Key figures on Europe : 2009 edition.
Date: 2009-02-26
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, agricultural statistics, economic statistics, energy market, environmental statistics, industrial statistics, population statistics, regional statistics, trade statistics, transport statistics

Pocketbooks

Key fi gures on Europe
2009 edition

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008

ISBN 978-92-79-11056-6
ISSN 1830-7892
DOI 10.2785/23902
Cat. No. KS-EI-08-001-EN-C

Theme: General and regional statistics
Collection: Pocketbooks

© European Communities, 2008
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EUROSTAT
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website http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat

Eurostat is the Statistical Office of the European Communities. Its mission 
is  to  provide  the  European  Union  with  high-quality  statistical  informa-
tion. For that purpose, it gathers and analyses figures from the national 
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frequently used and demanded short- and long-term indicators.

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States as well as in some EFTA countries. Their mission is to provide help 
and  guidance  to  Internet  users  of  European  statistical  data.  Contact 
details for this support network can be found on Eurostat Internet site.

FOREWORD

Offi  cial  statistics  play  a  fundamental  role  in 
today’s  society.  Public  administrations,  policy 
makers, economic operators, markets, researchers 
and  citizens  rely  on  high  quality  statistics  to 
describe  developments  in  the  economic,  social, 
environmental and cultural spheres as accurately 
as  possible.  Statistical  authorities  respond  to  the 
needs of these users who require easy and timely 
access to such high quality information.

Impartial  and  objective  statistical  information 
is  essential  in  order  to  enable  well  informed 
decisions based on an accurate and relevant picture of society. Statistical 
information  underpins  transparency  and  openness  of  policy  decisions; 
offi  cial  statistics  therefore  are  a  public  good  and  a  basis  for  the  smooth 
functioning of democracy.

At a European level, statistics are increasingly important for the defi nition, 
implementation,  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  policies.  Europe  needs  a 
plethora  of  statistical  data  which  meet  the  highest  possible  standards 
in  terms  of  quality.  For  example,  reliable  statistics  are  needed  to  assess 
macro-economic developments such as infl ation, employment, economic 
growth and the business cycle in general: in order to facilitate economic 
policy coordination among Member States; to keep Europe on the path to 
long-term prosperity, notably through the revised Lisbon strategy and the 
integrated guidelines on growth and employment; and fi nally, to reinforce 
a  commitment  to  solidarity  and  social  justice.  European  statistics  thus 
constitute an essential information tool that may help monitor European 
Union  strategic  objectives,  as  well  as  sustaining  underlying  policies  and 
supporting instruments.

Eurostat,  the  Statistical  Offi  ce  of  the  European  Communities,  ensures 
the  collection,  production  and  dissemination  of  harmonised  statistics  at 
European level. Eurostat gets most of its data from the national statistical 
authorities in the Member States. It then processes, analyses and publishes 
that  data  at  a  European  level,  following  common  statistical  concepts, 
methods  and  standards.  Eurostat  also  supports  and  encourages  the 
development of similar statistical systems within countries neighbouring the 
European Union, driving thereby a process of statistical harmonisation.

I hope this publication will encourage you to use Eurostat’s data for your 
information  needs  and  daily  work.  Please  consult  our  website  at  http://
ec.europa.eu/eurostat  which  off ers  you  free  access  to  nearly  all  Eurostat 
data and publications.

Walter Radermacher

Director-General, Eurostat

Key fi gures on Europe – 2009 edition

Key fi gures on Europe – 2009 edition provides a balanced set of 
key data from the Statistical Offi  ce of the European Communities, 
Eurostat.  Th  e  presentation  largely  follows  the  statistical  themes 
of  Eurostat’s  free  dissemination  database  (see  below  for  Internet 
details). Data are provided for the European Union total (EU-27), 
the euro area and the Member States, and – when available – for 
the  candidate  countries,  EFTA  countries,  Japan  and  the  United 
States.

Editor-in-chief:

Gunter Schäfer

Editorial team:

Virginie Dohn, Diana Ivan, Annika Johansson-Augier, 
Jukka Piirto, Ulrich Wieland

Contact details:

Eurostat

Statistical Offi  ce of the European Communities

Bâtiment Joseph Bech

5, Rue Alphonse Weicker

L-2721 Luxembourg

e-mail address: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu

Production, desktop publishing:

INFORMA sàrl  
Giovanni Albertone, Simon Allen, Edward Cook, 
Andrew Redpath

For more information please consult:

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat

Data extracted:

August 2008

2

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Th  e editor-in-chief and the editorial team would like to thank all 
those who were involved in the preparation of this publication. It 
was published thanks to the assistance and support of the following 
organisations and persons:

EUROSTAT, THE STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Directorate C: National and European accounts

C2 National accounts – production (A. Krüger, J. Runesson)

C3 Public fi nance (L. Frej Ohlsson)

C4 Balance of payments (G. Vergina, M. Hult, M. Hussain, 
M. Lazaro)

C5 Validation of public accounts (P. Parlasca, A.Tokofaï, 
J. Verrinder, M. Wozowczyk)

Directorate D: Economic and regional statistics

D1 Key indicators for European policies (G. Lock, G-L. Mazzi, 
R. Ruggeri Cannata)

D2 Regional indicators and geographical information 
(Å. Önnerfors, B. Quennery, D. Rizzi)

D3 Short-term statistics (D. Amil, A. Giannoplidis, J. Fassbender, 
C. Lipp-Lingua, L. Oehman, I. Schoen, S. Visocka)

D4 Prices statistics (K. Hayes, T. Mrlianova, C. Wirtz)

Directorate E: Agriculture and environment statistics; 
statistical co-operation

E1 Agriculture statistics – methodology (C. Coyette, R. Knaapi, 
P. Nadin, J. Selenius)

E2 Agriculture statistics – production (R. Ataide Dias, S. Bos, 
F. Cardoso, G. Mahon, C. Ollier, K. Panagopoulos, F. Zampogna)

E3 Environmental statistics and accounts (J.C. Cabeça, J. Förster, 
J. Hass, J. Klein, W. Kloek, U. Roewer)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

3

 
 
Directorate F: Social statistics and information society

F1 Demographic and migration statistics (A. Herm, P. Juchno, 
G. Kyi, D. Th  orogood)

F2 Labour market statistics (L. Biedma, S. Casali, D. Dupré, 
S. Jouhette, P. Regnard, F. Romans, E. Schaaf)

F3 Living conditions and social protection statistics (T. Bento, 
L. Wahrig, P. Wolff )

F4 Education, science and culture statistics (M. Beck-Domzalska, 
B. Felix, G. Istrate, L. Mejer, T. Meri, S. Parvan, R. Petkova, 
F. Reis, V. Ritola, H. Wilen)

F5 Health and food safety statistics (L. Agafi tei, B. De Norre, 
A. Karjalainen, E. Cayotte, E. Rohner-Th  ielen)

F6 Information society and tourism statistics (C. Demunter, 
G. Di Giacomo, S. Fickinger, A. Lööf, M. Lumio, H. Seybert, 
M. Smihily, U. Spörel, A. Wirthmann)

Directorate G: Business statistics

G1 Structural business statistics (P. Sneijers, A. Stawińska, 
B. Williams)

G3 International trade statistics – production (G. Gambini)

G4 Energy statistics (A. Gikas, R. Roman Enescu)

G5 Transport statistics (J. Noreland, H. Strelow)

OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

4

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page

Acknowledgements 
Guide 
Abbreviations 

Chapter 1: Economy and fi nance

GDP 
Economic output 
GDP expenditure and investment 
Labour productivity 
Interest rates 
Consumer price indices 
Price convergence and competitiveness 
Government public balance and debt 
Taxes and social contributions 
Foreign direct investment 
Offi  cial development assistance 

Chapter 2: Population and social conditions

World population 
EU population 
EU population by age class 
Marriages and divorces 
Births and fertility 
Migration 
Citizenship and asylum 
Life expectancy and mortality 
Health problems 
Accidents 
Healthcare 
Pupils and students 
Levels of education 
Educational expenditure 
Lifelong learning 
Employment 
Employment growth 
Unemployment 
Labour market demand 
Part-time, temporary and secondary employment 
Earnings and minimum wages 
Low wage earners 
Household consumption expenditure 
Living conditions 
Social protection 
Governance 

3
8
11

18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
40

44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

5

 
 
Chapter 3: Industry, trade and services

Growing and declining activities 
Short-term statistics for industry 
Short-term statistics for construction 
Short-term statistics for retail trade 
Short-term statistics for other services 
Structure of the business economy 
Size of manufacturing and services subsectors 
Personnel costs 
Profi tability 
Enterprise size-classes 
Labour productivity by sector and enterprise size-class 
Products sold 
Tourism 

Chapter 4: Agriculture, forestry and fi sheries

Land use in agriculture and forestry 
Agricultural production 
Agricultural economic output 
Agri-environment and rural development 
Forestry 
Fisheries 

Chapter 5: International trade

Share in world trade of goods and services 
International trade in services 
World market for goods 
Main EU trading partners 
EU trade by product 
External trade between EU Member States 

Chapter 6: Transport

Modal breakdown of transport 
Goods transport 
Air and sea passenger transport 

98
100
102
104
106
108
110
112
114
116
118
120
122

126
128
130
132
134
136

140
142
144
146
148
150

154
156
158

6

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
Chapter 7: Energy and environment

Production of primary energy 
Production of renewable energy 
Energy imports 
Inland consumption, energy dependency and intensity 
Electricity 
Energy prices 
Greenhouse gases 
Urban population exposure to air pollution 
Water resources 
Wastewater treatment 
Generation and treatment of waste 
Environmental expenditure, EMAS and eco-label 

Chapter 8: Science and technology

162
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
184

188
Human resources 
Research and development expenditure 
190
High-technology industries and knowledge intensive services 192
194
Patents 
196
Innovation 
198
Internet access of households 
200
ICT use of individuals 
202
ICT use of enterprises 
204
E-commerce 
206
Telecommunications 
208
Telecommunications turnover and market share 

Chapter 9: Europe’s regions

Regional statistics background and defi nitions 
Main indicators for regional data 
Dispersion of regional employment rates 

212
214
225

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

7

 
 
GUIDE

The publication

Key  fi gures  on  Europe  –  2009  edition  provides  an  overview  of 
data  that  is  available  through  the  European  statistical  system.  It 
belongs  to  the  same  family  of  compendium  publications  as  the 
more  extensive  Eurostat  yearbook.  Th  e  publication  provides  a 
balanced  set  of  key  indicators,  presenting  a  broad  cross-section 
of  information  that  is  available  within  Eurostat’s  dissemination 
database. Th  e publication is part of Eurostat’s current dissemination 
strategy, insofar as it is distributed free of charge, accompanying 
the  vast  array  of  offi  cial  statistics  freely  available  on  Eurostat’s 
website.

Key fi gures on Europe – 2009 edition is divided into nine chapters, 
each of which contains information relating to a particular topic. 
Within  each  chapter,  double  facing  pages  focus  on  a  particular 
subject:  most  start  with  a  short  commentary  that  provides 
contextual  information  (such  as  policy  relevance),  as  well  as 
defi nitions of the indicators presented, and notes concerning the 
interpretation  of  the  data.  Th  e  standard  structure  is  to  present 
a  graph  focused  on  aggregated  European  Union  data  under  the 
commentary, and then a table with a selection of indicators/time 
periods for all Member States and other non-member countries on 
the facing page. Th  e balance of the information presented within 
the publication refl ects to some degree the volume of information 
available under each of the themes within Eurostat’s dissemination 
database, while also attempting to provide information that is of 
particular  interest  for  the  general  public.  Eurostat  produces  a 
broad  range  of  specialised  publications  which  may  be  accessed 
through the Eurostat homepage.

The European statistical system

Th  e  European  statistical  system  (ESS)  comprises  Eurostat 
and  the  statistical  offi  ces,  ministries  and  agencies  that  collect 
offi  cial statistics in the European Union Member States, Iceland, 
Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. Th  e European statistical 
system  concentrates  on  European  Union  policy  areas,  although 
harmonisation  has  extended  to  a  range  of  statistical  fi elds.  Th  e 
European statistical system is a network in which Eurostat’s role 
is  to  lead  the  way  in  the  harmonisation  of  statistics  in  close  co-
operation  with  the  national  statistical  authorities.  At  the  heart 
of  the  European  statistical  system  is  the  Statistical  Programme 
Committee  (SPC),  which  brings  together  the  heads  of  Member 

8

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
States’  national  statistical  offi  ces  and  is  chaired  by  Eurostat.  Th  e 
SPC discusses joint actions and programmes to be carried out to 
meet European Union information requirements. It agrees a fi ve-
year programme, which is implemented by the national authorities 
and monitored by Eurostat. For more information on the European 
statistical system and a complete list of contact details for each of 
the national statistical authorities, consult the Eurostat homepage, 
follow  the  link  in  the  right-hand  menu  to  ‘About  Eurostat’,  and 
then select the tab/page labelled ESS.

Data coverage

Th  e information presented within this publication was extracted 
from  Eurostat’s  dissemination  database  during  the  fi rst  week  of 
August  2008;  data  are  generally  available  up  until  2006  or  2007. 
Note that the space constraints associated with the format of this 
publication  mean  that  time-series  are  generally  not  presented. 
Longer time-series are usually available when consulting Eurostat’s 
website.

Key fi gures on Europe – 2009 edition presents information for the 
European Union of 27 Member States (EU-27), the euro area, as 
well as the individual Member States. When available, information 
is also presented for the candidate countries, EFTA countries, as 
well as Japan and the United States. Th  e EU-27 aggregate is only 
provided when information for all 27 Member States is available or 
has been estimated. In some cases it was not possible to calculate 
the  EU-27  aggregate  and  in  most  of  these  cases  the  EU-25 
aggregate  is  shown  instead.  A  footnote  is  added  when  the  data 
refers to a partial total that has been created from an incomplete 
set  of  country  information  (no  data  for  certain  Member  States, 
or only data for an older reference period). Th  e data for the euro 
area covers the 15 Member States that, at the time of writing, share 
the  euro  as  a  common  currency:  Belgium,  Germany,  Ireland, 
Greece,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Cyprus,  Luxembourg,  Malta,  the 
Netherlands,  Austria,  Portugal,  Slovenia  and  Finland.  For  all 
periods of time the data presented for the euro area covers all 15 
participating countries, irrespective of when they joined the euro 
area; otherwise, a footnote is added.

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

9

 
 
Eurostat data code

A code (such as ‘tec00001’) has been inserted as part of the source. 
Th  is code allows the reader to easily access the most recent data on 
the Eurostat website – within the PDF version of this publication, 
the data codes under each table and graph are presented as Internet 
hyperlinks. Th  e data on the website is frequently updated and may 
also be more detailed or have a diff erent measurement unit. For 
more  information,  consult  the  link  to  ‘Th  e  Eurostat  data  code’ 
under ‘services’ on the right-hand side of the Eurostat homepage.

Symbols used for data

An italic font is used in tables to show provisional data, estimates 
and  forecasts  (in  other  words,  data  that  are  likely  to  change  in 
the future). Th  e colon (:) is used in tables to represent data that 
is not available, either because the value was not provided by the 
national statistical authority or because the value is confi dential. 
In fi gures (charts/graphs) missing information is footnoted as not 
available. A dash (-) is used to indicate values that are not relevant 
or not applicable.

Further information

Free  access  to  Eurostat  data  is  available  through  the  Eurostat 
website,  which  can  be  found  at:  http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat. 
Th  ere  are  two  main  resources  for  accessing  data,  either  in  the 
form  of  standardised  tables  or  through  user-defi ned  extractions 
from databases; there are links to both of these from the Eurostat 
homepage. In addition, the website presents an array of additional 
information  in  the  form  of  publications  (in  PDF  format)  and 
methodologies, each structured primarily by subject/theme.

Various classifi cations (COICOP, ISCED, NACE and SITC, among 
others) are used within Key fi gures on Europe – 2009 edition. A 
complete listing of each of these may be obtained from the Eurostat 
website, by accessing the RAMON classifi cations server at: http://
ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon.

10

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
Abbreviations

AAGR 
AW 
BMI 
BOD 
BoP 
CAP 
CC 
CEPA 
CFP 
Cif 
CIS 
CMR 
CO2 
COD 
COICOP 

cont. 
DAC 
DFLE 
DSL 
ECB 
EDI 
EDP 
EEA 

EES 
EFTA 
EICP 
EPO 
ERA 
ESA 95 
ESSPROS 

ETS 
EU LFS 
EUR 
EU-SILC 
FAO 

FDI 
fob 
FP7 

 Average annual growth rate
 Average worker
 Body mass index
 Biochemical oxygen demand
 Balance of payments
 Common Agricultural Policy
 Classifi cation of types of construction
 Classifi cation of environmental protection activities
 Common Fisheries Policy
 Cost including insurance and freight
 Community innovation survey
 Carcinogenic, mutagenic and reprotoxic
 Carbon dioxide
 Chemical oxygen demand
 Classifi cation of individual consumption according 
to purpose
 Continued
 Development assistance committee
 Disability-free life expectancy
 Digital subscriber line
 European Central Bank
 Electronic data interchange
 Excessive defi cit procedure
 European Economic Area (European Community, 
EU Member States, IS, LI, NO)
 European employment strategy
 European Free Trade Association (CH, IS, LI, NO)
 European index of consumer prices
 European Patent Offi  ce
 European Research Area
 European system of accounts
 European system of integrated social protection 
statistics
 External trade statistics
 European Union labour force survey
 Euro
 EU statistics on income and living conditions
 Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United 
Nations)
 Foreign direct investment
 Free on board
 Seventh framework programme of the European 
Community for research and technological 
development for the period 2007 to 2013

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

11

 
 
GDP 
GERD 

GJ 
GWP 
HICP 
HRST 
ICD 

ICT 
IMF 
ISCED 
ISDN 
IT 
JPO 
JVR 
Kbit/s 
kg 
kgoe 
km 
kW 
kWh 
LU 
m 
MUICP 
MWh 
n.e.c. 
n.e.s. 
NACE 

NPISH 
NUTS 
ODA 
OECD 

 Gross domestic product
 Gross domestic expenditure on research and 
development
 Gigajoule
 Global warming potentials
 Harmonised index of consumer prices
 Human resources in science and technology
 International statistical classifi cation of diseases and 
related health problems
 Information and communication technologies
 International Monetary Fund
 International standard classifi cation of education
 Integrated services digital network
 Information technology
 Japan Patent Offi  ce
 Job vacancy rate
 Kilobit per second
 Kilogram
 Kilograms of oil equivalent
 Kilometre
 Kilowatt
 Kilowatt hours
 Livestock units
 Metre
 Monetary union index of consumer prices
 Megawatt hours
 Not elsewhere classifi ed
 Not elsewhere specifi ed
 Statistical classifi cation of economic activities in the 
European Community
 Non-profi t institutions serving households
 Classifi cation of territorial units for statistics
 Offi  cial development assistance
 Organisation of Economic Co-operation and 
Development

12

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
PDA 
PEEI 
PhD 

p-km 

PPPs 
PPS 
PWS 
R&D 
Rev. 
SITC 
SME 
SMS 
t-km 

toe 
TV 
TWh 
UAA 
UNCAT 
UOE 
URL 
USPTO 
VAT 
WIPO 

 Personal digital assistant
 Principal European economic indicator
 Doctor of philosophy (most common Doctorate 
degree)
 Passenger kilometre (unit of measure representing 
the transport of one passenger over one kilometre)
 Purchasing power parities
 Purchasing power standard
 Public water supply
 Research and development
 Revision
 Standard international trade classifi cation
 Small and medium-sized enterprises
 Short message service
 Tonne kilometre (unit of measure for freight 
transport representing the movement of one tonne 
over one kilometre)
 Tons of oil equivalent
 Television
 Terawatt hours
 Utilised agricultural area
 United Nations convention against torture
 UNESCO/OECD/Eurostat
 Uniform resource locator
 United States Patent and Trademark Offi  ce
 Value added tax
 World Intellectual Property Organisation

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

13

 
 
European Union aggregates and Member States

EU 
EU-27 (1) 

EU-25 

EU-15 

Euro area (2) 

EA-15 

EA-13 

EA-12 

EA-11 

 European Union
 European Union of 27 Member States from 1 January 
2007 (BE, BG, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, 
CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK, 
FI, SE, UK)
 European Union of 25 Member States from 1 May 
2004 to 31 December 2006 (BE, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, 
EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, 
PT, SI, SK, FI, SE, UK)
 European Union of 15 Member States from 1 January 
1995 to 30 April 2004 (BE, DK, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, 
IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, FI, SE, UK)
 At the time of writing the euro area is composed of 
BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, 
SI,  FI;  the  euro  area  was  initially  composed  of  11 
Member States (BE, DE, IE, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, 
PT, FI) – as of 1 January 2001 Greece joined; as of 1 
January 2007 Slovenia joined; as of 1 January 2008 
Cyprus and Malta joined
 Euro area of BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LU, MT, 
NL, AT, PT, SI, FI
 Euro area of BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, 
PT, SI, FI
 Euro area of BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, 
PT, FI
 Euro area of BE, DE, IE, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, 
FI

(1) Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated when suﬃ  cient information is available – for 
example, data relating to the EU-27 aggregate is often presented for periods prior to the 
accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 and the accession of ten new Member States in 
2004, as if all 27 Member States had always been members of the EU. The label is changed if 
the data refer to another aggregate (EU-25 or EU-15) or a footnote is added if the data refer to 
a partial total that has been created from an incomplete set of country information (no data 
for certain Member States or reference years).

(2) Note that the euro area aggregate is back-calculated when suﬃ  cient information is 

available – for example, data relating to the euro area is often presented for periods prior to 
the accession of Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovenia in 2007, and Greece in 2001, as if all 15 
Member States had always been members of the euro area. A footnote is added when this 
is not the case and the data for the euro area refers to another aggregate based on either 11 
(EA-11) or 12 (EA-12), or 13 (EA-13) participating Member States.

14

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

 
 
BE 
BG 
CZ 
DK 
DE 
EE 
IE 
EL 
ES 
FR 
IT 
CY 
LV 
LT 
LU 
HU 
MT 
NL 
AT 
PL 
PT 
RO 
SI 
SK 
FI 
SE 
UK 

 Belgium
 Bulgaria
 Czech Republic
 Denmark
 Germany
 Estonia
 Ireland
 Greece
 Spain
 France
 Italy
 Cyprus
 Latvia
 Lithuania
 Luxembourg
 Hungary
 Malta
 Netherlands
 Austria
 Poland
 Portugal
 Romania
 Slovenia
 Slovakia
 Finland
 Sweden
 United Kingdom

Candidate countries to the European Union

HR 
MK (3) 
TR 

 Croatia
 the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
 Turkey

Member States of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA)

IS 
LI 
NO 
CH 

 Iceland
 Liechtenstein
 Norway
 Switzerland

Other countries

JP 
US 

 Japan
 United States

(3) The code MK is provisional and does not prejudge in any way the deﬁ nitive nomenclature for 
this country, which will be agreed following the conclusion of negotiations currently taking 
place on this subject at the United Nations.

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

15

 
 
I

1

Economy and fi nance

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

GDP

Gross  domestic  product  (GDP)  is  a  central  measure  of  national 
accounts, which summarises the economic position of a country 
(or  region).  GDP  can  be  calculated  using  one  of  three  diff erent 
approaches:

• 

• 

• 

the  output  approach,  which  sums  the  gross  value  added  of 
various industries, plus taxes and less subsidies on products;
the expenditure approach, which sums the fi nal use of goods 
and services (fi nal consumption and gross capital formation), 
plus exports and minus imports of goods and services, and;
the  income  approach,  which  sums  the  compensation  of 
employees,  net  taxes  on  production  and  imports,  gross 
operating surplus and mixed income.

Th  e real GDP growth rate shows the change in GDP from one year 
to the next, aft er adjusting for changes in price levels – in other 
words, removing the eff ect of infl ation. Th  is shows the real change in 
the output of an economy over time. An analysis of the economy of 
diff erent countries can be made easier by studying GDP per capita, 
so removing the infl uence of the absolute size of the population. 
Such comparisons of the wealth and competitiveness of countries 
can be made using a common currency – the purchasing power 

Figure 1.1: Real GDP growth rate (% change on previous year) (1)

6

4

2

0

-2

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

EU-27

Japan

(1) 2008: all data are forecasts.

Source: Eurostat (tsieb020)

Euro area

United States

18

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

standard (PPS). To do this, measures of GDP in national currencies 
are converted using purchasing power parities (PPPs) that refl ect 
the purchasing power of each currency, rather than using market 
exchange  rates.  GDP  per  capita  in  PPS  (the  common  currency) 
therefore eliminates diff erences in price levels, as well as allowing a 
comparison between economies of diff erent absolute sizes. Please 
note that at the end of this publication, the fi nal chapter presents 
regional data for GDP per capita in PPS.

Table 1.1: GDP

                    GDP at current prices
                     (EUR 1 000 million)

GDP per capita 
(PPS)

EU-27
Euro area (1)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

2002
9 912.9
7 300.9
267.7
16.6
80.0
184.7
2 143.2
7.8
130.2
157.6
729.2
1 548.6
1 295.2
11.2
9.9
15.0
24.0
70.7
4.5
465.2
218.8
209.6
135.4
48.4
24.1
26.0
144.0
264.2
1 679.0
24.4
4.0
243.4
9.5
204.1
296.0
4 161.5
11 071.9

2007
12 305.0
8 920.9
330.8
28.9
127.5
227.7
2 423.8
15.5
185.6
228.9
1 049.8
1 892.2
1 535.5
15.6
19.9
28.0
36.1
101.1
5.4
559.5
270.8
307.3
162.8
121.4
33.5
54.8
179.7
332.0
2 018.8
37.5
5.5
478.7
14.6
284.0
310.0
3 197.4
10 099.5

2002
20 400
23 000
25 600
6 300
14 400
26 300
23 600
10 200
28 200
18 600
20 600
23 700
22 900
18 300
8 400
9 000
49 200
12 600
16 300
27 300
25 800
9 900
15 800
6 000
16 600
11 100
23 600
24 800
24 200
9 300
5 100
7 000
26 600
31 700
28 900
22 900
31 000

2007
24 800
27 300
29 300
9 500
20 200
30 500
28 100
17 900
36 300
24 300
26 500
27 600
25 200
23 000
14 400
15 000
68 500
15 700
19 100
32 500
31 600
13 300
18 500
10 100
22 000
17 000
29 000
31 300
28 700
13 900
7 300
10 500
32 000
45 700
34 500
28 200
38 600

(1) EA-13 instead of EA-15 for GDP per capita in 2002.

Source: Eurostat (tec00001 and tsieb020)

Growth rate of 
real GDP per 
capita (%)
2007
2.5
2.1
2.0
6.2
5.9
1.4
2.6
7.3
3.1
3.8
2.0
1.6
0.8
2.4
10.9
9.4
2.8
1.5
3.1
3.3
2.6
6.6
1.4
6.4
5.5
10.3
4.1
2.0
2.7
5.8
4.9
3.1
1.5
2.7
2.4
:
:

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

19

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

ECONOMIC OUTPUT

Th  e European system of national and regional accounts (ESA 95) 
provides  a  number  of  key  indicators  that  can  be  used  to  assess 
macro-economic  conditions,  covering  a  wide  range  of  subjects 
including: output, expenditure, and investment. Th  e main aggregates 
of  national  accounts  are  compiled  from  institutional  units  (be 
they non-fi nancial or fi nancial corporations, general government, 
households, or non-profi t institutions serving households).

Th  e output of the economy is measured using gross value added, 
which  is  defi ned  as  the  value  of  all  newly  generated  goods  and 
services  (at  basic  prices)  less  the  value  of  all  goods  and  services 
consumed in their creation (at purchasers’ prices).

Economic output can be analysed by activity (based on NACE) in 
a number of ways, for example, showing the relative importance 
of  particular  activities,  highlighting  the  structural  diff erences 
between countries.

An  analysis  of  output  over  time  can  be  facilitated  by  using  a 
volume measure of output – in other words, by defl ating the value 
of  output  to  remove  the  impact  of  price  changes;  each  activity 
is  defl ated  individually  to  refl ect  the  changes  in  the  prices  of  its 
associated products.

Figure 1.2: Gross value added, chain-linked volumes for 2000, 
EU-27 (1997=100)

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Financial interm.; real estate, renting & business act.

Distrib. trade; hotels & rest.; transp., stor. & communic.

Total industry

Construction

Pub. adm., def.; educ.; health, community & pers. serv.

Agriculture, hunting, forestry & fishing

Source: Eurostat (nama_nace06_k)

20

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Figure 1.3: Gross value added at basic prices, 2007 
(% share of gross value added)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ (1)
DK
DE
EE
IE (1)
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO (1)
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK (1)
TR
IS (1)
NO
CH

Agriculture, hunting, forestry & fishing

Total industry

Construction

Distrib. trade; hotels & rest.; transp., storage & communic.

Financial interm.; real estate, renting & business activities

Pub. adm., defence; educ.; health, community & pers. serv.

(1) Data are for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tec00003, tec00004, tec00005, tec00006, tec00007 and tec00008)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

21

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

GDP EXPENDITURE AND INVESTMENT

Using  the  expenditure  approach,  GDP  is  defi ned  as  private  fi nal 
consumption  expenditure  plus  government  fi nal  consumption 
expenditure plus gross capital formation plus exports minus imports.

In  the  system  of  national  accounts,  only  households,  non-profi t 
institutions  serving  households  (NPISH)  and  government  have 
fi nal  consumption,  whereas  corporations,  for  example,  have 
intermediate consumption. Private fi nal consumption expenditure, 
or  that  performed  by  households  and  NPISH,  is  defi ned  as 
expenditure  on  goods  and  services  for  the  direct  satisfaction  of 
individual needs, whereas government consumption expenditure 
includes goods and services produced by government, as well as 
purchases of goods and services by government that are supplied 
to households as social transfers in kind.

With  respect  to  investment,  gross  capital  formation  consists  of 
gross fi xed capital formation plus changes in inventories (stocks). 
Gross  fi xed  capital  formation  is  defi ned  as  residents’  acquisitions 
less  disposals  of  fi xed  tangible  or  intangible  assets  that  are  used 
repeatedly, or continuously, in production processes for more than 
one year; such assets may be outputs from production processes or 
imports. Investment may be made by public or private institutions.

Th  e  fi nal  component  of  GDP,  as  defi ned  by  the  expenditure 
approach, is the balance of external trade, which is equal to exports 
minus imports of goods and services.

Figure 1.4: Expenditure components of GDP, EU-27, 2007 (%)

External balance 
of goods and 
services
0.4%

Gross capital 
formation
21.4%

Final consumption 
expenditure of 
households and 
non-profit 
institutions 
serving 
households
57.6%

Final consumption 
expenditure of 
general 
government
20.6%

Source: Eurostat (tec00009, tec00010, tec00011 and tec00110)

22

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Table 1.2: Investment

Total 
investment 
(% of GDP)
1998
20.1
20.2
13.0
28.2
20.4
21.1
30.5
21.7
:
23.0
17.9
19.3
18.7
24.7
24.0
21.8
23.6
22.9
22.2
24.0
24.1
26.5
18.2
25.0
35.8
19.0
16.3
18.0
23.3
17.4
22.9
24.0
25.0
22.2

2007
21.3
21.4
29.8
24.1
22.8
18.5
31.9
25.3
25.7
31.1
21.5
21.1
21.5
32.5
26.6
20.2
20.9
19.4
19.9
22.2
22.3
21.7
30.5
28.7
25.7
20.3
18.9
18.2
29.8
19.6
22.8
27.5
20.8
21.5

Public 
investment
(% of GDP)
1998 2007 (1)
2.6
1.7
4.8
4.8
1.8
1.5
4.4
4.2
3.0
3.8
3.3
2.4
3.1
5.7
5.2
3.8
3.6
4.1
3.4
1.0
4.1
2.4
5.5
3.7
1.9
2.6
3.1
1.8
:
:
:
4.3
3.0
2.1

2.3
1.7
3.2
4.2
1.7
1.8
4.9
2.7
3.2
3.3
2.8
2.3
2.9
1.4
2.5
4.5
3.4
4.6
3.0
1.8
3.9
4.0
1.9
3.0
3.9
2.9
3.1
1.3
:
:
:
4.4
3.6
2.7

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Business investment 
(gross fixed capital 
formation by the private 
sector as % of GDP)

1998
17.8
18.5
9.8
24.0
18.8
19.3
25.6
19.0
:
19.7
15.1
17.0
15.9
23.3
21.4
17.3
20.2
18.3
19.2
22.2
20.2
22.5
16.3
22.0
31.8
16.1
13.2
16.7
:
:
:
19.6
21.3
:

2007 (2)
18.2
19.7
25.0
19.3
21.0
16.6
27.5
21.1
22.7
27.3
18.2
18.7
17.6
26.9
21.3
16.3
17.3
15.3
16.5
21.2
18.2
19.3
22.8
22.6
23.8
17.7
15.8
16.3
:
:
:
23.2
17.7
:

(1) Switzerland: data are for 2006.
(2) EU-27, Germany, Cyprus, Malta, Romania and Slovenia: data are for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tsdec210, tsdec211 and tsier140)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

23

CH01.indd   23

08/12/2008   16:47:02

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

An  array  of  indicators  has  been  developed  to  measure  labour 
productivity – labour productivity per person employed is one such 
measure. It is calculated by taking gross value added and dividing 
by the total number of persons employed. Th  e indicator provides 
confi rmation  of  the  most  labour-intensive  areas  of  the  European 
Union economy, as well as an insight into the apparent productivity 
growth of particular economic activities.

GDP  per  hour  worked  is  another  productivity  measure  and, 
when  expressed  in  PPS  (see  pages  18  and  19  for  a  defi nition) 
which  eliminates  diff erences  in  price  levels  between  countries,  is 
particularly useful in terms of cross-country comparisons; the use 
of  hours  worked  as  the  denominator,  rather  than  the  number  of 
persons  employed,  eliminates  measurement  problems  associated 
with  distinguishing  between  full  and  part-time  employment,  the 
incidence of which varies greatly between countries and activities. 
Th  e  data  are  presented  in  the  form  of  an  index  in  relation  to  the 
European Union average: if the index rises above 100, then labour 
productivity is higher than the European Union average.

Figure 1.5: Labour productivity, EU-27 (EUR 1 000 per person 
employed)

0

25

50

75

100

Agriculture, hunting, 
forestry & fishing

Total industry

Construction

Distributive trades; hotels &
restaurants; transport, storage &
communication

Financial intermediation; real estate,
renting & business activities

Public administration, defence;
education; health, community &
personal services

Source: Eurostat (nama_nace06_c and  nama_nace06_e)

1997

2007

24

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Th  e real unit labour cost compares the average compensation per 
employee  with  the  labour  productivity  (gross  domestic  product 
(GDP) per person employed). As such, it shows the average cost of 
each employee (paid person) compared with the average value that 
each person, whether paid employee or unpaid workers (such as the 
self-employed), produces. Th  e rate of change of this ratio aims to 
give an impression of the dynamics of the participation of the labour 
production factor in the value added of output.

Table 1.3: Labour productivity

GDP per hour worked 
(EU-15=100)
1997
:
:
130.5
:
44.6
108.2
112.6
:
82.7
65.4
93.3
113.5
102.9
63.5
:
32.7
147.7
44.5
:
113.0
103.8
:
55.9
:
61.2
44.0
93.3
101.6
84.8
:
:
:
123.2
101.3

2007 (1)
88.0
101.8
123.7
32.0
53.3
100.3
109.7
50.7
106.5
71.8
92.3
119.5
88.0
68.9
42.1
48.2
174.0
55.3
74.8
120.8
104.8
45.7
59.2
29.1
72.6
64.2
97.3
106.1
89.8
:
:
84.2
163.0
97.2

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

Labour productivity 
per person employed 
relative to EU-27 
(EU-27=100)

1998 (2)
100.0
115.9
134.4
30.0
60.1
109.1
112.5
41.2
125.3
90.8
107.7
126.3
130.1
82.3
36.8
40.6
165.5
62.6
:
110.9
121.5
47.7
67.8
:
74.1
56.2
114.2
112.0
107.4
54.4
53.2
110.4
114.0
112.4

2007
100.0
110.2
130.2
35.7
73.6
106.0
105.8
68.1
135.6
104.9
105.0
124.3
107.9
85.7
53.6
60.7
180.3
73.9
89.9
112.7
119.9
65.7
69.9
41.0
84.3
76.8
111.9
115.3
108.8
68.4
62.4
102.2
154.7
108.2

Real unit 
labour cost 
growth (%)
2007
-0.8
-0.7
1.1
5.9
-1.1
2.2
-1.5
8.4
3.2
1.4
-0.3
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
10.3
-1.5
1.0
1.4
-2.3
0.5
-1.1
3.0
-2.3
3.6
-1.0
-0.9
-1.8
1.2
-1.5
:
:
:
4.5
:

(1) Czech Republic, Ireland, Greece, Spain and France: data are for 2006; Romania and the 
United States: data are for 2005.
(2) EA-13 instead of EA-15.

Source: Eurostat (tsieb040, tsieb030 and tsieb070)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

25

          
          
          
          
            
              
          
          
            
           
          
          
          
          
            
            
            
          
            
            
           
          
              
            
              
            
            
          
          
          
              
              
           
          
           
1 Economy and ﬁ nance

INTEREST RATES

An  interest  rate  is  defi ned  as  the  cost  or  price  of  borrowing,  or 
the gain from lending; interest rates are traditionally expressed in 
annual percentage terms.

Interest  rates  are  distinguished  either  by  the  period  of  lending/
borrowing, or by the parties involved in the transaction (business, 
consumers, governments or interbank operations). Central bank 
interest rates are key reference rates set by the European Central 
Bank (ECB) or national central banks (for those countries outside 
of the euro area). Central bank interest rates are also referred to as 
‘offi  cial interest rates’; they are the main instrument of monetary 
policy for central banks.

Long-term  interest  rates  are  one  of  the  convergence  criteria 
(or  Maastricht  criteria)  for  European  economic  and  monetary 
union.  Compliance  with  this  criterion  means  that,  a  Member 
State  should  have  an  average  nominal  long-term  interest  rate 

Figure 1.6: Central bank interest rates - offi  cial lending rates for 
loans (%) (1)

8

6

4

2

0

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Euro area (2)

United States

Japan (3)

(1) Annual averages.
(2) EA-11 for 1999 and 2000; EA-12 up to 2006; EA-13 for 2007.
(3) 2007: not available.

Source: Eurostat (tec00096)

26

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

that  does  not  exceed  by  more  than  2  percentage  points  that  of, 
at most, the three best performing Member States. Interest rates 
are  based  upon  central  government  bond  yields  (or  comparable 
securities), taking into account diff erences in national defi nitions, 
on  the  secondary  market,  gross  of  tax,  with  a  residual  maturity 
of  around  10  years.  Eurostat  publishes  a  number  of  short-term 
interest  rates,  with  diff erent  maturities.  Day-to-day  money  rates 
refer to deposits or loans on the money market with a maturity of 
just one business day. Th  e rates shown are reference rates and are 
generally interbank rates.

Table 1.4: Interest rates (%) (1)

Maastricht 
criterion rates
2002
:
4.9
5.0
:
4.9
5.1
4.8
8.4
5.0
5.1
5.0
4.9
5.0
5.7
5.4
6.1
4.7
7.1
5.8
4.9
5.0
7.4
5.0
:
8.7
6.9
5.0
5.3
4.9
:
:
:

1997
:
6.0
5.8
:
:
6.3
5.6
:
6.3
9.9
6.4
5.6
6.9
:
:
:
5.6
:
:
5.6
5.7
:
6.4
:
:
:
6.0
6.6
7.1
:
:
:

2007
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.2
6.1
4.3
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.5
4.5
5.3
4.6
4.6
6.7
4.7
4.3
4.3
5.5
4.4
7.1
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.2
5.1
:
:
:

EU-27
Euro area (3)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
JP
US

Short-term: day-to-day 
money rates

1997
:
4.0
3.4
61.9
19.3
3.5
3.2
-
6.1
12.9
5.5
3.2
7.0
-
3.7
-
3.4
20.6
5.2
3.1
3.3
22.7
5.8
-
:
20.1
2.9
4.2
6.5
74.1
0.5
5.5

2002 2007 (2)
2.7
3.9
-
4.0
2.8
2.7
-
2.0
-
-
-
-
-
3.8
5.8
4.4
-
7.6
4.1
-
-
4.4
-
6.9
-
3.8
-
2.1
5.6
17.3
0.0
3.2

3.8
3.3
-
2.4
3.6
3.5
-
3.0
-
-
-
-
-
3.5
3.4
2.6
-
8.9
3.9
-
-
9.5
-
23.4
4.9
7.2
-
4.2
4.0
49.6
0.0
1.7

(1) Annual averages.
(2) Denmark: data are for 2006; EU-27, Estonia, Japan and United States: data are for 2005.
(3) EA-11 for 1997; EA-12 for 2002; EA-13 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00097 and tec00034)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

27

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

CONSUMER PRICE INDICES

Changes in the price of consumer goods and services are usually 
referred  to  as  infl ation,  measured  by  the  infl ation  rate.  Price 
stability is one of the primary objectives of the European Central 
Bank (ECB), with the infl ation rate used as a leading indicator for 
monetary policy management within the euro area. Th  e ECB has 
defi ned  price  stability  as  an  annual  increase  in  the  harmonised 
index  of  consumer  prices  (HICP)  for  the  euro  area  of  close  to 
but  below  2 %  (over  the  medium  term).  For  this  purpose,  the 
monetary  union  index  of  consumer  prices  (MUICP)  covers  the 
euro  area  countries,  while  Eurostat  also  publishes  an  aggregate 
index for all European Union Member States, the European index 
of consumer prices (EICP).

HICPs  are  presented  with  a  common  reference  year,  which  is 
currently  2005=100.  Normally  the  indices  are  used  to  create 
percentage  changes  that  show  price  increases/decreases  for  the 
period  in  question.  Although  the  rates  of  change  shown  in  this 

Figure 1.7: Harmonised indices of consumer prices, annual 
average rate of change, EU, 2007 (%) (1)

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

Inflation rate

Education

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco

Food & non-alcoholic beverages

Restaurants & hotels

Housing, water, elec., gas & fuels

Transport

Miscellaneous goods & services

Health

Furnish.., househ. equip. & mainten.

Clothing & footwear

Recreation & culture

Communications

(1) EU-15 up to April 2004, EU-25 up to December 2006, EU-27 for 2007; Japan and the 
United States: CPI instead of HICP.

Source: Eurostat (prc_hicp_aind)

28

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Economy and ﬁ nance

1

publication are annual averages, the basic indices are compiled on 
a monthly basis. HICPs cover practically every good and service 
that may be purchased by households in the form of fi nal monetary 
consumption  expenditure.  Th  e  diff erent  goods  and  services  are 
classifi ed according to an international classifi cation of individual 
consumption by purpose, known as COICOP/HICP. At its most 
disaggregated  level,  Eurostat  publishes  around  100  sub-indices, 
which can be aggregated to broad categories of goods and services 
(as shown in the graph on the previous page).

Table 1.5: Harmonised indices of consumer prices, annual 
average rate of change (%)

EU (2)
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

2002
2.1
2.2
1.6
5.8
1.4
2.4
1.4
3.6
4.7
3.9
3.6
1.9
2.6
2.8
2.0
0.3
2.1
5.2
2.6
3.9
1.7
1.9
3.7
22.5
7.5
3.5
2.0
1.9
1.3
47.0
5.3
0.8
:
-0.9
1.6

2003
2.0
2.1
1.5
2.3
-0.1
2.0
1.0
1.4
4.0
3.4
3.1
2.2
2.8
4.0
2.9
-1.1
2.5
4.7
1.9
2.2
1.3
0.7
3.3
15.3
5.7
8.4
1.3
2.3
1.4
25.3
1.4
2.0
:
-0.3
2.3

2004
2.0
2.1
1.9
6.1
2.6
0.9
1.8
3.0
2.3
3.0
3.1
2.3
2.3
1.9
6.2
1.2
3.2
6.8
2.7
1.4
2.0
3.6
2.5
11.9
3.7
7.5
0.1
1.0
1.3
10.1
2.3
0.6
:
0.0
2.7

2005
2.2
2.2
2.5
6.0
1.6
1.7
1.9
4.1
2.2
3.5
3.4
1.9
2.2
2.0
6.9
2.7
3.8
3.5
2.5
1.5
2.1
2.2
2.1
9.1
2.5
2.8
0.8
0.8
2.1
8.1
1.4
1.5
:
-0.3
3.4

2006
2.2
2.2
2.3
7.4
2.1
1.9
1.8
4.4
2.7
3.3
3.6
1.9
2.2
2.2
6.6
3.8
3.0
4.0
2.6
1.7
1.7
1.3
3.0
6.6
2.5
4.3
1.3
1.5
2.3
9.3
4.6
2.5
1.0
0.3
3.2

AAGR
2002-2007
(%) (1)
2.1
2.1
1.9
5.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
3.9
3.1
3.3
3.3
2.0
2.3
2.5
5.7
2.1
2.9
5.3
2.2
2.0
1.8
2.0
2.8
11.6
4.3
4.7
1.2
1.5
1.8
17.3
3.1
0.8
:
-0.2
2.7

2007
2.3
2.1
1.8
7.6
3.0
1.7
2.3
6.7
2.9
3.0
2.8
1.6
2.0
2.2
10.1
5.8
2.7
7.9
0.7
1.6
2.2
2.6
2.4
4.9
3.8
1.9
1.6
1.7
2.3
8.8
3.6
1.0
0.8
0.0
2.8

(1) AAGR: average annual growth rate.
(2) EU-15 up to April 2004, EU-25 up to December 2006, EU-27 for 2007; Japan and the 
United States: CPI instead of HICP.

Source: Eurostat (tsieb060)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

29

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

PRICE CONVERGENCE AND COMPETITIVENESS

Comparisons of price changes between countries depend not only 
on movements in price levels, but also exchange rates, and together 
these impact on price and cost competitiveness. Comparative price 
levels are the ratio between purchasing power parities (PPPs) and 
market exchange rates (see pages 18 and 19 for a defi nition of PPPs). 
Comparative  price  levels  are  shown  as  a  ratio  in  relation  to  the 
European Union average (EU-27=100). If the index for a country 
is  higher/lower  than  100,  the  country  concerned  is  relatively 
expensive/cheap as compared with the European Union average.

Figure 1.8: Comparative price levels of fi nal consumption by 
private households including indirect taxes (EU-27=100)

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

DK
IE
FI
SE
UK
FR
BE
LU
DE
NL
IT
AT
ES
EL
CY
PT
SI
MT
EE
HU
LV
RO
PL
SK
CZ
LT
BG
IS
NO
CH
JP (1)
US (1)
TR (2)
HR (2)
MK (2)

1997
2007

(1) 2006 instead of 2007.
(2) 1997: not available.

Source: Eurostat (tsier010)

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1

Price  convergence  is  measured  by  the  coeffi  cient  of  variation 
of  comparative  price  levels  of  household  fi nal  consumption 
expenditure: if the coeffi  cient for the European Union decreases/
increases over time, the national price levels in the Member States 
are converging/diverging.

