Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - The impact of free movement of workers in the context of EU enlargement - Report on the first phase (1 January 2007 – 31 December 2008) of the transitional arrangements set out in the 2005 accession treaty and as requested according to the transitional arrangement set out in the 2003 accession treaty
Date: 2008-11-18
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: Bulgaria, Romania, accession to the European Union, approximation of laws, employment statistics, free movement of persons, free movement of workers

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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 18.11.2008 
COM(2008) 765 final 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

The impact of free movement of workers in the context of EU enlargement 

Report on the first phase (1 January 2007 – 31 December 2008) of the Transitional 
Arrangements set out in the 2005 Accession Treaty and as requested according to the 
Transitional Arrangement set out in the 2003 Accession Treaty 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1. 

Purpose of the report 

The present report has a twofold purpose: 

•  To serve as a basis for a review by Council of the first two years of the transitional 
arrangements for the free movement of workers in accordance with paragraph 3 of 
Annexes VI and VII of the 2005 Bulgaria and Romania Accession Treaty, ,   
and 

•  To  provide  a  basis  for  a  further  review1  by  Council  of  the  transitional 
arrangements  of  the  2003  Accession  Treaty  in  accordance  with  paragraph  4  of 
Annexes  V,  VI,  VIII,  IX,  X,  XII,  XIII,  XIV  following  the  request  of  the  Czech 
Republic,  Estonia,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Poland,  Slovenia  and  the  Slovak  Republic 
(received  on  10  September  2008)  and  of  Hungary  (received  on  29  September 
2008)2 . 

It summarises the statistical and analytical material presented in the Employment in 
Europe  2008  report,  which  should  be  consulted  for  any  further  detailed  references, 
including research referred to in this report3. 

1.2. 

Free movement of workers as a fundamental freedom 

Free  movement  of  persons  is  one  of  the  fundamental  freedoms  guaranteed  by  EC 
law. It includes the right of EU nationals to move freely to another EU Member State 
to take up employment and reside there with their family members4. Free movement 
of  workers  precludes  Member  States  from  directly  or  indirectly  discriminating 
against  EU  workers  and  their  families  on  the  basis  of  nationality  in  employment 
related  matters.  It  also  ensures  equal  treatment  as  regards  public  housing,  tax 
advantages and social advantages. 

1.3. 

Transitional arrangements on the free movement of workers 

The  Accession  Treaties  of  2003  and  2005  allow  Member  States  to  temporarily 
restrict the free access of workers from the Member States that joined in 2004 (with 
the  exception  of  Malta  and  Cyprus)  and  2007  to  their  labour  markets5.  These  so-
called  transitional  arrangements  can  only  be  applied  to  workers  but  not  to  self-

1 
2 
3 

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5 

For the Commission report on the first two years of the transitional arrangements see COM(2006)48. 
This report does not deal with immigration of non-EU nationals. 
European Commission, Employment in Europe 2008, Chapter 3: Geographical labour mobility in the 
context of EU enlargement. The report will be available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=119&langId=en. 
Free  movement  of  workers  (Article  39  EC)  must  be  legally  distinguished  from  freedom  of 
establishment of self-employment (Article 43 EC) and freedom to provide services (Article 49 EC). The 
Directive  on  posting  of  workers  relates  to  the  latter  freedom  and  is  not  subject  to  transitional 
arrangements,  although  Germany  and  Austria  are  allowed  to  apply  restrictions  on  the  cross-border 
provisions of services in certain sensitive sectors involving the temporary posting of workers as set out 
in  paragraph  13  of  the  transitional  arrangements  of  the  country-specific  annexes  of  the  2003  and  the 
2005 Acts of Accession. 
“EU-15” refers to all Member States forming part of the EU before 1 May 2004; 
“EU-10” refers to all countries that joined the EU on 1 May 2004; 
“EU-8” refers to all EU-10 Member States except for Malta and Cyprus; 
“EU-25” refers to all Member States forming part of the EU before 1 January 2007; 
“EU-2” refers to Bulgaria and Romania. 

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employed  persons  or  any  other  category  of  EU  citizens6.  Notwithstanding  the 
restrictions, a Member State must always give preference to Bulgarian and Romanian 
and  EU-8  workers  over  workers  who  are  nationals  of  non-EU  countries  as  regards 
first access to the labour market.  

The  transitional  arrangements  of  the  Accession  Treaties  of  2003  and  2005  are 
essentially  identical  as  regards  set-up  and  mechanisms.  The  overall  transitional 
period of a maximum of seven years is divided into three distinct phases (“2-plus-3-
plus-2” formula). Different conditions apply during each phase: 

–  For an initial 2-year period, the national law of the other Member States regulates 
the  access  of  workers  from  EU-8  and  EU-2.  At  the  end  of  this  first  phase,  the 
Commission  has  to  provide  a  report  to  enable  the  Council  to  examine  this  first 
phase of the transitional arrangements. 

–  Member States can extend their national measures for a second phase of another 3 
years  upon  notification  to  the  Commission  before  the  end  of  the  first  phase; 
otherwise EC law granting free movement of workers applies. 

–  Restrictions should in principle end with the second phase. However, a Member 
State maintaining national measures at the end of the second phase may, in case of 
serious disturbances of its labour market or threat thereof and after notifying the 
Commission,  continue  to  apply  these  measures  until  the  end  of  the  seven  year 
period following the date of accession. 

The transitional arrangements will irrevocably end for Bulgaria and Romania on 31 
December 2013 and for the EU-8 on 30 April 20117. 

1.4. 

Bulgaria and Romania 

15 Member States apply restrictions for workers from Bulgaria and Romania, while 
10  Member  States  have  opened  their  labour  markets8.  Among  these  15  Member 
States, the diverse national measures result in legally different regimes for access to 
the  labour  markets.  7  of  the  15  Member  States  apply  simplifications,  ranging  from 
accelerated or simplified procedures (Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg) to exemption 
from  labour  market  tests  when  issuing  work  permits  (Austria,  France,  Hungary, 
Germany) to exemption from the work permit requirement for occupations in certain 
sectors or under certain conditions (Denmark, Hungary, Italy). 

From  1  January  2009,  the  second  phase  of  the  transitional  period  will  start.  EU-25 
Member States that decide to lift restrictions will be able, throughout the remainder 
of  the  transitional  period,  to  reintroduce  restrictions,  using  the  safeguard  procedure 
set out in the Accession Treaty, should they undergo or foresee disturbances on their 
labour  markets.  Those  EU-25  Member  States  that  want  to  continue  to  apply 
restrictions  must  notify  the  Commission  before  the  end  of  the  first  phase  on  31 
December 2008.  

6 
7 

8 

But see provisions regarding Germany and Austria referred to in footnote 4 
For more information on transitional arrangements see: 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=466&langId=en. 
For a more detailed overview of Member States’ policies see summary table at:  
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=466&langId=en. 

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1.5. 

EU-8 Member States  

11 of the 15 Member States have opened their labour markets for workers from the 
EU-8  Member  States;  of  the  remaining  four  Member  States,  Austria  applies 
simplified procedures for 65 professions as well as exemptions from work permit and 
labour market test requirements for 3 more professions. Belgium has introduced an 
accelerated  procedure  for  jobs  in  professions  for  which  there  is  a  labour  shortage, 
Denmark  does  not  require  a  work  permit  for  employment  that  is  covered  by  a 
collective agreement, and Germany exempts certain skilled engineers from a labour 
market  test.  Hungary  applies  reciprocal  measures,  restricting  access  to  its  labour 
market for workers from any EU-15 Member States that restrict access of Hungarian 
workers  but  exempts  skilled  workers  from  a  work  permit  requirement  and  some 
unskilled workers from a labour market test. 

Restrictions  on  the  free  movement  of  EU-8  workers  should  end  on  30  April  2009. 
Member States that still apply restrictions may maintain them after 30 April 2009 in 
the event of a serious disturbance of the labour market or a threat thereof and after 
notifying the Commission before 1 May 2009.  

By  temporarily  restricting  free  movement  of  workers,  the  transitional  arrangements 
derogate  from  a  fundamental  freedom  of  EC  law.  As  the  Court  of  Justice  of  the 
European  Communities  has  consistently  held,  derogations  from  fundamental 
freedoms  must  be  interpreted  strictly.  A  strict  interpretation  also  applies  to  the 
conditions under which Member States may continue to restrict labour market access 
in the third phase. 

