Commission staff working document - Accompanying document to the White paper Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action Human, Animal and Plant - Health Impacts of Climate Change {COM(2009) 147 final}
Date: 2009-04-01
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU action, EU environmental policy, climate change, health policy, international cooperation, prevention of pollution

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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 1.4.2009 
SEC(2009) 416 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Accompanying document to the 

WHITE PAPER 

Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action 

Human, Animal and Plant Health Impacts of Climate Change 

{COM(2009) 147 final} 

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COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Human, Animal and Plant Health Impacts of Climate Change 

The purpose of this Commission staff working document is to outline the main issues relating 
to human, animal and plant health in relation to climate change, to describe what is currently 
being  done  to  address  these  challenges  and,  finally,  to  indicate  key  future  steps  for 
Community and Member State action to be considered.  

This  paper  is  based  on  the  general  framework  set  out  in  particular  in  the  White  Paper 
"Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action" [COM(2009) 147] 
which proposes to increase the resilience of health and social systems and underlines the need 
to ensure adequate surveillance and control of the health impacts of climate change, such as 
epidemiological  surveillance  and  the  control  of  communicable  diseases  or  the  effects  of 
extreme events.  

In  general,  climate  change  is  not  creating  many  new  or  unknown  health  threats,  but  it  will 
increase certain interactions between environment and human health with stronger and more 
pronounced effects than currently seen. Most public health measures and systems are already 
in place but they need to be tuned to the new situation and demands.  

This  paper  outlines  what  the  European  Union  can  do  in  concrete  terms  to  address  these 
potential challenges. 

INTRODUCTION  

The European Environment and Health Action Plan 2004-20101 

The European Environment and Health Action Plan 2004-2010 specifically addresses climate 
change and health under Action 8, which announces that emerging issues on environment and 
health will be identified and addressed.  

The Mid-Term Review of the Environment and Health Action Plan2 reported progress on the 
implementation of the Action Plan: on climate change and health several EU projects3 have 
been funded under the Sixth and Seventh Framework Programmes (see also chapter 9 on EU 
Framework  Programmes  for  Research)  and  the  EU  Health  Programme.  The  Mid-Term 
Review also stressed the importance of integrating sectors and stakeholders and health issues 
into a comprehensive policy approach, and issues such as the health effects of climate change, 
in  particular.  Lastly,  it  announced  that  the  focus  on  climate  change  and  health  will  be 
increased in the future implementation of the Environment and Health Action Plan. 

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COM(2004) 416. 
COM(2007) 314 - SEC(2007) 777. 
MICORDIS, CANICULE, EuroHEAT, EDEN, 
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_information/dissemination/unexpected/unexpected_2_en.htm 

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In  its  Conclusions  on  Environment  and  Health,  the  Council  urged  the  Commission  and  the 
Member  States  to  develop  tools  for  anticipating,  preventing  and  responding  to  potential 
threats from climate change4. 

The European Parliament has called for enhanced multi-agency cooperation ‘in order to boost 
the  early  warning  system  and  thus  to  curb  the harmful effects which climate change has on 
health’5.  The  European  Parliament  also  calls  on  Member  States  and  the  Commission  to 
respond  adequately  to  the  new  threats  posed  by  climate  change,  such  as  the  increased 
presence  of  emerging  viruses  and  undetected  pathogens,  and  therefore  to  implement  new 
existing pathogen reduction technologies that reduce known and undetected viruses and other 
pathogens transmitted by blood6. 

In addition to the implementation of the EU Action Plan, the Commission is supporting the 
World  Health  Organisation  and  EU  Member  States  in  implementing  the  "Children's 
Environment and Health Action Plan for Europe" (CEHAPE) and the Ministerial Declaration 
issued in Budapest in 2004. Health issues related to climate change will be one of the main 
pillars of the next Ministerial Conference on Health and Environment, which is due to be held 
in Italy in March 2010.  

The JRC (Commission Joint Research Centre) supports the European Environment and Health 
Action Plan by providing the scientifically based information needed to help the EU and the 
Member  States  reduce  adverse  health  impacts  from  environmental  factors.  In  relation  to 
climate  change  and  health,  the  JRC  was  involved  in  the  GAPCC  (Global  Air  Pollution  and 
Climate  Change)  Action  contributing  to  scientific  research  on  the  linkages  between  air 
pollution  and  climate  change,  so  that  policy  makers  were  made  aware  of  the  potential 
synergies  and  trade-offs  in  which  the  atmosphere  and  the  climate  system  work.  This  action 
includes:  the  European  Flood  Alert  System  (EFAS),  developed  within  the  Weather  Driven 
Natural  Hazard  (WDNH)  project,  which  seeks  to  provide  medium-range  flood  simulations 
across Europe with a lead-time of between 3 and 10 days, and which will provide information 
for the preparation and management of aid during a flood crisis; and the European Forest Fire 
Information System (EFFIS), which supports the services in charge of the protecting forests 
against fires in the EU and neighbouring countries, and which also provides information about 
forest fires in Europe.  

Legal basis 

According to the objectives of the Community action in the field of public health as set out in 
Article  152  of  the  Treaty  Community  action,  shall  complement  national  policies,  shall  be 
directed  towards  improving  public  health,  preventing  human  illness  and  diseases,  and 
obviating  sources  of  danger  to  human  health.  Such  action  shall  cover  the  fight  against  the 
major  health  scourges  by  promoting  research  into  their  causes,  their  transmission  and  their 
prevention,  as  well  as  health  information  and  education.  The  legal  base  for  the  adoption  of 
measures relating to animal and plant health is laid down in Article 37 of the Treaty. 

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20th December 2007 
Paragraph 24 of European Parliament Resolution of 4 September 2008 on the mid-term review of the European and 
Health Action Plan 2004-2010 (2007/2252(INI)). 
Paragraph 26 of European Parliament Resolution of 4 September 2008 on the mid-term review of the European and 
Health Action Plan 2004-2010 (2007/2252(INI)).  

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1. 

HUMAN HEALTH 

Following the impact assessments conducted in a number of European countries and research 
funded  by  the  EU  and  WHO-EURO,  climate  change  is  expected  to  have  impacts  on  the 
epidemiology of many diseases and health conditions. This assessment is further supported by 
reports7 from WHO and IPCC8 describing the negative impact on human health.  

