality  assurance  strategy  does,
in

to  enterprise-based 

training 

however,  not  apply 
apprenticeship.

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

97

Box 21.  Towards an evaluation culture

Box 22.  Critical friends from outside –

Involving all concerned
(cid:129)  Learners and employers contribute to developing
a quality assurance strategy (the United Kingdom).
(cid:129)  Learners and parents participate in VET schools’
self-evaluation (in Austria, Romania and Finland);
in Romania, learners assess their teachers and
trainers; learner feedback is used in adult learning
and labour market training (in Spain and Finland).

Support structures
(cid:129)  National recommendations for quality assurance

in VET (Finland).

(cid:129)  Guidelines for self-assessment (Slovakia, the UK).
(cid:129)  Regional promoters or advisors who provide training
and support VET establishments (Austria, Norway,
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).
(cid:129)  Regional centres or centres of excellence (Portugal)
to create a push effect; regional quality improvement
partnerships (the UK).

(cid:129)  Networking (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Romania).
(cid:129)  Cooperation between higher education and VET
institutions to develop self- assessment (Italy).

Incentives and benchmarking
(cid:129)  Quality labels and awards (often linked to use of
TQM-EQFM (a) models (Estonia, France, Hungary,
Luxembourg, Turkey).

(cid:129)  Skills competitions (Hungary).
(cid:129)  Benchmarking among VET providers (Denmark,

Hungary, Romania, Finland).

(cid:129)  Publicly-funded tests of CVT courses as reference
points for providers and orientation for potential
learners (Germany).

(cid:129)  (Partially) linking funding to performance as reward
or steering mechanisms (Denmark, Finland).

(a)  Total quality management – European Foundation for Quality

Management

Source:  DGVT and ReferNet national reports, 2008.

Set-ups for external evaluation vary. While
specifically created accreditation and evaluation
bodies  predominate  in  CVT,  they  are  less
common  in  school-based  IVET  (Bulgaria,
Romania).

In  some  cases,  regional  authorities  and
stakeholders are involved (Norway), but the
general trend is to entrust inspectorates with this

External evaluation through 
peer review

Peer review combines ‘insider’ knowledge with that
of ‘external insiders’, as reviewers come from similar
institutions, stakeholder groups and evaluation
backgrounds. It can focus on specific areas or
processes or on the overall quality management of
an institution. In higher education, this method has
been used as a flexible form of external evaluation.
Its added value is perceived as follows:
(cid:129)  it combines different methods and perspectives,
adding a complementary qualitative dimension;
(cid:129)  as it is tailor-made, focused and in-depth, it is
particularly suitable to evaluate learning and
teaching processes which is VET’s core business;
(cid:129)  carried out by people of ‘equal standing’, it is more

likely to be accepted by those evaluated;

(cid:129)  the process contributes to professional teacher
development, as it is perceived as motivating and
fosters common learning and networking of VET
providers.
This means, it goes beyond quality control to quality
development. Transnational peer reviews increase
credibility, help detect blind spots in a system and
increase transparency and common trust.

Guidelines and procedures for peer reviews were
developed and tested in the framework of Leonardo
projects.

Sources:  www.peer-review-education.net [cited 12.11.2008],
website of the Leonardo da Vinci project EAC/332/06/13
‘Peer review extended. Implementing the CQAF through
peer review – Mutual review and assessment of VET
providers and extension of the European peer review
network’. Conference paper and presentation. Pécs, 13-
14 September, 2007 and Barcelona, 13-14 December,
2007.

task (Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, the
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden,
the  UK,  the  former  Yugoslav  Republic  of
Macedonia). These inspectorates operate at
national or regional levels. In some cases, their
remits are extended, for instance to include child-
care aspects and services for youth (the UK,
England), to control and assess exams (the
Netherlands), or to unite inspection of general
education and VET under one roof (the Czech
Republic, Sweden, the UK).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

98

8.1.6.  Fostering evaluation cultures 
and common learning

To develop further quality evaluation cultures,
countries use different support methods and
incentives, sometimes in combined forms.

Performance  evaluation  should  help
improvement. To revise planning and adjust
objectives and activities is the next step in the
quality cycle. If this step is left out, performance
evaluation risks remaining a time consuming lʼart
pour lʼart exercise, as Denmark and Hungary
point out. The Danish experience shows that
moving from benchmarking to bench-learning
among VET institutions might make change
happen.

As it adds a bottom-up dimension to otherwise
top-down measures, peer learning can foster
continuing quality development. Leonardo da
Vinci projects on transnational peer reviews in
2006 and 2007 have proved successful. There
seems to be growing interest to use this method
systematically  as  complementary  external
evaluation, across borders and also within
countries (countries participating in this project
are, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Italy, Hungary,
the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania,
Finland and the UK-Scotland; Norway is piloting
peer reviews). Peer review is also foreseen in
the ENQA-VET 2008-09 work programme.

8.1.7.  Quality assured certification
People require qualifications that are accepted,
of value in the labour market and comparable.
Credibility and trust in certification (37) are major
criteria for the EQF and learning-outcome based
NQF to succeed (see Chapter 9).

For certification of non-formal and informal
learning to become acknowledged mainstream
practice, process, procedures and criteria for
validation  must  be  fair,  transparent  and
underpinned by quality assurance (Council of the
EU, 2004b). Decentralised and ever more diverse
learning sectors and ʻmarketsʼ require consistency
of certification.

(37)  Certification comprises three subprocesses: assessment,
validation  and  recognition.  Assessment:  appraisal  of
learning outcomes against predefined criteria; validation:
confirms that assessment has been carried out correctly and
complies with a predefined standard; recognition: granting
official status to learning outcomes (Cedefop, forthcoming).

This  means,  assessing,  validating  and
recognising a learnerʼs knowledge, skills and
competences also need to be quality assured.
This should ʻguaranteeʼ that learners, who are
awarded a qualification, have attained the level
expected  and  required  of  them  (meets
educational  or  occupational  standards),
regardless of when, where, how and by whom
the learning outcomes are assessed (Cedefop,
forthcoming). It is not surprising that external
monitoring of certification is gaining weight.

The Cedefop study examined the situation in
nine  Member  States  (the  Czech  Republic,
Germany,  Ireland,  Greece,  Spain,  France,
Romania, Finland, the UK-England) (Cedefop,
forthcoming). It concludes that quality assurance
practices in certification processes for VET vary
not only across, but also within countries (IVET
and  CVT).  They  reflect  the  organisational
structure of qualifications, the various actors in
charge of the different steps in the certification
process as well as geographical and sociocultural
factors. Based on three main categories, the
study analysed how the different actors in VET
divide  responsibilities  to  quality  assure
certification processes:
•  external awarding authorities conduct all stages

of the certification process;

•  responsibilities are shared between providers

and awarding authorities;

•  VET providers are in charge of all stages of

the certification process.

Two key messages emerged from the analysis:
•  nearly all countries examined conform to at

least two of these categories;

•  there is a need to quality assure certification

processes focusing on outcomes.
An apparent trend from the current review is
interesting: countries where VET providers in
school-based IVET used to be in charge of all
stages are moving towards the shared model or
towards external certification (Bulgaria, Croatia,
the Czech Republic, Hungary). This is seen as
an instrument for external evaluation of VET
providers. Ireland, for instance, which combines
characteristics of the shared and fully externalised
model, evenly quality assures the full range: all
stages of the certification process, both in IVET
and CVT, plus quality assurance arrangements
of VET providers.

To quality assure validation of non-formal and
informal learning, Portugal, for example, based
its respective system on common European
principles (Council of the EU, 2004b). Recently
it introduced a ʻquality charterʼ to improve the
process. This charter is a tool to set quality
standards, clarify strategies and service levels
and  help  improve  efficient  use  of  funding.
Portugal has introduced a tripartite committee
to monitor and assess the certification system
in its general shift in focus from accreditation to
certification.

8.1.8.  Standards as a quality 
and steering tool

The purpose of using standards is to assure that
learning outcomes are consistent, irrespective
of the place of training, and match labour market
needs. Ultimately, this also leads to more efficient
use of resources.

Stakeholders are increasingly involved in
development of qualification standards, even in
countries with weak social partnership traditions.
This is apparent from the current review and a
Cedefop study on the definition and renewal of
educational and occupational standards (38).
There is no evidence, however, that EU-level
labour  market  forecasts  and  trends  are
systematically considered. Definition of standards
usually entails an overhaul of programmes and
curricula. Standards thus become an important
steering tool for VET.

Approximately two thirds of countries have
developed or are in the process of developing
occupational standards (39) (the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Poland). Many countries are linking occupational
and educational standards (40) (Bulgaria, the

(38)  The Cedefop study (forthcoming) covers all 32 countries
which participate in the Education and training 2010 work
programme.

(39)  Occupational standards describe occupations systematically
(tasks, functions, competences required). They help monitor
the  labour  market,  serve  as  benchmarks  to  measure
occupational  performance  or  describe  the  occupational
profile, depending on the countries (Cedefop, forthcoming).
(40)  Educational  standards  follow  the  logic  of  progressive
accumulation of knowledge and skills. What is standardised
(programme duration, teaching content, methods, learning
outcomes)  and  how  much  autonomy  is  granted  to  local
authorities, training providers and teachers, differs widely
(Cedefop, forthcoming).

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

99

Czech Republic, Spain, Estonia, Hungary, the
Netherlands, Austria, Slovenia). Others only use
the latter (Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Greece,
Norway, Sweden), possibly because they ensure
a strong link to the labour market, as in Germany
or Scandinavian countries, where social partners
are involved in defining qualifications and also
provide training. Malta, and the UK, for instance,
rely on occupational standards and use them to
develop (modularise) qualifications and learning
programmes. This makes them more open to
validation of non-formal and informal learning.
Depending on concepts and connotations, these
standards are complemented or replaced by
competence, examination, assessment, validation
or certification standards.

Countries, also increasingly refer to VET
standards (Lithuania). They are being developed
mainly in CVT (Belgium - Flemish Community,
Ireland, Cyprus, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Finland). They integrate specific content-related
requirements for CVT programmes, linking them
to occupational standards.

The study identifies a trend towards outcome-
based qualification standards to improve quality
in VET, which is also relevant to lifelong learning
and mobility (Chapter 7). This trend is evident
even in previously strongly input-based countries,
such as Poland, although regulating learning
inputs is still predominant in a few (Cyprus,
Greece, Liechtenstein, Slovakia).

To ease mobility of workers and learners, some
European projects looked into collaborative
development of occupational standards across
countries.  As  discussion  on  the  Bordeaux
communiqué has proved, views on this issue are,
however, controversial (41).

8.1.9.  Against the odds
In general, quality assurance is not equally
developed and transparent across all levels and
sectors of education and training or regions within
a  country.  Developing  coherent  national
approaches that strike the right balance between
trust and control is still a challenge for many.
Common to nearly all countries is the missing
link between VET and higher education, despite

(41)  For discussion of the projects Professionalisation durable,
(Cedefop

and  Certiskills

Europäische Kernberufe
forthcoming).

100

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

an attempt to foster dialogue on quality assurance
between these sectors at a conference held in
spring 2006 during the Austrian Presidency.

Likewise, approaches to IVET and CVT differ
considerably. Ex-ante measures and input-
orientation still predominate the latter. However,
some countries are reorienting their approaches
towards quality of learning and output/outcome
orientation (Italy, Portugal). Despite growing
awareness of its added value, self-assessment
seems to play a much lesser role in CVT than in
IVET. The Bordeaux communiqué (2008) and the
recently adopted recommendation for a common
European quality assurance reference framework
for  VET  (EQARF)  (European  Commission,
forthcoming) are intended to support more holistic
and systematic approaches towards quality
assurance in VET.

Creating  a  quality  culture 

requires
determination, expertise, participation, time and
funding.  While  newer  Member  States  and
(potential) candidate countries tend to underline
shortage of necessary funding and expertise,
some  of  EU-15  consider  complex  and
decentralised governance and many different
actors a hurdle in implementing quality assurance
systems in line with the CQAF. In traditionally
decentralised systems, performance-based
steering at national level might be perceived as
recentralisation which restricts pursuit of local
objectives or innovation (Denmark).

Above all, quality assurance focusing on output
and outcome requires strong commitment of all
actors. However, concern is raised that quality
assurance could be perceived by teaching and
training staff as a constraint and time-consuming
at the expense of quality of learning (Denmark,
Estonia, Hungary). Changing mind sets is one
of the main challenges.

As Cedefop studies (e.g. Cedefop, 2008a, p.
97 et seq.) and several country reports reveal, a
more target- and output/outcome-based approach
might cause friction between centrally expected
output and outcomes and local needs. Roles
between local and central authorities might not
be clear cut. Involving all actors, however, is quite
a long and complex process.

Targets related to long-term policies might not
show results in the evaluation period unless
supported by process indicators. Targets are not

always easy to measure and might require a
sophisticated data infrastructure. Achieving
targets might also be affected by contextual
factors. Overemphasis on achieving qualitative
targets at the expense of educational standards
is a risk to avoid. Funding and additional financial
incentives  for  providers  based  on  target
achievement also raise equity concerns unless
their socioeconomic context is considered (as in
France or Finland).

Standards need to be precise enough to be
easily  measurable  and  comparable  and
sufficiently flexible to fit different contexts and
needs. Educational and occupational standards
need to be better linked and require continuous
updating. This might be particularly challenging
in emerging professions or those that do not fit
traditional  categories,  or  in  cases  where
stakeholders find it difficult to articulate their needs
(SMEs). It is also important to balance conflicting
interests of stakeholders, as qualifications have
multiple social and economic functions from
fostering social inclusion to selecting employees,
regulating salaries, improving productivity to
encouraging further learning and mobility.

As  methods  and  sources  used  to  define
qualification standards vary widely, there is lack
of transparency which also implies a need to
quality assure standards.

Linking their qualification systems to the quality
assurance framework, as required by the EQF
recommendation, is still considered a challenge
in many national contexts. Some countries have
successfully managed to integrate at least certain
quality  assurance  requirements  into  their
qualification system. Spain and Denmark, for
instance, as well as some newer Member States,
have made significant efforts over the past few
years to ensure that some quality assurance
mechanisms based on learning outcomes are
effectively considered by the qualification system.

8.2.  Teachers – 

Guarantors of quality

When  devising  and  implementing  quality
assurance mechanisms, some countries consider
it crucial that teachers and trainers understand
quality assurance as value added. The support

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

101

measures outlined above reflect this need and
aim at preparing VET teachers for specific quality
assurance tasks.

As evident from countriesʼ policy priorities, it
is in their general initiatives to improve quality in
VET that countries increasingly perceive teachers
and trainers as key to make reforms work. Policy
measures that focus on teachers and trainers
have become one of the priority areas in a third
of countries.

To do so, they need to possess renewed
methodological skills and competence as well as
state-of-the-art knowledge in their specific subject
area  in  line  with  labour  market  changes
(European Commission, 2005a). This entails
development opportunities and continued support
throughout their careers. Raising the status of
teachers  and  trainers,  setting  standards,
increasing their qualification levels and keeping
initial and continuing training up-to-date have
therefore become major issues of concern in
policy-making. This trend was already apparent
in the 2006 review.

It  is  not  surprising  that  more  and  more
countries  use  ESF  support  to  address
professional  development  needs  of  VET
teachers  and  trainers  (Belgium - French
Community, Estonia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia,
Lithuania, Austria, Poland, Slovakia).

(2002)  and 

The need to invest even more in initial and
continuing training of VET professionals in future
to ensure high quality VET is also underlined in
the Bordeaux communiqué. The Copenhagen
declaration 
the  Maastricht
communiqué  (2004)  had  already  identified
competence  development  of  teachers  and
trainers as key to support VET reforms (42). In
2006, the Helsinki communiqué reiterated the
need for highly qualified teachers and trainers
who  undertake  continuing  professional
development (43).

8.2.1.  VET teachers and trainers 
at the heart of VET reforms

VET  teachersʼ  and  trainersʼ  professional
development is receiving increasing attention,

as they need to be prepared for their expanding
roles and tasks (44). Reviewing the policies and
initiatives devised, five interrelated policy clusters
can be identified, which are often combined:
(a)  defining a strategic vision of VET teachers
and trainersʼ roles and training requirements
(new legislation, policy documents, research,
and funding programmes);

(b)  raising qualification levels, through standards,

certification and accreditation;

(c)  building a more consistent system for initial,
induction and in-service training of VET
teachers and trainers (by establishing new
training institutions);

(d)  raising the status of VET teachers and
trainers, new recruitments paths and policies
to retain competent staff;

(e)  addressing vocational and pedagogical skill
mismatches  of  teachers  and  trainers,
(through  courses  and  new 
training
arrangements).

8.2.2.  Towards a strategic vision 

of teachersʼ and trainersʼ roles 
and professional development
requirements

Policy-makers are increasingly considering how
initial and in-service training can enable VET staff
to cope with:
(a)  new developments in the labour market,
needs  of  businesses  and  innovation  in
technology and working practices;

(b)  changing paradigms in teaching and training
that underpin VET reform (learner-centred
approaches, the shift to learning outcomes
and  competence-based  training,  which
involves  new  forms  of  validating  and
assessing learning);

(c)  decentralisation and increased autonomy of
VET  providers,  which  entail  new
teamwork  and
management 
networking with external partners;

tasks, 

(d)  expanding roles (facilitating learning and

providing guidance);

(e)  the demand for more efficiency, effectiveness

and quality assurance;

(f)  the increasing role of ICT as an education

and management tool;

(42)  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/

council13832_en.pdf .

(43)  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/

(44)  See Cedefop, Cort et al., 2004, p 15 and Cedefop, Lipinska,

helsinkicom_en.pdf .

2007, p 85et seq.

102

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

(g)  the need to provide education and training
to new target groups within lifelong strategies
(Cedefop, Cort et al., 2004).

White papers, either within broader VET
reforms or specific focus on VET teachers, are
shaping a strategic vision on initial and in-service
training, career prospects, and qualification
requirements of teachers (Belgium - Flemish
Community, Greece, Hungary, Norway, Poland,
Slovenia, Slovakia and the UK-England).

Major reforms of VET legislation and more
specifically of professional teacher development
have  recently  settled  competence  and
qualification requirements and opened the gate
for reorganising initial and continuing training
(Belgium - Flemish  Community,  the  Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Spain, Latvia,
Lithuania, Hungary, the Netherlands and the UK).
National  programmes  and  strategic
implementation  plans  seek  to  upgrade  the
competences and qualifications of teachers
through comprehensive reforms of initial and in-
service training and school-based development
projects (Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Latvia,
Lithuania, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden and the
UK). Funding programmes for innovative projects
(Germany  and  Italy)  and  major  financial
investments encourage continuing professional
development. In Denmark, a recent agreement
with the social partners foresees investment of
EUR 30 million for continuing training of teachers
in  vocational  colleges.  In  Sweden,  30  000
teachers should receive further education at
universities and colleges in 2007-10.