Table 1.6: Price convergence and price levels

2007
26.2
12.8

2006
28.4
12.8

2005
29.4
13.0

2001
32.4
14.1

2002
32.0
14.6

2003
32.9
14.1

Price convergence between EU Member States
2004
31.7
13.3
Comparative price levels of final consumption by private 
households including indirect taxes 
(EU-27=100)
2004
106.7
42.0
55.4
139.6
104.7
63.0
125.9
87.6
91.0
109.9
104.9
91.2
56.1
53.5
103.0
62.0
73.2
106.1
103.3
53.2
87.4
43.3
75.5
54.9
123.8
121.4
108.5
66.5
44.4
59.1
137.9
135.2
140.8
129.5
92.8

2007
105.4
46.0
62.6
136.9
103.2
71.3
126.0
88.6
93.0
106.7
102.9
87.7
65.0
59.7
105.1
65.7
73.2
103.1
100.0
63.4
84.6
64.7
76.9
63.0
121.4
116.4
112.3
69.5
43.0
72.2
146.0
137.5
125.7
:
:

2002
101.5
40.8
57.1
133.8
106.6
60.8
125.2
80.2
84.6
103.5
102.7
89.1
57.0
54.2
102.1
57.4
74.6
102.9
103.4
61.2
86.3
43.0
74.4
44.8
123.9
121.7
117.1
:
:
51.6
134.6
151.2
146.7
156.3
119.7

2001
103.2
41
50.0
135.2
107.0
61.1
119.3
82.3
85.4
104.1
99.7
88.9
59.0
54.1
103.5
52.9
74.8
103.0
104.8
64.8
84.4
41.7
73.9
43.4
124.8
119.9
116.8
:
:
47.7
127.9
141.8
146.3
177.7
126.1

2005
106.0
43.1
58.4
139.6
103.7
64.6
124.8
88.4
92.0
107.4
104.0
89.7
57.1
55.1
102.7
63.5
73.1
104.5
101.9
61.3
85.3
54.3
75.8
55.8
123.3
117.9
110.2
69.0
44.0
68.4
152.3
140.0
137.9
119.6
92.0

2006
106.2
44.8
61.5
139.2
103.3
66.5
124.9
89.1
93.3
107.3
104.1
90.1
60.6
56.6
103.2
60.0
73.4
103.9
101.2
62.1
85.7
57.0
75.3
58.3
121.7
117.5
110.8
69.9
44.5
68.4
141.7
139.8
134.2
109.1
91.6

2003
106.5
40.7
54.5
141.1
106.1
62.0
126.4
85.9
88.3
110.0
103.6
90.9
54.4
52.3
103.2
58.2
72.0
107.8
103.3
54.4
86.0
43.4
76.2
50.7
126.6
123.5
107.8
64.8
43.9
57.2
138.4
142.1
143.8
136.5
101.4

EU-27
Euro area (1)

BE (2)
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR (2)
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

(1) EA-13 instead of EA-15.
(2) Break in series for 2004.

Source: Eurostat (tsier020 and tsier010)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

31

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

GOVERNMENT PUBLIC BALANCE AND DEBT

Government  public  balance  and  debt  are  key  elements  when 
assessing  the  government  sector’s  fi nancial  position.  Both  the 
general  government  public  balance  and  general  government 
debt  are  reported  on  1  April  and  1  October  of  each  year  to  the 
European  Commission  within  the  framework  of  the  excessive 
defi cit procedure (EDP). Th  ese two indicators are also important 
measures that form part of the convergence criteria for European 
economic  and  monetary  union  (also  known  as  the  Maastricht 
criteria).

General  government  consolidated  gross  debt  is  expressed  as  a 
percentage  of  GDP.  It  refers  to  the  consolidated  stock  of  gross 
debt  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Under  the  convergence  criteria,  the 
debt ratio of general government consolidated gross debt to GDP 
should generally be no more than 60 % or should be approaching 
the reference value at a satisfactory pace.

Figure 1.9: Evolution of general government debt and public 
balance, EU-27 (% of GDP) (1)

100

80

60

40

20

0

General government debt criteria

Public balance criteria

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

General government debt 
(left-hand scale)

Public balance 
(right-hand scale)

(1) Public balance: net borrowing/lending of general government sector; 
general government debt: general government consolidated gross debt.

Source: Eurostat (tsieb080 and tsieb090)

32

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Th  e public balance is defi ned as general government net borrowing/
net  lending  and  is  also  expressed  in  relation  to  GDP.  General 
government comprises central, state and local government, as well 
as social security funds. Under the convergence criteria, the ratio 
of planned or actual government defi cit (net borrowing) to GDP 
should be no more than 3 %.

Table 1.7: General government debt and public balance 
(% of GDP) (1)

                        General government debt
2007
58.7
66.4
84.9
18.2
28.7
26.0
65.0
3.4
25.4
94.5
36.2
64.2
104.0
59.8
9.7
17.3
6.8
66.0
62.6
45.4
59.1
45.2
63.6
13.0
24.1
29.4
35.4
40.6
43.8
37.7
38.8
48.9

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
NO (2)

1997
68.5
73.6
122.3
105.1
13.1
65.2
59.7
6.2
64.2
108.2
66.1
59.2
118.1
56.6
11.1
15.6
7.4
64.0
48.4
68.2
63.8
42.9
56.1
16.5
:
33.8
53.8
71.8
49.8
:
:
:

2002
60.3
68.0
103.4
53.6
28.5
48.3
60.3
5.6
32.2
100.6
52.5
58.8
105.7
64.7
13.5
22.4
6.3
55.7
60.1
50.5
65.9
42.2
55.6
25.0
28.4
43.4
41.3
53.7
37.5
40.0
93.0
36.1

   Public balance
2002
-2.5
-2.5
0.0
-1.0
-6.8
0.2
-3.7
0.4
-0.4
-4.7
-0.5
-3.1
-2.9
-4.4
-2.3
-1.9
2.1
-8.9
-5.5
-2.1
-0.6
-5.0
-2.9
-2.0
-2.5
-8.2
4.1
-1.2
-2.0
-4.1
-12.9
9.3

1997
-2.6
-2.7
-2.0
:
-3.8
-0.6
-2.6
2.2
1.1
:
-3.4
-3.3
-2.7
-5.0
1.4
-11.9
3.7
-6.2
-7.7
-1.2
-1.8
-4.6
-3.5
-4.5
-2.4
-6.3
-1.2
-1.6
-2.2
:
:
:

2007
-0.9
-0.6
-0.2
3.4
-1.6
4.4
0.0
2.8
0.3
-2.8
2.2
-2.7
-1.9
3.3
0.0
-1.2
2.9
-5.5
-1.8
0.4
-0.5
-2.0
-2.6
-2.5
-0.1
-2.2
5.3
3.5
-2.9
-1.6
-1.2
19.3

(1) Public balance: net borrowing/lending of consolidated general government sector; 
general government debt: general government consolidated gross debt.
(2) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tsieb080 and tsieb090)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

33

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

TAXES AND SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS

Tax  statistics  correspond  to  revenues  which  are  levied  (in  cash 
or  in  kind)  by  parts  of  general  government:  central,  state  and 
local  governments  and  social  security  funds.  Th  ese  taxes  can 
be  organised  into  three  main  areas,  covered  by  the  following 
headings:

• 

• 

• 

taxes  on  income  and  wealth,  including  all  compulsory 
payments, levied periodically by general government mainly 
on  the  income  and  wealth  of  corporations  and  households, 
and  some  periodic  taxes  which  are  assessed  neither  on  the 
basis of income nor wealth;
taxes  on  production  and  imports,  including  all  compulsory 
payments,  levied  by  general  government  with  respect  to 
the  production  and  importation  of  goods  and  services,  the 
employment of labour, the ownership or use of land, buildings 
or other assets used in production;
social  contributions,  including  all  employers  and  employees 
social contributions payable to general government (mainly to 
social security funds), as well as imputed social contributions 
that represent the counterpart to social benefi ts paid directly 
by general government as an employer.

Figure 1.10: Taxes, EU-27 (% of GDP) (1)

15

14

13

12

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Social contributions

Taxes on production and imports

Current taxes on income, wealth, etc

(1) Note: the y-axis starts at 12.

Source: Eurostat (tec00018, tec00020 and tec00019)

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Economy and ﬁ nance

1

In the European Union as a whole, these three types of taxes are 
approximately equal in importance, although among the Member 
States many governments rely more heavily on one or two of the 
categories.

Table 1.8: Taxes (% of GDP)

Current taxes 
on income, 
wealth, etc.

 Taxes on
 production and
 imports

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO
CH (1)

2002
12.8
11.8
17.1
6.3
9.1
29.1
10.6
7.6
11.5
8.5
10.4
11.3
13.9
11.1
7.8
7.5
15.3
10.1
11.3
11.4
13.8
6.9
9.3
5.7
7.9
6.9
18.8
17.5
15.8
16.5
19.7
14.8

2007
13.4
12.5
16.4
6.5
9.2
29.8
11.2
7.7
12.9
8.0
12.9
11.5
15.2
14.0
9.4
9.4
13.3
10.2
13.3
12.2
13.4
8.6
9.8
7.0
9.0
6.0
17.6
19.0
16.5
19.4
21.6
15.3

2002
13.2
13.1
12.7
14.4
10.8
17.4
11.7
12.5
12.1
12.8
11.2
14.9
14.3
13.3
11.2
12.4
12.7
14.9
13.6
12.1
14.8
13.2
14.2
11.7
16.1
11.6
13.4
16.4
13.1
15.9
13.4
7.1

2007
13.5
13.5
12.9
17.4
10.7
17.7
12.6
13.5
13.5
12.1
11.8
15.1
14.7
20.1
12.8
11.8
12.6
15.6
14.8
12.7
14.0
14.2
15.1
12.8
15.0
11.4
13.1
16.7
12.4
18.8
12.7
7.2

(1) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00018, tec00020 and tec00019)

Social 
contributions
2002
2007
13.6
13.8
15.2
15.6
15.9
16.6
8.7
9.5
16.2
14.9
1.9
2.1
16.5
18.2
11.0
11.1
6.5
5.7
13.8
13.5
13.0
13.0
18.1
18.0
13.3
12.5
8.1
6.7
9.5
9.5
9.1
8.7
10.9
11.8
13.6
12.9
7.4
8.0
14.6
14.3
15.7
16.3
12.1
12.9
12.7
11.7
10.6
11.3
14.3
14.7
11.9
14.7
12.1
12.0
12.8
14.1
8.3
7.6
3.2
2.9
9.1
9.9
6.9
7.6

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

35

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

Foreign  direct  investment  (FDI)  is  a  type  of  international 
investment where an entity that is resident in one economy (the 
direct  investor)  acquires  a  lasting  interest  (at  least  10 %  of  the 
equity capital) in an enterprise operating in another economy.

Outward fl ows and stocks of FDI (or FDI abroad) report investment 
by  entities  resident  in  the  reporting  economy  in  an  affi  liated 
enterprise abroad. Inward fl ows and stocks report investment by 
foreigners in enterprises resident in the reporting economy.

Figure 1.11: Foreign direct investment (FDI) intensity - average 
value of inward and outward FDI fl ows divided by GDP, 2006 (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25
275275

30
280

EU-27
Euro area (1)
LU
HU
BE
MT
BG
EE
CY
SE
UK
RO
LV
ES
FR
SK
PL
NL
LT
IE
PT
CZ
AT
IT
DK
SI
DE
EL
FI
CH
HR
NO (2)
TR
US
JP

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-15. (2) 2005 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tsier130)

36

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

As  such,  FDI  may  be  seen  as  an  alternative  economic  strategy, 
adopted by those enterprises that invest to establish a new plant/
offi  ce,  or  alternatively,  purchase  existing  assets  of  a  foreign 
enterprise.  Th  ese  enterprises  seek  to  complement  or  substitute 
external trade, by producing (and oft en selling) goods and services 
in countries other than where the enterprise was fi rst established.

Th  e  intensity  of  FDI  can  be  measured  by  averaging  the  value  of 
inward  and  outward  fl ows  during  a  particular  reference  period 
and expressing this as a percentage of GDP.

Table 1.9: Foreign direct investment (FDI) - outfl ows from the 
reporting economy (1)

Total outflows of FDI from 
the reporting economy 
(EUR 1 000 million) (2)
1997
2002
496.1
206.6
13.0
:
0.0
:
0.2
0.0
6.6
3.7
20.1
72.5
0.1
0.1
9.0
:
:
:
34.8
11.1
53.6
34.1
18.3
9.4
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
133.7
:
0.3
:
0.0
0.0
34.0
25.4
6.2
1.8
0.2
0.0
-0.2
1.8
0.0
0.0
0.2
:
0.0
:
7.8
4.7
:
11.0
53.4
54.3
:
:
0.2
:
0.3
:
4.6
4.7
8.7
15.7
34.3
22.9
142.7
84.4

2007
971.9
37.9
0.2
1.0
11.9
122.3
1.1
12.1
3.9
87.4
159.3
64.2
0.8
0.2
0.4
132.9
25.8
0.0
22.8
23.2
2.4
4.5
0.0
1.2
0.2
6.3
26.8
165.4
0.2
0.7
:
:
55.7
40.0
172.5

EU (3)
BE
BG
CZ
DK (4)
DE
EE
IE
EL (5)
ES (4)
FR
IT (4)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR (6)
TR (6)
IS (6)
NO (6)
CH (6)
JP (6)
US (6)

Partner countries, 2007 
(EUR 1 000 million) 

 EU-27
552.0
28.0
0.1
0.6
4.8
70.6
0.9
5.9
1.4
62.2
124.6
63.9
0.6
0.0
0.4
54.6
19.2
0.0
29.1
8.0
1.3
2.8
-0.1
0.4
0.0
5.6
-5.2
44.2
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

JP
-1.9
-0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
2.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
:
0.8
:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
-2.8
:
:
:
:
0.4
-
9.7

US
112.6
5.2
0.0
0.0
1.6
16.0
0.0
3.2
0.1
11.1
11.7
1.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
19.2
4.9
:
-23.7
:
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
-0.6
2.2
33.0
0.0
0.0
:
:
13.6
7.4
-

(1) Negative values represent disinvestment. (2) To the rest of the world. (3) Includes intra-
EU ﬂ ows; EU-15 for 1997; EU-25 for 2002; EU-27 for 2007. (4) Excludes reinvested earnings in 
1997. (5) Excludes reinvested earnings in 2002. (6) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00053)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

37

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (CONT.)

FDI  fl ows  are  new  investments  made  during  the  reference  period, 
whereas FDI stocks provide information on the position, in terms of 
value, of all previous investments at the end of the reference period.

Figure 1.12: Stocks of foreign direct investment in the EU-27, 
2006 (% of extra EU-27 FDI) (1)

Rest of 
the world
24.4%

Oceania and southern 
polar regions
0.9%

Africa
1.1%

South 
America
1.2%

Asia
10.1%

Central 
America
12.7%

North 
America
49.6%

(1) For information on the classiﬁ cations used, refer to http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/
sdds/en/bop/bop_fdi_sm.htm.

Source: Eurostat (bop_fdi_pos)

Figure 1.13: EU-27 stocks of foreign direct investment abroad, 
2006 (% of extra EU-27 FDI) (1)

Rest of 
the world
23.1%

North 
America
39.9%

Oceania and southern 
polar regions
2.1%

Africa
4.6%

South 
America
6.2%

Central 
America
10.6%

Asia
13.6%

(1) For information on the classiﬁ cations used, refer to http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/
sdds/en/bop/bop_fdi_sm.htm; ﬁ gures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.

Source: Eurostat (bop_fdi_pos)

38

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Table 1.10: Foreign direct investment (FDI) - infl ows into the 
reporting economy (1)

Total inflows of FDI into 
the reporting economy 
(EUR 1 000 million) (2)
1997
2002
486.6
124.8
17.3
:
0.6
0.4
9.0
1.1
5.2
2.5
56.9
21.2
0.3
0.2
30.8
:
:
:
41.7
5.6
52.1
22.6
15.5
3.3
1.1
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.8
0.3
122.4
:
3.2
:
-0.5
0.1
26.6
11.1
0.4
2.3
4.4
4.3
1.9
2.1
1.2
1.1
0.9
:
4.0
:
8.5
1.9
:
9.3
25.5
29.3
:
:
1.1
:
0.1
:
0.3
3.6
6.7
5.9
9.8
2.8
78.7
91.2

2007
788.4
28.5
6.1
6.7
8.3
37.2
1.8
18.9
1.4
39.0
109.5
22.7
1.5
1.6
1.4
86.8
26.8
0.7
72.7
22.6
12.8
4.1
7.3
1.1
2.2
6.2
13.7
135.7
2.7
15.9
:
:
20.9
-5.2
139.7

EU (3)
BE
BG
CZ
DK (4)
DE
EE
IE
EL (5)
ES (4)
FR
IT (4)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR (6)
TR (6)
IS (6)
NO (6)
CH (6)
JP (6)
US (6)

Partner countries, 2007 
(EUR 1 000 million)

EU-27
469.2
18.1
5.4
5.9
5.6
35.8
1.8
-2.0
1.2
36.1
86.1
22.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
36.6
15.6
0.5
67.4
18.6
10.9
2.8
6.5
0.8
1.8
5.4
3.7
48.7
3.5
11.6
:
:
:
:
:

JP
17.8
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0
1.2
0.0
-1.6
0.0
-0.3
0.9
-0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.0
:
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
8.8
0.0
0.0
:
:
:
-
17.0

US
144.5
1.0
0.2
0.3
1.0
-4.6
0.0
14.4
0.1
1.9
14.2
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
21.4
1.4
0.0
13.1
:
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
-0.4
23.0
-1.1
0.6
:
:
2.5
0.1
-

(1) Negative values represent disinvestment.
(2) From the rest of the world.
(3) Includes intra-EU ﬂ ows; EU-15 for 1997; EU-25 for 2002; EU-27 for 2007.
(4) Excludes reinvested earnings in 1997.
(5) Excludes reinvested earnings in 2002.
(6) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00049)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

39

1 Economy and ﬁ nance

OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

Offi  cial development assistance (ODA) consists of grants or loans 
that  are  undertaken  by  the  offi  cial  sector  with  the  promotion  of 
economic  development  and  welfare  in  the  recipient  countries 
as  the  main  objective.  Th  e  net  disbursements  for  ODA  to 
development assistance committee (DAC) countries are expressed 
as a percentage of gross national income (GNI) at market prices. 
Disbursements  are  the  release  of  funds  to  a  recipient,  or  the 
purchase  of  goods  or  services  for  a  recipient.  Disbursements 
record the actual international transfer of fi nancial resources, or 
of goods or services valued at the cost of the donor.

DAC  countries  refer  to  ‘developing  countries  and  territories’  on 
Part I of the OECD DAC List of Aid Recipients for which there 
is a long-standing United Nations target of 0.7 % of donors’ gross 
national product.

Figure 1.14: EU-15 offi  cial development assistance, 
(% of gross national income)

UN target

2015 target

2010  target

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

1990 

1995 

2000 

2005

2010

2015

Source: Eurostat (tsdgp100)

40

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Economy and ﬁ nance

1

Figure 1.15: Offi  cial development assistance, 2007 
(% of gross national income)

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

EU-27

SE

LU

DK

NL

IE

AT

BE

ES

FI

FR

DE

UK

IT

PT

EL

MT

EE

CY

SI

CZ

LT

PL

SK

HU

RO

BG

LV

NO

CH

IS

TR (1)

(1) Data are for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tsdgp100)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

41

I

2

Population and social conditions

2 Population and social conditions

WORLD POPULATION

Th  is chapter on population and social conditions presents a wide-
range of statistics related to people in the European Union: how many 
there  are,  their  health,  education,  work,  income  and  expenditure. 
Th  e fi rst pages position the people of Europe as a whole within the 
world’s population that is approaching 7 billion persons.

Although the world’s population increased signifi cantly from 1960, 
each successive decade has recorded a progressively slower rate of 
growth, with diff erent patterns across the six continents. Europe 
had by far the lowest growth rates. Asia, as well as Latin America 
and  the  Caribbean  recorded  progressively  slower  population 
growth  rates  too  from  one  decade  to  the  next.  Africa  initially 
recorded an increasing growth rate, peaking at an annual average 
growth of 2.9 % in the 1980s, aft er which the rate of growth fell to 
an average of 2.3 % in the fi ve years to 2005. Northern America 
and Oceania both recorded a higher average annual growth rate 
in the 1960s compared with the 1970s, aft er which annual average 
rates of growth were relatively stable.

As  a  result  of  a  slower  than  average  expansion  of  population, 
Europe’s share of the world population fell from around one fi ft h in 
1960 to just over one tenth in 2005. Th  e North American share also 
fell, though to a lesser extent, while the share of Oceania remained 
roughly  stable.  Th  e  share  of  the  other  three  continents  increased, 
most notably that of Africa which rose from 9.3 % in 1960 to 14.2 % 
in 2005. Asia remained the largest continent in population terms, 
with 3.9 billion persons in 2005, equivalent to some three fi ft hs of 
the world’s population.

44

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Figure 2.1: World population, 2005 (%) (1)

Northern 
America
5.1%

Oceania
0.5%

Latin America 
& the Caribbean
8.6%

Europe
11.2%

Africa
14.2%

Asia
60.4%

(1) For information on the geographical classiﬁ cations used, refer to  
http://esa.un.org/unpp/.

Source: United Nations - http://esa.un.org/unpp

Table 2.1: World population (1)

Europe
Africa
Asia
Latin America & the Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania

2005 
(million)
731.1
922.0
3 938.0
558.0
332.2
33.4

Share of 2005 (%)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
99.6
94.8
82.8
89.0
52.0
30.6
94.1
66.9
43.3
93.7
65.3
39.5
95.0
76.9
61.4
93.1
68.4
47.5

98.7
69.1
80.8
79.6
85.5
80.0

89.8
39.5
54.3
51.5
69.8
58.8

(1) For information on the geographical classiﬁ cations used, refer to 
http://esa.un.org/unpp/.

Source: United Nations - http://esa.un.org/unpp

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

45

2 Population and social conditions

EU POPULATION

Total  population  fi gures  refer  to  the  population  as  of  1  January 
each year. Th  e statistics presented should cover the total number of 
inhabitants of a given area (irrespective of their nationality). Data 
are usually based on the most recent census information, adjusted 
by the components of population change. Population change is the 
diff erence in population between two reference dates and is equal 
to the sum of natural population change (the number of live births 
minus the number of deaths) and net migration (a measure of the 
diff erence between those arriving at a territory and those leaving).

Eurostat  predicts  that,  under  normal  conditions,  the  EU-27’s 
population will be fairly unchanged through to 2025, aft er which 
it  is  expected  to  contract.  In  the  period  up  to  2025,  modest 
population gains are expected among most of the EU-15 Member 
States  (except  Italy),  whereas  the  populations  of  most  of  the 
Member States that joined the European Union in 2004 or 2007 
are expected to contract (other than in Malta and Cyprus where 
there will be considerable growth).

Figure 2.2: Population change, EU-27 (million) (1)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Net migration (2)

Natural change (3)

(1) Break in series: 1998.
(2) Net migration is estimated as the difference between total population change and 
natural population change; it therefore includes corrections due to population censuses, 
register counts, etc. which cannot be classiﬁ ed as births, deaths or migration.
(3) The difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths during the 
reference year.

Source: Eurostat (tps00007 and tsdde230)

46

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Population density is the ratio of mid-year population, as defi ned 
by the number of inhabitants, relative to the size of the territory in 
square kilometres (km2).

Please  note  that  at  the  end  of  this  publication,  the  fi nal  chapter 
presents regional data for population growth.

Table 2.2: Population indicators

Population, 
as of 1 January 
2008 (millions) 
497.5
321.5
10.7
7.6
10.4
5.5
82.2
1.3
4.4
11.2
45.3
63.8
59.6
0.8
2.3
3.4
0.5
10.0
0.4
16.4
8.3
38.1
10.6
21.5
2.0
5.4
5.3
9.2
61.2
4.4
2.0
70.6
0.3
0.0
4.7
7.6

EU-27 
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

Population, as of 
1 January (% of 2008) (1)

1960
81.3
79.2
85.3
103.0
92.7
83.0
88.3
93.0
64.4
74.1
66.9
73.4
83.9
71.5
91.5
81.0
62.6
99.6
81.8
69.6
84.7
77.4
83.3
85.2
79.0
73.5
83.3
81.2
85.3
93.8
69.2
38.4
58.0
46.0
75.9
69.7

1990
94.9
92.5
93.0
115.4
99.6
93.4
96.2
120.8
79.7
90.4
85.7
91.4
95.1
71.6
116.0
108.6
75.9
103.7
88.1
90.8
92.1
99.8
94.3
108.0
99.8
97.9
93.9
92.7
93.4
108.6
93.7
78.6
84.6
80.5
90.1
87.8

2030
104.9
106.1
109.8
88.9
100.2
105.6
97.5
97.5
133.7
103.3
116.2
109.8
103.8
134.0
88.4
90.7
121.3
96.5
107.9
104.9
108.3
97.0
106.8
93.3
101.1
98.7
105.1
111.6
113.1
:
:
:
:
:
117.2
113.6

2060
102.1
103.4
114.9
72.2
91.5
107.6
86.1
87.1
153.5
99.3
114.6
116.0
99.6
165.0
73.1
74.9
146.3
87.2
101.2
101.2
108.9
81.7
106.3
78.7
88.9
84.2
101.9
118.2
125.3
:
:
:
:
:
128.4
121.0

Population 
density, 2006 
(inhab. per 
km2) 
114.8
:
347.8
69.4
132.9
126.2
230.7
30.9
62.3
85.2
87.2
99.9
199.7
83.5
36.7
54.2
182.8
108.3
1 287.8
483.8
99.5
122.0
114.9
93.9
99.6
110.0
17.3
22.1
250.0
78.5
81.9
93.0
3.0
219.0
15.3
187.1

(1) Metropolitan France, EU-27 and euro area calculated accordingly.

Source: Eurostat (demo_gind, demo_pjan, proj_08c2150p and tps00003)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

47

2 Population and social conditions

EU POPULATION BY AGE CLASS

Th  e  impact  of  demographic  change  within  the  European  Union 
is  likely  to  be  of  major  signifi cance  in  the  coming  decades. 
Consistently  low  birth  rates  and  higher  life  expectancy  will 
transform the shape of the European Union’s age pyramid; probably 
the most important change will be the marked transition towards a 
much older population and this trend is already apparent in many 
Member States. Th  e share of older persons in the total European 
Union population will increase signifi cantly from 2010 onwards, 
as the post-war baby-boom generation reaches retirement. Th  ese 
demographic trends have economic and social consequences, and 
were addressed by a European Commission communication from 

Figure 2.3: Age pyramid, EU-27, 2006 
(% of male/female population)

85 and over

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

0-4

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

Source: Eurostat (demo_ppavg)

Male

Female

48

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

21  May  1999  titled  ‘Towards  a  Europe  for  all  ages  –  promoting 
prosperity  and  inter-generational  solidarity’,  which  encouraged 
active  ageing  and  equal  opportunities.  Th  e  (revised)  Lisbon 
strategy pays particular attention to the demographic challenges 
that  face  the  Union  in  relation  to  policies  for  economic  growth 
and social cohesion.

Table 2.3: Population by age class, 2007 (% of total population)

Age (years)

EU-27
Euro area (1)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL 
ES
FR
IT 
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

0-14
15.8
15.5
17.0
13.4
14.4
18.6
13.9
14.9
20.3
14.3
14.5
18.6
14.1
17.9
14.0
15.9
18.3
15.2
16.7
18.1
15.6
15.8
15.5
15.4
14.0
16.1
17.1
17.0
17.6
15.6
18.9
27.9
21.8
17.1
19.4
15.8

15-24
12.6
11.7
12.1
13.3
13.1
11.4
11.7
15.4
14.8
11.6
11.5
12.8
10.2
15.5
15.7
15.7
11.8
12.8
14.2
12.0
12.3
15.9
11.9
14.9
12.7
15.6
12.5
12.7
13.4
12.9
16.0
17.4
14.6
12.3
12.5
11.9

25-49
36.3
36.7
35.4
35.6
36.9
34.7
36.3
34.7
38.3
37.6
40.5
34.2
37.3
37.3
35.6
36.2
38.8
35.7
34.6
36.1
37.6
36.0
37.4
37.0
37.8
38.0
32.9
33.2
35.1
35.2
36.9
37.5
36.0
39.0
35.0
37.2

50-64
18.3
18.1
18.5
20.4
21.2
20.0
18.4
17.9
15.5
18.0
16.8
18.2
18.4
16.9
17.6
16.6
17.1
20.4
20.6
19.4
17.6
18.9
18.0
17.8
19.6
18.4
21.1
19.7
17.9
19.2
17.0
11.1
15.9
19.7
18.5
18.9

65-79
12.6
13.3
12.5
13.8
11.1
11.2
15.2
13.6
8.4
14.7
12.1
11.4
14.6
9.5
13.7
12.5
10.7
12.3
10.8
10.8
12.4
10.6
13.2
12.2
12.5
9.3
12.3
12.0
11.5
14.0
9.6
:
8.6
8.9
10.0
11.6

80+
4.3
4.6
4.6
3.5
3.3
4.1
4.6
3.5
2.7
3.9
4.5
4.8
5.3
2.8
3.4
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.0
3.7
4.5
2.9
4.1
2.7
3.4
2.5
4.2
5.4
4.5
3.1
1.6
:
3.1
3.0
4.7
4.6

(1) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tps00010)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

49

2 Population and social conditions

MARRIAGES AND DIVORCES

Th  e  crude  marriage  rate  is  the  number  of  marriages  during  a 
year  in  relation  to  the  average  population,  expressed  per  1 000 
inhabitants.  Equally,  the  crude  divorce  rate  relates  the  number 
of divorces to the average population, again expressed per 1 000 
inhabitants.  Despite  a  peak  in  the  late  1980s,  the  marriage  rate 
for the European Union has been on a downward trend since the 
early 1970s, coinciding with an increase in the mean age at fi rst 
marriage.

Note that divorce is possible in each of the Member States, except 
for Malta.

Figure 2.4: Number of fi rst marriages, 2005 (‰ population)

0

2

4

6

8

EU-27

Euro area

CY

MT

RO

DK

PL

EL

IE

LT

ES

SK

FI

PT

LV

IT

CZ

BG

UK

BE

FR

SE

AT

DE

HU

NL

LU

EE

SI

Source: Eurostat (demo_nsinagec and tps00001)

50

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.4: Marriage and divorce indicators

Marriages 
(‰ population)
2001
4.9
4.8
4.1
4.0
5.1
6.8
4.7
4.1
5.0
5.2
5.1
4.8
4.6
15.1
3.9
4.5
4.5
4.3
5.6
5.0
4.3
5.1
5.7
5.9
3.5
4.4
4.8
4.0
4.8
5.0
:
:
5.2
6.0
5.1
5.0

1996
5.2
5.0
5.0
4.4
5.2
6.8
5.2
3.9
4.5
4.2
4.9
4.8
4.9
8.7
3.9
5.7
5.1
4.8
6.4
5.5
5.3
5.3
6.3
6.8
3.8
5.1
4.8
3.8
5.4
5.4
7.1
:
5.0
14.2
5.3
5.8

2006
4.9
4.5
4.3
4.3
5.2
6.7
4.5
5.2
5.1
5.2
4.6
4.3
4.1
6.8
6.4
6.3
4.2
4.4
6.3
4.4
4.5
5.9
4.5
6.8
3.2
4.8
5.4
5.0
5.2
5.0
7.3
8.9
5.5
4.3
4.7
5.3

EU-27 (1)
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE (3)
EL
ES (3)
FR
IT (3)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK (3)
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

Divorces 
(‰ population)
2001
1.9
1.8
2.8
1.3
3.1
2.7
2.4
3.2
0.7
1.1
1.0
1.9
0.7
1.7
2.4
3.2
2.3
2.4
-
2.3
2.6
1.2
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.8
2.6
2.4
2.7
1.1
0.7
:
1.9
2.5
2.3
2.2

1996
1.8
1.6
2.8
1.2
3.2
2.4
2.1
4.0
0.0
0.9
0.8
2.0
0.6
1.1
2.5
3.1
2.0
2.2
-
2.2
2.3
1.0
1.3
1.6
1.0
1.7
2.7
2.4
3.0
0.8
0.4
:
2.0
1.4
2.3
2.3

2006
2.0
1.9
2.8
1.9
3.1
2.6
2.3
2.8
0.8
1.3
1.7
2.2
0.8
2.3
3.2
3.3
2.5
2.5
-
1.9
2.5
1.9
2.3
1.5
1.2
2.4
2.5
2.2
2.6
1.1
0.7
1.3
1.6
2.3
2.3
2.8

(1) Data for 2005 instead of 2006.
(2) Marriages for 1996, divorces for 1996 and 2001: EA-13 instead of EA-15.
(3) Divorces: 2005 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tps00012 and tps00013)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

51

2 Population and social conditions

BIRTHS AND FERTILITY

Live births are defi ned as the total number of births excluding still 
births. Th  e crude birth rate is the ratio of the number of births to 
the average population in a particular reference year (the result is 
generally  expressed  per  1 000  inhabitants).  Live  births  outside  of 
marriage are those where the mother’s marital status at the time of 
birth is other than married.

Th  e total fertility rate is the mean number of children that would 
be born to a woman during her lifetime if she were to pass through 
her childbearing years conforming to the age specifi c fertility rates 
of a given year. In developed countries, a rate of about 2.1 children is 
considered to maintain a stable population in the long run, under a 
hypothetical situation with zero net migration. Fertility rates in the 
European Union have generally been below this natural replacement 
level  across  most  Member  States  for  a  couple  of  decades.  Indeed, 
fertility  rates  in  the  majority  of  the  Member  States  continued  to 
decline  over  this  period  and  only  a  handful  of  countries  within 
the  European  Union  report  fertility  rates  anywhere  near  to  the 
replacement level.

Figure 2.5: Birth rates, EU-27 (1)
10.8

10.6

10.4

10.2

5.5

5.3

5.1

4.9

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Crude birth rate (‰, left-hand scale) (2)

Live births (millions, right-hand scale)

(1) Break in series: 1998; note: the y-axes do not start at 0.
(2) Provisional: 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tps00112 and tps00111)

52

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.5: Birth and fertility indicators

Number of live 
births (1 000)
1997
5 117.9
3 200.1
116.2
64.1
90.7
67.6
812.2
12.6
52.8
102.0
369.0
758.1
534.5
9.3
18.8
37.8
5.5
100.4
4.8
192.4
84.0
412.6
113.0
236.9
18.2
59.1
59.3
90.5
726.6
55.5
29.5
1 480.0
4.2
0.4
59.8
80.6

2007
5 266.1
3 308.0
120.7
75.3
114.6
64.1
682.7
15.8
70.6
110.0
488.3
816.5
563.2
8.5
23.3
32.3
5.5
97.6
3.9
180.9
76.3
387.9
102.5
214.7
19.6
54.4
58.7
107.4
770.7
42.0
22.7
1 361.0
4.5
0.4
58.5
74.4

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

Crude birth rate 
(‰)

Total fertility rate 
(number of children)

1997
10.7
10.5
11.4
7.7
8.8
12.8
9.9
9.0
14.4
9.5
9.3
12.7
9.4
13.8
7.7
10.6
13.1
9.8
12.9
12.3
10.5
10.7
11.2
10.5
9.1
11.0
11.5
10.2
12.5
12.2
14.8
23.1
15.3
13.9
13.6
11.4

2007
10.6
10.3
11.4
9.8
11.1
11.7
8.3
11.8
16.2
9.8
10.9
12.8
9.5
10.8
10.2
9.6
11.4
9.7
9.5
11.0
9.2
10.2
9.7
10.0
9.7
10.1
11.1
11.7
12.6
9.5
11.1
19.4
14.5
10.0
12.4
9.9

1996
:
:
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.3
1.4
1.9
1.3
1.2
:
1.2
2.0
1.2
1.5
1.8
1.5
:
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
:
2.1
:
2.1
:
1.9
1.5

2006 (1)
:
:
:
1.4
1.3
1.8
1.3
1.6
1.9
1.4
1.4
2.0
1.3
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.7
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.8
1.9
1.8
1.4
1.5
:
2.1
1.4
1.9
1.4

(1) Italy: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (tps00111, tps00112 and tsdde220)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

53

2 Population and social conditions

MIGRATION

Migration  and  asylum  are  highly  political  topics:  the  statistics 
produced in this area are used, among others, to monitor common 
asylum  policy  and  harmonised  immigration  policies  across  the 
European Union. Th  e data are also used to assess the inclusion of 
migrant  populations  and  measures  to  prevent  discrimination.  In 
many of the Member States, migration is an important component 
of  population  change.  Net  migration  is  defi ned  as  the  diff erence 
between  immigration  into  and  emigration  from  the  territory 
considered.  As  the  latter  is  not  easy  to  measure,  net  migration  is 
oft en estimated on the basis of the diff erence between population 
change  and  natural  increase.  Eurostat  produces  corrected  net 
migration fi gures by taking the diff erence between total and natural 
population increases. Th  is assumes that any movement of population 
not attributable to natural change (births and deaths) is attributable 
to  migration.  Corrections  due  to  population  censuses  or  register 
counts which cannot be classifi ed as births, deaths or migrations are 
also taken into account in the net migration fi gures.

Figure 2.6: Net migration, including corrections, EU-27 
(millions) (1)

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

(1) Break in series: 1998.

Source: Eurostat (tsdde230)

54

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.6: Migration indicators

  Net migration, 
including corrections
    (1 000)
2002
1 851.8
1 659.3
40.5
0.9
12.3
9.6
218.8
0.2
32.7
38.0
649.2
184.2
344.8
6.9
-1.8
-2.0
2.6
3.5
1.7
27.6
34.8
-17.9
70.0
-1.6
2.2
0.9
5.3
30.9
157.6
8.6
-24.8
-1.0
-0.3
0.2
17.2
47.6

1997
430.5
386.7
9.7
0.0
12.1
12.0
93.4
-6.9
17.4
61.4
94.4
:
50.4
4.8
-9.4
-22.4
3.6
17.6
0.6
30.4
1.5
-11.8
28.9
-13.3
-1.3
1.7
4.8
6.0
58.4
0.2
-1.9
101.0
0.2
0.0
9.7
-2.6

2007
1 910.4
1 580.8
62.3
-1.4
83.9
23.1
47.8
0.2
64.4
41.0
701.9
71.0
494.3
12.8
-0.6
-5.2
6.0
14.0
2.0
-1.6
31.4
-20.5
19.5
0.7
14.1
6.8
13.9
54.0
174.6
5.8
0.1
0.0
4.0
0.1
39.5
69.3

Citizenship of 
immigrants, 2006 
(% of total)

Nationals
:
:
:
:
3.0
39.6
15.6
:
18.3
:
4.5
:
:
6.5
17.7
71.1
4.3
10.0
64.0
33.1
15.4
83.1
:
:
8.8
10.3
38.2
16.0
14.6
93.1
23.4
:
:
:
18.2
16.0

Foreigners
:
:
:
:
97.0
60.4
84.4
:
81.7
:
95.5
:
:
93.5
82.3
28.9
95.7
90.0
36.0
66.9
84.6
16.9
:
:
91.2
89.7
61.8
84.0
85.4
6.9
76.6
:
:
:
81.8
84.0

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

Source: Eurostat (tsdde230 and migr_immiagec)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

55

2 Population and social conditions

CITIZENSHIP AND ASYLUM

Th  e acquisition of citizenship is sometimes viewed as an indicator 
for the formal integration of migrants into their host country. Th  e 
granting of citizenship usually requires a period of legal residence, 
together  with  other  factors  (for  example,  language  profi ciency). 
Citizenship may be granted to persons who have previously been 
citizens of another country, or to persons who have been stateless. 
Asylum applications refer to all persons who apply on an individual 
basis for asylum or similar protection, irrespective of whether they 
lodge their application on arrival or from inside the country, and 
irrespective of whether they entered the country legally or illegally. 

Figure 2.7: Foreigners in the population, 1 January 2007 
(% of total population)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

LU

LV

EE (1)

CY

IE

ES

AT

DE

BE

EL (1)

UK (1)

FR (1)

SE

DK

IT

NL

PT

MT

CZ

SI

FI

HU

LT

SK

BG (1)

PL

RO

(1) Estimate.

Source: Eurostat (tps00157 and tps00001)

56

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

An asylum applicant is a person who has requested protection under: 
either Article 1 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 
of 28 July 1951, as amended by the New York Protocol of 31 January 
1967; or within the remit of the United Nations convention against 
torture and other forms of cruel or inhuman treatment (UNCAT); 
or  the  European  convention  on  human  rights;  or  other  relevant 
instruments of protection.

Table 2.7: Citizenship and asylum indicators

Acquisition of 
citizenship, 2006 
(persons)
:
:
:
6 738
2 346
7 961
124 566
4 781
5 763
1 962
62 375
147 868
35 266
3 952
18 964
467
1 128
6 101
474
29 089
25 746
989
3 627
29
3 204
1 125
4 433
51 239
154 015
12 292
2 147
5 072
:
11 955
46 711

EU-27 (1)
Euro area (2)
BE (1)
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT (1)
CY (3)
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL (4)
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS (1)
NO (1)
CH (1)

    Asylum applications

Asylum decisions, 
2007

2002

1997

2007
: 421 470 197 410
195 570 244 035 124 040
8 870
18 800
11 790
815
2 890
370
1 585
8 485
2 110
2 225
5 945
5 100
19 165
71 125
104 355
15
10
0
3 935
11 635
3 880
25 115
5 665
4 375
7 195
6 310
4 975
29 160
51 085
21 415
10 350
16 015
1 890
6 780
950
:
35
25
:
125
365
240
425
1 040
435
3 420
6 410
:
1 380
350
70
7 100
18 665
34 445
11 920
39 355
6 720
7 205
5 170
3 580
225
245
250
660
1 000
1 425
370
650
70
2 640
9 745
645
1 405
3 445
970
36 205
9 680
33 015
27 905
32 500 103 080
:
:
:
:
:
:
40
:
5 320
17 480
8 580
24 255

:
:
:
:
2 270
23 185

(rejections 
as % of)
57.8
68.4
70.8
31.8
68.9
44.1
44.6
66.7
90.0
98.5
95.5
88.5
39.7
32.3
50.0
34.5
41.5
49.0
34.6
53.0
41.4
29.7
77.3
57.6
50.0
39.7
51.7
37.5
70.5
:
:
:
66.7
48.0
:

(units)
237 970
139 650
8 345
770
2 280
850
28 570
15
3 810
20 990
5 400
29 150
9 260
7 170
20
145
1 035
2 805
955
14 180
16 045
6 185
110
590
540
2 970
2 020
32 470
27 630
:
:
:
30
4 215
:

(1) Asylum indicators: 2006 instead of 2007.
(2) EA-13 instead of EA-15; asylum indicators: 2006 instead of 2007.
(3) Acquisition of citizenship: 2005 instead of 2006.
(4) Asylum decisions: 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tps00024, tps00021, tps00163 and tps00164)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

57

2 Population and social conditions

LIFE EXPECTANCY AND MORTALITY

Data on causes of death provide information on mortality patterns, 
classifi ed  according  to  a  short  list  based  on  the  international 
statistical  classifi cation  of  diseases  and  related  health  problems 
(ICD).  Th  e  information  is  gathered  from  death  certifi cates,  as 
medical  certifi cation  of  death  is  obligatory  in  all  Member  States. 
Th  e  statistics  presented  refer  to  the  underlying  cause  of  death,  in 
other words, the disease or injury which initiated the events leading 
to  death,  or  the  circumstances  of  the  accident  or  violence  which 
produced the fatal injury.

Th  e statistics presented for life expectancy in this publication refer 
to the mean number of years that a newborn child can expect to 
live  if  subjected  throughout  his/her  life  to  the  current  mortality 
conditions. A similar indicator for life expectancy at 65 refl ects the 
mean number of years still to be lived by a person who has reached 
the age of 65, if subjected throughout the rest of his or her life to the 
current mortality conditions.

Figure 2.8: Causes of death, EU-27, 2006 
(standardised rates per 100 000 persons) (1)

0

50

100

150

200

250

0

10

20

30

40

Cancer (= malignant neoplasm)

Ischaemic heart diseases

Accidents

Diseases of the nervous system

Pneumonia

Chronic liver disease

Diabetes mellitus

Suicide and intentional self-harm

Alcoholic abuse

AIDS (HIV-disease)

Homicide, assault

Drug dependence

Male

Female

(1) Note the change in scale between the two parts of the graph; graph is ranked on the 
average of male and female.

Source: Eurostat (tps00116, tps00119, tps00122, tps00125, tps00128, tps00131, tps00134, 
tps00137, tps00140, tps00143, tps00146 and tps00149)

58

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Th  e  indicators  concerning  healthy  life  years  show  the  number  of 
years that a person is (still) expected to live in a healthy condition. 
A  healthy  condition  is  defi ned  by  the  absence  of  limitations  in 
functioning/disability. Th  e indicator is also called disability-free life 
expectancy (DFLE).

Table 2.8: Life expectancy and healthy life years

Life expectancy, 
2006 (years) (1)

Healthy life years, 
2006 (years)

At birth
Male Fem.
75.2 81.5
76.8 82.8
76.6 82.3
69.2 76.3
73.5 79.9
76.1 80.7
77.2 82.4
67.4 78.6
77.3 82.1
77.2 81.9
77.7 84.4
77.3 84.4
77.9 83.8
78.8 82.4
65.4 76.3
65.3 77.0
76.8 81.9
69.2 77.8
77.0 81.9
77.7 82.0
77.2 82.8
70.9 79.7
75.5 82.3
69.2 76.2
74.5 82.0
70.4 78.4
75.9 83.1
78.8 83.1
77.1 81.1
72.5 79.3
71.7 76.2
:
:
79.5 82.9
78.9 83.1
78.2 82.9
79.2 84.2

At age 65
Male Fem.
16.4 19.9
:
:
17.0 20.6
13.2 16.3
14.8 18.3
16.2 19.2
17.2 20.5
13.2 18.3
16.8 20.2
17.5 19.4
17.9 22.0
18.2 22.6
17.5 21.5
17.7 19.7
12.7 17.3
13.0 17.6
17.0 20.3
13.6 17.7
16.1 19.5
16.8 20.3
17.3 20.7
14.5 18.8
16.6 20.2
13.6 16.5
15.8 20.0
13.3 17.3
16.9 21.2
17.7 20.9
17.0 19.5
14.2 17.7
13.6 15.5
:
:
18.5 20.7
18.4 20.7
17.7 20.9
18.5 22.1

At birth (2)
Male Fem.
:
:
:
:
62.8 62.8
:
:
57.8 59.8
67.7 67.1
58.5 58.0
49.4 53.7
63.3 65.0
66.3 67.9
63.7 63.3
62.7 64.1
64.4 64.0
64.3 63.2
50.5 52.1
52.4 56.1
61.0 61.8
54.2 57.0
68.1 69.2
65.0 63.2
58.4 60.8
58.2 62.5
59.6 57.6
:
:
57.6 61.0
54.3 54.4
52.9 52.7
67.1 67.0
64.9 64.8
:
:
:
:
:
:
68.3 65.3
65.7 63.4
:
:
:
:

At age 65 (3)
Male Fem.
:
:
9.8
:
7.1
14.1
7.3
3.9
10.6
10.2
9.4
9.5
8.4
7.2
4.2
5.2
9.1
5.5
9.7
11.2
7.5
8.1
5.9
:
9.5
3.8
7.4
13.9
10.8
:
:
:
12.8
11.9
:
:

:
:
9.5
:
6.7
12.6
7.7
4.0
9.2
10.1
9.9
8.6
8.5
9.4
4.4
5.8
8.6
5.0
9.9
10.9
7.0
7.2
6.8
:
8.3
4.0
6.1
12.9
10.2
:
:
:
13.6
12.4
:
:

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

(1) United Kingdom: data are for 2005; Italy: data are for 2004; EU-27 and euro area: data are 
for 2004.
(2) Number of years that a person at birth is still expected to live in a healthy condition.
(3) Number of years that a person at age 65 is still expected to live in a healthy condition.