The way in which such health effects are experienced between and within different countries 
will be uneven, also given the geographical make up of the EU. The nature and scale of the 
final  impacts  will  depend  on  the  adaptive  capacity  and  actions  of  health  systems  and  the 
baseline  access  of  different  populations  to  these  services.  Some  of  the  measures  might  be 
efficient  enough  under  current  climates,  but  might  need  to  be  strengthened  or  revised  in  a 
situation of much stronger or accelerated climate change.  

Health systems are vulnerable to extreme climatic events. Indeed, climate change might have 
an  impact  on  health  systems  by  increasing  the  demand  for  health  services  beyond  the 
capacities  of  those  systems.  It  may  also  interfere  with  their  ability  to  cope  with  demand  by 
undermining  infrastructure,  technology  and  the  availability  of  workforce.  This  is  linked  to 
emergency preparedness and response. 

1.1. 

The EU Health Strategy  

The EU Health Strategy acknowledges the importance of addressing major threats to health. 
Climate  change  and  its  impact  on  public  health  is  mentioned  as  an  important  challenge  in 
terms  of  protecting  citizens  from  health  threats.  Adopted  in  2007,  the  strategy  set  out 
proposals  for  action  on  climate  change.  The  Commission  then  undertook  to  draw  up  a 
document on "Health aspects of adaptation to climate change9. 

1.2. 

Direct and indirect impacts of climate change on human health 

Climate  change  will  affect  human  health,  either  directly  -  in  relation  to  the  physiological 
effects of heat and cold - or indirectly, for example, through altered human behaviours (e.g. 
forced  migration,  more  time  spent  outdoors),  the  increased  transmission  of  food  or  vector-
borne diseases, or other effects of climate change, such as flooding. An increase in some of 
these  impacts  has  already  been  observed  in  Europe  over  recent  decades  (for  example,  the 
summer heat waves in 2003 alone are believed to have resulted in more than 70 000 excess 
deaths (Robine et al, 2008)).  

Not  all  climate  related  changes  are  negative  for  human  health.  In  temperate  areas,  milder 
winters  will  lead  to  less  cold-related  fatalities.  The  indoor  environment  will  be  improved 
because of milder measures to keep comfortable indoor temperatures. Outdoor workers will 

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http://www.euro.who.int/Document/E91865.pdf page 9 
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-spm.pdf 
The Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the Communication Together for Health: A Strategic 
Approach for the EU 2008-2013{COM(2007) 630 final}: p.33 "The Commission will produce a report on Climate 
Change covering a range of areas of concern including health. The most up-to-date scientific information on health 
effects  from  extreme  weather  and  events  relating  to  climate  change  will  be  gathered  and  analysed  to  support 
effective responses in preventing and responding to them. The implementation of surveillance systems for the main 
effects of climate change such as heat-waves and flooding will be examined. The capacity of EU health systems 
and infrastructure to cope with different levels of climate-related health threats will be estimated, with the aim of 
supporting contingency planning for hypothetically dangerous situations as necessary." 

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have  less  cold  related  stress  during  winter  season,  which  will  improve  productivity.  An 
increased growing season together with more precipitation will promote agriculture and food 
production but also private gardening and other outdoor activities. 

Morbidity and mortality. The primary concern in Europe is linked to heat-related mortality 
and  morbidity,  due  to  increases  in  annual  temperature  and  extremes  of  heat,  although  these 
issues  are  also  influenced  by  socio-economic  changes  due  to  population  growth,  age 
distribution  (the  ageing  European  population)  and  other  factors,  such  as  migration.  In  EU 
countries,  it  is  estimated  that  mortality  increases  by  1–4%  for  each  one-degree  rise  in 
temperature, meaning that heat related mortality could rise by 30 000 deaths per year by the 
2030s  and  by  50 000  to  110 000  deaths  per  year  by  the  2080s,  (PESETA  project10).  The 
elderly, in which the ability to control and regulate body temperature is reduced, are most at 
risk of death from heat stroke and cardiovascular, renal, respiratory and metabolic disorders 
(Matthies et al, 2008).  Whilst  the numbers of total deaths are strongly related to population 
size, the change in death rates can be much greater in regions where conditions are conducive 
to greater warming.  

Food-borne  diseases11.  In  addition,  temperature-sensitive  infectious  diseases,  such  as  food-
borne  infections  (Salmonella  sp.,  and  others.)  are  likely  to  grow.  Recent  work  (PESETA, 
based  on  Kovats  2003)  shows  that  the  disease  burden  in  Europe  could  be  significant  with 
potentially an extra 20 000 cases per year by the 2030s and 25,000 to 40,000 extra cases per 
year by the 2080s.  

Vector-borne  diseases12.  A  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  devoted  to  changes  in  vector-
borne  disease  patterns  in  relation  to  climate  change.  The  IPCC  foresees  climate  change 
leading to changes in infectious disease transmission by vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, 
as  a  result  of  changes  in  their  geographic  range,  seasons  of  activity  and  population  size 
(Confalonieri  et  al,  2007);  land  use  changes  and  socio-economic  factors  (e.g.  human 
behaviour, the movement of people and goods) will continue to be important too. A number 
of models have investigated the potential increase of malaria risk in parts of Europe. Although 
accurate predictions are difficult at the present time, there is agreement nevertheless that the 
overall  risk  of  transmission  of  malaria  related  to  localized  climate  change  is  very  small, 
especially  where  there  are  adequate  health  services  and  good  management  of  mosquito 
control (EEA/JRC/WHO, 2008).  

Nonetheless,  new  challenges  may  emerge,  as  changes  in  vector  distribution  and  capacity  - 
particularly in combination with increased human mobility - could facilitate the introduction 
and local transmission of new emerging pathogens. As regards other mosquito-borne diseases, 
this  phenomenon  was  seen  in  the  2007  Chikungunya  virus  outbreak  in  Europe;  the 
sustained presence of a suitable vector might create the conditions for future local outbreaks 
of Chikungunya and even Dengue fever, although the latter is less likely.  

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PESETA report, http://peseta.jrc.ec.europa.eu/docs/Agriculture.html 
Food-borne diseases: an infection acquired by consuming contaminated food or drink. Myriad microbes 
and toxic substances can contaminate foods. Most of the 250 known food-borne diseases are infectious 
and are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Other food-borne diseases are essentially poisonings 
caused  by  toxins,  chemicals  contaminating  the  food.  Nausea,  vomiting,  abdominal  cramps  and 
diarrhoea are frequent in food-borne infections. 
Vector-borne diseases are bacterial, viral, or parasitic diseases transmitted to humans and animals by the 
bite or sting of infected vectors as insects, e.g. mosquitoes or ticks 

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Changes in tick distribution have also been observed. The limit of tick distribution in the EU 
is shifting northwards and also to higher altitudes; plus, the shift towards milder winters may 
lead to an expansion of the tick population and, consequently, to the human exposure to Lyme 
borreliosis and Tick-borne encephalitis. There are also reports of changes in the geographical 
distribution of sand flies, which are a vector of Leishmania sp. Further work needs to be done 
to  determine  the  role  of  climate  change  in  the  future  epidemiology  of  other  diseases  and  it 
may take many years before accurate estimates are available.  