In comparison, fewer countries have designed
for  professional
strategic  programmes 
development of IVET and CVT trainers, such as
the further education workforce strategy (2007-
12) in the UK. Nevertheless, new lifelong learning
and employment agendas are increasingly
drawing attention to competence and qualification
needs of in-company trainers.

8.2.3.  Raising qualification levels
Recent legislation in several countries confirms
the trend to upgrade qualifications required for
teaching and training professions already evident
in 2006. To qualify as a VET teacher often requires
graduation from higher education and longer
training than previously. More and more countries

have introduced, are developing or upgrading
minimum standards and professional profiles
which define basic skills and competences that
VET teachers (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Estonia,  France,  Latvia,  Lithuania, 
the
Netherlands, and the UK) and trainers need to
have (Belgium - Flemish Community, Greece, Italy,
Cyprus, Austria, Portugal and Romania).

In sharp contrast, in-company trainers outside
the dual system are traditionally not required to
meet specific qualification requirements other
than being skilled workers with a certain period
of work experience. Not surprisingly, many policy
initiatives to identify and certify the competences
of VET staff have focused on trainers (45). In
several countries, in-company trainers are now
required to acquire professional certification
(Greece, Cyprus, Portugal, Romania and the UK)
and be registered at a professional body (Greece
and  the  UK).  This  entails  commitment  to
continuing professional development. Certification
processes usually include training paths which
allow VET trainers to acquire the necessary levels
of competence. These developments go hand in
hand with quality assurance mechanisms and
accreditation of training providers. Some countries
(Germany and France) have recently adopted or
consider professional specifications for in-
company trainers.

Upgrading qualifications through continuing
professional development in higher education
(Austria) or credits which participants can use in
subsequent  further  education  (Denmark,
Sweden), also aims at raising the status of VET
teachers.

As professional standards and qualifications
of VET teachers are raised, validation and
accreditation of competences acquired through
daily practice is gaining weight in the policy
debate (in Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia).
Several countries are devising systems to validate
and accredit trainersʼ on-the-job learning through
formal qualification or certification (Austria) while
they already exist in France and Portugal (46)

(45)  Unfortunately,  responses  on  policy  developments  do  not
always  distinguish  between  those  working  in  the  dual
system and in-company trainers in general.

(46)  Eurotrainer, making lifelong learning possible: a study on the
situation and qualifications of trainers in Europe, ITB – DG
EAC, 2008.

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

103

(Cedefop, 2007c). Competence standards,
qualification requirements and certification
processes are redesigning the teaching and
training  profession.  These 
important
developments could contribute in future to more
consistent training systems for practitioners, in
which initial, induction and in-service training are
better integrated.

8.2.4.  Towards a more consistent system
for initial, induction and in-service
training

Upgrading qualifications of VET teachers is also
leading to new structures and coordination
mechanisms for initial and continuing training (in
Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary
and Austria). State programmes and training
networks  are  paving  the  way  for  a  better
coordinated development of training provision.
Reforms include a move to merging teacher
training institutes into tertiary university colleges
(Denmark and Austria). Creating new institutions
to coordinate the training provision of trainers is
less frequent. Noteworthy examples in Austria
are: ʻIVET trainer schoolsʼ for continuing training
of trainers of apprentices, and the ʻAcademy of
continuing educationʼ which aims at making more
professional the training profession.

Nevertheless,  continuing  professional
development of VET teachers and trainers, which
should  be  considered  a  lifelong  enterprise
(Cedefop; Cort et al., 2004, p. 26), is mandatory
only in some countries and does not usually offer
career development prospects or lead to salary
increases. With new professional standards and
qualification requirements being set up, in-service
training is likely to expand though. In the reporting
period, continuing training of VET teachers was
made statutory in the Czech Republic, Greece
and the UK, for instance.

8.2.5.  Making the teaching profession

more attractive

The prospective retirement of teachers in the
short-to-medium term needs to be managed
carefully. To be able to plan for the future, reliable
projections  of  teachers  and  trainersʼ  skill
mismatches and training needs are necessary.
In view of the estimated decline of learners in
initial education and training, it is even more

important to ensure policy decisions are based
on a wider range of quantitative as well as
qualitative data.

Major research projects have been launched
to  map  VET  teachersʼ  competences  and
qualifications, monitor changing needs and
shortages of qualified teachers and identify areas
that require further policy action (Estonia, Italy,
Hungary, Finland and Sweden).

Box 23.  Better evidence for policy making

(cid:129)  VET teacher and trainer census (Italy) and new
statistics (Finland) to refine data collection on
teachers’ basic competences and participation in
continuing training.

(cid:129)  Comparative  studies  across  the  EU  on  the
qualifications of VET practitioners and relevant
training practices to help identify possible lines of
action for policy-making (Estonia).

(cid:129)  Surveys on the professional situation of trainers to
monitor  working  conditions,  identify  key
competences, map qualification levels, and assess
needs for professional development (Germany and
Estonia on both IVET and CVET trainers, and Estonia,
Ireland and Italy on CVET practitioners).

Attracting and retaining the best teaching
talents necessitates appealing working conditions
and career development prospects. Several
countries are striving to create new entry routes
to the teaching profession for professionals from
occupations and trades, with recent industry
experience and higher levels of qualifications,
while improving retention of current staff. More
transparent salary and career systems contribute
to parity of esteem between vocational and
general education, and improve the attractiveness
teaching.  Revised  professional
of  VET 
development concepts also include efforts to build
more consistent and specific career paths and
levels for VET teachers. These developments
confirm trends identified in the 2006 review.

Although countries did not report any particular
initiative  intended  to  improve  the  working
conditions of VET trainers, a few measures
address CVET trainer shortages. For example,
the Czech Republic and Estonia have recently
started to train VET teachers for the role of adult

104

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

trainer in their policy initiatives to turn VET schools
into lifelong learning centres. With the growing
need to train more adults and the expected
demographic decline (see Chapters 2 and 5) this
initiative seems timely and pertinent.

Box 24.  Incentives to attract/retain 

VET teachers

(cid:129)  New entry routes for professionals from occupations
and trades (Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Sweden
and the UK);

(cid:129)  Financial incentives in subject areas where teachers

are lacking (UK);

(cid:129)  Reforms of teacher salary systems (Bulgaria,
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Sweden and
the  UK)  which  may  include  differentiated
remuneration based on results achieved (Bulgaria);
(cid:129)  Build more consistent and specific career paths
and levels (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia
and Sweden.

8.2.6.  Addressing vocational and

pedagogical skill mismatches
One of the key challenges facing VET is how to
guarantee that teachers and trainersʼ vocational
skills  keep  up  to  date  with  changes  in
technologies and working practices and new
methodological approaches. Innovative and cost-
effective approaches are called for (47) (Council
of the EU, 2007a). Alternative pathways for initial
and in-service training include on-the-job learning,
new mentoring programmes at induction stage,
networking, peer learning and use of virtual
environments that offer training and support. On-
the-job-learning provides teachers with improved
skills in their subject areas, direct experience of
the world of work and the needs of companies.
It also helps to (re)establish more pertinent links
between VET institutions and enterprises.

More  and  more  countries  are  adopting
continuing professional development of VET
teachers  and  principals  in  school-based
development projects to ensure that newly gained
skills and knowledge are applied and bring about

(47)  Common European principles for teacher competences and
qualifications, http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/
testingconf_en.html 

Box 25. Making teachers and trainers

technically and methodologically fit

Dualistic approach:
(cid:129)  on-the-job learning or ‘returning to industry’ schemes
in which trainers work in companies: Belgium (Flemish
Community), Finland, and the UK;

(cid:129)  industrial placement and apprenticeship arrangements
to update and upgrade trainers’ skills and compe -
tences: Belgium (French Community), Cyprus, Estonia
and Finland;

(cid:129)  twinning programmes to upgrade both work-based
skills of teachers and the pedagogical aptitude of
workplace trainers: Finland and the UK.

Continuing professional development of VET teachers
within school-based development projects: the Czech
Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Slovenia and Sweden.

Networks and web platforms to provide resources
and encourage knowledge sharing:
(cid:129)  for teachers: Estonia, Latvia, Hungary and Sweden;
(cid:129)  for IVET trainers: Austria (in cooperation with social

partners), Poland;

(cid:129)  for CVET trainers: Belgium (Flemish Community), Italy,

Hungary, and Portugal;

(cid:129)  for both in cooperation with social partners: Germany,

Italy and Denmark.

New in-service courses to:
(cid:129)  prepare teachers and trainers to apply learner-centred
approaches and interactive methods: Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Germany, Estonia, Italy, Lithuania, Hungary,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia;
(cid:129)  deal with cultural diversity and address different
learning needs: Belgium (Flemish Community), Bulgaria,
the Czech Republic, Latvia, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia
and Finland;

(cid:129)  carry on new roles, such as guidance and counselling:
Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Lithuania,
Hungary, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia;

(cid:129)  promote cooperation between VET institutes and the
world of work, by equipping VET trainers with the
knowledge and skills needed to support on-the-job
learning and network with companies: Estonia, Ireland,
Hungary, Romania, Finland and Sweden;

(cid:129)  update assessing competences, since competence-
based training and online learning have major impli -
cations for assessment methods: Ireland and Finland;
(cid:129)  improve ICT and e-learning skills: Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Estonia, Italy, Cyprus, Lithuania, Slovakia,
Poland and Portugal.

CHAPTER 8
Improving quality of VET

105

change. This is considered a proficient way to
ensure sustainable and qualitative change in VET
(Nielsen, 2007). School-based continuing VET
teacher development is often an integral part of
quality assurance mechanisms.

Peer learning arrangements, new communities
of practice and online environments initiated by
training providers or public authorities or in
cooperation  with  social  partners  seek  to
overcome training shortcomings and broaden
opportunities for professional development.
Supporting implementation of methodological or
technical aspects of reforms, they encourage
knowledge  sharing  on  teaching  methods,
innovation in business technologies and working
methods and other issues linked to qualifications
and status of VET staff.

New in-service courses address emerging
roles and educational practices of VET staff
associated with new methodologies that underpin
VET reforms and demands on quality assurance.
Upgrading basic skills of VET staff is an important
priority, in particular computer literacy, since
practitioners are increasingly expected to use
ICT as a teaching and management tool, and
become familiar with e-learning. Several countries
also introduce language learning for teachers to
promote their mobility and make it easier for them
to support incoming and outgoing learners.

8.2.7.  Overcoming inertia
To bring about real change requires more than
formally introducing new curricula, content and
methodologies, increasing financial investment
in teacher and trainer training and creating a
framework  for  equal  access  to  training
opportunities. It entails addressing motivational
issues to avoid the ʻMatthew effectʼ, in which
mainly those who already have updated skills
and competences, participate. The age structure
of teachers and trainers poses a particular
challenge in some countries (Estonia, Lithuania).
Overcoming inertia to leave familiar terrain and
making the rationale for change, training needs
and benefits of training better understood, is
perceived as an important challenge by several
countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Slovakia, Slovenia).

In addition, among the barriers which impede
swift implementation of their policies, several
countries have identified low image of the VET
teaching profession, unclear definitions of the
CVT profession, lack of teacher trainers and little
awareness of training needs. Improving the
pedagogical leadership of VET institutions and
promoting research in the quality and impact of
continuing teacher and trainer training are some
of the issues necessary to address to support
policy measures.

CHAPTER 9

Achieving EU goals and implementing
European tools

The most visible and successful part of the
Copenhagen  process  is  development  and
implementation of European tools increasing the
transparency and comparability of education,
training and qualifications systems. The single
Community  framework  for  transparency  of
qualifications and competences (Europass), the
European qualifications framework (EQF), and
the  European  credit  system  for  vocational
education and training (ECVET) have moved
over the past few years from abstract ideas to
concrete initiatives starting to make an impact
on  how  education,  training  and  learning  is
organised at national level.

9.1.  The shift to learning

outcomes

European tools aim at removing geographical,
institutional and sectoral barriers to education,
training and learning. This is important for easing
access to lifelong learning, promoting smooth
learning progression and enabling the valuing
and recognition of learning. The fundamental
basis to these instruments and a key to achieving
these ambitious objectives is the shift to a learning
outcome-based approach.

Defining and describing qualifications based
on learning outcomes – ʻstatements of what an

Table 4.  Objectives of EU instruments

Instruments’ goals

EQF 

ECVET

EUROPASS

Access/Progression

Promoting lifelong learning,
portability of citizens’
qualifications

Promoting lifelong learning,
especially portability of
learning outcomes

Easing mobility throughout
Europe for lifelong learning

Mobility

Transparency

Promoting European
mobility and social
integration of workers and
learners

Improving the transparency
of qualifications and of
national qualifications
systems

Promoting European
mobility of learners

Easing international 
mobility of learners

Improving the transparency
of qualifications and
learning outcomes

Improving the transparency
of qualifications and
competences

Comparability

Increasing comparability of qualifications

Transferability
(transfer, accumulation)

Easing transfer of
qualifications

Easing transfer of credits for
learning outcomes

Easing transfer of learning
outcomes

Recognition/Validation

Easing inclusion of non-
formal and informal learning
outcomes in qualifications

Improving VET recognition
and validation procedures

Easing use of learning
outcomes

Cooperation

Promoting cooperation and
strengthening trust among
all concerned

Promoting improved
cooperation and trust in VET
and adult education

Promoting cooperation
among (and between)
schools, universities and
companies

Source:  adapted from Dunkel and Le Mouillour, 2008.

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

107

•  revising  national  legislation  and  other
regulations on VET programmes/qualifications
implying  a  learning-outcomes  approach
(Denmark, Estonia, Iceland);

•  introducing competence-based curricula and
modularising VET programmes (Austria (49),
Belgium - Flemish Community, the Czech
Republic,  Estonia,  the  former  Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia, Germany, Lithuania,
Malta, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Sweden); for Finland, this already happened
during the national curricula reform at the end
of 1990s;

•  introducing learning outcomes as an effective
way to guide assessment of studentsʼ practice,
replacing more traditional notions (Finland,
Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Romania).
The same tendency is reflected in efforts of
European sectoral organisations using a learning
outcome approach to bridge qualifications and
competence demand in sectors and improve
access and transparency to sectoral career
pathways at European and national levels.

However, while many countries are making a
lot of progress, others are still at an early stage
of implementation. A key challenge is to move
from general political statements to practical
reforms influencing qualifications standards,
teaching  methods  and  assessment  forms
(Cedefop, 2008l). Many countries and institutions
still lack practical experience in use of learning
outcomes for defining standards, describing
curricula and organising assessments. In some
cases, we also observe inherent scepticism
towards the approach, fearing it will weaken
attention to the quality of teaching and learning
input. Another important challenge for the future
is  whether  the  shift  to  learning  outcomes,
increasingly promoted at European and national
levels, will result in more open and active learning
or not.

individual knows, understands or is able to do at
the end of a learning processʼ (48) – fulfil several
different functions. The approach:
•  criticises a purely input-based perspective
defining and describing education, training and
qualifications purely based on location, duration
and teaching methods;

•  introduces a language comprehensible to both
users and providers of education and training
and simplifies a dialogue on the relevance and
quality of qualifications;

•  strengthens accountability of education of
training by introducing clear statements of what
an individual learner or employer can expect
from a particular programme or qualification;
•  clarifies the relevance of learning forms and
contexts,  including  those  outside  formal
systems.
The crucial role of the learning outcomes
approach is reflected in the main objectives and
functions of the three main European instruments
(Table 4).

The  learning  outcomes  approach  was
important for Europass when it was introduced
in 2005 (Section 9.2), as clearly demonstrated
by the principles underpinning the Europass CV,
the certificate supplement and language portfolio.
EQF and ECVET initiatives (Sections 9.3 and
9.4) have taken the learning outcomes approach
one step further and present it as the common
language which can make it possible to open up
the ʻblack boxʼ of qualifications and make it
comprehensible to individual users.

Recent national developments in Member
States confirm a growing priority in policy agendas
to increase the flexibility and permeability of
qualifications systems and the shift to learning
outcomes is acknowledged as a prominent tool
in this respect. Many countries provide case
studies showing the way towards (DGVT and
ReferNet, 2008):
•  developing VET qualifications and job profiles
based on learning outcomes and standards
(Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Greece, Italy,
Hungary, Austria, Romania);

(48)  Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 23 April 2008 on establishment of the European
qualifications  framework  for  lifelong  learning.  (European
Council; European Parliament, 2008), p. 1-7.

(49)  This takes place currently in higher education institutions.

108

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

9.2.  Europass and the role of

national Europass centres

Europass, as a portfolio of five documents
(curriculum vitae (CV), language passport,
Europass mobility, certificate supplement and
diploma supplement), is now implemented in 32
countries (EU, European Economic Area and
candidate countries) addressing half a billion
citizens.

A network of national Europass centres (NECs)
promotes its implementation in participating
countries. These national centres are established
and working in all EU/EEA countries cofinanced
by the Commission through operating grants.
Most NECs were set up mid-2005, and only a
few centres, for example in Bulgaria, have been
established more recently (Ecotec, McCoshan,
2008). In candidate countries, Turkey set up a

NEC  in  2008  and  is  actively  involved  in
implementing the initiative.

As reported by ReferNet and DGVTs (2008),

activities of NECs focus on five main areas:
(a)  publishing promotional material;
(b)  organising informative events;
(c)  setting  up  and  managing  the  national

Europass website;

(d)  fostering collaboration with stakeholders;
(e)  participating in Leonardo da Vinci projects
and other non-EU mobility programmes.
All countries reported interesting examples of
practice  for  promoting  Europass.  Different
approaches  were  developed  and  included
national media campaigns (the Czech Republic,
Lithuania, Finland); the dissemination through
European networks (Euroguidance, Eures, Youth
portal, Ploteus); use of various national networks
(Belgium, the Czech Republic, Italy, Sweden);
setting up specific Europass networks (France)

Table 5.  Europass instruments: statistics and practice

Europass portfolio

Statistical data

Examples of practice

Europass CV

Europass 
language passport

Europass mobility

From February 2005 to December 2008, about
4.2 million CVs were completed online using
Cedefop’s tutorials and over 6.1 million CV
templates were downloaded.

From February 2005 to December 2008, about
113 000 language passports were completed
online and over 424 000 ELP templates were
downloaded.

In 2006-07, over 77 000 Europass mobility
documents were issued to persons undergoing
mobility.

Certificate 
supplement

20 countries (out of 32) have established a
national inventory of certificate supplements.

Diploma 
supplement

The diploma supplement is used by many
higher education institutions.

In some countries, employment agencies
promote use of Europass CV.

The Europass language passport is used by
schools, vocational training institutions, higher
education institutions and language schools.

Europass mobility is mostly used in the
Leonardo da Vinci programme.

The  certificate  supplement  is  being
progressively prepared for more training
programmes in national and often also in
English.

