Commission staff working document accompanying the White paper - Adapting to climate change : towards a European framework for action Climate Change and Water, Coasts and Marine Issues {COM(2009) 147 final} {SEC(2009) 387} {SEC(2009) 388}
Date: 2009-04-01
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: climate change, demography, environmental protection, quality of the environment, water management, water pollution

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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 1.4.2009 
SEC(2009) 386 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

accompanying the  

WHITE PAPER 

Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action 

Climate Change and Water, Coasts and Marine Issues 

{COM(2009) 147 final} 
{SEC(2009) 387} 
{SEC(2009) 388} 

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COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Climate Change and Water, Coasts and Marine Issues 

1. 

Introduction 

Over the coming decades, climate change will have a significant impact on the quantity and 
quality  of water resources  both  within Europe and globally. Water is essential to life and is 
central to society’s welfare and to sustainable economic growth. Plants, animals, natural and 
managed ecosystems, and human settlements are sensitive to variations in the storage, fluxes, 
and quality of water and will be affected by climate change. 

Climate change is projected to lead to major changes in water availability across Europe with 
increasing water scarcity mainly in southern Europe and increasing risk of floods throughout 
most of the continent. At least 11% of the European population and 17% of its territory have 
been  affected  by  water  scarcity  to  date.  Recent  trends  show  a  significant  increase  in  water 
scarcity across Europe. 

Since 1998 floods in Europe have caused some 700 deaths, the displacement of about half a 
million people and at least €25 billion in insured economic losses. Climate change is expected 
to  increase  the  amount  of  EU  territory  exposed  to  water  scarcity  as  it  aggravates  existing 
pressures on water resources from, inter alia, pollution, overuse and population increase. 

The higher water temperatures and extreme weather events such as flooding and droughts will 
also impact upon water quality and exacerbate existing problems of pollution. 

These  anticipated  changes  to  water  quantity  and  quality  will  have  a  wide  impact,  and  will 
significantly affect key socio-economic activities across a range of sectors. Biodiversity and 
ecosystems in large parts of Europe will also be affected. 

Successful adaptation to the impacts of climate change on water will therefore depend not just 
on effective national and European water regulations, but also on the extent to which water 
management  can  be  integrated  into  other  sectoral  policies  such  as  agriculture  and  energy 
policies. 

The oceans and seas, and Europe's coastline will also be strongly affected by climate change. 
Such impacts will in turn intensify impacts on water. Moreover, the ocean is responsible for 
our  hydrologic  cycles  and  also  plays  a  significant  role  in  regulating  global  and  regional 
climate and moderating weather systems around the world. This is particularly the case for the 
climate  in  Europe  which  has  one  of  the  longest  coastlines  in  the  world  and  is  thus  strongly 
influenced by the oceans and seas.  

Changes in the climate will mean sea level rise, increases in coastal flooding, storm intensity, 
and potentially changing current patterns, which in turn could further contribute to changes in 
climate.  Thus,  sea  warming  may  result  in  increased  stratification  and  changed  circulation 
patterns  of  ocean  currents,  decrease  the  amount  of  sea  ice,  increase  coral  bleaching  and 
mortality,  and  may  result  in  pole-ward  migrations  of  species  and  increased  algal  blooms. 
Ocean  acidification  will  pose  adverse  effects  on  calcifying  species  such  as  corals, 
echinoderms and crustaceans. 

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Since the sea knows no frontiers, adaptation to climate impacts will require co-ordination on 
transboundary  issues  and  a  comprehensive  and  integrated  approach  to  coastal  and  marine 
areas  in  the  implementation  of  national  and  European  sectoral  policies  having  an  impact  in 
these areas.  

This  paper  expands  on  the  water  and  marine  issues  highlighted  in  the  White  Paper, 
summarising the main impacts of climate change on water and related policies and identifying 
the measures in place to facilitate adaptation.  

2. 

Impact 

The evidence base on the impact of climate change on water is increasing. The IPCC recently 
published  a  technical  report  relating  to  climate  change  and  water1  which  pointed  to  the 
abundant  evidence  from  observational  records  and  climate  projections  that  freshwater 
resources  are  vulnerable  and  have  the  potential  to  be  strongly  impacted  by  climate  change, 
with wide-ranging consequences for human societies and ecosystems.  