Water-related  issues. Aside  from  flooding,  a  number  of  other  water-related  issues  are  also 
important.  Heavy  precipitation  has  been  linked  to  a  number  of  outbreaks  of  water-borne 
diseases,  due  to  the  mobilising  of  pathogens  or  extensive  water  contamination  from 
overflowing sewage pipes. Reductions in summer water flows may increase the potential for 
bacterial and chemical contamination. Higher water temperatures may also result in increased 
occurrence of harmful algal blooms. Increased faecal bacteria contamination is also likely to 
affect drinking water intakes and areas of water used for recreation. Furthermore the scarcity 
of suitable water for routine hygiene practices of high significance for health such as proper 
hand washing might contribute to more infectious diseases outbreaks. 

Air  quality.  There  are  a  number  of  other  health  issues  emerging  from  climate  change  in 
Europe, where quantification and valuation have not been explored sufficiently on a Europe-
wide basis. Whilst air pollution levels have fallen dramatically in recent decades in Europe, 
the  health  risks  of  air  pollution  are  still  significant,  primarily  from  particulate  matter  and 
ozone  (Thematic  Strategy  on  Air  Pollution,  TSAP13).  However,  future  policy  on  air  quality 
and  on  climate  (mitigation)  is  very  likely  to  determine  any  future  increase  in  respiratory 
diseases and mortality.  

The most significant effects of climate change are likely to be in relation to ozone – which is a 
major  pollutant  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  The  EEA/JRC/WHO  study  reports  that  climate 
variability  and  climate  change  have  contributed  to  an  increase  in  ozone  concentration  in 
central and south-western Europe, and the climate-induced increase in ozone levels might be 
hampering  current  ozone  abatement  efforts.  There  are  no  detailed  projections  for  the  future 
effects of climate change on air pollution in Europe - and even recent studies on air pollution 
(e.g. TSAP) have not factored in how climate change might influence air quality levels14.  

Air  allergens.  There  is  also  the  potential  for  an  increase  in  the  seasonality  and  duration  of 
allergic  disorders  (‘hay  fever’,  asthma15),  with  implications  for  direct  costs  in  terms  of  care 
and  medicines,  as  well  as  lost  working  hours.  Finally,  there  may  be  other  indirect  health 
effects  due  to  climate  change  acting  on  other  health  determinants,  such  as  on  indoor  and 
outdoor  air  quality,  the  level  of  air  pollution  and  the  nature,  severity  and  timing  of  air 
allergens,  such  as  pollen  or  mould.  Populations  at  potential  risk  include  children  and  the 
elderly.  However,  people  already  suffering  from  chronic  respiratory  conditions  such  as 
asthma,  serious  allergies  or  chronic  obstructive  pulmonary  disease  (COPD)  will  be 
particularly at risk. 

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http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2005:0446:FIN:EN:PDF 
There are an estimated 21000 premature deaths from ozone each year in the EU, as well as over an estimated 100 
millions respiratory symptoms days, see the TSAP.  
ISAAC study (International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood), asthma prevalence in children across the 
ISAAC European study centres ranged from 5% to 20% in the period from 1999 to 2004. Allergic and asthmatic 
symptoms are associated, among other causes, 

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Ultraviolet  radiation.  Another  indirect  impact  of  climate  change  on  health  comes  from 
potentially  changing  ultraviolet  radiation.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  higher  ambient 
temperatures  will  influence  clothing  choices  and  time  spent  outdoors,  potentially  increasing 
ultraviolet  exposure  in  some  regions  (Confalonieri  et  al.,  2007).  Aspects  of  potential  UV 
threat are explored by the EUROSUN project on the quantification of sun exposure in Europe 
and its effects on health. The aim of this project, which is funded by the Community Health 
Programme, is to monitor ultraviolet exposure and its correlation with the incidence of skin 
cancers, including malignant melanoma and cataracts16.  

Mental diseases. We know already that psychological effects  following acute disasters can 
be  considerable,  especially  in  high  risk  groups  like  children.  The  multiplication  of  disasters 
due to adverse climate change conditions could therefore lead to the increase of incidence of 
people affected in this respect. 

Vulnerable groups. As already estimated in relation to the impact of heat waves, the overall 
health effects of climate change should be unevenly distributed across the regions of Europe. 
Since  health  and  well  being  are  also  strongly  related  to  socio-economic  drivers  such  as 
income, housing, employment, education, gender and lifestyle, the impacts of climate change 
should alter health inequalities within and between countries, and lead to uneven distribution 
and  additional  burdens  for  lower  income  groups  and  certain  vulnerable  groups,  such  as 
children, those working outdoors, the elderly, women and people with a pre-existing illness.  

As  an  example,  current  heat  related  mortality  has  been  shown  to  reveal  a  strong  socio-
economic  dependence.  For  some  effects,  e.g.  mortality  related  heat  and  to  air  pollution,  the 
elderly are far more vulnerable, and there may be additional factors affecting this group which 
are linked to socio-economic status. 

Increased  migration  due  to  climate  change.  The  impact  of  climate  change  on  national 
economies, availability of food and water, as well as the rise in sea levels, has as possible to 
increase the migration of the population worldwide. However, the exacerbated environmental 
conditions will predominantly impact internal and intra-regional mobility. The growing needs 
for humanitarian assistance and health protection of vulnerable groups migrating both to and 
even  within  the  EU  territory  could  require  an  enhanced  capacity  of  Member  States'  health 
systems.  

We  could  also  anticipate  an  increase  in  displaced  populations  arriving  from  non-Member 
States  to  the  EU  territory  –  which  is  a  frequent  migratory  destination  -  to  exacerbate  the 
challenge to Member States’ health systems. Providing EU support to the source countries of 
migration to deal with a potential impact of climate change and with displaced people on the 
spot  will  mitigate  a  potential  impact  of  climate  change  on  the  internal  and  intra-regional 
displacement  of  people.  These  measures  may  mitigate  or  limit  the  potential  problems  that 
Member  States  could  face.  Similarly  national  health  systems  in  the  EU  could  benefit  from 
preparedness planning to improve their capacity to deal with such challenges. 