Source: Eurostat (tps00025, tsdde210, tsien180 and tsdph220)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

59

2 Population and social conditions

HEALTH PROBLEMS

Smoking is widely accepted as one of the leading causes of potential 
health problems and has come in for particular attention, as legislation 
has  been  adopted  in  a  number  of  Member  States  restricting  or 
forbidding smoking in public places and/or workplaces (including, 
in particular, bars and restaurants), as well as on collective transport, 
while indirect taxes, health warnings, and restrictions on advertising 
have also targeted smokers.

Obesity and being overweight increase the risk of premature death 
and disability. Overweight people are those with a body mass index 

Figure 2.9: People having a long-standing illness or health 
problem, 2006 (% of persons aged 18 or more) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

FI

DE

EE

UK

SI

HU

LV

SE

FR

LT

PL

NL

PT

CZ

CY

DK

SK

IE

BE

ES

LU

AT

IT

MT

EL

Male

Female

(1) Long-standing is anything that has troubled the respondent over a period of time or that 
is likely to affect the respondent over a period of time; Bulgaria and Romania: not available; 
graph is ranked on the average of male and female.

Source: Eurostat (hlth_silc_11)

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Population and social conditions

2

(BMI) greater than or equal to 25, while the threshold for obesity is 
a BMI of 30. Th  e BMI is a measure of the body fat content of adults 
calculated as the ratio between the weight measured in kilograms, 
and the square of the height measured in metres.

Salmonellosis  is  a  food-borne  illness  caused  by  the  bacteria 
salmonella. Salmonella bacteria cause an infection usually limited to 
the gastrointestinal system in humans but these organisms may also 
spread to other parts of the body. Salmonellosis is a communicable 
disease, threatening human health. 

Table 2.9: Health problems (%) (1)

Smokers

Female 
23.6
29.7
24.3
34.6
27.9
20.2
25.2
21.2
24.7
21.2
17.6
13.2
22.6
25.5
:
27.9
20.7
29.5
40.7
24.6
8.2
17.5
34.4
21.2
19.7
27.2
25.7
:
35.4
36.6
25.5

Aged
15-24 
32.6
41.2
32.6
34.0
47.1
35.4
35.9
34.2
37.0
28.0
22.7
27.7
40.0
46.1
:
45.2
32.8
36.9
53.4
23.3
22.4
27.5
43.6
29.4
32.5
36.1
33.7
:
39.7
41.8
37.4

Male
33.7
51.3
38.2
39.4
37.3
51.2
27.7
49.5
37.6
31.6
31.9
43.1
56.4
54.9
:
40.7
32.5
38.6
49.9
47.8
30.4
44.2
56.1
35.1
26.0
28.7
27.7
:
34.7
39.8
36.0

Over-
weight
30.8
33.6
36.4
32.2
39.4
30.9
43.3
35.7
27.8
33.1
31.7
33.7
29.8
32.9
:
33.8
34.5
33.3
34.9
31.8
36.8
33.1
36.2
32.4
36.7
33.8
38.3
:
38.7
25.4
29.1

Obese 
11.0
12.4
14.4
9.5
20.3
13.3
10.7
13.3
9.3
13.2
8.1
12.3
15.5
16.0
:
18.8
23.0
8.9
8.6
11.4
14.7
8.6
12.3
14.3
14.5
10.1
22.7
:
11.6
6.1
7.6

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
NO
CH

Incidence of 
salmonellosis, 
2005 (cases 
per 100 000 
persons)
47.1
13.1
322.2
32.8
63.3
23.2
8.5
25.9
14.2
11.0
12.9
7.9
26.7
69.2
46.6
80.8
16.1
:
63.1
41.9
4.9
3.3
76.0
223.8
47.3
39.6
21.3
126.4
31.0
32.2
25.5

(1) HIS (Health Interview Survey) data (all data except for the ﬁ nal column) are collected in 
different years depending on the country, with reference years between 1996 and 2003 - for 
more information, see: http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/sdds/en/hlth/hlth_his_2004_sur-
veys.pdf.

Source: Eurostat (tps00169, tps00170, hlth_ls_bmia and tsdph310)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

61

           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
              
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
2 Population and social conditions

ACCIDENTS

Th  e  incidence  rate  of  accidents  at  work  shows  the  number  of 
accidents  at  work  with  an  absence  of  more  than  three  days  that 
occurred  during  the  reference  year,  relative  to  the  number  of 
persons in employment. Th  e incidence is shown as an index, with 
1998=100 as the reference (although there are some breaks in series 
for particular countries).

An accident at work is a discrete occurrence during the course of 
work that leads to physical or mental harm. Th  is includes accidents 
during the course of work outside the person’s business premises, 
even  if  caused  by  a  third  party,  and  cases  of  acute  poisoning. 
However,  the  data  presented  exclude  accidents  on  the  way  to  or 
from work, as well as occurrences having only a medical origin, or 
occupational diseases.

Th  e incidence of fatal accidents may, in part, be aff ected by structural 
shift s in the economy towards the service sector, where the risk of 
death at work is usually lower than within agriculture, industry or 
construction.

Figure 2.10: Index of the incidence of serious accidents at work, 
EU-27 (1998=100)

100

90

80

70

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Source: Eurostat (tsiem090)

Female
Male
Total

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Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.10: Incidence of accidents at work

Serious accidents
(1998=100)
2000
100
97
82
100
91
89
96
105
: 
88
108
102
99
112
66
94
104
94
77
105
92
85
88
106
98
88
89
111
106
85
94
91
92

1995
:
105
110
147
:
82
106
85
62
118
92
104
102
:
:
90
98
123
106
108
164
:
109
:
109
95
106
76
119
:
95
117
117

2005
78
74
62
58
80
83
65
126
101
55
87
90
71
97
92
104
72
79
77
100
77
80
74
96
84
52
88
85
84
65
64
81
68

EU-27
Euro area (1)
BE (2)
BG (3)
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL (2)
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR (4)
NO
JP
US

Fatal accidents 
(1998=100)
2000
100
86
100
100
96
61
95
56
: 
73
85
85
66
46
90
78
149
95
38
106
100
96
104
103
102
71
88
85
106
68
88
103
93

2005
86
72
84
85
71
71
82
58
117
43
64
50
52
66
74
133
57
73
44
75
94
81
84
128
84
64
83
131
88
70
59
82
89

1995
:
113
190
116
103
106
136
120
71
116
127
88
96
:
:
98
113
117
109
:
131
:
103
:
118
96
117
177
100
:
:
135
111

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-15.
(2) Serious accidents: break in series, 2000.
(3) Break in series: 2000.
(4) Fatal accidents: break in series, 2000.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem090 and tsiem100)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

63

2 Population and social conditions

HEALTHCARE

Many of today’s healthcare policies include not only cures but also 
prevention and early detection. A new health strategy ‘Together for 
Health: A Strategic Approach for the EU 2008-2013’ was adopted on 
23 October 2007, putting in place a framework to improve health in 
the European Union through a value-driven approach, recognising 
the links between health and economic prosperity, integrating health 
in all policies, and strengthening the EU’s voice in global health.

Hospital beds are those which are regularly maintained and staff ed 
and immediately available for the care of admitted patients. Beds in 
all hospitals, including general hospitals, mental health and substance 
abuse hospitals, and other specialty hospitals are covered. Data refer 
to occupied and unoccupied beds. Th  e number of hospital beds is 
expressed per 100 000 inhabitants. Practising physicians are defi ned 
as physicians who provide services directly to patients (i.e. seeing 
patients either in a hospital, practice or elsewhere). Th  e number of 
physicians is also expressed per 100 000 inhabitants and is used as a 
proxy for access to the healthcare system.

Figure 2.11: Number of hospital beds, EU-27  
(per 100 000 inhabitants)

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Source: Eurostat (tps00046)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

A  discharge  is  the  formal  release  of  an  in-patient  from  a  hospital 
aft er  a  procedure  or  course  of  treatment.  A  discharge  occurs 
anytime  a  patient  leaves  because  of  fi nalisation  of  treatment, 
signing-out against medical advice, transfer to another healthcare 
institution,  or  death.  Th  e  number  of  discharges  is  expressed  per 
100 000 inhabitants and is the most commonly used measure of the 
utilisation of hospital services.

Table 2.11: Healthcare indicators (per 100 000 inhabitants)

      Practising physicians
1996
360.3
354.8
298.6
252.3
310.8
317.0
:
:
290.2
:
:
246.9
282.1
373.2
212.6
304.3
:
189.9
280.6
235.1
262.3
:
:
257.1
213.7
289.0
:
219.9
:
310.9
283.1
180.0

2006 (1)
400.8
366.1
355.7
308.4
345.5
328.9
:
:
359.5
:
:
250.4
291.5
364.8
:
303.7
:
:
365.0
218.0
:
215.8
235.8
315.9
244.5
356.6
235.6
:
:
364.0
377.7
:

2001
389.6
344.5
345.1
272.7
330.3
303.9
:
:
307.3
:
:
260.7
265.7
362.6
239.9
289.4
:
:
325.0
226.7
262.2
199.6
216.9
335.0
232.5
317.5
202.6
237.8
137
345.5
:
196.8

Discharges from hospitals
2000
2005 (2)
2003
16 084
15 963
16 252
20 217
:
:
20 799
22 942
:
:
15 936
16 316
21 481
:
19 586
17 923
18 678
19 947
13 656
13 720
13 805
:
:
:
10 780
11 017
11 243
16 445
16 664
18 397
:
:
:
6 536
6 821
6 795
19 970
:
:
21 866
22 819
:
17 242
17 460
18 481
:
:
:
:
:
:
10 135
9 427
:
27 119
26 251
:
17 955
16 799
:
9 127
:
:
20 305
22 853
21 748
16 045
:
:
19 124
18 986
19 876
19 620
20 842
:
:
14 751
15 272
:
13 064
:
13 307
13 215
12 710
:
:
:
16 084
15 723
17 085
17 424
17 077
15 409
15 656
14 855
:

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

(1) Denmark, Finland and the United Kingdom: data are for 2005.
(2) The Czech Republic, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus, Lithuania, Slovenia and Finland: data are 
for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tps00044 and tps00048)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

65

2 Population and social conditions

PUPILS AND STUDENTS

Education statistics cover a range of subjects, including: expenditure, 
personnel, participation rates, and attainment. Th  e main source of 
data is a joint UNESCO/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaire on 
education statistics.

Figure 2.12: School expectancy, 2006 (years) (1)

0

5

10

15

20

25

EU-27
Euro
FI
SE
BE
DK
EE
LT
EL
SI
LV
HU
PL
NL
DE
IE
ES
CZ
IT
FR
PT
AT
UK
SK
BG
RO
MT
CY
LU
IS
NO
US
CH
LI
JP
HR
MK
TR

(1) School expectancy corresponds to the expected years of education over a lifetime and 
has been calculated adding the single-year enrolment rates for all ages.

Source: Eurostat (tps00052)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Th  e indicator of school expectancy corresponds to how many years, 
on  average,  a  child  starting  school  can  expect  to  stay  at  school 
(calculated by adding the single-year enrolment rates for all ages). 

Table 2.12: Pupils and students

Pupils and
students 
(1 000) (1)

Four-year 
olds in
 education 
(%) (2)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH
JP
US

2001
96 023
:
2 304
1 322
1 932
1 029
14 515
306
987
1 906
7 597
11 849
9 144
140
510
787
70
1 924
78
3 217
1 464
9 153
2 002
3 954
403
1 114
1 172
2 107
15 038
:
387
14 893
74
:
993
:
20 254
63 653

2006
93 901
57 796
2 410
1 193
1 869
1 142
14 394
278
1 036
2 042
7 529
12 321
9 464
146
472
784
77
1 952
78
3 318
1 471
8 663
1 862
3 831
403
1 089
1 246
2 096
12 736
733
366
16 275
84
6
1 068
1 340
19 095
66 793

2001
84.6
:
100.0
66.8
87.0
92.0
85.9
80.4
49.9
55.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
58.4
62.6
51.0
94.3
89.6
95.0
98.1
79.2
32.4
76.0
61.7
70.0
68.4
42.8
75.5
99.0
:
11.7
:
91.8
:
80.1
:
92.0
56.1

2006
86.8
92.3
100.0
68.4
86.5
93.4
93.1
86.1
46.9
56.1
97.1
100.0
100.0
70.4
73.5
59.7
94.0
92.8
95.5
74.2
83.2
41.2
80.6
75.8
79.3
73.1
48.5
86.5
91.3
48.2
15.9
7.0
94.8
52.7
91.8
38.0
94.8
58.2

Pupil/
teacher 
ratio in 
primary 
educ.
2006 (3)
:
:
12.6
15.8
17.3
10.8
18.7
14.1
19.4
10.6
14.2
19.4
10.7
16.8
11.8
10.7
10.7
10.4
13.7
15.3
13.9
11.4
10.6
17.1
14.9
18.6
15.0
12.1
19.8
17.7
21.2
26.7
11.3
10.5
10.9
:
19.2
14.6

Students 
in tertiary 
educ. 
(% of all
pupils/
students) 
2006 (1)
20.0
19.4
16.4
20.4
18.1
20.0
15.9
24.5
18.0
32.0
23.8
17.9
21.4
14.1
27.8
25.4
3.5
22.5
11.4
17.5
17.2
24.8
19.7
21.8
28.5
18.2
24.8
20.2
18.3
18.7
13.2
14.4
18.7
10.2
20.1
15.3
21.4
26.2

18-year-
olds in 
educ. 
(%)
2006
77.4
81.4
91.1
75.6
86.9
80.0
85.6
80.2
89.5
90.4
70.0
78.8
85.6
30.8
86.2
93.1
70.1
82.2
42.8
81.9
78.3
93.6
66.7
62.7
88.7
82.4
94.0
94.6
47.4
62.7
52.5
38.9
73.4
84.9
86.1
80.5
:
62.7

(1) Excluding pre-primary education.
(2) Participation rate, including both pre-primary and primary participation.
(3) Pupils per full-time equivalent teacher; France: data are for 2005; Luxembourg: data 
are for 2004; Denmark and Iceland: data are for 2003; the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia: data are for 2001.

Source: Eurostat (tps00051, tps00053, tps00054, tps00060 and educ_itertp)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

67

2 Population and social conditions

LEVELS OF EDUCATION

In the last few decades, disparities in educational attainment levels 
between  the  sexes  have  been  reduced  throughout  the  European 
Union.  Indeed,  the  situation  has  been  reversed,  and  for  some 
indicators women have overtaken men.

One European policy in the area of education is a drive to reduce 
the number of school dropouts and early school leavers, defi ned as 
persons  aged  18  to  24  with  at  most  a  lower  secondary  education 

Figure 2.13: Percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 having 
a tertiary education, 2007 (%) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

EU-27
Euro area
FI
CY
EE
BE
DK
IE
SE
UK
NL
ES
LT
FR
LU
DE
BG
LV
SI
EL
PL
HU
AT
SK
CZ
PT
IT
MT
RO

Male

Female

(1) Graph is ranked on the average of male and female.

Source: Eurostat (lfsa_pgaed)

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2

(ISCED  levels  1,  2  or  3c  short)  and  not  in  further  education  or 
training. Th  e youth education attainment level is the percentage of 
young people aged 20-24 having attained at least an upper secondary 
education (minimum of ISCED level 3a, 3b or 3c long).

Table 2.13: Youth education (%) (1)

Early school 
leavers

Youth education 
attainment, 2007

2002
17.1
19.1
12.4
21.0
5.5
8.6
12.6
12.6
14.7
16.7
29.9
13.4
24.3
15.9
19.5
14.3
17.0
12.2
53.2
15.0
9.5
7.6
45.1
23.2
4.8
5.6
9.9
10.4
17.8
8.3
54.8
28.8
14
6.7

2007
14.8
17.1
12.3
16.6
5.5
12.4
12.7
14.3
11.5
14.7
31.0
12.7
19.3
12.6
16.0
8.7
15.1
10.9
37.6
12.0
10.9
5.0
36.3
19.2
4.3
7.2
7.9
12.0
13.0
3.9
47.6
28.1
5.9
7.6

Male
2007
16.9
19.6
13.9
16.3
5.7
15.7
13.4
21.0
14.2
18.6
36.1
14.6
22.6
19.5
19.7
11.4
19.2
12.5
41.5
14.4
11.6
6.4
42.0
19.2
5.7
8.1
9.7
13.3
14.6
5.2
39.4
31.5
7.4
8.5

Fem. 
2007
12.7
14.5
10.7
16.9
5.4
8.9
11.9
:
8.7
10.7
25.6
10.9
15.9
6.8
12.3
5.9
11.1
9.3
33.3
9.6
10.2
3.6
30.4
19.1
2.7
6.3
6.3
10.7
11.4
:
55.0
24.6
4.3
6.7

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ (2)
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE (2)
UK (2)
HR
TR
IS (2, 3)
NO (2, 3)
CH

Total Male
75.4
71.0
80.4
83.0
91.3
64.2
70.6
72.2
83.7
77.5
55.1
79.8
72.7
79.8
76.4
86.5
65.6
82.5
51.1
71.9
82.7
89.7
46.3
77.1
89.0
90.5
84.8
85.4
77.2
94.3
54.2
40.7
91.2
76.3

78.1
74.5
82.6
83.3
91.8
70.8
72.5
80.9
86.7
82.1
61.1
82.4
76.3
85.8
80.2
89.0
70.9
84.0
54.7
76.2
84.1
91.6
53.4
77.4
91.5
91.3
86.5
87.2
78.1
94.6
46.4
49.3
93.3
78.1

Fem.
80.8
78.0
84.9
83.6
92.4
77.7
74.4
89.6
89.7
87.0
67.3
85.0
80.0
91.0
84.1
91.5
76.4
85.6
58.6
80.5
85.4
93.4
60.8
77.7
94.3
92.1
88.0
89.0
79.0
95.0
40.0
58.7
95.4
80.0

(1) For both indicators, several breaks in time-series in different years for different countries 
are noted, due to changes in survey characteristics and implementation of harmonised 
concepts; Slovenia and Croatia: unreliable data for early school leavers.
(2) Early school leavers: 2006 instead of 2007.
(3) Youth education attainment: 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tsisc060 and tsiir110)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

69

2 Population and social conditions

EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE

Generally  the  public  sector  funds  education  either  by  bearing 
directly the current and capital expenses of educational institutions 
(direct  expenditure  for  educational  institutions)  or  by  supporting 
students and their families with scholarships and public loans.

Figure 2.14: Total public expenditure on education as a 
percentage of GDP, 2005 (%) (1)

0

2

4

6

8

10

EU-27
Euro
DK
SE
CY
MT
FI
BE
SI
FR
PL
HU
UK
AT
PT
NL
LV
LT
EE
IE
DE
BG
IT
CZ
ES
EL
SK
LU
RO
IS
NO
CH
US
HR
TR (2)
JP
MK (3)

(1) EU-27 and euro area: estimates. 
(2) Data are for 2004. 
(3) Data are for 2003.

Source: Eurostat (tsiir010)

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2

Table 2.14: Education expenditure, for all levels of education 
combined

Expenditure on 
educational 
institutions from 
public sources 
(% of GDP) (1)
2000
4.62
4.62
4.91
3.79
3.75
6.38
4.19
5.66
4.02
3.34
4.17
5.78
4.35
4.84
5.08
5.66
:
4.30
4.07
4.11
5.28
4.86
5.30
2.80
:
3.90
5.40
6.10
4.43
:
3.36
5.53
5.93
:
3.59
4.80

2005
4.72
4.59
5.65
3.83
4.07
6.83
4.17
4.58
4.26
3.95
4.10
5.43
4.23
6.01
4.74
4.54
3.73
5.12
6.82
4.59
5.04
5.38
5.26
3.33
5.31
3.66
5.84
6.19
5.03
4.59
3.81
7.21
5.67
5.54
3.38
4.85

Expenditure on 
educational 
institutions from 
private sources 
(% of GDP)
2000
0.56
:
0.43
0.77
0.43
0.27
0.97
:
0.42
0.24
0.60
0.56
0.44
1.72
0.63
:
:
0.58
0.47
0.45
0.33
:
0.08
0.25
:
0.15
0.12
0.20
0.78
:
0.05
0.56
0.08
0.43
1.23
2.23

2005
0.67
0.59
0.35
0.62
0.57
0.57
0.92
0.38
0.29
0.25
0.53
0.55
0.44
1.21
0.76
0.49
:
0.49
0.38
0.43
0.47
0.55
0.42
0.40
0.81
0.70
0.13
0.19
1.25
:
0.11
0.73
0.05
0.57
1.54
2.36

Annual expenditure 
on public and private 
educational 
institutions per 
student (PPS) (2)
2000
2005
5 650
4 761
6 190
:
6 501
5 314
1 993
1 277
3 809
2 574
8 244
7 108
6 503
5 677
2 868
:
6 012
4 481
4 606
:
5 718
4 304
6 364
5 712
5 908
:
6 684
4 879
2 746
1 818
2 475
1 716
:
:
3 842
:
5 882
3 189
6 703
5 211
8 293
7 144
3 051
1 971
4 704
3 943
1 454
:
6 056
:
2 699
1 681
6 225
5 455
7 204
6 185
7 084
4 799
:
:
:
:
7 897
6 501
9 133
7 812
:
:
7 148
6 091
10 661
9 200

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR (3)
IS
NO (4)
CH
JP
US

(1) Expenditure on educational institutions from public sources as a percentage of GDP, for 
all levels of government combined.
(2) Based on full-time equivalents; EU-25 instead of EU-27 for 2000.
(3) 2004 instead of 2005.
(4) Expenditure on educational institutions from private sources: 2004 instead of 2005.

Source: Eurostat (educ_ﬁ gdp, tps00068 and tps00067)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

71

2 Population and social conditions

LIFELONG LEARNING

Lifelong training and education off er an important opportunity for 
individuals to maintain or improve their skills situation. Education, 
vocational  training  and  lifelong  learning  play  a  vital  role  in  the 
economic and social strategy of Europe. Th  e European Council has 
adopted strategic goals and objectives for education and training to 

Figure 2.15: Lifelong learning - excluding self-learning 
activities, 2007 (% of population aged 25 to 64 participating in 
education and training) 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU-27 (1)
Euro area
SE (2)
DK
UK (3)
FI
NL
SI
AT
ES
CY
DE
IE
FR
BE
LV
EE
LU
IT
MT
CZ
LT
PL
PT (1)
SK
HU
EL
BG
RO
IS (4)
CH (4)
NO
HR (4)
TR

(1) Provisional. (2) Estimate: data are for 2006. (3) Provisional: data are for 2006. (4) Data are 
for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem080)

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2

be  attained  by  2010.  Training  is  oft en  less  regular  and  formalised 
than education and particularly diffi  cult to map in statistical terms. 
Lifelong learning refers to the proportion of persons aged 25 to 64 
who stated that they received education or training in the four weeks 
preceding the (EU labour force) survey. Th  e information collected 
relates to all education or training subjects whether or not relevant 
to  the  respondent’s  current  or  possible  future  job;  note,  however, 
that formal and non-formal education and training are covered, but 
self-learning activities are excluded.

Table 2.15: Lifelong learning - excluding self-learning activities 
(% of population aged 25 to 64 participating in education and 
training) (1)

 Total 

 Male

Female

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE (2)
UK (2)
HR (2)
TR
IS (2)
NO
CH (2)

2002
7.2
5.3
6.0
1.2
5.6
18.0
5.8
5.4
5.5
1.1
4.4
2.7
4.4
3.7
7.3
3.0
7.7
2.9
4.4
15.8
7.5
4.2
2.9
1.0
8.4
8.5
17.3
18.4
21.3
1.9
1.0
24.0
13.3
35.8

2007
9.7
8.4
7.2
1.3
5.7
29.2
7.8
7.0
7.6
2.1
10.4
7.4
6.2
8.4
7.1
5.3
7.0
3.6
6.0
16.6
12.8
5.1
4.4
1.3
14.8
3.9
23.4
32.0
26.6
2.9
1.5
27.9
18.0
22.5

2002
6.6
5.2
5.9
1.2
5.8
15.6
6.1
3.6
4.7
1.1
4.0
2.4
4.2
3.6
5.1
1.9
8.9
2.6
4.9
16.0
7.6
3.6
2.6
1.0
7.9
8.2
14.5
15.7
17.8
2.0
1.3
20.4
12.6
40.8

2007
8.8
8.0
7.0
1.4
5.5
24.2
8.0
4.6
6.2
2.2
9.3
7.0
5.9
8.1
4.6
3.6
6.5
3.0
6.4
16.1
11.6
4.7
4.4
1.2
13.5
3.4
19.4
26.0
22.0
3.1
1.8
22.4
17.1
21.7

2002
7.7
5.4
6.0
1.2
5.4
20.5
5.5
6.9
6.4
1.1
4.8
3.0
4.6
3.8
9.2
4.0
6.4
3.3
3.8
15.5
7.3
4.7
3.1
1.0
8.9
8.8
20.0
21.2
24.9
1.9
0.7
27.7
14.0
30.7

2007
10.6
8.8
7.4
1.3
5.9
34.2
7.6
9.3
9.0
2.1
11.5
7.9
6.6
8.6
9.3
6.8
7.4
4.1
5.7
17.0
14.0
5.5
4.5
1.4
16.1
4.3
27.5
38.3
31.2
2.8
1.2
33.7
18.9
23.4

(1) Several breaks in time-series in different years for different countries are noted, due to 
changes in survey characteristics and implementation of harmonised concepts. EU-LFS 
annual averages.
(2) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem080)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

73

2 Population and social conditions

EMPLOYMENT

Th  e  European  employment  strategy  (EES)  was  launched  at  the 
Luxembourg  Jobs  Summit  in  November  1997  and  was  evaluated 
in  2002  and  2005,  when  it  was  revamped  to  align  employment 
strategy more closely to the Lisbon objectives. Th  e European Union 
has set itself an ambitious target of a 70 % total employment rate 
by 2010, while in the spring of 2001 an employment rate target for 
persons aged between 55 and 64 years of 50 % was added. Th  e total 
employment rate is calculated by dividing the number of persons 
aged 15 to 64 in employment by the total population of the same 
age group. Th  e employed population consists of those persons who, 
during the reference week of the (EU labour force) survey, did any 
work  for  pay  or  profi t  for  at  least  one  hour,  or  were  not  working 
but  had  jobs  from  which  they  were  temporarily  absent;  the  data 
include  family  workers.  Employment  rates  are  generally  higher 
among  persons  having  achieved  higher  levels  of  education,  and 
lower among older workers: the employment rate of older workers 
is calculated by restricting the population to persons aged 55 to 64.

Figure 2.16: Employment rate - by highest level of education 
attained (ISCED 1997), EU-27 (%) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

Total - levels 0-6

Pre-primary, primary and lower
secondary education - levels 0-2

Upper secondary and post-secondary
non-tertiary education - levels 3-4

Tertiary education - levels 5-6

(1) Excludes persons for which the level of education attained is unknown.

Source: Eurostat (lfsa_ergaed)

2002
2007

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2

Table 2.16: Employment rates, 2007 (% in employment)

  Total employment rate
  (persons aged 15-64)
Total
Male
72.5
65.4
73.4
65.7
68.7
62.0
66.0
61.7
74.8
66.1
81.0
77.1
74.7
69.4
73.2
69.4
77.4
69.1
74.9
61.4
76.2
65.6
69.3
64.6
70.7
58.7
80.0
71.0
72.5
68.3
67.9
64.9
72.3
64.2
64.0
57.3
74.2
55.7
82.2
76.0
78.4
71.4
63.6
57.0
73.8
67.8
64.8
58.8
72.7
67.8
68.4
60.7
72.1
70.3
76.5
74.2
77.3
71.3
64.4
57.1
68.0
45.8
89.1
85.1
79.5
76.8
85.6
78.6
81.7
70.6
77.7
71.7

Female
58.3
58.0
55.3
57.6
57.3
73.2
64.0
65.9
60.6
47.9
54.7
60.0
46.6
62.4
64.4
62.2
56.1
50.9
36.9
69.6
64.4
50.6
61.9
52.8
62.6
53.0
68.5
71.8
65.5
50.0
23.8
80.8
74.0
71.6
59.4
65.9

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR 
TR
IS 
NO
CH 
JP 
US 

Source: Eurostat (tsiem010 and tsiem020)

Employment rate - 
older workers (55 to 64)
Total
Female
Male
36.0
53.9
44.7
34.7
52.4
43.3
26.0
42.9
34.4
34.5
51.8
42.6
33.5
59.6
46.0
52.4
64.9
58.6
43.6
59.7
51.5
60.5
59.4
60.0
39.6
67.9
53.8
26.9
59.1
42.4
30.0
60.0
44.6
36.2
40.5
38.3
23.0
45.1
33.8
40.3
72.5
55.9
52.4
64.6
57.7
47.9
60.8
53.4
28.6
35.6
32.0
26.2
41.7
33.1
11.8
46.2
28.3
40.1
61.5
50.9
28.0
49.8
38.6
19.4
41.4
29.7
44.0
58.6
50.9
33.6
50.3
41.4
22.2
45.3
33.5
21.2
52.5
35.6
55.0
55.1
55.0
67.0
72.9
70.0
49.0
66.3
57.4
24.2
48.4
35.8
16.5
43.0
29.5
79.8
89.3
84.7
64.0
73.8
69.0
58.1
76.4
67.2
51.2
81.4
66.1
56.6
67.4
61.8

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

75

2 Population and social conditions

EMPLOYMENT GROWTH

In the mid-term review of the EES in 2005, the European Commission 
made a set of new proposals concerning employment guidelines for 
the period 2005 to 2008, refl ecting a switch in emphasis in favour of 
growth and employment. In order to create more and better jobs the 
European Commission wishes to:

• 

• 

• 

attract and retain more people in employment, increase labour 
supply and modernise social protection systems;
improve  the  adaptability  of  the  workforce  and  business 
sector;
increase investment in human capital through better education 
and skills.

Employment growth provides a measure of the change in percentage 
terms from one year to the next of the total number of employed 
persons on the economic territory of a country or geographical area. 
Th  e indicator is based on national accounts data; EU labour force 
survey breakdowns are applied to provide results by gender.

Figure 2.17: Employment growth, EU-27 
(% change compared with previous year)

3

2

1

0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Source: Eurostat (tsieb050)

Female
Total
Male

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.17: Employment growth rates (% change compared 
with previous year)

   Total 

Male

Female

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
US

1997
0.9
0.9
0.5
-3.9
0.2
1.4
-0.1
0.0
5.6
-0.5
3.6
0.4
0.3
0.6
4.4
0.6
3.1
0.2
:
3.1
0.9
2.6
2.6
:
-1.9
-1.0
3.3
-1.3
1.7
3.2
-2.5
1.8
2.9
2.2

2007
1.8
1.8
1.7
2.8
1.8
1.6
1.7
0.7
3.6
1.2
3.1
1.3
1.1
3.2
3.5
2.9
4.2
-0.1
2.6
2.4
2.2
4.5
0.0
1.3
2.7
2.1
2.2
2.3
0.7
2.0
1.1
:
4.0
1.1

Source: Eurostat (tsieb050)

1997
:
0.6
-0.3
:
:
0.5
-0.4
:
4.0
-1.2
3.2
0.2
0.0
:
:
:
2.0
:
:
2.6
0.5
:
2.3
:
:
:
3.4
-1.1
1.9
:
:
:
:
:

2007
1.6
1.3
1.1
3.0
2.2
1.6
1.5
1.5
2.6
1.2
2.1
0.6
1.0
2.0
3.5
3.4
2.7
0.2
0.7
1.7
2.5
4.1
-0.3
1.9
3.2
2.0
2.1
2.3
0.9
3.6
1.1
:
3.7
:

1997
:
1.4
1.7
:
:
2.4
0.3
:
8.2
0.7
4.5
0.7
0.9
:
:
:
5.1
:
:
3.8
1.4
:
3.0
:
:
:
3.2
-1.5
1.5
:
:
:
:
:

2007
2.2
2.4
2.4
2.6
1.2
1.7
2.0
0.0
4.8
1.4
4.6
2.2
1.4
4.8
3.6
2.3
6.1
-0.6
6.8
3.3
1.8
5.1
0.2
0.5
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.2
0.6
0.1
1.4
:
4.4
:

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

77

2 Population and social conditions

UNEMPLOYMENT

Unemployment rates are defi ned in accordance with International 
Labour  Organisation  standards.  Unemployed  persons  comprise 
those aged between 15 and 74 who were without work during the 
reference week of the labour force survey. Persons without work are 
those who had neither a job, nor were at work (for one hour or more 
during the reference week) in paid employment or self-employment; 
in  addition,  the  unemployed  have  to  be  available  for  work  and 
actively seeking work. Please note that at the end of this publication, 
the fi nal chapter presents regional data for unemployment rates.

Th  e duration of unemployment is defi ned as the duration of a search 
for a job, or as the period since the last job was held (if this period 
is shorter than the duration of the search for a job). Th  e long term 
unemployment rate is the proportion of active persons in the labour 
market, who have been unemployed for 12 months or more.

Figure 2.18: Harmonised long-term unemployment rates, 
EU-27 (persons unemployed for 12 months or more as a % 
of the total labour force)

6

4

2

0

Total

Male

Female

2002

2007

Source: Eurostat (tsisc070)

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2

Table 2.18: Unemployment rates (% of labour force)

Total
2002 2007
7.1
7.4
7.5
6.9
5.3
3.8
8.4
4.7
4.6
8.3
8.3
8.3
6.1
3.9
6.0
4.3
4.1
7.4
6.4
3.2
4.4
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.9
11.1
6.9
6.1
5.3
9.6
8.5
2.6
3.9
4.6

8.9
8.2
7.5
18.2
7.3
4.6
8.4
10.3
4.5
10.3
11.1
8.6
8.6
3.6
12.2
13.5
2.6
5.8
7.5
2.8
4.2
20.0
5.0
8.6
6.3
18.7
9.1
4.9
5.1
14.8
:
3.9
5.4
5.8

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
NO
JP
US

Male
2002 2007
6.6
6.6
6.7
6.5
4.2
3.5
8.5
5.4
4.9
5.2
6.4
7.8
4.9
3.4
6.4
4.3
3.4
7.1
5.8
2.8
3.9
9.0
6.6
7.2
4.0
9.9
6.5
5.8
5.6
8.4
8.5
2.6
3.9
4.7

8.3
7.2
6.7
18.9
6.0
4.3
8.8
10.8
4.8
6.8
8.1
7.7
6.7
2.9
13.3
14.2
2.0
6.2
6.6
2.5
4.0
19.2
4.1
9.2
5.9
18.6
9.1
5.3
5.7
13.3
:
4.1
5.5
5.9

Female 
2002 2007
7.8
8.4
8.5
7.3
6.7
4.2
8.3
3.9
4.2
12.8
10.9
8.9
7.9
4.6
5.6
4.3
5.0
7.7
7.6
3.6
5.0
10.4
9.6
5.4
5.9
12.7
7.2
6.4
5.0
11.2
8.5
2.5
3.7
4.5

9.7
9.5
8.6
17.3
9.0
5.0
7.9
9.7
4.1
15.7
15.7
9.7
11.5
4.5
11.0
12.8
3.5
5.4
9.3
3.1
4.4
21.0
6.0
7.9
6.8
18.7
9.1
4.6
4.5
16.6
:
3.6
5.1
5.6

Source: Eurostat (tsiem110, tps00075 and une_rt_a)

Less 
than 25 
years,
2007
15.3
14.8
18.8
15.1
10.7
7.9
11.1
10.0
9.1
22.9
18.2
19.4
20.3
10.0
10.7
8.2
15.3
18.0
13.8
5.9
8.7
21.7
16.6
20.1
10.1
20.3
16.5
19.1
14.3
24.0
16.8
7.3
7.7
10.5

25 
years 
and
over,
2007
6.1
6.5
6.3
6.1
4.8
3.1
8.0
4.0
3.8
7.1
7.0
7.0
4.9
3.3
5.3
3.9
3.3
6.5
4.7
2.6
3.7
8.1
7.2
4.9
4.2
10.0
5.4
4.3
3.6
8.0
6.7
1.8
3.6
3.5

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

79

2 Population and social conditions

LABOUR MARKET DEMAND

Th  e job vacancy rate (JVR) measures the percentage of posts that 
are vacant. It is calculated as the proportion of the number of job 
vacancies relative to the total number of posts, where the latter is 
composed  of  the  number  of  occupied  posts  plus  the  number  of 
job  vacancies.  A  job  vacancy  is  defi ned  as  a  post  (newly  created, 
unoccupied or about to become vacant):

• 

• 

for which the employer is taking active steps to fi nd a suitable 
candidate  from  outside  the  enterprise  concerned  and  is 
prepared to take more steps; and
which the employer intends to fi ll either immediately or in the 
near future.

A vacant post that is open only to internal candidates should not be 
treated as a job vacancy. A job vacancy should be open to candidates 
from  outside  the  recruiting  enterprise,  however,  this  does  not 
exclude the possibility of the employer fi nally appointing an internal 
candidate to the post. 

Figure 2.19: Job vacancy rate (%) (1)
2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

2003

2004

2006

2007

2005

EU-27

Euro area

(1) Provisional.

Source: Eurostat (jvs_a)

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2

Information on the average exit age gives the average age at which 
active  persons  defi nitively  withdraw  from  the  labour  market.  It 
is  based  on  a  probability  model  considering  the  relative  changes 
of  activity  rates  from  one  year  to  another  at  a  specifi c  age.  Th  e 
activity rate represents the labour force (employed and unemployed 
population) as a percentage of the total population for a given age.

Table 2.19: Average exit age from the labour force

   Total

 Male

Female

EU-27
Euro area
BE (1)
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY (2)
LV
LT
LU (1)
HU (1)
MT
NL
AT
PL (1)
PT (1)
RO
SI
SK (1)
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS (1)
NO
CH

2001
59.9
59.9
56.8
:
58.9
61.6
60.6
61.1
63.2
:
60.3
58.1
59.8
62.3
62.4
58.9
56.8
57.6
57.6
60.9
59.2
56.6
61.9
59.8
:
57.5
61.4
62.1
62.0
:
62.5
63.3
63.9

2006
61.2
60.9
60.6
64.1
60.4
61.9
61.9
62.6
64.1
61.1
62.0
58.9
60.2
62.7
62.7
59.9
59.4
59.8
58.5
62.1
61.0
59.5
63.1
64.3
59.8
59.2
62.4
63.9
63.2
59.9
66.3
63.8
62.7

2001
60.4
60.2
57.8
:
60.7
62.1
60.9
:
63.4
:
60.6
58.2
59.9
:
:
:
:
58.4
:
61.1
59.9
57.8
62.3
60.5
:
59.3
61.5
62.3
63.0
:
:
63.0
64.7

2006
61.7
61.1
61.6
64.1
61.8
62.5
62.1
:
63.5
61.8
61.8
58.7
60.5
:
:
:
:
61.2
:
62.1
61.3
62.0
62.4
65.5
:
61.1
62.3
64.2
63.8
:
:
64.4
62.7

2001
59.4
59.6
55.9
:
57.3
61.0
60.4
:
63.0
:
60.0
58.0
59.8
:
:
:
:
57.0
:
60.8
58.5
55.5
61.6
59.2
:
56.0
61.3
61.9
61.0
:
:
63.6
63.2

2006
60.7
60.8
59.6
64.1
59.0
61.3
61.6
:
64.7
60.4
62.3
59.1
60.0
:
:
:
:
58.7
:
62.1
60.6
57.4
63.8
63.2
:
57.6
62.5
63.7
62.6
:
:
63.2
62.6

(1) 2005 instead of 2006.
(2) 2004 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem030)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

81

2 Population and social conditions

PART-TIME, TEMPORARY AND SECONDARY 
EMPLOYMENT

Labour  market  fl exibility  may  be  seen  as  a  way  of  encouraging 
employers to increase employment and at the same time to increase 
participation in the labour force. Th  e indicators presented here are 
all  derived  from  the  EU  labour  force  survey,  and  cover  persons 
aged  15  to  64.  Persons  with  temporary  contracts  are  those  who 
declare themselves as having a fi xed term employment contract or 
a job which will terminate if certain objective criteria are met, such 
as the completion of an assignment, or the return of an employee 
who was temporarily replaced. Th  is can be contrasted with those 
in permanent or unlimited employment, for whom no fi xed end 
date is foreseen. Th  e share of temporary employees is shown as a 
percentage of all employees.

Figure 2.20: Share of temporary employees, 2007 (%)

0

10

20

30

40

EU-27
Euro area
ES
PL
PT
SI
NL
SE
FI
DE
FR
IT
CY
EL
AT
DK
BE
CZ
IE
HU
LU
UK
BG
MT
SK
LV
LT
EE
RO

Source: Eurostat (lfsi_emp_a)

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2

In the labour force survey, the distinction between full-time and 
part-time  employment  is  left   to  the  respondent,  since  working 
hours  diff er  from  one  Member  State  to  the  next  and  between 
economic activities.

Th  e indicator on persons with a second job refers only to persons 
with  more  than  one  job  running  in  parallel,  and  consequently, 
persons  having  changed  job  during  the  reference  period  of  the 
labour force survey are not covered.

Table 2.20: Persons employed part-time or  with a second job 
(%)

Persons employed 
on a part-time basis
2002
16.2
16.3
19.1
2.5
4.9
20.0
20.8
7.7
16.5
4.4
8.0
16.4
8.6
7.2
9.7
10.8
10.7
3.6
8.3
43.9
19.0
10.8
11.2
11.8
6.1
1.9
12.8
21.5
25.4
8.3
6.9
:
26.4
31.7

1997
15.9
14.7
15.2
:
:
22.5
17.6
:
13.6
4.8
7.9
17.0
6.8
:
:
:
8.2
3.7
:
37.9
14.7
10.6
10.6
14.9
:
:
10.9
20.2
24.6
:
:
:
:
29.4

2007
18.2
19.6
22.1
1.7
5.0
24.1
26.0
8.2
:
5.6
11.8
17.2
13.6
7.3
6.4
8.6
17.8
4.1
11.1
46.8
22.6
9.2
12.1
9.7
9.3
2.6
14.1
25.0
25.5
8.6
8.8
16.7
28.2
33.5

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS (1)
NO
CH

Persons employed 
with a second job
2002
3.6
2.7
3.4
0.8
2.4
10.5
2.2
4.3
2.0
3.1
1.7
3.4
1.2
4.9
6.9
6.5
1.1
1.7
4.7
5.8
3.7
8.0
6.4
4.3
2.2
0.8
3.9
9.4
4.1
3.5
:
16.9
8.6
6.1

2007
3.8
3.4
3.8
0.7
1.6
9.8
3.7
3.5
2.6
3.1
2.6
3.0
1.7
4.3
5.9
6.0
2.0
1.6
5.2
7.1
4.2
7.6
6.3
3.7
3.7
1.1
4.2
8.0
3.7
3.0
2.6
11.4
7.7
7.2

1997
:
:
2.7
:
3.8
7.2
2.6
9.0
2.0
3.6
1.6
3.3
1.4
:
:
:
1.2
2.1
:
5.4
4.1
9.2
6.1
7.6
2.5
:
4.2
7.8
4.7
:
:
15.7
8.0
5.1

(1) Persons employed with a second job: 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tps00159, tps00074 and lfsa_egan)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

83

2 Population and social conditions

EARNINGS AND MINIMUM WAGES

Th  e structure and evolution of earnings are important features of any 
labour market, refl ecting labour supply from individuals and labour 
demand by fi rms. Earnings, productivity, profi ts and consumption 
are all inter-related and may be leading determinants of economic 
growth and employment performance.

Th  e gender pay gap in unadjusted form is defi ned as the diff erence 
between  average  gross  hourly  earnings  of  male  and  female  paid 
employees, and is shown as a percentage of men’s earnings. Some 
of  the  underlying  factors  that  may,  in  part,  explain  gender  pay 
gaps include sectoral and occupational segregation, education and 
training, awareness and transparency; the European Union seeks to 
promote  equal  opportunities  implying  progressive  elimination  of 
the gender pay gap.

Gross earnings are remuneration (wages and salaries) paid directly 
to  an  employee,  before  any  deductions  for  income  tax  and  social 
security contributions paid by employees.

Figure 2.21: Gender pay gap, 2006 (%)

0

10

20

30

EU-27 (1)
EE (1)
CY (2)
DE
SK
UK
AT
FI
CZ
NL (1)
DK
LV
LT
SE
BG
LU
ES
PL
FR (2)
HU
EL
RO
IE
IT (1)
PT (2)
SI (2)
BE (2)
MT

(1) Data are for 2005.
(2) Provisional.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem040)

84

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Data  on  minimum  wages  are  transmitted  by  national  ministries 
responsible for areas such as social aff airs, labour or employment.

Table 2.21: Minimum wages

Minimum wages

National currency
2008
2000 (1)
1 336
1 118
220
75
8 000
4 500
:
:
:
:
4 350
1 850
1 462
945
681
534
700
425
1 321
1 083
:
:
:
:
160
50
800
430
1 610
1 221
25 500 69 000
612
1 357
:
1 126
497
500
567
8 100
:
:
909
639
1 014

208
1 092
:
700
371
70
77 010
5 570
:
:
625
119
893

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT (2)
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI (3)
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
US

EUR

2000 (1)
1 118
38
125
:
:
118
945
534
425
1 083
:
:
88
113
1 221
98
507
1 092
:
168
371
35
373
126
:
:
993
204
941

2008
1 336
112
329
:
:
278
1 462
681
700
1 321
:
:
228
232
1 610
285
612
1 357
:
334
497
137
567
267
:
:
1 148
333
652

Average annual growth 
rate, national currency, 
2000-2008 (%)

Nominal
2.3
14.4
7.5
:
:
:
5.6
3.1
6.4
2.5
:
:
15.7
8.1
3.5
13.3
3.0
2.8
:
6.1
3.7
27.9
7.3
:
:
:
4.8
23.4
1.6

Real
-0.2
6.7
4.6
:
:
:
2.2
-0.5
2.8
0.3
:
:
8.5
4.8
0.4
6.8
0.5
0.3
:
3.3
0.6
12.2
2.0
:
:
:
2.8
1.9
-1.4

(1) Estonia and Slovakia: 2002 instead of 2000.
(2) Data for 2000 in Maltese Lira; data for 2008 in euro; growth rates calculated on the basis 
of Maltese Lira (with 2008 data converted back using EUR 1 = MTL 0.4293).
(3) Data for 2000 in Slovenian Tolar; data for 2008 in euro; growth rates calculated on the 
basis of Slovenian Tolar (with 2008 data converted back using EUR 1 = SIT 239.66).