As  well  as  physical  impacts  such  as  the  loss  of water-dependent habitats, there will  also be 
significant  economic  impacts  particularly  in  water-dependent  economic  sectors  and  social 
impacts resulting from the loss of provision.  

In  coastal  and  marine  areas,  further  to  physical  impacts  such  as  sea-level  rise,  coastal 
flooding,  increase  in  severe  weather,  acidification,  warmer  water  and  declines  in  wetland 
areas,  changes  in  currents  and  ice  cover  and  salt  water  intrusion  into  agricultural  soils, 
affecting  marine  and  coastal  ecosystems,  including  abundance  and  distribution  patterns  of 
species  from  plankton  to  predators,  there  are  also  considerable  negative  economic  impacts. 
This is the case in fisheries, aquaculture, coastal tourism and agriculture, harbours or in key 
coastal  and  marine  infrastructures,  such  as  ports  and  in  shipping,  with  a  potential  overall 
growth  impediment  to  the  economy  in  coastal  regions  and  islands,  due  to  the  costs  of 
insurance and unwillingness of investors to place assets in affected areas.  

Key impacts on water and coastal and marine areas include: 

•  The  natural  environment  (i.e.  ecosystems,  biodiversity  and  soil).  Projected  changes  in 
precipitation patterns will affect soil formation and functions. Soil as part of the soil-water-
plant  system  is  vital  for  land  and  water  management.  Soil  organic  matter  drives  the 
majority of soil functions. Any reduction can lead to a decrease in fertility and biodiversity, 
a loss of soil structure, reduced water retention capacity and increased risk of erosion. 

•  Marine  ecosystems  and  biodiversity,  already  under  pressure  from  pollution  and 
overfishing,  will  be  affected  by  warmer  temperatures  and  acidification,  with  changes  in 
species reproduction, feeding and with changes in distributions of marine organisms, more 
frequent  algae  blooms  and  shifts  in  plankton  communities.  Relevant  marine  and  coastal 
ecosystems services may also be lost with coastal wetlands disappearing.  

•  Agriculture and Forestry - agriculture is highly sensitive to climate variability and weather 
extremes, changes in rainfall can affect soil erosion rates and soil moisture, both of which 

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http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tp-climate-change-water.htm 

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are important for crop yields. Forests have an important role in protecting water and soil 
resources. 

•  Fisheries and aquaculture – sea-level rise, glacier melting, ocean acidification and changes 
in  precipitation,  groundwater  and  river  flows  will  affect  wetlands,  rivers,  lakes  and 
estuaries  significantly,  as  well  as  coastal  and  offshore  waters  and  a  range  of  sensitive 
marine habitats such as coral reefs. Such changes will require adaptive measures in order 
to  exploit  opportunities  and  to  minimise  negative  impacts  on  fisheries  and  aquaculture 
systems. 

•  Health  -  the  impact  of  climate  change  on  water  quality  and  quantity  is  also  expected  to 
increase  the  risk  of  contamination  of  public  water  supplies.  Both  extreme  rainfall  and 
droughts  can  increase  the  total  microbial  loads  in  freshwater  and  have  implications  for 
disease outbreaks and water-quality monitoring. 

•  Energy - the production of electricity is strongly dependent on water, for cooling in power 
plants,  hydropower  or  the  production  of  biomass.  Changes  in  water  resources  will  have 
impacts  on  many  types  of  electricity  production,  and  may  become  a  further  threat  to  the 
reliability of electricity supply in the future.  

•  Infrastructure and building - intense precipitation events, increased flood risk, and sea level 
rise may increase the risk of infrastructure damage. The greatest impact on transportation 
systems  will  be  flooding  of  roads,  railways  and  transit  systems.  Critical  coastal 
infrastructure, communities situated close to the coast as well as sea ports will be exposed 
to  coastal  flooding,  and  storms  may  provoke  impacts  on  maritime  transport  and  related 
infrastructure. 

•  Tourism - problems of water supply are becoming increasingly common in Europe's tourist 
areas. The island of Cyprus for example has suffered from a chronic shortage of water for a 
number of  years  where rising  demand  and dwindling  rainfall  has  put  pressure  on  limited 
water  resources.  Coastal  tourism  will  also  be  affected  as  a  consequence  of  accelerated 
coastal erosion and changes in the marine environment and marine water quality, with less 
fish and more frequent jelly fish and algae blooms. 