1.3. 

Levers to improve EU capacity to react to Climate Change in relation to human 
health 

Improve Health Security 

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Moreover, since early 1980's, the European Code against Cancer recommends “to avoid excessive sun exposure,” 
supporting European Commission policies of cancer prevention. (http://www.cancercode.org/code_06.htm) 

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The Health Security Committee (HSC) was set up by the Council as an informal committee to 
address  preparedness  for  and  responses  to  major  health  threats,  such  as  CBRN  events  or 
pandemic  influenza.  It  focuses  on  three  areas,  each  assisted  by  a  section  consisting  of 
representatives of the Member States. These areas are: (1) generic preparedness and response 
for public health emergencies; (2) response to chemical, biological and radionuclear (CBRN) 
attacks, and (3) influenza preparedness and response. On the basis of the work of the HSC, the 
Commission  adopted  a  Communication  (COM  2005/605  final  of  28.11.2005)  on 
strengthening coordination of generic preparedness planning for public health emergencies at 
EU level.  

A co-ordinated response during a public health emergency requires linking the relevant health 
crisis centres at the level of Member States, Commission and EU and international agencies. 
The requirements for proper command and control include: situational awareness of casualties 
and resources, co-ordination of the response and of communications, information analysis and 
management and simulation for event-analysis and training.  

In order to be ready for any emergency or crisis, all of the abovementioned aspects have to be 
evaluated  and  tested.  Performing  specific  focussed  training  events  and  exercises  is  one  of  a 
number of instruments available for assessing the level of readiness, and for identifying the 
gaps in the preparedness of the European Union in all its components. The Commission has 
established  a  three-year  framework  contract  to  provide  the  possibility  to  test  and  improve 
preparedness  by  means  of  simulated  public  health  crises  from  scenarios  drawn  up  to  cover 
five  targeted  deliverables  (case  studies,  table-top  exercises,  command  post  exercises,  field 
exercises and specific staff training events). 

The EU Health Programme 

As a logical extension of preparedness, there will be a need for awareness of change and of 
surveillance  and  monitoring.  A  number  of  tools  are  already  available  following  the  support 
given to projects under the EU health programme, particularly in the wake of extreme weather 
events in Europe over recent years.  

Community funding of programmes has helped advance our state of knowledge of the public 
health  dimensions  of  climate  change.  The  EU  Health  Programme17  supports  projects  and 
actions to improve health information and knowledge for the development of environmental 
health  information  systems:  addressing  environmental  exposures,  urban  air  pollution  or 
monitoring of ultraviolet exposure and its effects on incidence of skin cancers and cataracts. 
Funding has been provided for:  

•  EUROHEIS:  a  European  Health  and  Environment  Information  System  for  Risk 
Assessment and Disease Mapping; Aphekom: Improving knowledge and communication 
for  decision  making  in  Air  pollution  and  Health  in  Europe),  and  EUROSUN: 
Quantification of sun exposure in Europe and its effects on health. 

In line with the Environment and Health Action Plan, the EU Health Programme contributed 
work on environment determinants with a focus on actions to develop networks and exchange 
best practices; to address indoor air quality, taking into account the combination of effects of 

17 

Public Health Programme: http://ec.europa.eu/eahc/ 

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building materials, household chemicals and thermal conditions in elderly homes; to address 
the quality of indoor air in schools. Funding was provided for example for  

•  EuroHEAT which deals with actions at different levels: from health system preparedness 
coordinated  with  meteorological  early  warning  systems  to  timely  public  and  medical 
advice and improvements to housing and urban planning 

The  actions  under  the  Health  Security  strand  focus  on  the  development  and  coordination  of 
early  warning  and  surveillance  systems  in  specific  areas  (e.g.  cold  spells,  health  effects  of 
flooding,  airborne  allergens,  ultraviolet  radiation  and  vector-borne  and  other  human  and 
animal  infectious  diseases),  in  line  with  the  Commission  Communication  on  adaptation  to 
climate  change,  including  its  health  effects  and  evaluation  of  policy  impacts.  Funding  was 
provided towards: CEHAPIS: Climate, environment and health action plan and information 
system;  EUROMOMO:  European  monitoring  of  excess  mortality  for  public  health  action; 
HIALINE: Health Impacts of Airborne Allergen Information Network; CLIMATE-TRAP: 
Climate Change Adaptation by Training, Assessment and Preparedness. 

The role of the European Centre for Disease and Control prevention (ECDC) 

One  of  the  areas  of  competence  of  the  European  Centre  for  disease  prevention  and  control, 
established by Regulation 851/2004/EC, concerns emerging health threats.  

Within its terms of reference, the ECDC has thoroughly investigated the topic of impacts on 
health  caused  by  climate  change.  On  28-29  May  2008,  the  ECDC  hosted  an  international 
workshop  on  linking  environmental  and  infectious  diseases  data  in  Sigtuna,  Sweden.  The 
ECDC  then  went  on  to  develop  a  comprehensive  feasibility  study  for  a  European 
Environment  and  Epidemiology  Network  (the  E3  network)  in  conjunction  with  external 
consultants.  

By connecting these sources of information, the E3 network should bolster European early 
warning  for  climate-related  disease  events.  It  should  also  enable  forecasting  and  risk 
mapping of infectious disease incidence in relation to environmental changes.  

In addition to exploring the possibilities of the E3 network, ECDC has launched several other 
projects focusing on the impacts of climate change on the spread of communicable diseases.  

In  2007,  ECDC  commissioned  a  large-scale  project  aimed  at  assessing  the  magnitude  and 
significance  of  vector-borne  diseases  in  Europe.  Climate  change,  as  one  of  many  drivers  of 
vector-borne diseases,  was  a variable considered in the project. Key output of the project is 
identification  of  priority  of  vector-borne  diseases  for  Europe,  based  on  the  likelihood  of 
occurrence and the potential human health impacts.  

ECDC is building upon the findings of the vector-borne project by focusing in more detail on 
specific priority diseases. One project that has already been launched will develop risk maps 
for  Dengue18  in  the  EU,  based  on  a  range  of  variables  that  includes  climate  change 
projections.  

18 

Dengue fever is a virus-based disease spread by mosquitoes. It is caused by several related viruses (four 
different  arboviruses),  and  is  spread  by  the  bite  of  mosquitoes,  most  commonly  the  mosquito  Aedes 
aegypti, which found in tropic and subtropic regions. 