There are more and more countries (Austria,
the Belgium-Flemish community, Germany,
Norway, Poland, Romania, Sweden) where
this is issued with the national diploma. Few
countries, such as Cyprus, are still on the way
to legalise its statutory issue.

Source:  Cedefop statistics, DGVT and ReferNet, 2008.

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

109

•  strengthen synergies between Europass and
implementation of the EQF and corresponding
national qualifications frameworks;

•  improve user-friendliness of Europass tools;
•  spread information on the advantages of
Europass to all stakeholders and end-users by
strengthening interinstitutional cooperation.
At European level, progress of work on the
European qualifications framework (EQF) and
the European credit system for VET (ECVET)
requires Europass to be reviewed to consider
their development. The Europass certificate and
diploma supplements need to be developed to
include information on the EQF level attained by
the holder, while the former should include
information on units of learning outcomes and
corresponding  credits.  An  important  initial
conclusion from piloting and testing EQF (in the
Leonardo  da  Vinci  programme) 
the
recommendation  to  build  on  the  principles
underpinning the certificate supplement. Several
EQF test projects concluded in 2008 point to the
certificate supplement as an excellent way to
describe and compare qualifications using a
learning outcomes-based approach.

is 

There is also a need to add descriptions of
credits  transferred  using  ECVET  (Ecotec,
McCoshan, 2008).

The Europass CV will be further developed,
in particular by strengthening its self-assessment
function, supporting individuals in capturing
learning acquired outside formal education and
training. Cooperation between Europass and
Eures (European employment services) will
enable citizens to transfer personal data from
one system to the other. Further, contacts should
continue going on with sectors (metal industry,
hotel, catering and tourism industry, engineering
sector) to ensure that sectoral skills passports
developed  by  sectors  are  compatible  with
Europass.

The Commission plans to take concrete action
to address these issues and ensure synergy
between  Europass  and  related  European
initiatives (EQF, ECVET, recognition of learning
outcomes).

as well as other activities (ReferNet, 2008).

Europass is also promoted through European,
national and regional programmes. In Sweden,
for example, Europass mobility is spread though
the national initiative ʻAPU abroadʼ and also
through well-established regional programmes,
Nordplus and Nordplus junior, which include five
Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland,
Norway and Sweden.

9.2.1.  Europass making a difference 

to individuals

The usefulness of Europass for its users is
manifested in its increased and steadily growing
take-up. Original targets set by the Commission
at the launch of the initiative have already been
surpassed  by  a  great  margin  (European
Commission, 2008n).

As  for  its  impact,  the  first  evaluation  of
Europass showed it had given clear benefits to
many people. Over a fourth of Europass users
considered Europass had helped them gain
access  to  opportunities  for  learning  and
employment across Europe to a very large or to
a large extent (Ecotec, McCoshan, 2008).

The success of Europass is also evident from
the significant number of visitors to its website
(http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu), launched
in February 2005 and developed by Cedefop on
behalf of the European Commission. The most
active users can be found in Italy, followed by
the Netherlands, Portugal, Germany and Spain.
The Europass website is now available in 26
languages and has reached more than 14 million
visits (December 2008), with 4.2 million CVs
completed online and another 5.7 million CV
templates downloaded.

Over the past years, a regular increase in use
of Europass instruments can be observed; this
is clearly reflected in the statistics presented
(Table 5).

9.2.2.  Europass: successful present,

prominent future

The first stage of implementation is now seen as
complete. Future work should focus on increasing
use of Europass at national level, establishing
and strengthening new cooperation ventures.
Directors General for VET for further improvement
of Europass recommend to:

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

110

9.3.  The European

qualifications framework:
towards national
implementation

The European qualifications framework (EQF) is
a common European reference framework which
links national qualifications systems, acting as a
translation device to make qualifications more
readable and understandable across different
countries and systems in Europe.

As an instrument for easing mobility, its main
added  value  is  introduction  of  a  common
European learning outcome-based reference
structure. As an instrument for promoting lifelong
learning, it covers – in its eight levels – the entire
span of qualifications from those at the end of
compulsory education to those awarded at the
highest level of academic and professional
education and training. This details the horizontal
and vertical links between knowledge, skills and
competence,  illustrating  potential  learning
pathways and possibilities.

While the basic principles promoted by the
EQF are well suited to build bridges to reduce
institutional and sectoral barriers to education,
training and learning, the impact of this instrument
on access and progression depends on the extent
to which countries allow these same principles
to influence national reforms. The 32 countries
participating in the Education and training 2010
programme  have  been  invited  by  the  EQF
recommendation adopted in April 2008, to relate
to European levels in two stages:
(a)  referencing national qualifications systems

to the EQF by 2010;

(b)  introducing a reference to the EQF in all new
qualifications, certificates, diplomas and
Europass documents by 2012.

Developments since 2006 show that the
principles introduced by the EQF have been
broadly accepted by the majority of countries
involved. While some countries initially expressed
concerns on the relatively short time available
(for example Austria and Poland), the majority of
countries are now working actively to meet the
deadlines (DGVT responses, 2008).

While the EQF recommendation largely leaves
it to countries themselves to decide how to

implement the EQF, the overwhelming majority
opted  for  setting  up  national  qualifications
frameworks (NQFs).

NQFs explicitly address the need for using
learning outcomes as a basis for reform and the
need to make qualifications levels explicit and
transparent. They can be seen as instruments
for 
qualifications
arrangements,  in  particular  by  providing  a
platform for cooperation between education and
training sectors, thus addressing the frequently
fragmented character of national systems.

reforming 

national 

While only four countries have implemented
NQFs (Ireland, France, Malta and the UK) to
date, more countries are involved in planning,
developing and implementing NQFs (see Annex
1: Status of NQF developments in 32 countries).
Countries with already established NQFs are
deepening implementation by adopting more
consistent approaches to learning outcomes,
credit transfer and recognition of non-formal
learning (Ireland, England, Scotland and Wales)
and  bringing  their  NQFs  into  line  with  the
framework for qualifications of the European
higher education area (QF-EHEA) and EQF
(France).

for 

increasing 

This blossoming of NQFs – as a reflection of
and response to the EQF – shows the EQF has
into  a  stage  of  practical
now  moved 
implementation. The current process combines
a European push for international comparability
and national pull for reform (Bjørnåvold and
Coles, 2008). While other initiatives took place
earlier, 
transparency  of
qualifications and easing mobility, EQF is a quite
different policy initiative as it has created a strong
pull effect for national reforms altering the point
of equilibrium in governance of education and
training systems. The EQF case demonstrates
clearly that a novel European space based on
common trust is being established in education
and training. The continued success of the EQF
depends on further deepening this common trust.

9.3.1.  Convergences and divergences 

in emerging national qualifications
frameworks

While common trends can be identified in national
policies between different countries for developing
qualifications frameworks, these will always reflect

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

111

Table 6.  Types of emerging national qualifications frameworks

Type of framework

Characteristics

Examples

Sector

Bridging

Integrating

(cid:129)  There are defined series of qualification levels and (possibly) descriptors
for one or more education and training sectors (general, VET, HE).
(cid:129)  There are no explicit links between sector frameworks for different

Spain
Hungary
Netherlands

education or training sectors.

(cid:129)  In its weakest form, there is a set of common levels covering all
education sectors which is the basis for relating to each education
and training sector framework. In its strongest form these common
levels can have a set of descriptors different to those of the sector
frameworks they relate to.

(cid:129)  Separate sector frameworks exist as a basis to this bridging framework.
(cid:129)  The ‘bridging’ framework forms a formal link between different

education or training sectors.

Denmark
Estonia
Scotland

(cid:129)  There is a single set of levels and descriptors covering all education
and training sectors. Each sector uses this set of levels and descriptors
as its own framework.

(cid:129)  No separate sector frameworks exist.
(cid:129)  The integrating framework forms a formal link between different

Ireland

education or training sectors.

Source:  European Commission, (forthcoming).

the particular national contexts where they are
developed.

Development of NQFs at national level can
only be fully understood when considering the
Bologna process for higher education and efforts
to establish a European qualifications framework
for  higher  education  (QF-EHEA).  The  46
countries participating in the Bologna process
have committed themselves (ministerial meetings
of  Bergen  in  2005  and  London  in  2007)  to
establish NQFs covering higher education. While
the  EQF  recommendation  considers  these
developments – the short, first, second and third
ʻcyclesʼ of the EHEA correspond fully to levels 5
to 8 of the EQF – some countries have so far
exclusively focused on developing NQFs for
higher education.

This  is  now  gradually  changing  and  the
majority of countries are developing overarching
frameworks addressing all eight EQF levels and
the relationship between them. This reflects the
need to develop frameworks covering the entire
scope of qualifications and to address issues of
access to, progression within and transfer of

qualifications across education and training
sectors. Integration is in this sense a key word
for understanding development of NQFs. One of
the main challenges currently faced by countries
is for example to agree on the relationship
between VET and higher education. Realising
lifelong learning requires existing barriers to
progression between these two particular sectors
to be reduced, illustrating the crucial role of NQFs
in national reforms.

Development of NQFs is a multispeed process
coloured by national political and institutional
situations  and  contexts.  While  the  overall
objectives introduced by the EQF (and the QF-
EHEA) to a large extent are shared (learning
outcomes, explicit qualifications levels, etc.),
actual developments have reached different
stages. Based on the situation mid-2008, three
main forms of national frameworks are observed
in the 32 countries taking part in the Copenhagen
process (Table 6).

The table illustrates that countries in their
development of NQFs address increasingly
ambitious objectives. For the moment, many

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

112

Table 7.  The added value of NQF/EQF developments: countriesʼ points of view

NQFs are expected to address:

EQF is expected to contribute to:

(cid:129)  inconsistencies of national systems by introducing an
integrated set of qualification levels and descriptors
(based on learning outcomes);

(cid:129)  an improved understanding of similarities and differences
between diverse national qualifications systems, thus
simplifying transfer and recognition;

(cid:129)  need for a coherent national reference for qualifications

(cid:129)  a common reference for development and renewal of

standards;

qualifications;

(cid:129)  involvement of stakeholders from different sectors and
segments to fight fragmentation and to develop
ownership and commitment to national reform;

(cid:129)  increased and improved European cooperation;

(cid:129)  transparency  of  systems  and  qualifications,  for

(cid:129)  increased transparency and common trust;

individuals, employers and others;

(cid:129)  pathways and progression routes in the education and

(cid:129)  comparability of different national qualifications thus

training system;

easing access and progression;

(cid:129)  valuing a broader range of learning outcomes, including

(cid:129)  recognition of prior learning and foreign qualifications.

non-formal and informal learning.

Source:  DGVT responses, 2008, reports from peer learning activities on NQFs, Krakow and London, 2008.

countries are still at the stage of what is described
as a (education and training) sector-based NQF,
for example concentrating exclusively on higher
education (in Bulgaria, Iceland, Latvia, Norway,
Romania, Spain, Sweden and Turkey) or VET
frameworks (Romania). Increasingly, however,
countries express a wish to go towards bridging
or  integrating  models  even  though  this
development is a long-term objective requiring
time and strong involvement of all stakeholders
(see developments in Germany and Austria).

Some countries (Germany and Austria) see
NQFs as crucial for strengthening the position of
vocational education and training; notably by
improving communication between VET and
higher education and by giving more visibility to
skills and competence elements in defining and
describing qualifications. The EQF promotes parity
of esteem by stating that skills and competences
are important for all qualifications levels. VET
qualifications, as a consequence, can be identified
and developed at all levels, including levels 6 to
8. This challenges the traditional division of labour
between education and training institutions, and
in particular access and progression issues
between VET and higher education.

The  rapid  development  of  NQFs  across
Europe is based on an understanding that this
instrument – and its link to the EQF – can bring
added value and consistency to ongoing reforms
of education, training and qualifications systems.
While this added value will vary from country to
country, reflecting different national contexts,
some common issues may be identified (Table 7).
While reflecting national traditions and needs,
NQF developments are clearly condidering the
basic principles outlined by the EQF. A significant
number of countries are intending to use eight
reference levels in their national frameworks
(Belgium, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey).
Even countries with established NQFs, such as
England,  Northern  Ireland  and  Wales,  are
currently testing an eight-level (plus entry level)
qualifications and credit framework designed to
be fully operational by 2010. France is also
considering revising the number of levels. The
preference for an 8-level structure does not mean,
however, that EQF levels and descriptors are
imposed at national level. Denmark and Austria
are a good example. Their decision to use an
eight-level structure was based on detailed

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

113

Table 8.  Preconditions for successfully implementing EQF: countriesʼ points of view

Preconditions or preparatory activities

Need for a legal basis.

Countries

Austria, Croatia

Sufficient information of all interested partners and end users.

Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Lichtenstein,
Malta, Norway, Portugal, the UK

Sufficient involvement, ownership and consensus between 
all relevant parties.

Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Lichtenstein, Lithuania,
Sweden

Create common trust without setting up large control 
mechanisms or bureaucratic systems.

Belgium, Cyprus, Romania, Slovenia

Create acceptance for introduction of mechanisms for validation 
of non-formal learning and quality assurance.

Austria, Cyprus, Greece, Iceland, Netherlands,
Malta, Romania

Train teachers and trainers within the scope of lifelong learning.

Luxembourg, Turkey

Ensure link between European tools (Europass, EQF, ECTS 
and ECVET), implement the Bologna process at university level 
and adapt ISCED to correspond to EQF.

Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg

Define appropriate level descriptors and develop clear 
guidelines to relate national levels to EQF levels.

Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Romania

Source:  DGVT responses, 2008.

national analysis and consultation. It is only when
this part of the process is completed that actual
referencing  to  the  EQF  can  start  (the  first
countries, Ireland and the UK, will finalise this by
spring 2009).

While countries acknowledge the benefits EQF
can bring, they also identify challenges for its
successful implementation. Naturally challenges
differ from country to country, depending, among
other factors, on previous experiences in using
learning outcomes for defining and designing
qualifications and cooperation arrangements
between education and training sectors, notably
VET and higher education. Table 8 summarises
the  main  challenges  reported  by  countries
(DGVTs and ReferNet, 2008; Peer learning
activities on NQFs, Krakow and London, 2008).
future
implementation of the EQF at European, national
and sectoral levels are examined in continual
testing and piloting of EQF in the Leonardo da
Vinci programme. Outcomes of these projects
already provide important feedback on the

The  challenges 

involved 

in 

challenges involved in developing NQFs and
implementing the EQF. Projects started in 2006
and finalised end 2008 (Cedefop, Conclusions
from  the  workshop  Testing  the  European
qualifications framework, 2008c) point to three
main areas where development and further
cooperation is needed:
•  develop general methods, based on project
and national experiences, for defining and
developing 
learning  outcomes-based
qualifications;

•  develop templates and common approaches
thus
for  description  of  qualifications, 
strengthening transparency and comparability
(the Europass certificate supplement is seen
as one possible approach);

•  continue work on conceptual clarification and

common understanding;

•  deepen understanding of the implications of
qualifications  frameworks  developed  by
economic  sectors  (ICT,  auto  industry,
construction, etc.).

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

114

Developments at sector level pose a particular
challenge and illustrate that qualifications are not
exclusively awarded by public, national bodies.
On  the  contrary,  increasing  diversity  of
stakeholders, including multinational companies
and sectoral organisations are becoming active.
The question currently being discussed is whether
the EQF can become a reference point for all
qualifications, including those awarded outside
traditional systems and frameworks.

Successful implementation of EQF requires
the active participation and consensus of all
parties concerned. At European level, European
social partners have supported and been actively
involved in developing the EQF from the very
beginning. At national level, involvement of
industry,  chambers  and  social  partners,
particularly those involved in European pilot
projects, is vital to remedy upcoming challenges.
This shows that the EQF cannot exclusively be
understood in technical terms as a set of levels
and  descriptors.  It  is  more  a  platform  for
cooperation  and  gradual  and  long-term
development of common trust.

9.3.2.  EQF beyond European borders
EQF is increasingly seen as a reference point for
countries outside the EU/EEA area. In particular,
development of NQFs and adoption of a learning
outcome-based  approach  are  examples  of
extensive common learning beyond Europe.

Since  launching  the  EQF  consultation
document in 2005, preaccession countries
involved  in  the  Bologna  process  ( 50)  have
experimented with learning outcome-based
approaches in VET reforms and have started to
work on NQFs. This has often led to development
of two qualifications frameworks (for VET and
higher education) in each country.

European countries not part of the Education
and training 2010 process, but participating in the
Bologna process (51) as well as central Asian, north
African/middle eastern countries, which are not
signatories to the European Cultural Convention,

(50)  Preaccession countries are: Croatia, the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia and Turkey (candidate countries),
and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia
(precandidate countries).

(51)  Andorra,  Armenia,  Azerbaijan,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Georgia,  the  Holy  See,  Moldova,  Montenegro,  Russian
Federation, Serbia and Switzerland.

are currently reforming their qualifications systems
and are keen to link them with the EQF.

Non-European countries outside Bologna/ETF
cooperation arrangements consider the EQF
relevant to their national policies on recognition
and  transparency.  Some  have  established
comprehensive qualifications frameworks for
lifelong learning (Australia, South Africa, New
Zealand). Others are planning development of
NQFs (India, Korea, Canada, UAE) (52). This
shows  the  basic  challenges  underpinning
development of European tools, notably lifelong
learning and lack of permeability of qualifications
systems, are not exclusively European issues
but are shared by countries all over the world.

9.4.  European proposal 

for the European credit
system for VET (ECVET)

The European credit system for vocational
education and training (ECVET) has been further
developed since the decision in the Copenhagen
declaration (30 November 2002) to develop a
system of credit transfer for VET to promote
transparency, comparability, transferability and
recognition of competence and/or qualifications,
between different countries and at different levels.
The subsequent communiqués of Maastricht
(2004) and Helsinki (2006) gave priority to
ECVET, stressing the importance of testing and
implementing such a European instrument.

In 2006-07, the ECVET proposal, based on
the  European
contributions  of  experts, 
Commission  and  Cedefop  was  subject  to
European consultation. This brought evidence
of wide support for this approach among Member
States and stakeholders. Meanwhile, ECVET is
pending the decision for a recommendation from
the European Parliament and European Council.

9.4.1.  ECVET: opportunities and challenges
ECVET provides a common methodological
framework based on units of learning outcomes
directly related to qualifications. It is designed to

(52)  Bjørnåvold,  J.  Note  AG1-5.  EQF  Advisory  Group,  13-14

March 2008, Brussels.

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

115

simplify transfer of credits between qualifications
and VET systems. ECVET builds on common
concepts and principles with the European
qualifications framework (EQF) and the European
quality assurance reference framework (EQARF).
Thus, while the main objective of EQF is to
increase  transparency,  comparability  and
transferability of acquired qualifications, ECVET
may ease transfer, recognition and accumulation
of learning outcomes of individuals on their way
to achieving a qualification.