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Table 1: Member States’ policies towards workers from the new Member States  

Member State 

Workers from the EU-8/EU-15 

Workers from BG and RO/EU-25 

Belgium (BE) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Denmark (DK) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Germany (DE) 

Restrictions with simplifications * 

Restrictions with simplifications * 

Ireland (IE) 

Free access (1 May 2004) 

Greece (EL) 

Free access (1 May 2006) 

Spain (ES) 

Free access (1 May 2006) 

Restrictions 

Restrictions 

Restrictions 

France (FR) 

Free access (1 July 2008) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Italy (IT) 

Free access (27 July 2006) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

EU-15 

Luxembourg (LU) 

Free access (1 November 2007) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

Netherlands (NL) 

Free access (1 May 2007) 

Restrictions 

Austria (AT) 

Restrictions with simplifications* 

Restrictions with simplifications* 

Portugal (PT) 

Free access (1 May 2006) 

Restrictions 

Finland (FI) 

Free access (1 May 2006) 

Free  access,  subsequent  registration  for 
monitoring purposes 

Sweden (SE) 

Free access (1 May 2004) 

Free access 

United  Kingdom 
(UK) 

Czech  Republic 
(CZ) 

Free  access  (1  May  2004),  mandatory 
workers  registration  scheme  for  monitoring 
purposes 

No reciprocal measures 

Estonia (EE) 

No reciprocal measures 

Cyprus (CY) 

- 

Latvia (LV) 

No reciprocal measures 

Restrictions 

Free access 

Free access 

Free  access,  subsequent  registration  for 
monitoring purposes 
Free access 

Lithuania (LT) 

No reciprocal measures 

Free access 

EU-10 

Hungary (HU) 

Malta (MT) 

Reciprocal measures (simplifications as of 1 
January 2008) 

Restrictions with simplifications 

- 

Restrictions  

Poland (PL) 

No reciprocal measures (17 January 2007) 

Free access 

Slovenia (SI) 

No reciprocal measures (25 May 2006) 

Free  access,  subsequent  registration  for 
monitoring purposes 

Slovakia (SK) 

No reciprocal measures 

Free access 

EU-2 

Bulgaria (BG) 

Romania (RO) 

-  

-  

No reciprocal measures 

No reciprocal measures 

Source: DG EMPL. Note: * Restrictions also on the posting of workers in certain sectors 

2. 

EXTENT OF INTRA-EU MOBILITY AFTER ENLARGEMENT 

2.1. 

Bulgarian and Romanian citizens resident in other EU Member States 

The  exact  size  of  post-enlargement  mobility  flows  is  difficult  to  determine  due  to 
shortcomings  in  the  existing  data  and  largely  open  borders  between  the  Member 
States. However, available population statistics and data from the EU Labour Force 
Survey suggest that the number of Bulgarian and Romanian citizens resident in the 
EU-25 increased from around 690 000 at the end of 2003 to about 1.8 million at the 
end of 2007, a process which had started well before the accession of both countries 
to the EU in January 2007 (see Table A1). This amounts to an average net growth of 
about 290 000 persons per year. Romanians accounted for around 19% of all recent 
intra-EU  movers  who  took  residence  in  another  EU  Member  State  over  the  past  4 
years, Bulgarian citizens for about 4% (Chart 1).  

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Chart  1:  Nationality  of  recent  intra-EU  movers  (age  group  15-64),  2007  (%  of 
all recent intra-EU movers) 

Other EU citizens
18%

LT
4%

IT
4%

SK
4%

BG
4%

UK
6%

DE
7%

PT
4%

FR
5%

PL
25%

RO
19%

Source: Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey, annual data 2007.  

Note: Recent intra-EU movers defined as persons resident four years or less in another EU Member 
State. 

Their main EU destination country has been Spain, which received well over 50% of 
recent  intra-EU  movers  from  both  Bulgaria  and  Romania.  The  second  most 
important receiving country for recent movers from Romania has been Italy (around 
25%), with flows to other Member States much smaller and nowhere exceeding 2% 
of the total. For recent movers from Bulgaria, the second main receiving country in 
the  EU  has  been  Germany  (15%),  with  Greece,  Italy,  France,  the  UK  and  Cyprus 
receiving most of the others in largely equal parts (Table 2). 

Table  2:  Main  destination  countries  of  recent  intra-EU  movers  (age  group  15-
64), 2007  

Citizenship of EU-nationals resident 
four years or less in another EU 
Member State ... 

… by main EU destination country
 (percentage of overall number of working age nationals resident four years 
and less in another Member State)

PL
RO
DE
UK
FR
PT
BG
SK
IT
LT
Other EU citizens
All recent intra EU-movers

59%
57%
33%
39%
35%
31%
56%
55%
26%
52%
38%
32%

UK
ES
FR
FR
UK
ES
ES
UK
ES
UK
UK
UK

17%
26%
22%
20%
16%
28%
15%
21%
23%
33%
17%
18%

IE
IT
AT
ES
DE
FR
DE
CZ
UK
IE
DE
ES

11%
2%
18%
18%
16%
28%
7%
11%
21%
10%
9%
10%

DE
UK
UK
IE
BE
UK
EL
IE
FR
DE
FR
IE

Source: Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey, annual data 2007. 

While significant in absolute terms, the number of Bulgarian and Romanian citizens 
appears  modest  in  relation  to  the  overall  population  in  the  receiving  countries. 

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Between  2003  and  2007  the  population  share  of  Bulgarians  and  Romanians  in  the 
EU-15  increased  from  0.2%  to  0.5%,  albeit  with  significant  differences  between 
Member  States  (Table  A1  and  Chart  A1).  In  2007,  Spain  and  Italy  recorded  the 
highest  population  share  of  Romanian  and  Bulgarian  citizens,  with  1.9%  and  1.1% 
respectively (Chart A2). 

Of all Member States, Spain and Italy also show the highest share of recently arrived 
Bulgarian  and  Romanian  workers.  However,  the  labour  force  share  of  recently 
arrived workers from non-EU countries has been significantly higher. (Table A3). 
EU-109 citizens resident in other EU Member States 

2.2. 

Since the 2004 enlargement, the number of EU-10 citizens resident in the EU-15 has 
increased  by  roughly  1.1  million.  Totalling  over  900 000  in  2003,  it  now  stands  at 
about 2 million (with numbers of EU-2/10 citizens living in other EU-2/10 Member 
States generally negligible) (Table A2). 

The average population shares of non-EU nationals and other EU-15 citizens resident 
in the EU-15 remain well above the population share of EU-10 and EU-2 nationals, 
even four years after the 2004 enlargement. 

In  almost  all  Member  States  the  number  of  recent  arrivals  from  non-EU  countries 
exceeds  the  number  of  newcomers  from  other  EU  Member  States.  The  only 
exceptions  are  Ireland  and  Luxembourg.  Moreover,  in  most  Member  States  the 
inflow  of  other  EU-15  nationals  has  been  larger  than  the  number  of  recent  arrivals 
from the EU-10 and EU-2. 

Ireland has been by far the largest receiving country of EU-10 nationals relative to its 
population size, with around 5% of its current working age population from the EU-
10,  followed  by  the  UK  (1.2%).  Austria  and  Luxembourg  also  have  a  significant 
proportion of recent EU-10 arrivals, albeit much fewer than in the UK and Ireland. In 
all other Member States the population share of recent EU-10 arrivals is very small, 
even in Sweden, which never applied restrictions to the free movement of workers, 
and in those Member States which have opened their labour markets since 2006. 

2.3.  Mobility flows from the sending countries’ perspective 

A  look  at  the  sending  countries  also  reveals  a  very  varied  picture,  with  “high-
mobility” and “low-mobility” countries amongst EU-2 and EU-10 Member States. 

The  recent  outflow  of  Romanian  citizens  to  other  EU  Member  States  over  the  past 
four  years  amounts  to  about  2.5%  of  the  Romanian  working  age  population  (Chart 
2).  In  Bulgaria  the  corresponding  mobility  rate  has  been  1.7%.  The  highest  recent 
mobility rate of all Member States is found in Lithuania, with 3.1% of Lithuanians 
having  moved  to  other  EU  Member  States  over  the  past  four  years,  followed  by 
Cyprus  (3%),  Poland  (2%)  and  Slovakia  (2%).  Although  still  substantial,  intra-EU 
mobility rates for Latvia and Estonia are significantly lower. Interestingly, Portugal 
also  has  a  significant  recent  intra-EU  mobility  rate  of  1.2%,  to  some  lesser  extent 
also Ireland and the Netherlands. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Czech  Republic  and  Hungary  have  rather  low  intra-EU 
mobility rates which are below or equal to that of many of the EU-15 Member States. 