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Meanwhile,  ECDC  has  also  commissioned  a  comprehensive  risk  assessment  specifically 
focusing on the impact of climate change on food- and water-related diseases in the EU. 
The goals for this project are to identify, assess and help prioritise the anticipated short- and 
long-term impacts of climate change on the patterns of transmission of food- and water-borne 
diseases, including salmonellosis, listeriosis, cryptosporidiosis and campylobacteriosis. Using 
the findings from this project, which are due towards the end of 2009, the next phase of the 
project  will  be  to  develop  tools  for  Member  States  to  facilitate  their  own  similar  risk 
assessments in this field. 

ECDC  has  also  launched  a  project  to  develop  tool  kits  for  Member  States  on  how  to 
conduct  vulnerability  and  adaptation  assessments  related  to  climate  change  and 
communicable  diseases.  These  tool  kits  will  provide  Member  States  with  scientifically 
robust  methodologies  and  decision-making  algorithms  for  conducting  vulnerability 
assessments  and  developing  adaptation  strategies  focused  on  mitigating  the  transmission  of 
communicable diseases. 

During  2009,  ECDC  will  be  cooperating  with  the  Swedish  Presidency  of  the  EU  to  help 
organise a workshop focused on zoonoses and climate change. The workshop is scheduled to 
take place on 2/3 July 2009 in Jönköping, Sweden. 

The Community Statistical Programme 

The  European  Health  Interview  Survey  (EHIS)  –  of  which  the  first  wave  is  now  being 
implemented  in  the  European  Statistical  System  (ESS)  -  is  monitoring  health  including 
environment related variables as part of Eurostat's data collections on health status and health 
determinants.  The  implementation  of  the  new  Regulation  1338/2008  of  the  European 
Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for Community statistics in on public 
health  and  on  health  and  safety  at  work,  will  be  key  for  a  sustainable  health  monitoring 
system, which will inter alia include data on human health in relation to climate change.  

The role of the EU Framework Programmes for Research 

The fifth Framework Programmes for research have provided support to a number of projects 
in  the  field  of  climate  change,  such  as  the  PHEWE  project  (Assessment  and  Prevention  of 
acute  Health  Effects  of  Weather  Conditions  in  Europe)  and  cCASHh  (Climate  Change  and 
Adaptation Strategies for Human Health in Europe). 

In the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6), the major projects relevant for the climate change 
effects  on  health  are  EDEN  and  MICRODIS.  The  EDEN  project  (Emerging  Diseases  in  a 
Changing  European  Environment)  is  studying  how  changes  in  European  environment  and 
ecosystems,  whether  caused  by  altered  human  activity  patterns  or  changes  in  climate,  can 
influence the spatial and temporal distribution and dynamics of human pathogenic agents. The 
MICRODIS  project  (Integrated  Health,  Social  and  Economic  Impacts  of  Extreme  Events: 
Evidence, Methods and Tools) aims to build-up the scientific and empirical foundation on the 
relationship between extreme events and their health, social and economic impacts19.  

Additional  FP6  projects  addressing  to  some  extent  health  effects  of  climate  change  include 
GAL2EN  (Global  allergy  and  asthma  European  network),  INTARESE  (Integrated 

19 

http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/pdf/eur23460_en.pdf 

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assessment  of  health  risks  from  environmental  stressors  in  Europe)  and  CIRCE  (Climate 
change and impact research: the Mediterranean environment)19. 

in  contaminant  cycling)  and  CLEAR 

Under  the  ongoing  Seventh  Framework  Programme  for  Research  (FP7),  two  projects, 
ARCRISK  (Arctic  Health  Risks:  Impacts  on  health  in  the  Arctic  and  Europe  owing  to 
climate-induced  changes 
(Climate  change, 
environmental contaminants and reproductive health) examining the health risks resulting for 
Arctic populations from climate change induced changes in the distribution of environmental 
pollutants have been launched in 200920. A project on the health effects of changing surface 
UV radiation levels (ICEPURE, Quantification of changing surface UV radiation levels and 
its  impact  on  human  health)  started  this  year  as  well21.  Finally,  the  integrated  project 
ESCAPE  (European  Study  of  Cohorts  for  Air  Pollution  Effects22)  looking  at  air  pollution 
effects on European populations, taking into account also climate change, was funded. 

Starting from the third FP7 call for proposals, the Environment and Health sub-activity under 
the Cooperation programme includes a funding area on the Health impacts of climate change. 
Topics  presented  in  the  third  call  for  proposals  deal  with  climate  change  and  water-related 
health issues and with the quantification of climate change impacts on health in low income 
developing  countries.  Other  relevant  projects  addressing  climate  change  issues,  are 
EUROSUN, PHEWE and cCASH23. 

International cooperation, EU Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy 

Cooperation  is  necessary  with  international  organisations  and  with  the  priority  partner 
countries at global level as well as with the Enlargement and ENP countries at the European 
and regional levels, and to invite the neighbouring countries to participate in joint actions and 
encourage them to undertake the necessary work and measures, including the development of 
national strategies.  

20 
21 
22 
23 

ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp7/environment/docs/catalogue_projects_2008.pdf 
ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp7/environment/docs/catalogue-projects-fp7envnmp_en.pdf 
http://www.escapeproject.eu/index.php 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/themes/projects_en.htm#2 

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2. 

ANIMAL HEALTH 

2.1. 

