Food : from farm to fork statistics.
Date: 2008-10-16
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, agri-foodstuffs, agricultural statistics, statistics

Pocketbooks

Food :   from farm to fork statistics

2008 edition

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008

ISBN 978-92-79-08736-3
DOI 10.2785/16170
Cat. No. KS-30-08-339-EN-C

Theme: Agriculture and fisheries
Collection: Pocketbooks

© European Communities, 2008
© Cover photo: Phovoir

Printed in Belgium

Printed on white chlorine-free PaPer

 
FROM FARM TO FORK STATISTICS

This  pocketbook  provides  statistical  information  on  how  the  food  chain  in  Europe 
evolves from the farm to the fork. Data are presented tracing the journey of food from 
the farm to the fork from primary agricultural production, through food processing, 
wholesale and retail distribution, ending with food consumption.

Information about primary agricultural production includes basic information on the 
number  and  types  of  farm  holding  and  the  area  of  land  used  for  various  types  of 
agriculture. It also presents information on intermediate inputs within the production 
process,  for  example,  providing  details  on  fertilizers,  plant  protection  products  or 
feedingstuﬀ s. The outputs of primary agricultural production include harvested crops, 
numbers of animals ready for slaughter (generally oﬀ -farm) and milk collected.

The  next  stage  in  the  food  chain  involves  the  processing  of  agricultural  output:  as 
cereals, vegetables, fruit, milk, meat or ﬁ sh are transformed into food products that 
are more familiar to consumers. This can be a relatively simple operation of grading 
and  then  preserving,  tinning  or  freezing  foods,  or  may  involve  more  elaborate 
transformations, such as the production of ready-to-eat meals.

Before  reaching  the  consumer,  most  food  and  drink  passes  along  distribution 
channels  in  the  form  of  wholesalers  and  retailers,  or  alternatively  into  restaurants, 
cafes and bars.

The end of the publication focuses on consumer-related issues, including the price, 
quality and choice of foods available in shops, markets and other retail outlets, as well 
as food safety, organic food, and genetically-modiﬁ ed food.

At all stages of the food chain, statistics are presented and balanced by information 
that highlights some of the main issues and challenges faced by actors in the food 
chain,  including  related  externalities  –  for  example,  the  impact  of  farming  on  the 
environment,  or  health  implications  associated  with  unhealthy  diets.  Details  are 
also  provided  concerning  eﬀ orts  being  made  at  a  European  level  to  improve  food 
production systems through a broad range of policy initiatives and work being carried 
out by control and monitoring agencies.

Head of Unit: Marleen De Smedt
Editor-in-chief: Ana Martinez-Palou
Editorial support: Elizabeth Rohner-Thielen
Health and food safety statistics
Eurostat Unit F5,
Statistical Oﬃ  ce of the European Communities,
Bâtiment Joseph Bech,
5, Rue Alphonse Weicker
L-2721 Luxembourg
E-mail address: elisabeth.thielen@ec.europa.eu

Production and desktop publishing: INFORMA sàrl
Giovanni Albertone, Simon Allen, Edward Cook, Andrew Redpath

For more information please consult: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat

Data extracted: March 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 

Structure of the publication 
Background information 

1. Overview 
Context 
Structural overview 

2. Farm production stage 

Context 
Structural overview 
Inputs used in agriculture 
Agricultural production 
Agricultural prices 
Agricultural externalities 

3. Processing stage 

Context 
Structural overview 
External trade 
  Quantity of output 
Prices and turnover 
Selected production and external trade 
Labelling 
Processing externalities 
4. Distribution stage 

Context 
Structural overview 
Retail sales space 
Employment 
Turnover 

5. Consumption stage 

Context 
Consumption volume 
Prices 
Consumption expenditure 
Consumer externalities 
Consumer attitudes 

6. Annex 
  Data sources 
Glossary 

3
3
4
9
10
12
21
22
24
38
48
59
63
71
72
74
82
108
114
116
120
122
127
128
131
132
134
136
139
140
142
152
158
164
169
181
182
186

2

From farm to fork 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION

STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLICATION

Th  e aim of this publication is to provide readers with a balanced 
overview of the data that are available for the various stages along 
the food chain. Th  e data are drawn principally from the ‘farm to 
fork database’ of the statistical offi  ce of the European Communities 
(EUROSTAT). Th  e publication is not an exhaustive refl ection of 
the data that are available in EUROSTAT databases – but, rather, 
a showcase of those data that are considered as most relevant for 
providing an overview of the farm to fork chain.

In  comparison  to  the  previous  edition  of  this  pocketbook,  a 
number of changes have been made:

• 

• 

• 

the  addition  of  accompanying  text,  to  provide  summary 
analyses and policy context;

a change in the structure of the publication, to more closely 
refl ect the sequential chain from the farm to the fork;

the incorporation of associated environmental data and non-
food outputs that are a product of the food chain, as well as 
results from consumer attitude surveys.

Th  e publication is divided into fi ve parts refl ecting the farm to fork 
chain:

(i) 

(ii) 

(iii) 

(iv) 

(v) 

an overview;

the primary production stage;

the processing stage;

the distribution stage, and;

consumption and consumer-related issues.

As far as possible, a common approach has been taken to summarise 
the primary production, processing and distribution stages of the 
chain; as expressed by a structural review (such as information on 
the number of agricultural holdings/enterprises and the number 
of persons employed), an analysis of inputs, output and values, and 
where possible an overview of some of the externalities generated 
(particularly regarding environmental consequences).

  From farm to fork

3

Th  e  consumer  stage  of  the  publication  is  rather  diff erent  from 
the  other  sections  as  it  looks  at  consumption  and  consumption 
expenditure  patterns,  consumer  price  developments,  health 
data, and concludes with a number of survey results concerning 
consumer attitudes to food related issues.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The European statistical system

Th  e  European  statistical  system  comprises  EUROSTAT  and  the 
national statistical offi  ces, ministries, agencies and central banks 
that collect offi  cial statistics across the European Union Member 
States,  Iceland,  Liechtenstein,  Norway  and  Switzerland.  Th  e 
European  statistical  system  concentrates  on  European  Union 
policy  areas,  although  harmonisation  has  extended  to  a  wide 
range of statistical fi elds.

Data sources

Free access to data on the European Union is available through the 
EUROSTAT website, which can be found at: http://ec.europa.eu/
eurostat. Th  e website presents a vast array of information in the 
form of tables, databases, methodology and publications; these are 
structured primarily according to subjects/themes.

Th  e  survey  (or  data  collection  exercise)  used  as  the  source  of 
information  is  generally  provided  in  the  source  (for  example, 
Economic accounts for agriculture or Purchasing power parities).

In addition, a code (such as ‘FOOD_ACT1’) has oft en been inserted 
as part of the source. Th  is code allows the reader to easily access the 
most recent data on the EUROSTAT website (note that the data on 
the website is frequently updated and may also be more detailed or 
presented with a number of diff erent measurement units). Th  ese 
codes refer to database tables that require the user to select from 
a list of dimensions/fi elds in order to return the data. In the top-
right corner of the EUROSTAT homepage, there is a fi eld entitled 
‘Quick search’ – place the data code in this fi eld and click on the 
‘Search’ button in order to locate the path to the dataset.

4

From farm to fork 

EUROSTAT  have  grouped  together  the  most  important  data 
in  relation  to  farm  to  fork  statistics  into  one  sub-domain.  Th  is 
dataset  may  be  found  within  the  theme  for  agriculture,  forestry 
and fi sheries when browsing the data navigation tree.

Symbols

Th  e  colon  (:)  is  used  in  tables  to  represent  data  that  are  not 
available,  either  because  the  values  were  not  provided  by  the 
national statistical authority or because the values are confi dential 
or  unreliable.  In  fi gures  (charts/graphs)  missing  information  is 
footnoted  as  not  available.  A  dash  (-)  is  used  to  indicate  values 
that are not relevant or not applicable.

Abbreviations

AWU 
BMI 
BSE 

CAP 
CN 

CPA 
EAGGF 

EAA 
EFSA 
ESA 
ESU 
EU 
EUR 
EUROSTAT 
FSS 
FVO 

Annual work unit
Body mass index
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (so-called mad 
cow disease)
Common Agricultural Policy
 Combined  nomenclature  (used  for  external  trade 
statistics)
Classifi cation of products by activity
 European  Agricultural  Guidance  and  Guarantee 
Fund
Economic accounts for agriculture
European Food Safety Authority
European system of accounts
Economic size unit
European Union
Euro
 Statistical offi  ce of the European Communities
Farm structure survey
Food and Veterinary Offi  ce

  From farm to fork

5

g 
GATT 
GDA 
GDP 
GM 
GMO 
GVA 
ha 
HBS 
ICT 
Kcal 
kg 
km 
LSU 
m 
m2 
m3 
mg 
n.e.c. 
NACE 

PDO 
PGI 
PLI 
PPP 
PPS 
PRODCOM 
RASFF 
RDA 
SBS 
SGM 
SITC 
UAA 
VAT 
vCJD 
VTEC 
μg 
% 

Gram
General Agreement on Tariff s and Trade
Guideline daily amounts
Gross domestic product
Genetically modifi ed
Genetically modifi ed organisms
Gross value added
Hectare
Household budget survey
Information and communication technologies
Calories
Kilogram
Kilometre
Livestock unit
Metre
Square metre
Cubic metre
Milligram
Not elsewhere classifi ed
 Classifi cation of economic activities in the European 
Community
Protected designation of origin
Protected geographical indication
Price level index
Purchasing power parity
Purchasing power standard
 Statistics by product (for manufactured goods)
Rapid alert system for food and feed
Recommended daily allowances
Structural business statistics
Standard gross margin
Standard international trade classifi cation
Utilised agricultural area
Value added tax
Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Verocytotoxinogenic Escherichia coli
Microgram
Percent

6

From farm to fork 

European Union aggregates and Member States

EU 
EU-27 

EU-25 

EU-15 

European Union
 European  Union  of  27  Member  States  from  1  January 
2007 (BE, BG, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, 
LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK, FI, SE, 
UK)
 European Union of 25 Member States from 1 May 2004 
to 31 December 2006 (BE, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, 
FR, IT, CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, SI, SK, 
FI, SE, UK)
 European  Union  of  15  Member  States  from  1  January 
1995 to 1 May 2004 (BE, DK, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, 
NL, AT, PT, FI, SE, UK)

BE 
BG 
CZ 
DK 
DE 
EE 
IE 
EL 
ES 
FR 
IT 
CY 
LV 
LT 
LU 
HU 
MT 
NL 
AT 
PL 
PT 
RO 
SI 
SK 
FI 
SE 
UK 

Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom

USA 

United States of America

  From farm to fork

7

I

1

Overview

1 Overview

Context

Within  Europe,  concerns  about  food  have  largely  moved  away 
from issues of ensuring an adequate supply and choice of products 
towards issues of food safety, animal and plant welfare, labelling 
and traceability. Th  ese changes in emphasis have been shaped by 
scientifi c and technological advances within the food chain on the 
one  hand,  and  health  (such  as  so-called  mad  cow  disease  (BSE) 
and dioxin-contaminated feed) or environmental concerns on the 
other.

Th  e  commitment  to  secure  safe  and  healthy  food  for  citizens 
within  the  EU  requires  an  on-going  assessment  of  EU  policies 
at  each  stage  of  the  food  chain.  Arguably,  the  most  far-reaching 
changes in recent times have concerned the Common Agricultural 
Policy (CAP), general food law, and food hygiene rules.

• 

• 

Th  e  CAP  has  evolved  from  a  model  to  promote  self-
suffi  ciency and ensure the security of food supply to one that 
is increasingly concerned with quality issues (including food 
safety  standards)  and  the  environment.  Th  e  CAP  reform  of 
2003 changed the way the EU supports its farm sector, moving 
away  from  production-linked  subsidies  towards  new  ‘single 
farm  payments’  that  (to  some  degree)  refl ect  issues  such  as 
the respect of environmental, food safety and animal welfare 
standards.

A Regulation of the European Parliament and Council of 28  
January  2002  ((EC)  No  178/2002)  laying  down  the  general 
principles  and  requirements  of  food  law  aims  to  provide  a 
coherent approach to the development of food legislation, by 
assuring a high level of protection of human life and health, 
taking into account the protection of animal health and welfare, 
plant health and the environment. It lays down the provisions 
for feed and food traceability, underlines the consumer’s need 
for independent and publicly available scientifi c opinion and 
strengthens the rapid alert system for food and feed.