•  Water supply and sanitation services - climate change affects the function and operation of 
existing  water  infrastructure,  including  hydropower,  structural  flood  defences,  drainage 
and irrigation systems, as well as water management practices.  

Although there is clear evidence that climate change will have a significant impact on water 
quantity  and  quality,  further  research  is  needed  in  order  to  ensure  that  proper  decisions  on 
adaptation  can  be  taken.  In  particular,  the  IPCC  report  identified  the  need  to  improve 
understanding and modelling of climate changes related to the hydrological cycle and of the 
water-related  impacts  of  climate  change  (especially  with  respect  to  water  quality,  aquatic 
ecosystems and groundwater) including their socio-economic dimensions as well as the need 
to develop better tools to facilitate integrated appraisals of adaptation and mitigation options 
across multiple water-dependent sectors. Understanding how activities that depend on climate 
(energy  consumption,  agriculture  production)  will  change  in  the  future  requires  a  better 
understanding  of  ocean  dynamics  and  of  their  role  in  accentuating  or  mitigating  climate 
change. 

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3. 

Measures to facilitate adaptation 

Adapting  to  these  challenges  created  or  aggravated  by  climate  change  will  require  an 
integrated approach to both water management and to the management of marine and coastal 
zones, including measures to mainstream adaptation into sectoral policies.  

A number of existing EU polices can facilitate adaptation efforts and optimum use should be 
made  of  this  legislation.  The  short-term  adaptation  measures  in  relation  to  water  should 
therefore  focus  on  ensuring  that  adaptation  is  fully  integrated  into  the  implementation  of 
existing  EU  water  legislation  and  policies,  in  particular,  the  development  of  river  basin 
management  plans  under  the  Water  Framework  Directive  as  well  as  assessing  the  need  for 
further  measures  to  enhance  the  efficiency  of  water  use  and  exploring  the  potential  for 
policies and measures to boost ecosystem storage capacity for water in Europe. 

Similarly for coastal and marine areas, adaptation should be integrated into key policies and 
legislation,  including  the  EU  Integrated  Maritime  Policy  and  its  environmental  pillar:  the 
Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive.  The  Recommendation  concerning  Integrated  Coastal 
Zone  Management  in  Europe  and  the  newly  reformed  Common  Fisheries  Policy  will  also 
have to factor in and address adaptation as a priority. 

The uncertain nature of the impact of climate change on water requires a comprehensive and 
continuing  consideration  of  adaptation  options  including  both  demand  and  supply-side 
measures as well as man-made (or engineered) solutions, behavioural changes and solutions 
provided by the natural environment. 

The  cross-regional  and  trans-border  nature  of  river  basins  can  have  a  serious  cross-border 
impact on upstream and downstream regions. It is thus indispensable that Member States, as 
well  as  regional  and  local  authorities  cooperate  on  water  management  and  ensuring 
sustainable  and  fair  use  of  water  resources.  Indeed  the  specific  nature  of  the  issue  requires 
coordinated action across all levels (EU, Member State, regional and local). 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  role  of  green  infrastructure.  Healthy  ecosystems 
preserve biodiversity and provide many valuable services such as the storage of water which 
in turn increase drought resilience. Green Infrastructure can play a crucial role in adaptation: 
protected  watersheds  decrease  the  need  for  man-made  water  treatment  facilities;  reforested 
slopes  help  control  flooding  events  and  landslides;  protected  waterways  can  prevent  soil 
erosion, improve water quality, and provide wildlife habitat corridors.  

3.1 Integration of adaptation into the implementation of water legislation 

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) came into force in December 2000 and establishes 
a  new  legal  framework  for  the  protection,  improvement  and  sustainable  use  of  all  water  in 
Europe. It applies to rivers, canals, lakes, lochs, groundwater, wetlands, estuaries and coastal 
waters and requires governments to take a holistic approach to their management.  

The WFD has the following key aims:  

•  to expand the scope of water protection to all waters, surface waters and groundwater and 

providing an overall framework for water management; 

•  to achieve "good status" for all waters by 2015; 

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•  to  provide  for  an  integrated  approach  to  water  management  based  on  river  basins  and 

combining emission limit values and quality standards; 

•  to  promote  sustainable  water  use  based  on  a  long-term  protection  of  available  water 

resources; and  

•  to provide for greater public involvement in key decisions on water management.  