Direct and indirect impacts of climate change on animal health 

Recent  evolutions  have  indicated  that  climate  change  has  already  had  an  impact  on  animal 
disease occurrence, which is twofold:  
Non-statutory  diseases  i.e.  those  not  subject  to  EU  veterinary  legislation,  which  affect  the 
animals'  living  conditions  and  are  conducive  to  pathologies  such  as  parasitic  diseases  (e.g. 
infestation/affection by nematodes and taenia), nutritional disorders, sunstroke or dehydration 
which  can  be  very  important  for  the  farmers'  economic  situation,  while  the  official  animal 
health status for contagious infectious diseases remains unchanged. 
Statutory  diseases  i.e.  those  covered  by  international  and  EU  veterinary  legislation,  which 
influence the risk of occurrence of serious transmissible infectious animal diseases especially 
vector-transmitted  diseases,  diseases  dependent  on  specific  weather  conditions  and  those 
transmitted by wildlife. These diseases are relevant in determining the animal health status of 
a  country.  This  includes  a  number  of  vector-borne  diseases  such  as  Rift  Valley  Fever, 
Bluetongue,  African  Horse  Sickness,  African  swine  fever  and  West  Nile  Fever  and  most 
importantly  Bluetongue  with  its  emergence  in  the  summer  of  2006  in  the  Netherlands  and 
current  persistence  and  spread  up  to  Sweden  which  is  much  further  north  outside  the 
previously known range of virus distribution. 
The  dynamics  of  non  vector-borne  diseases  such  as  infections  with  avian  influenza,  may 
also  be  influenced  by  changes  to  migratory  routes  of  wild  waterfowl.  The  EU  has  already 
experienced during early 2006 that very cold weather in some areas causing feed scarcity and 
unusual freezing of open waters forced wild waterfowl to change their flyways which has led 
to  the  introduction  of  highly  pathogenic  avian  influenza  of  the  H5N1  subtype  into  the  EU. 
Some  wild  bird  species  have  already  decreased  their  range  of  migration,  which  could  also 
contribute to the spread of certain infectious fish diseases to new areas. Virus persistence in 
the environment including in water may also be influenced by changes in temperature.  
Wildlife plays an important role in transmission of animal diseases such as avian influenza, 
rabies,  classical  swine  fever  and  tuberculosis.  Reduced  water  availability  will  lead  to 
increased  congregation  of  animals  and  be  conducive  to  conditions  for  the  persistent 
circulation of pathogens. 

2.2. 

Levers to improve EU capacity to react to Climate Change in relation to animal 
health 

The role of the Community Animal Health Strategy24 

Given  that  prevention  rather  than  reacting  to  animal  diseases  is  the  focus  of  the  new 
Community Animal Health Policy, it also aims at considering the clear influences of climate 
change on animal health.  

The  Strategy's  Action  Plan  provides  for  enhanced  data  gathering,  data  exchange  and  the 
strengthening  of  existing  animal  disease  surveillance  systems.  The  development  of  a  new 
Animal  Disease  Information  System  (ADIS)  will  provide  better  and  more  comparable 
epidemiological data to risk managers, enabling them to better identify, evaluate and respond 
to changing or emerging disease situations.  

24 

Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions COM 539 (2007) 539.).  

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A task force of epidemiological experts on animal disease surveillance (TFADS) has been 
set  up  by  the  Commission  to  advise  on  improvements  to  current  EU  systems  for  animal 
disease surveillance and on new surveillance strategies, e.g. for West Nile Fever. In order to 
evaluate  the  risks  of  the  occurrence  of  vector-borne  diseases  that  are  heavily  influenced  by 
weather  conditions  and  climate  change,  weather  forecasting  and  analysis  will  need  to  be 
included in the early warning systems.  

For  the  establishment  of  further  vaccine  banks  for  certain  infectious  animal  diseases  to 
ensure better preparedness, the Commission has recently set up a task force to provide expert 
advise  on  this  matter.  Disease  surveillance  must  be  combined  with  a  network  of  expert 
laboratories with the appropriate diagnostic capabilities to carry out testing for still exotic or 
rare  diseases,  e.g.  Rift  Valley  Fever.  For  some  diseases  it  will  be  necessary  to  further 
strengthen  collaboration  with  laboratory  experts  in  third  countries  that  have  specific 
experience  of  the  disease  concerned  and  to  mobilise  and  coordinate  scientific  resources 
throughout the EU in order to provide scientific advice within the remit of EFSA in the area 
of Animal Health. 

An  integrated  approach  to  epidemiological,  entomological  and  environmental  data 
collection  and  analysis  is  crucial  to  maximise  synergy  and  to  avoid  duplication.  There  are 
also  plans  to  mainstream  human  and  animal  health  disease  surveillance  activities  through 
enhanced co-operation and exchange of knowledge.  

Enhancing Animal Disease Awareness and Preparedness 

As part of the contingency plans for certain infectious animal diseases Member States must 
ensure  awareness  and  preparedness.  These  plans  must  contain  pre-prepared  information  for 
farmers,  veterinarians,  related  sectors  and  the  general  public,  including  descriptions  of  the 
diseases,  preventive  measures  and  practical  control  measures.  Veterinary  legislation  further 
requires that simulation exercises be carried out regularly. 

Early detection of and response to a changing picture of diseases is a key element within 
the  Community  Animal  Health  Strategy  to  ensure  disease  awareness  and  preparedness. 
Farmers, veterinarians, slaughterhouse staff, pet shop owners, private pet keepers (including 
those  keeping  exotic  animals)  and  others  that  handle  animals  must  be  able  to  notice  even 
slight changes in the animals' behaviour and production data.  

Clear  communication  with  stakeholders  is  crucial  to  make  all  those  dealing  with  animals 
aware  of  their  responsibility  within  the  overall  context  of  animal  health,  food  safety  and 
human health which together form the concept of "One World – One Health". Sensitivity to 
climate  change  is  an  aspect  that  has  to  be  considered  as  a  priority  in  the  exercise  of 
categorising animal health risks of relevance for EU intervention. 

Response to animal health crises 

A  longstanding  capacity  to  react  to  animal  health  crises  already  exists  in  the  Commission 
based on crisis preparedness, rapid exchange of information and close collaboration with the 
veterinary  authorities  of  the  Member  States  to  swiftly  respond  and  manage  animal  health 
crises. . It has proved effective in mitigating the impact of outbreaks of contagious diseases on 
animal and human health (e.g. highly pathogenic avian influenza of the H5N1 subtype). The 
scope of these measures can be extended to include other emerging diseases. 

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The role of research in the area of animal health and adaptation to climate change 

The  Framework  Programmes  have  provided  support  for  a  considerable  number  of  projects 
relevant to animal health policy and of particular interest with regard to climate change and 
the areas of actions.  

In the 7th Framework Programme, the animal health research is reinforced and focused to take 
into account the changes which are rapidly occurring at global level including especially with 
regard to climate change affecting directly the ecology and evolution of the infectious agents, 
their vectors and hosts giving rise to emerging and re-emerging threats.  

For  instance,  the  projects  ASFRISK  (Evaluating  and  controlling  the  risk  of  African  swine 
fever  in  the  EU)  and  ARBOZOONET  (International  network  for  capacity  building  for  the 
control of emerging viral vector borne zoonotic diseases) which are currently ongoing under 
the 7th Framework Programme can also contribute significantly in the work of the adaptation 
ot climate change with regard to animal health. 

3. 

PLANT HEALTH 

3.1. 