Benefits expected by countries in developing
the ECVET are similar to those stated in policy
documents (DGVT responses, 2008). They
concern both individual and institutional levels,
by:
•  individualising pathways;
•  increasing motivation for LLL;
•  increasing participation rates to VET;
•  easing geographic mobility;
•  making recognition of non-formal and informal

learning easier;

•  ensuring transparency among educational

systems and establishing common trust;

•  bringing the education system closer to the
labour market linking vocational standards with
curricula.
In the European VET area, ECVET is expected
to increase or consolidate common trust based
on  sustained  cooperation  and  voluntary
implementation of this tool. Implementing ECVET
is linked, according to countriesʼ answers, to two
aspects:  deadline  and  cost-effectiveness.
Concerns are raised on future implementation of
this instrument acknowledging that 2012 (53) does
not seem achievable for most Member States
(DGVTs, 2008). Stakeholders seem aware of the
importance of keeping the balance between the
expected positive effects of ECVET on mobility
(and permeability) and the administrative, social
and legal arrangements to be met (DGVTs, 2008).
Directors-General for Vocational Education
and Training highlight their lack of experience
with credit systems, also pointed out in the
ECVET Reflector study (Fietz et al., 2007), given

(53)  2012 is proposed by the European Commission to Member
States  as  the  date  for  adopting  measures  for  ECVETʼs
gradual  application 
to  VET  qualifications  (European
Commission, 2008j).

that most VET and qualifications systems (65 %
of 31 systems surveyed) have no credit systems.
Among other potential challenges, they underline:
•  insufficient time for testing;
•  implications in connecting learning outcomes,

units and qualifications; and

•  inadequately developed quality assurance
systems and methods for validating learning
outcomes.
Given the complexity and interconnectivity of
VET processes and stakeholdersʼ remits, Member
States  favour  a  progressive  experimental
introduction of ECVET.

Two studies underpinning development of the
European credit transfer system for VET –
ECVET Reflector (Fietz et al., 2007) and ECVET
Connexion (Gelibert and Maniak, 2007) – provide
evidence that no VET or qualifications systems
are  in  a  position  to  implement  ECVET
immediately  and  fully.  At  the  same  time,
implementing ECVET does not require a radical
change  to  rationales  of  existing  VET  and
qualifications systems as all of them have a
certain level of ECVET readiness. This is defined
by  indicators  linked  to  the  toolʼs  technical
specifications, flexibility of training pathways,
autonomy of training providers and openness to
mobility  (ECVET  Connexion).  The  ECVET
Reflector study considering ECVET readiness
based on transfer and recognition mechanisms
comes to an identical conclusion.

Countries suggest that time is required for
further  elaboration  of  ECVET  before
implementation (for instance, terminology and
methodology), or integration of EQF/NQF with
ECVET, and ECVET with ECTS. Successful
implementation of ECVET requires networking
between VET stakeholders and a change in the
cultural setting of VET systems opening for
mobility and permeability.

9.4.2.  Opening the way to ECVET
Besides need for cooperation, implementation
of ECVET does not happen on its own but is
linked to policies on improving international
mobility in VET or to changes at national, regional
or local levels towards more permeability in and
between VET systems or subsystems. These
reforms are important triggers for implementing
this tool.

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

116

National reforms since 2006, reveal that many
countries around the world are looking at ways
of introducing credit transfer processes (and thus
flexibility) into qualifications systems. Australia (54),
Belgium  (Flemish  Community),  Denmark,
Ireland (55), New Zealand, Scotland, Spain, Sweden
and the UK (56), for instance, have developed or
are exploring development of credit transfer
systems (OECD, 2007 and ReferNet, 2008).

Other  policy  initiatives  observed  among

Member States (ReferNet, 2008) aim to:
•  introduce  a  credit  system  in  VET  reform
(Iceland, Luxembourg, Slovenia) or study its
feasibility for future introduction considering
ECVET [the Czech Republic, Germany, Finland
(Finecvet project)];

•  analyse legal and organisational status quo of
VET options regarding their ECVET readiness
(Austria);

•  develop or update related national legislation

(Iceland, Italy (57), Latvia, Slovenia);

•  introduce credits in new curricula (Hungary);
•  develop procedures for collection, transfer and
recognition of learning outcomes and skills (the
Czech Republic, Germany);

•  transfer credits considering the proposed

ECVET;

•  introduce and recognise partial qualifications
(the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia,
Spain).
Undoubtedly, these national developments
open the way to future implementation of ECVET
but success depends to a high degree on its
practicability. This is also the main message of
the ECVET Reflector study that suggests keeping
ECVET  as  simple  as  possible  in  terms  of
administrative burden and user-friendliness and
to  confer  upon  it  the  status  of  an  evolving

(54)  The Australian qualifications framework already foresees
formal  links  between  qualifications  belonging  to  different
parts of education systems based on articulation and credit
transfer arrangements (AQF, 2007).

(55)  The  credit  system  being  introduced  in  the  Irish  common
awards  system  could  be  fully  integrated  into  ECVET  as
proposed (ReferNet, 2008).

(56)  A qualifications and credit framework (QCF) for England,
Wales  and  Northern  Ireland  is  implemented  from August
2008.

(57)  The Italian Decree of the Prime Minister of 25 January 2008
introduced new guidelines as part of an ambitious process
to  reorganise  and  stabilise  the  higher  education  and
technical training system (IFTS) (ReferNet Italy, 2008).

instrument dependent on  experimentation.
Testing and experimenting has already taken
place since 2006 in European pilot projects under
the lifelong learning programme, while a second
project generation to test and develop ECVET
was initiated in August 2008 by the European
Commission. The first generation of ECVET-
related projects focused on building sustainable
partnerships with all stakeholders engaged in
elaborating and awarding qualifications. In some
projects, 
is  developing
accreditation procedures for VET providers using
the methodology concerned. Projects have a
common approach: they are developing common
qualifications or occupational standards in their
respective fields (European management, painter,
master craftsperson qualification in bakery, or
vocational fields such as fitness or cultural
heritage). The second project generation will
focus on institutional and governance aspects of
ECVET implementation.

the  partnership 

At the mid-2008 stage of development of the
ECVET initiative – ECVET not yet officially
adopted – obviously further work is needed to
bring this tool to maturity. While not yet in a
position to draw robust conclusions across
countries for its potential success, European
studies  (ECVET  Reflector  and  ECVET
Connexion),  results  of  European  ECVET
consultation and preliminary findings of pilot
projects  provide  evidence  that  the  ECVET
proposal is feasible.

9.5.  Challenges and 
further steps

Analysis of policy developments and initiatives
undertaken during 2006-08 in 32 countries
participating in Education and training 2010,
shows that, as a result of European initiatives on
Europass, EQF and ECVET, reforms of national
education systems have intensified. They mainly
focus on increased orientation towards learning
outcomes  and  development  of  national
qualifications frameworks. While developments
have been rapid until now, the real challenges
for making lifelong learning a reality for individual
citizens lie ahead of us.

CHAPTER 9
Achieving EU goals and implementing European tools

117

Experiences during 2006-08 show there is
need for further developing the technical and
conceptual tools needed to pursue the shift to
learning outcomes and, in particular, develop and
implement  NQFs-EQF.  This  technical  and
conceptual development will have to be intensified
in the coming period.

Involving all relevant stakeholders at European
and national levels is crucial if European tools
are going to have any impact on education,
training and learning practices. Without such
involvement and ownership, the common trust
needed for more open, permeable and flexible
qualifications systems will not be created.

One key issue for the 2008-10 period is to what
extent framework developments in the Education
and training 2010 and Bologna processes can
be  better  coordinated.  While  the  EQF  and
qualifications framework in the European higher
education  area  have  been  developed  for
somewhat different purposes and differ in scope,
they  pursue  many  of  the  same  objectives.

Success of the EQF and QF-EHEA depends on
increased coordination between these initiatives,
and in particular on developments of NQFs. A
situation where developments in higher education
are isolated from the rest of the education and
training system would be negative.

Developments in 2006-08 also illustrate the
need to link with other policy initiatives, notably
quality assurance (crucial to commom trust) and
validation of non-formal and informal learning
(crucial for broadening the range of learning
outcomes valued). These developments have to
be continued and intensified.

The future success of European tools, among
other factors, will much depend on the ability to
sustain these initiatives. Undoubtedly, Europass,
EQF and ECVET, based on the open method of
coordination, foster policy learning and drive
national change. A major challenge for future
implementation of the tools is to assure continuity
and permanence.

CHAPTER 10

Statistics and indicators – 
The way forward

Adequate and consistent VET data and indicators
provide important evidence for policy-makers to
develop well targeted measures and monitor their
implementation. Both the Helsinki (2006) and
Bordeaux communiqués (2008) highlight that
special attention should be given to improving
the scope, comparability and reliability of VET
statistics.

Improving the quality of VET statistics can only
happen if both European and national policies
consider it a priority in an overall strategic
framework,  and  consequently  provide  the
necessary resources. This strategy requires
harmonised data sources that apply common
concepts founded on European regulations. In
the European statistical system (ESS), it is the
joint responsibility of the Commission (Eurostat)
and Member States to provide data according to
agreed quality standards.

In recent years, many Member States have
aimed to improve political and legal frameworks,
further develop and use existing data, and ensure
their consistency. National data harmonised
across  countries  are  a  precondition  for  a
consistent system of EU VET statistics.

Helsinki and Bordeaux communiqué objectives
for VET statistics are a challenge for all. The May
2007 Council conclusions define the first clear
political framework for future improvement of the
scope and quality of education and training
statistics (Council of the EU, 2007b). At EU level,
substantial progress in VET statistics can only
be expected in this overall process, and within
the scope agreed by the Council. To achieve this
in the ESS, the strategy builds on three main
elements, often ultimately depending on data
providers at national level: better use of statistical
sources, improving statistical sources specifically
created for LLL, while strengthening the statistical
infrastructure.

10.1.  Achievements 

at European level –
Improving education 
and training statistics

The past few years have seen significant policy
progress in improving official education and
training statistics. One key development was the
Council conclusions of 24 May 2005 on new
indicators in education and training (Council of
the EU, 2005) which led via a Commission
proposal to the coherent framework of indicators
and benchmarks for monitoring progress in
education and training, concluded in May 2007
(Council of the EU, 2007b). Although specific
reference was made to development of the VET
component, this did not go so far as to define
VET dimensions for relevant indicators and the
opportunity was missed to give political weight
to the Copenhagen process.

It is now a challenge to emphasise and develop
the  VET  component  for  those  measures
(benchmarks) that have potential in the short
term: (i) early school leavers; (ii) upper secondary
completion rates of young people; (iii) adult
participation in lifelong learning; (iv) educational
attainment of the population; (v) investment in
education and training.

Extending the EU labour force survey (EU-
LFS) so ʻhighest level of education attainedʼ is
also available by programme orientation (general
versus vocational) would allow the first four
indicators to report on VET. The third indicator is
also covered by the continuing vocational training
survey (training in enterprises) and the adult
in  different
education  survey  (learning 
environments).

While the five European benchmarks are still
relevant for monitoring progress of the Education
and training 2010 programme, it is now necessary
to reflect on benchmarks beyond 2010. Recent
replies to a questionnaire completed by the

CHAPTER 10
Statistics and indicators – the way forward

119

European Directors of Vocational Training reveal
that only four Member States do not see a need
for any change to the current five benchmarks.
Of the Member States, 10 accentuate the need
for revising targets and 11 Member States, as
well as Iceland, Norway and Turkey are in favour
of extending current benchmarks or adding new
ones specifically to cover VET (DGVT, 2008).

10.2.  Developments 

in the European statistical
framework

10.2.1.  Better use and improvement 
of statistical sources

In  line  with  the  Helsinki  communiqué  re -
commendation to use better and combine data
sources, a recent Cedefop study raises awareness
of  what  might  be  feasible  when  using  and
combining different sources while preserving
quality  and  ensuring  comparability.  It  also
underlines the diverse European sources with
some kind of data on VET or LLL (Cedefop, 2008f).
Beyond the continuing vocational training
survey and the Unesco-OECD-Eurostat (UOE)
data collection on education systems, further
sources with VET and LLL variables include the
adult education survey, the EU labour force
survey, the EU survey on income and living
conditions (SILC), the EU labour market policy
database and the European system of integrated
social protection statistics. Many of these sources
might help provide a more complete picture of
VET trends in Europe, even if – given the array
of methodologies used, varying definitions of VET
and different statistical populations measured –
direct comparison is far from possible.

Improvements in education statistics are
evident via the regulation and implementing act
which will define the general and vocational
education data to be provided to Eurostat (UOE).
This includes efforts to improve data availability
and  quality  as  well  as  accompanying
methodological information. Further recent
progress in line with a third priority of the Helsinki
communiqué,  development  of  statistical
information on investment in and financing of
VET, is considerable growth in collecting, among
others, educational finance data, alongside

initiatives  to  improve  measurement  and
coherence with national accounts data. However,
additional efforts are needed to improve the
quality, coverage and breakdowns available by
ISCED level, as signalled by several DGVTs.

Another development is release of data from
the third European continuing vocational training
survey (CVTS) in enterprises. For the first time,
the survey provides data on initial vocational
training. A current Cedefop study to be completed
in 2009 will provide analyses of continuing training
in firms and recommendations for future surveys.
Another source is the adult education survey
(AES), which collects information on all types of
learning activities (formal, non-formal, and
informal) according to the EU definition of LLL (58).
This was accompanied by demographic and
socioeconomic information on individuals and
their (self-reported) skills. The AES might be
improved by providing information specifically on
VET, even if the survey can report more broadly
on LLL (59).

10.2.2.  New developments needed
If  the  recent  past  has  seen  some  key
developments in improvement of statistical
sources, some shortcomings still remain. These
include:
•  gaps in data needed – mobility of VET students,
better finance, teacher and entrants data have
all been highlighted as important by the DGVT;
•  available data is not fully exploited – making
more  data  and  microdata  available  and
improving time series will promote greater use
of data;

•  data are not always available – sometimes
collection is not possible at Member State level,
and data provided are not yet published at
international level;

(58)  As  adopted  by  the  Commission  and  Member  States  LLL
encompasses ʻall learning activity undertaken throughout
life,  with  the  aim  of  improving  knowledge,  skills  and
competences  with  a  personal,  civic,  social  and/or
employment-related perspectiveʼ (European Commission,
2001, p. 33).

(59)  For the former, information on vocational/technical upper
secondary education designed to lead directly to the labour
market or to further non-tertiary programmes (ISCED 3c) is
collected  separately.  For  the  latter,  the  survey  focuses
instead on whether individuals participated in guided on-the-
job training.

120

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

•  there is no adequate source at European or
international levels to analyse in sufficient depth
the benefits of VET. Relevant developments in
the EU-LFS and the EU-SILC have the potential
to fill this gap.

10.3.  Achievements in Member

States

10.3.1.  New political and statistical tools

for VET statistics

Beyond  European  developments  such  as
implementation  of  CVTS3,  AES  or  the
forthcoming LFS ad-hoc module, numerous
initiatives and trends are evident in Member
States. Mostly these developments concern new
legislation, development of new systems, better
exploitation of data sources or extension of data
collected.  Relevance  of  VET  statistics  is
essentially influenced by the role of VET in
national education systems and the structure of
the VET system itself. Statistics benefit from
strong VET systems (60).
•  In the UK, VET statistics are based, apart from
the CVTS, on various special surveys that
provide information on skills, adult learning,
training the workforce and specifically learners.
•  In Germany, various institutions collect data
down to regional levels, such as data on the
dual system and other forms of vocational
education and training, data on training the
unemployed and statistics on contracts in the
dual system. A political initiative was launched
to develop ʼintegrated educational reportingʼ,
with  a  2007/08  prototype  leading  to  the
recommendation to transfer to federal level.
•  In Denmark, legislation introduced in 2005
requires all institutions providing VET, to offer
information on the time spent by students
completing courses, completion rates, and
drop-out rates.
Political efforts to reestablish or improve VET
might also entail strengthening VET statistics.
However,  European  or  national  statistical
infrastructures are often not flexible enough to
reflect  recent  political  developments  and

(56)  The following information on particular countries is taken

from responses to the ReferNet questionnaire.

restructuring  towards  more  flexible  and
permeable education systems, with special focus
on VET.
•  In Spain, the Statutory Act on Qualifications
and  Vocational  Training  (2002)  and  the
Statutory Education Act (2006) provide greater
flexibility and permeability in the VET system
to obtain certificates or to accredit acquired
skills. A decision was taken in 2006 to develop
VET  statistics  based  on  individual  data,
expected to be available for the first time for
the 2008/09 school year.

•  In Italy, absence of a national statistical system
on VET with standardised statistics based on
regional and provincial data mean that VET
statistics  are  incomplete. A  national  and
regional authority effort, started in 2007, aims
to develop an information system on vocational
training, setting-up interlinked registers based
on individual data.
In Member States where development of
statistical systems on education has included
VET from the beginning, adaptation to changing
needs is easier. Appropriate political and legal
frameworks help, with register-based statistical
systems playing a prominent role.

In Nordic countries, register statistics have a
long tradition, and political and legal frameworks
are well established. Sweden has an advanced
system of register statistics providing detailed
VET data, including completion rates, drop-out
rates, and statistics on school-to-work transition.
Registers also allow for longitudinal follow-up of
VET graduates.

In Finland, the Statistics Act has provided for
individual register data on VET since 1999.
Combining these data with individual data from
other registers, opens a wide range of possibilities
for analysis, hence policy support. Performance-
based funding is a new political development is
which intends to motivate VET providers to
improve the quality and outcomes of VET.

In non-Nordic countries, political and legal
frameworks for individual data or register statistics
need to be established. National conditions on
how far to use and process individual data,
especially register data, might cause limitations.
It is worth underlining that developments, mainly
in some new Member States, go clearly in the
direction of register-based statistics.

CHAPTER 10
Statistics and indicators – the way forward

121

•  In Germany, the Vocational Training Reform
Act of 23 March 2005 revised VET statistics,
and set the political framework for transition to
individual data surveys as well as expanding
data to be collected. First results of the revised
VET statistics are expected from 2009 onwards.
•  In Austria, the Education Documentation Act
revised education statistics, including VET
statistics (Bildungsdokumentationsgesetz,
BidokG 2002, effective since 2003). Statistics
Austria will draw up a new integrated system
of  education  statistics  which,  based  on
individual data, will improve information on
flows  through  the  educational  system,
educational biographies, school successes,
qualifications and teachers.

•  In the Czech Republic, gradual transition from
standard to individual data collection, will
improve the statistical information system as
a whole, and also impact on VET statistics.
Data on students, drop-outs and estimates on
the efficiency of educational programmes are
expected. The process is expected to be
finalised in 2010.

•  Estonia  implemented  a  register-based
information system on education in 2005; it has
collected and analysed education data. Data
are updated online and combined processing
with other registers considerably expands
analytical possibilities for VET statistics. In
2006/07, more detailed information on drop-
outs was added. Further plans exist to add
work-based adult learning, adult education,
data on VET teachers, etc.