9 

Most of the data group Malta and Cyprus together with the EU-8 Member States (as EU-10) to ensure 
comprehensive coverage of post enlargement developments. Due to the small numbers involved this has 
only a marginal impact on results. 

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For  Slovenia,  Malta  and  Luxembourg  the  numbers  involved  are  too  small  to  be 
statistically reliable. 

Taking  a  long-term  perspective  and  including  also  emigrants  who  left  their  home 
country  more  than  4  years  ago,  Portugal  and  Ireland  show  the  highest  share  of 
citizens living in another EU Member State (9% and 8.2% respectively). 

Chart  2:  Mobility  rates  by  sending  country  —  mobile  EU  citizens  living  in 
another EU Member State by years of residence (age group 15-64), 2007 (in % 
of working age population of country of citizenship) 

10.0

9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

LT CY RO PL SK BG LV PT EE IE NL CZ BE DK HU AT EL SE UK DE FR FI

IT ES

More than 4 years 1.3 3.5 4.1 1.1 0.7 2.8 0.6 7.8 1.6 7.5 1.3 0.7 1.7 1.0 0.7 1.8 2.8 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.7 1.9 1.4 0.6

4 years and less

3.1 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS; annual data.  

Note:  Figures  do  not  include  citizens  who  were  born  in  another  Member  State  and  continue  living 
there. Figures for LU, MT and SI too small to be reliable. 

2.4. 

Temporary mobility flows and postings 

A characteristic feature of post-enlargement  mobility  (and  recent  intra-EU  mobility 
in  general)  is  that  a  large  part  of  it  appears  to  be  temporary.  Evidence  from  some 
Member States indicates that many mobile workers go to another Member State for a 
few months or years but do not intend to stay forever. For example, data for the UK 
suggest that around half of the EU-8 citizens who have come to work in the UK since 
2004  may  have  already  left  the  country  again,  with  a  similar  picture  emerging  for 
Ireland10. 

The temporary posting of workers also forms an important element of the European 
mobility equation, with a significant number of posted workers coming from not only 
the new but also the EU-15 and EU-25 Member States (Charts A3/4). 

2.5. 

Trends in mobility flows 

A  further  surge  of  labour  mobility  from  the  new  Member  States  seems  unlikely. 
Mobility flows from the EU-10 to the UK and Ireland appear to have peaked in 2006 

10 

See footnote 3 and Pollard et al. (2008). 

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and have significantly declined in 2007 and the first quarter of 2008 (Charts A5/6). 
Moreover, there are indications of increased return migration of people living in the 
UK.11 Furthermore, the opening of labour markets for EU-8 workers in most of the 
other  EU-15  countries  since  2006  may  have  led  to  a  limited  diversion  of  mobility 
flows  to  some  other  Member  States,  but  the  most  recent  foreign  population  shares 
(Table A1 and A2) suggest that it has not unleashed a substantial additional inflow of 
workers from these Member States. 

Even in the case of Bulgaria and Romania, large numbers have already been moving 
from these countries and working in the EU over the past years, suggesting that many 
of  those  who  wanted  to  move  have  already  done  so  and  that  the  potential  for 
additional  emigration  is  limited.  Moreover,  all  of  the  main  EU  sending  countries 
have  seen  a  rapid  rise  in  incomes  and  decline  in  unemployment  over  recent  years 
(Charts A7/8). There is some evidence that this is already dampening the incentive to 
migrate and is likely to contribute to a further decline in labour supply from the EU-
2/10.12  In  addition,  due  to  a  substantially  shrinking  young  generation,  the  pool  of 
potentially mobile workers from the EU-2/10 is getting smaller and is likely to act as 
a brake on geographic labour mobility within the EU.  

In the wake of the current economic developments it is likely that a possible decline 
in  labour  demand  will  reduce  labour  flows  within  the  EU.  For  example,  the  recent 
economic slowdown in Ireland and the UK has already led to a substantial reduction 
in new entries, and in parallel to an increase in return migration. This is a sign that 
free  labour  mobility  provides  a  much  needed  flexibility  in  both  directions:  workers 
come  when  there  is  demand  for  labour  and  many  leave  again  when  employment 
conditions become less favourable.  

Examples  like  Sweden,  Finland,  Greece,  Portugal  (free  early  labour  market  access 
but  low  labour  inflows)  and  Germany  and  Austria  (restricted  access  but  relatively 
high  inflows)  suggest  that  restrictions  on  labour  market  access  have  only  a  limited 
influence  on  the  distribution  of  intra-EU  mobility.  Ultimately,  mobility  flows  are 
driven  by  other  factors  such  as  general  labour  demand,  network  effects  through 
existing  foreign  populations  or  language.  If  anything,  restrictions  on  labour  market 
access will only delay labour market adjustments. They may even exacerbate to the 
incidence  of  undeclared  work,  leading  to  undesired  social  consequences  both  for 
undeclared workers and the regular labour force, if not accompanied by appropriate 
enforcement of legislation13.  

The experience since 2004 suggests that lifting restrictions on labour market access 
reduces the likelihood of undeclared work by citizens from the new Member States. 
For example, it has been suggested that up to 40% of EU-8 workers registering for 
the workers registration scheme in 2004 may already have been in the country when 
the UK opened its labour markets.14 Reports from the Netherlands indicate that the 
incidence of illegal employment of EU-8 citizens working without permit decreased 
after the Netherlands decided to open its labour market in 2007.15 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

See Pollard et al. (2008). 
Ibid. 
See “Stepping up the fight against undeclared work” - COM(2007) 628, 24.10.2007. 
UK Home Office (2004). 
Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment of the Netherlands (2007). 

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3. 

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF INTRA-EU MOVERS 

3.1. 

Labour market status 

The  great  majority  of  recent  movers  from  Bulgaria,  Romania  and  the  EU-10  have 
come  to  work.  Data  for  200716  indicate  that  recent  arrivals  from  Bulgaria  and 
Romania  have  an  average  employment  rate  which  is  about  equal  to  the  average 
employment rate in the EU-15 and substantially higher than the overall employment 
rate  in  Romania  and  Bulgaria  (Chart  A9).  The  average  employment  rate  of  recent 
intra-EU movers from the EU-10 is even substantially higher. 

Average unemployment among recently arrived workers from Bulgaria and Romania 
to  the  EU-15  is  higher  than  the  EU-15  average  but  lower  than  that  among  recently 
arrived workers from non-EU countries. Average unemployment among recent EU-
10 movers is only slightly higher than the EU-15 average. 

The vast majority of EU-10/2 nationals who recently moved for work purposes are 
employed workers, with less than 10% being self-employed. 

3.2. 

Age and gender 

EU  mobile  workers  are  substantially  younger  than  the  overall  labour  forces  in  the 
sending and receiving countries. Close to 80% of recently arrived workers from the 
EU-10 and close to 70% from the EU-2 are younger than 35. 

Women seem on average slightly overrepresented among recent EU-2 movers, while 
the  gender  breakdown  of  recent  EU-10  movers  largely  corresponds  to  that  in  the 
labour forces of both the sending and receiving countries. 

3.3. 

Occupations, skills and sectors 

Recent  arrivals  from  Bulgaria  and  Romania  tend  to  work  predominantly  in 
agriculture,  construction,  hotels,  restaurants  and  in  private  households.  Recent 
arrivals from the EU-10 have mostly gone into manufacturing, construction, hotels, 
restaurants, business related services and private households (Table 3). 

Table 3: Employment by economic activity of total EU-15 workforce compared 
to recent movers from EU-10/2, 2007 (in % of total employment by group) 

Economic Activity
(Nace Rev.1)

total EU-15 workforce

recent EU-10 movers

recent EU-2 (BG/RO) 
movers

A Agriculture
B Fishing
C Mining and quarrying
D Manufacturing
E Electricity gas and water supply
F Construction
G Wholesale and retail trade
H Hotels and restaurants
I Transport storage and communication
J Financial intermediation
K Real estate renting and business activities
L Public administration
M Education
N Health and social work
O Other community social and personal service
P Private households
Q Extra-territorial organisations

3.1
0.1
0.2
17.5
0.7
8.3
14.3
4.6
6.1
3.3
10.6
7.4
7.1
10.7
4.9
1.3
0.1

2.3
:
:
25.3
:
13.2
12.1
13.3
7.7
:
9.4
:
2.0
6.3
4.0
2.1
:

7.1
0.0
:
10.0
:
28.4
6.3
13.2
(2.0)
:
6.4
:
:
3.1
(2.1)
19.4
:  

16 

Note  that  economic  conditions  in  a  number  of  Member  States  (e.g.  Spain  and  Ireland)  have  been 
deteriorating  most  recently,  with  possible  negative  effects  on  the  labour  market  performance  of  both 
national and foreign workers. 