Direct and indirect impacts of climate change on plant health 

It  is  expected  that  global  warming  will  affect  cropping  systems,  plant  breeding  and  natural 
vegetation such as forests, meadows and woodland, because climate is the main determinant 
of  their  geographical  distribution.  Currently  the  pressure  on  agriculture  and  forestry  from 
insect pests and insect-borne diseases is less at higher latitudes, owing to the less favourable 
climatic  conditions.  In  the  northern  geographical  regions  the  problems  from  both  non-
quarantine and quarantine pests are considered to be fewer than those observed in the south. 

Along with trade, which is considered to be the main pathway for the introduction of harmful 
organisms and invasive species, global warming plays a complementary role being the other 
important  “driver  of  change”  affecting  both  the  incidence  and  severity  of  plant  diseases. 
Overall, it can have certain adverse economic consequences on crop production by imposing 
additional costs on agricultural inputs like e.g. crop protection. 

A  considerable  effect  on  pathways  of  exotic  pest  introduction  in  new  geographic  regions  is 
anticipated: as climatic conditions become more favourable, new or migrant plant pests may 
become established and more widespread in areas that were previously considered being pest-
free.  An  example  is  that  of  pine  wood  nematode  Bursaphelenchus  xylophilus  currently 
causing great damage in Portugal. The nematode is a considerable threat for the northern areas 
in  the  EU  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  if  the  average  temperature  increases  above  20ºC 
during July or August, a mortality of 50-90 % of conifers should be expected. 

Depending  on  the  geographical  region,  variation  in  temperature  range  and  changes  in 
precipitation  patterns  can  result  in  prolonged  and/or  more  frequent  droughts  or  flooding. 
Indigenous  plants  will  be  subjected  to  greater  environmental  stress  and  will  become  more 
vulnerable  to  pests  and  diseases.  In  principle,  fungal  and  bacterial  pathogen  outbreaks  are 
expected to increase both in number and in terms  of the  severity of outbreaks in areas with 

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increased rainfall25. However, warmer summers may also favour certain thermophilic fungi. 

High  temperatures  in  winter  and  spring  will  prolong  the  vegetation  period  by  altering  the 
growth cycles of host plants and reducing their tolerance. More generations of insects will be 
seen  per  growing  season.  Both  the  insect  population  and  the  amount  of  fungi  inoculum 
surviving during the winter period will increase, resulting in more infection foci in the next 
cropping  season.  Additional  data  show  that,  during  warm  summers,  certain  insect  species 
have extended their geographic range further northward. It will become increasingly difficult 
to  produce  virus-free  propagating  material  stocks,  such  as  seed  potatoes,  even  at  northern 
latitudes because warmer winters will favour the survival of aphid  species and facilitate the 
spread  of  virus  diseases  during  the  summer.  In  addition,  higher  winter  temperatures  and 
longer water-logging periods will create favourable conditions for the development of root rot 
and blight. 

On  the  other  hand,  high  CO2  concentrations  in  the  atmosphere,  along  with  the  rise  in 
temperature,  could  possibly  result  to  an  increase  of  the  produced  biomass  overall  affecting 
crop yields. Partial melting of the ice and the permafrost (the layer of permanent ice under the 
surface)  may  lead  to  a  reduction  of  the  arctic  tundra  and  to  the  expansion  of  forests 
northwards. Other plants, including new crop species and varieties, might find more suitable 
growing  conditions  and  the  tendency  for  cereal  production  at  mid-to-high  latitudes  will 
increase. 

Hence, it would be reasonable to assume that most insect pests have the potential to become 
more damaging due  to  global  warming. It is also  likely  that  the  pests’  natural  enemies  may 
increase, making the overall effect less predictable. This is because in many cases there is a 
fine balance between pests/diseases, their natural enemies and their host plants. 

Regarding  plant  health,  it  is  recognised  that  the  recent  rapid  increase  in  agriculture  (e.g. 
Western  corn  rootworm  Diabrotica  virgifera  virgifera),  forestry  and  public  green  sites  (e.g. 
Pinewood  nematode  Bursaphelenchus  xylophilus,  Pitch  canker  Gibberella  circinata  and  Red 
palm  weevil  Rhynchophorus  ferrugineus)  pest  incursions,  into  the  EU  necessitates  the 
establishment of closer links between plant health and environmental policy.  

3.2. 

Levers to improve EU capacity to react to Climate Change in relation to plant 
health 

The existing legislative tool of the Community Council Directive 2000/29/EC along with the 
Commission  Decisions  providing  for  emergency  measures  consist  the  frontline  of  defence 
against  the  introduction  into  and  spread  within  the  Community  of  quarantine  harmful 
organisms.  According  to  this  legislation,  Member  States  notify  new  outbreaks  of  already 
existing but not yet established harmful organisms. In addition, they provide for plant health 
controls to be carried out at the Community points of entry or points of destination, as well as 
for the detection of newly appearing plant pests.  

The Commission has already in place a system for the control, inspection and evaluation of 
the  situation,  using  as  main  tool  the  EUROPHYT,  the  EU  database  of  intercepted 
consignments and harmful organisms (the plant health equivalent of the Rapid Alert System 
for  Food  and  Feed  (RASFF)).  A  network  of  experts  of  the  National  Plant  Protection 

25 

http://www.foresight.gov.uk/Infectious%20Diseases/t7_2a.pdf 

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Organisations, meets monthly at the relevant regulatory committee to discuss the situation and 
to  decide  on  the  management  of  the  phytosanitary  risk  deriving  from  recent  or  earlier 
outbreaks  of  quarantine  harmful  organisms.  A  plant  health  panel  within  the  European  Food 
Safety Authority can provide scientific justification or assessment of pest risks. 

The role of Research 

The EU is maintaining a constant effort on plant health research within successive Framework 
Programmes  for  Research.  In  the  6th  and  7th  Framework  Programmes,  about  25  research 
projects  are  directly  or  indirectly  supporting  the  Community  plant  health  regime  and  plant 
protection  in  general.  These  research  projects  are  tackling  plant  health  issues  following 
different angles such as the use of biocontrol agents, containment measures, plant resistance, 
sustainable use of plant protection products or more integrated approaches such as Integrated 
Pest Management (IPM). 

Some of them are world leaders in their field such as ENDURE (European Network for the 
Durable  Exploitation  of  Crop  Protection  Strategies)  or  BIOEXPLOIT  (Exploitation  of 
Natural  Plant  Biodiversity  for  the  Pesticide-Free  Production  of  Food).  EUPHRESCO  is  a 
successful  so  called  ERA-NET,  aiming  at  coordinating  and  integrating  different  national 
European phytosanitary research programmes.  