10

From farm to fork 

Overview

1

• 

Food hygiene rules have extended far beyond the initial 1964 
rules  for  fresh  meat;  Regulation  (EC)  No  852/2004  of  the 
European Parliament and of the Council was adopted in April 
2004,  and  provides  general  rules  on  food  and  feed  hygiene, 
as  well  as  specifi c  hygiene  rules  for  food  of  animal  origin. 
Th  is  Regulation  seeks  to  ensure  the  hygiene  of  foodstuff s  at 
all stages of the production process, from primary production 
up  to  and  including  sale  to  the  fi nal  consumer.  Food  and 
feed operators within the EU must be registered and they are 
fully liable if unsafe food or feed is found in the marketplace. 
Imported products must meet the same high standards as EU 
goods under the updated hygiene rules, and regular checks are 
carried out at EU borders to verify this.

New  developments  within  the  food  chain  lead  to  additional 
burdens and further policy attention; there are growing numbers of 
plants, animals and micro-organisms whose genetic characteristics 
have  been  artifi cially  modifi ed  (so-called  genetically  modifi ed 
organisms or GMOs) in order to improve characteristics such as 
yields and disease resistance and to reduce reliance on chemical 
inputs;  novel  foods  (such  as  dairy  products  with  added  plant 
chemicals – phytosterols – that are thought to reduce cholesterols) 
are being created in a way that alters nutritional values and aim to 
improve the effi  ciency of agricultural and food production; new 
product ingredients and foodstuff s are being imported into the EU 
which  require  the  creation  and  application  of  new  controls  and 
guidelines in order to approve such food and feed.

In  addition  to  product  developments,  the  food  chain  is  also 
shaped  by  changes  in  consumer  demand  and  preferences.  For 
some consumers, environmental considerations about food miles 
(the  distance  produce  has  travelled),  food  energy  use,  soil  and 
water degradation, or types of farming practice are determining 
infl uences  when  making  consumption  choices.  For  other 
consumers, health issues concerning food additives, preservatives, 
or  salt/sugar  content  are  important  criteria,  while  economic 
realities may shape the choices of other consumers. Th  e continued 
strength  of  food  production  in  the  European  Union  is  likely  to 
depend (at least to some degree) on how the food chain responds 
to these various challenges.

  From farm to fork

11

1 Overview

Structural overview

Th  e  food  chain  is  large:  it  comprises  a  considerable  number 
of  operators,  employs  vast  numbers  of  people,  and  generates 
considerable amounts of value added (as shown in Tables 1.1 to 
1.3).

Th  ere were 14.4 million agricultural holdings recorded in the EU-27 
in 2005, a little under one half (46.6 %) of which were located in 
Romania  and  Poland  together.  However,  almost  half  (46.0 %)  of 
the EU-27’s agricultural holdings were small units (typically semi-
subsistence holdings) of less than 1 economic size unit (ESU) and 
in  Slovakia  (81.2 %),  Hungary  (78.3 %),  Bulgaria  (77.9 %)  and 
Romania (71.0 %), this share was considerably higher.

Th  e distribution of food and beverage manufacturing enterprises 
refl ects  more  closely  the  economic  weight  of  the  Member  State 
economies. Th  e highest concentration was in France, which alone 
accounted  for  a  little  over  one  fi ft h  (22.0 %)  of  all  the  EU-27’s 
food  and  beverages  manufacturing  enterprises,  while  Italy  (data 
are  confi dential  and  therefore  cannot  be  included  in  Table  1.1), 
Germany and Spain also recorded a high number of enterprises 
present within these activities.

A diff erent pattern of geographic concentration was evident among 
food,  beverage  and  tobacco  wholesalers  and  among  specialist 
food retailers; 46.6 % of the EU-27’s food, beverage and tobacco 
wholesalers  were  located  in  France,  Italy  and  Spain,  while  this 
same group of countries accounted for a clear majority (56.2 %) of 
the EU-27’s specialist food retailers.

Almost twelve and three quarter million persons were employed 
full-time on agricultural holdings in the EU-27 in 2005. A further 
6.6 million persons were employed in restaurants, bars, canteens 
and catering throughout the EU-27, with just under a quarter of 
these  (23.3 %)  working  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Over  one  fi ft h 
(21.3 %) of the 5.1 million persons estimated to be working in the 
EU-27’s non-specialised food retailing sector were also employed 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  a  much  higher  proportion  than  in 
Germany (13.8 %), France (11.8 %) or other Member States.

Th  e  food  and  beverages  manufacturing  sector  of  the  EU-27 
generated  EUR  188.2  billion  of  value  added  in  2005,  which 
corresponded to EUR 40 147 per person employed, in both cases 
more than any of the other stages in the farm to fork chain. Value 
added per person employed was also relatively high in the food, 

12

From farm to fork 

Overview

1

beverages  and  tobacco  wholesale  trade  (EUR  39 039  per  person 
employed) and lowest for restaurants, bars, canteens and catering 
(EUR  16 437  per  person  employed)  and  primary  agricultural 
production (EUR 11 726 per full-time labour equivalent).

Th  e  structure  of  agricultural  production  in  the  EU-27  in  part 
refl ects the diff erent climatic and topographic conditions present 
in each country that infl uence growing conditions for crops and 
pasture, while consumer preferences may also be refl ected in what 
is  grown  locally.  Tables  1.4  to  1.6  show  the  principal  producer 
countries  for  a  selection  of  key  agricultural  products  in  the 
EU-27, the self-suffi  ciency of Member States with respect to these 
products, and the origin and quantity of imports of food and feed 
products from outside the EU-27.

Th  e EU-27 harvested an estimated 269.4 million tonnes of cereals 
in 2006, more than one fi ft h (22.9 %) of which came from France. 
France had a self-suffi  ciency rate for cereals of 191.5 %, suggesting 
that  production  was  almost  double  the  amount  of  cereals 
consumed.  Other  countries  with  relatively  high  self-suffi  ciency 
ratios  for  cereals  included  Hungary,  Bulgaria  and  Lithuania 
(all over 160 %). Th  e EU-27 imported 22.4 million tonnes of cereals 
in 2007 to balance supply and demand, with a little under one half 
(46.5 %)  coming  from  Brazil  and  Argentina.  In  addition,  these 
two countries also provided a little over three quarters (79.3 %) of 
the 32.3 million tonnes of animal feedingstuff s (mostly soya cake) 
imported from non-Member countries by the EU-27 in 2007.

In contrast to cereals, many other agricultural products are more 
perishable and this may explain why they tend to be imported in 
much smaller quantities. Th  e EU-27 imported 1.6 million tonnes 
of  meat  and  meat  products  in  2007  (half  of  which  came  from 
Brazil), and 0.3 million tonnes of dairy products and eggs (mostly 
from Switzerland and New Zealand).

For a little over 20 years, the volume of milk produced in the EU 
has been limited by production quotas. An estimated 154.1 million 
tonnes of milk were produced on farms across the EU-27 in 2005, 
some 80.9 % of which came from the EU-15 Member States, with 
more than half (52.2 %) of the EU’s total milk production being 
accounted for by Germany (18.5 %), France (16.6 %), the United 
Kingdom (9.5 %) and Italy (7.7 %).

  From farm to fork

13

1 Overview

Table 1.1: Number of operators across the food chain, 2005
(units)

Agricul. 
holdings
EU-27 14 406 090
51 540

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

527 010

41 670

51 370

389 880

27 740

132 620

833 120

1 069 750

567 140

1 726 130

45 160

128 670

252 940

2 450

711 520

11 000

80 600

170 350

2 476 240

323 920

4 239 190

77 170

68 470

70 520

75 260

254 660

Food & 
bev. 
manuf.
309 702

Food, 
bev. & 
tobacco
whole.
214 007

Special. 
food
retailers
508 817

Non-
special. 
food
retailers
474 688

Restaur.,
bars,
canteens,
catering
1 392 298

7 671

5 937

:

1 778

32 709

425

:

15 195

29 353

67 985

:

960

778

1 434

190

6 766

:

4 585

4 134

16 998

10 268

10 820

826

:

1 861

3 288

6 994

5 402

5 741

:

1 821

10 187

514

1 626

15 233

43 716

21 114

34 969

489

1 028

746

336

11 441

8 105

:

2 853

27 330

172

1 964

30 037

122 780

47 731

115 674

833

238

174

254

6 722

22 491

:

3 266

20 642

920

3 217

25 834

31 295

31 190

57 127

2 171

2 289

3 703

196

39 952

20 932

:

12 077

120 514

1 152

9 738

79 660

261 997

179 674

224 379

6 237

2 255

2 713

2 341

4 092

7 587

18 008

29 593

:

6 690

2 239

13 819

12 360

8 219

377

419

1 059

4 368

:

9 780

5 474

28 384

31 191

9 325

536

242

1 116

6 409

:

3 145

3 496

84 064

20 292

62 199

964

176

3 083

5 955

:

31 870

30 307

45 321

78 532

16 651

6 021

954

8 675

20 816

14 104

31 527

28 554

115 083

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT1, FOOD_ACT5, FOOD_ACT8, 
FOOD_ACT9 and Structural business statistics: SBS_NA_3B_TR)

14

From farm to fork 

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Overview

1

Table 1.2: Number of persons employed, across the food chain, 2005
(units)

Agricul. 
holdings 
(1)
EU-27 12 715 590
69 590

BE

624 660

151 900

60 450

Food & 
bev. 
manuf.
4 688 100

96 681

106 962

:

:

Food, 
bev. & 
tobacco
whole.
1 835 900

34 733

39 478

:

Special. 
food
retailers
1 442 900

32 398

19 721

:

20 325

11 685

Non-
special. 
food
retailers
5 100 000

Restaur.,
bars,
canteens,
catering
6 663 400

89 819

76 533

:

:

137 819

81 895

:

76 997

643 230

844 775

211 875

159 626

702 676

812 229

36 900

152 380

600 800

992 640

855 490

1 374 260

28 660

137 250

221 550

3 990

17 365

:

83 691

389 065

:

:

12 671

35 461

52 355

:

462 740

121 826

4 060

173 930

166 440

2 273 590

398 080

2 595 590

94 980

98 790

83 460

71 100

:

124 379

75 885

438 833

104 942

203 840

:

:

:

:

5 059

20 890

73 724

338 554

189 320

164 261

5 659

11 706

14 426

6 260

31 809

:

71 791

26 310

1 122

9 929

72 469

263 035

102 141

218 000

1 825

1 926

1 299

1 238

18 193

69 974

95 954

391 772

603 782

422 989

5 892

41 361

53 349

3 677

11 469

90 005

215 906

933 375

631 575

810 273

18 295

24 136

28 898

11 384

18 938

119 685

100 955

:

56 441

22 570

:

204 973

85 991

112 128

114 276

399 145

67 012

95 835

2 348

10 458

8 808

31 902

47 864

33 087

1 658

2 921

4 537

16 776

94 002

204 979

23 441

22 604

48 144

81 618

:

238 032

134 053

165 019

217 031

74 363

20 912

10 112

40 476

86 506

339 080

463 988

206 779

206 573

1 085 226

1 555 173

(1) Expressed in annual work units (AWUs), which are full-time labour equivalents.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT5, FOOD_ACT8, FOOD_ACT9, 
Structural business statistics: SBS_NA_3B_TR and Survey on the structure of agricultural 
holdings: EF_OV_LFFT)

  From farm to fork

15

1 Overview

Table 1.3: Value added generated by each stage in the food 
chain, 2005
(EUR million)

Agricul. 
holdings
149 106

EU-27

Food & 
bev. 
manuf.
188 214

5 980

458

:

:

2 245

1 544

916

2 334

12 715

32 987

208

2 057

8 015

24 537

28 721

25 948

330

280

600

102

2 301

58

8 317

2 292

6 097

2 460

6 269

480

450

1 372

1 178

7 280

201

:

2 988

18 441

:

:

343

291

462

:

1 901

:

:

3 715

8 391

2 481

1 328

:

:

:

:

:

Food, 
bev. & 
tobacco
whole.
71 672

Special. 
food
retailers
24 929

Non-
special. 
food
retailers
110 000

Restaur.,
bars,
canteens,
catering
109 526

1 967

127

:

1 302

13 125

70

2 193

2 037

9 325

9 752

5 916

154

174

130

376

452

:

5 474

1 774

1 585

1 508

585

58

49

535

1 630

10 669

754

25

:

236

3 059

7

228

826

4 430

3 240

4 308

40

9

4

44

84

:

939

558

658

361

78

21

17

202

497

3 487

119

:

:

16 968

135

2 032

1 818

9 849

21 121

9 587

135

185

213

158

795

:

3 585

2 326

2 486

1 599

548

484

125

1 667

2 402

2 814

124

:

1 474

12 592

63

1 988

1 620

15 096

17 433

11 944

425

99

80

346

370

:

4 370

2 802

708

1 916

184

241

57

1 243

2 054

4 142

23 492

28 735

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Source: Eurostat (Economic Accounts for Agriculture: AACT_EAA01, European business: 
EBD_ALL, Structural business statistics: SBS_NA_3B_TR and SBS_NA_3B_SE)

16

From farm to fork 

Overview

1

Table 1.4: Output of food chain: main agricultural and food 
products generated, 2006
(1 000 tonnes)

Cereals 
(1)
269 398

Fresh 
veg. 
(2) 
:

EU-27

Milk 

(3) Bovines
8 251

154 050

Pigs
21 791

Sheep Poultry
:
1 086

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

2 742

5 532

6 386

8 632

43 475

619

2 090

3 804

19 363

61 708

20 207

67

1 159

1 856

162

:

778

:

245

:

33

:

3 640

:

5 654

13 495

140

155

151

1

14 467

1 779

:

65

3 120

1 508

2 813

4 568

28 488

670

5 100

1 836

7 459

25 526

11 787

193

810

1 862

269

1 937

44

1 750

4 460

21 776

1 167

15 759

494

2 929

3 790

4 128

4 027

10 978

528

:

:

:

79

140

230

:

3 136

11 946

2 195

5 833

661

1 098

2 433

3 206

269

1 006

23

80

129

1 193

14

572

61

671

1 510

1 111

4

21

47

9

34

1

384

215

355

105

313

38

21

87

137

75

359

1 749

4 662

35

209

123

3 230

2 263

1 556

53

38

106

10

489

8

1 265

505

2 071

339

316

34

122

208

264

1

18

2

2

43

1

70

75

227

121

59

3

0

0

0

1

0

16

0

1

12

99

0

1

1

4

:

:

231

170

1 009

13

130

154

1 257

1 722

628

27

21

66

0

385

4

661

102

1 058

247

:

48

94

87

102

20 878

2 644

UK
(1) Including rice.
(2) Including melons and strawberries.
(3) Unless otherwise stated, 2005; Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg and Slovakia, 
2004.