EN 

10 

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Source: EU LFS, annual data.  

Note: Recent movers defined as EU-10/2 citizens resident 4 years and less in an EU-15 Member State 
- “:” - Figures too small to be reliable. Figures in brackets of limited reliability. For some activities 
(e.g. agriculture, construction, hotels and restaurants) the LFS may understate the number of persons 
employed due to underestimation of seasonal workers. 

Most  recent  arrivals  from  the  EU-10  work  in  jobs  that  tend  to  require  intermediate 
skills  and,  above  all,  in  low-skill  jobs,  with  rather  few  employed  in  high-skilled 
occupations. The proportion of recently mobile EU-2 workers among the high-skilled 
occupations  is  even  lower,  with  a  relatively  high  number  employed  in  crafts  and 
elementary jobs. 

Table 4: Occupation of total resident employment compared to employed recent 
EU-10/2 movers, 2007 (in % of total employment by group) 

Occupation
(ISCO-88)

total EU-15 
workforce

recent EU-10 
movers

recent EU-2 
(BG/RO) 
movers

High-skilled

Inter-mediate 

1 Legislators senior officials and managers
2 Professionals
3 Technicians and associate professionals
4 Clerks
5 Service workers and shop and market sales workers
6 Skilled agricultural and fishery workers
7 Craft and related trades workers
8 Plant and machine operators and assemblers

Low-skilled 9 Elementary occupations

Source: EU LFS, annual data.  

8.8
13.9
17.4
11.9
13.9
2.5
13.6
8.1
9.9

2.6
4.3
5.2
4.4
17.6
:
16.0
18.0
31.0

:
3.1
(2.4)
(2.0)
16.0
2.9
28.3
4.4
39.1

Note: Recent movers defined as EU-10/2 citizens resident 4 years and less in an EU-15 Member State 
- “:” - Figures too small to be reliable. Figures in brackets of limited reliability. For some occupations 
(e.g.  in  agriculture,  construction,  hotels  and  restaurants)  the  LFS  may  understate  the  number  of 
employed due to underestimation of seasonal workers. 

Overall, mobile workers from the EU-10/2 have made a positive contribution to the 
skill mix of the EU-15 labour force. The share of university educated recent EU-10/2 
movers  appears  to  be  only  moderately  lower  than  among  the  EU-15  labour  force. 
Moreover,  the  share  of  recent  EU-10/2  arrivals  with  a  medium  level  education  is 
higher  than  among  the  EU-15  labour  force,  while  the  share  of  low-skilled  recent 
arrivals  from  the  EU-2  is  not  higher  than  that  of  the  EU-15  labour  force,  and 
substantially  lower  in  the  case  of  EU-10  movers  (Chart  A9).  However,  comparing 
the  proportion  of  medium  and  highly-skilled  EU-10/2  workers  to  the  proportion  of 
those working in intermediate and low-skilled jobs suggests that not all of them are 
in employment commensurate with their skill levels. 

The  share  of  the  highly-skilled  among  recent  emigrants  is  on  average  somewhat 
higher  than  among  the  total  labour  force  of  their  home  countries.  However,  the 
percentage  of  medium-skilled  recent  movers  tends  to  be  lower  than  in  the  overall 
labour  force,  while  the  share  of  low-skilled  movers  is  relatively  higher.  In  general, 
these figures do not suggest a disproportionate loss of highly-skilled workers for the 
EU-10/2 countries. 

4. 

ECONOMIC, LABOUR MARKET AND SOCIAL IMPACTS 

4.1. 

Impact on growth, GDP per capita and inflation 

Mobility from the EU-10/2 has had a clearly positive impact on economic growth in 
the EU. One study estimates that additional mobility from the EU-8 during the 2004-
07 period boosted the aggregate GDP of the enlarged EU by about 0.17% in the short 

EN 

11 

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run  and  0.28%  in  the  long  run  (once  production  facilities  have  adjusted  to  the 
additional  labour  supply),  while  mobility  from  the  EU-2  increased  the  GDP  of  the 
enlarged EU by 0.15% in the short run and by 0.27% in the long run over the same 
period.17  The  same  study  finds  an  almost  neutral  impact  on  GDP  per  capita  in  the 
receiving countries in the short run and a slightly positive impact in the longer run. 
Other studies tend to confirm the positive effect on overall GDP and moderate effects 
on GDP per capita.18 

In  addition,  research  shows  that  labour  mobility  from  the  new  Member  States  has 
helped  to  reduce  inflationary  pressures  in  most  receiving  countries,  although  it  is 
contributing to a (temporary) increase in inflation in the main sending countries.19  

4.2. 

Impact on public finances, welfare systems and public services 

Although  there  are  variations  across  different  functions  of  the  welfare  state  and 
levels  of  government,  the  impact  of  recent  migration  and  mobility  flows  on  public 
finances  and  the  welfare  state  (including  its  financing)  is  negligible  or  positive  at 
national level. For example, data for the UK show that only a very small number of 
EU-8  nationals  claim  tax-funded  benefits  or  housing  support.20  Migration  and 
mobility  flows  have  in  some  cases  created  pressure  on  the  provision  of  education, 
housing and health care services at the local level.21 

4.3. 

Impact on wages and employment 

Practically  all  available  research  finds  little  impact  of  post-enlargement  labour 
mobility  on  wages  and  employment  of  local  workers  and  no  indication  of  serious 
labour  market  imbalances  through  intra-EU  mobility,  even  in  those  Member  States 
with the biggest inflows. 

For example, one study finds that that wages in the EU-15 are on average only 0.08% 
lower in the short run than they would have been without additional mobility from 
the  EU-8,  with  no  impact  at  all  in  the  long  run.  The  short-run  impact  on 
unemployment  is  also  found  to  be  marginal,  with  an  estimated  increase  of  the 
average  EU-15  unemployment  rate  of  only  0.04  percentage  points  in  the  short  run 
and a neutral effect in the longer run due to the inflow of EU-8 workers and a similar 
moderate  effect  concerning  EU-2  mobility.22  Even  when  taking  into  account 
differences in worker's qualifications, impacts tend to be moderate across the range 
of  different  skill  groups.  The  moderate  impact  on  wages  and  employment  is 
confirmed by a range of recent studies.23  

It  should  be  stressed  that  these  are  the  isolated  effects  of  mobility,  not  taking  into 
account  other  factors  that  have  an  impact  on  wages  and  employment.  Data  for  the 
main European destination countries indicate that nominal gross wages and salaries 
have  largely  kept  increasing  and  unemployment  mostly  declining,  even  at  the  low-
skill end of the labour market and in sectors which have seen a relatively high inflow 
of workers from other Member States (Charts A10/11/12 and footnote 3). 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 

See Brücker et al. (2008). 
See e.g. Barrel et al. (2007). 
See e.g. Barrel et al. (2007) and Blanchflower et al. (2007). 
See UK Home Office (2008). 
See for a brief overview footnote 3. 
See footnote 17. 
See e.g. Longhi et al. (2004 and 2008), Lemos and Portes (2008), Blanchflower et al. (2008), Doyle et 
al. (2006), Pajares (2007), Baas et al. (2007), BMWI (2007), Prettner and Stiglbauer (2007). 

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12 

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4.4. 

Remittances 

Remittances  by  workers  living  abroad  can  be a  substantial  source  of  income  in  the 
sending country and help to drive economic growth by supporting aggregate demand 
and financing investment in education or the start-up of capital-intensive businesses. 
Remittances data suggest that they make a significant contribution to GDP in several 
EU  Member  States,  in  particular  Poland,  the  Baltic  States,  and  above  all  Romania 
and Bulgaria (Chart A13). 

4.5. 

Brain drain and labour shortages in the sending countries 

In  a  number  of  countries,  the  emigration  of  mostly  younger  workers  has  sparked 
concerns over brain drain and labour shortages. Several reports indeed indicate that 
emigration  has  contributed  to  labour  shortages  in  some  countries,  e.g.  the  Baltic 
States and Poland. 