The  intention  is  to  maintain  this  research  effort  in  response  to  needs  arising  from 
globalisation, climate change and other drivers, in concertation between European institutions 
and services, national authorities, the research community and other stakeholders. 

4. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The White Paper on "Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action" 
suggests  increasing  the  resilience  of  health  and  social  systems  and  underlines  the  need  to 
ensure  adequate  surveillance  and  control  of  the  health  impacts  of  climate  change,  such  as 
epidemiological  surveillance  and  the  control  of  communicable  diseases  or  the  effects  of 
extreme events. In order to implement the actions foreseen in the Paper, the following steps 
for the health side will need to be given priority through the EU Health Programme, through 
the  Community  Animal  Health  Strategy  and  through  existing  legislation  on  Communicable 
Diseases, animal disease control and on plant health, and through the work plans of relevant 
agencies:  

•  Development of guidance on surveillance, which will have to be matched by support for 
implementation  and  capacity  development,  such  as  microbiological  support  for  food 
hazards  detection  and  entomological  knowledge  and  capacity  It  is  expected  that  this 
guidance will eb praped by 2011. 

•  Development of extreme weather health action plans will need to be integrated into the 
preparedness  planning  of  health  authorities  and  services  in  order  to  help  Member  States 
assess  their  health-related  vulnerabilities  to  climate  change  and  develop  health-related 
adaptation strategies. 

•  Strengthening of close co-operation between human animal and plant health services 
in the Commission and Member States and enhancing in particular surveillance which will 
need  to  be  further  linked  with  knowledge  and  intelligence  bases,  such  as  meteorological 

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monitoring, entomological data, water quality records, air quality measures, remote sensing 
information,  geology,  population  density  and  many  other  information  sources  across 
Europe;  the  value  of  such  information  has  been  amply  demonstrated  by  the  European 
Environment and Epidemiology network. 

•  Reinforcing capacity to develop the modelling of health effects as a function of extreme 
weather and obtaining the data to define the needs for improved forecasting heat waves. 

•  Reinforcement  of  public  health  policies  and  training,  including  effective  surveillance 
and emergency response systems, and sustainable prevention and control programmes.  

•  Assessment of the effects of climate change on vulnerable social groups. 

•  Further efforts towards identifying efficient health measures and public health response, 
including the strengthening of emergency medical services, early warning, education and 
outreach  to  vulnerable  population  groups,  and  better  accessibility  to  key  determinants  of 
health, such as clean water, energy and sanitation. This aspect will be included in the work 
on Health Inequality, which is currently being developed. 

•  International collaboration, in particular with agencies and international bodies such as 
the WHO, OIE and FAO, are an important dimension, as pointed out in the White Paper. 
Further work lies ahead, including: 

•  Cooperating with the WHO and within the WHO Framework for Action in the European 
Region  and  the  WHA  resolution  on  climate  change  and  health  complements  the  WHO 
actions within the territory of the EU. 

•  Better  integrating  of  surveillance  networks  for  animal  diseases  by  enhancing  co-
operation  with  neighbouring  countries  into  a  wider  context,  such  as  in  the  framework  of 
the Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). Cooperation with third countries, in particular with the 
priority  partner  countries  at  the  global  level  as  well  as  with  Enlargement  and  ENP 
countries  at  the  European  and  regional  levels.  Further  promotion  of  climate  change 
preparedness  assessments  as  an  integral  part  of  security  assessments  can  be  achieved  by 
actively encouraging the neighbouring countries to conduct joint actions, and to undertake 
the necessary work and measures, including the development of national strategies.  

•  Stepping  up  animal  disease  surveillance  and  control by fostering  preventive measures 
as  already  envisaged  by  the  Community  Animal  Health  Strategy  and  improved  data 
collection  by  means  of  the  Animal  Disease  Information  System  (ADIS).  It  will  provide 
more detailed information on outbreaks of animal diseases in Member States and be better 
aligned  with  international  disease  reporting  systems,  such  as  WAHIS  (World  Animal 
Health  Information  System)  of  the  OIE  (World  Organisation  for  Animal  Health)  and  the 
Crisis Management Centre (CMC) and the Global Early Warning System (GLEWS). 

•  Better integrating the Commission's work into the broader context of surveillance networks 
for animal diseases by enhancing co-operation with neighbouring countries, such as via 
the Euro-Mediterranean Union and the ENP and within the frame of GF-TADS, the Global 
Framework for the Progressive Control of Transboundary Diseases, established by the 
OIE and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). 

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•  Further  aiming  at  ensuring  a  co-ordinated  approach  in  responding  to  animal  disease 
implementation  by  Member  States  of  contingency  plans, 
outbreaks  by  proper 
preparedness, surveillance and preventive measures; the broad harmonisation of legislation 
on  control  measures  and  trade  rules  in  relation  to  various  infectious  diseases  -  including 
those which may be impacted by climate change - allows for extensive Community action. 

•  Continuing  to  provide  as  appropriate,  co-financing  for  surveillance,  eradication  and 
emergency  vaccination  depending  on  the  disease  situation.  The  Commission  is  already 
strengthening  its  existing  surveillance  and  early  detection  systems  in  collaboration  with 
Member States and expert groups in particular with respect to vector-borne diseases, which 
are now either becoming more widespread or are appearing in previously unaffected areas 
of the EU territory. 

•  As  with  human  and  animal  health,  the  uncertainty  of  global  warming  effects  on  crop 
production and forestry presupposes the need for a reliable evaluation of the associated 
risks  for  new  introductions  of  quarantine  harmful  organisms,  since  any  adverse 
consequences may affect not only food and feed safety, but also food security26. 

•  Establish closer links between plant health and environmental policy. Additional to the 
protection  of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  the  EU  is  expected  to  safeguard  the  health  of 
ecosystems,  natural  habitats,  forests  and  the  European  landscape  against  foreign  harmful 
organisms. 

•  The  evaluation  of  the  existing  Community  Plant  Health  legislative  framework  will 
consider  how  better preparedness can be  achieved for tackling new challenges, including 
the consequences of climate change.  

With  the  targeted  Community  policies  in  place  and  by  means  of  the  review  and,  where 
necessary,  the  updating  of  relevant  EU  legislation,  the  health  sector  will  be  equipped  to 
integrate within the proposed European framework for action. 

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