14 574

697

847

330

1 517

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR2, FOOD_IN_PAGR3 and 
FOOD_IN_PAGR5).

  From farm to fork

17

1 Overview

Table 1.5: Self-suffi  ciency in the main agricultural products, 
2006
(%)

Cereals
(1)
:

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI 

SE

51.8

162.5

106.7

106.7

106.7

109.5

69.5

76.8

69.6

191.5

79.1

:

137.3

168.8

110.0

180.5

0.0

21.4

100.0

99.0

16.8

105.8

57.6

:

116.5

116.9

Cattle
(2)
:

:

:

:

88.6

122.9

:

:

26.4

97.6

106.7

57.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

113.9

145.8

:

54.4

:

:

:

88.1

66.7

Pigs
(2)
:

:

:

:

665.0

97.3

:

:

37.0

125.3

107.3

66.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

226.9

99.5

:

62.3

:

:

:

115.3

89.7

Sheep &
goats
(2)
:

Poultry
(2)
:

:

:

:

28.6

52.4

:

:

84.9

108.2

51.2

40.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

87.0

83.3

:

75.8

:

:

:

27.3

42.4

:

:

:

156.8

87.4

:

:

78.6

96.3

133.0

109.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

161.1

70.1

:

91.7

:

:

:

102.3

84.8

105.6

UK
(1) Excluding rice; Belgium, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom, 2005; the Czech Republic and 
Spain, 2004; Slovenia and Finland, 2003.
(2) Finland, 2005; Spain, 2004; the Netherlands and Sweden, 2003.

86.7

51.5

85.3

66.0

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR6).

18

From farm to fork 

Table 1.6: Extra-EU-27 imports of food and feed products, 2007

Overview

1

Total
imports
(1 000
tonnes)

1st 
partner (%)

2nd 
partner (%)

3rd 
partner (%)

Argentina 14.5

Thailand 10.5

USA 10.6

Israel

1 130

5 316

3 484

1 572

22 367

Ecuador

USA 19.5

Brazil 32.1

Brazil 54.1

China 40.0

Norway 18.9

Thailand 23.6

Thailand 6.2

Morocco 11.2

N. Zealand 14.4

N. Zealand 33.4

329 Switzerland 37.3

Meat & meat
products
Dairy prod. &
birds' eggs
Fish, crust., 
molluscs
Cereals & 
cereal prep.
Veg., fresh, 
chilled, frozen
Veg., roots, 
tubers 
& preserved
Fruit & nuts
Fruit, preserved 
& 
preparations
Fruit & 
veg. juices
Sugars, sugar 
prep. & honey
Coffee, tea, 
cocoa
Feedingstuffs
Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_IMP2, FOOD_IN_IMP3, 
FOOD_IN_IMP4, FOOD_IN_IMP5, FOOD_IN_IMP61, FOOD_IN_IMP62, FOOD_IN_IMP71, 
FOOD_IN_IMP72, FOOD_IN_IMP73, FOOD_IN_IMP8, FOOD_IN_IMP9 and FOOD_IN_
IMP10).

Ivory Coast 13.7

Costa Rica 16.0

Argentina 50.5

Thailand 16.0

Ecuador 12.4

Turkey 18.9

China 15.8

Brazil 28.8

Brazil 13.8

Brazil 40.2

Brazil 15.4

India 16.5

Mauritius

32 357

10 309

Turkey

1 626

1 779

5 811

5 432

4.9

8.7

9.7

7.9

Morocco 5.2

Colombia 11.5

Vietnam 11.9

USA 5.5

China 13.5 Switzerland 7.7

  From farm to fork

19

I

2

Farm production stage

2 Farm production stage

Context

Th  e Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was originally based on 
objectives laid out in Article 39 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome. Th  e 
fi ve main points were:

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 
(d) 
(e) 

to  increase  agricultural  productivity  by  promoting  technical 
progress  and  by  ensuring  the  rational  development  of 
agricultural  production  and  the  optimum  utilisation  of  the 
factors of production, in particular labour;
thus  to  ensure  a  fair  standard  of  living  for  the  agricultural 
community, in particular by increasing the individual earnings 
of persons engaged in agriculture;
to stabilise markets;
to assure the availability of supplies;
to ensure that supplies reach consumers at reasonable prices.

In  this  way,  from  its  inception,  the  CAP  has  had  an  important 
bearing  on  many  stages  in  the  food  chain  from  the  farm  to  the 
fork.  Key  policy  tools  used  to  pursue  the  CAP  objectives  have 
included direct subsidies, export refunds and import tariff s, which 
have  an  important  infl uence  on  supplies  and  prices. Th  ese  tools 
underpinned the major principles guiding the CAP: market unity, 
Community preference and fi nancial solidarity.

Over the years, there have been a number of reforms of the CAP, 
infl uenced  by  burgeoning  stocks  (such  as  wine  lakes  and  butter 
mountains), rising expenditure, international trade reforms, food 
safety  concerns  (particularly  aft er  various  animal  health  scares) 
and environmental concerns.

Among the various reforms, arguably two of the most signifi cant 
were the CAP reforms of 1992 and 2003. Th  e so-called MacSharry 
reforms  of  1992  set  limits  on  production,  withdrew  land  from 
production under set-aside arrangements and began the process 
of freeing agricultural markets, which were historically set by the 
Uruguay  round  of  the  General  Agreement  on  Tariff s  and  Trade 
(GATT). Th  e 2003 reform of the CAP was based on decoupling 
subsidies  from  particular  crops  and  replacing  them  with  single 
farm  payments  that  are  subject  to  cross-compliance  conditions 
relating  to  environmental,  food  safety  and  animal  welfare 
standards  (many  of  these  were  already  either  good  practice 
recommendations or separate legal requirements regulating farm 
activities). Th  e fundamental reform of the CAP in 2003 was also 
aimed at encouraging farmers to take a more entrepreneurial view 
of their farming (and non-farming) activities, encouraging them 
to look at their businesses in relation to market needs.

22

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Rural  development  has  become  a  key  tool  for  restructuring  the 
agricultural  sector,  encouraging  diversifi cation  and  innovation 
in rural areas. In all Member States, rural development is seen as 
promoting competitiveness in the agricultural and food processing 
sectors. Local initiatives such as Leader (one of four Community 
initiatives  fi nanced  by  EU  structural  funds  to  help  rural  actors 
improve the long-term potential of their local region) can play an 
important role in encouraging innovation and entrepreneurship, 
promoting  new  ways  of  selling/dealing  with  risk  in  competitive 
markets,  improving  management  processes  in  the  agri-food 
chain, and applying the benefi ts of research and development and 
information and communication technologies (ICT) on the farm.

Th  e  environment  and  associated  tourism  are  a  major  source  of 
income  and  employment  potential  in  rural  areas.  As  agriculture 
and forestry remain by far the largest land users shaping the rural 
environment  and  landscape,  the  provision  of  environmental 
goods,  particularly  through  agri-environmental  measures,  can 
form the basis for growth and jobs. One area where policy makers 
try to encourage activity is in relation to the scope for innovative 
approaches that add value to the rural economy by remunerating 
farmers  for  environmental  services  and 
linking  these  to 
diversifi cation  into  tourism,  craft s  and  training,  thus  promoting 
sustainable development.

Th  is  chapter  provides  an  overview  of  the  start  of  the  food 
chain,  namely,  farm  activity.  It  looks  at  the  changing  structure 
of  agriculture  across  the  EU  in  terms  of  the  number  of  farms, 
their size and workforces. It also covers developments regarding 
farming  inputs,  such  as  the  use  of  seeds  and  fertilisers,  or  the 
provision of feedstuff s for livestock. It continues with information 
on the output of the agricultural sector, as measured by harvested 
production or the number of animals that are reared for slaughter, 
milk production or eggs levels, followed by information on price 
developments, and agri-environmental indicators.

  From farm to fork

23

2 Farm production stage

Structural overview

Th  ere  were  7.8  million  commercial  holdings  in  the  EU-27  in 
2005 and a further 6.7 million small holdings. Almost 60 % of all 
commercial agricultural holdings (being of at least 1 economic size 
unit – ESU – and thereby excluding subsistence farming) in the 
EU-27  were  located  in  Italy  (17.7 %),  Romania  (15.8 %),  Poland 
(13.8 %) and Spain (12.3 %).

Table 2.1: Number of agricultural holdings (1)
(units)

1993

1995

1997

2000

2003

2005

EU-27

:

:

:

: 15 021 410 14 482 010

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

76 330

70 980

67 180

61 710

54 940

51 540

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

73 780

68 770

63 150

57 830

665 550

534 610

45 770

48 610

42 250

51 680

:

:

:

:

:

:

471 960

412 300

389 880

159 370

819 150

153 420

802 410

147 830

821 390

141 530

817 060

36 860

135 620

824 460

27 750

132 670

833 590

1 383 910

1 277 600

1 208 260

1 287 420

1 140 730

1 079 420

:

:

:

:

614 000

567 140

2 488 390

2 482 100

2 315 230

2 153 720

1 963 820

1 728 530

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

140 840

:

3 400

3 180

2 980

2 810

45 200

126 610

272 110

2 450

45 170

128 670

252 950

2 450

:

:

119 720

:

:

:

:

:

:

966 920

773 380

714 790

113 200

221 750

107 920

210 110

101 550

199 470

10 990

85 500

11 070

81 830

173 770

170 640

:

:

:

2 172 210

2 476 470

489 030

450 640

416 690

415 970

359 280

323 920

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

100 950

88 830

91 440

89 580

:

4 484 890

4 256 150

86 470

71 040

81 190

81 410

77 150

71 740

74 950

67 890

77 170

68 490

70 620

75 810

:

:

243 470

234 500

UK (2)
(1) About 6.7 million holdings in the EU-27 were smaller than 1 ESU in 2005, of which about 
3.0 million were in Romania.
(2) The rise in agricultural holdings in the United Kingdom between 2000 and 2003 is 
almost entirely accounted for by holdings that were smaller than 1 ESU.

233 150

233 250

280 630

286 750

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU)

24

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Among  most  Member  States  there  was  a  steady  decline  in  the 
number of agricultural holdings during the period 1993 to 2005 
(see Table 2.1). Th  e numbers of agricultural holdings in Portugal, 
Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  in  2005  were  about  one  third  less 
than  the  numbers  in  1993,  while  there  were  also  declines  of 
between 20 % and 30 % in Denmark, Spain, Italy and Luxembourg 
during the period considered.

Th  ere is a great variety in the types of farming that are practised 
across agricultural holdings in the EU; to a large degree this may be 
explained by their geographic distribution, or more precisely the 
agro-climatic conditions they face. Just over one in ten (11.6 %) 
of all agricultural holdings in the EU-27 could be described as a 
mixed cropping farms (see Figure 2.1), although this proportion 
was much higher in Slovakia, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Romania 
and Slovenia. Specialist cropping and general fi eld cropping each 
accounted for around 10 % of all agricultural holdings, while mixed 
cropping  and  livestock  farms  and  farms  specialised  in  rearing 
sheep and goats and other grazing livestock both accounted for 7 % 
of the EU-27’s farms in 2005. Outside of these fi ve most frequently 
occurring types of farming, 6.0 % of agricultural holdings in the 
EU-27 were specialised in olive growing (mainly found around the 
Mediterranean), while a further 5.0 % were specialised in fruit and 
citrus fruit production (principally in Cyprus and Spain).