However, in many countries labour shortages have been aggravated by factors other 
than  emigration,  such  as  strong  economic  growth,  relatively  low  labour  market 
participation, in particular of younger and older persons, and low internal mobility. 
Moreover,  labour  shortages  affect  mostly  specific  sectors  of  the  economy  (e.g. 
construction, hotels and restaurants) and professions (e.g. health care). Furthermore, 
the differences in the skill-mix between emigrants and the sending countries’ labour 
forces  seem  to  be  relatively  moderate,  thus  suggesting  that  the  overall  brain  drain 
may be limited. There is also evidence that enrolment rates for tertiary education in 
the EU-10/2 have substantially accelerated over the past years, which may begin to 
compensate the outflow of skilled labour.24  

4.6. 

Social impacts 

There  is  evidence  of  differences  between  the  living  conditions  of  newcomers  and 
host  country  nationals  (including  higher  risks  of  poverty,  poorer  educational 
attainment for their children, difficulties in accessing housing, health care and other 
social services), but no comprehensive assessment of income and living conditions of 
workers, specifically from Bulgaria and Romania, who moved to other EU countries 
after  1  January  2007  is  available  yet.  There  have  been  reports  from  some  sending 
countries on negative impacts on family cohesion and children as a consequence of 
one or both parents working abroad.25 

5. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Workers from Bulgaria, Romania and the EU-10 Member States have helped to meet 
higher demand for labour in the receiving countries and have thus made a significant 
contribution  to  sustained  economic  growth.  Evidence  at  hand  suggests  that  post-
enlargement  intra-EU  mobility  has  not  led  —  and  is  unlikely  to  lead  —  to  serious 
labour market disturbances.  

Moreover,  there  are  indications  that  mobility  flows  from  the  EU-2  and  EU-8  may 
have  peaked  already  and  that  much  of  recent  intra-EU  mobility  has  been  of  a 
temporary  nature.  Rapidly  rising  income  levels  and  labour  demand  in  the  sending 
countries,  coupled  with  falling  numbers  of  young  people  most  likely  to  emigrate, 

24 
25 

See footnote 3 and Brücker et al. (2008). 
For a brief overview see footnote 3. 

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13 

   EN 

                                                 
appear to be reducing labour flows and are likely to lead to a further decline in labour 
supply from within the EU. 

In addition, the volume and direction of mobility flows are driven rather by general 
labour  supply  and  demand  and  other  factors  than  by  restrictions  on  labour  market 
access.  On  top  of  that,  restrictions  may  delay  labour  market  adjustments  and  even 
exacerbate  the  incidence  of  undeclared  work.  Alternative  solutions  may  be  a  more 
efficient way of addressing concerns that opening up labour markets creates "losers" 
among  the  resident  population,  e.g.  gearing  labour  market  policies  to  bringing  the 
unemployed (in particular low-skilled workers) back into work. 

This  is  not  to  say  that  there  have  been  no  economic  and  social  costs  involved. 
However, experience suggests that instead of restricting labour market access for EU 
nationals, alternative solutions are a better and more effective way to address these 
costs.  In  particular,  any  impacts  on  public  services,  housing,  social  cohesion, 
exploitation or undeclared work certainly need to be addressed. Having unfavourable 
conditions  for  mobile  workers  to  integrate  into  the  host  society  can  result  in  social 
difficulties  and  in  wasting  the  economic  benefits  of  mobility.  The  Commission 
recommends that Member States develop integration and social inclusion policies for 
mobile  workers  and  their  families,  using  existing  EU  measures  and  tools,  e.g.  on 
cultural,  linguistic  and  schooling  policies  and  on  anti-discrimination  and  skills 
recognition.  

Problems for the sending countries arising from brain drain and labour shortages may 
be  addressed  by,  for  instance,  measures  to  increase  general  labour  market 
participation,  further  improvements  to  education  and  vocational  training,  good 
conditions  for  public  sector  workers,  incentives  for  return  migration  or  facilitating 
both internal labour mobility and immigration from outside the EU. 

The Commission concludes that the overall impact of post-enlargement mobility has 
been  positive.  It  trusts  that  this  communication  and  its  supporting  material  will 
provide Member States with the necessary information to review their positions for 
the second period of the transitional arrangements of Bulgaria and Romania. 

Moreover,  freedom  of  movement  of  workers  is  one  of  the  fundamental  freedoms 
under the EC Treaty. It makes a positive contribution to labour markets throughout 
Europe and as such represents a key element of the European Employment Strategy 
to  which  all  Member  States  have  subscribed.  At  the  same  time,  it  represents  a 
powerful and positive symbol of what Europe means for the individual EU citizen. 

To this effect Member States declared, when they signed the Accession Treaties, that 
they  would  move  as  swiftly  as  possible  to  the  full  application  of  the  acquis  in  this 
area. Whatever decision is taken at this stage, Member States need to prepare to open 
their labour markets, so as to fulfil their commitments under the treaties. 

The Commission believes that moving towards full free movement of workers in the 
EU is a strong political signal, particularly at the occasion of the fifth anniversary of 
the  2004  enlargement.  Therefore,  the  Commission  calls  upon  Member  States  to 
consider  whether  they  need  to  continue  applying  restrictions  in  the  light  of  the 
situation of their labour markets, notwithstanding their rights set out in the Treaties 
of  Accession  concerning  transitional  arrangements.  The  Commission  recommends 
that the social partners be fully involved in the preparation of these decisions. 

In  light  of  current  economic  developments  and  their  possible  impact  on  the  labour 
market situation, experience shows that cross-border labour mobility tends to be self-

EN 

14 

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regulating and decline in times of economic downturns. The Commission recalls that 
the Accession Treaties contain a safeguard clause which allows Member States that 
apply EC law on free movement of workers to later apply for the reintroduction of 
restrictions if they undergo or foresee disturbances on their labour markets. 

Furthermore,  the  Commission  recalls  that,  according  to  the  Accession  Treaty,  a 
Member  State  maintaining  national  measures  restricting  the  free  movement  of 
workers  at  the  end  of  the  five  year  period  following  the  date  of  accession  may,  in 
case of serious disturbances of its labour market or threat thereof, continue to apply 
these measures until the end of the seven year period following the same date, after 
notifying the Commission. The Commission will then fulfil its role as guardian of the 
Treaties based on the evidence provided by the Member States. 

EN 

15 

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ANNEX 1: Statistical Annex 

EN 

16 

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Table A1: Share of foreign nationals resident in the EU-27 by broad group of citizenship, 2003 – 07 (% of total population) 

Resident foreign nationals from …

Host 
country

2003

EU-15 Member States
2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

EU-10 Member States
2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

EU-2 Member States (BG/RO)
2006

2005

2004

2007

2003

Non-EU-27 countries
2004

2005

2006

2007

% ot total resident population

4.8
1.0
2.2
3.5
0.2
1.3
1.8
0.2
34.0
1.3
1.6
0.4
0.4
2.1
1.6
1.6
0.1
:
:
0.1
:
0.1
1.4
:
0.1
0.1
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
1.3

5.0
1.2
2.2
3.9
0.2
2.4
1.8
0.3
37.3
1.4
2.1
0.4
0.4
2.1
1.6
1.7
0.2
:
5.4
0.1
0.1
0.2
1.0
0.0
0.5
0.3
0.2
:
0.0
0.0
1.4

5.2
1.1
2.0
3.8
0.3
1.7
1.6
0.2
36.2
1.3
1.8
0.4
0.4
2.1
1.7
1.6
0.2
:
5.6
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.9
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
:
0.0
0.0
1.3

4.9
1.1
2.2
3.9
0.3
2.2
1.7
0.3
35.6
1.3
1.9
0.4
0.4
2.1
1.6
1.7
0.2
:
5.9
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.8
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
:
0.0
0.0
1.3

5.2
1.1
2.0
3.5
0.2
1.5
1.8
0.2
34.0
1.3
1.7
0.4
0.4
2.1
1.6
1.6
0.1
:
5.8
0.1
0.0
0.1
1.3
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
1.3

0.2
BE 1)
0.0
DK 2)
0.1
DE 3)
:
IE 4)
0.5
EL 1)
1.5
ES 3)
0.0
FR 1)
0.6
IT 2)
:
LU 1)
0.0
NL 3)
0.4
AT 2)
0.1
PT 1)
0.0
FI 2)
0.0
SE 3)
0.1
UK 1)
0.3
EU-15 6)
0.1
CZ 3)
:
EE 1)
0.7
CY 1)
0.0
LV 3)
0.0
LT 3)
0.7
HU 3)
:
MT 5)
:
PL 1)
0.0
SI 3)
0.0
SK 3)
0.1
EU-10 6)
:
BG 1)
0.0
RO 3)
0.0
EU-2 6)
0.3
EU-27 6)
Sources: Eurostat EU LFS, Eurostat population statistics, national data sources, DG Employment estimates. “:” figures too small to be reliable or not available.  
Note: Choice of data sources according to data availability for individual countries. — For population statistics end of year data, for LFS 4th quarter data. — Figures not fully comparable between Member States 
due to the use of different sources. — Data from the LFS should be treated with some caution due to limitations of the survey with regard to foreign populations, in particular concerning coverage of very recent 
migrants and collective households, relative levels of non-response and small sample sizes. — 1) EU LFS quarterly data, 4th quarter. — 2) National and Eurostat population statistics. — 3) Eurostat population 
statistics, 2007 DG Employment estimate. — 4) CSO Ireland, Quarterly national household survey, 4th quarter; for 2003 3rd quarter 2004; Nationals from BG and RO included under non-EU-27 nationals until 
2006 and under EU-10 nationals in 2007. — 5) EU LFS quarterly data, 4th quarter. EU-10 and EU-2 nationals included under non-EU-27. — 6) EU totals and sub-totals are only of an indicative nature as they are 
the sum of country values that stem from different sources; EU totals and sub-totals include country data which are not shown individually due to small sample size. 