Source: Eurostat (earn_minw_cur)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

85

2 Population and social conditions

LOW WAGE EARNERS

Th  e transition from gross to net earnings takes into account income 
taxes,  employee’s  social  security  contributions  and,  if  appropriate, 
family allowances. Th  e amount of these components, and therefore 
the ratio of net to gross earnings, depends on the situation of each 
individual. A number of diff erent family situations are considered, 
all  referring  to  an  average  worker  (AW).  Diff erences  exist  with 
respect to marital status, number of workers, number of dependent 
children, and the level of gross earnings.

Th  e  tax  wedge  on  labour  costs  is  defi ned  as  income  tax  plus  the 
employee and the employer’s social security contributions, expressed 
as  a  percentage  of  the  total  labour  costs  (gross  earnings  plus  the 
employer’s  social  security  contributions  plus  payroll  taxes  where 
applicable).  Th  is  indicator  is  for  single  persons  without  children, 
earning 67 % of the earnings of an AW.

Th  e unemployment trap measures the percentage of gross earnings 
which  is  taxed  away  through  higher  tax  and  social  security 
contributions  and  the  withdrawal  of  unemployment  and  other 
benefi ts when an unemployed person returns to employment. Th  is 
indicator  is  available  for  single  persons  without  children,  earning 

Figure 2.22: Tax rates on low wage earners, EU-27 (%)
100

75

50

25

0

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Unemployment trap

Low wage trap - one earner couple with two children

Low wage trap - single person without children

Tax wedge on labour cost

Source: Eurostat (tsiem050 and tsiem060)

86

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

67 % of the earnings of an AW when in work. Th  e low wage trap 
measures  the  percentage  of  gross  earnings  which  is  taxed  away 
through  the  combined  eff ects  of  income  taxes,  social  security 
contributions and any withdrawal of benefi ts when gross earnings 
increase from 33 % to 67 % of the earnings of an AW. Th  is indicator 
is  available  for  single  persons  without  children,  and  also  for  one-
earner couples with two children.

Table 2.22: Tax rate on low wage earners (%)

Tax wedge
on labour 
cost
2001 2006
40.1
43.2
49.2
31.1
40.1
39.3
47.4
38.4
16.3
35.4
35.9
44.5
41.5
11.9
41.8
40.6
30.6
42.9
18.4
40.6
43.5
42.5
31.7
42.2
41.2
35.6
38.9
46.0
30.4
42.0
23.6
34.3
26.9
:
26.4

40.3
44.1
50.7
36.9
41.3
40.5
47.7
37.4
17.3
35.1
35.3
47.6
42.7
17.0
42.0
42.9
31.2
50.9
17.0
38.9
42.9
41.8
32.2
45.2
40.3
41.3
41.4
47.8
28.1
42.6
20.9
35.2
27.3
23.2
26.9

Unemploy-
 ment trap
2001 2006
75.4
77.3
83.0
74.3
63.0
91.0
75.0
64.0
76.0
59.0
80.0
81.0
71.0
62.0
88.0
78.7
88.0
78.0
61.7
86.0
67.0
82.0
81.0
70.5
94.1
44.0
76.0
87.0
68.0
:
82.0
75.0
:
59.0
70.0

73.9
75.1
86.0
75.2
67.0
92.0
75.0
48.2
73.0
56.0
80.0
81.0
59.0
52.9
86.8
61.3
88.0
71.0
59.6
79.0
67.0
80.0
81.0
76.1
80.5
73.0
80.0
87.0
68.0
:
68.0
75.0
:
56.0
70.0

EU-27
Euro area (1)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

(1) EA-13 instead of EA-15.

Source: Eurostat (tsiem050 and tsiem060)

Low wage 
trap - single
person 
without 
children
2001 2006
47.4
43.0
58.0
16.2
31.0
82.0
51.0
25.0
53.0
19.0
26.0
35.0
33.0
6.0
32.0
30.0
51.0
31.0
17.9
70.0
37.0
66.0
20.0
30.3
67.5
24.0
61.0
55.0
58.0
:
39.0
37.0
:
20.0
32.0

48.0
43.4
56.0
21.8
39.0
84.0
53.0
26.0
46.0
18.0
24.0
41.0
29.0
7.2
31.7
36.0
43.0
42.0
15.5
65.0
35.0
65.0
21.0
28.4
34.9
36.0
56.0
60.0
58.0
:
34.0
40.0
:
17.0
34.0

Low wage 
trap - one 
earner couple 
with two 
children

2001
54.4
48.1
42.0
76.1
79.0
95.0
66.0
77.7
75.0
16.0
16.0
53.0
-11.0
57.7
100.0
93.6
95.0
64.0
10.6
79.0
79.0
72.0
65.0
13.0
26.2
124.0
96.0
96.0
62.0
:
77.0
105.0
:
89.0
57.0

2006
62.2
52.6
46.0
19.2
53.0
92.0
79.0
19.0
77.0
16.0
17.0
56.0
-12.0
93.0
100.0
52.2
110.0
54.0
8.3
77.0
64.0
78.0
78.0
19.4
72.6
29.0
100.0
89.0
85.0
:
67.0
84.0
:
93.0
42.0

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

87

2 Population and social conditions

HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE

Consumer policy within the European Union is based on three key 
objectives: a high common level of consumer protection; eff ective 
enforcement of consumer protection rules; proper involvement of 
consumer organisations in European Union policies.

Statistics on the fi nal consumption expenditure of households cover 
expenditure incurred on goods or services used for the satisfaction 
of individual needs, either through purchase, the consumption of 
own  production  (such  as  garden  produce),  or  the  imputed  rent 
of  owner-occupied  dwellings.  Data  on  consumption  expenditure 
may  be  broken  down  according  to  the  classifi cation  of  individual 
consumption  according  to  purpose  (COICOP),  which  identifi es 
12 diff erent headings at its most aggregated level. Housing, energy 
costs, transport, and food and non-alcoholic beverages account for 
a high proportion of the total expenditure made by most European 
households.

Figure 2.23: Breakdown of household consumption 
expenditure, EU-27, 2006 (% of total household consumption 
expenditure)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Housing, water, elec., gas & fuels

Transport

Food & non-alcoholic beverages

Miscellaneous goods & services

Recreation & culture

Restaurants & hotels

Furnish., househ. equip. & mainten.

Clothing & footwear

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco

Health

Communications

Education

Source: Eurostat (nama_co2_c)

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2

Th  e  indicators  presented  here  include  data  expressed  in  PPS  (see 
pages 18 and 19 for a defi nition of PPS) which eliminates diff erences 
in price levels between countries. Th  eir source is national accounts, 
where annual information is collected through a macro-economic 
approach. An alternative source for analysing household expenditure 
is the Household Budget Survey (HBS): this information is obtained 
by asking households to keep a diary of their purchases and is much 
more detailed in its coverage of goods and services, as well as the 
types of socio-economic breakdown that are made available. HBS is 
only carried out and published every fi ve years – the latest reference 
year currently available is 2005.

Table 2.23: Total household consumption expenditure

              As a proportion of GDP (%) (1)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

1998
58.1
57.3
53.9
67.5
52.7
50.7
57.9
57.8
49.7
:
59.5
55.6
59.2
65.2
63.9
61.6
44.4
50.9
66.9
50.4
55.3
62.5
63.5
75.7
57.2
55.1
50.0
49.4
64.1
60.1
72.4
51.5
58.1
49.5
60.3
56.0
67.2

2002
58.4
57.2
53.5
71.1
51.2
47.5
59.0
56.5
46.0
71.8
58.3
55.9
58.7
64.6
62.1
64.3
41.9
54.3
63.4
50.1
54.5
66.9
63.0
69.0
55.2
57.8
50.0
49.2
65.4
60.4
77.1
52.5
54.9
45.6
60.5
57.7
70.2

2007
57.2
56.3
52.4
69.1
48.1
49.6
56.7
53.1
46.9
70.6
57.3
56.7
59.0
65.7
64.8
65.6
35.2
53.3
61.1
46.4
53.1
60.9
64.7
68.2
52.3
56.0
50.4
46.7
63.3
56.4
77.7
70.6
58.4
41.6
57.8
56.9
70.3

    Per capita (PPS)
2001
11 400
:
12 800
4 300
7 500
11 800
13 000
5 400
11 900
12 900
12 100
12 700
14 000
14 900
4 700
5 400
21 600
6 600
11 900
12 900
13 900
6 000
9 800
3 800
9 000
5 900
10 900
11 400
14 400
:
:
5 300
13 700
13 300
16 300
:
:

2006
13 300
14 600
14 200
6 400
9 400
:
14 900
8 900
14 800
17 000
14 700
14 700
14 500
16 300
8 000
8 700
25 800
8 200
12 800
14 300
16 500
7 500
11 100
6 200
11 500
8 400
13 600
13 500
16 600
:
:
7 200
16 100
17 200
18 400
:
:

1996
8 800
:
10 200
3 300
6 200
10 200
10 800
3 800
8 700
:
8 900
9 900
10 900
11 000
3 300
3 700
16 200
4 300
9 600
9 400
11 800
4 200
7 600
:
7 100
4 000
8 300
9 300
10 700
:
:
3 200
11 200
10 400
13 700
11 500
16 500

(1) Final consumption expenditure of households and non-proﬁ t institutions serving 
households.

Source: Eurostat (tec00009 and nama_co2_c)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

89

2 Population and social conditions

LIVING CONDITIONS

Comparisons  of  living  standards  across  countries  are  frequently 
based on GDP per capita, but this says little about living standards 
across  private  households.  For  poverty  indicators,  equivalised 
(adjusted  for  household  size  according  to  the  modifi ed  OECD 
scale) disposable income is used.

Th  e at-risk-of-poverty rate is defi ned as the proportion of persons 
with an equivalised disposable income below 60 % of the national 
median equivalised disposable income. Th  is rate may be expressed 
before  or  aft er  social  transfers,  with  the  diff erence  measuring 
the  hypothetical  impact  of  social  transfers  in  reducing  poverty. 
Pensions  are  counted  as  income  before  transfers.  Th  e  S80/S20 
income quintile share ratio is calculated as the ratio of total income 
received by the 20 % of the population with the highest equivalised 
disposable income to that received by the 20 % of the population 
with  the  lowest  equivalised  disposable  income.  Th  e  aggregate 
replacement  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  median  personal  income  from 
pensions of retired persons aged 65 to 74 years old to the median 
personal income from earnings of persons in work aged 50-59.

Figure 2.24: Persons at-risk-of-poverty, 2006 
(% of total population)

0

10

20

30

40

EU-25 (1)
            LV
EL
LT
IT
ES
UK
PL
RO (2)
IE
PT (3)
EE
HU
CY
BE
LU
MT (3)
BG (2)
FI
DE
AT
FR
SE
DK
SI
SK
CZ
NL

After social transfers

Before social transfers

(1) Estimates calculated as population-size weighted averages of national data. (2) Source: 
national data (HBS 2006). (3) Provisional.

Source: Eurostat (tsisc020 and tsisc030)

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2

All the indicators above are derived from the Community statistics 
on  income  and  living  conditions  (EU-SILC)  for  2006  and  the 
European  Community  Household  Panel  (ECHP)  for  2001.  Th  e 
‘jobless households’ indicators are calculated as the proportion of 
persons of the specifi ed age who live in households where no one 
is working. Students aged 18-24 who live in households composed 
solely of students of the same age class are not counted. Th  e data 
comes from the EU Labour Force Survey (LFS).

Table 2.24: Living conditions

People aged 0-17 
(% of age group 
living in jobless 
households) (1)
1997 2002 2007
9.4
10.0
7.7
8.1
13.5
13.8
12.9
18.7
7.9
7.6
5.0
5.7
9.3
9.3
7.3
10.1
11.2
10.8
3.9
5.1
5.0
6.6
9.8
9.6
5.8
7.2
3.7
3.9
8.6
10.6
6.9
8.4
4.0
2.8
14.0
14.3
8.4
7.6
5.9
6.0
6.1
4.4
9.5
:
4.8
4.2
9.4
9.8
2.5
3.8
10.5
12.1
4.9
:
:
:
16.7
17.4
9.8
10.3

:
:
11.8
:
5.1
:
10.2
:
15.7
5.2
10.5
10.1
8.5
:
:
:
4.2
14.9
:
7.5
4.3
:
5.2
6.9
3.2
:
:
:
18.9
:

People aged 18-59 
(% of age group 
living in jobless 
households) (2)
1997 2002 2007
9.3
10.3
8.8
9.4
12.5
14.2
10.0
16.6
6.5
7.3
6.9
7.6
9.5
10.0
6.0
10.8
7.8
8.5
8.0
8.9
6.0
7.3
10.9
10.4
9.1
10.2
4.5
5.3
7.1
10.5
6.3
9.1
7.5
6.3
11.8
13.0
6.9
7.2
6.5
6.7
7.6
7.5
11.7
15.1
5.8
4.6
9.6
11.3
6.0
8.0
8.8
10.9
9.5
:
:
:
10.9
11.3
12.9
14.0

:
:
14.3
:
5.3
:
11.4
9.6
12.5
10.0
11.3
11.4
12.2
:
:
:
7.0
15.7
:
8.9
7.7
9.8
5.9
6.8
8.7
:
:
:
12.9
:

Aggreg. 
replace-
ment 
ratio,
2006 (3)
0.51
0.51
0.42
0.60
0.52
0.37
0.46
0.49
0.35
0.49
0.48
0.58
0.58
0.28
0.49
0.44
0.65
0.54
0.49
0.43
0.65
0.59
0.59
:
0.41
0.57
0.47
0.60
0.44
:

Inequality of 
income 
distribution 
(4)
2001 2006
4.8
4.6
4.2
3.5
3.5
3.4
4.1
5.5
4.9
6.1
5.3
4.0
5.5
4.3
7.9
6.3
4.2
5.5
4.2
3.8
3.7
5.6
6.8
5.3
3.4
4.0
3.6
3.5
5.4
:

4.5
4.4
4.0
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.6
6.1
4.5
5.7
5.5
3.9
4.8
:  
:  
4.9
3.8
3.1
:  
4.0
3.5
4.7
6.5
4.6
3.1
:  
3.7
3.4
5.4
:

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR

(1) Slovenia, 2007: unreliable data; Denmark, Finland and Croatia: data are for 2006 instead 
of 2007; Latvia and Romania, 2002: break in series.
(2) Denmark, Finland and Croatia: data are for 2006 instead of 2007; Latvia, Lithuania and 
Romania, 2002: break in series.
(3) EU-25 instead of EU-27; EA-13 instead of EA-15; EU aggregates calculated as population-
size weighted averages of national data; Bulgaria, source: national data (HBS 2006).
(4) S80/S20 income quintile share ratio; EU-25 instead of EU-27; EA-12 instead of EA-15; 
EU aggregates calculated as population-size weighted averages of national data; break 
in series between 2001 and 2006 due to change in source; Bulgaria and Romania, source: 
national data (HBS 2006).

Source: Eurostat (tsisc080, tsisc090, tsdde310 and tsisc010)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

91

2 Population and social conditions

SOCIAL PROTECTION

Social  protection  systems  are  highly  developed  in  the  European 
Union: they are designed to protect people against the risks or costs 
associated  with  unemployment,  parental  responsibilities,  health 
problems/sickness  and  invalidity,  the  loss  of  a  spouse  or  parent 
(survivors), old age, housing and social exclusion. Th  e model used in 
each Member State is somewhat diff erent and some social protection 
benefi ts are provided by private social protection schemes.

Data on expenditure and receipts of social protection are drawn up 
according  to  the  European  system  of  integrated  social  protection 
statistics  (ESSPROS)  methodology  (for  more  details,  see  the 
‘ESSPROS  Manual’).  Th  is  system  has  been  designed  to  allow  a 
comparison of social protection fl ows between Member States.

Note that besides transfers in cash or in kind, total expenditure on 
social protection also includes other costs associated with running 
the services, such as administration, management and payment of 
property income.

Figure 2.25: Expenditure on social protection, EU-27, 2005 
(% share of total benefi ts) (1)

Survivors
4.4%

Housing
2.2%

Social exclusion 
n.e.c.
1.3%

Unemploy-
ment
6.1%

Family/
children
8.0%

Disability
7.9%

Old age
41.4%

Sickness/
healthcare
28.6%

(1) Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.

Source: Eurostat (tps00107)

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2

Expenditure  on  care  for  the  elderly  concerns  social  protection 
expenditure  devoted  to  old-age  care,  covering  care  allowance, 
accommodation,  and  assistance  in  carrying  out  daily  tasks  and 
other benefi ts in kind.

Th  e old-age dependency ratio is the ratio between the total number 
of elderly persons of an age when they are generally economically 
inactive (aged 65 and over) and the number of persons of working 
age (from 15 to 64).

Table 2.25: Expenditure on social protection

Expenditure on 
social protection 
(PPS per inhabitant) (1)
2005
2000
6 087
:
6 884
5 784
8 249
6 356
1 260
:
3 292
2 544
8 498
7 232
7 529
6 599
1 761
1 191
5 857
3 502
5 139
3 758
4 776
3 759
8 044
6 472
6 226
5 499
3 807
2 499
1 390
1 068
1 593
1 184
9 136 12 946
3 165
2 060
3 104
2 650
8 305
6 744
8 268
7 124
2 236
1 797
3 998
3 229
1 088
668
4 539
3 684
2 258
1 855
6 833
5 596
8 529
7 308
7 176
5 986
6 556
4 818
9 525
7 658
8 891
7 433

EU-27
Euro area (4) 
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO
CH

Expenditure 
on social 
protection 
(% of GDP) (2)
2000
2005
27.2
26.6
27.8
26.8
29.7
26.5
16.1
:
19.1
19.5
30.1
28.9
29.4
29.3
12.5
14.0
18.2
14.1
24.2
23.5
20.8
20.3
31.5
29.5
26.4
24.7
18.2
14.8
12.4
15.3
13.2
15.8
21.9
19.6
21.9
19.3
18.3
16.5
28.2
26.4
28.8
28.1
19.6
19.7
24.7
21.7
14.2
13.2
23.4
24.6
16.9
19.3
26.7
25.1
32.0
30.7
26.8
26.9
21.7
19.2
23.9
24.4
29.2
26.9

Expenditure 
on care for 
the elderly, 
2005 
(% of GDP) 
 (1)
0.5
:
0.1
0.0
0.3
1.7
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.1
:
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.0
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.7
2.5
1.0
1.8
1.6
0.3

Old-age 
depen-
dency 
ratio, 
2007 (%) 
(3)
25.2
:
25.9
24.9
20.2
23.2
29.9
25.1
16.2
27.6
24.2
24.9
30.2
17.6
24.8
22.7
20.7
23.2
19.8
21.5
25.0
19.0
25.6
21.3
22.7
16.5
24.8
26.4
24.1
17.6
22.2
23.8

(1) Portugal: data are for 2004 instead of 2005.
(2) EU-25 instead of EU-27 for 2000; Portugal: data are for 2004 instead of 2005.
(3) Iceland: data are for 2006 instead of 2007.
(4) EA-13 instead of EA-15.

Source: Eurostat (tps00100, tsp00098, tsdde530 and tsdde510)

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93

2 Population and social conditions

GOVERNANCE

Th  e  level  of  citizen’s  confi dence  in  the  European  Parliament  and 
the  European  Commission  is  expressed  as  the  proportion  of 
positive opinions (people who declare that they ‘tend to trust’) for 
each institution. Th  e remaining categories, not shown in the table, 
include negative opinions (people who declare that they ‘tend not to 
trust’), as well as ‘don’t know’ and/or ‘no answer’. Th  e data are based 
on the bi-yearly Eurobarometer, a survey which has been used since 
1973 to monitor public opinion in the Member States (please note 
that opinion polls can have a signifi cant volatility over time; they 
are  oft en  infl uenced  by  recent  political  (or  other)  events  within  a 
country and have therefore to be interpreted with special care).

Figure 2.26: Level of citizens’ confi dence in EU institutions, 
December 2007 (%) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

EU-27
EL
SK
RO
BE
SI
HU
MT
DK
LU
CY
PT
PL
CZ
EE
IE
ES
NL
LT
FR
FI
IT
BG
DE
AT
SE
LV
UK

European Parliament

Commission of the European Communities

(1) Graph is ranked on the average of the two institutions.

Source: Eurostat (tsdgo510)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Population and social conditions

2

Voter turnout indicators are based on the percentage of people who 
cast  a  vote  (including  those  who  cast  blank  or  invalid  votes)  as  a 
proportion of the total population with the right to vote. In Belgium, 
Luxembourg and Greece, voting is compulsory. In Italy, voting is a 
civic obligation (no penalty).

Table 2.26: Good governance (%)

Level of citizens' 
confidence in the 
European Parliament

Voter turnout in 
EU parliamentary 
elections

Voter turnout in 
national 
parliamentary 
elections

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

2005
:
62
55
56
58
53
49
60
62
52
49
61
60
44
55
68
62
63
53
49
49
67
68
61
65
52
48
27
47
36
-
-
-
-

2007
55
68
58
61
70
52
61
63
77
62
58
53
59
44
57
65
67
63
61
51
60
63
72
63
70
53
57
25
40
20
-
-
-
-

1999
-
91.0
-
-
50.5
45.2
-
50.2
75.3
63.0
46.8
70.8
-
-
-
87.3
-
-
30.0
49.4
-
40.0
-
-
-
31.4
38.8
24.0
-
-
-
-
-
-

2004 (1)
45.7
90.8
28.6
28.3
47.9
43.0
26.8
58.8
63.2
45.1
42.8
73.1
71.2
41.3
48.4
89.0
38.5
82.4
39.3
42.4
20.9
38.6
29.5
28.3
17.0
39.4
37.8
38.8
-
-
-
-
-
-

Previous
-
94.0
66.6
57.9
84.5
79.1
57.9
62.6
76.6
75.7
60.3
81.4
89.0
71.2
58.2
86.5
73.5
95.4
80.0
84.3
40.6
62.8
65.3
60.6
70.1
66.7
80.1
59.4
61.7
76.9
87.7
86.7
75.0
45.5

Latest
-
91.1
55.8
64.5
86.6
77.7
61.9
67.0
74.1
75.7
60.2
83.6
90.8
61.0
46.1
91.7
64.4
95.7
80.4
74.2
53.9
64.3
58.5
58.4
54.7
65.0
82.0
61.4
59.6
84.2
83.6
86.5
77.4
48.3

(1) Last election in 2004, except for Bulgaria and Romania, 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tsdgo510 and tsdgo310), Eurobarometer opinion poll, European 
Parliament, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

95

I

3

Industry, trade and services

3 Industry, trade and services

GROWING AND DECLINING ACTIVITIES

Th  is  chapter  concentrates  on  enterprises,  covering  activities  from 
mining  and  quarrying  through  manufacturing  to  construction, 
distributive  trades,  hotels  and  restaurants,  transport  services, 
fi nancial  services,  real  estate,  renting,  and  business  services  (such 
as computer services, accounting, advertising, labour recruitment, 
cleaning and security services). Th  ese statistics show developments 
for  economic  activities  (through  short-term  business  statistics, 
compiled  with  monthly,  quarterly  and  annual  frequencies),  or 
structural aspects (through structural business statistics, compiled 
with an annual frequency). In addition, information is provided on 
production statistics, and on tourism.

Th  e  information  presented  in  the  opening  pages  of  this  chapter 
is  based  upon  short-term  business  statistics  (STS).  Th  e  index  of 
turnover shows the evolution of the market for goods and services 
in terms of sales made. Th  e index is not defl ated, and so its objective 
is to measure market activity in value terms. Turnover includes all 
invoiced duties and taxes on the goods or services with the exception 

Figure 3.1: Average annual growth rate of turnover for selected 
services, EU-27, 2002-2007 (%) (1)

0

2

4

6

8

Transport  and
communications

Computer services
and other business
activities

Wholesale trade

Motor trades

Hotels and
restaurants

Retail trade

(1) Working day adjusted series; estimates.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot, ebt_ts_who and ebt_ts_ret) 

98

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3

of the VAT invoiced to customers and other similar deductible taxes 
directly linked to turnover. Turnover also includes all other charges 
(transport, packaging, etc.) passed on to the customer, even if these 
charges are listed separately in the invoice.

Figure 3.2: Average annual growth rate of turnover for selected 
industrial activities (excluding construction), EU-27, 2002-2007 
(%) (1)

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

Basic metals and fabricated metal
products

Coke, refined petroleum products and
nuclear fuel

Mining and quarrying of energy
producing materials

Mining and quarrying except energy
producing materials

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

Wood and wood products

Rubber and plastic products

Chemicals, chemical products and
man-made fibres

Transport equipment

Other non-metallic mineral products

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Electrical and optical equipment

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Pulp, paper and paper products;
publishing and printing

Textiles and textile products

Leather and leather products

(1) Gross series; estimates; electricity, gas and water supply (NACE Section E): not available.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_intv_a)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

99

3 Industry, trade and services

SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR INDUSTRY

In order to focus attention on improving the timeliness of monthly 
and  quarterly  economic  statistics,  the  Council  of  the  European 
Union  and  the  European  Commission  announced  the  principal 
European economic indicators (PEEIs) in the spring of 2003. Th  is 
set  of  indicators,  of  which  there  are  eight  short-term  business 
indicators,  are  given  the  utmost  priority  in  terms  of  timely 
collection, compilation, harmonised methodologies, dissemination 
and quality. Among the PEEIs for the industrial economy are the 
index of production and the index of domestic output prices.

Th  e  industrial  production  index  shows  changes  in  output  and 
activity within industry. It aims to show volume changes in value 
added. In practice, proxies are used for the compilation of the index, 
such as defl ated turnover or production values, the physical quantity 
of production, or occasionally the level of labour, raw material or 
energy inputs.

Domestic  industrial  output  price  indices  (sometimes  known 
as  industrial  producer  price  indices)  show  the  development  of 
transaction  prices  across  industrial  activities.  Output  prices  (as 
well as import price indices, which have started to be published by 

Figure 3.3: Production and domestic output price indices, total 
industry (excluding construction), EU-27 (2000=100) (1)

140

130

120

110

100

90

May-98

May-00

May-02

May-04

May-06

May-08

Domestic output price index

Production index

(1) Trend-cycle series for the index of production; gross series for the index of domestic 
output prices; estimates.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_inpp_mdm and ebt_inpr_mtr)

100

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Industry, trade and services

3

Eurostat  on  a  regular  basis  during  the  past  year)  may  be  used  as 
an  early  indication  of  infl ationary  pressures  within  an  economy. 
Industrial output price increases/decreases are separated according 
to  the  destination  of  the  product,  between  domestic  and  non-
domestic markets, as determined by the residency of the third party 
that has ordered or purchased the product. Furthermore, within the 
non-domestic market a distinction between euro area and non-euro 
area markets may be made.

Table 3.1: Annual growth rates, total industry (excluding 
construction) (%) (1)

  Production index
2006
3.9
4.0
5.1
5.9
11.5
3.5
5.9
10.1
5.1
0.5
3.9
1.0
2.4
0.7
5.5
7.3
5.5
10.7
:
1.4
7.3
12.2
2.8
7.7
6.6
10.1
9.8
3.5
0.8
4.6
5.8
-2.4
7.8
4.3
2.2

2005
1.2
1.4
-0.3
6.9
6.7
1.8
3.3
11.1
3.0
-0.9
0.7
0.3
-0.8
0.9
6.1
7.1
6.0
7.3
:
0.4
4.2
4.5
0.3
2.4
4.0
3.3
0.3
2.4
-1.1
5.4
5.7
-0.7
2.7
1.4
3.3

2007
3.2
3.4
2.6
9.1
8.8
0.4
6.1
6.7
7.2
2.2
1.9
1.4
-0.2
3.1
0.7
4.0
1.1
8.3
:
2.3
4.9
9.5
1.8
5.0
6.2
12.7
4.4
4.1
0.3
5.6
4.4
-0.8
9.5
2.8
1.7

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
NO
CH
JP
US

   Domestic output price index
2007
2006
2.7
5.9
2.8
5.1
3.0
4.8
8.6
9.2
4.0
1.6
0.3
7.6
2.0
5.5
:
:
1.6
1.8
3.3
6.9
3.3
5.3
2.5
3.4
3.5
5.6
4.3
3.9
:
:
9.2
6.7
6.8
13.1
6.4
8.4
:
:
4.6
8.2
4.4
2.1
3.6
2.5
3.2
4.7
8.7
12.0
5.3
2.4
2.1
8.4
3.0
5.2
3.8
5.9
1.1
9.0
3.4
2.9
:
:
-0.6
8.8
:
:
:
:
:
:

2005
5.3
4.1
2.2
6.9
3.0
9.4
4.6
:
2.1
5.9
4.9
3.0
4.0
5.1
:
5.9
3.9
8.3
:
7.1
3.3
2.1
4.1
12.5
2.7
4.7
1.8
3.8
10.9
3.0
:
6.0
:
:
:

(1) Working day adjusted series for the index of production; gross series for the index of 
domestic output prices.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_inpp_a and ebt_inpr_awd)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

101

3 Industry, trade and services

SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR CONSTRUCTION

As with the index of production for industrial activities (shown on 
the  previous  page),  the  index  of  production  for  construction  aims 
to show volume changes in value added; it is also one of the PEEIs. 
Th  e index for construction may be split into an index for building 
and  an  index  for  civil  engineering,  according  to  the  classifi cation 
of  types  of  construction.  Buildings  are  sub-divided  into  residential 
buildings (in methodological terms, those buildings of which at least 
half are used for residential purposes) and non-residential buildings. 
Civil  engineering  works  are  all  constructions  not  classifi ed  under 
buildings:  for  example,  railways,  roads,  bridges,  highways,  airport 
runways, dams.

It  is  particularly  diffi  cult  to  compile  a  production  index  for 
construction, given that it is diffi  cult to measure output in physical 
quantities, as almost every project is unique in terms of the building 
being  constructed  and  the  site  being  used;  equally,  it  is  diffi  cult  to 
obtain reliable output prices to use as a defl ator in the event that output 
is measured in value terms. As a result, a wide variety of approaches 
are used in diff erent countries to provide these statistics, including the 
use of hours worked as a proxy.

Figure 3.4: Index of production, construction, EU-27 
(2000=100) (1)

115

110

105

100

95

90

May-98

May-00

May-02

May-04

May-06

May-08

Building

Construction

Civil engineering

(1) Trend-cycle series; estimates.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_copr_m)

102

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3

Table 3.2: Annual growth rates for the index of production, 
construction (%) (1)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
NO

2002
0.9
0.6
-2.7
3.0
1.1
-1.0
-4.3
22.0
2.1
39.1
5.6
-2.4
5.1
3.3
11.7
21.7
1.9
17.8
23.3
-3.3
0.5
-9.7
-1.3
3.1
5.4
4.5
1.6
-4.4
4.4
12.8
-0.1

2003
0.9
-0.2
-2.9
5.3
7.7
2.5
-4.2
6.0
5.7
-5.7
3.9
-0.9
3.3
6.9
12.9
27.8
0.9
1.7
-5.7
-5.5
12.5
-6.9
-8.3
6.9
8.0
6.0
3.9
1.7
5.1
22.9
2.2

2004
0.2
-0.8
-1.9
34.8
7.6
-0.2
-5.1
11.1
10.8
-15.9
2.1
-0.6
1.6
4.5
12.5
6.8
-1.4
5.4
0.8
-2.7
5.2
-0.9
-4.7
9.5
2.5
5.4
4.5
1.4
2.9
2.0
7.3

2005
0.9
0.7
-3.4
32.2
2.4
5.4
-5.6
23.0
12.6
-38.8
7.8
3.5
0.8
2.8
15.2
11.5
-0.8
16.2
4.3
3.1
4.7
9.3
-4.9
9.2
3.0
14.5
3.9
3.0
-0.8
-0.8
9.0

2006
4.0
3.9
3.2
13.5
6.9
10.2
6.5
27.8
0.4
7.4
1.3
4.1
4.1
4.0
13.9
21.2
2.4
-1.0
8.3
3.8
4.6
14.9
-6.5
19.3
15.3
15.9
5.9
7.9
1.2
9.4
6.1

2007
3.6
3.2
2.3
20.0
5.7
2.7
2.7
9.8
-7.4
25.5
-0.9
3.8
5.6
6.4
13.7
21.6
1.4
-14.7
2.3
5.8
3.8
16.0
-4.1
34.5
18.4
4.8
11.2
7.8
2.5
2.4
5.8

(1) Working day adjusted series.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_copr_a)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

103

3 Industry, trade and services

SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR RETAIL TRADE

Retailing  covers  the  resale  without  transformation  of  new  and 
used  goods  to  the  general  public  for  personal  or  household  use 
and consumption. Various distinctions can be made: for example, 
between non-specialised and specialised retailers; between food and 
non-food retailers; between in-store and other retailers (retailing in 
markets,  door-to-door,  or  remote  selling);  and  between  new  and 
second hand goods.

Turnover  indices  for  retail  trade  are  compiled  in  both  value  and 
volume terms. Th  e volume measure is more commonly referred to 
as the index of the volume of (retail) sales, which eliminates price 
eff ects;  this  indicator  is  also  one  of  the  PEEIs.  Retail  trade  has  a 
particular  importance  because  of  its  role  as  an  interface  between 
producers  and  fi nal  customers,  allowing  retail  sales  turnover  and 
volume of sales indices to be used as a short-term indicator for fi nal 
domestic demand by households.

Figure 3.5: Volume of sales index, selected retail trade 
activities, EU-27 (2000=100) (1)

130

120

110

100

90

May-98

May-00

May-02

May-04

May-06

May-08

Text., cloth., footw.  & leath. goods in spec. stores

Household equipment in specialised stores

Retail trade

Books, newspap.  & other sales in spec. stores

Food, beverages and tobacco

(1) Trend-cycle series; estimates.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_ret)

104

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3

Table 3.3: Annual growth rates for the volume of sales index, 
retail trade (%) (1)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
NO

2002
2.3
1.1
-0.7
8.6
3.1
3.2
-1.3
14.1
1.5
4.8
6.1
3.0
-0.6
2.7
10.8
7.8
3.5
8.5
:
0.3
-0.4
-1.3
0.0
0.8
4.0
5.8
2.7
4.2
6.1
9.3
4.3

2003
1.7
0.7
-0.9
18.1
3.9
3.9
-0.5
0.7
1.9
4.3
3.1
2.4
-0.7
-1.3
13.6
11.1
4.0
9.0
:
-2.4
0.2
4.7
-2.5
5.5
3.0
-5.3
4.0
3.7
3.4
10.9
4.4

2004
3.0
1.6
1.8
20.4
2.7
8.1
1.8
12.2
4.2
4.5
2.4
3.4
-2.4
3.1
12.3
10.2
6.5
5.4
:
-1.1
1.2
4.8
2.3
14.1
2.9
6.3
4.5
4.0
5.9
7.1
3.4

2005
2.1
1.4
1.3
17.3
3.9
8.6
1.4
14.6
5.8
3.0
1.5
1.8
-0.6
4.9
21.5
13.5
3.4
5.7
:
0.9
1.7
1.3
1.8
17.4
7.3
9.7
5.0
6.5
2.1
1.8
4.2

2006
2.6
1.6
1.4
13.3
6.9
3.3
0.6
16.6
7.6
8.0
2.0
1.6
-0.4
6.1
20.1
7.2
15.1
4.3
:
4.8
1.9
9.6
1.2
24.8
1.9
8.8
5.5
7.9
3.1
6.9
6.3

2007
2.3
0.9
1.9
12.3
6.5
0.7
-2.3
11.6
6.3
2.3
2.5
3.1
-1.8
8.8
18.6
12.2
15.7
-3.0
:
2.6
1.2
13.5
-0.1
16.9
5.6
5.5
5.3
5.8
4.1
3.2
7.6

(1) Working day adjusted series.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_ret)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

105

3 Industry, trade and services

SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR OTHER SERVICES

Th  e  contribution  of  services  to  the  European  economy  grows 
almost every year, and it is important that offi  cial statistics are able 
to provide information on this growing area. Th  e knowledge-based 
economy and the demand for intangibles, either for consumption 
or  investment  purposes,  as  well  as  international  outsourcing,  has 
led  to  a  major  restructuring  of  many  European  economies,  with 
a  shift   away  from  industrial  activities  towards  services  activities. 
Th  is  weightlessness  that  is  inherent  to  many  sectors  of  the 
economy provides new opportunities and with it competition both 
nationally and internationally. Traditionally, business statistics were 
concentrated  on  industrial  and  construction  activities,  and  to  a 
lesser extent distributive trades and services. Since the early 1990s 
major developments in offi  cial statistics within the European Union 
have seen data collection eff orts focus more on services.

Figure 3.6: Index of turnover, selected service activities, EU-27 
(2000=100) (1)

180

160

140

120

100

80

Jan-00

Jan-02

Jan-04

Jan-06

Jan-08

Computer services & other business activities

Transport & communications

Motor trades

Wholesale trade

Hotels & restaurants

(1) Trend-cycle series; estimates.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot and ebt_ts_who)

106

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3

Th  e  index  of  turnover  for  other  services  (also  a  PEEI)  shows  the 
evolution of sales in value terms. Note that prices for some services 
have actually been falling, perhaps due to market liberalisation and 
increased competition (for example, telecommunications and other 
technology-related activities). In such cases, the rapid growth rates 
observed  for  turnover  value  indices  for  some  activities  would  be 
even greater in volume terms.

Table 3.4: Annual growth rates for the index of turnover, 
selected service activities (%) (1)

Motor 
trades

Wholesale
trade

Transport
and 
commun- 
ications

Computer
services & 
other 
Hotels & 
business
restau-
rants
activities
2006 2007 2006 2007 2006 2007 2006 2007 2006 2007
10.4
7.7
8.2
21.2
9.4
15.0
8.5
30.7
4.1
:
9.7
5.8
:
14.6
26.5
30.7
-2.2
2.6
3.0
10.2
5.2
20.8
:
89.8
4.7
11.1
13.4
7.8
12.3
:
:

9.0
8.5
13.3
24.5
6.6
10.1
8.8
22.4
-1.9
:
8.9
7.3
:
9.2
44.5
13.8
21.2
16.7
-3.7
10.7
4.1
11.1
:
72.7
5.1
15.7
9.6
10.3
8.0
:
:

7.7
5.7
12.2
0.1
6.2
10.7
3.8
23.7
20.8
:
7.2
4.3
:
3.3
19.5
20.4
10.8
20.3
-4.1
:
3.6
10.0
4.4
53.1
22.2
19.0
4.1
7.3
8.2
:
:

8.8
6.5
5.4
17.5
6.1
10.2
7.2
12.1
17.6
:
8.7
5.4
5.0
8.6
30.1
9.4
11.3
21.8
:
:
5.0
12.4
2.0
26.2
11.0
14.4
10.0
9.3
13.8
5.4
10.6

10.0
5.7
7.7
8.0
9.0
7.3
4.2
12.3
1.0
:
5.2
6.8
:
8.3
16.8
27.5
6.9
-2.9
2.6
:
4.6
10.8
5.8
54.2
13.3
13.1
6.1
5.9
18.0
:
:

5.7
5.4
7.6
29.3
7.8
10.9
7.3
35.6
16.4
:
4.5
2.9
:
1.3
50.5
19.0
5.8
16.3
:
6.0
3.0
12.9
-1.0
20.8
13.2
13.4
9.4
6.5
1.7
:
8.4

4.5
2.5
5.7
20.0
9.0
1.8
-4.9
22.9
10.1
:
5.0
5.8
:
:
20.7
26.6
-3.2
7.6
:
3.8
1.0
20.3
4.1
46.2
14.6
17.4
4.8
0.0
5.4
:
10.1

3.7
3.8
5.4
18.9
4.1
9.5
-0.7
18.4
4.8
:
4.8
4.7
:
12.6
23.4
10.4
3.3
6.0
2.0
5.5
5.2
14.5
1.5
6.5
9.7
4.0
6.3
8.0
2.1
14.3
11.3

5.6
4.0
6.1
18.7
2.6
7.3
1.6
16.7
5.5
:
5.1
3.8
:
4.8
23.6
11.8
1.9
12.6
62.7
4.9
4.3
16.2
0.9
18.7
11.5
17.6
6.8
6.9
7.5
6.2
10.2

7.6
4.9
7.8
9.1
9.0
5.9
2.0
29.1
6.7
:
7.3
4.9
2.8
:
16.9
22.1
9.6
0.7
:
:
4.1
9.9
4.8
73.6
16.0
5.9
7.2
8.6
9.7
4.7
7.5

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
NO

(1) Working day adjusted series.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot and ebt_ts_who)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

107

3 Industry, trade and services

STRUCTURE OF THE BUSINESS ECONOMY

Structural  business  statistics  (SBS)  describe  the  structure,  conduct 
and performance of economic activities, down to the most detailed 
activity  level  (several  hundred  sectors).  SBS  covers  the  ‘business 
economy’, which includes industry, construction and services (NACE 
Sections C to K). Note that fi nancial services (NACE Section J) are kept 
separate because of their specifi c nature and the limited availability of 
most types of standard business statistics in this area. SBS does not 
cover agriculture, forestry and fi shing, nor public administration and 
(largely) non-market services such as education and health.

SBS describe the economy through the observation of units engaged 
in an economic activity, which in SBS is generally the enterprise. An 
enterprise carries out one or more activities at one or more locations 
and may comprise one or more legal units. Note that enterprises that 
are active in more than one economic activity (and the value added 
and  turnover  they  generate  and  the  persons  they  employ,  etc.)  will 
be  classifi ed  under  the  NACE  heading  (Statistical  Classifi cation  of 
Economic  Activities  in  the  European  Community)  which  is  their 
principal activity, normally the one that generates the largest amount 
of value added.

Figure 3.7: Business demography - enterprise birth rates, 2005 (%) (1)
10

15

20

0

5

RO
UK
PT
BG
LV
LU
EE
ES
NL
DK
LT
HU
SI
CZ
FI
IT
SK
CY
SE
NO
CH

(1) Covers the business economy (NACE Sections C to K) excluding holdings (NACE Class 
74.15); Portugal and Romania: sole proprietorships are not covered; Switzerland: data 
are for 2004; Denmark and Lithuania: data are for 2003; Norway: data are for 2002; those 
Member States for which no data are shown: not available.

Source: Eurostat (tsier150)

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Industry, trade and services

3

Th  e  number  of  enterprises  includes  those  active  during  at  least 
part  of  the  reference  period.  An  enterprise  birth  amounts  to  the 
creation of a combination of production factors with the restriction 
that  no  other  enterprises  are  involved  in  the  event.  Births  do  not 
include  entries  into  the  population  due  to  mergers,  break-ups, 
split-off s  or  restructuring  of  a  set  of  enterprises.  A  birth  occurs 
when an enterprise starts from scratch and actually starts activity. 
Th  e birth rate is the number of births relative to the stock of active 
enterprises.

Gross value added at factor cost can be calculated from turnover, plus 
capitalised production, plus other operating income, plus or minus 
the changes in stocks, minus the purchases of goods and services, 
minus  other  taxes  on  products  which  are  linked  to  turnover  but 
not deductible, minus the duties and taxes linked to production. As 
such, it corresponds to operating output net of the cost of operating 
materials  and  services  consumed.  Value  added  at  factor  costs  is 
calculated gross, as value adjustments (such as depreciation) are not 
subtracted.

Table 3.5: Structure of the business economy, EU-27, 2005 (1)

 Number
 of
 enterprises

(1 000)

(%) 

 Value 
added
(EUR 
1 000 
million)

(%) 

Number of 
persons 
employed

(million)

(%)

19 647

100.0

5 360

100.0

126.7

100.0

21
2 322

0.1
11.8

83
1 630

1.5
30.4

28

0.1

190

3.5

2 793
6 259
1 644

14.2
31.9
8.4

466
1 022
168

8.7
19.1
3.1

1 200

6.1

630

11.8

0.8
34.6

1.6

13.5
31.0
8.8

11.8

0.6
27.3

1.3

10.7
24.4
7.0

9.3

5 379

27.4

1 171

21.9

24.5

19.3

NON-FINANCIAL 
BUSINESS ECONOMY
Mining & quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas & water 
supply
Construction
Distributive trades (2)
Hotels & restaurants
Transport, storage & 
communication
Real estate, renting & 
business activities

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data.
(2) Covers wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal 
and household goods.

Source: Eurostat (tin00050, tin00002 and tin00004)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

109

3 Industry, trade and services

SIZE OF MANUFACTURING AND SERVICES SUBSECTORS

Turnover  comprises  the  totals  invoiced  by  the  observation  unit 
during  the  reference  period,  corresponding  to  market  sales  of 
goods or services supplied to third parties. Turnover includes all 
duties and taxes on the goods or services invoiced by the unit with 
the exception of the VAT invoiced by the unit vis-à-vis its customers 
and other similar deductible taxes directly linked to turnover. It 
also includes all other charges (transport, packaging, etc.) passed 
on to the customer. Reductions in prices, rebates and discounts, 
as  well  as  the  value  of  returned  packing,  must  be  deducted. 
Income  classifi ed  as  other  operating  income,  fi nancial  income 
and extraordinary income in company accounts is excluded from 
turnover. Operating subsidies received from public authorities or 
the institutions of the European Union are also excluded.

Th  e number of persons employed is defi ned as the total number 
of persons who work in or outside the observation unit and are 
paid by it, but excludes manpower supplied to the unit by other 
enterprises  and  persons  carrying  out  repair  and  maintenance 

Table 3.6: Turnover and employment in selected service 
activities, EU-27, 2005 (1)

Turnover

Number of persons 
employed

(EUR 
1 000 
million)
4 354
401

(%) 
100.0
9.2

1 640

37.7

420
88
110

497

9.6
2.0
2.5

11.4

(1 000)
45 169
8 846

11 824

5 500
214
400

2 612

522

12.0

3 075

(%)
100.0
19.6

26.2

12.2
0.5
0.9

5.8

6.8

2 313

500
150

340

43
1 266

53.1

11.5
3.4

7.8

1.0
29.1

24 500

54.2

2 690
600

2 700

400
18 102

6.0
1.3

6.0

0.9
40.1

TOTAL
Hotels & restaurants
Transport, storage & 
communication

Land transport; pipelines
Water transport
Air transport
Auxiliary transport; 
travel agents
Post & 
telecommunications

Real estate, renting & 
business activities

Real estate activities
Renting
Computer & 
related activities
Research & development
Other business activities

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data.

Source: Eurostat (tin00057 and tin00058)

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Industry, trade and services

3

work  in  the  unit  on  behalf  of  other  enterprises.  It  includes  paid 
employees,  as  well  as  working  proprietors,  and  unpaid  family 
workers.  It 
includes  part-time  workers,  seasonal  workers, 
apprentices and home workers on the payroll.

Figure 3.8: Breakdown of manufacturing value added, EU-27, 
2005 (% of total manufacturing) (1)

0

4

8

12

Food products & beverages

Chemicals & chemical products

Machinery & equipment n.e.c.

Fabricated metal products

Motor vehicles, trailers & semi-trailers

Publishing, printing & recorded media

Rubber & plastic products 

Electrical machinery & apparatus n.e.c.

Other non-metallic mineral products 

Basic metals

Instrument engineering

Furniture; manufacturing n.e.c.

Other transport equipment

Radio, TV & communication equip.

Pulp, paper & paper products

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear fuel

Wood & wood products

Textiles

Wearing apparel; fur

Leather (including footwear)

Tobacco products

Office machinery & computers

Recycling

(1) Gross series; estimates; electricity, gas and water supply (NACE E): not available.