Figure 2.1: Agricultural holdings by main type of farming, 
EU-27, 2005
(% of total)

Other farm 
types
53%

Mixed 
cropping
12%

Sheep, 
goats & 
other 
grazing 
livestock
7%

Specialist 
cereals, 
oilseed & 
protein 
crops
11%

Various 
crops & 
livestock 
combined
7%

General field 
cropping
10%

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings,  EF_OV_KVFTAA)

  From farm to fork

25

2 Farm production stage

Table 2.2: Utilised agricultural area (UAA), 2005 (1)

Utilised agricultural area (1 000 hectares)
Permanent
crops
10 872

Permanent
pasture
55 984

Arable
land
104 717

Total
171 996

1 386

2 729

3 558

2 708

845

2 523

2 640

2 501

17 035

11 903

829

4 219

3 984

24 855

27 591

12 708

152

1 702

2 792

129

4 267

10

1 958

3 266

14 755

3 680

13 907

485

1 879

2 264

3 192

584

1 152

2 058

11 937

18 339

7 040

110

1 076

1 873

60

3 607

8

1 117

1 405

11 308

1 241

8 867

174

1 319

2 233

2 681

519

107

875

198

4 929

237

3 065

824

8 653

8 131

3 347

0

599

891

68

469

0

809

1 788

3 020

1 769

4 530

282

530

26

509

21

81

40

9

198

3

2

1 088

4 260

1 106

2 286

41

25

28

2

167

1

32

68

330

649

339

27

26

5

4

Average UAA
per holding
(hectares)
11.9

26.9

5.1

84.2

52.4

43.7

29.9

31.8

4.8

23.0

48.6

7.4

3.4

13.2

11.0

52.7

6.0

0.9

23.9

19.1

6.0

11.4

3.3

6.3

27.4

32.1

42.1

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

15 957

UK
(1) Holdings of less than 1 ESU accounted for 10.3 million hectares of utilised agricultural 
area in the EU-27, raising the UAA per commercial holding to an average 20.7 hectares.

6 114

9 809

34

55.6

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LUFT and 
EF_OV_KVAAESU)

Th  e  majority  (60.9 %)  of  the  utilised  agricultural  area  in  the 
EU-27  was  devoted  to  arable  land  in  2005  (see  Table  2.2).  Th  is 
proportion rose to over 90 % in Bulgaria, Denmark and Finland. 
In contrast, closer to two thirds or more of the utilised agricultural 
area in Ireland and the United Kingdom was permanent pasture. 
Permanent  crops  (such  as  citrus  and  olive  plantations  and 
vineyards) accounted for a relatively high proportion of the utilised 
agricultural area in most Mediterranean countries, but particularly 
Greece and Cyprus, where they accounted for slightly more than a 
quarter of the land utilised for agricultural production.

26

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Figure 2.2a: Arable area, 2005
(% of EU-27 total)

France
18%

Other 
Member 
States
41%

Spain
11%

Germany
11%

Romania
8%

Poland
11%

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LUFT)

Figure 2.2b: Permanent pasture, 2005
(% of EU-27 total)

Other 
Member 
States
35%

United 
Kingdom
18%

Spain
15%

Romania
8%

Germany
9%

France
15%

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LUFT)

  From farm to fork

27

2 Farm production stage

Table 2.3: Number of agricultural holdings by utilised 
agricultural area, 2005
(1 000)

Size class of holding in hectares

20<50 50<100 

>=100

399

293

Total

14 482

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

52

535

42

52

390

28

133

834

1 079

567

1 729

45

129

253

2

715

11

82

171

2 476

324

4 256

77

68

71

76

<2

7 284

8

471

15

1

27

5

2

413

313

80

854

31

30

27

0

584

10

12

19

1 218

158

2 857

18

56

2

1

2<5

3 065

5<20

2 615

6

40

7

1

61

8

7

223

264

67

417

8

31

103

0

57

1

12

36

533

84

1 014

28

6

4

10

15

15

9

20

129

10

49

162

291

110

337

5

53

102

0

48

0

25

71

608

58

355

29

3

25

28

826

14

3

4

13

88

3

51

28

111

109

82

1

11

15

0

14

0

23

34

97

13

16

2

1

26

18

7

2

2

9

54

1

20

6

50

113

26

0

3

3

1

6

0

9

8

13

5

5

0

1

11

11

2

4

4

8

30

1

4

1

50

87

13

0

2

2

0

6

0

2

3

7

6

9

0

2

3

8

39

UK
Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU)

287

47

73

34

59

36

Nearly three quarters (71.5 %) of the agricultural holdings in the 
EU-27  in  2005  were  less  than  5  hectares  in  size  (see  Table  2.3). 
However, in the period between 1990 and 2005, the average size 
of an agricultural holding tended to increase (see Table 2.4). Th  ere 
were  considerable  variations  in  the  average  size  of  commercial 
agricultural holdings across the Member States: the average farm 
size in Italy, Romania, Slovenia, Greece, Cyprus and Malta was less 
than 10 hectares, while in the Czech Republic and Slovakia it was 
well over 100 hectares.

28

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.4: Average utilised agricultural area per agricultural 
holding
(hectares)

All holdings

All commercial holdings (1)

1990

1995

2000

2005

1990

1995

2000 2005 (2)

EU-27

:

:

:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

15.8

19.1

22.6

:

:

:

:

34.2

39.6

:

:

26.0

4.3

15.4

:

5.6

:

:

:

:

:

28.2

4.5

19.7

:

5.9

:

:

:

32.0

39.9

:

:

16.1

:

:

6.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

17.7

15.4

:

8.7

:

:

:

21.7

34.4

:

:

45.7

36.3

:

31.4

4.4

20.3

:

6.1

:

10.2

:

45.4

4.7

:

20.0

17.0

:

9.3

:

5.6

30.4

27.3

37.7

11.9

26.9

5.1

84.2

52.4

43.7

29.9

31.8

4.8

23.0

48.6

7.4

3.4

13.2

11.0

52.7

6.0

0.9

23.9

19.1

6.0

11.4

3.3

6.3

27.4

32.1

42.1

:

:

:

17.3

20.1

23.7

:

:

:

:

34.2

39.6

:

:

29.1

5.5

21.6

:

7.9

:

:

:

:

:

29.8

5.4

22.3

:

8.5

:

:

:

34.4

42.5

:

:

16.1

:

:

:

:

17.7

15.3

:

:

:

45.8

37.6

:

32.9

5.3

21.7

:

8.2

:

20.5

:

48.4

22.7

:

20.0

17.1

:

8.3

11.0

11.9

20.4

27.9

21.1

131.7

52.7

45.7

57.0

33.2

5.8

24.8

52.1

9.0

4.8

29.0

18.2

54.5

25.8

1.1

23.5

19.6

12.1

16.0

8.4

7.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

22.1

36.7

:

6.8

171.4

143.0

28.3

40.5

32.3

46.7

67.9

UK
(1) Commercial holdings exclude the very smallest (subsistence) holdings of less than 1 ESU.
(2) The Netherlands, 2003.

70.1

67.7

55.6

78.6

84.6

81.6

78.4

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU)

  From farm to fork

29

2 Farm production stage

Of  the  9.0  million  agricultural  holdings  in  the  EU-27  that  had 
livestock  in  2005  (see  Table  2.5),  three  quarters  (75.2 %)  were 
agricultural holdings with less than 5 livestock units (LSU). Slightly 
more than half (53.9 %) of all agricultural holdings with more than 
100 LSU were located in France, Germany and the United Kingdom, 
although livestock density in these three countries was only slightly 
above  the  EU-27  average  (see  Figure  2.3),  and  considerably  less 
than in Malta, the Netherlands and Belgium. Th  e lowest livestock 
densities were recorded in the Baltic Member States and Slovakia.

Table 2.5: Number of agricultural holdings by livestock units, 2005
(1 000)

Size class of holding in livestock units (LSU)

20<50 50<100

>=100

Total

14 482

0

5 491

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

52

535

42

52

390

28

133

834

1 079

567

1 729

45

129

253

2

715

11

82

171

2 476

324

4 256

77

68

71

76

13

57

11

20

109

10

4

430

756

198

1 432

33

45

29

0

218

8

26

49

938

91

812

10

11

41

34

0<5

6 758

5

445

20

7

58

14

11

321

154

102

161

9

69

160

0

461

2

7

39

1 105

194

3 257

42

54

4

12

5<20

1 156

7

28

6

7

70

3

35

48

65

59

63

1

11

59

0

29

0

11

45

332

23

172

20

1

8

12

506

288

6

3

2

4

61

1

43

26

50

66

38

1

2

3

0

4

0

8

27

82

9

12

4

0

12

8

8

1

1

3

46

0

25

6

26

77

19

0

0

1

1

1

0

12

7

13

4

2

1

0

4

5

283

12

1

2

10

47

0

14

2

28

64

16

0

0

0

1

2

0

19

3

7

3

1

0

1

2

4

42

287

UK
Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU and 
EF_LS_OVLSUREG)

104

32

43

41

25

30

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Figure 2.3: Livestock density index, 2005
(LSU per hectare of UAA)

0

1

2

3

4

5

MT

NL

BE

DK

CY

IE

LU

SI

DE

UK

FR

EU-27

IT

AT

PL

EL

HU

CZ

ES

SE

PT

FI

BG

RO

LT

SK

EE

LV

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_LS_OVAAREG and 
EF_OV_LUFT)

  From farm to fork

31

2 Farm production stage

Agriculture  remains  very  much  a  family-oriented  activity  in  the 
majority  of  Member  States:  of  the  17.9  million  persons  working 
regularly  on  commercial  agricultural  holdings  across  the  EU-27 
in  2005,  around  90 %  were  farm  holders  or  members  of  their 
families  (see  Table  2.6).  Th  e  main  exceptions  were  in  Slovakia 
and  the  Czech  Republic,  where  diff erent  ownership  structures 
led to the family labour force representing between just 15 % and 
20 %  of  the  total  labour  force.  Most  regular  non-family  workers 
on  agricultural  holdings  tended  to  work  on  a  full-time  basis,  in 
contrast to many family members who only worked part-time (see 
Table 2.7).

Table 2.6: EU agricultural farm labour force, 2005 (1)

Family labour force
16.1 million persons
of which, 42 % women
AWUs: 7.4 million

Non-family labour force
AWUs: 2.3 million

Holders
7.6 million
persons
of which,
23% women
AWUs:
4.2 million

Spouses of
the holders
4.2 million
persons
of which,
80% women
AWUs:
1.9 million

Other family 
members
4.3 million
persons
of which,
36% women
AWUs:
1.4 million

Regular non-
family labour
1.8 million
persons
of which,
28% women
AWUs:
1.5 million

Non-regular
labour force

AWUs:
0.9 million

(1) Excluding subsistence labour on holdings of less than 1 ESU.

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LFFT)

32

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.7: Farm labour force, 2005

Total 
farm 
labour 
force
(1 000 
AWU)
12 716

Subsist-
ence 
labour
(1)
(1 000 
AWU)
2 929

Non-family labour

  Family 
  labour (2)
(1 000 
persons)
16 136

(1 000 
AWU)
7 447

     Regular (2)

(1 000 
persons)
1 834

(1 000 
AWU)
1 459

Non-
regular 
(2)
(1 000 
AWU)
881

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

70

625

152

60

643

37

152

601

993

855

1

378

10

0

9

9

4

24

43

11

79

260

43

73

772

34

226

1 272

1 796

667

55

168

28

38

441

15

137

470

609

413

1 374

102

2 597

1 026

29

137

222

4

463

4

174

166

2 274

398

2 596

95

99

83

71

3

55

69

0

232

0

0

14

547

81

54

99

286

5

323

14

160

354

18

66

125

3

139

4

110

138

2 671

1 608

535

251

1 241

3 000

1 180

12

32

0

4

75

10

70

49

168

27

139

118

362

14

56

116

24

168

14

14

25

195

424

150

5

18

26

1

94

1

77

17

64

48

71

4

60

14

21

11

53

104

20

141

12

7

18

156

339

105

5

14

22

1

83

0

51

10

58

40

53

3

53

8

14

77

3

26

10

2

52

1

4

88

184

92

141

3

2

5

0

9

0

13

4

61

26

121

4

3

5

3

19

339

UK
(1) Labour on holdings of less than 1 ESU.
(2) Excluding subsistence labour.