2.1
3.7
5.8
3.0
3.7
4.6
2.8
2.8
3.4
2.2
6.5
1.8
1.3
2.9
2.9
3.7
1.2
18.3
:
22.0
:
0.6
0.8
:
2.2
0.3
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.2

2.5
3.6
6.1
3.2
4.1
5.3
2.9
3.3
3.8
2.2
6.5
2.0
1.4
2.9
3.2
4.0
1.8
18.1
4.8
21.1
0.6
0.6
1.4
0.1
2.1
0.2
1.6
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.4

2.4
3.5
5.4
3.1
4.2
6.1
2.9
3.6
3.0
2.2
6.6
2.3
1.4
2.8
3.3
4.0
1.6
16.2
4.7
19.7
0.7
0.6
1.5
0.1
2.3
0.2
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.4

2.4
3.6
5.7
3.5
4.3
6.4
2.8
3.9
3.3
2.1
6.5
2.2
1.5
2.6
3.6
4.2
1.8
15.6
4.8
18.7
0.6
0.7
1.3
0.1
2.5
0.2
1.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.5

0.2
0.1
0.1
:
0.5
1.9
0.1
1.1
:
0.0
0.4
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.5
0.1
:
1.7
:
0.0
0.7
:
:
:
0.0
0.1
:
:
:
0.4

0.0
0.0
0.2
:
0.3
0.6
0.0
0.3
:
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
:
:
0.0
:
0.6
:
:
0.0
0.1
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

0.1
0.2
0.6
1.0
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
:
0.1
0.7
:
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
:
:
0.1
:
0.1
:
:
0.0
0.2
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

0.1
0.2
0.5
1.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
:
0.1
0.8
:
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
:
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
:
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

0.2
0.2
0.6
2.8
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
:
0.1
0.9
:
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.7
:
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.3

0.2
0.3
0.7
4.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.6
0.2
1.0
:
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.8
:
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
:
0.0
0.0
0.4

0.2
0.4
0.7
5.8
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.8
0.2
1.1
:
0.5
0.5
1.1
0.5
0.8
:
0.3
0.4
0.0
0.1
:
0.0
:
0.2
0.2
:
:
:
0.4

0.1
0.0
0.1
:
0.4
1.1
0.0
0.5
:
0.0
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.1
:
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.7
:
:
0.0
0.0
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

0.1
0.0
0.1
:
0.4
0.9
0.0
0.5
:
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
:
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.7
:
:
0.0
0.0
0.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

2.8
3.7
5.8
3.7
4.9
7.2
3.1
4.2
3.4
2.2
6.5
2.7
1.6
2.6
3.9
4.5
2.0
16.2
5.7
16.4
0.7
0.6
0.9
0.1
6.3
0.1
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.8

EN 

17 

EN 

 
  
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
        
        
        
        
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
         
          
         
        
        
        
        
        
         
         
        
        
        
        
        
        
         
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
        
        
        
        
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
        
        
        
        
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
         
          
         
        
        
        
        
        
         
         
        
        
        
        
        
        
         
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
         
          
         
        
        
        
        
        
         
        
        
        
        
        
         
          
          
        
         
          
         
        
        
        
        
        
         
         
        
        
        
        
        
        
         
          
          
 
Table A2: Number of foreign nationals resident in the EU-27 by broad group of citizenship, 2003 – 07 (in 1 000) 

Resident foreign nationals from …

Host 
country

2003

EU-15 Member States
2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

EU-10 Member States
2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

1,000 persons

BE 1)
DK 2)
DE 3)
IE 4)
EL 1)
ES 3)
FR 1)
IT 2)
LU 1)
NL 3)
AT 2)
PT 1)
FI 2)
SE 3)
UK 1)
EU-15 6)
CZ 3)
EE 1)
CY 1)
LV 3)
LT 3)
HU 3)
MT 5)
PL 1)
SI 3)
SK 3)
EU-10 6)
BG 1)
RO 3)
EU-2 6)
EU-27 6)

494
56
1,850
111
19
536
1,035
134
154
211
127
38
19
186
935
5,906
13
:
:
1
:
12
6
:
1
3
37
:
5
6
5,949

539
57
1,660
112
24
644
1,074
138
155
210
138
45
19
186
913
5,913
15
:
42
2
1
10
5
10
1
3
90
:
5
6
6,009

545
59
1,654
127
27
765
954
143
163
210
150
37
20
186
978
6,018
19
:
41
2
1
18
4
17
2
5
110
:
5
6
6,135

523
63
1,783
132
28
982
1,050
149
163
211
162
40
21
188
940
6,435
24
:
44
2
1
25
3
12
2
7
122
:
5
5
6,563

533
68
1,773
136
26
1,068
1,116
158
173
229
175
41
22
196
934
6,648
17
:
41
2
2
20
4
10
9
18
123
:
5
6
6,777

13
10
482
31
25
42
40
56
:
13
60
:
16
21
112
923
50
:
:
3
:
5
:
:
0
9
70
:
0
0
995

15
11
440
44
32
56
45
69
:
18
69
:
17
23
168
1,005
51
:
1
3
1
4
:
1
0
8
70
:
0
0
1,077

17
13
483
94
29
71
38
81
:
23
77
:
18
27
281
1,253
68
:
2
4
1
7
:
2
1
9
95
:
0
1
1,351

19
16
564
148
29
103
39
95
3
29
84
:
21
34
479
1,664
78
:
3
4
1
8
:
3
1
11
111
:
0
1
1,777

23
22
600
203
34
150
39
118
4
36
90
:
24
44
662
2,048
85
:
2
9
1
5
:
2
:
12
118
:
:
:
2,166

4
2
133
:
32
252
20
189
:
4
27
10
1
3
13
691
6
:
:
0
:
57
:
:
0
3
66
:
0
0
757

EU-2 Member States (BG/RO)
2006

2005

2004

6
2
113
:
41
371
14
264
:
5
28
8
1
3
21
877
6
:
4
0
0
69
:
:
0
1
81
:
0
0
959

10
2
112
:
47
490
14
315
:
5
30
13
1
3
28
1,070
7
:
5
0
0
67
:
:
0
1
81
:
0
0
1,152

16
2
120
:
48
664
29
362
:
5
30
14
1
3
35
1,330
7
:
5
0
0
68
:
:
0
1
82
:
0
0
1,413

2007

2003

Non-EU-27 countries
2004

2005

2006

2007

19
3
119
:
56
843
36
659
:
4
37
27
1
2
37
1,845
7
:
13
:
0
69
:
:
:
1
90
:
:
:
1,935

220
199
4,802
98
396
1,925
1,675
1,611
15
363
531
185
70
259
1,707
14,055
126
246
:
510
:
56
3
:
43
15
999
10
19
30
15,083

260
194
5,017
105
436
2,300
1,696
1,931
17
363
537
213
71
261
1,857
15,257
182
244
35
487
22
61
5
16
43
10
1,106
9
19
28
16,392

250
192
4,448
105
450
2,676
1,729
2,131
14
356
542
241
74
256
1,947
15,410
164
217
35
451
22
63
6
20
46
10
1,036
10
20
30
16,475

254
193
4,725
121
461
2,856
1,691
2,332
15
348
536
236
78
241
2,123
16,209
186
209
35
426
21
66
5
49
51
13
1,062
8
20
28
17,299