Source: Eurostat (ebt_intv_a)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

111

3 Industry, trade and services

PERSONNEL COSTS

Average personnel costs are defi ned as personnel costs divided by 
the number of employees, with the result usually expressed in terms 
of euro per employee. Personnel costs are the total remuneration, in 
cash or in kind, payable by an employer to an employee in return for 
work done by the latter during the reference period. All remuneration 
paid during the reference period is included, regardless of whether it 
is paid on the basis of working time, output or piecework. Included 
are  all  gratuities,  workplace  and  performance  bonuses,  ex  gratia 
payments, 13th month pay (and similar fi xed bonuses), payments 
made to employees in consideration of dismissal, lodging, transport, 
cost  of  living  and  family  allowances,  commissions,  attendance 
fees,  overtime,  night  work,  etc.,  as  well  as  taxes,  social  security 
contributions and other amounts owed by employees and retained 
at source by employers. Also included are the social security costs 
for the employer. Payments for agency workers are not included in 
personnel costs.

Figure 3.9: Average personnel costs, EU-27, 2005 
(EUR 1 000 per employee) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Electricity, gas &
water supply

Manufacturing

Transport, storage
& commun.

Real estate, renting
& business act.

Mining and
quarrying

Construction

Distributive trades
(2)

Hotels &
restaurants

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data.
(2) Covers wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal 
and household goods.

Source: Eurostat (tin00049)

112

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Industry, trade and services

3

Employees are persons who work for an employer and who have 
a contract of employment and receive compensation in the form 
of wages, salaries, fees, gratuities, piecework pay or remuneration 
in kind. Th  e agreement between employer and employee may be 
formal or informal. 

Figure 3.10: Average personnel costs, manufacturing, 2005 
(EUR 1 000 per employee) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EU-27

DE

BE

LU

SE

NL

DK

AT

FI

FR

IE

UK

IT

ES

EL

CY

SI

MT

PT

HU

CZ

SK

EE

PL

LT

LV

RO

BG

(1) Denmark and Austria: data are for 2006; the Czech Republic: data are for 2004; Malta: 
data are for 2002.

Source: Eurostat (tin00049)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

113

3 Industry, trade and services

PROFITABILITY

Th  e  gross  operating  rate  is  one  measure  of  profi tability,  which  is 
a key factor for competitiveness and enterprise success. Th  e gross 
operating rate is the gross operating surplus divided by turnover; 
the result is expressed as a percentage.

Th  e gross operating surplus measures the operating revenue that is 
left   to  compensate  the  capital  factor  input,  aft er  the  labour  factor 
input has been recompensed, and therefore can be simply calculated 
from value added at factor cost less personnel costs. Th  e surplus is 
used  to  recompense  the  providers  of  own  funds  and  debt,  to  pay 
taxes, and eventually for self-fi nancing all or a part of investment; 
see page 110 for the defi nition of turnover.

Although  not  always  the  case,  the  gross  operating  surplus  will 
generally  be  higher  for  capital-intensive  activities  and  lower  for 
those activities which have a relatively high proportion of their costs 
accounted for by personnel costs. Equally, the gross operating rate 
will generally be low for those activities with a distributive nature – 

Figure 3.11: Gross operating rate, EU-27, 2005 (%) (1)

0

10

20

30

Mining &
quarrying

Real estate, renting
& business act.

Transport, storage
and commun.

Electricity, gas &
water supply

Hotels &
restaurants

Construction

Manufacturing

Distributive trades
(2)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data.
(2) Covers wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal 
and household goods.

Source: Eurostat (tin00051)

114

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Industry, trade and services

3

as these activities have very high turnover; this is the case for some 
energy supply activities, for retail and own-account wholesale trade, 
and  some  other  specifi c  services,  such  as  reselling  of  advertising 
space and the services of travel agents.

Figure 3.12: Gross operating rate, distributive trades, 2005 (%) (1)

0

3

6

9

12

EU-27

MT

LV

IE

PL

EL

IT

DE

UK

ES

CY

CZ

NL

RO

SI

FI

LT

EE

SK

AT

PT

BE

DK

BG

SE

FR

HU

LU 

(1) Covers wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal 
and household goods; Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Austria and Portugal: data 
are for 2006; Malta: data are for 2002.

Source: Eurostat (sbs_na_3b_tr)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

115

3 Industry, trade and services

ENTERPRISE SIZE-CLASSES

Size can be measured in a number of ways: the most commonly used 
measure for structural business statistics being the number of persons 
employed.  Less  than  one  enterprise  in  400  within  the  European 
Union’s  non-fi nancial  business  economy  employs  250  or  more 
persons (and is therefore considered as large), but these enterprises 
account for approximately one third of employment and more than 
two  fi ft hs  of  value  added.  Nevertheless,  small  and  medium-sized 
enterprises (SMEs, with less than 250 persons employed) generate 
the majority of value added and employ most of the workforce in 
the non-fi nancial business economy. Micro enterprises (those with 
less than 10 persons employed) play a particularly important role, 
providing employment to nearly as many persons as large enterprises. 
Note that gross value added and the number of persons employed 
are defi ned on pages 109 and 110.

Figure 3.13: Value added and employment, breakdown by 
enterprise size-class, non-fi nancial business economy, EU-27, 
2005 (%) (1)

Value added

Medium-sized
17.8%

Small
18.9%

Large
42.4%

Micro
20.9%

Number of persons employed

Medium-sized
16.8%

Small
20.6%

Large
32.9%

Micro
29.6%

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data; ﬁ gures do not sum to 100 % 
due to rounding; micro enterprises: 1-9 persons employed; small enterprises: 10-49 persons 
employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons employed; large enterprises: 250 or 
more persons employed.

Source: Eurostat (tin00052 and tin00053)

116

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Industry, trade and services

3

Figure 3.14: Value added at factor costs, breakdown by 
enterprise size-class, EU-27, 2005 (%) (1)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

NON-FINANCIAL BUSINESS ECONOMY

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Textiles and textile products

Leather and leather products

Wood and wood products

Pulp, paper, publishing and printing

Coke, refined petrol. prod. & nuclear fuel

Chemicals and man-made fibres

Rubber and plastic products

Other non-metallic mineral products

Basic metals and fabricated metal products

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

Electrical and optical equipment

Transport equipment

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Motor trades

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

Hotels and restaurants

Land transport; pipelines

Water transport

Auxiliary transport activities; travel agents

Post and telecommunications

Real estate activities

Renting

Computer and related activities

Research and development

Other business activities

Micro enterprises (1-9 persons employed)
Small enterprises (10-49 persons employed)
Medium-sized enterprises (50-249 persons employed)
Large  enterprises (250 or more persons employed)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data; mining and quarrying, and 
air transport: not available.

Source: Eurostat (sbs_sc_indic)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

117

3 Industry, trade and services

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY BY SECTOR AND 
ENTERPRISE SIZE-CLASS

Productivity is a key measure of economic effi  ciency, showing how 
eff ectively  economic  inputs  are  converted  into  output.  Apparent 
labour productivity is defi ned as the value added generated by each 
person employed (measured by head counts); the result is usually 
expressed  in  terms  of  euro  per  person  employed.  Due  to  the  use 
of head counts, this measure does not consider diff erences in the 
extent  of  part-time  work  across  activities  or  countries.  Part-time 
(and seasonal) employment typically occurs in several non-fi nancial 
services,  such  as  hotels  and  restaurants,  retail  trade,  and  certain 
business services.

Figure 3.15: Labour productivity by enterprise size-class, EU-27, 
2005 (EUR 1 000 per person employed) (1)

0

50

100

150

NON-FINANCIAL 
BUSINESS ECONOMY

Mining & quarrying

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas & water supply

Construction

Distributive trades

Hotels & restaurants

Transport, storage & commun.

Real estate, renting & business act.

Micro enterprises (1-9 persons employed)
Small enterprises (10-49 persons employed)
Medium-sized enterprises (50-249 persons employed)
Large  enterprises (250 or more persons employed)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data; micro and small enterprises 
for mining and quarrying: not available; micro enterprises for electricity, gas and water 
supply: not available.

Source: Eurostat (tin00054)

118

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Industry, trade and services

3

Size-class data may also be used to study the relative productivity 
of  enterprises,  with  productivity  (perhaps  resulting  from  scale 
economies) oft en increasing by enterprise size. Consequently, in the 
majority of activities, large enterprises tend to account for a higher 
proportion of the total value added generated than their respective 
share of the number of persons employed.

Figure 3.16: Labour productivity within manufacturing, EU-27, 
2005 (EUR 1 000 per person employed) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear fuel

Chemicals and man-made fibres

Transport equipment

Pulp, paper, publishing and printing

Electrical and optical equipment

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

MANUFACTURING

Other non-metallic mineral products

Basic metals & fabricated metal prod.

Rubber and plastic products

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Wood and wood products

Textiles and textile products

Leather (including footwear)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-conﬁ dential data.

Source: Eurostat (tin00054)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

119

3 Industry, trade and services

PRODUCTS SOLD

PRODCOM  is  the  name  given  to  Eurostat’s  statistics  on  the 
production of goods. Information provided in PRODCOM includes 
data  for  the  value  and  volume  (quantity)  of  production  in  the 
Member States that has been sold by their producers in a particular 
reference year. Commodities are specifi ed in the PRODCOM list, 
which includes around 4 500 products, updated on an annual basis. 
Th  e products are listed according to an eight-digit code, of which 
the fi rst six are directly aligned with the statistical classifi cation of 
products by activity in the European Community, the CPA.

Th  e  two  tables  shown  provide  an  illustration  of  the  type  of 
information that is available. Th  e fi rst shows data in volume terms, 
where the measurement unit used varies depending on the nature of 
the product. Th  e second shows a selection of the products with the 

Table 3.7: Production sold in volume terms, selected products, 
EU-27, 2007

PRODCOM 
code
27.10.32.10

Product
Flat semi-finished products 
(slabs) (of stainless steel)

Rounding 
base 
(1 000)

(1) Unit
kg

Quantity
(1 000)
179 689

26.51.12.30 Grey Portland cement 

228 698 020

kg

(including blended cement)

15.93.11.30 Champagne (excluding 

254 200

50

litres

alcohol duty)

24.52.11.50 Perfumes
24.11.11.70 Oxygen
20.10.10.34 Coniferous wood; sawn or 

9 763
28 018 317
18 044

litres
m³
m³

chipped lengthwise; sliced or 
peeled; of a thickness > 6mm; 
planed (excluding end-jointed 
or sanded)

16.00.11.50 Cigarettes containing tobacco 

769 304 498

units

32.30.20.60

or mixtures of tobacco and 
tobacco substitutes (excluding 
tobacco duty)
Flat panel colour TV receivers, 
LCD/plasma, etc. excluding 
television projection 
equipment, apparatus with 
video recorder/player, video 
monitors, television receivers 
with integral tube

27 246

units

(1) Indicates the magnitude of the rounding employed to protect conﬁ dential cell (in the 
case of PRODCOM code 15.93.11.30, the conﬁ dential value lies within the range +/- 50 000 
litres of the reported value).

Source: Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/newxtweb/ )

120

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

          
   
          
                
               
     
            
   
            
Industry, trade and services

3

highest values of production sold in the EU-27 in 2007, excluding 
a  few  products:  those  of  a  generic  nature,  sales  of  services  (such 
as  repair,  maintenance  and  installation),  and  confi dential  values. 
As  can  be  seen,  transport  equipment  products  (CPA  Division 
34) dominated, occupying the fi rst two places, with a further fi ve 
products among the top twenty.

Table 3.8: Production sold in value terms, selected products, 
EU-27, 2007

Rounding
base
(million) 
(1)

Value 
(EUR 
million)
126 510

PRODCOM 
code

Product

34.10.22.30 Motor vehicles with a petrol engine 

> 1 500 cm3 (including motor caravans of a 
capacity > 3 000 cm3) (excluding vehicles 
for transporting >= 10 persons, 
snowmobiles, golf cars and similar 
vehicles)

34.10.23.30 Motor vehicles with a diesel or semi-diesel 

106 824

engine > 1 500cm3 but 
<= 2 500cm3 (excluding vehicles for 
transporting >= 10 persons, motor 
caravans, snowmobiles, golf cars and 
similar vehicles)
Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, 
osmium and ruthenium, unwrought or in 
powder form
Installation services of metalworking 
machine tools

103 435

98 959

27.41.30.30

29.42.91.00

22.13.11.00 Newspapers; journals and periodicals; 
appearing less than four times a week 
published by you; or printed and published
by you (including advertising revenue)
Preparations for animal feeds (excluding 
dog or cat food, p.r.s.)
22.12.11.00 Newspapers; journals and periodicals; 

15.70.10.Z3

35 500

500

34 500

500

32 000

8 000

15.96.10.00

26.63.10.00
15.81.11.00

appearing at least four times a week 
published by you; or printed and published
by you (including advertising revenue)
Beer made from malt (excluding non-
alcoholic beer, beer containing <= 0.5% by 
volume of alcohol, alcohol duty)
Ready-mixed concrete
Fresh bread containing by weight in the 
dry matter state <= 5% of sugars and <= 
5% of fat (excluding with added honey; 
eggs; cheese or fruit)

29 992

26 015
24 821

(1) Indicates the magnitude of the rounding employed to protect conﬁ dential cell (in the 
case of PRODCOM code 22.13.11.00, the conﬁ dential value lies within the range +/- EUR 500 
million of the reported value).

Source: Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/newxtweb/ )

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

121

3 Industry, trade and services

TOURISM

A tourist is defi ned as a visitor who stays at least one night in collective 
or private accommodation. A night spent is defi ned as each night 
that a guest is registered to stay in a hotel or similar establishment. 
A breakdown of the nights spent in hotels is provided for residents 
and non-residents, the former are identifi ed as having lived for most 
of the past year in a country/place, or having lived in that country/
place for a shorter period and intending to return within a year to 
live there. Note that a signifi cant proportion of tourism, using the 
defi nitions above, is accounted for by business customers.

Figure 3.17: Top ten Member States for outbound and for 
inbound tourism, 2007 (million)

Top ten countries of origin for outbound holidays 
(nights spent abroad by residents of the country) (1)

0

200

400

600

800

DE

UK

FR

NL

IT

ES

BE

SE

PL

AT

ES

IT

FR

UK

AT

DE

EL

NL

PT

IE

Top ten tourism destinations 
(nights spent in the country by non-residents) (2)

0

50

100

150

200

250

(1) The Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Spain, France, Italy, Hungary, Portugal, 
Romania, Sweden and the United Kingdom: data are for 2006; Bulgaria and Malta: not 
available.
(2) Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Hungary, Malta, Portugal and the United Kingdom: data are 
for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tour_occ_ninat)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Industry, trade and services

3

Tourism  intensity  and  international  tourism  receipts  relative  to 
GDP both give an indication of the importance of tourism relative 
to the size of an economy. Th  e fi rst shows the number of nights 
spent  by  tourists  relative  to  the  population  of  the  host  country 
while the second shows the relation between international receipts 
and GDP.

Table 3.9: Tourism indicators, 2007

Nights spent in hotels and 
other collective 
accommodation 
establishments 
(million) (1, 2)

Residents 
1 332.1
993.7
1.0
0.4
1.5
1.3
19.7
0.1
1.0
1.1
11.8
14.5
15.9
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.7
0.0
4.5
2.2
3.3
1.4
1.3
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.8
13.2

Non-
residents
972.5
792.3
1.7
1.2
2.1
1.0
5.6
0.3
2.2
4.4
23.3
11.2
16.8
1.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.7
2.9
7.4
1.1
2.8
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.2
9.3

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Tourism
 intensity
(nights 
spent per 
inhabitant) (1)
4.7
5.7
2.8
2.3
4.0
5.0
3.9
3.5
8.4
5.2
8.6
4.8
6.3
18.5
1.5
1.0
5.3
2.0
18.3
5.4
12.1
1.4
4.3
1.0
4.0
2.1
3.6
5.3
4.4

Inter-
national 
tourism 
receipts 
relative to 
GDP (%) (3)
0.6
:
2.3
7.9
3.8
2.0
1.1
4.8
2.4
5.3
4.0
2.1
2.0
12.6
2.4
3.0
8.1
3.4
12.3
1.8
5.1
2.5
4.5
0.9
4.8
2.7
1.1
2.6
1.4

(1) EU-27 and euro area: sum or average of latest available reference period for each Mem-
ber State; Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Hungary, Malta, Portugal and the United Kingdom: 
data are for 2006.
(2) EU-27 and euro area: data are expressed in millions of nights spent; data for the Member 
States are expressed in terms of a percentage share of the EU-27 total.
(3) EU-27 data refer to receipts from non-Member countries only; Greece: data are for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tour_occ_ninat, tour_occ_ni, tps00001, bop_its_det and tec00001)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

123

            
                             
            
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
              
                             
              
                             
              
                             
                
                           
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                           
                
                             
                
                           
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
                
                             
I

4

Agriculture, forestry and 
fi sheries

4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

LAND USE IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Th  e data presented on these two pages presents information on land 
use  and  the  structure  of  agricultural  holdings  collected  through 
agricultural structure surveys. Th  e total area of a country includes 
all  land  area  and  inland  water.  Th  is  may  be  divided  into  utilised 
agricultural area, inland water, wooded areas, and other areas, such 
as urban or industrial land use. Approximately half of the European 
Union’s land is farmed, highlighting the importance of agriculture 
in  society.  Utilised  agricultural  area  (UAA)  is  defi ned  as  the  area 
taken  up  by  arable  land,  permanent  grassland,  permanent  crops, 
and kitchen gardens – it does not include wooded areas or forests.

Arable land is worked regularly, generally under a system of crop 
rotation, normally with annual crops like cereals; this category also 
includes temporary grassland (<5 years), melons and strawberries, 
seedlings, and crops grown under glass or cover.

Figure 4.1: Utilised agricultural area per inhabitant, 2007 
(hectares per inhabitant) (1)

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

EU-27
IE
LT
LV
EE
RO
ES
DK
FR
FI
HU
PL
AT
EL
BG
PT 
SK
SE
CZ
LU
UK
SI
IT
DE
CY
BE
NL
MT

(1) EU-27, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Hungary, Austria, Portugal, 
Romania, Slovakia and the United Kingdom: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (ef_ov_lusum and tps00001)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

4

Permanent grassland is land used (for fi ve years or more) to grow 
herbaceous forage crops; it is usually used for grazing or mowed for 
silage or hay.

Permanent  crops  are  those  not  grown  in  rotation,  occupying  the 
soil for a long period and yielding harvests over several years – for 
example, olive groves, orchards or vineyards.

Wooded area is land with tree crown cover of more than 5 %, where 
trees reach a height of at least 5 metres at maturity, or where tree 
crown cover is over 10 % (irrespective of height).

Table 4.1: Land use, 2007 (1 000 hectares) (1)

of which:

Total 
land 
area 
EU-27 432 499
BE
3 053
BG
11 100
CZ
7 887
DK
4 310
DE
35 712
EE
4 523
IE
7 029
EL
13 196
ES
50 537
FR
54 909
IT
30 132
CY
925
LV
6 459
LT
6 530
LU
259
HU
9 303
MT
32
NL
3 735
AT
8 387
PL
31 268
PT 
9 191
RO
23 839
SI
2 027
SK
4 903
FI
33 815
SE
45 030
UK (2)
24 410

Utilised 
agri-
cultural 
area
:
1 370
5 116
4 254
2 695
16 954
823
4 276
3 984
24 991
29 414
13 342
151
1 839
2 696
131
5 807
10
1 899
3 239
16 177
3 679
13 820
499
1 931
2 256
3 121
:

Arable 
land 
:
840
3 058
2 625
2 477
11 877
598
1 060
2 071
12 491
18 293
7 346
116
1 188
1 833
61
4 494
8
1 041
1 376
11 748
1 105
8 808
175
1 343
2 216
2 631
:

Permanent 
grassland 
:
507
1 835
932
233
4 875
216
3 213
278
7 569
9 937
3 358
5
641
829
68
1 017
:
794
1 789
3 271
1 781
4 482
297
529
33
486
5 711

Land 
under 
permanent 
crops 
:
21
195
:
10
198
8
3
1 136
4 858
1 091
2 570
37
10
30
2
199
1
37
68
375
774
357
26
25
4
3
:

Total 
wooded 
area 
176 721
694
3 652
2 648
636
11 073
2 366
710
6 532
28 214
17 262
11 026
388
3 056
2 176
88
1 976
0
365
3 980
9 192
3 867
6 628
1 308
1 929
23 302
30 785
2 865

(1) Total land area includes inland water; total wooded area: data are for 2005.
(2) Permanent grassland: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (agr_r_landuse and ef_ov_lusum), FAO

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

127

4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Successive  reforms  of  the  Common  Agricultural  Policy  (CAP) 
have re-aligned farm support such that it targets areas of consumer 
concern  and  agricultural  production  that  focuses  on  meeting 
quality, environmental and food safety guarantees.

Th  e principal crops grown on arable land are cereals; crop production 
fi gures relate to harvested production. Due to policies encouraging 
the use of renewable energy, cereals, but mainly oilseed crops (such 
as rape), are more frequently grown and then subsequently fed into 
bio energy production. As a consequence, a noticeable increase in 
the  production  of  these  oilseed  crops  (especially  rape)  took  place 
through to 2007.

Th  e quantity of milk collected is relatively stable because of the milk 
quota system. Rising milk yield per cow is therefore associated with 
a  decreasing  overall  cattle  herd.  A  downward  trend  in  cattle  and 
sheep numbers may also be partly due to the decoupling of support 
payments. Note that the information for milk collected relates only 
to  that  collected  from  farms  by  approved  dairies;  this  forms  only 

Figure 4.2: Evolution of production of rape and sunfl ower, 
EU-27 (million tonnes) (1)

20

15

10

5

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Rape

Sunflower

(1) Rape production: provisional for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tag00104 and tag00109)

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Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

4

part of the total milk production, for example, it excludes milk used 
in  the  production  of  other  dairy  products  on  the  farm,  or  direct 
sales. Th  e data on animal herds (stocks) concerns the population of 
animals at the year’s end (December).

Table 4.2: Selected agricultural production, 2007

Production (1 000 tonnes)

  Herds (1 000 heads)

Cereals
(1)
258 383
2 787
3 171
7 153
8 220
40 632
860
1 969
3 622
23 305
59 248
18 756
44
1 535
3 017
148
9 659
:
1 623
4 758
27 143
948
7 910
532
2 793
4 137
5 058
19 354
3 039
453
30 427
:
1 229
1 049

Potatoes
(2)

Sugar 
beet
(3)
56 769 110 410
5 731
3 190
16
299
2 890
821
2 255
1 626
25 139
11 644
0
143
45
455
862
830
5 297
2 518
33 213
7 206
4 630
1 782
143
:
11
630
800
572
0
20
1 676
536
:
19
5 512
6 870
2 656
669
12 682
11 791
320
639
753
3 708
262
131
847
288
673
702
2 189
790
7 150
5 684
1 338
273
8
181
12 415
4 246
:
:
:
317
1 584
490

Cows'
milk
 (4)
132 856
2 879
746
2 446
4 484
27 321
593
5 241
716
5 729
22 970
10 265
144
631
1 347
259
1 448
41
10 799
2 661
8 744
1 837
1 136
530
964
2 293
2 985
13 647
673
:
:
113
:
:

Cattle
(5)

Pigs
(5)
89 042 160 046
6 200
2 573
611
889
2 662
1 367
13 170
1 545
27 113
12 707
375
242
1 575
5 902
1 038
682
26 061
6 585
14 968
19 124
9 273
6 577
472
56
414
399
923
788
193
86
3 871
705
77
19
11 710
3 820
3 286
2 000
17 621
5 406
2 374
1 443
6 565
2 819
543
480
502
952
1 427
903
1 517
1 728
4 674
10 078
1 489
483
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Sheep
(5)
:
:
1 526
184
98
1 926
74
3 531
8 984
22 194
8 285
8 237
292
54
43
8
1 232
12
1 715
351
316
3 365
8 469
131
347
90
521
23 723
680
:
:
:
:
:

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH

(1) Harvested production, excluding rice; Norway: data are for 2006; Croatia: data are for 
2005; Turkey: data are for 2003.
(2) Harvested production; EU-27, Malta and the United Kingdom: data are for 2006; Croatia 
and Norway: data are for 2005.
(3) Harvested production; EU-27, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom: data are for 
2006; Croatia: data are for 2005.
(4) Collection of cows’ milk; Iceland: data are for 2005.
(5) Croatia: data are for 2006.

Source: Eurostat (tag00031, tag00108, tag00106, tag00037, tag00016, tag00018 and 
tag00017)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

129

4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC OUTPUT

Th  e output of agricultural activity includes output sold (including 
trade in agricultural goods and services between agricultural units), 
changes in stocks, output for own fi nal use (own fi nal consumption 
and own-account gross fi xed capital formation), output produced 
for  further  processing  by  agricultural  producers,  as  well  as  intra-
unit  consumption  of  livestock  feed  products.  Th  e  output  of  the 
agricultural  industry  is  made  up  of  the  sum  of  the  output  of 
agricultural  products  and  of  the  goods  and  services  produced  in 
inseparable  non-agricultural  secondary  activities.  Intermediate 
consumption  represents  the  value  of  all  goods  and  services  used 
as  inputs  in  the  production  process,  excluding  fi xed  assets  whose 
consumption is recorded as fi xed capital consumption.

Gross  value  added  equals  the  value  of  output  less  the  value  of 
intermediate  consumption,  and  is  shown  here  measured  at 
producer prices (the producer price excludes subsidies less taxes on 
products). Animal and crop output are the main product categories 
of agricultural output.

Figure 4.3: Agricultural output at producer prices, EU-27 
(EUR million)

200 000

150 000

100 000

50 000

0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Crop output (1)

Gross value added of agricultural industry

Animal output (1)

(1) Data for 2001, 2003 and 2007: estimates.

Source: Eurostat (tag00054, tag00056 and tag00055)

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Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

4

Table 4.3: Agricultural output at producer prices (EUR million)

Gross value added of 
agricultural industry
2007
143 357
2 346
1 243
1 068
2 487
14 565
254
1 933
6 062
22 571
25 544
24 088
338
343
521
124
2 083
45
8 786
2 689
7 186
2 212
5 822
388
515
702
1 323
8 120
:
926
2 334

2002
130 837
2 035
1 605
919
2 188
12 318
148
1 616
6 200
20 542
22 932
25 082
:
197
349
100
1 922
67
7 925
2 066
4 826
2 163
5 109
458
489
618
1 111
7 851
400
905
2 885

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
NO
CH

Crop output
2002
154 544
2 647
1 668
1 644
2 452
17 978
154
1 231
6 542
20 965
30 500
25 259
:
249
610
77
2 704
50
9 957
2 254
6 260
3 659
5 752
509
654
1 409
1 624
7 736
593
1 308
3 136

2007
182 733
3 479
1 517
2 339
3 292
22 488
270
1 613
6 665
23 681
35 983
25 598
300
530
881
98
3 586
44
11 492
3 018
9 627
3 674
8 585
539
897
1 870
2 198
8 471
:
1 257
2 706

Source: Eurostat (tag00056, tag00054 and tag00055)

Animal output
2002
2007
137 024
127 362
3 772
3 560
1 222
1 187
1 614
1 564
4 838
4 722
20 627
18 464
288
211
4 061
3 469
2 759
2 489
13 831
12 495
21 962
21 926
13 868
13 674
302
:
350
237
836
528
166
150
2 193
2 659
63
79
8 958
7 888
2 765
2 461
8 714
6 399
2 444
2 215
4 090
4 144
507
504
808
777
1 691
1 707
2 122
2 178
12 174
11 675
:
195
1 892
1 661
2 967
3 417

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

131

        
         
        
   
      
      
        
           
           
        
           
           
        
           
           
        
           
           
      
        
         
           
              
               
        
           
           
        
           
           
      
        
         
      
        
         
      
        
         
           
              
               
           
              
               
           
              
               
           
                 
               
        
           
           
             
                 
                  
        
        
           
        
           
           
        
           
           
        
           
           
        
           
           
           
              
               
           
              
               
           
           
           
        
           
           
        
           
         
           
           
           
        
           
           
4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

AGRI-ENVIRONMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Organic farming can be defi ned as a method of production which 
places  emphasis  on  environmental  protection  and,  with  regard 
to  livestock  production,  animal  welfare  considerations.  It  avoids, 
or  largely  reduces,  the  use  of  synthetic  chemical  inputs  such  as 
fertilisers,  pesticides,  additives  and  medicinal  products.  Council 
Regulation (EC) N° 834/2007 defi nes in detail the requirements for 
agricultural  products  or  foodstuff s  bearing  a  reference  to  organic 
production  methods.  It  notably  defi nes  a  method  of  agricultural 
production  for  crops  and  livestock,  and  regulates  the  labelling, 
processing, inspection and marketing of organic products within the 
Community, and the import of organic products from non-member 
countries. Organic farming areas can be distinguished between fully 
converted and those under conversion.

Figure 4.4: Agricultural holdings with another gainful activity 
than agricultural production, 2007 (% of all holdings) (1)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU-27
FI
FR
UK
DK
SE
DE
RO
AT
NL
LU
CZ
LV
PT
EE
IT
CY
HU
PL
SI
BE
MT
ES
SK
BG
EL
LT
IE

(1) EU-27, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Portugal, Romania, 
Slovakia, Finland and the United Kingdom: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (tag00096)

132

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

4

Livestock density is the number of livestock units (LU) per utilised 
agricultural area (see page 126 for a defi nition of the UAA).

Irrigable  area  is  the  area  that  is  equipped  for  irrigation;  the  areas 
actually  irrigated  depend  on  the  weather  conditions  and  type  of 
crop of a particular year.

Table 4.4: Agri-environment, 2007

Share of 
fully 
converted 
area 
occupied by 
organic 
crop (% of
UAA) (2)
:
1.4
:
6.4
4.9
:
4.4
0.6
5.2
1.9
:
5.8
0.2
1.2
0.5
:
2.0
0.0
2.4
:
:
3.0
:
3.3
1.4
6.0
6.3
3.3
3.5

Share of fully 
converted 
area  and 
area under 
conversion 
occupied by 
organic 
farming (% of
UAA) (2)
:
1.7
:
7.2
5.2
4.7
7.2
0.8
7.2
3.2
2.0
8.4
1.1
7.0
2.3
2.4
3.0
0.1
2.5
11.0
0.6
6.3
:
4.8
4.8
6.5
7.0
3.8
4.2

UAA
(1 000
hectares)
 (1)
171 996
1 374
2 729
3 518
2 663
17 035
907
4 139
3 984
24 855
27 591
12 708
152
1 774
2 649
131
4 229
10
1 914
3 266
15 477
3 680
13 907
489
1 879
2 292
3 118
15 957
1 035

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO

Livestock 
density 
index
(units per 
km2) (3)
0.80
2.75
0.49
0.58
1.72
1.07
0.35
1.42
0.62
0.58
0.82
0.75
1.61
0.28
0.39
1.22
0.56
4.80
3.35
0.75
0.72
0.56
0.47
1.13
0.42
0.50
0.57
0.90
1.21

Total 
irrigable
area 
(hectares) 
(4)
:
23 350
111 600
38 530
435 350
:
:
0
1 593 780
3 765 130
2 706 480
3 972 670
45 850
830
1 340
0
140 940
3 200
457 240
119 420
115 710
616 970
808 370
4 100
180 140
76 750
159 690
208 380
117 140

(1) UAA: utilised agricultural area; EU-27, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, 
Cyprus, Hungary, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, the United Kingdom and Norway: 
data are for 2005.
(2) UAA: utilised agricultural area; data are for 2005.
(3) EU-27, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Portugal, Romania, 
Slovakia, the United Kingdom and Norway: data are for 2005.
(4) Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Portugal, Romania, 
Slovakia, the United Kingdom and Norway: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (ef_ov_lusum, food_in_porg1, tag00098, tsdpc440, tsdpc450 and 
tag00095)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

133

4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

FORESTRY

Th  e  European  Union  has  approximately  177  million  hectares  of 
forests and other wooded land, just over 42 % of its land area, and 
the area of land devoted to forestry is gradually increasing. About 
60 % of wooded land is under private ownership.

Total roundwood production (or removals), comprises all quantities 
of wood removed from forests and other wooded land. Th  is volume 
measure  is  reported  in  cubic  metres  underbark  (in  other  words, 
excluding bark).

Sawnwood  is  produced  either  by  sawing  logs  lengthways  or  by  a 
profi le-chipping process, whereby the fi nal product exceeds 6 mm 
in thickness. Products in this category include planks, beams, joists, 
boards and raft ers, be they planed, unplaned, or end-jointed.

Paper  and  paperboard  comprises  graphic  papers,  sanitary  and 
household  papers,  packaging  materials,  and  other  paper  and 
paperboard.  It  excludes  manufactured  paper  products  such  as 
boxes, cartons, books and magazines.

Figure 4.5: Total roundwood production, EU-27 (million m3 
under bark)

500

400

300

200

100

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Source: Eurostat (for_rem41)

Non-coniferous

Coniferous

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

4

Table 4.5: Roundwood, sawnwood and paper production

Roundwood 
(1 000 m3)

Sawnwood 
(1 000 m3)

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH
US

1996
318 097
:
3 205
12 600
2 282
37 014
3 901
2 291
2 012
15 631
33 143
9 121
45
8 080
5 540
:
3 652
-
952
15 609
20 287
8 978
12 250
1 991
5 461
46 272
56 300
7 495
2 539
19 411
-
8 423
4 064
465 240

2006
427 801
5 075
5 992
17 678
2 358
62 290
5 800
2 671
1 523
15 716
65 640
8 618
7
12 845
5 870
268
5 913
-
1 109
19 135
32 384
10 805
13 839
3 179
7 869
50 812
62 000
8 405
4 452
16 813
-
8 594
5 702
472 618

1996
82 489
:
257
3 412
204
14 369
403
687
337
3 130
9 807
1 662
16
1 614
1 450
:
288
-
362
8 210
3 747
1 831
1 693
498
633
9 847
14 396
2 495
598
5 168
-
2 422
1 380
87 473

2006
112 715
1 520
569
5 080
196
24 420
2 030
1 094
191
3 806
9 950
1 748
4
4 320
1 466
133
186
-
265
10 507
3 607
1 010
4 470
580
2 440
12 227
18 000
2 895
669
7 079
-
2 389
1 668
93 016

Source: Eurostat (tag00072, tag00073 and tag00074)

Paper and 
paperboard  
production 
(1 000 tonnes)
1996
2006
100 992
77 186
1 897
:
326
153
1 042
741
423
367
22 655
15 458
73
41
45
42
510
749
6 354
3 768
10 006
8 420
10 008
7 194
-
-
57
19
119
64
-
-
553
363
-
-
3 367
3 011
5 213
3 720
2 857
1 528
1 644
1 086
392
288
759
456
888
701
14 149
12 081
12 066
9 236
5 589
6 189
564
304
1 643
1 265
-
-
2 109
2 246
1 685
1 282
84 317
82 726

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

135

         
         
     
     
    
         
        
         
            
       
        
         
            
       
      
         
        
         
        
         
            
       
        
       
        
         
        
                 
                
       
        
         
        
            
            
         
            
         
            
       
      
       
        
       
        
       
        
         
            
         
        
       
      
       
      
         
        
         
            
       
        
         
        
         
        
     
      
4 Agriculture, forestry and ﬁ sheries

FISHERIES

Th  e fi rst common measures in the fi shing sector were introduced in 
1970. Th  e Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) introduced in 1983 and 
reformed  in  2002  to  deal  with  the  environmental,  economic  and 
social  dimensions  of  fi shing  can  be  divided  into  four  main  areas: 
the  conservation  of  stocks/environmental  impact;  structures  and 
fl eet management (such as vessels, port facilities and fi sh processing 
plants);  the  organisation  of  the  market  for  fi sh  in  the  European 
Union; and external fi sheries policy.

Restructuring  within  the  fi sheries  sector  has  led  to  the  European 
Union’s  fl eet  capacity  declining,  as  quotas  have  been  imposed  to 
ensure  a  better  balance  between  the  number  of  vessels  and  fi sh. 
Th  e total power of the fi shing fl eet is expressed in kilowatts; data 
generally refer to the fl eet size on 31 December of each reference 
year. Th  e reduction in fi shing activity has oft en resulted in a loss of 
employment in coastal areas which in many cases may face limited 
alternative employment opportunities.

To ensure sustainable fi shing, it is not only the quantity of fi sh taken from 
the sea that is important, but also their species, size, and the techniques 
used in catching them, as well as the areas where they are caught. Th  is 
may  be  extended  to  more  general  protection  of  marine  ecosystems, 
avoiding pollution and other forms of environmental damage.

Figure 4.6: Total power of the fi shing fl eet (1 000 kilowatts) 

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0

2004

2005

2006

2007

EU-25

Iceland

Norway

Source: Eurostat (tag00082)

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4

One  reaction  to  the  reduction  in  traditional  fi shing  activities  has 
been  the  growth  of  aquaculture  –  defi ned  as  the  production  of 
fi sh, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic organisms from fi sh-
farming; the data are expressed in the live weight equivalent of the 
production and is the weight of the product as taken from the water 
(thus, for example, in the case of molluscs it includes the shell).

Table 4.6: Fishery indicators

    Annual catch - 
   all regions 
   (1 000 tonnes of 
    live weight) (1)
2006
5 312
23
8
5
868
279
87
211
97
711
583
312
2
140
153
0
8
1
433
0
123
229
7
1
2
146
269
616
35
0
426
1 345
2 245
1
4 178
4 846

1996
7 427
31
9
4
1 681
237
109
333
151
1 174
641
366
13
143
89
0
8
9
411
0
343
263
18
2
1
164
371
868
18
0
528
2 074
2 650
2
6 086
4 995

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

   Aquaculture
   production 
  (1 000 tonnes of 
    live weight) (2)
2006
1 282
0
3
20
28
38
1
53
113
295
238
174
4
1
2
0
15
7
42
3
36
7
9
1
1
13
8
172
14
1
129
8
709
1
1 224
465

1996
1 230
1
5
18
42
83
0
35
40
232
286
189
1
0
2
0
8
2
100
3
28
5
14
1
1
18
8
110
3
1
33
4
322
1
1 349
393

 Fishing fleet 
 (gross tonnage)
1997
2007
1 920 645
:
19 292
22 911
8 247
:
-
-
76 555
104 076
69 067
67 937
19 286
:
71 232
60 431
90 668
111 251
468 208
550 336
209 607
210 346
197 374
255 785
4 996
:
33 655
:
60 964
:
-
-
-
-
15 071
:
163 725
175 241
-
-
29 965
:
106 539
123 135
2 606
:
966
:
-
-
16 151
24 363
43 279
52 521
213 192
266 283
:
:
-
-
:
:
167 559
:
354 833
359 480
-
-
:
:
:
:

(1) Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey, Switzerland, Japan and the 
United States: data are for 2005.
(2) Iceland: data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (tag00076, tag00075, tag00083)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

137

         
        
              
                
                
            
            
              
            
              
            
            
            
                
            
            
                
                
                
            
                
            
            
                
                
                
            
            
            
              
                
            
        
        
                
        
        
I

5

International trade

5 International trade

SHARE IN WORLD TRADE OF GOODS AND SERVICES

Statistics on international trade are an important data source for 
many public and private sector decision-makers at an international, 
European  Union  and  national  level.  Th  ese  data  are  extensively 
used for multilateral and bilateral trade negotiations, to defi ne and 
implement anti-dumping policies, and to evaluate the progress of 
the Single Market.

It is important to note that there are two main sources for statistics on 
international trade. On the one hand, there are external trade statistics 
(ETS)  which  provide  information  on  trade  in  goods,  collected  on 
the  basis  of  customs  and  VAT  declarations;  these  provide  detailed 
information for value and volumes by product. Th  e second source is 
the Balance of Payments (BoP), which registers all the transactions 
of an economy with the rest of the world. Th  e current account of the 
BoP provides information not only on international trade in goods 
(generally the largest category), but also on international transactions 
in services, income and current transfers. For all these transactions, 
the BoP registers the value of exports (credits) and imports (debits), 
the diff erence of which is usually referred to as the balance. A negative 
balance – a current account defi cit – shows that a country is spending 
more abroad than it is earning from exports, and is therefore a net 
debtor towards the rest of the world.

Figure 5.1: Trade integration, EU-27 (% of GDP)

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2004

2005

2006

Goods

Services

Source: Eurostat (tsier120)

140

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

International trade

5

Trade integration of goods and services is defi ned as the average 
value of debits and credits (summed together and divided by two) 
presented in relation to GDP. Th  is indicator is calculated for both 
goods and services, based on BoP data; if the values increase over 
time, then the reporting territory became more integrated within 
the international economy. It is normal that smaller countries will 
display a higher degree of trade integration, as they are more likely 
to  import  a  range  of  goods  and  services  that  are  not  produced 
within their domestic markets.

Table 5.1: International trade in goods and services, 2007 
(% of GDP) (1)

Goods
Exports Imports Balance
-1.2
11.3
0.7
16.3
0.2
71.0
-25.6
72.0
3.1
66.7
-0.4
32.7
8.4
32.3
-16.7
68.8
12.3
33.1
-13.8
21.0
-8.6
26.4
-2.0
23.2
0.1
23.7
-29.6
36.6
-24.6
54.7
-14.6
59.2
-9.4
46.8
1.4
66.5
-16.7
61.1
6.8
52.8
0.5
44.9
-3.7
37.9
-10.7
33.8
-14.6
38.8
-5.1
63.8
-1.5
78.4
4.8
31.7
4.1
33.3
-6.3
22.3
-7.2
24.4
16.2
19.8
1.9
12.2
-6.3
14.1

10.1
17.0
71.2
46.7
69.9
32.4
40.7
52.1
45.4
7.1
17.8
21.1
23.9
7.1
30.1
44.6
37.4
68.0
42.6
59.7
45.4
34.3
23.1
24.2
59.0
77.0
36.5
37.4
16.0
17.2
36.0
14.1
7.8

EU-27
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL (3)
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
NO
JP (4)
US (4)

Services
Exports Imports Balance
0.7
0.5
1.5
3.8
1.6
2.4
-1.3
6.4
-2.2
7.9
2.1
0.5
-0.4
23.8
3.5
2.1
53.7
1.1
14.8
0.3
4.5
0.9
3.8
0.2
3.0
0.7
-0.1
3.1
2.8
2.1
0.4
-0.4
0.6

4.1
5.5
17.1
15.9
9.6
19.8
6.5
20.6
34.9
13.9
9.0
5.3
5.4
41.1
13.5
10.7
126.5
12.1
42.6
11.7
15.0
6.8
10.0
6.3
12.2
9.3
8.4
13.7
10.0
4.4
10.5
2.7
3.2

3.4
5.0
15.6
12.1
8.1
17.4
7.8
14.2
37.0
6.0
6.9
4.8
5.8
17.4
10.0
8.6
72.8
11.0
27.8
11.4
10.5
5.9
6.2
6.1
9.2
8.8
8.5
10.5
7.2
2.2
10.1
3.1
2.6

(1) EU-27: extra-EU ﬂ ows; euro area: extra-euro area ﬂ ows; Member States
and other countries: ﬂ ows with the rest of the world. 
(2) EA-13 instead of EA-15.
(3) 2005 instead of 2007.
(4) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00039, tec00040 and tec00001)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

141

5 International trade

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SERVICES

Balance of payments statistics are of particular interest for analysing 
the services economy, as external trade statistics only cover goods. 
Th  e provision of services tends to contribute an increasing share 
of the economic wealth of the European Union, and accounts for 
more than 50 % of GDP in each Member State. Nevertheless, the 
value of exports and imports of goods is approximately three times 
higher than that of services. Part of this imbalance may be due to 
the nature of some services: for example, the provision of services 
of  proximity  that  are  diffi  cult  to  provide  over  long  distances  or 
alternatively  professional  services  that  are  bound  by  distinct 
national legislation.

Due to their intangible nature, trade in services is more diffi  cult to 
record than trade in goods; some problems may be associated with 
defi ning the service, its value, and the fl ows associated with each 
service. As such, there may be some elements of under-reporting in 
the statistics that are presented. Th  e three main categories that may 
be identifi ed within the services account include transportation, 
travel,  and  other  services  (essentially  other  business  services, 
fi nancial services and royalties and license fees).

Figure 5.2: International trade in services, EU-27, 2007 
(EUR 1 000 million) (1)

0

30

60

90

120

150

Other business services

Transportation

Travel

Financial services

Royalties and license fees

Computer and information services

Construction services

Insurance services

Communications services

Government services, n.e.c.

Personal, cultural & recreational services

(1) Provisional; extra-EU ﬂ ows.

Source: Eurostat (bop_its_det)

Credits

Debits

142

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International trade

5

Table 5.2: International trade in services (EUR 1 000 million) (1)

Credits

Debits

EU-27
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL (3)
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
NO
JP (4)
US (4)

2002
:
334.6
40.1
2.5
7.4
28.1
108.8
1.8
30.2
21.1
63.5
91.0
63.5
4.8
1.3
1.6
21.8
7.8
1.3
59.4
37.5
10.5
10.9
2.5
2.4
3.0
11.1
25.5
143.1
15.1
26.0
69.7
305.9

2007
501.4
491.1
56.5
4.6
12.3
45.0
158.2
3.2
64.8
27.6
94.1
100.3
83.3
6.4
2.7
3.0
45.7
12.2
2.3
65.4
40.7
20.9
16.3
7.6
4.1
5.1
15.1
45.4
202.3
20.9
29.8
93.5
333.4

2002
:
317.0
37.9
2.0
6.7
25.7
153.5
1.2
44.5
10.4
40.9
72.9
66.6
1.8
0.7
1.0
13.2
7.2
0.8
60.5
36.9
9.7
7.6
2.5
1.8
2.5
10.4
25.4
116.3
6.9
23.7
114.2
244.7

2007
413.0
443.9
51.6
3.5
10.3
39.5
188.6
2.2
68.7
11.9
72.0
91.4
89.5
2.7
2.0
2.4
26.3
11.1
1.5
63.8
28.4
18.0
10.1
7.4
3.1
4.8
15.2
35.0
146.2
10.7
28.7
107.9
272.9

Net balance
2002
2007
88.4
:
47.3
17.7
4.9
2.1
1.1
0.5
2.0
0.7
5.4
2.4
-30.4
-44.7
1.0
0.6
-4.0
-14.3
15.7
10.8
22.1
22.6
8.9
18.2
-6.2
-3.1
3.7
2.9
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
19.4
8.6
1.1
0.6
0.8
0.4
1.7
-1.1
12.3
0.6
2.9
0.9
6.2
3.3
0.2
0.0
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.5
-0.1
0.6
10.4
0.0
56.1
26.8
10.2
8.2
1.1
2.2
-14.4
-44.5
60.5
61.3

(1) EU-27: extra-EU ﬂ ows; euro area: extra-euro area ﬂ ows; Member States and other 
countries: ﬂ ows with the rest of the world.
(2) EA-13 instead of EA-15.
(3) 2005 instead of 2007.
(4) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tec00040)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

143

5 International trade

WORLD MARKET FOR GOODS

External trade forms an increasing part of the world economy, through 
the infl uence of globalisation, as well as rapidly growing exchanges 
with developing economies such as China and India, and some of the 
countries formed out of the Soviet Union – in particular those where 
indigenous energy supplies are of particular importance.