47

197

116

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LFFT)

  From farm to fork

33

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.4: Overall change in the farm labour force, 2000-2007
(%, based on AWUs)

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

EL
IE
SE
BE
PL
LU
AT
FR
CZ
LV
CY
MT
ES
NL
SI
UK
IT
DE
FI
EU-27
PT
DK
HU
RO
BG
LT
SK
EE

Source:  Eurostat (Agricultural labour input statistics, AACT_ALI02)

Th  ere  was  a  sharp  decline  in  the  volume  of  agricultural  labour 
used in most of the Member States during the period from 2000 
to  2007  (see  Figure  2.4).  Across  the  EU-27  the  labour  force 
shrank  by  19.5 %  during  the  period  considered.  Th  e  most  rapid 
declines  (between  32 %  and  44 %)  were  registered  in  Romania, 
Bulgaria, Lithuania, Slovakia and Estonia, in large part refl ecting 
structural  adjustments  during  the  period  aft er  land  restitution 
and the relative pull from other sectors of the economy off ering 
alternative employment opportunities. Th  e relatively stable levels 

34

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.8: Commercial farm labour force, selected farm 
typologies, 2005 (1)
(% of all holdings)

Mixed
crops Dairy
9.7

10.6

Field 
crops
8.9

EU-27

Mixed 
crop & 
live-
stock Cereal
7.7

8.7

Mixed 
live-
stock
7.4

Horti-

culture Other
41.4

5.5

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

3.1

8.6

15.9

2.6

3.9

8.0

0.2

12.6

7.9

4.4

10.9

12.1

9.7

16.4

0.8

13.1

28.9

2.3

2.9

12.3

20.2

19.5

14.2

8.9

2.1

2.1

1.9

15.3

9.7

5.3

18.2

24.0

27.3

22.2

0.9

5.7

12.9

5.8

2.6

22.6

13.0

33.9

6.1

5.4

22.6

31.0

6.4

6.5

5.1

20.8

9.5

35.4

24.4

15.8

9.2

22.1

10.0

15.3

10.9

9.2

2.0

18.0

5.6

7.5

10.4

8.2

8.9

6.2

0.5

9.2

3.6

9.0

5.4

7.9

7.5

5.6

2.2

9.1

11.7

23.3

9.6

9.3

7.1

28.9

4.8

11.2

19.1

2.7

3.3

2.5

8.1

2.9

0.9

23.0

17.2

6.8

7.5

0.0

2.0

3.7

13.5

4.6

13.3

5.5

36.3

7.4

10.7

6.0

2.0

17.4

8.6

21.7

9.7

10.2

1.8

3.9

7.8

11.0

9.2

2.0

6.1

7.4

3.8

20.2

0.0

0.6

7.8

4.0

1.7

5.9

1.9

15.1

19.7

15.5

13.1

2.0

5.7

5.4

0.6

2.2

9.1

0.1

3.4

2.3

2.0

1.6

0.9

17.3

23.5

2.3

4.2

2.1

0.4

1.4

10.5

6.0

23.8

16.3

3.9

0.4

0.6

0.3

16.5

6.0

2.8

8.0

6.8

2.7

0.6

4.5

11.5

6.3

4.7

10.5

1.4

2.6

3.5

5.9

23.5

32.7

1.4

3.4

6.1

1.5

1.3

0.6

8.6

5.2

7.6

42.6

23.4

23.0

28.7

31.4

14.4

70.3

53.4

56.6

47.8

54.7

62.7

11.0

13.7

48.4

33.8

36.4

30.4

46.4

41.9

47.3

25.3

37.8

16.5

14.7

18.3

45.7

(1) Excluding labour on holdings of less than 1 ESU.

Source:  Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_LFFT)

of  agricultural  labour  witnessed  in  Greece,  Ireland  and  Sweden 
should, nevertheless, be seen against the backdrop of substantial 
reductions during the decade to 2000, as the volume of agricultural 
labour almost halved in Ireland and was reduced by about a third 
in Sweden and a quarter in Greece between 1990 and 2000.

Across the EU-27, more people worked on mixed crop farms than 
on any other farm type (see Table 2.8). In 11 of the Member States, 
however,  the  largest  proportion  of  the  agricultural  workforce 
worked on dairy farms.

  From farm to fork

35

2 Farm production stage

Organic farming is carried out by a relatively small proportion of 
agricultural holdings; the 158 000 holdings across the EU-25 that 
were  organic  in  2005  represented  less  than  2 %  of  the  total  (see 
Table 2.9). Against a background of general decline in the number 
of agricultural holdings, the number of organic holdings increased 
in several Member States, most notably Austria, France, Germany 
and  Greece.  In  Italy,  where  there  was  a  notable  decline  in  the 
number of organic holdings, the organic crop area increased.

Table 2.9: Organic farming

Producers (1)

Organic crop area (2)

 (1 000)

(% of all 
holdings)

(1 000 hectares)

2000

2005
: 157.77
0.72
:
0.84
3.04
17.02
1.01
0.96
15.67
15.26
11.40
44.86
0.16
2.87
1.80
0.07
1.73
0.01
1.38
20.32
3.76
1.58
:
1.72
0.20
4.63
2.53
4.24

0.62
:
:
3.47
12.74
:
0.85
5.34
13.39
8.99
52.80
:
:
:
0.03
:
:
1.13
18.39
:
0.75
:
:
:
5.23
3.63
3.56

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

2005
1.6
1.4
:
2.0
5.9
4.4
3.7
0.7
1.9
1.4
2.0
2.6
0.4
2.2
0.7
3.0
0.2
0.1
1.7
11.9
0.2
0.5
:
2.2
0.3
6.6
3.3
1.5

2000

20.7
:
:
157.7
546.0
:
27.2
26.7
380.9
369.9

2005
: 6 165.3
23.0
4.7
255.0
134.1
807.4
59.7
34.9
288.7
807.6
550.5
1 040.4 1 069.5
1.7
118.6
64.5
3.2
128.6
0.0
48.8
360.4
82.7
233.5
107.6
23.5
90.2
147.6
222.7
609.0

:
:
:
1.1
:
:
32.3
275.8
:
48.1
:
:
:
147.3
174.2
578.8

Average
 organic
 area/
holding
(hectares)

2005
39.1
31.9
:
305.4
44.2
47.4
59.0
36.5
18.4
52.9
48.3
23.8
5.5
41.3
35.8
42.7
76.8
2.3
35.4
17.7
22.0
148.0
:
13.6
462.6
31.9
88.0
143.7

(% of
 total
 UAA)

2005
4.0
1.7
0.2
7.2
5.0
4.7
7.2
0.8
7.2
3.2
2.0
8.4
1.1
7.0
2.3
2.4
3.0
0.1
2.5
11.0
0.6
6.3
0.8
4.8
4.8
6.5
7.0
3.8

(1) Cyprus, Hungary and Poland, 2004; Lithuania, Eurostat estimate for 2005 taken from 
Statistics in Focus 69/2007) 
(2) Fully converted and under conversion. Bulgaria and Romania, 2006; Luxembourg and 
Poland, 2004.

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT2 and FOOD_IN_PORG1 and 
Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU)

36

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Organic  farming  area  in  the  EU-25  represented  around  4 %  of 
utilised agricultural area in 2005, although this proportion rose to 
7.2 % in Estonia and the Czech Republic among the Member States 
that joined the EU in 2004, 8.4 % in Italy and 11.0 % in Austria. 
A little less than one fi ft h of the total organic area of the EU-25 
was found in Italy in 2005, while the highest share among those 
countries that joined the EU in 2004 was in the Czech Republic 
(4 %).

Th  e  average  size  of  organic  agricultural  holdings  (an  estimated 
39.1 hectares for the EU-25) in 2005 tended to be higher than the 
average size for all commercial agricultural holdings (20.7 hectares 
for  the  EU-27),  perhaps  refl ecting  the  more  extensive  nature  of 
organic farming. Th  is contrast was particularly clear in Portugal, 
where the average size of an organic holding was 148.0 hectares 
compared  with  an  average  16.0  hectares  for  all  agricultural 
holdings.  Th  e  largest  organic  holdings  were,  on  average,  in  the 
Czech Republic and Slovakia – the same two countries with the 
largest average size for all agricultural holdings.

Map 2.1: Organic area (fully converted area and area under 
conversion) against total Utilised Agricultural Area in %, 2005

Organic area
(fully converted area and area under conversion)
against total Utilised Agricultural Area in %, 2005

<= 2 %

2 - <= 4 %

4 - <= 6 %

6 - <= 8 %

> 8 %

Data not available

Organic area data: BG, RO 2006; LU, PL 2004
AT organic area does not include alpine pastures
and meadows

Data source: Eurostat 
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat — GISCO, 04/2008

0

600 km

Malta

0

10

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PORG1 and Survey on the 
structure of agricultural holdings, EF_OV_KVAAESU)

  From farm to fork

37

2 Farm production stage

Inputs used in agriculture

As well as fi xed assets such as land, labour and capital, agricultural 
production  also  requires  variable  or 
inputs 
(consumption  goods  and  services).  Th  e  volume  of  intermediate 
consumption  goods  and  services  used  in  agriculture  can  refl ect 
price developments, environmental considerations, technological 
progress, or changes in production structure.

intermediate 

Animal feed is usually either forage or commercial compound feed. 
Th  e  ingredients  in  the  compound  feed  vary,  but  in  recent  years 
there have been signifi cant developments. Following animal health 
scares, the use of animal and bone meal in animal feed was banned 
in January 2001 and there has also been a withdrawal of some feed 
additives for toxicological precautions. Growth in the volume of 
animal feedingstuff s consumed in the EU-15 accelerated sharply 
during the period between 2005 and 2007 (see Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: Consumption of feedingstuff s, EU-15
(2000=100)

160

140

120

100

80

60

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Source:  Eurostat (Economic accounts for agriculture, AACT_EAA04)

38

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.10: Consumption of seeds, 2006
(1 000 tonnes)

Cereals (1)

of which :
own-
produced

(%) Wheat
36
4.3

Grain
maize
1

Rice (2)
0

Dried 
pulses 
(3)
0

Potatoes 
(4)
71

99.7

47.5

0.0

43.3

:

10.2

52.6

:

:

7.9

:

59.0

97.4

9.4

23.6

:

6.0

0.0

90.0

:

70.5

:

0.0

100.0

32.6

56.3

280

185

124

561

23

18

140

:

744

399

:

48

71

3

272

0

82

52

564

19

696

:

103

61

75

254

8

13

0

57

0

2

5

:

90

28

:

0

2

1

39

0

12

8

49

4

65

:

21

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

3

:

2

34

:

0

0

:

0

:

:

0

0

:

1

:

0

:

0

:

2

12

3

41

1

:

2

:

98

29

:

1

11

0

2

0

1

7

21

1

12

:

4

1

7

:

72

115

100

704

36

37

89

:

320

190

:

164

189

2

60

0

:

53

1 480

60

862

:

35

59

78

387

Total
43

359

338

273

1 089

66

49

175

:

1 116

529

:

113

187

7

451

0

100

115

1 756

40

927

:

191

283

175

416

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

(1) Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Finland, 2005.
(2) The Czech Republic, 2005.
(3) The Czech Republic and Finland, 2005.
(4) Finland, 2005.

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_ASEED1 and 
FOOD_IN_ASEED2)

  From farm to fork

39

2 Farm production stage

Fertilisers are used by farmers to provide plants with the nutrients 
that they require for growth. Fertilisers can be organic in nature 
(comprising  organic  matter)  but  are  mainly  inorganic,  mineral 
compounds.  Th  e  intensity  of  fertiliser  use  has  implications  not 
only for production but also for the environment (such as through 
the leaching of nitrates and phosphates into water). Th  e majority 
of fertilisers used in the EU-27 are nitrogenous, with phosphatic 
fertilisers and potash used in broadly equal measure (see Figure 
2.6). Th  e application rate of fertilisers per hectare of arable land 
was highest in the Benelux countries, Slovenia and Ireland in 2001 
and  lowest  in  some  of  the  Baltic  Member  States,  Bulgaria  and 
Romania.

Plant  protection  products  collectively  represent  products  that 
prevent,  control  or  limit  damage  to  plant  yields  from  disease 
(fungal  or  other),  pests  and  competing  weeds;  some  crops  are 
more susceptible to infection and attack than others. Th  e intensity 
of  plant  protection  product  consumption  among  the  EU-27 
Member States was highest in Portugal (predominantly in the use 
of fungicide products) and the Benelux countries (fungicides and 
herbicides used in almost equal measure) and lowest in the Baltic 
Member States in 2003 (see Figure 2.7). High application intensity 
does not necessarily mean a threat to the environment, but does 
suggest that attention should be given to soil and water pollution 
levels and the impact of plant protection products on insects and 
invertebrates.