10.3.2.  Remaining gaps
Beyond the success stories, several gaps have
been identified by Member States. For example,
the Czech Republic highlights areas for which
there  are  no  or  only  partial  data  and  it  is
necessary to make qualified estimates. This
concerns in particular continuing education, VET
financing (mainly data on private funding), and
pedagogical staff. Data on VET teachers and
trainers might also be improved in Sweden
(ReferNet Sweden, 2008).

Statistics Norway has advanced statistical
sources based on individual register data, and
could produce more statistics than currently
available.  However,  lack  of  resources  and

external pressure for different activities are
challenges. A few gaps exist, such as data on
labour market transition, but low unemployment
in a tight labour market creates little political
demand for relevant VET statistics.

Estonia also underlines that without personal
registry data from the Estonian Tax and Customs
Board, helping follow-up of VET graduates, it is
impossible to know which sectors they work in
or whether they are even employed.

Germany underlines lack of adequate data for
estimating the efficiency of vocational education
and training, a gap they are trying to close by
launching  a  comparative  study  of  VET
programmes in a few occupations.

Latvia  underlines  the  need  for  better
information on skill needs forecasts, highlighting
lack of data on graduatesʼ professional activities.
However, plans exist to follow graduates up to
36 months after graduation from educational
institutions.

10.4.  Ways forward 

in VET statistics

A recent Commission proposal for a Parliament
and Council regulation aims to revise the basic
legal framework governing production of statistics
at European level (European Commission,
2007g, p. 2). It is a step forward to consolidate
the basis for regular surveys and data collection.
At EU level, it is the guarantor for strengthening
the statistical infrastructure of the European
statistical system, and for ensuring relevant,
affordable and comparable data of sufficient
quality and coverage.

Many Member States have enhanced their
education and training statistics systems by
improving political and legal frameworks, further
developing and using existing data, and ensuring
their consistency. While progress in VET statistics
at national level is respectable, EU level cannot
always keep up. However, the different pace of
developments at EU and national levels means
that creating additional synergies might be
beneficial. Where national developments do not
always consider the European dimension, country
harmonisation is a precondition for a consistent
system of EU VET statistics. 

122

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Output  harmonisation  to  agreed  quality

standards might be one way of proceeding.

A measure that would considerably improve
the  scope  of  data  on  VET  is  inclusion  of
ʻprogramme orientationʼ linked to highest level
of education in the European LFS. At national
level, this information is already available in
several Member States. Several DGVTs would
support relevant initiatives at European level.
Cedefop will put this issue forward to relevant
working groups at Eurostat.

The current review of ISCED97, an initiative
by Unesco, OECD and Eurostat, needs the full
attention of Member States and Cedefop. The
process is expected to be completed in 2011.
Cedefop will closely follow developments to
support  and  ensure  correct  and  complete
mapping of VET programmes according to any
envisaged ISCED revisions.

To improve reporting on VET, a harmonisation
process  needs  to  be  undertaken  for  VET

concepts and definitions across different sources,
potentially becoming a modular system of VET
statistics in the medium to long term. In such a
system, different modules based on specific data
sources would complement one another to cover
VET in its entirety.

To close the data gap on outcomes of VET,
Germany has initiated a project for international
comparison of skills and competences acquired
in VET programmes (VET-LSA). This large-scale
assessment in some countries intends to explore
in a few occupations how young adults are
prepared for the labour market by providing
insights into the strengths and weaknesses of
different vocational programmes.

In the OECD programme for international
assessment of adult competences (PIAAC), the
job requirement approach (JRA) will provide
information on the type and level of skills used
in the workplace.

CHAPTER 11

VET beyond 2010

The Bordeaux communiqué (2008) calls for a
new strategic vision for European VET policy to
be developed in the context of the updated
framework for policy cooperation in education
and training (see Chapter 1). Thinking forward
in time can help shape the overall future strategy
for Europe. It is now time to think beyond 2010.

11.1.  Looking ahead beyond

2010

Europeʼs major challenges are expected to persist
beyond 2010, with some shifts in emphasis and
some new issues on the horizon (Chapter 2).
However, the future is characterised significantly
by uncertainties, evident from the recent global
financial crisis.

Uncertainty, caused by socioeconomic factors
and changes, also has a major impact on VET
development, pushing for modernisation. But
VET does not only react to changes. Research
shows that it can also become a driver of success
and competitiveness for European economies
and societies (Cedefop, fourth VET research
report, forthcoming (b)).

Countries have unanimously agreed that
national and European-level work commenced
in the Copenhagen process will need to continue.
To help develop the process and tools further
and implement them, they propose to keep the
pan-European focus on VET (open method of
coordination). Policy learning among regions is
gaining in importance. More time is needed to
ensure new approaches are mainstreamed and
European tools are used at grassroots level to
citizensʼ benefit.

Most countries consider current policy priorities
also valid for the future, both at national and EU
levels. Accentuation will depend on the country
context.

As countriesʼ policy strategies for VET are
often aligned to the programming period of the
structural Funds, they go beyond 2010. Their

Box 26.  Building on the past

Several priorities are most likely to remain high on
the research and policy agendas post 2010 and the
strongest evidence suggests they are important for
Europe’s economic, social and environmental future.
This is because many of the key objectives remain
unfulfilled at European and national levels. [...]

It is important that any analysis uncovering new
needs places due emphasis on this continuing aspect.
[...] Future objectives should be built on the success
of current objectives, which should not be diluted,
even though they are unlikely to be achieved by 2010
[...].

Source:  Béduwé et al., forthcoming (a).

policy agendas are thus fairly stable in the coming
years. Ways to address expected priorities are
similar  to  those  analysed  in  the  preceding
chapters  of  this  report.  In  most  cases,  the
expected policy agenda is presented from a
reactive perspective.

11.2.  Perennial issues

ʻMobilityʼ and ʻbetter response to labour market
needsʼ can be identified as the main policy
objectives with a range of perennial specific
objectives:
(a)  developing adequate methods and support
to  put  outcome-based  qualification
frameworks into practice, applying outcome-
based curricula and, in particular, assessing
and validating skills and competences;
(b)  increasing flexibility and permeability of paths;
mainstreaming validation of non-formal and
informal learning;

(c)  skills development for disadvantaged groups

high on the agenda with focus on:

     (i)  preventive policies to keep learners in

education and training;

124

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

      (ii)  remedial measures to make up for deficits;
      (iii)  more opportunities for adults to upskill,

in particular low-qualified;
      (iv)  intergenerational learning.
(d)  making VET more attractive by improving its
quality. Finding the right balance between
trust  and  control  (see  Chapter  9)  and
excellence and equity;

(e)  developing 

teachersʼ  and 

trainersʼ

competences;

(f)  anticipating future skills, better information

on enterprisesʼ skills;

(g)  support structures and methodologies to
cater for learners with migrant backgrounds:
integration through VET; educational and
guidance  personnel  with  migrant
backgrounds; linking skills acquisition to
language learning; integrating European tools
into integration policies;

(h)  more cooperation across educational sectors,
in  particular  between  VET  and  higher
education, as boundaries are blurring. Unified
or at least coherent qualifications frameworks
and consistent credit systems are considered
long-term aims;

(i) improved  foreign  language  skills  and
recognition of acquired competences to
increase  crossborder  and  interregional
learning;  introduce  an  accepted  pan-
European training ID card along the lines of
the student ID card;

(j)  need  and  development  of  common
references or common European profiles for
core occupations;

(k)  better governance at all levels, based on
autonomy,  accountability  and  learning
partnerships and efficient allocation, equitable
distribution and sustainability of national and
EU VET funding.

Focus on skills
Skills development, in particular upskilling of
adults, has been identified as one of the pressing
perennial issues. Already in the 2006/08 reporting
period, increasing access to education and
training for those with less opportunity, was one
of countriesʼ top priorities. Nevertheless statistical
evidence points to persisting inequity (Chapter 4).

Box 27.  Informing workforce training

policies

Achieving high levels of adult participation in learning
in the workplace remains an elusive goal. VET research
should have a key role in identifying how to engage
adults in the workforce in training, and also those
seeking to enter or reenter employment. In particular,
we conclude that over the next decade, new VET
research will be needed to:
(cid:129)  ask seriously what skills older people will need to
develop  and  how  work  organisation  can
accommodate their needs;

(cid:129)  identify how to meet the changing needs of migrants
– not least distinguishing between first, second
and third generation migrants and between different
ethnic/social groups. Factors such as age, gender
and nationality need far greater attention;

(cid:129)  analyse social inequalities between diverse groups
of  young  people  across  Europe,  related  to
opportunity costs of education and the economic
capacity needed to support changes in economic
activity during full-time education;

(cid:129)  find ways to promote education and training for
women entering and reentering the labour market,
and establishing gender equality.

Source:  Béduwé et al., forthcoming (a).

Wider  implementation  of  the  learning
outcomes-based approach and the growing need
to validate skills and competences acquired
outside formal education and training, entail a
thorough rethink of assessment (Chapter 8). The
progress review and the list of future priorities
indicate that competence-based assessment
tools will receive increasing attention not least in
the skills competitions, which will be held to
prepare  for  future  Euroskills  competitions.
Measuring VET competence is complex. It needs
to consider both sector- and job-specific skills as
well as general key competences.

Measuring competences has also become an
instrument  to  benchmark  performance  of
educational systems. As international large-scale
assessment programmes, however, usually
concentrate on general competences, the 2008
progress report of the European Commission

CHAPTER 11
VET beyond 2010

125

towards the Lisbon objectives sees an increasing
need for surveys which also assess vocational
skills and competences (European Commission,
2008k, p. 58). It will be interesting to see the
outcome of a study initiated by Germany (Chapter
10). It explores if it is feasible to conduct a
European comparative assessment of the skills
and  competences  that  young  adults  have
developed  in  VET.  The  purpose  of  such
assessment would be to investigate to what extent
young adults are prepared for the world of work
in different vocational tracks in Europe.

11.3.  Towards better use 

of evidence

From reports it is not fully evident whether
priorities are politically driven or underpinned by
sound evidence. As Cedefopʼs fourth research
report (forthcoming) suggests, the priorities for
policy cooperation in VET are not based on sound
research, but almost entirely driven politically, by
governments and social partners.

Box 28.  From ʻtrial and errorʼ 

to sound evidence

‘Evidence-based policy making’ is a fashionable term
but tends to be rhetoric. Policy-makers and researchers
tend to follow their own agendas and preoccupations.
Currently commissioned research on VET priorities
mostly reviews national, sectoral or sometimes local
experiences but is rarely based on theoretical or
empirical analyses. Systematic policy evaluation and
impact research is scarce. Research and policy are
not sufficiently connected.

From a policy point of view, the risk is that
modernising VET will not achieve the expected benefits.
This lack of research and sound evidence promotes
‘trial and error’ approaches. Applied research and
timely evaluation should be undertaken to inform
policies as they develop and are implemented, discuss
hypotheses and analyse their effectiveness and impact.
Including a comparative dimension will maximise the
potential for policy learning in the European context.

Source:  Based on Cedefop, fourth VET research report, 

forthcoming (c).

Country responses, however, suggest that
VET  policy-making  will  be  based  more  on
evidence in the future. As a precondition, setting
targets,  developing  benchmarks  for  VET,
monitoring progress and improving data will gain
in importance. Impact research might be used
on  a  larger  scale  to  underpin  European
processes. Joint research projects and close
research cooperation could be helpful to add
comparative dimensions and share expertise.
•  Evaluate the impact of quality assurance
systems to assess whether indicators, output-
orientation and performance-based funding
actually lead to better quality of learning.

•  Carry out research to test the underlying
assumptions of European policies and tools,
examine how they work in practice and foster
policy learning.

•  Review VET practice in methodology, content
and results. Much information is available on
changes in legislation, structures and policy
measures. We need to know more about what
is actually happening in VET: such as what
expectations  do 
learners  have,  what
knowledge, skills and competences do they
acquire and how; how are new educational
practices promoted; how are innovation and
entrepreneurship integrated into VET teaching
and what are their outcomes.

•  As boundaries between different education
sectors and levels are blurring: how do these
new lifelong learning systems unfold in their
different country contexts? How does the
learning outcomes-based approach affect VET
in these less hierarchical structures?

Broader room might be given to debate objectives
and demands on VET that seem contradictory
or controversial, for instance:
•  the role of VET in society: can VET meet its
multiple policy objectives? How to reconcile
the demand for excellence and equity in VET,
can it attract and cater for high achievers and
be ʻall-inclusiveʼ?;

•  resolving the dilemma of VET teachers and
trainers: to be highly competent teachers and
at the same time be jacks-of-all-trades, act as
mentors, coaches, counsellors. Is it better to
require teachers to be multifunctional or work
with teams of different professionals?

research programme on skills mismatches,
however, suggest that overqualification might
also be(come) an issue (Chapter 2).

11.5.  Research for future 

VET policy-making

VET policies have to consider the complex
interdependencies between education and
training and the socioeconomic system and need
to operate in increasingly uncertain environments.
As indicated above, research, if linked to policy-
making, can help clarify these relationships and
provide a basis for decision-making. In its fourth
research report Modernising vocational education
and training, Cedefop attempts to provide and
discuss  the  evidence  base  for  enhanced
cooperation in VET bringing together experts
from the world of research to discuss policy
priorities for VET.

As outlined above, the report concludes it is
important to build future objectives on past
achievements, even though the originally set
objectives have not been fulfilled. Continuity and
consolidation are thus crucial. To base future
objectives and policies on better evidence the
report identifies the following five main areas.

ʻWe can only see a short distance ahead, but
we can see plenty there that needs to be doneʼ
(Alan Turing).

126

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

11.4.  Issues not on the menu

An interesting point in this outlook into the future
is that most issues are presented mainly from
the education and training sector perspective.
There is hardly any reference to VET as a policy
lever in other contexts.

Climate hazards and the need to develop
sustainable forms of energy have been identified
as global trends shaping education and training
(Chapter 2). VETʼs contribution to environmental
sustainability or to developing sustainable forms
of energy has neither been suggested by the
countries nor has it been yet adequately explored
by VET research.

Tensions between national policy-making and
control and local implementation and decision-
making in decentralised systems has been
identified as one of the ongoing challenges. In
many  countries,  regional  authorities  are
responsible for (some forms of) VET provision.
While much is known about progress at national
level, it is less clear how European policies are
implemented regionally and locally. To ensure
European citizens benefit from EU policies, they
need to arrive at grassroots level. A wider debate
on how EU policies are implemented and how
regional VET policies contribute to EU objectives
might be valuable.

Given the focus on skills development, it is
surprising that the future contribution of VET to
flexicurity is not included. As VET prepares
workers to deal confidently and securely with
repeated professional transitions, it has a role to
play in promoting employment security. Evidence
shows that flexibility has increased but security
has not (61) (see Section 2.3). Cedefopʼs outlook
into areas of interest for future VET research (62)
suggests that it will be necessary to understand
better how VET and employment interact.

In response to the request for excellence and
high levels of skills, the policy debate usually
focuses on raising tertiary level attainment rates
and considers introducing targets or benchmarks.
Unemployment rates of highly-skilled young
people  in  some  countries,  the  findings  of
Cedefopʼs skill needs analysis and its new

(61)  Cedefop, fourth VET research report, forthcoming (c).
(62)  Béduwé et al., forthcoming (a).

CHAPTER 11
VET beyond 2010

127

Box 29.  Five future issues for VET research

Issues for research
(a)  to analyse the role of VET in achieving the key
European goals of environmental sustainability and
skills needed to develop and exploit new sources
of energy for Europe. 

(b)  VET governance at European level. Linked policy at
European level is key to successful innovation, but
the field remains underresearched. Developments
in VET should be better linked to European innovation
strategies. Projects such as EQF will need robust
impact evaluation. ‘Qualifications frameworks are
tools for governance, mobility and transparency
simultaneously. Whether they achieve the range of
institutional benefits expected, promote lifelong
learning and modernise qualifications systems should
be a priority for future research’. 

(c)  to develop understanding of new relationships
between VET and employment: how individuals may
make choices about their careers and labour-market
positions, new forms of collective activity that may
emerge. The following are some research questions
arising: 

(i) work organisation: what will be the impact
of changing patterns of individual choice on
patterns  of  learning  and  working,  and
combining both? What strategies will actors
develop  to  control  new  labour-market
situations? How will work organisation adapt
to meet these changes;

(ii) career trajectories: how will individuals make
choices during their learning careers and

Source:  Béduwé et al., forthcoming (a).

throughout professional life? What resources
help individuals to manage their career
trajectory, and under which conditions; 
(iii) social organisation and individual choices:
how can individuals be supported in making
career choices and informed decisions and
their working activity? Which public and
collective resources, including modes of VET
provision,  can  work  best  under  these
conditions? 

(d)  empowerment will become the effective way to
improve the capabilities of learners and pathways
open to them. A concomitant risk is a divide between
expert and novice learners, the latter having low
self-image, poor learning strategies and little
reflective ability. Thus, for research and development
issues into innovative aspects of VET teaching and
learning, we highlight three issues: 

(i)

research to contribute to professionalising
VET teachers and trainers; 
(ii)
research into empowering VET learners; 
(iii) harnessing new technologies to VET teaching

and learning. 

(e)  conceptualising competences certainly calls for
further investigation by VET research. It is a concept
that should not be taken for granted or assumed to
be unproblematic. A key question is whether it is
possible to use a single, holistic and homogeneous
methodology to recognise all kinds of competences. 