Extra-EU external trade statistics cover the trading of goods with 
non-member  countries,  whereas  trade  between  Member  States 
is  usually  referred  to  as  intra-EU  trade.  Note  that  an  important 
distinction  is  made  when  reporting  data  for  the  European  Union 
as  an  aggregate,  insofar  as  data  is  usually  presented  in  relation  to 
extra-EU trade fl ows. As such, the data shown for the EU-27 treats 
this entity as a single trading block, and reports exports from the 
whole of the EU-27 to the rest of the world and imports from the 
rest of the world into the EU-27. In contrast, when reporting data 
for individual European Union Member States, external trade fl ows 
are  generally  presented  in  terms  of  world  trade  fl ows  (including 
both intra-EU and extra-EU partners).

Th  e statistics for exported goods are recorded at their free-on-board 
(fob) value, which is their market value at the customs frontier of the 
exporting economy, including charges made for insurance and transport 
services  up  to  the  frontier.  Import  values  are  usually  presented  in 
terms of cost, insurance, freight (cif). All values are generally provided 
excluding import duties or other Community taxes.

Figure 5.3: External trade of goods, 2007 
(% share of world total) (1)

Exports

Imports

EU-27
17.5%

Others
44.3%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
12.3%

Others
47.4%

United 
States
11.7%

Canada
4.2%

Japan
6.9%

Canada
4.0% Japan
5.8%

United 
States
19.0%

EU-27
18.8%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
8.2%

(1) Excluding intra-EU trade; ﬁ gures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.

Source: Eurostat (Comext, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/newxtweb/), IMF

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

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5

Table 5.3: Main players in the world market for internationally 
traded goods (1)

       Value (EUR 
        1 000 million)

2002

2007

     Share of world 
       total (%)
2002

2007

EXPORTS
World
EU-27
China
United States
Japan
Canada
South Korea
Russia
Singapore
Hong Kong
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
Brazil
Switzerland
Malaysia
India
Thailand
Norway
Australia
Indonesia
United Arab Emirates
Turkey
IMPORTS
World
EU-27
United States
China
Japan
Canada
Hong Kong
South Korea
Mexico
Singapore
India
Russia
Turkey
Australia
Switzerland
United Arab Emirates
Malaysia
Thailand
Brazil
Indonesia
Saudi Arabia
South Africa

4 689.1
891.9
337.5
713.6
412.9
266.1
164.6
112.9
125.8
207.1
170.3
67.6
63.4
93.1
95.0
52.8
70.7
64.1
66.2
58.3
40.8
37.9

4 976.8
937.0
1 235.9
272.1
342.2
255.0
204.2
155.7
197.3
117.5
61.6
47.9
54.0
78.8
88.7
32.1
79.4
65.4
54.1
32.0
33.8
29.8

7 099.9
1 239.9
875.4
829.3
488.6
301.6
254.5
250.0
211.7
209.6
184.3
139.8
126.5
125.5
125.1
109.3
108.9
99.3
99.3
90.2
89.7
78.1

7 594.5
1 426.0
1 443.4
621.5
439.5
302.6
262.6
258.5
194.0
180.9
178.4
172.8
122.7
121.3
117.6
103.2
101.2
98.9
97.5
81.3
65.7
63.2

100.0
19.0
7.2
15.2
8.8
5.7
3.5
2.4
2.7
4.4
3.6
1.4
1.4
2.0
2.0
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.8

100.0
18.8
24.8
5.5
6.9
5.1
4.1
3.1
4.0
2.4
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.6
1.8
0.6
1.6
1.3
1.1
0.6
0.7
0.6

100.0
17.5
12.3
11.7
6.9
4.2
3.6
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.6
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.1

100.0
18.8
19.0
8.2
5.8
4.0
3.5
3.4
2.6
2.4
2.3
2.3
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8

(1) Excluding intra-EU trade.

Source: Eurostat (Comext, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/newxtweb/), IMF

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

145

5 International trade

MAIN EU TRADING PARTNERS

Th  e United States accounts for slightly more than one fi ft h (21.1 %) 
of the EU-27’s exports of goods, a share that has fallen somewhat in 
recent years; note that between 2002 and 2007 the value of EU-27 
exports  to  the  Ukraine,  the  Russian  Federation,  India  and  China 
more than doubled.

For EU-27 imports, trading partners refer to the country of origin 
of  the  goods.  Th  e  traditional  position  of  the  United  States  as  the 
principal origin of EU-27 imports, and of Japan among the top 3 
trading partners has been superseded. Th  e value of imports from the 
United States fell between 2002 and 2007, while the pace at which 
Japanese imports rose was considerably slower than imports from 
China, the Russian Federation, and a number of natural resource 
rich countries. As a result, in 2006, China overtook the United States 
as the single largest supplier of goods to the EU-27 – and further 
cemented its position in 2007, accounting for 16.2 % of the EU-27’s 
total imports.

Figure 5.4: Main trading partners for goods, EU-27, 2007 
(% share of extra-EU-27 trade)

EU-27 exports

EU-27 imports

United 
States
21.1%

Switzer-
land
7.5%

Rest of 
the world
50.7%

Japan
3.5%

Turkey
4.2%

Source: Eurostat (tet00040)

Russian 
Feder-
ation
7.2%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
5.8%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
16.2%

Rest of 
the 
world
44.7%

Japan
5.5%

Switzer-
land
5.4%

Norway
5.4%

United 
States
12.7%

Russian 
Feder-
ation
10.1%

146

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

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5

Table 5.4: Development of trade with the top 20 EU-27 trading 
partners

2002

2007

Share 
of
EU-27
total
(%)

(EUR
1 000 
million)

Share 
of
EU-27
total
(%)

(EUR
1 000 
million)

Average 
annual 
growth 
rate, 
2002-07 
(%)

EXPORTS
Total extra EU-27
United States
Switzerland
Russian Federation
China (excl. Hong Kong)
Turkey
Japan
Norway
India
United Arab Emirates
Canada
South Korea
Australia
Ukraine
Brazil
Mexico
Hong Kong
Singapore
South Africa
Saudi Arabia
Israel
IMPORTS
Total extra EU-27
China (excl. Hong Kong)
United States
Russian Federation
Japan
Norway
Switzerland
Turkey
South Korea
Brazil
Libya
India
Taiwan
Canada
Algeria
South Africa
Singapore
Saudi Arabia
Malaysia
Thailand
Iran

Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_maineu)

891.9
247.9
72.8
34.4
35.1
26.6
43.5
28.2
14.3
14.8
22.9
17.7
16.9
7.9
15.7
15.3
20.5
14.9
12.6
14.4
13.9

937.0
90.2
182.6
64.5
73.7
48.0
61.7
24.6
24.6
18.4
9.5
13.7
23.5
16.7
14.4
15.9
14.3
12.4
16.2
12.1
5.6

100.0
27.8
8.2
3.9
3.9
3.0
4.9
3.2
1.6
1.7
2.6
2.0
1.9
0.9
1.8
1.7
2.3
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.6

100.0
9.6
19.5
6.9
7.9
5.1
6.6
2.6
2.6
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.5
1.8
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.7
1.3
0.6

1 239.9
261.4
92.8
89.1
71.8
52.6
43.8
43.2
29.5
26.9
25.9
24.8
22.7
22.4
21.3
20.9
20.9
20.6
20.5
20.1
14.3

1 426.0
231.5
181.1
143.9
78.1
76.8
76.7
46.9
39.6
32.7
27.3
26.3
26.0
23.3
21.2
20.9
18.3
18.3
18.0
16.6
13.9

100.0
21.1
7.5
7.2
5.8
4.2
3.5
3.5
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.2

100.0
16.2
12.7
10.1
5.5
5.4
5.4
3.3
2.8
2.3
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.0

6.8
1.1
5.0
21.0
15.4
14.6
0.1
8.9
15.5
12.7
2.5
7.0
6.1
23.3
6.2
6.4
0.4
6.8
10.2
6.9
0.5

8.8
20.8
-0.2
17.4
1.2
9.9
4.5
13.8
10.0
12.2
23.5
13.9
2.0
6.9
8.0
5.6
5.0
8.1
2.1
6.6
19.8

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

147

      
      
        
        
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
      
      
           
        
        
        
           
        
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
5 International trade

EU TRADE BY PRODUCT

External  trade  statistics  report  export  and  import  values  and 
volumes for goods using a variety of product classifi cations. One of 
the most common is the standard international trade classifi cation 
of  the  United  Nations  (SITC  Rev.  4);  this  classifi cation  allows  a 
comparison of external trade statistics to be made on a worldwide 
basis.

Imports  are  defi ned  as  goods  which  enter  the  statistical  territory 
of the European Union from a third country and are placed under 
the customs procedure for free circulation (as a general rule goods 
intended for consumption), inward processing or processing under 
customs  control  (goods  for  working,  processing)  immediately  or 
aft er bonded warehousing; while exports are goods which leave the 
statistical territory of the European Union for a third country aft er 
being  placed  under  the  customs  procedure  for  exports  (defi nitive 
export) or outward processing (goods for working, processing) or 
following inward processing.

Figure 5.5: Extra-EU-27 trade by product, EU-27, 2007 
(EUR 1 000 million)

0

500

1 000

1 500

TOTAL - all products

Machinery and transport equipment

Other manufactured products

Chemicals and related products

Mineral fuels & lubricants

Food, drinks and tobacco

Raw materials

Source: Eurostat (tet00061)

Exports

Imports

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

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5

A  positive  balance  of  trade  is  known  as  a  trade  surplus  and 
consists  of  exporting  more  than  importing.  On  the  contrary,  a 
negative balance of trade is known as a trade defi cit and consists of 
importing more than exporting. Neither is necessarily damaging in 
a modern economy, although large trade surpluses or trade defi cits 
may sometimes be a sign of other economic problems. Overall the 
EU-27 tends to register a negative trade balance, mainly as a result 
of large defi cits for fuels (mineral oil and lubricants) and other raw 
materials.

Table 5.5: Extra EU-27 trade in goods by main trading partners 
(EUR 1 000 million)

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

EXPORTS
Extra EU-27
United States
China (excl. Hong Kong)
Russian Federation
Switzerland
Japan
Norway
Turkey
South Korea
India
Brazil
IMPORTS
Extra EU-27
United States
China (excl. Hong Kong)
Russian Federation
Switzerland
Japan
Norway
Turkey
South Korea
India
Brazil
TRADE BALANCE
Extra EU-27
United States
China (excl. Hong Kong)
Russian Federation
Switzerland
Japan
Norway
Turkey
South Korea
India
Brazil

Source: Eurostat (tet00040)

891.9
247.9
35.1
34.4
72.8
43.5
28.2
26.6
17.7
14.3
15.7

937.0
182.6
90.2
64.5
61.7
73.7
48.0
24.6
24.6
13.7
18.4

-45.1
65.3
-55.1
-30.1
11.1
-30.2
-19.9
2.0
-6.9
0.7
-2.6

869.2
227.3
41.5
37.2
71.4
41.0
27.7
30.9
16.5
14.6
12.4

952.9 1 053.2 1 159.3 1 239.9
261.4
235.5
71.8
48.4
89.1
46.0
92.8
75.2
43.8
43.4
43.2
30.8
52.6
40.1
24.8
17.9
29.5
17.2
21.3
14.2

252.9
51.9
56.9
82.6
43.7
33.9
44.6
20.2
21.3
16.1

269.0
63.8
72.3
87.7
44.7
38.5
50.0
22.9
24.4
17.7

935.3 1 027.5 1 179.9 1 351.7 1 426.0
181.1
163.8
158.1
231.5
160.4
106.2
143.9
112.6
70.7
76.7
66.6
59.1
78.1
74.1
72.4
76.8
67.2
51.0
46.9
36.1
27.3
39.6
34.4
26.0
26.3
19.1
14.1
32.7
24.1
19.1

175.2
194.8
140.9
71.6
77.3
79.2
41.7
40.8
22.6
27.2

159.4
128.7
84.0
62.0
74.7
55.3
32.7
30.7
16.4
21.7

-66.0
69.2
-64.8
-33.5
12.3
-31.4
-23.4
3.6
-9.6
0.5
-6.7

-74.6
76.1
-80.3
-37.9
13.2
-31.3
-24.5
7.4
-12.7
0.8
-7.6

-126.7
89.1
-108.5
-55.7
16.0
-30.4
-33.3
8.6
-14.2
2.2
-8.0

-192.5
93.8
-131.1
-68.6
16.1
-32.6
-40.7
8.3
-17.9
1.8
-9.5

-186.1
80.3
-159.8
-54.8
16.1
-34.4
-33.6
5.8
-14.8
3.2
-11.4

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

149

 
5 International trade

EXTERNAL TRADE BETWEEN EU MEMBER STATES

Intra-EU  trade  statistics  report  trade  between  European  Union 
Member States. Whereas extra-EU trade statistics are required for a 
common trade and customs policy, intra-EU trade statistics measure 
the integration of the Member States in a common single market.

Note that countries that are near the centre of Europe are more likely 
to have a higher proportion of intra-EU trade than countries that 
are geographically on the periphery of the European Union. Intra-

Figure 5.6: Intra-EU-27 trade, 2007 (% of total trade)

0

25

50

75

100

Average for Member States
LU
SK
CZ
HU
PL
NL
PT
BE
AT
LV
RO
CY
DK
EE
ES
SI
FR
EL
DE
LT
IE
SE
BG
IT
UK
FI
MT

Source: Eurostat (tet00037)

Dispatches

Arrivals

150

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

International trade

5

EU trade generally accounts for the majority of trade fl ows recorded 
for the Member States, although Maltese intra-EU dispatches were 
slightly less than extra-EU exports in 2007.

As a result of customs controls being abolished between the borders 
of the Member States during the creation of the single market, intra-
EU trade statistics are collected directly from trade operators.

Table 5.6: Member States’ intra-EU-27 trade (EUR 1 000 million)

2002
Arrivals Dispatches Balance
-
1 801.6
19.6
152.8
-1.1
4.9
3.7
31.2
2.6
39.8
72.2
340.6
-0.5
3.5
24.5
37.1
-11.9
18.6
-21.4
120.7
-10.5
238.9
-0.3
164.2
-2.0
2.2
-1.4
3.3
-0.7
4.5
-1.6
11.1
4.9
25.9
-0.9
1.9
79.6
128.0
-4.6
66.9
-5.5
40.8
-11.6
33.9
-2.0
12.9
-1.5
9.0
0.8
12.8
3.9
25.3
0.1
50.3
-38.6
220.6

1 897.4
172.4
3.8
34.9
42.4
412.7
3.0
61.6
6.7
99.4
228.4
163.9
0.3
1.9
3.8
9.5
30.8
1.0
207.5
62.3
35.3
22.3
10.8
7.5
13.6
29.2
50.5
181.9

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Source: Eurostat (tet00039)

2007
Arrivals Dispatches Balance
-
2 572.5
26.7
214.0
-4.6
12.8
7.1
69.1
-0.5
53.5
122.8
504.7
-3.3
8.9
13.9
42.2
-21.0
32.2
-43.5
166.5
-48.2
310.9
5.8
209.7
-3.6
4.3
-4.3
8.7
-4.1
12.2
-0.2
14.7
6.5
48.5
-1.3
2.3
133.6
180.2
-7.7
94.4
-8.0
88.6
-14.2
43.0
-15.1
36.3
-1.8
17.0
4.2
32.6
-0.9
38.2
-2.6
78.2
-62.9
249.2

2 645.5
240.7
8.2
76.2
53.0
627.5
5.6
56.1
11.2
123.0
262.7
215.4
0.7
4.4
8.1
14.5
55.0
1.1
313.8
86.7
80.7
28.8
21.1
15.2
36.8
37.3
75.6
186.3

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

151

I

6

Transport

6 Transport

MODAL BREAKDOWN OF TRANSPORT

Transport is defi ned as any movement of passengers and/or goods 
(freight). Increased external trade, both within the single market 
and outside it, has driven rapid growth in road and maritime freight 
transport services. Each mode of transport has its own particular 
advantages in relation to a set of criteria covering issues such as 
capacity,  speed,  cost,  safety,  fl exibility,  energy  consumption,  and 
environmental impact. European transport policy aims to create 
a  transport  system  that  allows  each  mode  of  transport  to  play  a 
role  in  a  developing  transport  infrastructure,  resulting  in  more 
effi  cient, cost eff ective and sustainable transport solutions.

For the purpose of statistical comparisons between diff erent modes 
of  transport,  standardised  units  are  oft en  used  for  measuring 
freight  (in  tonne-kilometres,  which  represent  the  movement 
of  one  tonne  over  a  distance  of  one  kilometre)  and  passenger 
(passenger-kilometres,  which  represent  one  passenger  travelling 
a  distance  of  one  kilometre)  transport  volumes.  Th  e  indicators 
for transport volumes are based on the ratio of transport volumes 
to  GDP  in  constant  prices  (2000  prices),  expressed  as  an  index 
with 2000=100. Inland passenger transport covers passenger cars, 
buses, coaches, and trains: all data should be based on movements 
on  the  national  territory,  regardless  of  the  nationality  of  the 
vehicle, however, data collection methodology is not harmonised 
across the European Union. Inland freight transport covers road, 
rail and inland waterways: for rail and inland waterways the data 
are based on movements within the national territory regardless 
of the nationality of the vehicle or vessel, whereas for road freight 
transport  the  statistics  only  cover  the  movement  of  vehicles 
registered in the reporting country.

Table 6.1: Annual growth of passenger and freight transport 
relative to GDP, EU-27 (%)

Volume of passenger transport (1)
Volume of freight transport (2)

Average, 
2000-2006
-0.9
1.2

2005-2006
-1.7
1.9

(1) This indicator is deﬁ ned as the ratio between the volume of inland passenger transport 
(measured in passenger-kilometres for all inland modes) and GDP (in constant 2000 EUR).
(2) This indicator is deﬁ ned as the ratio between the volume of freight transport (measured 
in tonne-kilometres for all inland modes) and GDP (in constant 2000 EUR).

Source: Eurostat (tsdtr240 and tsdtr230)

154

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Transport

6

Table 6.2: Modal breakdown of inland passenger and freight 
transport, 2006

Passenger transport (% of 
total inland passenger-km)

Freight transport (% of 
total inland freight-km)

Car
83.4
79.9
64.3
75.6
79.8
85.7
76.0
76.1
76.3
82.6
85.3
81.9
:
76.2
90.5
85.3
63.2
:
87.5
79.4
82.5
82.8
74.0
85.6
72.7
84.9
84.1
87.4
83.7
:
53.2
87.2
:
88.0

Bus
9.5
13.1
30.4
16.9
11.2
6.5
22.0
18.8
21.9
12.0
5.3
12.1
:
18.2
8.5
10.8
23.8
:
3.8
10.3
10.6
12.8
15.6
11.4
21.2
10.3
7.5
6.5
11.8
:
43.9
12.8
:
7.3

Rail
7.1
7.0
5.3
7.5
9.1
7.8
2.0
5.1
1.8
5.4
9.4
5.9
-
5.6
1.0
3.9
13.0
-
8.7
10.3
6.9
4.5
10.5
3.0
6.1
4.8
8.4
6.1
4.5
:
2.9
-
:
4.8

Railway
17.7
14.0
27.1
23.8
8.2
21.4
65.3
1.2
1.9
4.6
15.7
9.9
-
61.0
41.6
4.6
23.9
-
4.1
33.8
29.4
5.1
19.4
21.8
30.9
27.1
35.5
11.8
23.1
11.2
5.6
-
5.0
14.7

Water-
ways
5.6
14.7
3.9
0.1
-
12.8
0.0
-
-
-
3.4
0.0
-
0.0
0.0
4.0
4.5
-
32.3
3.0
0.2
-
10.0
-
0.3
0.2
-
0.1
1.0
-
-
-
-
-

Road
76.7
71.2
69.0
76.1
91.8
65.9
34.7
98.8
98.1
95.4
80.9
90.1
100.0
39.0
58.4
91.5
71.6
100.0
63.6
63.2
70.4
94.9
70.5
78.2
68.8
72.7
64.5
88.1
76.0
88.8
94.4
100.0
95.0
85.3

EU-27
BE
BG (1)
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV (1)
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT (2)
PL
PT
RO (1)
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR (3)
MK (3)
TR (4)
IS (3)
LI
NO (3)

(1) 2005 instead of 2006 for passenger transport.
(2) The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian ÖBB and included in 
their statistics.
(3) 2005 instead of 2006 for freight transport.
(4) 2004 instead of 2006 for passenger transport; 2005 instead of 2006 for freight transport.

Source: Eurostat (tsdtr210 and tsdtr220)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

155

6 Transport

GOODS TRANSPORT

Th  e  growth  in  the  use  of  road  networks  has  oft en  outpaced  the 
speed  with  which  new,  or  improved,  roads  have  been  built.  Th  is 
has  resulted  in  increased  congestion,  particularly  evident  around 
and  within  Europe’s  major  conurbations.  Although  motorways 
constitute  only  a  small  part  of  the  entire  road  network  within 
the  European  Union,  their  length  has  more  than  tripled  over  the 
last  30  years.  Considering  only  inland  transport,  there  has  been 
considerable  growth  in  road  freight  transport,  accompanied  by  a 
slower increase in the volume of goods transported by railway. As 
such,  the  volume  of  freight  transported  by  road  in  the  European 
Union is more than four times as high as the volume transported by 
rail. More than two thirds of the volume of road freight transport by 
vehicles registered in European Union Member States is national, 
although  this  proportion  varies  greatly  between  Member  States 
depending on the geography of the country, with small land-locked 
Luxembourg specialised in international transport contrasting with 
the national transport dominated island of Cyprus.

Figure 6.1: National and international road transport of goods, 
2006 (% based on million tonne-km of laden transport) (1)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT (2)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO

National

International

(1) Malta: not available.
(2) Data are for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (road_go_ta_to)

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6

For air and sea transport the indicators are presented in tonnes (loaded/
unloaded), rather than tonne-kilometres. Th  e European Union relies 
heavily  on  maritime  transport  for  trade,  in  particular  that  relating 
to bulky, low value goods that cannot be transported economically 
using other transport modes, with most of this passing through major 
sea ports. Th  e weight of freight (and mail) transported by air is low, 
although generally the average value of air freight is high.

Table 6.3: Goods transport, 2006

Goods 
transported 
by road 
(million 
t-km) (1)
1 725 362
43 017
13 765
50 376
21 254
330 016
5 548
17 454
34 002
241 788
211 445
211 804
1 165
10 753
18 134
8 807
30 479
:
83 193
39 187
128 315
44 835
57 288
12 112
22 212
29 715
39 918
172 181
:
:
:
339
19 387
:

Goods 
transported
      by rail
(million 
t-km) (2)
379 827
8 572
:
15 779
1 885
107 007
10 418
205
662
11 105
40 924
20 868
-
16 831
12 896
441
9 279
-
5 341
17 871
44 331
2 430
14 431
3 373
9 988
11 060
22 271
22 322
3 305
9 544
-
18
3 251
:

Air 
transport 
of goods
(1 000 tonnes) 
(3)
11 720
1 203
19
60
7
3 418
23
133
103
511
1 707
810
42
7
13
703
68
18
1 709
207
45
131
19
13
2
146
151
2 443
:
:
62
-
3
355

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH

Sea 
transport 
of goods
(million 
tonnes) (4)
3 834
219
28
-
108
303
50
53
159
414
350
520
8
57
27
-
-
4
477
-
53
67
47
15
-
111
180
584
26
:
6
-
197
-

(1) EU-25 instead of EU-27; EU-25 and Italy: data are for 2005.
(2) EU-25 instead of EU-27; EU-25 and the United Kingdom: data are for 2005.
(3) 2007 instead of 2006; Italy and Iceland: data are for 2006; Sweden: data are for 2004.
(4) Goods handled in ports.

Source: Eurostat (ttr00005, ttr00006, ttr00011 and ttr00009)

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157

6 Transport

AIR AND SEA PASSENGER TRANSPORT

Th  ere has been a substantial increase in the use of air transport in 
recent years. Some of this may be attributed to the deregulation 
of air transport markets, which resulted in increased competition 
and the development of low-cost air carriers. As a result, it is now 
relatively  common  for  many  Europeans  to  take  several  holidays 
within  the  same  year  and  to  visit  a  number  of  countries,  oft en 
for  short  breaks.  Alongside  the  environmental  impact  of  air 
transport and the construction/expansion of airports, one of the 
main  concerns  for  the  development  of  air  transport  networks 
is  the  capacity  of  the  system,  which  in  many  cases  has  reached 
saturation,  resulting  in  congestion  for  travellers  (delayed  fl ights 
and  overloaded  air  traffi  c  control  systems).  Information  on  the 
number of air passengers refers to the total number of passengers, 
therefore both arrivals and departures. To avoid double counting 
the  fi gures  for  the  Member  States  only  count  passengers  on 
domestic fl ights once, while the fi gure for the EU-27 only counts 
passengers on intra-EU fl ights once.

Figure 6.2: Top 15 airports (in terms of air passenger transport), 
passengers embarked and disembarked, EU-27, 2007 
(million passengers)

0

25

50

75

London Heathrow (UK)

Paris Charles-de-Gaulle (FR)

Frankfurt  (DE)

Madrid Barajas (ES)

Amsterdam Schiphol (NL)

London Gatwick (UK)

Munchen F.J. Strauss (DE)

Barcelona Transoceanico (ES)

Roma Fiumicino (IT) (1)

Paris Orly (FR)

London Stansted (UK)

Dublin (IE)

Palma de Mallorca (ES)

Manchester Ringway International (UK)

Milano Malpensa (IT) (1)

(1) 2006 instead of 2007.

Source: Eurostat (avia_paoa)

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6

Th  e  information  presented  for  sea  passengers  covers  passengers 
using seagoing vessels on voyages which are undertaken wholly or 
partly at sea. Service staff  are not regarded as passengers, nor are 
non-fare paying crew members, or infants in arms. Passengers are 
counted both inward and outward, regardless of destination.

Table 6.4: Air and sea passenger transport

Air passengers, 2007 
(million) (1)
1 083
21
6
13
24
164
2
30
35
164
120
96
7
3
2
2
9
3
51
23
17
24
7
2
2
14
27
217
:
2
-
26
35

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
LI
NO
CH

        Sea passengers (passengers handled 
          in ports per 100 inhabitants) (2)

2002
:
10.9
0.1
-
897.4
40.3
377.3
99.8
922.7
46.3
47.4
145.1
48.0
1.0
3.1
-
-
:
13.7
-
8.6
4.9
0.0
2.1
-
319.1
360.4
60.2
414.2
137.1
-
134.3
-

2004
:
7.6
0.1
-
899.6
36.1
477.5
88.1
876.3
51.2
43.5
143.9
33.8
5.6
4.2
-
-
56.3
12.4
-
5.3
6.2
:
2.1
-
322.0
371.2
55.0
484.5
139.0
-
126.4
-

2006
80.6
8.5
0.2
-
887.1
35.5
497.6
76.2
812.6
50.7
41.9
146.4
23.7
9.5
5.6
-
-
53.8
13.0
-
4.6
6.5
0.0
1.5
-
318.5
357.4
49.6
519.1
144.4
-
135.3
-

(1) Italy and Iceland: data are for 2006; EU-27: sum of latest year available for each Member 
State.
(2) EU-27: average of those Member States for which data are available.

Source: Eurostat (ttr00012, mar_pa_aa and tps00001), Directorate-General Transport and 
Energy

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

159

I

7

Energy and environment

7 Energy and environment

PRODUCTION OF PRIMARY ENERGY

Any kind of extraction of energy products from natural sources 
to a usable form is called primary production, for example, from 
coal mines or oil fi elds. Note that the transformation of energy, for 
example, electricity generation in thermal power plants from coal 
or oil, is not considered as primary production.

Solid  fuels  cover  fossil  fuels  such  as  hard  coal,  lignite,  and  peat. 
Primary  production  of  crude  oil  covers  all  production  within 
national  boundaries,  including  off shore  production.  Natural  gas 
is measured as the dry marketable production, aft er purifi cation 
and extraction of NGLs (natural gas liquids) and sulphur; it does 
not include quantities re-injected, extraction losses, or quantities 
vented  and  fl ared.  Th  e  heat  produced  in  a  reactor  as  a  result  of 
nuclear fi ssion is regarded as primary production of nuclear heat. 
Renewable  energy  sources  cover  the  production  of  energy  from 
biomass, hydropower, geothermal energy, wind and solar energy.

Figure 7.1: Production of primary energy, EU-27, 2006 (%)

Crude oil
13.4%

Renewables
14.7%

Nuclear energy
29.4%

Natural gas
20.6%

Coal and 
lignite
21.9%

Source: Eurostat (ten00077, ten00078, ten00079, ten00080 and ten00081)

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7

Table 7.1: Energy production

                Total production 
                (primary energy, 
                million toe)

Share of total production, 2006 (%)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH (1)

1996
971.4
459.4
11.3
10.6
32.2
17.7
138.8
3.7
3.5
10.1
32.0
131.0
30.1
0.0
1.4
4.3
0.0
13.1
-
74.0
8.4
97.8
3.8
33.0
3.0
4.7
13.4
31.5
261.9
4.2
27.2
1.6
208.1
10.0

2006
871.2
451.7
13.4
10.9
33.1
29.5
136.9
3.9
1.6
10.1
31.2
135.6
27.1
0.1
1.8
3.2
0.1
10.3
-
60.8
9.6
76.8
4.3
27.4
3.4
6.3
17.8
32.3
183.9
4.1
26.5
3.3
223.7
10.5

Coal &
lignite
21.9
16.1
0.0
39.5
71.7
-
39.0
80.3
48.0
81.0
19.4
0.0
0.0
-
0.2
0.5
-
17.6
-
-
0.0
87.3
0.0
23.6
35.4
8.9
18.1
0.6
5.7
0.0
49.3
-
0.7
-

Crude
oil
13.4
3.0
-
0.3
0.8
58.4
2.5
-
-
0.9
0.4
0.8
21.6
-
-
5.7
-
13.1
-
3.4
10.5
1.1
-
18.6
0.0
0.5
-
0.0
42.4
23.9
8.2
-
59.0
-

Natural 
gas
20.6
18.1
0.0
3.4
0.4
31.6
10.3
-
25.7
0.3
0.2
0.8
33.2
0.0
-
-
-
23.0
-
91.2
16.3
5.0
-
34.9
0.1
2.8
-
-
39.1
53.7
2.8
-
35.1
-

Nuclear 
energy 
29.3
43.2
90.0
46.1
20.3
-
31.5
-
-
-
49.7
85.7
0.0
-
-
68.8
-
33.6
-
1.5
-
-
-
5.3
41.9
73.7
33.2
53.5
10.6
-
-
-
-
57.3

Renew-
ables
14.6
19.2
10.0
10.8
6.7
10.0
15.5
16.2
26.3
17.8
30.3
12.7
45.1
100.0
99.8
25.1
100.0
12.4
-
3.9
73.2
6.6
100.0
17.6
22.6
14.1
48.7
45.9
2.2
22.5
39.7
100.0
5.2
42.7

(1) 2005 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (ten00076, ten00077, ten00078, ten00079, ten00080 and ten00081)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

163

7 Energy and environment

PRODUCTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy has an important role to play in reducing CO2 
emissions.  A  sustainable  energy  policy  is  in  part  reliant  upon 
increasing the share of renewable energy, which may at the same 
time help to improve the security of energy supply by reducing the 
Community’s  growing  dependence  on  imported  energy  sources. 
Renewable energy sources have the potential to be economically 
competitive with conventional energy sources in the medium to 
long term.

Th  e  proportion  of  electricity  from  renewable  energy  sources 
measures the contribution of electricity produced from renewable 
energy  sources  in  relation  to  national  electricity  consumption, 
which  comprises  total  gross  national  electricity  generation  from 
all fuels, plus electricity imports, minus electricity exports.

Figure 7.2: Electricity generated from renewable energy 
sources, EU-27

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Biomass- & waste-fired (TWh, left-hand scale)

Wind turbines (TWh, left-hand scale)

Geothermal (TWh, left-hand scale)

Hydro power (TWh, left-hand scale)

Electricity from renewables as % of gross consumption 
(%, right-hand scale)

Source: Eurostat (nrg_105a and tsdcc330)

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7

Renewable  energy  sources  include  renewable  non-fossil  energy 
sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydro-power and energy 
from  renewable  biomass/wastes.  Th  e  latter  refers  to  electricity 
generated from the combustion of wood and wood wastes, other 
solid wastes, biogas (including landfi ll, sewage, and farm gas) and 
liquid biofuels.

Table 7.2: Primary production of renewable energy

                  Total production 
                  (primary energy,
                  1 000 toe)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH (1)

1996

2006
88 328 127 419
86 899
60 502
1 335
582
1 173
483
2 200
585
2 957
1 630
21 169
6 752
624
584
420
169
1 793
1 374
9 442
7 059
17 261
18 537
12 198
8 183
50
43
1 839
1 343
813
535
79
40
1 282
506
-
-
2 389
1 386
7 019
5 812
5 055
3 883
4 320
3 795
4 831
3 847
771
602
886
446
8 654
6 169
14 813
12 094
4 048
1 891
929
1 007
10 539
11 226
3 259
1 616
11 604
10 055
4 484
3 528

(1) 2005 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (ten00081)

Share of total production, 2006 (%)

Solar
energy 
0.8
1.1
0.2
-
0.1
0.3
2.2
-
0.2
6.1
0.9
0.2
0.3
86.0
-
-
2.5
0.2
-
0.9
1.4
-
0.6
-
-
-
0.0
0.0
0.9
-
3.8
-
0.0
0.6

Biomass
& waste
68.5
65.3
94.9
66.0
89.7
81.4
76.4
98.7
51.7
56.1
54.8
69.9
30.8
14.0
87.2
95.4
79.7
91.6
-
88.9
53.2
95.8
69.7
67.0
59.9
56.5
88.4
63.6
80.3
44.3
49.0
0.1
11.0
36.5

Geo-
thermal
energy 
4.4
6.2
0.1
2.8
-
0.4
0.8
-
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.8
40.7
-
-
0.2
-
6.7
-
-
0.5
0.3
2.0
0.4
-
0.7
-
-
0.0
-
11.0
80.7
-
3.1

Hydro 
power
20.8
20.5
2.3
31.0
10.0
0.1
8.1
0.2
14.8
29.0
23.3
28.1
26.1
-
12.6
4.2
11.4
1.2
-
0.4
42.7
3.5
21.9
32.7
40.1
42.7
11.4
35.8
9.8
55.5
36.1
19.2
88.5
59.9

Wind
energy 
5.5
6.9
2.3
0.2
0.2
17.8
12.5
1.1
33.1
8.1
21.0
1.1
2.1
-
0.2
0.1
6.3
0.3
-
9.8
2.1
0.4
5.8
0.0
-
0.1
0.2
0.6
9.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.0

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

165

7 Energy and environment

ENERGY IMPORTS

Net  imports  of  primary  energy  are  calculated  as  imports  minus 
exports;  they  exclude  transit  quantities  (notably  via  gas  and  oil 
pipelines),  except  for  electrical  energy  whose  transit  is  recorded 
under external trade statistics.

EU-27 dependency on energy imports (see overleaf) increased from 
less than 40 % of gross consumption in the 1980s to 52.3 % by 2005. 
Rising  living  standards  are  likely  to  result  in  higher  demand  for 
energy in the future, for use in passenger transportation, as well as to 
heat homes and power household appliances, and globalisation may 
lead  to  increased  energy  demand  through  freight  transportation. 
Despite increased production from nuclear energy and renewable 
sources,  increased  consumption  in  the  EU  has  coincided  with  an 
overall fall in primary production, in particular of hard coal, lignite 
and crude oil; the result of which has been increased net imports 
for  the  EU.  A  shift   in  the  energy  mix,  notably  an  increase  in  the 
consumption of natural gas (particularly for electricity generation), 
has led to particularly large increases in net imports of natural gas.

Figure 7.3: Extra-EU imports of natural gas, EU-27, 2006 (%)

Qatar 
2.0%

Others
6.9%

Egypt 
2.6%
Libya 
2.6%

Nigeria
4.6%

Algeria 
17.5%

Source: Eurostat (nrg_124a)

Norway
23.3%

Russia
40.4%

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

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7

While  energy  production  may  be  expected  to  continue  to  fall, 
particularly  for  fossil  fuels  as  reserves  are  depleted  (notably  in 
the  North  Sea),  net  imports  can  be  expected  to  rise  further.  To 
constrain  this  increased  dependency  on  imports,  production  of 
other energy sources would need to increase, in combination with 
a  reduction  in  energy  use.  In  2006  the  European  Commission 
unveiled  an  energy  effi  ciency  action  plan  to  save  20 %  of  the 
European Union’s energy consumption by 2020.

Table 7.3: Net imports of energy (toe per inhabitant)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

2000
1.7
2.5
5.0
1.1
0.9
-1.4
2.5
1.2
3.2
2.0
2.5
2.2
2.7
3.7
0.9
1.2
8.4
1.4
2.2
2.2
2.4
0.3
2.1
0.4
1.7
2.1
3.6
2.2
-0.7
:
0.8
3.7
-44.3
2.0

2001
1.8
2.6
5.0
1.1
1.0
-1.1
2.6
1.2
3.6
2.1
2.5
2.2
2.6
3.6
1.1
1.1
8.4
1.4
1.9
2.0
2.5
0.2
2.1
0.4
1.7
2.3
3.7
2.2
-0.4
:
0.7
3.3
-45.1
2.1

2002
1.8
2.6
4.8
1.1
1.1
-1.6
2.5
1.1
3.5
2.1
2.6
2.2
2.7
3.7
1.0
1.1
8.9
1.5
2.3
2.0
2.6
0.3
2.2
0.4
1.7
2.3
3.6
2.2
-0.5
1.1
0.7
3.4
-17.6
2.1

2003
1.9
2.6
5.1
1.2
1.1
-1.3
2.6
1.1
3.4
2.1
2.6
2.2
2.7
3.7
1.2
1.2
9.3
1.6
2.3
2.3
2.9
0.3
2.2
0.5
1.9
2.4
4.3
2.6
-0.2
1.1
0.8
3.2
-45.5
2.0

2004
1.9
2.7
5.2
1.2
1.2
-1.8
2.6
1.2
3.4
2.2
2.7
2.3
2.8
3.3
1.4
1.3
10.0
1.6
2.3
1.9
2.9
0.4
2.2
0.6
1.9
2.5
4.0
2.3
0.2
1.2
0.8
3.7
-45.9
2.1

2005
2.0
2.7
5.1
1.2
1.3
-1.9
2.6
1.1
3.3
2.1
2.9
2.3
2.8
3.8
1.3
1.5
10.0
1.7
2.4
2.4
3.0
0.4
2.3
0.5
1.9
2.3
3.7
2.2
0.5
1.2
0.9
3.6
-43.6
2.2

2006
2.0
2.7
5.1
1.2
1.3
-1.5
2.6
1.4
3.4
2.2
2.8
2.2
2.8
3.9
1.4
1.6
9.9
1.7
2.2
2.3
3.0
0.5
2.0
0.6
1.9
2.2
4.0
2.2
0.8
1.1
1.0
:
-42.6
:

Source: Eurostat (ten00083 and tps00001)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

167

7 Energy and environment

INLAND CONSUMPTION AND ENERGY DEPENDENCY 
AND INTENSITY

Gross  inland  consumption  represents  the  quantity  of  energy 
necessary  to  satisfy  inland  demand  of  a  national  territory.  It 
may  be  defi ned  as  primary  production  plus  imports,  recovered 
products  and  stock  changes,  less  exports  and  fuel  supply  to 
maritime bunkers (for seagoing ships of all fl ags). In 1997 a target 
was set for the European Union to increase its share of renewable 
energies in gross energy consumption to 12 % by 2010. In 2007 a 
new target was set for renewable energy to contribute 20 % of the 
energy mix by 2020. Th  e energy dependency rate is defi ned as net 
imports divided by gross consumption, expressed as a percentage; 
gross consumption is equal to gross inland consumption plus the 
energy (oil) supplied to international marine bunkers. A negative 
dependency rate indicates a net exporter of energy. A dependency 
rate in excess of 100 % indicates that energy products have been 
stocked.

Energy intensity may be measured as the ratio between gross inland 
consumption  of  energy  and  gross  domestic  product  (GDP)  at 
constant prices (1995). Th  e ratio is expressed in terms of kilograms 

Figure 7.4: Breakdown of gross inland consumption by fuel, 
EU-27 (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Crude oil and petroleum products   
Natural gas
Solid fuels
Nuclear energy                     
Renewable energies                  

Source: Eurostat (nrg_101a, nrg_102a, nrg_103a, nrg_104a and nrg_1071a)

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Energy and environment

7

of oil equivalents (kgoe) per euro. Note that if an economy becomes 
more effi  cient in its use of energy, and its GDP remains constant, 
then the ratio for this indicator should fall. However, the economic 
structure of an economy plays an important role in determining 
energy  intensity,  as  post-industrial  economies  with  large  service 
sectors  will,  a  priori,  display  relatively  low  intensity  rates,  while 
developing  economies  may  have  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their economic activity within industrial sectors, thus leading to 
higher intensity.

Table 7.4: Gross inland consumption of energy, energy 
dependency and intensity

Gross inland 
consumption 
(million toe)

Energy 
dependency 
(%)

Energy intensity 
(kg of oil equivalent 
per EUR 1 000) (1)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

2001
1 762
1 207
60.2
19.4
41.5
20.2
353.2
5.1
15.0
29.1
127.3
267.1
173.7
2.4
4.1
8.1
3.8
25.5
0.7
79.1
30.9
91.0
25.1
36.9
6.7
19.3
33.2
51.4
232.7
8.0
71.6
3.4
27.0
27.4

2006
1 825
1 253
60.4
20.5
46.2
20.9
349.0
5.4
15.5
31.5
143.9
273.1
186.1
2.6
4.6
8.4
4.7
27.8
0.9
80.5
34.1
98.3
25.3
40.9
7.3
18.8
37.8
50.8
229.5
9.0
94.7
3.6
25.0
28.1

2001
47.4
63.6
78.2
46.3
25.8
-27.1
61.0
31.9
90.5
68.9
74.5
50.7
84.0
96.0
59.1
47.6
97.9
54.5
100.0
34.8
65.0
10.5
85.0
25.7
50.3
63.5
56.1
36.6
-9.2
52.2
64.3
27.8
-732.5
55.8

2006
53.8
65.8
77.9
46.2
28.0
-36.8
61.3
33.5
90.9
71.9
81.4
51.4
86.8
102.5
65.7
64.0
98.9
62.5
100.0
38.0
72.9
19.9
83.1
29.1
52.1
64.0
54.6
37.4
21.3
54.3
72.5
25.1
-773.8
57.3

2001
214.7
186.5
240.6
1 938.5
890.5
125.0
163.7
1 229.7
174.8
233.1
220.0
190.1
180.3
272.8
767.0
1 223.5
173.0
589.7
213.1
198.6
144.5
649.2
231.0
1 371.4
336.8
1 054.7
256.2
222.5
222.4
429.6
478.9
474.3
193.7
:

2006
202.5
178.9
218.5
1 554.0
794.8
118.1
154.8
848.3
139.3
204.7
211.3
179.1
185.0
250.8
563.2
861.9
173.8
521.0
239.8
188.4
145.0
574.0
225.1
1 128.0
299.1
772.2
252.5
188.3
193.3
410.8
447.0
496.3
161.0
:

(1) EA-13 instead of EA-15; gross inland consumption of energy divided by GDP.

Source: Eurostat (ten00086, tsdcc310 and tsien020)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

169

7 Energy and environment

ELECTRICITY

Gross  electricity  generation  covers  the  generation  of  electricity 
in all types of power plants and is the electricity measured at the 
outlet of main transformers, in other words, the consumption of 
electricity in the plant auxiliaries and in transformers is included. 
Th  ere has been a shift  in the fuels used for electricity generation: 
among the main sources, natural gas has seen its relative importance 
increase at the expense of coal, lignite and oil (partly due to lower 
emissions  from  gas),  and  there  has  also  been  an  increase  in  the 
use  of  renewables  (particularly  wind  turbines).  Electricity  from 
renewable energy sources is the ratio of electricity produced from 
renewable  energy  sources  compared  to  gross  national  electricity 
consumption. Electricity produced from renewable energy sources 
comprises the electricity generation from hydro plants (excluding 
pumping), wind, solar, geothermal and electricity from biomass/
wastes.  Gross  national  electricity  consumption  comprises  the 
total gross national electricity generation from all fuels (including 
auto-production),  plus  electricity  imports,  minus  exports.  Th  e 
European  Parliament  and  Council  set  indicative  targets  in  2001 
for  the  promotion  of  electricity  from  renewable  energy  sources, 
whereby 22 % of the EU-15’s gross electricity consumption should 
be  electricity  produced  from  renewables  by  2010;  the  target  for 
the EU-25 and the EU-27 is 21 %. Th  ese targets also represent an 
important contribution towards complying with the commitments 
made by the European Union under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (see 
page 174 for more information).

Figure 7.5: Gross electricity generation, by fuel used in 
power-stations, EU-27, 2006 (1)

Wind turbines
2.4%

Others
2.5%

Nuclear power 
plants
29.5%

Biomass-fired 
power stations
2.7%

Oil-fired power 
stations
3.9%
Hydro power 
plants
10.2%

Lignite-fired 
power stations
10.3%

Coal-fired 
power stations
18.3%

Natural gas-
fired power 
stations
20.1%

(1) Figures do not add up to 100 % due to rounding.

Source: Eurostat (nrg_105a)

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7

Final  consumption  of  electricity  covers  the  electricity  delivered 
to the consumer’s door (industry, transport, household and other 
sectors). It excludes deliveries for transformation and/or own use 
of the energy producing activities, as well as network losses.

Th  e indicator on the market share of the largest electricity generator is 
based on net electricity production, and as such the electricity used by 
generators for their own consumption is not taken into account.

Table 7.5: Main indicators for electricity, 2006

Elec-
tricity 
from 
renew-
ables
 (% of 
total)
14.5
:
3.9
11.2
4.9
25.9
12.0
1.4
8.5
12.1
17.3
12.4
14.5
0.0
37.7
3.6
3.4
3.7
0.0
7.9
56.6
2.9
29.4
31.4
24.4
16.6
24.0
48.2
4.6
33.4
25.5
100.0
98.3
:

Electricity 
generation 
(TWh)
3 358.0
2 321.6
85.5
45.8
84.4
45.7
636.6
9.7
27.5
60.8
303.0
574.5
314.1
4.7
4.9
12.5
4.3
35.9
2.3
98.4
63.5
161.7
49.0
62.7
15.1
31.4
82.3
143.3
398.3
12.4
176.3
9.9
121.7
59.6

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE (1)
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU (1)
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT (2)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR (2)
IS
NO (2)
CH (3)

Final consumption 
of electricity

(million 
toe)
241.9
172.0
7.1
2.3
4.9
2.9
45.4
0.6
2.2
4.5
21.5
37.0
26.5
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.6
2.9
0.2
9.1
5.0
8.9
4.1
3.5
1.1
2.0
7.4
11.2
29.5
1.3
12.1
0.8
9.3
4.9

(kgoe
per 
capita)
490.7
541.1
675.6
299.3
477.8
539.8
550.7
414.2
528.6
405.9
491.0
586.8
451.2
467.1
228.4
212.1
1 195.9
283.6
392.6
558.2
602.0
232.0
388.6
162.8
565.1
376.3
1 403.3
1 243.1
488.0
290.8
167.5
2 580.9
1 999.5
664.7

House-
hold 
final 
consump-
tion 
(1996=
100)
116.3
121.4
97.8
81.0
94.9
99.9
105.7
135.8
154.8
144.3
175.1
121.9
116.7
181.7
158.5
146.4
109.2
114.0
154.1
124.1
116.4
135.3
158.8
123.2
116.4
84.0
122.7
95.8
108.3
133.3
209.8
143.8
94.9
115.4

Market 
share of 
largest 
generator 
(%)
:
:
82.3
:
73.5
54.0
28.4
91.0
51.1
94.6
31.0
88.7
34.6
100.0
95.0
69.7
80.9
41.7
100.0
:
:
17.3
53.9
31.1
51.4
70.0
23.0
45.0
22.2
83.0
38.0
:
30.0
:

(1) Market share of largest generator: 2004 instead of 2006.
(2) Market share of largest generator: 2005 instead of 2006.
(3) 2005 instead of 2006.