Spending  on  fertilisers,  soil  improvers  and  plant  protection 
products  is  not  only  a  function  of  the  quantities  used  but  also 
price,  which  can  vary  signifi cantly  according  to  the  price  of 
energy. Removing these price fl uctuations, the average spend on 
fertilisers  and  soil  improvers  per  hectare  of  utilised  agricultural 
area was highest in Belgium in 2005, followed by the Netherlands 
and  Malta  (see  Table  2.11),  in  part  refl ecting  the  importance  of 
horticulture  and  permanent  crops,  as  well  as  generally  intensive 
farming systems. Th  e Netherlands and Belgium also spent by far 
the most on plant protection products per hectare of arable land 
between 1995 and 2005.

40

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Figure 2.6: Fertiliser consumption, 2001
(kg of active ingredient per hectare of arable land)

0

100

200

300

400

500

IE

SI

NL

BE & LU

UK

CY

FR

DE

IT

ES

EU-27

AT

EL

PT

FI

CZ

DK

PL

SE

LT

HU

SK

LV

EE

BG

RO

MT (1)

(1) Not available.

Nitrogenous

Phosphate

Potash

Source:  Eurostat (Agriculture and environment statistics, ENV_AG_FERT and Agricultural 
products statistics, APRO_CPP_LUSE)

  From farm to fork

41

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.7: Consumption of plant protection products, 2003
(kg of active ingredient per hectare of utilised agricultural area)

0

2

4

6

8

PT

NL

BE & LU

FR

IT

UK

CY

EU-25

SI

ES

DE

EL

CZ

HU

IE

AT

DK

SK

PL

SE

FI

EE

LT

LV

BG (1)

MT (1)

RO (1)

Fungicides

Herbicides

Insecticides

Others

(1) Not available.

Source:  Eurostat (Plant protection products publication, 2007)

42

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.11: Spending on fertilisers and plant protection 
products (1)

Fertilisers and soil improvers
(EUR / hectare of UAA)
1995

2005

2000
59.4

Plant protection products 
(EUR / hectare of arable land)
2000 (2)
76.0

1995

:

2005 (3)

:

:

EU-27

:

159.2

164.4

155.7

210.7

223.3

224.0

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

:

:

92.5

90.2

8.7

95.9

49.4

37.8

96.9

68.3

:

:

12.3

87.2

:

:

165.7

36.3

:

29.8

:

43.6

29.6

113.4

67.0

40.0

26.5

74.1

102.8

8.0

85.4

64.7

45.1

92.4

57.4

:

8.0

24.4

72.9

36.0

117.1

132.5

33.4

31.1

32.1

12.8

61.3

22.2

99.6

73.9

21.7

24.8

60.4

73.0

13.1

64.3

48.0

36.3

84.5

66.4

:

23.1

35.2

66.1

36.6

123.2

129.5

32.3

36.6

32.7

32.0

74.2

32.4

89.2

63.0

:

:

82.7

98.1

2.9

40.5

101.4

44.8

141.4

101.2

:

:

24.2

57.8

:

:

304.2

53.9

:

28.3

:

78.1

41.5

17.6

23.7

:

32.0

62.4

:

48.7

71.7

113.8

133.9

3.3

43.2

76.2

65.7

153.7

81.0

:

5.4

12.5

71.0

36.9

101.6

306.9

71.1

23.9

54.2

11.2

10.3

45.3

73.1

50.5

138.3

78.6

:

21.8

37.3

95.0

41.7

103.9

292.6

63.5

26.6

74.4

17.9

111.1

129.7

50.6

22.8

39.4

61.2

33.8

34.0

155.7

160.7

84.3

UK
(1) Values are in constant prices, at the level of 2000.
(2) Estonia, Hungary and Malta, 1999; the United Kingdom, 1998.
(3) The United Kingdom, 2003.

150.6

76.6

54.7

Source:  Eurostat (Economic Accounts for Agriculture, AACT_EAA03 and the Agricultural 
Information System, AGR_IS)

  From farm to fork

43

2 Farm production stage

In addition to fertilisers and plant protection products, genetically 
modifi ed  organisms  (GMOs)  present  another,  sometimes 
controversial,  means  of  controlling  pests  and  diseases  as  well  as 
improving  yields.  Since  the  early  1990s  there  has  been  specifi c 
Community  legislation  on  GMOs,  partly  designed  to  protect 
citizens’  health  and  the  environment.  Since  the  entry  into  force 
of this legislation, the commercial release of 18 GMOs has been 
authorised in the EU, although none since October 1998. Recent 
legislation  distinguishes  between  the  deliberate  release  into  the 
environment  of  GMOs  (Directive  2001/18/EC  of  the  European 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council)  and  the  placing  on  the  market 
of  GMO  food  and  feed,  or  food  and  feed  products  containing 
or  consisting  of  GMOs  (Regulation  (EC)  No  1829/2003  of  the 
European Parliament and of the Council).

Globally, by far the largest area sown with GMOs is in the United 
States, followed by Argentina and Brazil (see Table 2.12). Regarding 
food and feed, the most important GMO crops are soybean and 
maize.  Despite  a  slight  dip  in  2007,  there  was  relatively  steady 
growth in the volume of imports of animal feed from non-Member 
countries into the EU-27 aft er 2000 (see Figure 2.8). With a steady 
decline in maize starch residues and little change in vegetable fat 
or  oil  based  oilcakes,  the  overall  growth  in  imports  during  this 
period  could  be  almost  entirely  attributed  to  rapid  growth  in 
the  volume  of  soya-bean  oilcake  imports.  Argentina  and  Brazil 
together  accounted  for  just  over  three  quarters  (78.0 %)  of  the 
EU-27’s imports of animal feed in 2007 (see Figure 2.9).

Table 2.12: Top 10 producers of genetically modifi ed organisms 
(GMO) by area and main biotech crop, 2007

Country

1 USA

2 Argentina

3 Brazil

4 Canada

5 India
6 China

7 Paraguay

8 South Africa

9 Uruguay

Area
(million hectares) Main crops
57.7

Soybean, maize, cotton, canola, squash, 
papaya, alfalfa
Soybean, maize, cotton

Soybean, cotton

Canola, maize, soybean

Cotton
Cotton, tomato, poplar, petunia, 
papaya, sweet pepper
Soybean

19.1

15.0

7.0

6.2
3.8

2.6

1.8 Maize, soybean, cotton

0.5

Soybean, maize

10 Philippines
Source: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) and 
Clive James

0.3 Maize

44

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Figure 2.8: Imports of animal feedingstuff s from outside the EU-27
(million tonnes)

40

30

20

10

0

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Animal feedingstuffs
Oilcake & other residues (soya-bean oil based)
Oilcake & other residues (veg. fats or oil based)
Maize starch residues

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

Figure 2.9: Imports of animal feedingstuff s from outside the 
EU: main trading partners, 2007
(% of EU-27 imports)

Indonesia
3%

Others
10%

Malaysia
4%

USA
6%

Brazil
28%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

Argentina
49%

  From farm to fork

45

2 Farm production stage

Intermediate consumption costs corresponded to more than half 
(57.8 %) of the value of agricultural output at basic prices generated 
across the EU-27 in 2006. Costs associated with animal production 
accounted  for  38.6 %  of  total  intermediate  consumption  costs 
in  2006,  the  overwhelming  part  of  which  was  accounted  for  by 
animal feed (see Figure 2.10). Fertilisers, plant protection products 
and seeds, which are key costs within crop farming, accounted for 
16.5 % of total intermediate consumption costs. Of the remaining 
costs,  the  category  for  other  goods  and  services  –  that  includes 
rental paid and fees for agricultural consultants and accountants 
among other items – accounted for a further 15.1 % of total costs, 
and energy and lubricants for a further 12.3 %.

Among the Member States, animal feedingstuff s accounted for over 
half of total intermediate consumption costs in Slovenia, Cyprus 
and  Estonia  in  2006,  but  closer  to  25 %  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
United  Kingdom,  Sweden  and  Bulgaria  (see  Table  2.13).  Energy 
costs accounted for over a quarter (27.1 %) of total intermediate 
consumption costs in Poland, more than twice the EU-27 average 
in  2006.  Other  goods  and  services  accounted  for  about  30 %  of 
total intermediate consumption costs in Portugal, about twice the 
EU-27 average, and one quarter of total costs in Sweden and the 
United Kingdom.

Figure 2.10: Intermediate consumption goods and services in 
agriculture, EU-27, 2006
(%, in value terms) 

Animal 
feedingstuffs
36%

Others
23%

Fertilisers 
and soil 
improvers
7%

Agricultural 
services
7%

Energy and 
lubricants
12%

Other goods 
and services
15%

Source: Eurostat (Economic Accounts for Agriculture, AACT_EAA01)

46

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.13: Value of intermediate consumption goods and 
services in agriculture, 2006
(%)

Animal 
feeding-
stuffs
35.6

Fertilisers & 
soil
improvers
6.8

Energy &
lubricants
12.3

Agri-
cultural
services
7.3

Other 
goods &
services
15.1

Others
22.9

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

45.1

22.5

37.9

43.7

39.6

55.9

46.6

34.6

42.8

33.5

35.6

54.8

37.8

39.4

34.6

29.5

49.3

26.3

38.5

36.4

34.2

39.4

53.4

26.0

38.1

25.1

25.8

5.1

7.8

5.7

3.4

6.6

4.7

9.7

5.3

7.7

8.5

6.2

4.4

8.8

14.4

7.4

7.9

2.2

2.5

4.0

8.9

3.8

5.0

5.6

6.5

7.9

7.3

8.3

9.7

22.5

12.1

7.5

11.7

14.5

7.9

21.7

10.3

8.9

12.5

8.1

17.8

15.7

9.5

16.3

13.2

16.4

10.6

27.1

10.9

12.9

13.7

13.3

10.8

12.4

8.8

2.0

12.7

3.1

6.6

5.7

3.2

7.0

12.8

3.7

8.8

10.9

0.2

4.1

3.1

5.0

9.6

0.0

14.2

7.2

4.3

6.1

1.8

3.2

5.5

2.5

9.2

6.7

7.0

9.0

15.7

17.6

15.0

9.5

11.1

7.1

7.6

14.8

15.7

8.8

10.4

10.4

15.8

13.1

13.1

19.9

19.3

3.1

30.4

15.7

5.5

23.6

20.6

25.0

24.7

31.1

25.6

25.6

21.1

21.4

12.2

17.7

18.5

27.9

25.5

19.1

23.6

21.1

17.0

27.6

23.5

22.1

20.7

20.4

20.3

14.7

25.2

18.7

25.1

20.0

21.0

25.7

Source: Eurostat (Economic Accounts for Agriculture, AACT_EAA01)

  From farm to fork

47

2 Farm production stage

Agricultural production

Th  e  livestock  population  across  the  EU-27  comprised  about 
161 million pigs, 95 million sheep, and 88 million head of cattle 
in 2006 (see Table 2.14), as well as 1.5 billion poultry birds. A little 
under  half  (47.4 %)  of  the  EU-27’s  cattle  population  was  found 
in  France,  Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom  (see  Figure  2.11). 
A  similar  proportion  (44.2 %)  of  the  pig  population  was 
concentrated in Germany, Spain and Poland, while a little under 
half (47.6 %) of the sheep population of the EU-27 was located in 
the United Kingdom and Spain.

Table 2.14: Livestock population, EU-27, 2006
(1 000 heads)

EU-27

Pigs
161 526

Laying hens 
(1)
478 600

Sheep
95 099

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

6 304

1 013

2 741

13 613

26 602

341

1 620

1 033

26 034

15 009

9 281

453

417

1 127

87

3 987

74

11 220

3 139

18 813

2 296

6 815

575

1 105

1 435

1 662

4 731

:    

1 635

169

98

2 017

58

3 826

8 976

21 847

8 494

8 227

272

41

37

9

1 298

12

1 755

312

301

3 549

7 678

132

333

88

506

23 429

10 613

8 263

9 917

2 759

43 300

797

4 133

13 823

:    

62 403

55 500

472

2 115

4 377

:    

14 425

500

:    

5 552

44 551

7 677

40 223

:    

:    

3 180

5 065

36 600

Cattle 

Total
88 463

2 607

637

1 390

1 579

12 677

245

6 002

683

6 184

18 902

6 340

56

377

839

186

702

19

3 673

2 003

5 281

1 407

2 934

454

508

929

1 516

10 335

of which:
dairy cows
24 305

532

350

417

555

4 054

109

1 087

168

942

3 799

1 814

24

182

399

46

268

8

1 443

527

2 637

307

1 639

113

185

309

385

2 005

(1) EU-27, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, France, Finland and Sweden, 2005.