The best model for a single system of water management is management by river basin - the 
natural geographical and hydrological unit - instead of according to administrative or political 
boundaries.  The  Water  Framework  Directive  requires  a  river  basin  management  plan  to  be 
established  for  each  river  basin  district  (including  those  with  cross  national  frontiers).  The 
first river basin management plans are required by 22 December 2009 and must be updated 
every six years. This flexible management framework is well-suited to managing adaptation 
to the impacts of climate change as it will enable new information on the impacts of climate 
change  and  the  measures  necessary  to  adjust  to  be  incorporated  into  the  revised  river  basin 
management  plans.  The  requirement  under  the  Water  Framework  Directive  for  Member 
States to take a cross-sectoral approach to water management will also facilitate the necessary 
cross-sectoral  action  on  adaptation  and  provide  a  framework  for  consideration  of  the 
relationship between the use and management of the natural environment (e.g. land) and the 
quality  and  availability  of  water  resources.  Further,  the  achievement  of  "good  ecological 
status" for all waters as provided in the Water Framework Directive will contribute strongly to 
improving  and  maintaining  biodiversity  in  the  aquatic  environment,  as  well  as  those 
ecosystems which rely on the aquatic environment. Work is on-going at a European level to 
develop by the end 2009 comprehensive guidelines and a set of tools for incorporating climate 
change into future river basin management plans. 

The Water Framework Directive is complemented by the Floods Directive and the policy on 
water scarcity and droughts. These provide a more specific framework for adapting to the key 
water-related impacts of climate change.  

The Floods Directive establishes a framework for the assessment and management of flood 
risks aimed at reducing the adverse consequences for human health, the environment, cultural 
heritage  and  economic  activity  associated  with  floods  in  Europe.  The  Directive  requires 
Member States to assess if all water courses and coast lines are at risk from flooding, to map 
the flood hazards and identify assets and humans at risk in these areas and to take adequate 
and  coordinated  measures  to  reduce  the  flood  risk.  In  line  with  the  integrated  river  basin 
approach  taken  under  the  Water  Framework  Directive,  the  Directive  also  requires  Member 
States  to  coordinate  their  flood  risk  management  practices  in  shared  river  basins,  including 
with  third  counties,  and  to  avoid  taking  measures  that  would  increase  the  flood  risk  in 
neighbouring countries. Co-ordination with the implementation of the WFD is required under 
Article 9 of the Floods Directive from the second River Basin Management Plan. The Floods 
Directive  therefore  provides  a  comprehensive  mechanism  for  assessing  and  monitoring 
increased risks of flooding due to climate change and for developing appropriate adaptation 
approaches. The coordinated approach with the river basin management plans will ensure an 
overall effective approach and help avoid maladaptation measures. 

Alongside  an  increased  risk  of  flooding,  climate  change  will  make  water  scarcity  and 
droughts  an  increasingly  frequent  phenomenon.  In  July  2007  the  Commission  adopted  a 
Communication on addressing the challenge of water scarcity and droughts in the European 
Union setting out a number of policy options for addressing the challenge of water scarcity. 

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The measures identified in the Communication represent an important tool box for responding 
to  the  increased  likelihood  of  such  events  due  to  climate  change.  In  particular,  the 
Communication  identified  the  importance  of  moving  towards  a  water-efficient  and  water-
saving  economy  and  the  important  roles  played  by  water  pricing  and  land-use  planning  in 
incentivising efficient water use.  

The  Commission  reviewed  progress  towards  addressing  water  scarcity  and  droughts  in 
December  20082  and  will  conduct  an  annual  European  assessment  of  water  scarcity  and 
droughts making it possible to monitor changes across Europe and to identify where further 
action is needed in response to climate change. In addition, a review of the strategy for water 
scarcity and droughts is planned for 2012. 

3.2 Integration of adaptation into existing marine and coastal zone legislation 

Climate change will  have a particular  impact  on the marine  environment and coastal zones, 
with consequent impacts on maritime activities. The EU Integrated Maritime Policy provides 
a  comprehensive  framework  for  addressing  maritime  activities  from  a  cross-sectoral 
perspective. This facilitates the integration of adaptation efforts for coastal and marine areas 
into specific policies. In this context, the Commission acknowledged in its Blue Paper3 that 
risk  management  may  impact  heavily  on  the  budget  and  economy  of  coastal  zones  in  the 
future  and  indicated  support  for  adaptation  related  to  maritime  activities,  the  marine 
environment, coastal zones and islands.  