Source: Eurostat (ten00087, tsien050, ten00097, tsier060 and tsdpc310)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

171

7 Energy and environment

ENERGY PRICES

A competitive and reliable energy sector is an essential part of an 
industrialised  economy.  Access  to  energy  has  been  highlighted 
recently  due  to  concerns  over  rapid  price  increases  and  the 
security of supply caused by instabilities in the Middle East and 
the  Caucasus,  disputes  over  pipelines  for  delivery,  or  adverse 
weather conditions that aff ect refi nery output. With rapid growth 
in  demand  for  fossil  fuels  from  several  developing  countries, 
imbalances  have  arisen  between  supply  and  demand,  leading  to 
pressure on prices. Th  is has been most evident for oil and gas prices 
which rose strongly from 2004. As oil and gas are among the main 
fuels used to generate electricity, there were also knock-on eff ects 
on electricity prices. Some protection against price increases can 
be  achieved  through  diversifi cation,  particularly  for  electricity 
generation  –  for  example,  from  renewable  energy  sources  or 
nuclear  power  –  changing  the  product  mix  to  avoid  reliance  on 
any one type of energy or any single country as a supplier.

Th  e indicators shown for transport fuels are the average prices at 
the pump for consumers for unleaded petrol (Euro-super 95) and 
automotive diesel.

Electricity and gas tariff s vary from one supplier to another. Th  ey 
may  be  the  result  of  negotiated  contracts,  especially  for  large 
industrial  consumers.  For  smaller  consumers  they  are  generally 
set  according  to  the  amount  of  electricity  or  gas  consumed,  and 
a  number  of  other  characteristics  that  vary  from  one  country  to 

Figure 7.6: Average gasoline and diesel consumer prices, EU-15 
(EUR/litre) (1)

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Unleaded gasoline (Euro-super 95)

Automotive diesel oil

(1) Consumer prices at the pump, inclusive of all taxes; the data are expressed in constant 
1995 prices.

Source: Eurostat (tsdtr310), Directorate-General for Transport and Energy

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Energy and environment

7

another.  Tariff s  also  generally  include  fi xed  charges.  Th  erefore, 
there is no single price for electricity or gas in any European Union 
country. In order to compare prices over time and between countries, 
two ‘standard consumers’ are presented, one representing domestic 
consumers and one industrial consumers; the actual price paid by 
real consumers will diff er from these. All electricity price data are 
given in euro per kWh (excluding taxes) and correspond to prices 
applicable on 1 January of the reference year, a similar set of criteria 
are used for gas prices, except the unit changes to euro per GJ.

Table 7.6: Energy prices, excluding taxes (1)

Electricity 
prices: 
households 
(EUR/kWh) (2)
2002 2007
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.05
0.09
0.12
0.14
0.06
0.15
0.07
0.10
0.09
0.17
0.12
0.06
0.07
0.15
0.10
0.09
0.14
0.11
0.09
0.14
0.09
0.09
0.13
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.08
:
0.14

:
:
0.11
:
0.06
0.09
0.13
0.05
0.09
0.06
0.09
0.09
0.14
0.08
:
:
0.11
0.07
0.06
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.12
:
0.09
:
0.07
0.07
0.10
:
:
0.09

Electricity 
prices: 
industrial 
users 
(EUR/kWh) (3)
2002 2007
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.05
0.08
0.06
0.09
0.05
0.11
0.07
0.08
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.05
0.06
0.10
0.06
:
0.07

:
:
0.08
:
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.09
:
:
0.06
0.06
0.07
:
:
0.06
0.07
:
0.06
:
0.04
0.03
0.06
:
:
0.04

Natural gas 
prices: 
households 
(EUR/GJ) (4)
2002 2007
11.68
12.52
10.33
7.36
7.94
13.64
13.97
4.99
14.74
:
12.27
11.42
11.79
-
6.35
5.97
10.87
5.97
-
12.30
10.98
8.76
13.22
7.60
10.75
9.64
:
15.09
11.20
6.43
:
:

:
:
8.34
:
5.81
7.53
9.24
:
7.27
:
10.46
9.19
9.95
-
:
:
6.64
3.88
-
7.03
8.78
6.64
13.19
:
7.31
:
:
9.63
6.63
:
:
:

Natural gas 
prices: 
industrial 
users 
(EUR/GJ) (5)
2002 2007
8.87
8.91
6.89
5.22
6.56
5.77
12.15
3.69
:
:
7.07
7.63
8.46
-
5.29
6.02
9.85
9.48
-
8.40
8.91
7.54
7.76
7.32
7.33
8.00
7.61
11.06
10.55
6.58
:
:

:
:
5.25
:
4.68
4.49
7.28
:
4.88
:
4.34
4.93
5.87
-
:
:
5.90
4.91
-
:
5.62
6.15
6.26
:
6.41
:
6.18
5.93
5.42
:
:
:

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
NO

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-15. (2) Annual consumption of 3 500 kWh of which 1 300 kWh is 
overnight (standard dwelling of 90 m²). (3) Annual consumption of 2 000 MWh, maximum 
demand of 500 kW and annual load of 4 000 hours; Luxembourg: 50 % power reduction 
during hours of heavy loading. (4) Annual consumption of 83.7 GJ (equipment: cooking, 
water heating and central heating). (5) Annual consumption of 41 860 GJ, and load factor of 
200 days (1 600 hours).

Source: Eurostat (tsier040 and tsier050)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

173

7 Energy and environment

GREENHOUSE GASES

Industrialised countries that are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol, 
adopted in December 1997, are required to reduce their emissions 
of six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, 
hydrofl uorocarbons, perfl uorocarbons and sulphur hexafl uoride) 
to,  on  average,  5.2 %  below  their  1990  level,  by  the  period  2008 
to  2012.  For  its  part,  the  European  Union  agreed  to  an  8 % 
reduction  in  its  greenhouse  gas  emissions,  with  reductions  for 
the  EU-15  Member  States  agreed  under  the  so-called  burden 
sharing agreement, which allows some countries to increase their 
emissions, provided these are off set by reductions in other Member 
States. In 2007 the objective of a 20 % reduction (relative to 1990) 
by 2020 was set, with the objective of a 30 % reduction in the same 
timescale put forward as the European Union’s contribution to a 
global and comprehensive agreement for the period beyond 2012.

Emissions  of  the  six  greenhouse  gases  covered  by  the  Protocol 
are  weighted  by  their  global  warming  potentials  (GWPs)  and 
aggregated to give total emissions in CO2 equivalents; emissions 
are presented as indices, which were set to 100 for the Kyoto base 
year.  Th  e  index  of  greenhouse  gas  emissions  therefore  shows 
trends in emissions of the Kyoto basket of six gases – the indicator 
does not include ozone depleting substances with global warming 
properties, as covered by the Montreal Protocol.

Figure 7.7: Index of total greenhouse gas emissions, EU-27 
(Kyoto base year=100) (1)

100

95

90

85

80

75

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

(1) Generally 1990=100; note: the y-axis starts at 75.

Source: Eurostat (tsien010)

174

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Energy and environment

7

Table 7.7: Greenhouse gases

Total 
emissions, 
2006 
(million 
tonnes of CO2 
equivalents)
5 142.8
137.0
71.3
148.2
70.5
1 004.8
18.9
69.8
133.1
433.3
541.3
567.9
10.0
11.6
23.2
13.3
78.6
3.2
207.5
91.1
400.5
83.2
156.7
20.6
48.9
80.3
65.8
652.3
30.8
331.8
4.2
0.3
53.5
53.2
1 340.1
7 017.3

Emissions per 
capita, 2006 
(tonnes 
of CO2 
equivalents)
10.5
13.1
9.2
14.5
13.0
12.2
14.0
17.0
12.0
10.1
8.6
9.7
13.4
5.0
6.8
28.9
7.8
7.9
12.7
11.1
10.5
7.9
7.2
10.3
9.1
15.3
7.3
10.9
6.9
4.6
14.4
8.6
11.6
7.2
:
:

Index of total 
greenhouse gas emissions 
(Kyoto base year=100) (1)

1995
93.6
103.1
66.4
78.7
110.0
88.8
48.8
106.8
103.3
110.0
98.5
102.6
119.5
48.2
44.5
78.5
68.7
123.4
105.1
102.0
78.2
116.8
66.2
91.8
73.3
100.5
102.1
91.0
63.6
129.8
99.9
102.6
100.1
96.8
106.5
105.6

2000
90.9
99.9
51.8
75.7
98.0
82.7
42.8
124.1
119.9
132.9
98.5
106.9
144.7
38.7
39.2
77.3
67.2
122.7
100.3
102.6
69.1
135.8
49.9
93.0
67.3
98.3
94.6
86.3
72.8
164.6
109.5
110.9
107.6
98.0
106.9
114.1

Target
(2)
-
92.5
92.0
92.0
79.0
79.0
92.0
113.0
125.0
115.0
100.0
93.5
-
92.0
92.0
72.0
94.0
-
94.0
87.0
94.0
127.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
100.0
104.0
87.5
95.0
-
110.0
92.0
101.0
92.0
94.0
-

2006
92.3
94.0
53.8
76.3
101.7
81.5
44.3
125.5
124.4
149.5
96.0
109.9
166.0
44.9
47.0
101.2
68.1
145.0
97.4
115.2
71.1
138.3
56.3
101.2
67.9
113.1
91.1
84.0
85.6
195.1
124.2
119.0
107.7
100.8
106.2
114.4

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU (3)
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH
JP
US

(1) Generally 1990=100.
(2) Emission reduction targets for 2008-2012 are those agreed upon in Council Decision 
2002/358/EC (for EU Member States) or in the Kyoto protocol (for all other countries).
(3) Break in series for index of total greenhouse gas emissions, 1995.

Source: Eurostat (env_air_emis, tps00001 and tsien010), http://unfccc.int/national_reports/
annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_submissions/items/4303.php

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

175

7 Energy and environment

URBAN POPULATION EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION

Air  contains  gases  and  particles  released  by  fuel  combustion, 
industrial  processes  and  other  activities.  Some  of  these  can 
result  in  environmental  problems,  including  negative  eff ects  on 
ecosystems, fl ora, fauna and human health.

Fine  particulates  (PM10),  in  other  words,  particulates  whose 
diameter  is  less  than  10  micrometers,  can  be  carried  deep  into 
the  lungs  where  they  can  cause  infl ammation  and  a  worsening 
of conditions such as heart and lung diseases. In 1999 an annual 
limit on PM10 and other pollutants in ambient air was fi xed at 40 
microgram of PM10 per m3. Th  e indicator presented here shows 
the population weighted annual mean concentration of particulate 
matter at urban background stations in agglomerations.

Figure 7.8: Urban population exposure to air pollution by 
particulate matter, EU-27 (micrograms per cubic metre) (1)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

(1) Population weighted annual mean concentration of particulate matter.

Source: Eurostat (tsien110), European Environment Agency, European Topic Center on Air 
and Climate Change

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Energy and environment

7

Ozone  is  a  strong  photochemical  oxidant,  which  causes  serious 
health problems and damage to the ecosystem, agricultural crops 
and materials. Human exposure to elevated ozone concentrations 
can  give  rise  to  infl ammatory  responses  and  decreases  in  lung 
function.  Th  e  indicator  shows  the  population  weighted  sum 
of  maximum  daily  8-hour  mean  ozone  concentrations  above  a 
threshold  (70  microgram  ozone  per  m3)  at  urban  background 
stations in agglomerations.

Table 7.8: Urban population exposure to air pollution

Exposure to air pollution 
by ozone 
(micrograms per m3*day) (1)
2002
2006
3 695
4 417
2 224
4 024
:
2 124
4 599
5 889
2 626
3 507
3 222
4 437
4 326
4 331
:
:
13 038
7 315
4 087
4 776
3 772
4 685
6 513
7 643
:
:
:
1 758
:
4 621
:
:
:
5 228
:
:
1 548
2 671
6 327
5 341
4 522
4 663
2 548
4 225
:
2 054
6 000
6 461
5 992
6 838
2 338
2 606
2 960
2 898
920
2 189
:
:
:
:

1999
3 799
3 800
116
4 760
2 602
3 602
:
:
7 154
5 071
3 959
8 186
:
3 801
:
:
:
:
2 301
5 344
3 334
1 361
:
4 636
:
2 427
2 197
1 418
:
:

Exposure to air pollution by 
particulate matter 
(micrograms per m3) (2)

1999
27.9
34.7
:
28.0
:
25.0
:
15.8
:
33.7
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
33.1
:
45.6
37.6
:
:
36.5
15.7
14.1
24.4
:
:

2002
28.3
34.1
:
40.2
24.1
26.5
21.3
:
42.8
29.8
21.8
42.2
:
:
:
:
:
:
31.4
26.3
45.7
33.7
:
30.9
28.6
16.9
19.4
23.2
:
:

2006
30.0
33.9
55.4
40.7
27.1
25.6
22.7
15.4
36.1
33.8
21.1
41.6
:
:
20.2
:
35.8
:
31.4
30.4
44.7
32.0
52.2
33.3
28.3
16.6
20.4
24.8
20.3
19.9

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO

(1) Population weighted yearly sum of maximum daily 8-hour mean ozone concentrations 
above a threshold (70 microgram of ozone per m³).
(2) Population weighted annual mean concentration of particulate matter.

Source: Eurostat (tsien100 and tsien110), European Environment Agency, European Topic 
Center on Air and Climate Change

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

177

7 Energy and environment

WATER RESOURCES

Freshwater  resources  are  renewed  through  natural  processes  (the 
hydrological cycle), whereby, depending on the country’s climatic 
conditions,  approximately  two  thirds  of  the  precipitation  (rain, 
hail and snow) falling on land returns to the atmosphere through 
evaporation and transpiration; the remainder recharges groundwater, 
lakes, streams and rivers. Statistics on water resources are usually 
calculated on the basis of long-term annual averages of at least 20 
years, to take account of the fl uctuations in rainfall and evaporation/
transpiration from one year to the next. Evapotranspiration is the 
volume  of  water  that  is  transported  from  the  ground  (including 

Table 7.9: Water resources, long-term annual average 
(1 000 million m3) (1)

Precipi-
tation
28.2
68.2
54.7
38.5
307.0
30.6
80.0
115.0
346.5
485.7
296.0
2.7
42.2
44.0
2.0
58.0
:
29.8
98.0
193.1
82.2
154.0
31.7
37.4
222.0
335.6
283.7
19.1
501.0
200.0
470.7
60.1

Evapo-
transpi-
ration
16.1
52.9
39.4
22.1
190.0
18.6
32.5
55.0
235.4
310.4
129.0
2.2
23.2
28.5
1.1
52.0
:
21.3
43.0
138.3
43.6
114.6
13.2
24.3
115.0
139.1
111.2
:
273.6
30.0
112.0
20.0

Internal 
flow
12.2
15.3
15.2
16.3
117.0
12.0
47.5
60.0
111.1
175.3
167.0
0.5
19.0
15.5
0.9
6.0
:
8.5
55.0
54.8
38.6
39.4
18.6
13.1
107.0
170.0
172.5
1.4
227.4
170.0
378.0
40.2

External 

inflow Outflow
16.3
15.8
16.0
1.9
182.0
11.9
:
:
111.1
168.0
155.0
0.1
33.5
25.9
1.6
120.4
:
86.3
84.0
63.1
34.0
17.9
32.3
81.7
110.0
179.0
175.3
:
178.0
170.0
390.8
53.5

8.4
0.5
0.7
0.0
75.0
9.1
:
12.0
0.0
11.0
8.0
0.0
17.4
9.0
0.7
114.0
:
81.2
29.0
8.3
35.0
2.9
13.5
67.3
3.2
:
2.8
6.3
6.9
:
12.8
13.1

Freshwater 
resources
20.6
15.8
16.0
16.3
188.0
21.1
47.5
72.0
111.1
186.3
175.0
0.5
36.4
24.5
1.6
120.0
:
89.7
84.0
63.1
73.6
42.3
32.1
80.3
110.0
179.0
175.3
7.6
234.3
170.0
390.8
53.3

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH

(1) The minimum period taken into account for the calculation of long-term annual 
averages is 20 years.

Source: Eurostat (ten00001)

178

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Energy and environment

7

inland water surfaces, streams, rivers, freshwater lakes and glaciers) 
into the atmosphere by evaporation or by transpiration of plants.

Th  e  internal  fl ow  is  the  volume  of  river  run-off   and  groundwater 
recharge derived from precipitation; in other words, precipitation less 
evapotranspiration. External infl ow is the volume of infl ow derived 
from rivers and groundwater that originate in a neighbouring territory. 
Th  e sum of these two categories is termed freshwater resources (the 
volume  of  water  resulting  from  internal  fl ow  and  external  infl ow). 
Outfl ow is the volume of water that fl ows from rivers and groundwater 
into the sea and into neighbouring territories.

Th  e proportion of the population that is connected to public water 
supplies is defi ned as the share of the population which is served 
by (public or private) economic units with piped water of (usually) 
drinking water quality.

Although the data set is incomplete, in all available Member States except 
Romania and Estonia, the proportion of households connected to the 
public water supply (PWS) network was in excess of three quarters, and 
in the majority of Member States the proportion exceeded 90 %.

Figure 7.9: Population connected to public water supply, 2005 
(% of total) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

CY
MT
NL
IT
FR
DE
BG
BE
DK
HU
CZ
PT
SI
AT
PL
SK
IE
LT
EE
RO

(1) Estonia: data are for 2004; Slovakia: data are for 2003; Denmark, Hungary, Austria, 
Romania and Slovenia: data are for 2002; Germany and France: data are for 2001; Italy: data 
are for 1999; Greece, Spain, Latvia, Luxembourg, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom: 
not available.

Source: Eurostat (ten00012)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

179

7 Energy and environment

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Th  e population connected to urban wastewater treatment relates to 
those persons who are connected to any kind of sewage treatment 
that  is  carried  out  in  municipal  treatment  plants  by  public 
authorities or private companies (on behalf of local authorities), 
including transport of sewage to wastewater treatment plants by 
truck. Th  ere are three broad types of urban wastewater treatment 
that  are  distinguished  when  collecting  statistical  information  in 
this area: primary, secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment. 

Figure 7.10: Population connected to wastewater treatment, 
by type of treatment, 2005 (% of total) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

BE (2)

BG

CZ

DK (2)

DE (3)

EE (3)

IE

EL (4)

ES

FR (5)

CY

LV

LT

LU (6)

HU (3)

MT

NL

AT (3)

PL

PT (6)

RO

SI

FI (7)

SE

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

(1) Italy, Slovakia and the United Kingdom: not available. (2) Data are for 1998. 
(3) Data are for 2004. (4) Data are for 1997. (5) Data are for 2001. (6) Data are for 2003. 
(7) Data are for 2002.

Source: Eurostat (ten00022, ten00023 and ten00024)

180

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Energy and environment

7

Primary  treatment  of  wastewater  involves  physical  or  chemical 
processes (such as sedimentation) in which the biological oxygen 
demand (BOD) and suspended solids are reduced by at least 20 % 
and  50 %,  respectively.  Secondary  treatment  generally  involves 
biological treatment, with a secondary settlement procedure that 
should result in a BOD removal of at least 70 % and a chemical 
oxygen demand (COD) removal of at least 75 %. Tertiary treatment 
goes  a  stage  further  and  removes  nitrogen  and/or  phosphorous 
and/or any other pollutants aff ecting the quality of the water.

Table 7.10: Population connected to urban wastewater 
treatment (% of total) (1)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH

1997
35
36
62
88
:
72
:
:
:
:
:
12
:
:
:
24
13
98
:
47
:
:
:
49
78
:
:
5
14
4
70
95

1999
39
37
65
:
:
69
66
:
:
:
:
13
:
:
93
29
13
98
:
52
:
:
36
50
80
:
:
5
23
16
73
96

2001
46
38
68
:
93
69
70
:
:
79
:
16
:
:
:
50
13
98
86
55
:
:
36
51
81
:
:
:
27
33
74
96

2003
52
40
73
:
:
71
:
:
:
:
:
23
72
62
95
:
13
99
89
58
60
:
38
53
:
86
:
:
30
50
75
:

2005
55
41
75
:
:
:
89
:
92
:
:
30
67
70
:
:
13
99
:
60
65
28
45
55
:
86
:
:
:
57
77
97

(1) Any kind of sewage treatment (primary to tertiary) in municipal treatment plants run 
by public authorities or by private companies (on behalf of local authorities) whose main 
purpose is sewage treatment.

Source: Eurostat (ten00021)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

181

7 Energy and environment

GENERATION AND TREATMENT OF WASTE

Waste refers to materials for which the generator has no further 
use  for  their  own  purpose  of  production,  transformation  or 
consumption; these materials are discarded. In some circumstances 
there may be statutory requirements on a producer to dispose of 
waste in a certain manner, for example, when waste materials are 
toxic. Municipal waste is part of the total waste stream; it consists 
of  waste  collected  by,  or  on  behalf  of,  municipal  authorities 
and  disposed  of  through  the  waste  management  system.  Waste 
generated by households is an important part of municipal waste, 
but depending on the national waste management system it can 
also  include  waste  generated  by  commerce,  offi  ces  and  public 
institutions.

Treatment of municipal waste can be classifi ed into three principal 
categories:

• 

• 

• 

landfi ll, which is defi ned as the depositing of waste into or onto 
land,  including  specially  engineered  landfi ll,  and  temporary 
storage of over one year on permanent sites;
incineration, which refers to the thermal treatment of waste in 
a specifi cally designed plant, and;
recycling, which is the reprocessing of waste in a production 
process which diverts it from the waste stream.

Figure 7.11: Treatment of municipal waste, EU-27 (kg per capita)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Recycling

Incineration

Landfilling

Source: Eurostat (tsien120 and tsien130)

182

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7

Th  e  disposal  of  waste  can  have  a  serious  environmental  impact: 
for example, landfi ll takes up land space, and may cause air, water 
and  soil  pollution.  Incineration  can  also  result  in  emissions  of 
dangerous air pollutants, unless properly regulated.

Table 7.11: Municipal waste generated and landfi lled 
(kg per capita) (1)

Municipal waste generated
1995
2006
517
474
557
509
475
453
446
693
302
296
737
567
566
624
466
368
804
514
443
302
583
510
553
476
548
454
745
600
411
263
390
424
702
592
468
460
332
652
625
549
617
438
259
285
435
385
385
350
432
596
301
295
414
488
497
386
588
499
434
445
534
427
793
626
715
598

2000
524
569
474
516
334
665
643
440
603
408
662
516
509
680
270
363
658
445
535
616
581
316
472
363
513
254
503
428
578
458
466
615
660

2005
512
554
476
475
289
737
564
436
742
438
597
542
542
739
310
376
705
460
615
624
619
245
446
377
423
289
474
482
584
438
521
759
666

Municipal waste landfilled
1995
2006
213
296
173
278
24
198
356
530
302
234
37
96
4
245
278
365
471
398
311
386
289
308
192
214
284
422
652
600
292
247
356
424
131
161
376
346
305
562
12
158
59
205
236
280
274
200
326
259
362
457
234
168
268
286
25
136
414
353
364
326
370
322
245
456
1
77

2005
223
187
37
405
209
38
48
274
444
387
292
195
295
653
243
343
134
382
546
11
80
226
278
296
330
228
282
23
376
362
368
233
1

2000
288
255
73
399
282
67
165
438
554
372
339
220
385
613
252
344
138
376
483
57
196
310
338
302
402
196
306
98
469
357
351
336
40

EU-27
Euro area 
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
NO
CH

(1) Latvia: break in series for 2006; Turkey and Switzerland: break in series for 2004; 
Portugal, Slovenia and Slovakia: break in series for 2002;  Estonia: break in series for 2001; 
Hungary: break in series for 2000; Lithuania and Malta: break in series for 1999.

Source: Eurostat (tsien120 and tsien130)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

183

7 Energy and environment

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURE, 
EMAS AND ECO-LABEL

Environmental  protection  expenditure  covers  all  expenditure 
on  activities  directly  aimed  at  the  prevention,  reduction  and 
elimination of pollution or nuisances resulting from production or 
consumption. Note that activities which may be benefi cial to the 
environment, but that primarily satisfy technical needs, or health 
and safety requirements, are excluded. Environmental protection 
expenditure  may  be  classifi ed  according  to  the  economic  sector 
(agriculture,  industry,  services,  public  sector,  and  households) 
carrying out the expenditure, according to a fi nancial breakdown 
of the expenditure (treatment and prevention investment, current 
expenditure,  subsidies),  or  according  to  the  environmental 
domain  covered  (air,  waste,  water,  etc.  –  of  which  nine  areas 
are  distinguished  in  the  single  European  standard  statistical 
classifi cation of environmental protection activities (CEPA)).

Specialised producers are public or private businesses that provide 
environmental services, such as waste or waste water management. 
Non-core  expenditure  consists  of  administrative  costs  such  as 
labour costs associated with running environmental departments 
or government funded agencies.

Organisations participating in the EU eco-management and audit 
scheme (EMAS) are committed to evaluate and improve their own 

Figure 7.12: Distribution of environmental protection 
expenditure, manufacturing industries, EU-27, 2004 (1)

Non-core
16.1%

Wastewater
30.9%

Air
25.9%

Waste 
27.2%

(1) Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.

Source: Eurostat (env_ac_exp1)

184

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Energy and environment

7

environmental performance, comply with relevant environmental 
legislation,  prevent  pollution,  and  provide  relevant  information 
to  the  public.  Th  e  Community  eco-label  is  awarded  to  products 
and  services  with  reduced  environmental  impacts.  Th  e  existing 
scheme has been in operation since 1993. For more information 
refer  to  the  website  of  the  Directorate-General  Environment  at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/environment.

Table 7.12: Environmental expenditure, EMAS and eco-label

Environmental 
expenditure 
by the public 
sector, 2005 
(% of GDP) (1)
:
0.62
0.38
:
1.05
0.43
0.24
:
:
0.31
0.33
0.71
0.31
0.06
0.10
:
0.64
:
:
0.48
0.43
0.49
0.23
0.79
0.26
0.39
0.27
0.49
0.08
0.54
0.28
:
0.67

Environmental 
protection 
expenditure by 
industry,  2005 
(% of GDP) (2)
0.44
0.53
0.78
0.87
:
:
0.35
:
:
0.26
:
0.78
0.23
0.19
0.42
:
0.64
:
0.41
0.34
0.74
0.30
0.60
0.73
1.13
0.39
0.39
0.28
0.73
:
:
:
0.29

Number of 
EMAS-
registered 
sites, 
2007
5 888
336
0
30
249
1 954
2
6
59
1 090
13
1 046
0
13
0
0
16
1
15
488
7
66
1
1
5
49
72
369
:
:
:
27
:

Number of 
eco-label
awards, 
2007
(3)
478
6
:
7
29
61
0
11
17
27
88
145
1
3
0
0
1
1
8
25
5
7
:
2
0
5
17
12
:
:
0
6
:

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

(1) Belgium, Spain, France, Cyprus, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Finland, Sweden and the 
United Kingdom: data are for 2004; Germany and Switzerland: data are for 2003; Lithuania 
and Iceland: data are for 2002.
(2) EU-27, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Finland and the United Kingdom: 
data are for 2004; Switzerland: data are for 2003; the Netherlands: data are for 2002.
(3) EU-25 instead of EU-27.

Source: Eurostat (ten00049, ten00052, tsdpc410 and tsdpc420), Directorate-General for 
Environment

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

185

                                  
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
                             
I

8

Science and technology

8 Science and technology

HUMAN RESOURCES

Researchers are professionals engaged in the conception or creation 
of new knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems, and 
in  the  management  of  the  projects  concerned.  Th  e  data  on  the 
number of researchers are presented in the form of head counts.

Th  e indicator of human resources in science and technology (HRST) 
is shown as a share of the economically active population in the age 
group 25-64.

HRST  is  defi ned  as  persons  having  either  successfully  completed 
tertiary education, or persons who are employed in an occupation 
where such an education is normally required.

Th  e term PhD is defi ned as general tertiary programmes which lead 
to the award of an advanced research degree (based on advanced 
study and original research and not course-work).

Figure 8.1: Tertiary graduates in science, technology 
and mathematics, 2005 
(per 1 000 males/females aged 20-29 years) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

EU-27
IE
FR
LT
UK
FI
DK
SE
EE
PT
ES
PL
BE
RO
EL
SK
LV
IT
AT
SI
DE
BG
NL
CZ
HU
CY 
MT

Male

Female

(1) Luxembourg: not available; graph is ranked on the average of male and female; tertiary 
graduates (ISCED 5 and 6) of all ages in science, technology and mathematics ﬁ elds of 
education related to the population aged 20-29.

Source: Eurostat (tsiir050)

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Science and technology

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Table 8.1: Researchers, 2006

PhD 
graduates 
(% of the 
popu-
lation 
aged 
25-29) 
(3)
0.27
0.26
0.26
0.10
0.23
0.27
0.50
0.15
0.26
0.18
0.19
0.25
0.25
0.05
0.07
0.14
:
0.12
0.01
0.30
0.42
0.19
0.66
0.18
0.26
0.26
0.56
0.69
0.43
0.14
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.18
0.31
0.72
0.19
0.28

Human 
res. in 
S&T 
(% of 
labour 
force)
 (2)
38.6
:
46.6
30.5
34.8
50.4
43.2
44.1
40.1
30.8
39.8
41.1
34.6
40.2
34.8
38.3
43.0
31.9
30.8
48.1
38.3
31.4
22.0
22.8
38.8
31.6
48.7
48.0
42.4
:
:
18.4
42.8
:
48.9
50.8
:
:

Fe-
male
(%)
30
28
30
46
28
30
21
42
30
36
37
28
32
33
47
49
18
33
25
18
24
39
44
43
35
42
32
36
:
41
:
36
39
:
32
27
12
:

Researchers (1 000) (1)
Busi-
ness
enter-
prises Govt.
218.0
724.9
150.9
512.0
20.5
2.5
6.5
1.3
9.0
13.4
24.3
3.1
44.9
186.7
1.6
0.7
8.0
0.5
6.4
2.9
28.0
51.3
27.7
113.7
18.8
31.5
0.2
0.3
1.3
1.0
1.9
0.9
0.4
1.8
6.2
7.6
0.3
0.0
7.8
29.1
20.6
2.3
14.5
11.4
5.6
6.2
5.9
8.0
2.0
2.7
2.9
2.5
5.7
26.7
4.8
42.5
9.7
95.8
4.7
1.2
:
:
5.5
13.6
1.0
1.4
:
:
4.5
14.4
14.0
1.0
36.7
519.4
:
:

Higher 
educ-
ation
925.3
617.4
26.1
3.9
17.2
15.7
180.2
3.9
10.1
24.0
113.1
107.4
70.2
0.8
4.9
9.1
0.2
18.9
0.7
:
20.9
70.3
21.4
16.1
3.6
13.4
20.4
34.9
:
7.2
:
71.0
1.2
:
18.1
28.3
295.5
:

Male
(%) 
70
72
70
54
72
70
79
58
70
64
63
72
68
67
53
51
82
67
75
82
76
61
56
57
65
58
68
64
:
59
:
64
61
:
68
73
88
:

Total
1 891.1
EU-27
Euro area 1 298.0
48.8
BE
11.9
BG
39.7
CZ
43.5
DK
411.8
DE
6.4
EE
18.6
IE
33.4
EL
193.0
ES
253.0
FR
125.5
IT
1.4
CY
7.2
LV
11.9
LT
2.4
LU
32.8
HU
1.0
MT
49.8
NL
44.1
AT
96.4
PL
37.8
PT
30.1
RO
8.2
SI
18.8
SK
53.3
FI
82.5
SE
:
UK
13.1
HR
:
MK
90.1
TR
3.8
IS
:
LI
37.0
NO
43.2
CH
861.9
JP
:
US

(1) Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, France, Italy, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxem-
bourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Iceland, Norway and Japan: data are for 2005; 
Austria, Croatia and Switzerland: data are for 2004; Italy, higher education: break in series.
(2) All countries, except for Belgium and Luxembourg: break in series.
(3) EA-13 instead of EA-15; EU-27 and euro area, 2005; PhD (ISCED 6) graduates of all ages 
related to the population aged 25-29.

Source: Eurostat (tsc00003, tsc00005, tsc00025 and hrst_ﬂ _tegrad)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

189

8 Science and technology

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURE

R&D lies at the heart of the European Union’s strategy to become 
the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy by 
2010. Indeed, one of the goals set in Lisbon was for the European 
Union to increase its R&D expenditure to at least 3 % of GDP by 
2010. In December 2006 the seventh framework programme of the 
European Community for research and technological development 
for the period 2007 to 2013 (FP7) was established. Th  e European 
Commission has been active in establishing a European Research 
Area (ERA), which is designed to overcome some of the barriers 
that are thought to have hampered European research eff orts, for 
example,  by  addressing  geographical,  institutional,  disciplinary 
and sectoral boundaries.

Research  and  development  is  defi ned  as  comprising  creative 
work  undertaken  on  a  systematic  basis  to  increase  the  stock  of 
knowledge (of man, culture and society) and the use of this stock 
to devise new applications.

Figure 8.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) 
(% of GDP)

4

3

2

1

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

JP (1)
US (2)
EU-27 (3)

(1) Break in series: 1996; not available for 2006.
(2) Break in series: 1998; provisional: 2005 and 2006.
(3) Estimates.

Source: Eurostat (tsiir020), OECD

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

Gross  domestic  expenditure  on  R&D  (oft en  referred  to  as  GERD) 
is  composed  of  four  separate  sectors  of  performance:  business 
enterprises,  government,  higher  education,  and  private  non-profi t 
organisations. Expenditure data consider the research expenditure on 
the national territory, regardless of the source of funds; data are usually 
expressed in relation to GDP, otherwise known as R&D intensity.

Table 8.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD), 2006

Share 
of GDP 
(%) (1)
1.84
1.86
1.83
0.48
1.54
2.43
2.53
1.14
1.35
0.57
1.20
2.09
1.09
0.42
0.70
0.80
1.47
1.00
0.54
1.67
2.55
0.56
0.83
0.45
1.59
0.46
3.37
3.73
1.78
0.87
0.58
2.77
1.52
2.90
3.32
2.61

Breakdown by source of funds 
(% of GERD) (2)

Business 
enterprise
54.6
56.7
59.7
27.8
56.9
59.5
67.6
38.1
59.3
31.1
47.1
52.2
39.7
16.8
32.7
26.2
79.7
43.3
52.1
51.1
45.9
33.1
36.3
30.4
59.3
35.0
66.6
65.7
45.2
34.6
46.0
48.0
46.4
69.7
76.1
64.9

Govt.
34.2
35.0
24.7
63.9
39.0
27.6
28.4
44.6
30.1
46.8
42.5
38.4
50.7
67.0
58.2
53.6
16.6
44.8
34.4
36.2
36.8
57.5
55.2
64.1
34.4
55.6
25.1
23.5
31.9
55.8
48.6
40.5
44.0
22.7
16.8
29.3

Abroad
8.9
6.8
12.4
7.6
3.1
10.1
3.7
16.3
8.9
19.0
5.9
7.5
8.0
10.9
7.5
14.3
3.6
11.3
13.5
11.3
15.2
7.0
4.7
4.1
5.8
9.1
7.1
7.7
17.0
6.8
0.5
11.2
8.0
5.2
0.3
:

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

(1) Ireland, Austria, Slovakia and Finland: data for 2007; Italy, Iceland and Japan: data for 
2005; Switzerland: data for 2004.
(2) Austria: data for 2007; EU-27, EA-15, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, 
France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Portugal, Sweden, Iceland, Norway and Japan: data for 
2005; Switzerland: data for 2004; the Netherlands: data for 2003; Sweden: break in series.

Source: Eurostat (tsiir020 and tsiir030)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

191

8 Science and technology

HIGH-TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIES AND 
KNOWLEDGE-INTENSIVE SERVICES

External trade statistics provide information on the proportion of 
high-technology exports within the total value of exports (of goods). 
Note  that  only  extra-EU  exports  are  considered  when  calculating 
this indicator for the EU-27 as a whole, while intra-EU and extra-EU 
exports are combined when calculating the indicator for individual 
Member  States.  High-technology  products  are  defi ned  (using  the 
standard international trade classifi cation – SITC Rev. 3) as products 
from  the  following  categories:  aerospace,  computers  and  offi  ce 
machinery,  electronics,  pharmaceuticals,  scientifi c  instruments, 
electrical and non-electrical machinery, chemistry and armaments.

Figure 8.3: Exports of high-technology products 
(% of total exports)

0

25

50

75

EU-27
MT
LU
IE
UK
CY
HU
NL
FI
FR
DE
SE
DK
CZ
AT
EE
PT
BE
IT
EL
SK
ES
SI
LT
LV
RO
BG
PL

Source: Eurostat (tsiir160)

2001

2006

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

are  used.  High- 

Within  the  technology  and  knowledge  classifi cation,  the  following 
defi nitions 
and  medium-high-technology 
manufacturing  activities  (NACE  Subsections  DG  and  DK  to  DM) 
are  defi ned  as:  chemicals  and  chemical  products;  machinery  and 
equipment; electrical and optical equipment; and transport equipment. 
Knowledge-intensive services (NACE Divisions 61, 62, and 64, Sections 
J,  K,  M  and  N,  and  Division  92)  are  defi ned  as:  water  transport;  air 
transport; post and telecommunications; fi nancial intermediation; real 
estate, renting and business activities; education; health and social work; 
and  recreational,  cultural  and  sporting  activities.  Th  e  employment 
indicators are compiled from data from the EU’s labour force survey.

Table 8.3: Employment in high- and medium-high-technology 
manufacturing and knowledge-intensive services 
(% of total employment)

High- and 
 medium-high-technology
   manufacturing
2001
7.4
6.9
5.5
9.2
7.0
11.2
4.9
7.3
2.2
5.5
7.2
7.4
1.0
1.7
3.1
1.2
8.7
8.0
4.3
6.5
:
3.6
5.1
8.8
6.8
7.4
7.7
7.1
:
:
1.7
4.2
8.1

2006 (1)
6.6
6.3
4.9
10.4
6.0
10.7
3.8
5.7
2.3
4.5
5.9
7.6
1.0
1.7
2.5
1.3
8.5
6.6
3.1
7.0
5.1
3.3
5.5
8.7
9.6
6.8
6.3
5.5
4.7
3.6
1.7
4.5
7.3

1996
:
7.7
:
:
7.1
11.1
:
7.1
2.3
5.1
7.0
7.4
:
:
:
1.7
7.6
:
5.1
6.6
:
4.2
:
9.2
:
7.2
8.4
7.9
:
:
1.5
5.5
7.8

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH

       Knowledge-intensive 
        services

1996
:
34.6
:
:
40.1
27.9
:
30.2
20.5
23.6
33.6
24.7
:
:
:
33.4
25.3
:
36.4
26.5
:
22.0
:
20.8
:
37.4
44.2
37.3
:
:
38.4
40.6
34.1

2001
30.9
37.8
23.1
24.1
42.7
31.0
28.0
32.0
22.5
24.8
35.0
27.0
26.5
24.8
26.9
35.8
26.3
27.8
40.0
29.3
:
19.7
11.3
23.1
25.3
39.1
46.1
40.5
:
:
40.9
43.6
39.0

2006 (1)
32.8
38.8
22.0
25.1
43.5
34.1
28.6
34.9
25.0
27.9
36.9
30.4
28.3
25.5
25.6
43.5
28.4
31.0
42.0
30.4
24.7
23.1
14.6
26.2
24.9
41.1
47.7
43.0
23.0
12.8
42.5
46.1
41.3

(1) All countries, except Belgium and Luxembourg: break in series.

Source: Eurostat (tsc00011 and tsc00012)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

193

8 Science and technology

PATENTS

Patent statistics are widely used to assess inventive and innovative 
performance. Patents are used to protect R&D results, but they are 
also  signifi cant  as  a  source  of  technical  information,  which  may 
prevent re-inventing and re-developing ideas because of a lack of 
information.

European  patent  applications  refer  to  applications  fi led  directly 
under  the  European  Patent  Convention,  or  to  applications  fi led 
under the Patent Co-operation Treaty and designated to the EPO 
(Euro-PCT), regardless of whether the patents are granted or not. 
Applications are assigned to a country according to the inventor’s 
place  of  residence.  Th  e  falling  trend  between  2000  and  2005  is 
linked to patenting procedures and should not be understood as 
a  real  decline  in  the  patenting  activity.  For  this  reason  the  2005 
fi gures in Eurostat’s reference database are fl agged as provisional.

Figure 8.4: European high-technology patents, 2005 
(per million inhabitants) (1)

0

5

10

15

20

EU-27
DE
BE
SE
FR
FI
NL
DK
AT
LU
UK
IT
CY
MT
PT
IE
ES
CZ
EL
SK
PL
EE
LV
SI
HU
BG
LT
RO

(1) The data refers to the ratio of patent applications made directly to the EPO or via the 
Patent Cooperation Treaty and designating the EPO (Euro-PCT) in the ﬁ eld of 
high-technology patents per million inhabitants of a country; the deﬁ nition of 
high-technology patents uses speciﬁ c subclasses of the International Patent Classiﬁ cation 
as deﬁ ned in the trilateral statistical report of the EPO, JPO and USPTO; Cyprus, Lithuania 
and Malta: data are for 2003.

Source: Eurostat (tsc00010)

194

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

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8

In contrast to European patents data, United States Patent and Trademark 
Offi  ce (USPTO) data refer to patents granted; data are recorded by year 
of publication as opposed to the year of fi ling. Th  e methodology used 
is not harmonised, and therefore the comparison between EPO and 
USPTO patents data should be interpreted with caution.

Table 8.4: Patents

      European patent 
       applications 
   (units)

European patent   
   applications
   (per million 
  inhabitants)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH
JP
US

2000
51 158
41 768
1 288
7
67
936
22 016
6
218
54
790
7 250
3 982
7
7
5
79
121
5
3 418
1 175
43
42
7
51
11
1 393
2 270
5 912
15
43
36
23
395
2 694
21 356
30 513

2005 (1)
49 730
41 990
1 302
4
71
842
22 219
7
237
48
1 135
7 201
4 197
6
12
2
86
64
9
2 695
1 477
108
113
45
59
31
1 169
1 370
5 206
24
211
21
21
401
2 929
20 099
29 538

2000
106.1
135.9
125.8
0.9
6.5
175.5
268.0
4.1
57.7
5.0
19.7
119.8
70.0
10.4
3.1
1.3
182.7
11.8
11.8
215.5
146.8
1.1
4.1
0.3
25.5
2.1
269.4
256.1
100.6
3.3
0.6
127.9
708.7
88.2
376.1
168.4
108.0

2005 (1)
101.3
132.8
124.6
0.5
7.0
155.6
269.3
5.2
57.7
4.3
26.4
115.2
71.8
8.2
5.2
0.6
189.0
6.3
22.4
165.3
180.0
2.8
10.7
2.1
29.5
5.8
223.2
152.0
86.7
5.4
3.0
73.0
606.9
87.1
395.0
157.3
99.6

Patents 
granted by 
the USPTO 
(per million 
inhabitants)
2002 (2)
42.1
:
43.8
0.3
4.3
54.6
111.6
2.2
44.4
0.9
7.4
40.6
25.5
2.8
0.9
0.3
121.6
2.6
5.1
71.8
68.8
1.0
2.0
0.6
9.5
0.2
113.2
89.5
45.4
4.5
0.3
24.4
507.1
31.2
150.0
258.5
315.2

(1) Cyprus and Iceland: data are for 2004.
(2) Estonia: data are for 2001; USPTO data: the methodology used is not harmonised with 
that of Eurostat and therefore the comparison between EPO and USPTO patents data 
should be interpreted with caution.

Source: Eurostat (tsc00009, tsiir060 and tsiir070), EPO, USPTO

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

195

8 Science and technology

INNOVATION

Within  the  Community  innovation  survey  (CIS),  an  innovation 
is  defi ned  as  a  new  or  signifi cantly  improved  product  (good  or 
service) introduced to the market, or the introduction within an 
enterprise of a new or signifi cantly improved process. Innovations 
are  based  on  the  results  of  new  technological  developments, 
new  combinations  of  existing  technology,  or  the  utilisation  of 
other knowledge acquired by the enterprise. Innovations may be 
developed by the innovating enterprise or by another enterprise; 
innovations  wholly  produced  and 
however,  purely  selling 
developed by other enterprises is not considered as an innovation 
activity; nor is introducing products with purely aesthetic changes. 
Innovations should be new to the enterprise concerned: for product 
innovations they do not necessarily have to be new to the market, 
and  for  process  innovations  the  enterprise  does  not  necessarily 
have to be the fi rst to have introduced the process. Enterprises with 
innovation activity include all types of innovator, namely product 
innovators, process innovators, as well as enterprises with only on-

Figure 8.5: Enterprises engaged in innovation activity, 2004 
(% of all enterprises) (1)

0

20

40

60

80

EU-27
DE
AT
LU
IE
IS
DK
BE
SE
EE
CY
FI
UK
PT
CZ
NO
IT
EL
ES
NL
FR
LT
SI
PL
SK
HU
MT
RO
LV
BG

(1) Enterprises covered by NACE Sections C to E, I and J, NACE Divisions 51 and 72 and NACE 
Groups 74.2 and 74.3.

Source: Eurostat (inn_cis4_prod)

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Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

going and/or abandoned innovation activities. Th  e proportion of 
enterprises with innovation activity may also be referred to as the 
propensity to innovate.