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR1)

48

From farm to fork 

Figure 2.11a: Cattle population, 2006 
(% of EU-27 total)

Other 
Member 
States
39%

Farm production stage

2

France
21%

Germany
14%

Spain
7%

Italy
7%

United 
Kingdom
12%

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR1)

Figure 2.11b: Pig population, 2006 
(% of EU-27 total)

Other 
Member 
States
39%

Germany
16%

Spain
16%

Denmark
8%

France
9%

Poland
12%

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR1)

  From farm to fork

49

2 Farm production stage

Th  e  quantity  of  milk  produced  in  the  EU-27  is  controlled  by  a 
system of production quotas. Th  e milk quota for the EU-25 was 
set  at  138  million  in  2006  to  which  a  further  total  of  4  million 
tonnes  of  quota  were  added  for  Romania  and  Bulgaria  in  2007. 
Most dairy farmers sell their milk to dairy processors and it then 
enters  the  food  chain.  Other  dairy  farmers  market  their  milk 
directly to consumers and on some dairy farms milk is consumed 
on the farm. Of the 148.1 million tonnes of milk produced across 
the EU-27 in 2006, the vast majority (89.5 %) – some 132.5 million 
tonnes  of  milk  –  was  collected  (see  Table  2.15).  In  some  of  the 
newer  Member  States  (particularly  those  in  eastern  Europe)  a 
signifi cant  proportion  of  milk  production  is  consumed  on  the 
farm; only about one fi ft h (21.4 %) of milk produced in Romania 
was  collected.  Over  two  thirds  (70.4 %)  of  the  milk  collected  in 
the EU-27 came from Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the 
Netherlands, Italy and Poland (see Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12: Cows’ milk collected, 2006
(% of EU-27 total)

Other 
Member 
States
37%

Germany
20%

France
17%

Italy
8%

Netherlands
8%

United 
Kingdom
10%

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR4)

50

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.15: Milk production and collection, 2006
(1 000 tonnes)

Cows' milk

Ewes' milk

Goats' milk

Produc-
tion

Collec-
tion
EU-27 148 128 132 589
2 837
2 917

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

1 299

2 767

4 627

839

2 393

4 492

27 995

26 876

692

606

5 272

5 234

764

670

6 469

5 824

24 316

22 892

10 989

10 193

149

812

139

592

1 885

1 296

268

255

1 844

1 399

41

41

10 995

10 657

3 147

11 982

1 984

5 290

642

1 092

2 413

3 130

2 674

8 826

1 851

1 133

511

962

2 348

3 130

14 348

13 920

Produc-
tion
:  

Collec-
tion
:

Produc-
tion
:  

Collec-
tion
:  

:  

108

:  

0

:  

:  

:  

663

439

270

548

16

:  

:  

:  

3

2

:  

8

1

100

436

0

9

0

0

0

0

40

0

0

0

:  

:  

467

389

267

463

15

:  

0

:  

1

:  

:  

3

0

26

9

:  

4

:  

0

0

:  

102

:  

0

35

1

:  

427

504

593

53

24

3

7

1

4

1

7

3

0

0

0

:  

:  

214

356

456

27

20

:  

0

1

:  

:  

141

138

14

20

29

215

1

0

:  

0

0

3

2

13

3

:  

0

:  

0

0

Buffalos' milk
Produc-
tion
:  

Collec-
tion
:  

:  

7

:  

0

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

2

0

0

0

:  

:  

:  

0

0

221

195

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

0

28

:  

:  

0

0

0

0

:  

0

:  

:  

:  

:  

0

0

0

5

:  

0

:  

0

0

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR3 and FOOD_IN_
PAGR4)

  From farm to fork

51

2 Farm production stage

Despite the vagaries of the weather, cereal production across the 
EU-27  was  quite  stable  in  the  period  between  1996  and  2006 
(see  Figure  2.13).  In  contrast,  there  were  notable  declines  in 
potato  (down  36.6 %)  and  sugar  beet  (down  24.2 %)  output.  In 
the  case  of  sugar  beet,  a  reorganisation  of  markets  in  the  sugar 
sector (Council Regulation (EC) No 318/2006) and the associated 
renunciation  of  the  sugar  quota  could  explain  the  sharp  fall  in 
sugar beet production in 2006, while many commentators expect 
further substantial declines.

France and Germany were, by far, the largest producers of cereals 
in  2006  accounting  for  about  two  fi ft hs  (39.0 %)  of  total  EU-27 
production  (see  Table  2.16),  Poland  being  the  third  largest 
producer.  Germany  and  Poland  were  the  largest  producers  of 
potatoes, accounting for one third (33.5 %) of EU-27 production. 
France was the main producer of sugar beet in 2006, accounting 
for  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  (27.0 %)  of  the  EU-27’s  total 
production, with Germany (18.7 %) and Poland (10.4 %), the next 
largest producers.

Figure 2.13: Crop production, EU-27
(million tonnes)

175

150

125

100

75

50

25

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Sugar beet

Potatoes

Grain maize

Wheat

Barley

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR5)

52

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.16: Crop production, 2006 
(1 000 tonnes)

Cereals

EU-27

Total
269 398

Wheat
126 634

Barley
56 197

Grain
maize
55 488

576

1 588

606

:  

2 742

5 532

6 386

8 632

1 720

3 302

3 506

4 802

367

546

1 898

3 270

43 475

22 428

11 967

3 220

619

2 090

3 804

19 363

61 708

20 207

67

1 159

1 856

162

220

801

1 576

5 576

35 364

7 182

7

598

810

76

303

1 137

229

8 318

10 401

1 282

58

307

742

50

:  

0

1 647

3 461

12 904

9 671

:  

:  

5

2

14 467

4 376

1 075

8 282

:

1 750

4 460

21 776

1 167

15 759

494

2 929

3 790

4 128

:

1 185

1 396

7 060

250

5 526

134

1 343

684

1 967

20 878

14 747

:

269

914

3 161

106

773

62

642

1 972

1 111

5 239

:  

181

1 472

1 261

514

8 985

276

838

:  

:  

0

Potatoes
56 711

Sugar 
beet
110 628

2 593

386

692

1 361

10 031

153

404

855

2 502

6 363

1 783

125

551

409

16

564

19

6 240

655

8 982

611

4 016

107

263

576

773

5 684

5 667

27

3 138

2 314

20 647

0

76

1 650

6 045

29 871

4 770

:  

474

717

0

2 454

:  

5 414

2 493

11 475

320

1 152

262

1 371

952

2 189

7 150

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR5)

  From farm to fork

53

2 Farm production stage

Despite  the  highly  perishable  nature  of  fruit  and  vegetables  and 
their susceptibility to damage from pests and inclement weather, 
the production of most of the main types of fruit and vegetables 
across  the  EU-27  as  a  whole  was  generally  stable  in  the  period 
between  1996  and  2006  (see  Figure  2.14).  Th  e  main  exception 
concerned  tomatoes,  for  which  production  fl uctuated  between 
about 15 million and 18 million tonnes.

Th  e  bulk  of  fruit  and  vegetables  production  in  the  EU-27  tends 
to  be  concentrated  in  a  few  Member  States.  Among  vegetables, 
about two thirds (63.4 %) of the EU-27’s tomatoes came from Italy 
and Spain in 2006, about 60 % of carrots came from Poland, the 
United  Kingdom,  France,  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  and  about 
half (52.0 %) of all onions came from Spain, the Netherlands and 
Poland (see Table 2.17). A similar pattern was observed for fruit, 
as  orange  production  was  concentrated  in  the  Mediterranean 
Member  States  (particularly  Spain  and  Italy),  while  a  majority 
(56.1 %) of the EU’s apple production in 2006 came from Poland, 
France and Italy.

Figure 2.14: Fruit and vegetable production, EU-27
(million tonnes)

20

15

10

5

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Tomatoes
Carrots

Apples
Onions

Oranges
Pears

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR5)

54

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Table 2.17: Fruit and vegetable production, 2006
(1 000 tonnes)

Tomatoes
15 828

Carrots
5 381

Onions
5 115

Apples Oranges
11 585

6 678

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

238

213

:  

18

53

1

:  

1 550

3 679

740

6 351

35

0

1

0

205

16

675

39

247

:  

572

5

36

39

17

236

13

23

69

504

9

:  

37

:  

625

622

2

32

34

0

84

1

541

77

833

:  

194

3

13

57

117

55

20

51

56

337

0

:  

199

1 151

321

378

7

14

8

0

95

7

920

100

590

:  

251

5

13

18

:  

358

26

:  

32

948

1

:  

263

661

2 080

2 113

11

34

75

9

537

0

365

509

2 305

247

579

119

31

3

24

UK
Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR5)

442

241

701

84

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

856

3 211

1

2 346

29

:  

:  

:  

0

1

:  

:  

:  

235

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

:  

Pears
2 831

268

1

:  

9

49

:

:  

55

590

234

907

1

1

2

2

33

0

222

117

59

175

60

11

1

:  

:  

28

  From farm to fork

55

2 Farm production stage

Table 2.18: Organic livestock population, 2006 
(1 000 heads)

Pigs (1)
12.2

Sheep (1)
13.3

Cattle

Laying 
hens (2)
94.5

Total (1)
33.4

of which:
dairy cows (3)
8.3

0.1

4.3

53.1

:

3.2

0.9

0.3

2.5

62.1

58.4

:

7.6

6.3

0.2

:

:

16.2

81.4

:

:

8.2

0.9

5.0

4.6

24.1

58.6

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

:

1.5

80.9

:

0.4

0.9

110.1

13.5

:

29.7

:

6.6

0.2

0.4

0.8

:

28.0

49.9

:

6.8

1.7

1.7

0.3

2.2

26.4

1.1

40.0

12.4

:

20.7

38.0

259.3

212.2

:

852.1

:

6.1

8.5

0.4

2.1

:

9.2

81.3

:

124.4

86.2

22.9

87.6

11.3

34.0

0.0

3.2

875.6

:

4.6

24.0

62.5

59.3

1 604.4

1 055.1

:

4.2

0.6

2.4

:

:

927.5

:

:

:

4.3

12.5

0.0

80.5

360.1

0.3

115.2

132.1

:

13.3

24.5

22.3

81.5

:

222.7

:

21.4

8.7

1.0

8.7

:

36.8

338.6

:

62.2

11.4

14.5

28.9

22.4

95.9

32.9

UK
(1) Latvia and Portugal, 2005; Hungary, 2004; Luxembourg, 2002.
(2) Latvia, 2004; Luxembourg, 2002.
(3) Spain, Latvia and the United Kingdom, 2005; Luxembourg, 2002.

1 573.9

747.3

244.8

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PORG3)

56

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Aquaculture  is  the  farming  of  aquatic  populations  under 
controlled conditions. With increasing controls on landings of fi sh 
in  European  waters,  aquaculture  is  a  relatively  selective  method 
of meeting demand for specifi c fi sh or mollusc species. Th  e most 
common types of aquaculture production are for mussels, oysters, 
salmon and trout (see Figure 2.15). Nevertheless, the majority of 
fi sh  and  molluscs  eaten  by  European  consumers  tend  to  come 
directly from open waters.

Th  e  Netherlands  and  Spain  landed  the  largest  quantities  of  fi sh 
for human consumption among the Member States in 2006 (each 
about  three  quarters  of  a  million  tonnes). Th  e  main  type  of  fi sh 
landed,  however,  varied  considerably,  in  part  refl ecting  off shore 
availability and in part consumer preferences (see Table 2.19); Italy 
landed by far the most European anchovies, the Netherlands and 
Denmark the most Atlantic herring, Spain and Portugal the most 
European  pilchards,  and  the  United  Kingdom  the  most  Atlantic 
mackerel.

Figure 2.15: Aquaculture production, EU-27, 2005
(% of total)

Other 
species
26%

Blue mussel
28%

Mediter-
ranean 
mussel
7%

Rainbow 
trout
16%

Pacific 
cupped 
oyster
10%

Atlantic 
salmon
11%

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PFISH2)

  From farm to fork

57

2 Farm production stage

Table 2.19: Fish landings for selected species for human 
consumption, 2006
(tonnes)

Europ. 
anchovy
-

Atlantic
herring
2

Europ.
hake
56

Atlantic
mackerel
13

Europ.
pilchard
:

Europ.
plaice
4 123

Total
18 010

4 389

-

338 553

128 587

:

220 211

4

-

:

0

-

0

-

210 166

1 462

36

67 593

-

-

:

30 440

-

7

-

6 318

4 793

350

33 975

6 736

7 450

17 865

2

-

-

-

-

:

70

-

-

96 016

14 158

776 580

314 582

299 266

1 900

:

:

-

-

1 298

781 360

-

:

8 193

6 385

78 051

0

-

-

-

-

-

4

-

-

162 420

100

:

224

-

5 596

123 428

:

:

-

-

-

-

-

:

:

-

-

-

348 818

-

:

-

:

-

-

2 273

66 968

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

:

-

25 155

11 447

-

29 668

:

25 028

17 906

2 045

-

-

:

-

-

-

83 879

-

:

0

-

:

:

0

706

11 322

82 365

35 928

13 668

4

-

-

-

-

-

:

-

:

:

-

23 893

569

-

300

-

11

2 193

52

-

-

-

-

-

-

35 608

-

-

1 965

829

48 144

100

:

3

-

-

:

8

-

-

52

3 370

:

:

-

-

-

2 056

:

-

-

-

409

3 962

391 736

UK
Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PFISH3A)

87 110

90 144

1 460

:

58

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Agricultural prices

Th  ere  were  contrasting  developments 
in  real-terms  prices 
(obtained  by  defl ating  the  corresponding  nominal  data  with  an 
implicit price index for gross domestic product) for the diff erent 
goods and services currently consumed in agriculture during the 
period  between  1997  and  2007.  On  the  one  hand,  the  average 
real-terms  price  of  fertilisers  and  soil  improvers  (particularly 
inorganic ones) in the EU-27 rose sharply from a relative low in 
1999 (see Figure 2.16), in large part refl ecting the steep rise in oil 
and natural gas prices. For most of the period under review, the 
real-terms price of animal feedingstuff s declined, likely refl ecting 
the lowering of support prices for cereals and greater global trade, 
but this trend was abruptly bucked by a steep rise in 2007 which 
appears to refl ect strong demand from developing countries like 
China  and  India  for  growing  livestock  populations,  as  well  as 
competing demand for the use of crops as bio fuels. In contrast, 
the real-terms price of plant protection products declined steadily 
aft er  1999,  probably  refl ecting  reduced  demand  in  the  face  of 
environmental and food-safety led policies.