303
202
4,741
129
522
3,240
1,889
2,498
16
365
539
283
84
241
2,271
17,322
208
216
43
372
24
57
4
37
127
5
1,093
9
20
29
18,445

Sources: Eurostat EU LFS, Eurostat population statistics, national data sources, DG Employment estimates. “:” figures too small to be reliable or not available.  
Note: Choice of data sources according to data availability for individual countries. — For population statistics end of year data, for LFS 4th quarter data. — Figures not fully comparable between Member States 
due to the use of different sources. — Data from the LFS should be treated with some caution due to limitations of the survey with regard to foreign populations, in particular concerning coverage of very recent 
migrants and collective households, relative levels of non-response and small sample sizes. — 1) EU LFS quarterly data, 4th quarter. — 2) National and Eurostat population statistics. — 3) Eurostat population 
statistics, 2007 DG Employment estimate. — 4) CSO Ireland, Quarterly national household survey, 4th quarter; for 2003 3rd quarter 2004; Nationals from BG and RO included under non-EU-27 nationals until 
2006 and under EU-10 nationals in 2007. — 5) EU LFS quarterly data, 4th quarter. EU-10 and EU-2 nationals included under non-EU-27. — 6) EU totals and sub-totals are only of an indicative nature as they are 
the sum of country values that stem from different sources; EU totals and sub-totals include country data which are not shown individually due to small sample size. 

EN 

18 

EN 

 
  
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
         
         
         
         
         
      
      
      
      
      
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
      
      
      
      
      
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
         
         
           
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
      
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
         
      
      
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
      
      
      
      
      
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
      
      
      
      
      
         
         
         
         
         
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
           
      
      
      
      
      
    
     
      
     
    
       
    
    
    
    
        
       
    
    
    
  
  
  
    
    
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
         
         
         
         
         
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
         
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
           
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
             
         
          
         
        
       
         
         
         
       
        
          
         
         
         
         
       
    
    
      
      
           
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
           
           
           
           
           
            
             
            
           
           
           
           
           
            
           
           
           
         
         
          
           
           
    
     
      
     
    
       
    
    
    
    
        
       
    
    
    
  
  
  
    
    
 
Chart  A1:  Foreign  residents  in  the  EU,  2003  –  07  (in  %  of  total  resident 
population) 

Foreign citizens 

EU-15

EU-10

EU-2 (BG/RO)

non-EU-27 countries

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

-

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

resident in EU-15

resident in EU-10

resident in EU-2 (BG/RO)

Sources:  Eurostat  EU  LFS,  Eurostat  population  statistics,  national  data  sources,  DG  Employment 
estimates.  
Note: see note to Table A1 

Chart A2: Population share of EU citizens resident in another Member State by 
broad group of citizenship, 2007 (% of resident population) 

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

EU-
27

EU-
15

EU-
10

EU-
2

LU IE CY BE ES AT DE UK SE FR DK NL

IT

EL CZ MT HU FI

PT SK LV SI

LT PL RO

EU-15  1.4   1.7   0.2   0.0 

 37   3.9   5.4   5.0   2.4   2.1   2.2   1.6   2.1   1.8 

 1.2   1.4   0.3   0.2 

 0.2   1.0   0.2   0.4   0.4   0.3   0.1   0.5   0.1   0.0   0.0 

EU-2

 0.4   0.5   0.1 

EU-10  0.4   0.5   0.2 

 1.7   0.2   1.9   0.4   0.1   0.1   0.0   0.1 

 0.1   0.0   1.1   0.5 

 0.1 

 0.7   0.0   0.3   0.0 

 0.0 

 0.8   5.8   0.3   0.2   0.3   1.1   0.7   1.1   0.5   0.1 

 0.4   0.2   0.2   0.3 

 0.8 

 0.1   0.5 

 0.2   0.4 

 0.0   0.0 

Sources:  Eurostat  EU  LFS,  Eurostat  population  statistics,  national  data  sources,  DG  Employment 
estimates.  
Note: Luxembourg off scale. — Empty cells: figures too small to be reliable or not available. — For 
further notes see Table A1. 

EN 

19 

   EN 

 
 
Table  A3:  Share  of  recently  arrived  foreign  nationals  among  the  total  labour 
force (age group 15-64), 2007 

Host country

EU-15 Member States

EU-10 Member States

EU-2 Member States

Non-EU-27 countries

Active working age foreign nationals resident 4 years and less from …

in % of total active working age population

BE
DK
DE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
LU
NL
AT
PT
FI
SE
UK
CZ
EE
CY
LV
LT
HU
MT
PL
SI
SK
BG
RO

EU-15

EU-10

EU-2

EU-27

0.7
0.2
0.2
1.8
:
0.3
0.4
0.0
6.6
0.2
0.8
:
:
0.3
0.5
0.0
:
1.2
:
:
:
:
:
:
0.0
0.0
:
0.2

0.1
(0.1)
0.1
6.3
:
0.0
(0.0)
0.1
(0.6)
(0.0)
0.4
:
:
0.1
1.4
0.3
0.0
(0.3)
:
:
:
0.0
:
:
:
0.0
0.0
0.2

(0.1)
:
0.0
(0.2)
0.2
0.9
(0.0)
0.3
:
:
0.2
0.1
0.0
:
0.0
:
0.0
1.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2

0.7
0.6
0.4
1.8
0.7
2.6
0.6
0.8
(0.6)
0.2
1.3
0.8
(0.2)
0.7
1.5
0.1
:
4.9
:
:
(0.1)
:
:
(0.1)
0.0
:
:
0.8

Sources: Eurostat EU LFS, annual data 2007. 

Note: ":" – figures too small to be reliable. Any possible discrepancies with population data shown in 
tables A1 and A2 due to differences in data sources (e.g. age coverage, reference date, activity status). 

EN 

20 

   EN 

 
 
Chart A3: Posted workers by sending country, 2006 (in 1 000) 

198 194

s
d
n
a
s
u
o
h
T

80

60

40

20

0

PL DE BE LU UK NL PT CZ HU DK SK AT SE SI EE CH FI LT IE LV IT NO EL CY IS MT LI

('000) 198 194 64 50 47 36 26 22 21 18 17 11 9.6 9

8

7

6

3

3

2

2

1

1

1

0

0

0

Reporting countries

Source: Administrative data from EU Member States, EEA (IS, LI, NO) and CH on E101 social security forms issued to 
w orkers for postings to EU-25, EEA and CH. 2006 data not received from BG, ES FR, RO. 
Notes: Data include E101 forms issued for multiple destinations and international transport. Figures from UK relate to April 
2006 to March 2007. Figures from CZ estimated.

Chart  A4:  Posted  workers  from  the  EU-15  and  EU-10  by  receiving  country, 
2006 (in 1 000) 

s
d
n
a
s
u
o
h
T

160

120

80

40

0

DE FR B E NL LU ES NO A T IT UK SE DK CH FI CZ EL P L IE HU SK P T LT IS SI EE LV CY

fro m EU-10 133 26 17 14
fro m EU-15 24 102 71 56 37 27 19

12

6

1

7

6

18 13

5

10

7

8

6

7

1 10

11

2

6

3

1

4

1

4

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

Destination countries

M
T

1

0

LI

1

0

Source: Administrative data from EU Member States, EEA (IS, LI, NO) and CH on E101 social security forms issued to 
w orkers for postings to EU-25, EEA and CH. 2006 data not received from BG, ES FR, RO. 
Notes: Figures from CH not included, because not disaggregated by destination country. BG and RO excluded as receiving 
countries, because most countries did not supply figures. Figures from UK relate to April 2006 to March 2007. Not all figures 
from EL included (some data not disaggregated by destination country). Figures from CY relate to January to October 2006. 
Figures from CZ estimated.

EN 

21 

   EN 

 
 
 
Chart A5: Inflow of EU-8 labour migrants to the UK  

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

Other EU-8

LT

SK

PL

3
Q

4
Q

2
Q
4
0
0
2

1
Q
5
0
0
2

2
Q

3
Q

4
Q

1
Q
6
0
0
2

2
Q

3
Q

4
Q

2
Q

3
Q

4
Q

1
Q
7
0
0
2

1
Q
8
0
0
2

Source:  UK  Home  Office,  Accession  Monitoring  Reports.  Approved  applicants  to  the  workers 
registration scheme.  