The  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive,  the  environmental  pillar  of  the  Integrated 
Maritime Policy aims at protecting more effectively the marine environment across Europe. It 
requires  the  EU's  marine  waters  to  achieve  good  environmental  status  by  2020.  This  will 
protect the resource base upon which marine-related economic and social activities depend.  

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive establishes European Marine Regions on the basis 
of  geographical  and  environmental  criteria.  Member  States  (in  cooperation  with  other 
Member  States  and  non-EU  countries  within  a  marine  region)  are  required  to  develop 
strategies  for  their  marine  waters  containing  a  detailed  assessment  of  the  state  of  the 
environment, a definition of "good environmental status" at regional level (wherever possible) 
and  the  establishment  of  clear  environmental  targets  and  monitoring  programmes.  The  first 
elements of marine strategies are due by 2012 and are required to be updated every 6 years. 

As  with  the  Water  Framework  Directive,  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  can 
facilitate  adaptation  by  ensuring  that  climate  change  considerations  are  incorporated  into 
marine strategies and by providing a mechanism for regular updating to take account of new 
information. The flexible and adaptive approach of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive 
as  well  as  the  reliance  on  Marine  Regions  and  Sub-Regions  as  management  units  should 
allow  for  a  flexible  adaptation  to  the  specific  impacts  of  Climate  Change  at  regional  level. 
The  achievement  of  ‘good  environmental  status’  of  Europe's  marine  environment  under  the 
Marine  Strategy  will,  as  in  the  case  of  'good  ecological  status'  for  the  Water  Framework 
Directive,  prevent  a  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  marine  environment  as  a  result  of 
climate change.  

Europe's coastal zones are of strategic importance to the European Union. They are home to a 
considerable  percentage  of  European  citizens,  a  major  source  of  food  and  raw  materials,  a 

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COM(2007) 414, 18.7.2007. 
'An Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union', COM(2007) 575 final. 

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vital link for transport and trade, the location of some of our most valuable habitats, and the 
favoured destination for leisure time. However, due to climate impacts, these zones are facing 
increasing environmental, economic and social problems. The inter-connection between land 
and  sea  makes  effective  and  integrated  coastal  and  maritime  management  essential.  The 
Commission has highlighted the need for better integrated coastal zone management. In this 
context, there is a need to follow up on the Roadmap on Maritime Spatial Planning. 
The  Recommendation  concerning  Integrated  Coastal  Zone  Management  in  Europe  provides 
for  Member  States  to  take  a  strategic  approach  to  the  management  of  their  coastal  zones, 
based on, inter alia, recognition of the threat to coastal zones posed by climate change and the 
dangers entailed by the rise in sea level and the increasing frequency and violence of storms. 
The  EU  ICZM  Recommendation  lists  eight  principles  on  which  coastal  zone  management 
should be based. These include integration across sectors and levels of governance, as well as 
a participatory and knowledge-based approach. Given the cross-border nature of many coastal 
processes,  coordination  and  cooperation  with  neighbouring  countries  and  in  a  regional  sea 
context are also needed. 

The  Commission's  communication  of  June  2007  evaluates  the  progress  towards  integrated 
coastal  zone  management  in  Europe  and  identifies  and  promotes  measures  to  remedy  the 
deterioration  and  to  improve  the  overall  situation  in  Europe's  coastal  zones.  This  identified 
adaptation to climate change as a priority theme for further promotion of ICZM. 

A more coherent and integrated approach to coastal planning and management via integrated 
coastal  zone  management  will  assist  adaptation  efforts.  The  multi-disciplinary,  interactive 
approach  which  underpins  ICZM  provides  the  flexible  and  multi-sectoral  basis  needed  for 
developing  effective  adaptation  measures.  To  support  the  implementation  of  ICZM, 
opportunities are offered especially through the EU's Cohesion Policy, Fisheries Fund and as 
part of the EU's Research Framework Programme. 
In order to ensure a coordinated and integrated approach to adaptation in coastal and marine 
areas, taking into account trans-boundary issues, the Commission will develop guidelines on 
adaptation in coastal and marine areas. 

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