Enterprises  may  co-operate  with  other  parties  (for  example 
educational/research 
suppliers, 
establishments) when engaging in an innovative activity.

competitors, 

customers, 

Table 8.5: Innovation activity, 2004 
(% of enterprises with innovation activity) (1)

Enterprises which introduced 
new or improved products to 
the market

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO

Total
35.9
40.7
56.4
41.5
47.7
26.9
41.9
44.5
44.4
20.9
38.6
31.1
14.7
34.6
34.5
51.6
36.3
25.0
48.3
48.4
46.4
30.1
27.9
46.6
41.6
49.6
52.4
47.8
77.6
36.5

Industry Services
33.7
40.3
71.1
40.3
48.7
18.3
47.2
29.8
44.5
16.8
33.6
28.6
12.3
30.8
27.6
54.2
35.0
24.6
47.2
47.4
50.5
26.8
25.2
53.7
47.0
49.4
57.8
48.4
85.9
40.1

37.4
41.0
50.6
42.1
47.0
33.8
37.1
55.5
44.3
23.4
42.6
32.0
16.2
38.1
39.9
42.3
37.1
25.3
49.5
49.3
44.1
32.1
29.2
44.3
39.4
49.8
47.5
47.1
69.5
33.4

Enterprises engaged in some 
form of cooperation on 
innovation by location of partner
US &
others
:
10.9
6.3
6.2
9.6
2.6
9.6
:
6.1
1.3
9.6
1.1
4.0
17.4
13.7
10.5
5.0
18.1
9.4
3.0
5.1
3.6
1.7
:
7.7
13.7
6.9
:
:
9.7

Total National
:
25.5
30.9
35.7
17.9
22.0
34.1
38.4
38.7
42.8
15.3
16.0
28.8
34.8
:
32.3
19.7
24.0
17.2
18.2
36.9
39.5
12.4
13.0
27.5
37.0
36.0
38.8
50.9
56.1
22.0
30.5
34.2
36.8
16.0
31.9
35.7
39.4
15.2
17.4
36.1
42.2
17.9
19.4
13.3
17.5
:
47.3
33.5
37.7
44.0
44.4
40.2
42.8
:
30.6
:
29.1
30.9
33.2

Other
Europe
:
24.0
12.0
24.5
27.8
4.7
24.5
:
11.9
4.3
16.3
2.5
18.3
22.6
30.8
27.3
17.7
22.9
20.5
9.9
17.6
10.6
7.5
:
29.7
30.0
21.2
:
:
19.3

(1) Total is deﬁ ned as NACE Sections C to E, I and J, NACE Divisions 51 and 72 and NACE 
Groups 74.2 and 74.3; services are deﬁ ned as NACE Sections I and J, NACE Divisions 51 and 
72 and NACE Groups 74.2 and 74.3.

Source: Eurostat (inn_cis4_prod and inn_cis4_coop)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

197

8 Science and technology

INTERNET ACCESS OF HOUSEHOLDS

Th  e i2010 initiative (European information society in 2010) seeks 
to promote modern public services and a dynamic environment 
for  e-business  through  the  widespread  availability  of  broadband 
access at competitive prices. Th  e policy covers regulation, research, 
deployment, and promoting cultural diversity. Its main objective is 
to ensure that Europe’s citizens, businesses and governments make 
the  best  use  of  information  and  communication  technologies 
(ICT), in order to improve competitiveness, support growth and 
create  jobs,  as  well  as  addressing  key  societal  challenges.  At  the 
heart of the policy is a desire to ensure that social and geographical 
diff erences are overcome, thus creating an inclusive digital society 
that provides opportunities for all.

Indicators  on  the  use  of  the  Internet  in  households  are  defi ned 
in terms of those households with at least one member in the age 
group 16 to 74 years. Internet access refers to whether anyone in 

Figure 8.6: Broadband Internet access of households, 
breakdown by degree of urbanisation, EU-27 
(% of households with Internet access)

0

25

50

75

100

Total

Densely-populated
area
(=> 500
inhabitants/km2)

Intermediate
urbanised area
(100-499
inhabitants/km2)

Sparsely
populated area
(<100
inhabitants/km2)

2005 (1)

2006

2007

(1) Excluding Bulgaria, France and Romania.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_it_h)

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Science and technology

8

the household could use the Internet at home, if desired, even if 
just to send an e-mail. Th  e most commonly used technologies to 
access  the  Internet  are  divided  between  broadband  and  dial-up 
access.  Broadband  access  includes  digital  subscriber  lines  (DSL) 
and uses technology that transports data at high speeds. A dial-
up access using a modem can be made over a normal or an ISDN 
telephone line, oft en referred to as narrowband.

Table 8.6: Internet access of households, by type of connection, 
2007 (% of households) (1)

Using a modem 
(dial-up access 
over a normal 
telephone line)
or ISDN
14
16
6
3
7
8
28
10
24
18
8
7
16
19
8
3
19
5
9
8
13
7
9
14
15
10
6
28
12
6
17

Using a mobile 
phone over 
narrowband 
(WAP, GPRS, etc.)
5
6
1
1
0
12
9
2
1
1
1
5
7
5
29
22
4
3
1
1
:
6
10
1
24
18
5
6
2
0
23

Using 
a broadband 
connection (2)
42
42
56
15
28
70
50
48
31
7
39
43
25
20
32
34
58
33
44
74
46
30
30
8
44
27
63
67
57
76
67

EU-27
Euro area (3)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO

(1) The categories presented are not mutually exclusive.
(2) The availability of broadband is measured by the percentage of households that are con-
nectable to an exchange that has been converted to support xDSL-technology, to a cable 
network upgraded for Internet trafﬁ c, or to other broadband technologies.
(3) EA-13 instead of EA-15.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_it_h)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

199

8 Science and technology

ICT USE OF INDIVIDUALS

While information and communication technologies (ICTs) have 
become available to a wider public, in terms of accessibility and 
cost,  there  remains  a  gap  between  users  and  non-users,  oft en 
referred to as the ‘digital divide’. Th  is divide may be attributed to a 
number of factors, including: a lack of infrastructure (particularly 
in  remote,  rural  areas),  or  a  lack  of  computer  literacy/skills  that 
may  be  necessary  to  take  part  in  the  information  society,  or  a 
lack  of  awareness  or  interest  in  what  the  information  society 
can off er. To benchmark ICT-driven developments, Eurostat has 
established  annual  information  society  surveys  on  ICT  use  in 
households/by individuals and in enterprises. Th  e surveys initially 
concentrated  on  access  and  connectivity.  However,  their  scope 
has  subsequently  been  extended  to  cover  a  variety  of  subjects 
and  socio-economic  breakdowns.  Regional  diversity,  gender 
specifi city, age, employment situation and educational diff erences 
can also be studied from the results of the survey on ICT usage in 
households and by individuals, which covers those persons aged 
16-74 years old.

Figure 8.7: Place of Internet use, EU-27, 2007 (% of individuals 
who accessed the Internet during the three months prior to the 
survey) (1)

100

75

50

25

0

At home

At place of
work (other
than home)

At
neighbours,
friends or
relative's
house

At place of
education

At other
places 
(e.g. airport,
hotel, etc.)

(1) The categories presented are not mutually exclusive.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_ifp_pu)

200

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Science and technology

8

A  computer  is  defi ned  as  a  personal  computer  powered  by  one 
of  the  major  operating  systems  (Windows,  Mac  OS,  or  Linux); 
handheld  computers  or  palmtops  (PDAs)  are  also  included.  Th  e 
purchase of goods and services over the Internet includes confi rmed 
reservations for accommodation, purchasing fi nancial investments, 
participation  in  lotteries  and  betting,  Internet  auctions,  as  well  as 
information  services  from  the  Internet  that  are  directly  paid  for; 
goods  and  services  that  are  obtained  via  the  Internet  for  free  are 
excluded, as are orders made by manually written e-mails.

Table 8.7: Use of ICTs and private e-commerce activities by 
individuals during the three months prior to the survey 
(% of individuals)

Using the
Internet

Purchased goods 
or services over the 
Internet

Using a computer  
2005 2006 2007 2005 2006 2007 2005 2006
20
20
14
2
7
31
38
4
21
3
10
19
5
5
5
2
35
5
9
36
23
9
5
1
8
7
29
39
38
1
:
31
47

18
17
11
:
3
26
32
4
14
2
8
:
4
4
3
1
31
5
10
31
19
5
4
:
8
6
25
36
36
:
1
28
35

57
59
67
31
49
81
72
64
57
33
52
64
38
38
55
49
78
52
45
84
67
44
40
24
53
56
79
80
72
:
:
90
85

52
53
62
24
44
83
69
61
51
29
48
47
36
34
50
42
71
45
38
81
61
40
36
21
51
50
77
86
66
25
:
88
81

51
51
58
:
32
77
65
59
37
22
44
:
34
31
42
34
69
37
38
79
55
35
32
:
47
50
73
81
66
:
14
86
80

63
64
70
35
55
84
78
65
62
40
57
69
43
47
58
52
80
58
48
87
73
52
46
34
58
64
81
88
78
:
:
91
90

59
60
67
30
52
86
76
62
58
38
54
55
43
44
53
47
76
54
43
84
68
48
42
30
57
61
80
87
73
34
:
90
85

58
58
:
:
42
83
73
60
44
29
52
:
41
41
47
42
77
42
45
83
63
45
40
:
52
63
76
84
72
:
18
88
83

2007
23
23
15
2
8
43
41
6
26
5
13
26
7
8
6
4
37
7
16
43
26
11
6
2
9
10
33
39
44
:
:
32
48

EU-27 (1)
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
TR
IS
NO

(1) Excluding Belgium, Bulgaria, France and Romania for 2005.
(2) EA-12, excluding Belgium and France, for 2005; EA-12 for 2006; EA-13 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_cfp_cu, isoc_ci_ifp_iu and tin00067)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

201

8 Science and technology

ICT USE OF ENTERPRISES

Most  enterprises  in  the  European  Union  are  connected  to  the 
Internet,  although  nearly  a  quarter  do  not  have  a  broadband 
connection; nevertheless, the take-up of broadband has increased 
from 62 % to 77 % between 2005 and 2007. Two thirds of enterprises 
already have a website or a homepage, presenting their goods and 
services on the Internet. Note that this indicator includes websites 
which are located on servers of the enterprise in question, as well 
as on third party servers. However, it excludes a simple Internet 
presence, for example, within online directories or online yellow 
pages.

Figure 8.8: ICT use of enterprises: Internet access, broadband 
connection and website/homepage, EU-27 (% of enterprises) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

Internet access

Broadband
connection

Website/
homepage

2005

2006

2007

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their main 
activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O (Groups 92.1 and 
92.2 only); excluding France and Romania for 2005.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_pi_b2, isoc_pi_j2, isoc_pi_b3)

202

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

Table 8.8: Internet access by type of access and websites/
homepages among enterprises (% of enterprises) (1)

Access to  the 
Internet through 
a broadband 
connection

Have a 
homepage or 
website

Access to the 
Internet

EU-27
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
NO

2006
92
94
95
75
95
98
95
92
94
94
93
94
93
86
80
88
93
80
90
97
98
89
83
57
96
93
99
96
93
:
99
94

2007
93
95
97
75
95
97
95
94
95
93
94
96
94
88
86
89
94
86
95
99
97
92
90
67
96
98
99
95
93
93
:
95

2006
73
77
84
57
69
83
73
76
61
58
87
86
70
55
59
57
76
61
83
82
69
46
66
31
75
61
89
89
77
:
95
86

2007
77
82
86
61
77
80
80
78
68
72
90
89
76
69
57
53
81
70
89
87
72
53
76
37
79
76
91
87
78
80
:
85

2006
62
63
69
33
70
83
73
58
64
60
47
61
57
43
34
42
60
42
58
79
78
53
35
24
62
61
80
86
75
:
75
72

2007
63
64
72
31
71
84
78
62
64
60
49
57
57
47
39
48
63
47
61
80
78
53
42
28
67
70
81
85
75
52
:
72

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their main 
activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O (Groups 92.1 and 
92.2 only).
(2) EA-12 for 2006; EA-13 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (tin00062, tin00063 and isoc_pi_b3)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

203

8 Science and technology

E-COMMERCE

Enterprise statistics in relation to the use of e-commerce are based 
upon  sales  or  purchases  via  the  Internet  and  other  electronic 
networks, including web shop sales and electronic data exchange 
(EDI).  Th  e  defi nition  of  e-commerce  puts  an  emphasis  on 
automatic data processing and excludes manually typed e-mails. 
Th  e  population  (size  and  activity)  coverage  is  the  same  as  for 
Internet  access  statistics  on  the  previous  page.  Th  e  indicator  of 
turnover  (sales)  from  e-commerce  is  shown  as  a  percentage  of 
total turnover. It is important to note that for e-commerce data, 
the year given relates to the survey year, while the data relates to 
the year prior to the survey.

Th  e  share  of  turnover  generated  by  e-commerce  among  large 
enterprises is almost four times higher than for small enterprises. 
Th  e  percentage  of  enterprises  purchasing  or  selling  online  also 
rises  with  the  size  of  the  enterprise.  It  may  be  easier  for  large 
enterprises  to  fi nance  the  investments  for  the  introduction  of 
e-commerce services.

Figure 8.9: E-commerce among enterprises, breakdown by 
size-class, EU-27, 2007 (% of total) (1)

50

40

30

20

10

0

Enterprise
turnover
from e-commerce (2)

Enterprises
having purchased
online (3)

Enterprises having
received orders
online (3)

All enterprises

Large

Medium-sized

Small

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their main 
activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O (Groups 92.1 and 
92.2 only); excluding France.
(2) Excluding Malta.
(3) Enterprises having purchased/received orders online (at least 1 % of total purchases/
orders received) are included.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ec_eval, isoc_ec_ebuy and isoc_ec_esel)

204

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Science and technology

8

In nearly all Member States, a higher proportion of enterprises have 
made  purchases  online  than  the  proportion  who  have  received 
orders  online,  refl ecting  the  greater  complexity  of  handling  the 
receipt of orders compared with making purchases.

Table 8.9: E-commerce among enterprises (% of total) (1)

    Enterprise  
    turnover from 
     e-commerce
2007
11
9
11
1
9
22
11
:
19
2
9
:
2
1
2
5
:
6
:
:
:
6
7
2
9
3
15
14
19
3
:
18

2006
11
9
8
0
7
17
14
:
17
3
7
:
2
2
1
5
:
7
:
:
10
6
8
1
9
0
14
14
17
:
8
14

EU-27
Euro area (3)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
NO

  Enterprises
   having 
    purchased
     online (2)

2006
28
28
16
3
17
34
48
17
53
11
15
:
10
10
3
17
30
11
25
32
37
16
14
:
18
:
23
44
51
:
38
49

2007
29
30
43
3
22
36
52
13
55
8
16
:
10
12
5
18
34
7
27
36
42
13
12
8
21
8
19
48
49
19
:
48

Enterprises 
 having
 received orders 
  online (2)
2006
14
12
15
2
8
34
18
14
23
7
8
:
3
6
2
13
11
9
14
23
15
9
7
2
11
:
14
24
30
:
22
28

2007
15
15
18
1
9
33
24
7
27
6
8
:
2
7
2
14
13
4
16
26
18
9
9
3
10
5
15
27
29
11
:
32

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their main 
activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O (Groups 92.1 and 
92.2 only).
(2) Enterprises having purchased/received orders online (at least 1 % of total purchases/
orders received) are included.
(3) EA-12 for 2006; EA-13 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_ec_eval, isoc_ec_ebuy and tin00068)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

205

8 Science and technology

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Th  e  European  telecommunications  sector  has  been  historically 
characterised  by  public-service,  monopoly  providers,  oft en  run 
in  conjunction  with  postal  services.  Liberalisation  moves  began 
in the fi rst half of the 1980s and, at fi rst, concerned value added 
services  or  business  users,  while  basic  services  were  left   in  the 
hands  of  monopoly  providers.  By  1998,  telecommunications 
were,  in  principle,  fully  liberalised  across  all  of  the  Member 
States. Th  e indicator of mobile subscriptions shows subscriptions 
to  public  cellular  mobile  telecommunication  systems  and  also 
includes  information  on  active  pre-paid  cards;  note  that  an 
increasing number of people have multiple mobile subscriptions 
(for example, for private and work use). SMS messages are short-
message  services,  traditionally  sent  between  mobile  phones,  but 
also to and from a range of other SMS-enabled devices and online 

Figure 8.10: Mobile phone subscriptions and the use of SMS, 2006

Mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 
(units) (1)

Average number of SMS messages sent 
(per inhabitant) (2)

0

50

100

150

200

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

LU
LT
IT
CZ
EE
PT
UK
CY
NL
IE
AT
FI
BG
DK
ES
SE
DE
EL
HU
PL
LV
SI
SK
BE
MT
FR
RO

LT
DK
CY
IE
PT
MT
PL
CZ
FI
LU
BE
EL
SE
DE
SI
AT
SK
FR
ES
HU
EE
RO
BG

(1) Italy, Latvia and the United Kingdom: data are sourced from ITU.
(2) Greece, Malta and Slovakia: data are for 2005; Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands and the 
United Kingdom: not available.

Source: Eurostat (tin00060, isoc_tc_sms and tps00001)

206

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

web services. Telecommunications prices are all based on the price 
(including VAT) in euro of a 10-minute call at 11 am on a weekday 
in August or September, based on normal rates. Th  ree markets are 
presented, namely a local call (3 km), a national call (200 km) and 
an international call (to the United States).

Table 8.10: Price of fi xed line telecommunications (1)

      Local calls 
      (EUR)

    National calls 
     (EUR)

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO
JP
US

2001
0.39
0.54
:
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.23
0.51
0.36
0.28
0.39
0.25
0.16
0.36
0.35
0.31
0.35
:
0.32
0.69
0.35
0.30
:
0.17
0.42
0.23
0.29
0.59
0.33
0.29
0.09

2006
0.36
0.57
:
0.56
0.37
0.39
0.23
0.49
0.31
0.19
0.36
0.22
0.22
0.36
0.39
0.31
0.40
0.25
0.33
0.49
0.50
0.37
:
0.26
0.60
0.24
0.29
0.44
:
0.25
0.07

2001
1.17
0.54
:
2.44
0.41
1.23
0.23
0.94
0.98
1.60
0.96
1.44
0.40
1.03
1.20
:
1.23
:
0.48
0.77
1.22
1.13
:
0.17
1.17
0.88
0.29
1.17
0.34
1.02
0.43

2006
0.74
0.57
:
0.56
0.37
0.49
0.23
0.82
0.74
0.85
0.89
1.15
0.22
1.03
0.79
:
1.04
:
0.49
0.59
1.00
0.65
:
0.26
1.29
0.94
0.29
0.44
:
1.02
1.03

     Calls to the 
      United States 
        (EUR)
2001
:
1.84
:
:
2.71
1.23
:
1.91
2.91
4.25
2.97
2.79
3.82
5.92
11.96
1.44
4.29
:
0.78
4.32
10.58
2.89
:
2.98
8.92
4.80
1.10
3.50
1.18
4.39
-

2006
1.79
1.98
:
2.02
2.38
0.46
2.13
1.91
3.49
1.53
2.32
2.12
0.66
5.94
4.07
1.37
2.88
1.64
0.85
1.90
1.23
3.11
:
1.40
1.23
4.90
1.18
2.23
:
4.34
-

(1) The indicator gives the price in euro of a 10-minute call at 11 am on a weekday (including 
VAT) for respectively a local call (3 km), a national call (200 km) and an international call to 
the United States; prices refer to August 2001 and September 2006; normal tariffs without 
special rates are used.

Source: Eurostat (tsier030), Teligen 

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

207

8 Science and technology

TELECOMMUNICATIONS – 
TURNOVER AND MARKET SHARE

Total  turnover  in  value  terms  is  based  on  sales  from  all 
telecommunication  services, 
lines,  fi xed 
network  services,  cellular  mobile  telecommunication  services, 
interconnection  services,  and  Internet  service  provisions.  In  the 
majority  of  Member  States  (with  data  available)  turnover  from 
mobile services exceeds that from fi xed network services.

including 

leased 

Although  overall  household  expenditure  on  telephony  has 
increased,  the  share  of  telecom  revenues  accounted  for  by  ex-
monopoly  providers  has  generally  been  reduced,  as  fi xed-line 
voice  operations  have  shrunk,  while  new  entrants  for  mobile 
and data services have captured much of the growth experienced 
within the sector.

two 

indicators  on  market 

to  mobile 
Th  e 
telecommunications 
long-distance 
telecommunications.  Th  e  market  share  of  the  leading  mobile 

share  refer 

fi xed-line 

and 

Figure 8.11: Market shares, telecommunication 
(% of total market) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

BE
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Share of the incumbent in fixed telecommunications: long
distance calls, 2005

Share of the leading operator in mobile telecommunication,
2006

(1) Bulgaria and Romania: not available; Denmark, Estonia, Luxembourg, Finland and 
Sweden: not available for ﬁ xed telecommunications.

Source: Eurostat (tsier080 and tsier070), National Regulatory Authorities

208

Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition 

Science and technology

8

operator is calculated on the basis of estimates of the total number 
of  mobile  subscribers.  Th  e  market  share  of  the  incumbent  in 
relation to fi xed-line long-distance telecommunications is defi ned 
as  the  share  of  the  enterprise  active  in  the  market  just  before 
liberalisation, and is calculated on the basis of retail revenues.

Table 8.11: Turnover from telecommunications, 2006 
(EUR million) (1)

Total 
turnover
9 721
1 754
4 304
5 433
66 200
526
4 284
8 034
42 006
47 448
:
303
:
781
593
4 792
175
14 241
4 719
:
7 781
4 307
1 049
1 492
4 511
8 659
:
1 945
9 167
289
3 862
10 363

BE
BG
CZ
DK (2)
DE (3)
EE (4)
IE
EL (5)
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU (6)
HU
MT (5)
NL
AT
PL
PT (3)
RO (7)
SI
SK (5)
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS (8)
NO
CH (3)

of which:
Fixed
 network 
services
863
399
1 503
1 314
21 900
165
2 180
3 284
7 734
11 420
:
111
:
123
238
768
57
4 678
1 401
:
1 601
848
205
307
573
2 108
:
699
3 925
93
1 090
2 951

Cellular 
mobile
services
4 226
920
2 458
1 949
23 100
400
1 924
4 305
13 402
16 771
:
158
:
359
248
1 461
79
7 243
2 708
:
2 112
1 510
406
898
2 260
1 820
:
1 089
5 165
128
1 782
3 009

Internet 
service 
provision
:
73
287
214
3 400
:
:
123
2 786
3 739
:
34
:
77
29
323
8
:
520
:
255
228
127
64
:
861
:
96
597
19
653
113

(1) Possibility of double counting in the breakdown of the total turnover.
(2) Cellular and Internet services: data are for 2005.
(3) Internet services: data are for 2005.
(4) Total turnover: data are for 2004.
(5) Data are for 2005.
(6) Total turnover: data are for 2005.
(7) Fixed, cellular and Internet services: data are for 2005.
(8) Data are for 2004.

Source: Eurostat (isoc_tc_tur), National Regulatory Authorities

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

209

I

9

Europe’s regions

9 Europe’s regions

REGIONAL STATISTICS – 
BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS

Regional  statistics  cover  a  broad  range  of  statistical  areas,  with 
information  on,  for  example,  regional  economic  accounts; 
demography  and  migration;  employment  and  unemployment; 
education  and  health;  agriculture,  energy,  industry,  trade  and 
services;  tourism  and  transport;  research  and  development.  Th  e 
concepts and defi nitions used are as close as possible to those used 
for the production of data at a national level.

Regional statistics are used for a range of purposes, including the 
allocation of structural funds, which aim to foster economic and 
social cohesion in the European Union. In this context, regional 
data  are  used  as  an  objective  base  for  selecting  regions  eligible 
for  funding,  and  for  ex-post  analysis  of  the  eff ects  of  European 
structural policies.

To  classify  regional  data,  territorial  units  are  grouped  together 
according to the NUTS classifi cation system. Th  is is a hierarchical 
classifi cation, which subdivides each Member State into a number 
of  regions  at  diff erent  levels.  Th  e  NUTS  regions  are  in  general 
administrative  units,  refl ecting  the  remit  of  local  or  regional 
authorities within a particular territory.

Th  is chapter presents the latest regional information available at 
NUTS level 2 for a selection of key socio-economic indicators, as 
well  as  a  national  indicator  summarising  diff erences  in  regional 
employment rates, defi nitions of which are provided below:

Population  change:  the  diff erence  in  population  between  two 
reference  periods;  equal  to  the  sum  of  natural  increase  (births 
minus deaths) and net migration (immigration minus emigration); 
the information presented is generally based on an average annual 
growth rate, in this case for the period 2002 to 2007.

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Europe’s regions

9

GDP per inhabitant: national currency GDP levels are converted 
into a common currency using exchange rates (purchasing power 
parities) that refl ect the purchasing power of each currency; GDP 
per  inhabitant  in  a  common  currency,  the  purchasing  power 
standard  (PPS),  therefore  eliminates  diff erences  in  price  levels 
between  countries,  as  well  as  allowing  a  comparison  between 
economies of diff erent absolute sizes.

Disposable  income  per  inhabitant:  income  received,  in  the 
form  of  wages,  operating  surplus,  rent,  interest,  dividends  and 
social  benefi ts,  from  which  are  deducted  taxes,  social  security 
contributions and other current transfers; data are derived from 
household  accounts  and  are  presented  in  terms  of  euro  per 
inhabitant.

Unemployment  rate:  unemployed  persons  comprise  those  aged 
15  to  74  who  were  without  work  during  the  reference  week  (of 
the  LFS),  who  were  available  for  work,  and  who  were  actively 
seeking work – the latter involves having been in contact with a 
public  employment  offi  ce  to  fi nd  work,  having  been  in  contact 
with a private agency (temporary work agency, fi rm specialising 
in recruitment to fi nd work), or applying directly to employers to 
fi nd work.

Dispersion of regional employment rates: this indicator shows the 
regional  diff erences  in  employment  rates  within  countries  and 
groups of countries. Th  e dispersion of regional employment rates 
is zero when the employment rates in all regions are identical, and 
will rise if there is an increase in the diff erences between regions; 
the indicator is not applicable for Estonia, Ireland, Cyprus, Latvia, 
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta or Slovenia as these Member States 
comprise only one or two regions at NUTS level 2.

For more information on regional data collection and the NUTS 
classifi cation, please refer to: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/
nuts/introduction_regions_en.html.

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

213

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.5

1.1

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.8

0.6

-0.5

-1.6

-0.9

-0.5

-0.6

0.2

-0.6

0.2

0.5

0.9

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.0

-0.3

0.3

:

:

27 135

15 829

53 876

15 058

32 059

21 818

24 055

28 350

25 056

26 711

17 819

19 884

18 528

18 843

7 913

6 023

6 205

6 874

7 405

11 704

6 026

17 156

35 901

15 792

15 672

13 658

14 539

15 252

13 393

14 633

28 376

36 073

21 265

16 524

15 288

16 784

19 158

15 918

18 071

13 666

14 124

13 770

14 399

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

4 735

6 377

5 020

4 648

4 201

4 527

4 570

4 359

4 324

16 808

:

:

8.2

17.6

5.7

6.2

4.5

4.2

4.2

7.6

14.4

11.5

7.7

10.6

9.0

11.0

13.5

11.0

8.1

6.5

8.2

7.1

2.8

4.6

4.9

12.8

6.1

7.1

7.6

12.0

3.9

:

:

EU-27 (1)

BELGIUM (2)
Région de Bruxelles-
Capitale/Brussels 
Hoofdstedelijk Gewest
Prov. Antwerpen

Prov. Limburg (B)

Prov. Oost-Vlaanderen

Prov. Vlaams-Brabant

Prov. West-Vlaanderen

Prov. Brabant Wallon

Prov. Hainaut

Prov. Liège

Prov. Luxembourg (B)

Prov. Namur

BULGARIA

Severozapaden

Severen tsentralen

Severoiztochen

Yugoiztochen

Yugozapaden

Yuzhen tsentralen

CZECH REPUBLIC

Praha

Střední Čechy

Jihozápad

Severozápad

Severovýchod

Jihovýchod

Střední Morava

Moravskoslezsko

DENMARK (2)

Hovedstaden

Sjælland

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2001-2006.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

214

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9

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.3

:

:

:

0.0

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.7

0.1

0.0

-0.3

0.2

0.0

0.2

0.1

-0.4

-0.3

0.1

0.3

0.1

-0.1

-0.3

-0.8

-0.3

0.0

0.2

0.3

-0.1

28 376

25 768

26 791

25 257

25 797

31 060

29 489

25 307

27 230

37 091

25 489

26 459

24 971

30 367

25 976

26 759

22 075

16 627

18 772

35 184

45 271

35 325

23 777

25 275

17 547

24 438

25 261

18 371

22 291

28 788

16 808

:

:

:

17 702

19 939

19 036

18 446

19 112

20 644

16 559

17 022

17 768

18 960

17 599

18 242

14 799

14 459

14 768

19 929

22 913

19 440

17 533

17 258

13 949

16 890

17 734

17 796

16 244

19 173

3.9

:

:

:

10.2

6.4

7.1

5.5

5.9

5.3

6.6

6.8

9.5

7.8

6.3

6.2

18.7

17.5

15.8

14.4

9.8

7.9

8.4

8.4

19.2

10.1

10.5

9.0

9.3

9.7

EU-27 (1)

DENMARK (2)

Syddanmark

Midtjylland

Nordjylland

GERMANY

Stuttgart

Karlsruhe

Freiburg

Tübingen

Oberbayern

Niederbayern

Oberpfalz

Oberfranken

Mittelfranken

Unterfranken

Schwaben

Berlin

Brandenburg - Nordost

Brandenburg - Südwest

Bremen

Hamburg

Darmstadt

Gießen

Kassel
Mecklenburg-
Vorpommern
Braunschweig

Hannover

Lüneburg

Weser-Ems

Düsseldorf

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change: 2001-2006.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

215

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.1

0.3

0.0

0.0

-0.3

-0.1

0.1

0.1

-0.4

-1.0

-0.5

-0.2

-1.1

0.2

-0.8

-0.3

1.9

2.2

1.8

0.4

0.0

0.4

0.0

-0.1

0.7

1.2

0.3

-0.1

-0.2

0.6

24 903

26 237

21 624

24 608

23 732

21 695

21 839

24 009

24 698

17 839

19 532

19 299

18 441

22 983

18 010

14 093

32 197

23 368

35 420

21 589

14 215

17 456

17 303

16 537

15 383

16 775

13 235

22 928

18 917

29 361

17 402

18 660

17 599

19 491

18 526

17 077

16 523

17 262

17 133

14 775

14 609

14 318

14 008

16 917

14 154

3 940

18 244

16 324

18 945

11 665

10 068

10 961

10 725

9 969

9 708

6 372

8 997

11 420

9 070

14 352

9.4

9.1

9.1

10.0

11.1

7.7

6.2

8.7

9.5

16.2

16.2

17.9

:

9.0

15.6

5.9

4.4

4.6

4.3

8.9

11.0

9.3

14.2

8.2

9.8

11.2

9.5

9.2

7.7

8.3

EU-27 (1)

GERMANY

Köln

Münster

Detmold

Arnsberg

Koblenz

Trier

Rheinhessen-Pfalz

Saarland

Chemnitz

Dresden

Leipzig

Sachsen-Anhalt

Schleswig-Holstein

Thüringen

ESTONIA

IRELAND (2)
Border, Midland and 
Western
Southern and Eastern

GREECE
Anatoliki Makedonia, 
Thraki 
Kentriki Makedonia

Dytiki Makedonia

Thessalia

Ipeiros     

Ionia Nisia          

Dytiki Ellada    

Sterea Ellada     

Peloponnisos

Attiki

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2001-2006.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

216

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9

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.4

-0.3

0.3

0.3

1.7

0.2

-0.1

1.1

0.4

1.4

2.1

1.2

2.2

0.3
1.9
0.3

2.2

2.7

3.1

1.5

2.7

0.0

0.3

2.3

0.7

0.7

-0.1

0.2

0.2

0.4

21 589

14 817

21 146

18 381

23 069

18 856

20 199

22 592

29 305

28 951

24 644

24 534

29 997

21 718
18 334
15 608

27 346

21 239

25 478

18 010

19 642

20 954

20 445

20 982

25 077

38 666

23 233

20 061

22 810

22 512

11 665

9 859

11 100

10 262

12 444

11 148

12 567

13 044

16 044

15 853

13 421

13 595

14 964

12 499
10 307
9 592

14 224

11 419

13 584

9 957

10 147

12 761

12 681

10 997

17 281

21 466

16 570

16 620

16 976

17 439

8.9

9.4

8.8

7.0

8.5

8.5

9.3

6.6

7.0

5.3

6.2

5.5

6.4

8.1
8.8
13.4

6.6

8.4

6.5

12.7

7.9

21.0

13.4

11.7

9.5

9.4

7.6

11.2

9.5

7.4

EU-27 (1)

GREECE

Voreio Aigaio   

Notio Aigaio    

Kriti      

SPAIN

Galicia

Principado de Asturias

Cantabria

País Vasco
Comunidad Foral de 
Navarra
La Rioja

Aragón

Comunidad de Madrid

Castilla y León
Castilla-La Mancha
Extremadura

Cataluña

Comunidad Valenciana

Illes Balears

Andalucía

Región de Murcia
Ciudad Autónoma de 
Ceuta
Ciudad Autónoma de 
Melilla
Canarias

FRANCE (2)

Île de France

Champagne-Ardenne

Picardie

Haute-Normandie

Centre

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2001-2006.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

217

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.7

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.7

0.4

0.9

0.9

0.6

0.9

1.1

0.3

0.9

0.3

1.4

0.9

1.0

0.8

0.7

3.5

1.4

0.7

0.7

0.9

0.5

1.1

1.0

1.2

1.1

25 077

20 967

21 884

19 847

20 730

23 619

21 725

22 858

22 299

21 260

22 669

22 535

20 596

25 291

21 056

19 841

23 742

19 876

15 811

16 924

11 306

13 796

23 474

25 698

27 589

24 107

30 567

30 613

27 482

27 691

17 281

16 220

17 235

14 513

16 580

17 620

16 984

16 204

16 014

16 253

16 661

16 180

17 001

17 528

16 908

15 331

17 111

15 373

:

:

:

:

14 400

16 458

17 403

16 679

17 467

17 917

16 045

15 275

9.5

7.7

9.5

12.9

10.0

6.7

8.2

7.2

7.9

7.8

8.5

8.5

6.0

7.8

7.5

11.5

12.2

10.6

26.9

24.1

28.5

28.3

6.8

4.0

3.0

4.8

3.7

2.6

3.1

4.0

EU-27 (1)

FRANCE (2)

Basse-Normandie

Bourgogne

Nord - Pas-de-Calais

Lorraine

Alsace

Franche-Comté

Pays de la Loire

Bretagne

Poitou-Charentes

Aquitaine

Midi-Pyrénées

Limousin

Rhône-Alpes

Auvergne

Languedoc-Roussillon
Provence-Alpes-Côte 
d'Azur
Corse

Guadeloupe

Martinique

Guyane

Réunion

ITALY (3)

Piemonte
Valle d'Aosta/Vallée 
d'Aoste
Liguria

Lombardia
Provincia Autonoma 
Bolzano/Bozen
Provincia Autonoma 
Trento
Veneto

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2001-2006.
(3) Disposable income (including all regions): 2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

218

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Europe’s regions

9

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.7

0.5

1.2

0.8

1.1
0.9
1.4

0.7

0.0

0.3

0.2

-0.2

-0.1

0.2

0.3

2.0

-0.6

-0.5

1.4

-0.2

0.3

-0.2

-0.1

-0.5

-0.7

-0.4

-0.5

0.7

23 474

26 357

28 684

25 583

22 059
23 391
28 660

19 068

17 399

14 979

15 257

16 641

15 121

15 098

17 953

20 753

11 180

11 914

59 202

14 393

23 489

13 529

14 275

9 983

9 484

9 153

9 757

17 330

14 400

16 514

17 663

15 802

14 509
14 585
15 589

12 392

12 305

10 348

10 767

10 909

10 480

10 384

11 721

:

3 308

3 809

:

4 935

7 162

4 547

4 579

3 947

3 690

3 464

3 744

:

6.8

3.5

3.4

4.8

5.1
4.5
7.5

6.5

10.0

12.9

12.8

10.5

12.9

13.5

10.8

4.5

6.8

5.6

4.7

7.5

5.1

6.0

5.7

9.0

11.0

11.0

7.8

7.3

EU-27 (1)

ITALY (2)

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Emilia-Romagna

Toscana

Umbria
Marche
Lazio

Abruzzo

Molise

Campania

Puglia

Basilicata

Calabria

Sicilia

Sardegna

CYPRUS

LATVIA

LITHUANIA

LUXEMBOURG

HUNGARY

Közép-Magyarország

Közép-Dunántúl

Nyugat-Dunántúl

Dél-Dunántúl

Észak-Magyarország

Észak-Alföld

Dél-Alföld

MALTA

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Disposable income (including all regions): 2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

219

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.9

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

-0.3

0.6

0.2

0.5

1.2

0.0

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.8

-0.1

-0.4

0.2

0.3

-0.3

-0.3

-0.1

-0.3

-0.2

29 374

36 728

23 794

22 935

25 313

24 828

21 573

35 482

34 647

30 127

25 888

29 420

26 329

28 852

19 877

23 080

39 774

24 557

24 897

27 462

31 961

29 818

30 187

11 482

10 545

18 184

9 799

12 386

7 839

7 927

8 586

8 501

14 425

13 166

12 926

13 750

13 215

14 145

13 803

15 546

15 506

14 558

13 852

14 339

14 251

18 347

17 931

18 612

19 159

17 397

17 353

18 032

18 785

18 445

18 992

4 131

4 188

5 225

3 707

4 648

3 350

3 157

3 583

3 508

3.9

5.0

4.2

4.6

4.0

3.3

5.2

3.3

3.8

4.4

2.7

3.4

4.5

4.7

5.0

4.0

8.8

4.4

3.9

3.2

3.1

2.9

4.4

13.9

13.4

12.3

12.6

14.2

12.8

13.7

15.5

11.3

EU-27 (1)

NETHERLANDS

Groningen

Friesland

Drenthe

Overijssel

Gelderland

Flevoland

Utrecht

Noord-Holland

Zuid-Holland

Zeeland

Noord-Brabant

Limburg (NL)

AUSTRIA (2)

Burgenland (A)

Niederösterreich

Wien

Kärnten

Steiermark

Oberösterreich

Salzburg

Tirol

Vorarlberg

POLAND

Łódzkie

Mazowieckie

Małopolskie

Śląskie

Lubelskie

Podkarpackie

Świętokrzyskie

Podlaskie

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2001-2006.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

220

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Europe’s regions

9

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

-0.1

0.2

-0.1

0.0

-0.2

-0.5

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.5

0.4

1.5

0.4

0.8

-0.1

0.5

0.5

-0.2

-0.2

-0.2

-0.1

-0.3

-0.5

0.2

-0.5

-0.3

0.2

:

:

11 482

12 278

10 660

10 357

11 862

9 514

10 013

8 782

11 281

16 891

13 399

17 822

14 287

23 816

15 672

14 935

21 255

7 933

7 542

8 066

5 430

6 921

6 527

16 760

6 293

8 917

19 462

16 049

23 454

4 131

4 339

4 209

3 815

4 239

3 484

3 902

3 542

3 916

9 096

7 603

9 804

8 335

11 761

8 497

8 775

9 667

2 202

2 122

2 106

1 710

2 029

1 929

3 894

1 964

2 470

8 300

:

:

13.9

12.7

17.2

14.0

17.3

13.5

16.2

16.0

13.8

7.7

8.9

5.5

5.5

8.5

9.2

:

5.4

7.3

5.9

9.0

5.9

9.0

9.4

4.8

7.1

6.4

6.0

:

:

EU-27 (1)

POLAND

Wielkopolskie

Zachodniopomorskie

Lubuskie

Dolnośląskie

Opolskie

Kujawsko-Pomorskie

Warmińsko-Mazurskie

Pomorskie

PORTUGAL 

Norte

Algarve

Centro (P)

Lisboa

Alentejo
Região Autónoma dos 
Açores
Região Autónoma da 
Madeira
ROMANIA

Nord-Vest

Centru

Nord-Est

Sud-Est

Sud-Muntenia

Bucureşti-Ilfov

Sud-Vest Oltenia

Vest

SLOVENIA

Vzhodna Slovenija

Zahodna Slovenija

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

221

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.1

0.3

-0.1

0.0

0.2

0.3

-0.5

0.5

0.3

0.3

0.7

0.5

0.8

0.4

0.1

0.8

0.6

-0.1

-0.1

0.0

0.0

-0.4

-0.5

0.0

0.2

-0.5

0.1

-0.8

0.0

0.4

-0.6

-0.2

13 563

33 124

12 779

10 455

9 663

25 774

19 114

29 823

22 820

22 209

31 245

27 721

38 574

23 621

23 986

24 600

26 586

23 995

25 491

25 469

26 715

19 243

23 547

20 194

29 744

24 647

21 765

18 988

21 871

23 706

20 768

24 658

4 043

6 615

3 898

3 780

3 453

14 731

13 415

15 777

13 986

13 256

17 429

16 011

18 471

15 552

14 983

15 671

15 714

14 710

15 443

14 365

18 415

15 714

15 953

17 865

19 306

16 412

16 223

16 477

16 453

18 886

16 180

16 536

13.4

4.6

9.8

16.4

19.1

7.7

11.3

6.3

7.8

10.4

:

7.1

6.1

7.3

5.9

8.2

6.8

7.9

7.3

8.5

5.3

5.8

6.9

4.3

3.6

5.3

4.9

6.4

6.0

4.0

6.9

5.4

EU-27 (1)

SLOVAKIA

Bratislavský kraj

Západné Slovensko

Stredné Slovensko

Východné Slovensko

FINLAND

Itä-Suomi

Etelä-Suomi

Länsi-Suomi

Pohjois-Suomi

Åland

SWEDEN

Stockholm

Östra Mellansverige

Småland med öarna

Sydsverige

Västsverige

Norra Mellansverige

Mellersta Norrland

Övre Norrland

UNITED KINGDOM (2)

Tees Valley and Durham
Northumberland and Tyne 
and Wear
Cumbria

Cheshire

Greater Manchester

Lancashire

Merseyside
East Riding and North 
Lincolnshire
North Yorkshire

South Yorkshire

West Yorkshire

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2000-2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

222

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Europe’s regions

9

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

0.0

0.0

0.4

1.5

0.6

0.0

-0.5

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.8

0.1

0.0

26 715

24 432

26 560

19 386

18 415

16 868

17 821

17 243

24 394

19 120

20 743

25 175

24 160

30 480

22 246

67 798

24 308

17 117

15 613

18 220

20 858

20 038

24 167

20 793

37 624

21 419

-0.2

27 713

21 917

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.4

1.0

0.4

0.0

0.0

-0.7

-0.6

:

:

0.1

26 929

22 620

30 003

23 032

17 343

20 731

17 686

25 812

26 009

23 989

:

:

18 900

19 223

18 845

18 821

16 686

17 388

16 137

17 090

18 079

16 793

:

:

21 726

16 270

5.3

5.5

5.0

4.7

3.8

4.2

7.8

4.7

4.8

4.7

8.9

7.0

3.9

4.0

4.6

5.5

3.3

3.7

3.8

4.4

5.4

4.9

5.3

5.8

:

:

4.4

EU-27 (1)

UNITED KINGDOM (2)

Derbyshire and 
Nottinghamshire
Leicestershire, Rutland 
and Northamptonshire
Lincolnshire
Herefordshire, 
Worcestershire and 
Warwickshire
Shropshire and 
Staﬀ ordshire
West Midlands

East Anglia
Bedfordshire and 
Hertfordshire
Essex

Inner London

Outer London
Berkshire, 
Buckinghamshire and 
Oxfordshire
Surrey, East and West 
Sussex
Hampshire and Isle of 
Wight
Kent
Gloucestershire, Wiltshire 
and North Somerset
Dorset and Somerset

Cornwall and Isles of Scilly

Devon
West Wales and The 
Valleys
East Wales

Eastern Scotland

South Western Scotland

North Eastern Scotland

Highlands and Islands

Northern Ireland

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Population change (including all regions): 2000-2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

223

9 Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Main indicators for regional data

Population 
change, 
2002-2007 
(AAGR, %)
0.3

GDP per 
inhabitant, 
2005 (PPS/
inhabitant)
22 400

Disposable 
income, 
2005 (EUR/
inhabitant)
:

0.0

0.1

-0.6

0.4

0.2

:

1.4

1.0

0.7

1.3

0.0

0.6

0.9

0.5

0.7

0.0

0.7

1.1

0.4

0.6

0.9

0.4

0.7

0.8

11 192

14 393

7 739

10 667

:

6 586

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

20 717

23 983

48 445

8 002

20 308

19 809

19 168

19 106

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2006 (%)
8.2

11.1

:

:

:

:

:

2.8

:

3.4

3.5

3.1

4.0

2.9

2.8

3.6

3.8

4.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

EU-27 (1)

CROATIA

Sjeverozapadna Hrvatska
Središnja i Istočna 
(Panonska) Hrvatska
Jadranska Hrvatska
FORMER YUGOSLAV 
REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
TURKEY

ICELAND

LIECHTENSTEIN

NORWAY (2)

Oslo og Akershus

Hedmark og Oppland

Sør-Østlandet

Agder og Rogaland

Vestlandet

Trøndelag

Nord-Norge

SWITZERLAND

Région lémanique

Espace Mittelland

Nordwestschweiz

Zürich

Ostschweiz

Zentralschweiz

Ticino

(1) Population change: 2000-2004.
(2) Disposable income (including all regions): 2004.

Source: Eurostat (reg_d2jan, reg_e2gdp, reg_ehh2inc and reg_lfu3rt)

224

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9

Table 9.2: Dispersion of regional employment rates (1)

   Total

   Male

  Female

EU-27
Euro area (2)
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO

2001
13.2
12.7
8.0
:
5.7
:
5.8
-
:
4.3
10.0
8.3
17.1
-
-
-
-
8.8
-
2.3
2.6
7.2
3.5
5.6
:
8.3
7.0
4.2
6.8
2.2

2006
11.4
10.7
8.7
:
5.2
:
5.2
-
:
3.7
7.8
7.5
16.0
-
-
-
-
9.1
-
2.2
3.4
5.1
3.1
3.6
:
8.6
5.4
2.9
5.5
2.3

2001
10.2
8.3
6.4
:
4.7
:
6.5
-
:
2.6
6.9
6.6
9.4
-
-
-
-
8.7
-
2.2
2.5
5.9
2.7
4.1
:
7.3
6.4
4.0
6.6
2.1

2006
9.3
8.0
7.1
:
4.3
:
6.3
-
:
2.6
5.0
6.7
9.3
-
-
-
-
8.7
-
2.2
4.1
3.7
3.1
3.9
:
6.6
5.1
2.4
5.0
2.5

2001
19.6
21.0
10.4
:
7.7
:
6.4
-
:
8.6
16.3
10.8
29.6
-
-
-
-
9.2
-
3.1
4.3
8.9
6.8
7.7
:
9.8
8.1
4.6
7.3
3.1

2006
16.2
16.6
10.6
:
7.0
:
4.9
-
:
7.7
12.8
8.8
26.1
-
-
-
-
9.9
-
2.6
2.7
7.4
4.8
6.5
:
11.5
5.9
3.7
6.6
2.3

(1) Coefﬁ cient of variation of employment rates (of the age group 15-64) across regions 
(NUTS 2 level) within countries.
(2) EA-13 instead of EA-15.

Source: Eurostat (tsisc050)

 Key figures on Europe – 2009 edition

225

       
       
         
           
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
European Commission

Key figures on Europe — 2009 edition

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 — 225 pp. — 10.5 x 21 cm

Theme: General and regional statistics
Collection: Pocketbooks

ISSN 1830-7892
ISBN 978-92-79-11056-6