List of abbreviations

AES

ALMP

APEL

CQAF

CRELL

CVET

CVT

CVTS

DGVT

ECTS

ECVET

EEA

EHEA

ELGPN

Adult education survey

Active labour market policy

Accreditation of prior experiential
learning

Common quality assurance framework

Centre for Research on Lifelong
Learning

Continuing vocational education 
and training

Continuing vocational training

Continuing vocational training survey

Directors-General for Vocational
Education and Training

European credit transfer system

European credit system for vocational
education and training

European Economic Area (EU-27 +
Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein)

European higher education area

European lifelong guidance policy
network

ENQA-VET

European network for quality assurance
in VET

EQF

EPSCO

ESF

ESS

ETF

European qualiﬁcations framework

Employment, Social Policy, Health 
and Consumer Affairs Council

European Social Fund

European statistical system

European Training Foundation

EURES

European employment service

EU-SILC

EU statistics on income and living
conditions

GDP

GNP

ICT

Gross domestic product

Gross national product

Information and communication
technology

ILO

ISCED

ISCO

IVET

LdV

LFS

LLL

MST

NACE

NEC

NEET

NGO

NQF

OMC

OECD

OJC

PIAAC

PIRLS

PISA

PLA

PLAR

International Labour Organisation

International standard classiﬁcation 
of education

International standard classiﬁcation 
of occupations

Initial vocational education and training

Leonardo da Vinci (EU programme)

Labour force survey

Lifelong learning

Maths, science and technology

Classiﬁcation of economic activities 
in the European Community

National Europass centres

Not in employment, education 
or training

Non-government organisation

National qualiﬁcations framework

Open method of coordination

Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development

Ofﬁcial Journal of the European
Communities

Programme for the international
assessment of adult competences

Progress in international reading
literacy survey

Programme for international student
assessment

Peer learning activity

Prior learning assessment 
and recognition

PPS

Purchasing power standards

QF-EHEA

Qualiﬁcations framework 
for the European higher education area

R&D

Research and development

List of abbreviations

129

SME

TALIS

TIMSS

Small and medium-sized enterprises

Teaching and learning international
survey

Trends in international mathematics 
and science study

TQM-EFQM Total quality management – European

Foundation for Quality Management

UN

Unesco

UOE

VET

United Nations

United Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc
and Cultural Organisation

Unesco/OECD/Eurostat 
(common data collection)

Vocational education and training

Country abbreviations

EU      European Union

BE      Belgium

BG      Bulgaria

CZ      the Czech Republic

DK      Denmark

DE      Germany

EE      Estonia

IE       Ireland

EL      Greece

ES      Spain

FR      France

IT       Italy

CY      Cyprus

LV       Latvia

LT       Lithuania

LU      Luxembourg

HU      Hungary

MT     Malta

NL      the Netherlands

* EEA also includes EU Member States.

AT      Austria

PL      Poland

PT      Portugal

RO      Romania

SI       Slovenia

SK      Slovakia

FI       Finland

SE      Sweden

UK      United Kingdom

CC      Candidate countries

HR      Croatia

MK     the former Yugoslav

EEA    European Economic Area *

IS       Iceland

LI       Liechtenstein

NO      Norway

Other

AU      Australia

BR      Brazil

CA      Canada

CN      China

CH      Switzerland

IN       India

HK      Hong Kong

Republic of Macedonia

JP      Japan

TR      Turkey

NZ      New Zealand

RU      Russia

SG      Singapore

TW     Taiwan

US      United States of America

          
          
ANNEX 1

Status (*) of national qualification
frameworks in 32 European countries 

Country

Austria

Status

Description

In progress

An overarching Austrian NQF based on learning outcomes is currently being developed.
In 2006, a project group was established with representatives from the Federal Ministry
of Education, the Arts and Culture (BMUKK) and the Federal Ministry of Science and
Research (BMWF). Broad consultation (265 responses received) was carried out
between December 2007 and June 2008. The national steering group, set up in
February 2007, will draw up a recommendation for implementing the NQF by the end
of 2008 and the NQF is planned to be ready by 2010. 

A Flemish qualifications structure including an overarching (national) qualifications
framework is under development. A set of eight draft reference level descriptors was
developed during 2005/06 and led to a discussion note published in October 2006.
Procedures for describing and levelling qualifications will be prescribed in a decree
by January 2009 and is expected to be adopted during spring 2009.
In Wallonia, a formal decision on setting up an NQF was made in March 2006. A group
of experts was established autumn 2006 to outline the main features of a future NQF
based on an eight-level structure. A draft legal proposal for a framework covering
levels 6-8 was introduced in 2008, a proposal covering levels 1-8 is expected in 2009.
There are still issues pending on future links between levels 1-5 and 6-8 in Wallonia.

The Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science committed in 2006 to set up an NQF.
A task force was set up in August 2008 to create, by 2010, an integrated framework
of qualifications, linking different education and training sectors (VET and HE). Drafting
the NQF will be based on learning outcomes and work on redefining standards (in
particular VET) has already started. A framework for higher education has already
been developed by a working party, pending approval.

During 2006, the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports formed a joint working
group of experts from VET and HE to develop an overarching lifelong learning Croatian
qualifications framework (CROQF) based on eight levels with an additional four sublevels
reflecting the particularities of the Croatian qualifications system. A proposal was
discussed during spring 2007 with all relevant stakeholders. The Croatian framework
is expected to be complete by 2009.

Consultations among major stakeholders took place and a proposal for a political
decision on creating an NQF has been prepared. In the meantime, the system of
vocational qualifications whose implementation has begun will constitute an integral
part of a future NQF for all levels of education. New Directive 2005/36/EC is at the
final stage of implementation into national law.

Belgium

In progress

Bulgaria

In progress

Croatia

In progress

Cyprus

Limited 
progress

(*)  Status on 18 December 2008m.

Annex 1
Status of national qualification frameworks in 32 European countries in alphabetical order

131

Country

Status

Description

Czech Republic

Framework 
adopted,
implementation
ongoing

Denmark

In progress

Estonia

In progress

Finland

In progress

France

Implemented
since 2002

The proposal for a national qualifications framework promoting integration of IVET
and CVET was presented in 2006 and entered into effect in August 2008. Implementation
is currently going on. The framework is based on the law on validation and recognition
of outcomes of CVET. The core of the NQF is a publicly accessible register (repertoire)
of all complete and partial qualifications. The NQF uses an eight-level structure and
builds on units (complete and partial qualifications) and standards (for qualifications
and assessment).

An overarching NQF has been under development since early 2007. An interministerial
working group presented its proposal for an NQF in August 2008. The national framework
for higher education (related to the EHEA) is currently being revised in light of work
on the overarching framework. The Danish NQF will have eight levels and will be based
on a learning outcomes approach – to a large extent already introduced into the Danish
system.

There is a proposal for an overarching lifelong learning NQF. Amendments to the
Professions Act introduced by the Ministry of Education and Research in 2007 and
adopted by the government in May 2008 support transition from the present competence-
based five-level qualification system to a new eight-level framework. The framework
will be fully competence-based and will simplify validation of non-formal and informal
learning. These developments are supported by the ESF project ‘Developing a qualification
system’.

Work on a framework for higher education (related to EHEA) started in 2005. In
December 2007 the government approved the development plan for education and
research 2007-12 based on which an overarching NQF will be prepared by 2010. The
Ministry of Education set up in 2008 a group to prepare NQF development. A proposal
is expected by June 2009. The Finnish qualifications system is already to a large
extent using a learning outcomes or competence-based approach and the framework
will simplify validation of competences acquired in non-formal or informal settings.

The NQF is being revised to bring it into line with the EHEA and EQF. The key element
of the French framework is the national repertoire of professional qualifications.
Currently, the national directory of professional qualifications – RNCP is being prepared
to include 15 000 qualifications. Continuing review of the French framework may
imply reconsideration of the number of levels (currently five) used.

Former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia

Limited progress

An NQF is planned to be developed and working groups have been nominated, but
practical work has not yet begun. The concept for a national vocational qualifications
framework has been developed providing a basis for an NQF.

132

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Country

Germany

Status

Description

In progress

Greece

Limited 
progress

Hungary

In progress

Iceland

In progress

Ireland

Implemented
since 2003

Italy

In progress

Latvia

In progress

An NQF for the higher education sector (related to EHEA) was implemented in May
2005. In January 2007, federal and state governments set up a coordinating group
to develop a German qualifications framework (GQF) covering all areas and levels of
education and training. The coordinating group has agreed on an eight-level structure
described through categories. The recommendation of this group presented in January
2009 and will be followed by combined consultation and test phase. A final result is
expected at the end of 2010.

A high level committee for a Greek NQF under the umbrella of the Ministry of National
Education and Religious Affairs was established in spring 2008. In the framework of
the national system for linking vocational education and training to employment
(ESSEEKA), a new system of accreditation of professional qualifications based on
learning outcomes was created by Ministerial Decision No 110998/2006. A high level
group chaired by the secretary for HE was set to develop an NQF for higher education
(related to the EHEA).

Elaboration of an NQF started in 2007 as part of the new Hungary development plan
2007-13. In spring 2008, a motion was submitted to the government regarding
referencing to the EQF. An NQF is expected to be set up by 2013. Hungary uses learning
outcomes extensively for VET qualifications, to a more limited degree for general and
higher education.

In 2006, a new law on HE was adopted and from 2007, the Minister for Education
implemented an NQF for HE (related to EHEA). This framework is structured according
to three cycles divided into five levels. The 2008 Act on upper secondary education
represents a first step towards a framework covering qualifications outside the HE
sector. A five-level structure is suggested for this part and a detailed proposal on
descriptors has been prepared. Linking these two frameworks to an overarching NQF
is currently being considered. Substantial progress in use of learning outcomes has
been made.

The Irish NQF based on 10 levels has reached an advanced stage of implementation.
All FETAC (Further Education and Training Awards Council) awards are now included
in the NQF and since July 2006, the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI)
published policies and criteria on inclusion in, or alignment with the NQF, of the awards
of certain international and professional awarding bodies. From January 2008, new
awards are developed solely through the common awards system. The Irish national
framework of qualifications successfully completed verification of compatibility with
the framework for qualifications of the EHEA. Referencing to the EQF will start in spring
2009.

Mid-2008, the Tavolo Unico Nazionale(Unified National Committee) met for the first
time to start definition and implementation of an NQF. This work is linked to the national
system of minimum occupational, training and certification standards completed in
May 2007. Definition and implementation of national minimum standards in various
economic and professional sectors is planned to take place by 2010, and implementation
in the regions by 2009.

Development of an NQF building on the existing five-level structure in VET and the
three-level structure for higher education is envisaged. Work on an NQF for HE (related
to EHEA) has started. Currently, laws on vocational education and higher education
are under preparation. This new legislation will simplify future linking of Latvian
professional qualifications system to the EQF.

Annex 1
Status of national qualification frameworks in 32 European countries in alphabetical order

133

Status

Description

Country

Lithuania

In progress

Luxembourg

In progress

Malta

Implemented
since 2007

Netherlands

Limited 
progress

Norway

In progress

Poland

In progress

Portugal

In progress

Romania

In progress

A new law on VET (2007) legitimised development of the national qualifications system.
An overarching NQF will be based on eight levels. A law on the national qualifications
system is currently under development which will consider the principles set in the
law on VET.

A working group, coordinated by the Ministry of Education, was set up in 2006 to
prepare an NQF proposal to be submitted to relevant stakeholders in 2007. A new law
on VET was adopted in autumn 2008 and provides the basis for taking forward work
on an NQF. This NQF will simplify validation of non-formal and informal learning.

The Maltese QF has eight levels, it is in line with the EQF and uses the learning outcomes
approach. It is governed by Legal Notice 347/October 2005. The Malta Qualifications
Council, set up in October 2005, is the national body responsible for development,
assessment, certification and accreditation of qualifications other than those in
compulsory education and degrees.

The decision to set up an NQF has been made and a national steering committee has
been established to follow this up. The form and scope of this framework has still to
be decided and has been subject to investigations by external contractors for the
ministry. The investigation will be finalised by the end of 2008. The Dutch Education
Council has also produced a report (2007) on NQF.

A proposal for an NQF in HE (related to EHEA) is being developed. It is based on the
EQF descriptors. A technical working group was set up in spring 2008 to develop a
proposal for an NQF for VET. A pilot project for testing EQF in certain sectors was carried
out in close collaboration with the social partners. Development of an overarching NQF
for lifelong learning embracing VET has to be further discussed. A proposal for
implementation of the EQF will be prepared by June 2009 and will influence future
NQF developments.

A decision has been taken for creating an integrated overarching NQF (KRK) included
in priority III ‘High level of education system’ in the human resources operational
programme ‘Human capital 2007-13’. A working group with members from different
education and training sectors was set up mid-2008 to develop a concrete NQF
proposal. A recommendation will be presented end 2009. Work on a NQF for higher
education started in 2006.

In 2007, Decree No. 396/2007 of 31 December 2007 which established the national
qualification system foresaw creation of the Portuguese qualifications framework
(QNQ). This framework will define the structure of levels of qualification, taking as a
reference the principles of the EQF. The QNQ seeks to integrate national subsystems
of qualifications and give visibility to qualifications in relation to the labour market and
civil society. Also, the national qualifications catalogue was created in 2007 integrating
123 qualifications for 40 education and training areas. Qualifications references are
focused on learning outcomes and structured in certified and autonomous units which
can be capitalised for one or more qualifications. The catalogue aims to link the national
VET system with both EQF and ECVET.

An NQF for HE (related to EHEA) is being set up and a national agency for qualifications
in HE will support this. An NQF for VET based on five levels has been recently agreed
between government and the social partners. Development of an overarching Romanian
NQF has yet to be decided. The NQF action plan includes development of qualifications
based on learning outcomes and correlation of VET with HE.

134

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Country

Slovakia 

In progress

Status

Description

Slovenia

In progress

Spain

In progress

Sweden

In progress

Turkey

In progress

UK

Implemented

A working group of the Ministry of Education was set up in December 2006 to develop
an NQF for HE (related to EHEA). Development of the national system of occupations
is in progress based on amendment of Act No 5/2004 on employment services valid
since May 2008. This will be the basis for renewal of the national qualifications system
to be compatible with EQF and an NQF for lifelong learning based on eight levels to
be introduced based on the forthcoming act on VET and LLL act. A specific task group
was set up by the Ministry of Education in 2008 to prepare all level implementation
of NQF; five-year ESF project with an envisaged budget of SKK 700 million will support
these developments.

In 2006, the Slovenian government adopted the decree on introduction and use of
classification system of education and training (Klasius), which provides the formal
basis for building a Slovenian qualifications framework. Conceptual bases are in
preparation and a working group for constructing the NQF has been appointed. An
eight-level framework is being considered, covering all main qualifications. The
Slovenian education and training system is to a large extent built on a learning outcomes
approach and has also established mechanisms for validation of non-formal and
informal learning.

Separate frameworks for higher education (related to EHEA) and VET have been
developed. The links between these two sectoral frameworks (three and five levels)
have yet to be clarified. The legal basis for the VET framework is provided by the 2002
Law on qualifications and vocational training and the 2006 Law on education.

A ministerial working group was set up in 2007 to analyse different options for linking
qualifications levels to the EQF. Based on this work, Sweden decided in November
2008 to develop an overarching NQF. This NQF will be linked to the framework for
higher education (related to EHEA) established in 2007. Learning outcomes are being
used throughout the Swedish system and many functions embedded in an NQF are
already present.

A commission has been established to develop a national qualifications framework
for higher education (related to EHEA). A new Law 5544 on occupational qualifications
institutions was adopted on 21 September 2006 to prepare an overarching NQF based
on eight levels. A Vocational Qualification Authority (VQA) was established early 2007
coordinated by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security to develop a strategy for
implementing the national qualification system. VQA has already developed secondary
legislation on establishing sector committees and developing occupational standards.
First discussions on accreditation, assessment and certification have taken place.

There are four NQFs in the UK: (a) the national qualifications framework for England,
Wales and Northern Ireland; (b) the Scottish credit and qualifications framework; (c)
the credit and qualifications framework for Wales; (d) the framework for higher education
qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The government has initiated a
vocational qualifications (VQ) reform programme to rationalise vocational qualifications
across the UK. This has led to adoption (October 2008) of the qualification and credit
framework (QCF), intended to apply across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The
QCF is now being used as a basis for referencing to the EQF, a process which started
autumn 2008 and will be finalised spring 2009.

Source:  DGVT and ReferNet responses spring 2008. Reports to the EQF advisory group autumn 2008.

ANNEX 2

Performance in five EU benchmarks

Low achievement
in reading

Early school 
leavers (%)

Youth 
attainment (%)

Mathematics, science 
and technology graduates

Participation 
of adults in LLL (%)

2000

2006

EU

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

21.3

19.0

40.3

17.5

17.9

17.9

:

11

24.4

16.3

15.2

18.9

:

30.1

:

35.1

22.7

:

9.5

19.3

23.2

26.3

41.3

:

:

7.0

12.6

12.8

24.1

19.4

51.1

24.8

16

20

13.6

12.2

27.7

25.7

21.7

26.4

:

21.2

25.7

22.9

20.6

:

15.1

21.5

16.2

24.9

53.5

16.5

27.8

4.8

15.3

19.0

2000

17.6

12.5

20.3(a)

2007

15.2

12.3

16.6

5.5(b)

5.5(d)

11.6

14.9

14.2

14.7(b)

18.2

29.1

13.3

25.3

18.5

19.5(b)

16.7

16.8

13.8

54.2

15.5

10.2

7.9(a)

42.6

22.3

7.5(a)

5.6(b)

8.9

7.7

12.4

12.7

14.3

11.5

14.7

31.0

12.7

19.3

12.6

16.0

8.7

15.1

10.9

37.3

12.0

10.9

5.0

36.3

19.2

4.3

7.2

7.9

8.6

18.4

17.0

% Increase

Share of females

2000

2007

2000-06

2000

2006

2000

2007

76.3

80.9

74.9

91.1

69.8

74.7

83.7

82.5

79.3

65.9

81.6

68.8

78.9

76.8

77.9

77.5

83.6

41.0

71.7

84.7

87.8

42.8

75.8

87.0

94.4

87.8

85.2

76.4

78.1

82.6

83.3

91.8

70.8

72.5

80.9

86.7

82.1

61.1

82.4

76.3

85.7

80.2

89.0

70.9

84.0

55.5

76.2

84.1

91.6

53.4

77.4

91.5

91.3

86.5

87.2

78.1

27.4

6.9

17.3

65.9

1.1

29.6

46.6

5.5

24.1

16.6

7.4

36.3

66.7

25.0

43.9

:

20.8

50.0

40.8

50.7

117.8

88.1

108.2

7.7

102.1

17.8

23.9

-1.1

30.8

25.0

45.6

27.0

28.5

21.6

35.4

37.9

:

31.5

30.8

36.6

31.0

31.4

35.9

:

22.6

26.3

17.6

19.9

35.9

41.9

35.1

22.8

30.1

27.3

32.1

32.1

31.3

26.4

41.2

26.5

33.9

28.6

42.9

29.1

40.9

30.0

27.9

37.1

35.9

32.4

31.6

:

27.9

30.1

18.4

24.5

39.2

39.7

38.6

25.7

34.8

29.9

34.4

30.8(c)

7.1

6.2

1.4(a)

5.6(b)

9.5

7.2

1.3

5.7

19.4

29.2

5.2

6.5

5.5(b)

1

4.1

2.8

4.8

3.1

7.3(b)

2.8

4.8

2.9

4.5

15.5

8.3

4.3(a)

3.4

0.9

7.3(a)

8.5(b)

17.5

21.6

20.5

7.8

7

7.6

2.1

10.4

7.4

6.2

8.4

7.1

5.3

7

3.6

6

16.6

12.8

5.1

4.4

1.3

14.8

3.9

23.4

32.4

20

(a) 2001, (b) 2002, (c) 2005, (d) 2006
Source:  Low achievement in reading: PISA; early school leavers, youth attainment and participation of adults in LLL: Eurostat, 
EU labour force survey (LFS); mathematics, science and technology graduates: Eurostat, UOE data collection.