Chart A6: Inflows from EU-10 and BG/RO to Ireland 

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

BG

RO

Other EU-10

SK

LV

LT

PL

2
q

4
0
0
2

3
q

4
q

1
q

5
0
0
2

2
q

3
q

4
q

1
q

6
0
0
2

2
q

3
q

4
q

1
q

7
0
0
2

2
q

3
q

4
q

1
q

8
0
0
2

Source:  Irish  Department  of  Social  and  Family  Affairs,  number  of  issued  Personal  Public  Service 
Numbers. 

EN 

22 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chart A7: Convergence of GNI per capita in PPS, 2000–07 

EU-10

EU-2

0
0
1

=

5
1
U
E

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Source: Eurostat, Annual National Accounts

Chart A8: Unemployment rates in the EU, 2000 and 2007 

2007

2000

%

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

L
N

K
D

Y
C

T
L

T
A

E

I

E
E

I

U S
L

Z
C

K
U

V
L

T

I

E
S

T
M

O
R

I

G F
B

U
H

E
B

T
P

L
E

S
E

R
F

E
D

L
P

K
S

5
1
-

U
E

7
2
-

U
E

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS, harmonized unemployment rates, yearly averages

EN 

23 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Chart A9: Socio-economic breakdown of recent movers from the EU-2/10to the 
EU-15 (age group 15-64), 2007 (% of total per variable and group) 

total EU-15 population

recent EU-10 movers 

recent EU-2 (BG/RO) movers

100%

90%
80%

70%
60%

50%

40%
30%

20%
10%

0%

d
e
y
o
p
m
E

l

l

d
e
y
o
p
m
e
n
U

e
v
i
t
c
a
n
I

l

e
a
M

e
e
y
o
p
m
E

l

-
f
l
e
S

d
e
y
o
p
m
e

l

l

e
a
m
e
F

4
2
-
5
1

4
3
-
5
2

4
5
-
5
3

4
6
-
5
5

w
o
L

h
g
H

i

i

m
u
d
e
M

Labour market
status

Prof. status Gender

Age

Educational
attainment

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS, annual data.  

Note: Recent movers defined as persons resident 4 years or less in their EU-15 host country. Data on 
professional status, gender, age and educational attainment refer to active population aged 15-64, data 
on  labour  market  status  refer  to  total  population  aged  15-64.  Data  for  the  UK  on  educational 
attainment  not  included  in  the  calculation  due  to  problems  with  UK  data  concerning  this  variable.

EN 

24 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Chart  A10:  Development  of  hourly  gross  wages  and  salaries  in  industry  and 
services (excluding public administration) in major receiving countries, 2000 to 
2008 (2000 = 100) 

0
0
1

=

0
0
0
2

e
g
a
r
e
v
a

l

a
u
n
n
a

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

1
0
q
0
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
1
0
0
2

1
0
q
2
0
0
2

1
0
q
3
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
4
0
0
2

1
0
q
5
0
0
2

1
0
q
6
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
7
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
8
0
0
2

Source: Eurostat, Quarterly labour cost index - wages and salaries, 
working day and seasonally adjusted.

Chart A11: Overall unemployment rates in the main EU-15 receiving countries, 
2000-2008 

e
c
r
o
f

r
u
o
b
a

l

f
o
%

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

1
0
q
0
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
1
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
2
0
0
2

1
0
q
3
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
4
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
5
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
6
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
7
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

1
0
q
8
0
0
2

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS, quarterly adjusted series, seasonally adjusted.

DE

IE

ES

IT

AT

UK

DE

IE

ES

IT

AT

UK

EN 

25 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DE

IE

ES

IT

AT

UK

Chart  A12:  Overall  employment  rates  in  the  main  EU-15  receiving  countries, 
2000-2008 

75

70

65

n
o

i
t

l

a
u
p
o
p

60

f

o
%

55

50

1
0
q
0
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

1
0
q
1
0
0
2

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

1
0
q
2
0
0
2

3
0
q

4
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

1
0
q
3
0
0
2

1
0
q
4
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

3
0
q

4
0
q

2
0
q

1
0
q
5
0
0
2

3
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
6
0
0
2

2
0
q

3
0
q

1
0
q
7
0
0
2

2
0
q

4
0
q

1
0
q
8
0
0
2

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS, quarterly adjusted series.

Chart A13: Workers’ remittances (incl. compensation of employees) as a share 
of GDP, 2006 (%) 

6%

5%

4%

3%

2%

1%

0%

RO BG LU EE LV LT BE PT PL CZ SK SI ES EL MT FR NL FI HU DK UK IE DE IT SE

Source: World Bank, Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008
Note: Malta 2005 data

EN 

26 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Annex 2: References 

Baas,  T.,  H.  Brücker  and  E.  Hönekopp  (2007),  EU-Osterweiterung,  Beachtliche 
Gewinne für die deutsche Volkswirtschaft, IAB Kurzbericht Nr. 6.  

Barrell,  R.,  J.  Fitz  Gerald  and  R.  Riley  (2007),  EU  enlargement  and  migration: 
assessing the macroeconomic impacts, NIESR Discussion Paper No 292. 

Blanchflower,  D.,  Saleheen,  J.,  Shadforth,  C.  (2007),  The  Impact  of  the  Recent 
Migration  from  Eastern  Europe  on  the  UK  Economy,  IZA  Discussion  Paper,  No 
2615.  

BMWI (2007), Auswirkung der EU-Erweiterung auf Wachstum und Beschäftigung in 
Deutschland  und  ausgewählte  Mitgliedstaaten.  Bisherige  Erfahrungen  und  künftige 
Entwicklungen  unter  besonderer  Berücksichtigung  der  EU-Beitritte  Bulgariens  und 
Rumäniens.  Untersuchung  im  Auftrag  des  Bundesministeriums  für  Wirtschaft  und 
Technologie (BMWI), Projekt 33/05.  

Brücker,  H.  et  al.  (2008),  Labour  mobility  within  the  EU  in  the  context  of 
enlargement and the functioning of the transitional arrangements, forthcoming. 

Doyle,  N.,  G.  Hughes  and  E.  Wadensjö  (2006),  Freedom  of  movement  for  workers 
from  Central  and  Eastern  Europe:  experiences  in  Ireland  and  Sweden,  SIEPS 
2006:5. 

European  Commission  (2008):  Geographic  Mobility  in  the  context  of  EU 
enlargement, in: Employment in Europe 2008 report, Chapter3.  

European Commission (2006), Communication from the Commission to the Council, 
the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the 
Committee  of 
the  Regions,  Report  on  the  functioning  of  the  transitional 
arrangements  set  out  in  the  2003  Accession  Treaty  (period  1  May  2004–30  April 
2006), Luxembourg, COM(2006) 48 final. 

Longhi,  S.,  Nijkamp,  P.  and  Poot,  J  (2004),  A  Meta-Analytic  Assessment  of  the 
Effect  of  Immigration  on  Wages,  Tinbergen  Institute  Discussion  Paper,  TI  2004-
134/3. 

Lemos,  S.  and  J.  Portes  (2008),  The  impact  of  migration  from  the  new  European 
Union Member States on native workers.  

Longhi,  S.,  Nijkamp,  P.  and  Poot,  J  (2006),  The  Impact  of  Immigration  on  the 
Employment  of  Natives  in  Regional  Labour  Markets:  A  Meta-Analysis,  IZA 
Discussion Paper No 2044. 

Ministry  of  Social  Affairs  and  Employment  of  the  Netherlands  (2007),  More  than 
100.000 people from Central and Eastern Europe employed in the Netherlands, press 
release 27 November.  

Pajares,  M.  (2007),  Inmigración  y  mercado  de  trabajo.  Informe  2007.  Análisis  de 
datos  de  España  y  Cataluña.  Documentos  del  Observatorio  Permanente  de 
Inmigración, No 14.  

Pollard,  N.,  Lattorre,  M.  and  Sriskandarajah,  D.  (2008),  Floodgates  or  turnstiles? 
Post enlargement migration flows to (and from) the UK,  Institute for Public Policy 
Research (ippr).  

EN 

27 

   EN 

 
Prettner,  K.  and  A.  Stiglbauer  (2007),  Auswirkungen  der  vollständige  Öffnung  des 
österreichischen  Arbeitsmarktes  gegenüber  den  EU-8-Staaten.  Geldpolitik  & 
Wirtschaft Q4. 

UK  Home  Office  (2008),  Accession  Monitoring  Report  May  2004  —  March  2008, 
A8 Countries.  

UK  Home  Office  (2004),  Accession  Monitoring  Report  May  2004  —  December 
2004.  

EN 

28 

   EN