References

Allais Matseleng, S. Why the South African

NQF failed: lessons for countries wanting
to introduce national qualifications
frameworks. European Journal of
Education, 2007, Vol. 42, No 4, 
p. 523-547.

Becker, G. Human capital. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1964; 3rd ed., 1993.
Berkhout, E.; Dustmann, Ch.; Emmer, P. Mind

the gap. International database on
employment and adaptable labour
(IDEAL). Amsterdam: SEO Economic
Research, 2007.

Bernad, J.C.; Marhuenda Fluixá, F. The

professional qualification system in Spain
and workers with low qualification levels.
European Journal of Vocational Training,
2008, No 42/43, p. 85-95.

Beyer Paulsen, M. Freedom of movement:
from right to possibility. Recognition of
qualifications through legislation or
information. European Journal of
Vocational Training, 2008, No 42/43, 
p. 19-32.

Billett, S.; Seddon, T. Building community
through social partnerships around
vocational education and training. Journal
of Vocational Education and Training,
2004, Vol. 56, No 1, p. 51-68.

Bjørnåvold, J.; Coles, M. Governing education
and training; the case of qualifications
frameworks. European Journal of
Vocational Training, 2008, No 42/43, 
p. 203-236.

BMBF. Berufsbildungsbericht 2008. Vorversion
[2008 Report on vocational education and
training. Preliminary version]. Bonn, Berlin,
2008. Available from Internet:
http://www.bmbf.de/pub/bbb_08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Béduwé et al. New and emerging issues in

vocational education and training research
beyond 2010. In Cedefop (ed.).
Modernising vocational education and
training: fourth report on vocational

education and training research in Europe:
background report – Vol. 2. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, forthcoming (a)
(Cedefop Reference series).

Bohlinger, S. Competences as the core

element of the European qualifications
framework. European Journal of Vocational
Training, 2008, No 42/43, p. 96-112.

Borghans, L; Golsteyn, B. Modernising

vocational education and training: the
importance of information, advice and
guidance over the life-cycle. In Cedefop
(ed.). Modernising vocational education
and training: fourth report on vocational
education and training research in Europe:
background report – Vol.1. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, forthcoming (a).
(Cedefop Reference series, 69).

Calleja, J. Linking VET and higher education.
Is the EQF contributing to this issue?
European Journal of Vocational Training,
2008, No 42/43, p. 156-166.
Cedefop. Conference proceedings on

European credit transfer system for
vocational education and training: the
European social partners conference on
the ECVET. Thessaloniki, 12-13 February
2007 (a). Available from Internet:
www.cedefop.europa.eu/index.asp?
section=3&read=2427 [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Indicators for quality in VET: to
enhance European cooperation.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2007 (b)
(Cedefop Panorama series, 134). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/469/
5167_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Recognition and validation of non-
formal and informal learning for VET
teachers and trainers in the EU Member
States. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
2007 (c) (Cedefop Panorama series, 147).
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/

References

137

Information_resources/Bookshop/480/
5174_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Assuring the quality of VET systems

by defining expected outcomes. A cross-
country analysis in seven Member States.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2008 (a)
(Cedefop Panorama series, 158). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/Inf
ormation_resources/Bookshop/517/
5181_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Cedefop. Career development at work. 

A review of career guidance to support
people in employment. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, 2008 (b). (Cedefop
Panorama series, 151). Available from
Internet: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/
Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/
504/5183_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Cedefop. Conclusions from the workshop
Testing the European qualifications
framework (EQF): relating international,
national and sectoral qualifications to the
EQF. Thessaloniki, 10-11 November 
2008 (c).

Cedefop. Establishing and developing 

national lifelong guidance policy forums. 
A manual for policy-makers and
stakeholders. Luxembourg: Publications
Office, 2008 (d) (Cedefop Panorama
series, 153). Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/508/
5188_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Europass in brief. Briefing note.
Thessaloniki: Cedefop, 2008 (e).

Cedefop. Evaluation of Eurostat data sources
related to education, training and skills.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2008 (f)
(Cedefop Panorama series). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/510/
5185_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. From policy to practice. A systemic
change to lifelong guidance in Europe.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2008 (g)
(Cedefop Panorama series, 149). Available
from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/

Information_resources/Bookshop/505/
5182_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Future skill needs in Europe – Focus
on 2020. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
2008 (h). Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/498/
5191_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Cedefop. Future skill needs in Europe.

Medium-term forecast: synthesis report.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2008 (i).
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/485/
4078_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Implications of demographic change
for vocational education and training in the
EU. Luxembourg: Publications Office, 
2008 (j). (Cedefop Panorama series; 157)
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload
/Information_resources/Bookshop/506/
5186_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Sectoral training funds in Europe.

Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2008 (k).
(Cedefop Panorama series, 156). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/499/
5189_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. The shift to learning outcomes:
conceptual, political and practical
developments in Europe. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, 2008 (l). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/494/
4079_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop. Systems for anticipation of skill
needs in the EU Member States.
Thessaloniki, Cedefop, 2008 (m). (Cedefop
Working paper 1). Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/512/
WorkingPaper01_Oct2008.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop (ed.). Modernising vocational

education and training: fourth report on
vocational education and training research
in Europe: background report – Vols 1, 2

138

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

and 3. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
forthcoming (a) (Cedefop Reference
series).

Cedefop. Modernising vocational education
and training: fourth report on vocational
education and training research in Europe:
executive summary. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, forthcoming (b).
(Cedefop Reference series).
Cedefop (ed.). Modernising vocational

education and training: fourth report on
vocational education and training research
in Europe: synthesis report. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, forthcoming (c).
(Cedefop Reference series).

Cedefop, Coles, M.; Oates, T. European

reference levels for education and training
promoting credit transfer and mutual trust.
Study commissioned to the Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority, England.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2005.
(Cedefop Panorama series; 109).
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/414/
5146_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop; Cort, P. et al. K. PROFF –

Professionalisation of VET teachers for the
future. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
2004 (Panorama series, 104). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/Inf
ormation_resources/Bookshop/379/
5156_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop; Descy, P.; Tessaring, M. Training and
learning for competence: second report on
vocational training research in Europe:
synthesis report. Luxembourg: Publications
Office, 2001. (Cedefop Reference series; 6).

Cedefop; European Commission, DG EAC.

Conference proceedings and conceptual
papers of the conference on Implementing
the European qualifications framework,
Brussels, 3-4 June 2008 (a).

Cedefop; European Commission, DG EAC.
How can the EQF be used to build links
between different sub-systems of
education, including adult, vocational
education and training and higher
education? Conference on Implementing

the European qualifications framework,
Brussels workshop 5. – 
Background paper, 3-4 June 2008 (b).
Cedefop; Lipińska et al. Zooming in on 2010:
reassessing vocational education and
training. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
2007. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/474/
4060_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Cedefop; Nyhan, B.; Tikkanen T. (eds).
Promoting lifelong learning for older
workers: an international overview.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2006
(Cedefop Reference series; 65). 
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/443/
3045_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Cedefop, Tessaring, M. Training for a changing
society: a report on current vocational
education and training research in Europe.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 1998.
(Cedefop Reference document, 3001).

Chisholm, L. Diffusion of the National

qualifications framework and outcomes-
based education in southern and eastern
Africa. Comparative Education, 2007, 
43, 2, p. 295-309.

Cinterfor/ILO. The new ILO Recommendation
195. Human resources development:
education, training and lifelong learning.
Montevideo: Cinterfor/ILO, 2006. 
(Trazos de la Formación, 22).
Available from Internet:
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/
ampro/cinterfor/publ/new_r195/index.htm
[cited 26.1.2009].

Coles, M. A review of international and
national developments in the use of
qualifications frameworks. Turin: European
Training Foundation, 2006. (Working paper
series: knowledge sharing). Available from
Internet: www.etf.europa.eu/pubmgmt.nsf/
(getAttachment)/4B4A9080175821D1C125
71540054B4AF/$File/SCAO6NYL38.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Coles, M. Qualifications frameworks in Europe:
platforms for collaboration, integration and
reform. Paper presented at the conference:

References

139

Making the European learning area a
reality, 3-5 June 2007, Munich.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority,
London, 2007.

Coles, M.; Werquin, P. The role of national
qualifications systems in helping to
modernise vocational education and
training systems. In Cedefop (ed.).
Modernising vocational education and
training: fourth report on vocational
education and training research in Europe:
background report – Vol. 3. Luxembourg:
Publications Office, forthcoming (a).
(Cedefop Reference series).

Conlon, G. The determinants of undertaking
academic and vocational qualifications in
the United Kingdom. Education
Economics, 2005, Vol. 13, No 3, 
p. 299–313.

Council of the EU. Presidency conclusions.
Lisbon European Council, 23 and 24
March 2000. Brussels: Council of the EU,
2000. Available from Internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/e
u/pub/council/2000_0001_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Report from the Education
Council to the European Council. The
concrete future objectives of education and
training systems. (5980/01). Brussels:
Council of the EU, 2001. Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
policies/2010/doc/rep_fut_obj_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Council conclusions of 
5 May 2003 on reference levels of
European average performance in
education and training (benchmarks).
Official Journal of the European Union,
7 June 2003 (a), C 134, p. 3-4. 
Available from Internet: http
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/
eu/leg/conc/2003_0134_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Resolution of 19 December

2002 on the promotion of enhanced
European cooperation in vocational
education and training. Official Journal of
the European Union, 18 January 2003 (b),
C 013, p. 2-4. Available from Internet:

http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/
eu/leg/res/2003_0013_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Council conclusions of 
24 May 2005 on new indicators in
education and training. Official Journal of
the European Union, 10 June 2005,
C141/04, p. 7-8. Available from Internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/
eu/leg/eurodoc/2005/0239_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Consolidated versions of
the treaty on European Union and of the
treaty establishing the European
community/ The European Union. Official
Journal of the European Union, 29
December 2006, OJ C 321 E/1, p. 1-331.
Council of the EU. Conclusions of the Council

and of the Representatives of the
Governments of the Member States,
meeting within the Council of 15 November
2007, on improving the quality of teacher
education. Official Journal of the European
Union, 12 December 2007 (a), C 300/07,
p. 6-9. Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:300:0006:
0009:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Council conclusion on a
coherent framework of indicators and
benchmarks for monitoring progress
towards the Lisbon objectives in education
and training. 2802nd Education, youth and
culture Council meeting, Brussels, 
24-25 May 2007 (b). Available from
Internet: www.consilium.europa.eu/
ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/
educ/94290.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Council of the EU. Council resolution of 
15 November 2007 on education and
training as a key driver of the Lisbon
strategy. Official Journal of the European
Union, 12 December 2007 (c), C 300, 
p. 1-2. Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:300:0001:
0002:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
Council of the EU. Council resolution of 

15 November 2007 on the new skills for
new jobs. Official Journal of the European

140

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Union, 4 December 2007 (d), C 290/01, 
p. 1-3. Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:290:0001:
0002:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Presidency conclusions.

Brussels European Council, 8 and 9 March
2007. Brussels: Council of the EU, 2007
(e). Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/07/st07/st07224-re01.en07.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Conclusions on the future

priorities for enhanced European
cooperation in vocational education and
training (VET) adopted on 21 November
2008. (16459/08). Brussels: Council of the
EU, 2008 (a). Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/
08/st16/st16459.en08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Conclusions on youth

mobility adopted on 21 November 2008.
(16206/08). Brussels: Council of the EU,
2008 (b). Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/08/st16/st16206.en08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Delivering lifelong learning

for knowledge, creativity and innovation.
2008 joint progress report of the Council
and the Commission on the
implementation of the ʻEducation and
training 2010ʼ work programme. Official
Journal of the European Union, 5 April
2008 (c), C 86/01, p.1-31. Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:
086:0001:0031:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Draft 2008 joint progress

report of the Council and the Commission
on the implementation of the ʻEducation
and training 2010ʼ work programme
ʻDelivering lifelong learning for knowledge,
creativity and innovationʼ. (5723/08 
COR 1). Brussels: Council of the EU, 
2008 (d). Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/08/st05/st05723-co01.en08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Key messages on further
implementation of the European pact for
youth (5582/08). Brussels: Council of the
EU, 2008 (e). Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/08/st05/st05582.en08.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Key messages to the

Spring European Council in the field of
education and training. (5586/08).
Brussels: Council of the EU, 2008 (f) (ed.).
Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/08/st05/st05586.en08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU. Presidency conclusions.

Brussels European Council, 
13 and 14 March 2008. (7652/08).
Brussels: Council of the EU, 2008 (g).
Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/
en/08/st07/st07652.en08.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Council of the EU (EPSCO - Employment,

Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs
Council). Joint employment report
2007/2008. As adopted by the Council
(EPSCO) at its session on 29 February
2008. (7169/08). Brussels: Council of the
EU, 2008. Available from Internet:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/
pdf/en/08/st07/st07169.en08.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Cully, M. Globalisation and technical and

vocational education and training in
Australia. Paper presented to Asian
Development Bank Institute workshop 
on Workforce Development, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia, 25 October 2006.
Derényi, A. et al. National report on the

progress in the implementation of the
Education and training 2010 work
programme. Budapest: Hungarian Institute
for Educational Research and
Development (HIERD), 2007.

Desjardins, S.L. et al. Modeling the college
application decision process in a land-
grant university. Economics of Education
Review, 1999, Vol. 18, 1, p. 117–132.
DGVT Austria, Policy report, 2008; DGVT

References

141

Belgium, Policy report, 2008 (FL.); 
DGVT Belgium, Policy report, 2008 (WA.);
DGVT Bulgaria, Policy report, 2008; 
DGVT Croatia, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Cyprus, Policy report, 2008; DGVT Czech
Republic, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Denmark, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Germany, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Estonia, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Finland, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Iceland, Policy report, DGVT Ireland,
Policy report, 2008; DGVT Greece, Policy
report, 2008; DGVT France, Policy report,
2008; DGVT Hungary, Policy report, 2008;
DGVT Italy, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Latvia, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Liechstenstein, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Lithuania, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Luxembourg, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Malta, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Netherlands, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Norway, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Poland, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Portugal, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Romania, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Slovakia, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Slovenia, Policy report, 2008; DGVT
Spain, Policy report, 2008; DGVT Sweden,
Policy report, 2008; DGVT Turkey, 
Policy report, 2008; DGVT United
Kingdom, Policy report, 2008; 
BusinessEurope, Policy report, 2008.
Dunkel, T.; Le Mouillour, I. Qualifications

frameworks and credit systems: a toolkit
for education in Europe. European Journal
of Vocational Training, 2008, 42/43, 
p. 184-202. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_Dunkel.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Dunkel, T. et al. Through the looking glass –
diversification and differentiation in
vocational education and training and
higher education. In Cedefop (ed.).
Modernising vocational education and
training: fourth report on vocational
education and training research in Europe:
background report – Vol. 2. Luxembourg:
Publications Office. forthcoming (a).
(Cedefop Reference series).

Ecotec. First evaluation of Europass: executive
summary. Final report to the Directorate
General Education and Culture of the
European Commission. Birmingham:
Ecotec, 2008. Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/
evalreports/training/2007/europass/
sum_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Ecotec; McCoshan, A et al. Beyond the

Maastricht communiqué: developments in
the opening up of VET pathways and the
role of VET pathways and the role of VET
in labour market integration. Consolidated
final report to the European Commission.
Birmingham: Ecotec, March 2008.
Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/
more-information/doc/vetsum_en.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Ecotec; Souto Otero, et al. (eds). European

inventory on validation of informal and non-
formal learning, 2007 Update. A final report
to DG Education and Culture of the
European Commission. Birmingham:
Ecotec, 2008. Available from Internet:
http://www.ecotec.com/europeaninventory/
publications/inventory/
EuropeanInventory.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Eurofound – European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions. Fostering mobility through
competence development: the role of
competence and qualification development
in fostering workforce mobility: Conference
summary, Thessaloniki, 9–10 November
2006. Luxembourg: Publications Office,
2007. Available from Internet:
www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2007/
13/en/1/ef0713en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Communication from
the Commission of 21 November 2001 on
making a European area of lifelong
learning a reality. Brussels: European
Commission, 2001. (COM(2001) 678 final).
Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2001:0678:FIN:
EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Declaration of the
European Ministers of Vocational

142

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Education and Training, and the European
Commission, convened in Copenhagen on
29 and 30 November 2002, on enhanced
European cooperation in vocational
education and training. Brussels: European
Commission, 2002 (a). Available from
Internet: http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/
vetelib/eu/pub/commission/dgeac/
2003_0026_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Detailed work
programme on the follow-up of the
objectives of education and training
systems in Europe. Official Journal of the
European Union, 14 June 2002 (b), C 142,
p. 1-22. Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2002:142:0001:
0022:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Maastricht

communiqué on the future priorities of
enhanced European cooperation in
vocational education and training (VET):
review of the Copenhagen declaration of
30 November 2002. Brussels: European
Commission, 2004. Available from Internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/
eu/pub/commission/dgeac/
2004_0018_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Common European
principles for teacher competences and
qualifications. Brussels: European
Commission, 2005 (a). Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
policies/2010/doc/principles_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Communication from

the commission. Modernising education
and training: a vital contribution to
prosperity and social cohesion in Europe.
Draft 2006 joint progress report of the
Council and the Commission on the
implementation of the ʻEducation and
training 2010 work programmeʼ. Brussels:
European Commission, 2005 (b).
(COM(2005) 549 final/2). Available from
Internet: http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/
vetelib/eu/leg/ETVNL/
com_2005_0549_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. European employment
and social policy. Special Eurobarometer

261, 2006 (a). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives
/ebs/ebs261_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. The Helsinki

communiqué on enhanced European
cooperation in vocational education and
training: communiqué of the European
Ministers of Vocational Education and
Training, the European social partners and
the European Commission, convened in
Helsinki on 5 December 2006 to review the
priorities and strategies of the Copenhagen
process. Brussels: European Commission,
2006 (b). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/
2010/doc/helsinkicom_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Modernising education

and training: a vital contribution to
prosperity and social cohesion in Europe.
2006 joint interim report of the Council and
of the Commission on progress under the
Education and training 2010 work
programme. Official Journal of the
European Union, 1 April 2006 (c), C79,
p.1-19. Available from Internet:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2006:079:0001:
0019:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Progress towards the

Lisbon objectives in education and training:
report based on indicators and
benchmarks. Commission staff working
paper. Brussels: European Commission,
2006 (d). (SEC(2006) 639). 
Available from Internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/
vetelib/eu/leg/ETVNL/
sec_2006_0639_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Summary of

responses received to the Commissionʼs
consultation on the EQF [European
qualification framework] during the 
2nd half of 2005. Brussels: European
Commission, 2006 (e). Available from
Internet: http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/
vetelib/eu/pub/commission/dgeac/
2006_0002_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Discrimination in the
European Union. Special Eurobarometer

References

143

263, 2007 (d). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/
archives/ebs/ebs_263_sum_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Communication from
the Commission to the European Council
Strategic report on the renewed Lisbon
strategy for growth and jobs: launching the
new cycle (2008-2010) Keeping up the
pace of change. Brussels: European
Commission, 2007 (b). (COM (2007) 803
final Part 1). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/growthandjobs/pdf/
european-dimension-200712-annual-
progress-report/200712-annual-
report_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Communication from
the Commission to the Spring European
Council. Integrated guidelines for growth
and jobs (2008-2010). Brussels: 
European Commission, 2007 (c).
(COM(2007) 803 final).

European Commission. Communication from
the Commission. A coherent framework of
indicators and benchmarks for monitoring
progress towards the Lisbon objectives in
education and training. Brussels: European
Commission, 2007 (a). (COM(2007) 61
final). Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0061:
FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Economic forecast.

Brussels: European Commission, 2007 (e).

European Commission. Proposal for a

Decision of the European Parliament and
of the Council repealing Council Decision
85/368/EEC on the comparability of
vocational training qualifications between
the Member States of the European
Community. Brussels: European
Commission, 2007 (f) (COM (2007)680
final). Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0680:FIN:
EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Proposal for a

regulation of the European Parliament 
and of the Council on European Statistics.
Brussels: European Commission, 2007 (g).

(COM(2007) 625 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:
0625:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Towards common

principles of flexicurity: more and better
jobs through flexibility and security.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2007 (h).
(COM (2007)359 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:
0359:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. The Bordeaux

communiqué on enhanced European
cooperation in vocational education and
training. Communiqué of the European
Ministers for vocational education and
training, the European social partners and
the European Commission, meeting in
Bordeaux on 26 November 2008 to review
the priorities and strategies of the
Copenhagen process. Brussels: European
Commission, 2008 (a). Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
lifelong-learning-policy/doc/
bordeaux_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Commission staff

working document. Progress towards the
Lisbon objectives in education and training.
Indicators and benchmarks. Brussels,
European Commission, 2008 (b). Available
from Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/
education/policies/2010/doc/progress08/
report_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Communication from
the Commission to the European Council.
A European economic recovery plan.
Brussels: European Commission, 2008 (c)
(COM(2008) 800 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:
0800:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Communication from

the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions. A common
immigration policy for Europe: principles,
actions and tools. Brussels: 

144

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

European Commission, 2008 (d)
(COM(2008) 359 final).

European Commission. Communication from

the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions. New skills for
new jobs. Anticipating and matching labour
market and skills needs. Brussels:
European Commission, 2008 (e)
(COM(2008) 868 final). Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
lifelong-learning-policy/doc/com868_en.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Communication from

the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions. Policy plan on
asylum - An integrated approach to
protection across the EU. Brussels:
European Commission, 2008 (f)
(COM(2008) 360 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:
0360:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Communication from

the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions. Renewed
social agenda: opportunities, access and
solidarity in 21st century Europe. Brussels:
European Commission, 2008 (g)
(COM(2008) 412 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:
0412:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Communication from

the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions. An updated
strategic framework for European
cooperation in education and training.
Brussels: European Commission, 2008 (h)
(COM(2008) 865 final). Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
lifelong-learning-policy/doc/com865_en.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission, Discrimination in the

European Union. Perceptions, experiences
and attitudes Special Eurobarometer 296,
July, 2008 (i). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives
/ebs/ebs_296_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. ECVET draft

explanatory memorandum. Brussels:
European Commission, 2008 (j).
European Commission. Progress towards 
the Lisbon objectives in education and
training: report based on indicators and
benchmarks. Commission staff working
paper. Brussels: 
European Commission, 2008 (k)
(SEC(2008) 2993). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/
2010/doc/progress09/report_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Proposal for a
recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council on the
establishment of the European credit
system for vocational education and
training (ECVET). Brussels: European
Commission, 2008 (l) (COM(2008) 180
final). Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0180:FIN:
EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Proposal for a
recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council on the
establishment of a European quality
assurance reference framework for
vocational education and training.
Brussels: European Commission, 2008 (m)
(COM(2008) 179 final). Available from
Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:
0179:FIN:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Commission. Report from the

Commission to the European Parliament
and the Council on the first evaluation of
the Europass initiative. Brussels: European
Commission, 2008 (n) (COM (2008) 427
final). Available from Internet: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0427:FIN:
EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

References

145

European Commission. Report of the high
level expert forum on mobility. Making
learning mobility an opportunity for all.
Brussels: European Commission, 2008 (o).
Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/
education/doc/2008/mobilityreport_en.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

European Commission. Social dialogue web

page. 2008 (p). Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/
social_dialogue/index_en.htm 
[cited 26.1.2008].

European Commission. The social partners

and the European Social Fund. Brussels:
European Commission, 2008 (q). 
Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/
esf/docs/tp_social_partners_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1. 2008].

European Commission. Hungarian Ministry of
Education. The European qualifications
framework: consultation to
recommendation conference, Budapest,
27-28 February 2006.

European Council; European Parliament.
Recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 23 April
2008 on the establishment of the European
qualifications framework for lifelong
learning. Official Journal of the European
Union, 6 May 2008, C 111, p. 1-7. Available
from Internet: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:
111:0001:0007:EN:PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
European Parliament. Report on the proposal
for a recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council on the
establishment of the European
qualifications framework for lifelong
learning. Committee on Employment and
Social Affairs. Brussels: European
Parliament, 2007. (Session document; 
A6-0245/2007, COM(2006)0479 – 
C6-0294/2006 – 2006/0163(COD)).
Available from Internet:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/
getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+
REPORT+A6-2007-0245+0+DOC+PDF+V0//
EN&language=EN [cited 26.1.2009].

European Training Foundation. A review of

international and national developments in
the use of qualifications frameworks. Turin:
ETF, 2006. Available from Internet:
http://www.etf.europa.eu/pubmgmt.nsf/
(getAttachment)/4B4A9080175821D1C125
71540054B4AF/$File/SCAO6NYL38.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

European University Association. European
universitiesʼ Charter on lifelong learning.
Brussels: European University Association,
2008. Available from Internet:
www.eua.be/fileadmin/user_upload/files/
Publications/EUA_Charter_Eng_LY.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Eurostat. Continuing training survey CVTS2.

Luxembourg: Eurostat, 2000.

Eurostat. Continuing training survey CVTS3.
Luxembourg: Eurostat, 2007 (preliminary
data).

Eurostat. Ageing characterises the

demographic perspectives of the European
societies. Statistics in focus, 72/2008.
Luxembourg: Eurostat, 2008 (a). 
Available from Internet:
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/
ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-08-072/EN/
KS-SF-08-072-EN.PDF [cited 26.1.2009].
Eurostat. European Union labour force survey
- Annual results 2007. Data in focus,
27/2008. Luxembourg: Eurostat, 2008 (b).
Available from Internet:
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/
ITY_OFFPUB/KS-QA-08-027/EN/
KS-QA-08-027-EN.PDF [cited 26.1.2009].

Eurostat. Labour market: employment and

unemployment (labour force survey: LFS).
Luxembourg: Eurostat, 2008 (c).
Fietz, G.; Le Mouillour, I.; Reglin, T. Study 

on the implementation and development 
of an ECVET system for initial vocational
education and training. Final report.
October 2007. Study carried out by 
f-bb/BIBB on behalf of the European
Commission. Brussels: European
Commission, 2007. 
Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/reports/
doc/ecvetref_en.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

146

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Fietz, G.; Reglin, T. Study on the

implementation and development of an
ECVET system for initial vocational
education and training. A study prepared
for the European Commission, 2008.
Flowers, M. R. Tuition tax credits and the

public schools. National Tax Journal, 1998,
Vol. 41, No 1, p. 87-96.

Fowkes, K. M.; McWhirter, E. H. Evaluation 
of computer-assisted career guidance in
middle and secondary education settings:
status, obstacles, and suggestions. 
Journal of Career Assessment, 2007, 
Vol. 15, No 3, p. 388–400.

Frade, C.; Darmon, I.; Alvarez, I. Adult
guidance systems in five European
countries: a comparative analysis, ICAS
Institute, 2005. Available from Internet:
http://www.guidanceineurope.com/doc/
GuidanceinEuropeCOMPARATIVE%
20wp1%20FINAL.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
Gelibert, D.; Maniak, R. Study on the feasibility

of an ECVET system for apprentices (test
phase). Final report. February 2007. Study
carried out by ANFA and MENESR for the
European Commission – DG EAC.
Available from Internet:
http://www.ecvetconnexion.com/doc/
en-ecvet-final-report.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Gerfin, M.; Lechner, M. A micro-econometric
evaluation of the active labour market
policy in Switzerland. The Economic
Journal, October 2002, Vol. 112, p. 854-93.

Gutknecht-Gmeiner, M. (ed.). Implementing

peer review as part of the CQAF.
Scenarios for peer review implementation
in Austria, Spain (Catalonia), Finland,
Hungary and Italy. Vienna: öibf, 2007.
Hanf, G.; Rein, V. European and national

qualifications frameworks. A challenge for
vocational education and training in
Germany. European Journal of Vocational
Training, 2008, 42/43, p. 113-128.
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_Hanf.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Heckmann, F. Education and migration.

Strategies for integrating migrant children
in European schools and societies. 

A synthesis of research findings for policy-
makers. Report prepared for the European
Commission. NESSE, 2008. Available from
Internet: http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/
nesse_top/activites/education-and-
migration [cited 26.1.2009].

Hilmer, M. Post-secondary fees and the

decision to attend a university or a
community college. Journal of Public
Economics, 1998, Vol. 67, p. 329–348.

Hossler, D. et al. Understanding student
college choice. In Smart, J.C. (ed.). 
Higher education: handbook of theory 
and research. New York: Agathon Press,
1989, Vol. 5, p. 231–288.

IBS [Institut für berufliche Bildung und EDV-
Schulung]. Conferences proceedings.
ECVET – Practical approaches and
experiences. Vienna, 7 February 2008.
IMD. World competitiveness yearbook (WCY).

IMD, 2008.

ITB [Institut Technik+Bildung]. Eurotrainer,

making lifelong learning possible: a study
on the situation and qualifications of
trainers in Europe. ITB – DG EAC, 2008.
Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/
more-information/doc/eurotrainer1_en.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Kenworthy, L.; Kittel, B. Indicators of social
dialogue: concepts and measurements.
Working paper No 5. Geneva: ILO, 2003.
Available from Internet: http://www.ilo.org/
wcmsp5/groups/public/—-dgreports/
—-integration/documents/publication/
wcms_079091.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Lankford, H.; Wyckoff, J. Primary and

secondary school choice among public 
and religious alternatives. 
Economics of Education Review, 1992,
Vol. 11, p. 317-337.

Lasonen, J.; Gordon, J. Improving the

attractiveness and image of VET. In
Cedefop (ed.). Modernising vocational
education and training: fourth report on
vocational education and training research
in Europe: background report – Vol. 3.
Luxembourg: Publications Office,
forthcoming (a). (Cedefop Reference
series).

References

147

Lasonen, J., Manning, S. How to improve the

standing of vocational compared to general
education. A collaborative investigation of
strategies and qualifications across
Europe. In Cedefop, Descy, P.; Tessaring
M. Training in Europe: second report on
vocational training research in Europe
2000: background report – Vol. 1.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2001
(Cedefop Reference series).

Laužackas, R.; Tūtlys, V. Modelling the
national qualifications framework of
Lithuania into the European qualifications
framework. European Journal of Vocational
Training, 2008, 42/43, p. 166-183.
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/
etv/Upload/Information_resources/
Bookshop/491/42_en_Lauzackas.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Lavoie, M.; Ross, F. Is it worth doing a science

or technology degree in Canada?
Empirical evidence and policy implications.
Canadian Public Policy, 1999, Vol. 25, 
No 1, p. 101-121.

Learning and skills council national office.
Measuring progress: the impact of the
Centres of vocational excellence
programme. London: GHK Ltd and IPSOS
Public Affairs, 2003.

Leitch, S. Leitch review of skills (2006).

Prosperity for all in the global economy:
world class skills: final report 2006.
Norwich: Stationery Office, 2006.

Lincoln, I.; Walker, A. Increasing investment in
higher education: the role of a graduate
tax. Education Economics, 1993, Vol. 1,
No 3, p. 211-226.

Maguire, B.; Mernagh, E.; Murray, J. Aligning
learning outcomes descriptors in national
and meta-frameworks of qualifications.
Learning from Irish experience. European
Journal of Vocational Training, 2008,
42/43, p. 70-83. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_Maguire.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Markowitsch, J.; Luomi-Messerer, K.

Development and interpretation of
descriptors of the European Qualifications

Framework. European Journal of
Vocational Training, 2008, 42/43, p. 33-58.
Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_Markowitsch.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Merle, V. Un accord historique. Droit Social,

No 5, May 2004, p. 455-463.

Mincer, J. Schooling, experience and earnings.

New York: Columbia University Press, 1974.

Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of the

Czech Republic. Quality of life in old age.
National Programme of Preparation for
Ageing for 2008-2012. Prague: Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs, 2008.
Nielsen, Sören. Teachers in vocational

education and training reform. In Nielsen,
S.; Nikolovska, M. (eds). ETF yearbook.
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2007.
OECD. Report on career guidance and public
policy – bridging the gap. Paris: OECD,
2004. Available from Internet:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/45/
34050171.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
OECD. The role of national qualification

systems in promoting lifelong learning.
Paris: OECD, 2005.

OECD. Qualifications systems: bridges to
lifelong learning. Paris: OECD, 2007.
Available from Internet:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/10/2/
38500491.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

OECD-CERI. Trends shaping education. 2008
Edition. Paris: OECD, 2008. Available from
Internet: http://puck.sourceoecd.org/
vl=892393/cl=18/nw=1/rpsv/cgi-bin/
fulltextew.pl?prpsv=/ij/oecdthemes/
99980029/v2008n4/s1/p1l.idx 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Pfeffer, T. Intergenerational educational

mobility in comparative perspective -
Persistent inequality in educational
attainment and its institutional context.
CDE working paper No 2007-09. Madison,
WI: Center for demography and ecology,
University of Wisconsin, 2007.

Potočnik, J. Knowledg-based growth: keeping

on course in turbulent waters. Speech to
the British Chamber of Commerce in
Belgium, Brussels, 26 November 2008.

148

Continuity, consolidation and change
Towards a European era of vocational education and training

Psacharopoulos, G. The value of investment in
education: theory, evidence, and policy.
Journal of Education Finance, 2006, Vol.
32, No 2, p. 113-136.

Raffe, D.; Gallacher, J.; Toman, N. The
Scottish credit and qualifications
framework: lessons for the EQF. European
Journal of Vocational Training, 2008,
42/43, p. 59-69. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_raffe.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

ReferNet Austria, Policy report, 2008; ReferNet
Belgium, Policy report, 2008; Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Bulgaria, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Cyprus, Policy report 2008,
ReferNet Czech Republic, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Denmark, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Estonia, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Finland, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet France, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Germany, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Greece, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Hungary, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Iceland, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Ireland, Policy report,
2008; ReferNet Italy, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Latvia, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Lithuania, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Luxembourg, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Netherlands, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Norway, Policy report, 2008.
ReferNet Poland, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Portugal, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Slovenia, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Slovakia, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Spain, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet Sweden, Policy report, 2008;
ReferNet United Kingdom, Policy report,
2008. Available from internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/F/
?func=find-b&request=vet+policy+report+
2008&find_code=WTI [cited 20.3.2009].

Schottner, Péterné et al. A Szakiskolai

[National institute of vocational and adult
education], Hungary, 2006.

Schneeberger, A. Education under pressure to
modernise – the challenges of structural
change, new educational ambitions and
globalisation. European Journal Vocational
Training, 2002, Vol. 25, p. 64-79. Available
from Internet: http://www.trainingvillage.gr
/etv/Upload/Information_resources/
Bookshop/290/25_en_schneeberger.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Sellin, B. The proposal for a European

qualifications framework. Making it a reality
– Possibilities and limitations. European
Journal of Vocational Training, 2008,
42/43, p. 4-18. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload
/Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_sellin.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].

Smallbone, D; Blackburn, R.; Hart, M. Effective
European social dialogue in an enlarged
Europe. Kingston University, 17 November
2005.

Smits, W.; Zwick, T. Why do business service

firms employ fewer apprentices? 
A comparison between Germany and the
Netherlands. International Journal of
Manpower, 2004, Vol. 25, No 1, p. 36-54.
Spence, M. A. Job market signaling. Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 1973, Vol. 88, 
No 3, p. 355-374.

Statistik Austria Betriebliche Weiterbildung.

Statistik Austria, 2008.

Sultana, R. G.; Watts, A. G. Career guidance
in public employment services across
Europe. International Journal for
Educational and Vocational Guidance,
2006, Vol. 6, p. 29–46.

Tammaro, A. et al. (eds). Recognition and

quality assurance in LIS: new approaches
for lifelong learning in Europe. International
Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions Publications, 2005, Vol. 116, 
p. 276-286.

Fejlesztési Program zárókiadvány anyagai
[Final papers on the Vocational School
Development Programme] Nemzeti
Szakképzési és Felnőttképzési Intézet

Tessaring, M. Towards knowledge-based
societies: indicators of European
competitiveness. In Cedefop. Modernising
vocational education and training: fourth

References

149

UNICE et al. Framework of actions for the

lifelong development of competencies and
qualifications: joint document from ETUC,
CEEP and UNICE / UEAPME. Brussels:
UNICE, 2002. Available from Internet:
http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/
euorg/unice/2002_0002_en.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

United Nations. Department of Economic and
Social Affairs. Population Division. World
population prospects. The 2006 revision.
New York: United Nations. 2007. 
Available from Internet: http://www.un.org/
esa/population/publications/wpp2006/
WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf 
[cited 26.1.2009].

Weiler, W. C. Factors influencing the

matriculation choices of high ability
students. Economics of Education Review,
1996, Vol. 15, p. 23-36.

report on vocational training research in
Europe: background report – Vol. 3.
Luxembourg: Publications Office,
forthcoming (a) (Cedefop Reference
series; 71).

Tierney, L.; Clarke, M. The European

qualifications framework: challenges 
and implications in the Irish further
education and training sector. European
Journal of Vocational Training, 2008,
42/43, p. 129-142. Available from Internet:
http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/
Information_resources/Bookshop/491/
42_en_Tierney.pdf [cited 26.1.2009].
UEAPME [European Association of Craft,

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises]. 
Key challenges facing European labour
markets. A joint analysis of European
social partners. Brussels: ETUC/CES,
Business Europe, UEAPME, CEES, 2007,
p 16. Available from Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/
social_dialogue/docs/
cross_key_challenges.pdf
[cited 26.1.2009].

Continuity, 
consolidation and change
Towards a European era 
of vocational education and training

Luxembourg: 

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2009 – VI, 149 pp. – 21 X 29.7 cm

ISBN 978-92-896-0585-4

Cat. No: TI-81-09-577-EN-C

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 25

No of publication: 3055 EN