Figure 2.16: Real-terms (i.e. defl ated) prices for selected goods 
and services currently consumed in agriculture, EU-27
(2000=100)

130

120

110

100

90

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Goods & services currently consumed in agriculture
Fertilisers and soil improvers
Animal feedingstuffs
Plant protection products & pesticides

Source:  Eurostat (Agricultural prices and price indices, APRI_PI00_INA)

  From farm to fork

59

2 Farm production stage

Real-terms prices for all the goods and services currently consumed 
in agriculture rose by 7.3 % on average across the EU-27 between 
2000 and 2007. Among the Member States, however, there were 
much stronger price rises in Cyprus (approaching 50 %) and to a 
lesser extent, Estonia, the United Kingdom and Latvia (see Figure 
2.17).  In  a  few  Member  States,  however,  the  real-terms  price  of 
intermediate consumption goods and services was a little lower in 
2007 than in 2000.

Figure 2.17: Overall change in the real-terms (i.e. defl ated) price of 
goods and services currently consumed in agriculture, 2000-2007
(%)

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

CY
EE
UK
LV
FI
PL
SE
SI
NL
EL
DE
DK
EU-27
BE
IE
IT
HU
FR
AT
LT
LU
PT
CZ
ES
MT
BG
SK
RO (1)

(1) Not available.

Source:  Eurostat (Agricultural prices and price indices, APRI_PI00_INA)

60

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Th  e general downward trend in the real-terms price of agricultural 
goods  output  between  1997  and  2005  was  followed  by  a  strong 
rebound  in  2006  and  2007,  which  refl ected  sharp  increases  in 
crop  output  prices  (see  Figure  2.18).  Th  e  upturn  in  crop  output 
prices  refl ected  growing  global  demand  for  cereals  and  oilseeds 
for animal feed, as well as for crops as bio fuels rather than food 
or feed.

Th  e  average  real-terms  producer  price  of  agricultural  goods  in 
2007 was little diff erent to that in 2000 for the EU-27 as a whole, 
but there were wide diff erences in price developments between the 
Member States (see Figure 2.19). At one extreme, average prices 
rose a little over 40 % in Lithuania and by between 20 – 25 % in 
the other two Baltic Member States. At the other extreme, average 
producer prices declined by about 20 % in Bulgaria and Slovakia. 
Among  the  EU-15  Member  States,  the  strongest  rise  in  average 
producer prices for agricultural goods was in the United Kingdom 
(up  15 %,  albeit  from  a  relative  low  in  2000)  and  the  sharpest 
decline was registered in Denmark (down 11 %), with little change 
in France.

Figure 2.18: Real-terms (i.e. defl ated) prices for agricultural 
output (incl. fruit and vegetables), EU-27
(2000=100)

115

110

105

100

95

90

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Agricultural goods output

Crop output (incl. fruit & vegetables)

Animal output

Source:  Eurostat (Agricultural prices and price indices, APRI_PI00_OUTA)

  From farm to fork

61

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.19: Overall change in the real-terms (i.e. defl ated) price 
of agricultural goods output, 2000-2007
(%)

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

LT
EE
LV
UK
CY
EL
RO
PL
DE
SE
AT
EU-27
FR
NL
FI
BE
CZ
IT
PT
HU
IE
LU
ES
SI
DK
MT
BG
SK

Source:  Eurostat (Agricultural prices and price indices, APRI_PI00_OUTA)

62

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Agricultural externalities

Th  ere  has  been  growing  consumer  interest  in  the  impact  of 
agricultural production on the environment, refl ecting concerns 
about pollution (air and water), animal welfare, habitat destruction, 
and  wildlife  diversity  among  other  issues.  A  number  of  these 
concerns  have  begun  to  be  addressed,  underlined  by  the  closer 
integration of agriculture, rural development and the environment 
in EU policy legislation (for example, the cross-compliance criteria 
of the CAP).

Climate  change  and  the  need  to  avoid  its  potentially  damaging 
consequences has become a high priority for the EU, with agreement 
under the Kyoto Protocol to try to achieve an 8 % reduction (from 
1990 levels) in greenhouse gas emissions by 2008-2012.

Data  from  the  European  Environment  Agency  suggest  that 
agriculture  contributed  a  little  less  than  10 %  of  the  greenhouse 
gas  emissions  from  the  EU-15  in  2004  (see  Figure  2.20),  more 
than industrial processes, but less than transport or energy supply. 
Th  e main sources of agriculture-related greenhouse gas emissions 
are  manure  management,  agricultural  soil  management,  and 
enteric  fermentation.  Th  ey  are  closely  linked  to  the  production 
of  livestock  as  methane  emissions  come  from  fermentation  in 
ruminant animals (cattle and sheep) and from the decomposition 
of  manure,  while  nitrous  oxide  emissions  come  from  manure 
storage and the conversion of nitrogen in soils. Between 1990 and 
2002, both methane and nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture 
fell by about 8.5 % (see Figure 2.21).

  From farm to fork

63

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.20: Greenhouse gas emissions, EU-15, 2004
(% share of total greenhouse gas emissions)

Industrial 
processes
7.8%

Waste
2.6%

Solvent use 
and other
0.3%

Agriculture
9.3%

Transport
20.9%

Source: European Environment Agency

Energy 
supply and 
use, excl. 
transport
59.1%

Figure 2.21: Methane and nitrous oxide gas emmissions from 
agriculture, EU-15
(1990=100)

102.5

100.0

97.5

95.0

92.5

90.0

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

Methane emissions

Nitrous oxide emissions

Source: European Environment Agency

64

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Water irrigation is used to transmit water to agricultural land in 
order to help growing conditions, particularly in times of drought. 
Sprinkler and drop irrigation is generally less water intensive than 
gravity irrigation, which remains the typical type of irrigation in 
Spain, Portugal and Italy. Th  e institute for European environmental 
policy suggested in 2000 that the scope of irrigation impacts could 
cover  water  pollution  from  increased  pesticide  and  nutrient 
run-off ,  aquifer  exhaustion  and  the  drying-out  and  subsequent 
damage to natural areas, salinisation or contamination of ground-
water sources and other ecological eff ects from large-scale water 
transfers.

Th  e share of irrigable area in arable and permanent crop areas is 
generally highest in the southern Member States (see Figure 2.22); 

Figure 2.22: Irrigable area, 2005
(% of arable and permanent crop areas)

0

20

40

60

EL

IT

NL

PT

MT

CY

ES

DK

FR

SK

RO

AT

SE

BG

HU

UK

FI

BE

SI

CZ

PL

(1) Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania and Luxembourg, not available.

Source: Eurostat (Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings, EF_LU_OFIRRIG)

  From farm to fork

65

2 Farm production stage

in Greece it accounted for about half (51 %) of the area in 2005, 
while  this  ratio  was  about  a  third  in  Italy,  Portugal,  Malta  and 
Cyprus. Th  e Netherlands also had a high proportion of irrigable 
area  (generally  for  horticulture,  rather  than  food  production), 
although this potential is likely to have been used in only the very 
driest summers.

Gross nutrient balances for nitrogen indicate the greater potential 
for  water  pollution  and  identifi es  those  agricultural  areas  and 
systems  with  very  high  nitrogen  loadings.  Th  e  highest  nutrient 
balances  among  the  EU-15  Member  States  were  in  the  Benelux 
countries, between two and a half and four times the average level 
across  the  EU-15  (see  Figure  2.23).  Gross  nutrient  balances  of 
nitrogen declined between 1990 and 2000, however, in almost all 
of  the  EU-15  Member  States,  with  the  exception  of  Ireland  and 
Spain.

Figure 2.23: Gross nutrient balances (1)
(kg of nitrogen/hectare) 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

NL

BE

LU

DE

DK

EL

EU-15

FI

UK

IE

AT

PT

FR

ES

SE

IT

FR

1990
2000
(1) Includes European Environment Agency estimates.

Source: European Environment Agency

66

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Agricultural practices can have a signifi cant impact on fl ora and 
fauna.  Th  e  European  Environment  Agency  highlights  (see  Irena 
indicator  report  no.  6/2005)  the  inverse  relationship  between 
farmland bird numbers and agricultural intensity. Aft er a period 
of strong decline in farmland bird numbers through to 1996, there 
appears  to  have  been  a  levelling  off   in  bird  numbers  through  to 
2005 (see Figure 2.24), albeit at historically low levels.

As well as concerns about some of the impacts of agriculture on 
wildlife  populations,  there  are  also  concerns  about  the  loss  of 
particular  animal  breeds.  In  a  majority  of  the  EU-15  Member 
States, over half of all national livestock breeds had either become 
extinct or were at endangered or critically low levels in 2003 (see 
Figure 2.25); in Austria, half of all national livestock breeds had 
already become extinct.

Figure 2.24: Farmland bird population index, EU (1)
(1990=100)

105

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

(1) The indicator is an aggregated index of population trend estimates of a selected group 
of breeding bird species dependent on agricultural land for nesting or feeding. Indices are 
calculated for each species independently and are weighted equally when combined in 
the aggregate index using a geometric mean. Aggregated EU indices are calculated using 
population-weighted factors for each country and species. The EU aggregate ﬁ gure is an 
estimate based on the following 18 Member States: Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, 
Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Spain, France, Italy, Latvia, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, 
Poland, Portugal, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Source: Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring scheme

  From farm to fork

67

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.25: Endangered risk status of national livestock breeds, 
2003 (1)
(% of total number of breeds)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

AT
BE
IT
DE
FR
UK
SE
FI
DK
ES
IE
EL
NL
PT
LU

Extinct

Endangered or critical

Not at risk or unknown

(1) Based on cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and poultry.

Source: FAO, Domestic Animal Diversity Information System

68

From farm to fork 

Farm production stage

2

Agri-environment schemes were introduced into EU agricultural 
policy during the late 1980s as an instrument to support specifi c 
farming  practices  that  help  to  protect  the  environment  and 
maintain  the  countryside.  With  the  CAP  reform  in  1992,  the 
implementation  of  agri-environment  programmes  became 
compulsory  for  Member  States  in  the  framework  of  their  rural 
development  plans.  Th  e  2003  CAP  reform  maintains  the  nature 
of the agri-environment schemes as being obligatory for Member 
States, whereas they remain optional for farmers.

Farmers who commit themselves, for a fi ve-year minimum period, 
to  adopt  environmentally-friendly  farming  techniques  that  go 
beyond usual good farming practice (such as commitments to the 
management of low-intensity pasture systems and the conservation 
of high-value habitats and their associated biodiversity), receive in 
return payments that compensate for additional costs and loss of 
income that arise as a result of altered farming practices.

More  than  one  third  of  the  Community  contribution  to  rural 
development  (EAGGF  -  European  Agricultural  Guidance  and 
Guarantee Fund) has been spent on agri-environmental measures 
(average 2000-2002). Across the EU-15, the share of agricultural 
land  enrolled  in  agri-environmental  measures  in  the  total 
utilised  agricultural  area  increased  from  15 %  in  1998  to  about 
25 %  in  2002.  In  Austria,  Sweden,  Finland  and  Luxembourg, 
this  share  was  between  75 %  and  100 %  (see  Figure  2.26).  In 
contrast, only between 5 % and 10 % of utilised agricultural area 
in  the  Netherlands,  Greece  and  Spain  was  enrolled  in  EU  agri-
environmental  measures.  Th  ere  were  8 442  agri-environmental 
contracts in 2001 to support animal breeds that are endangered, 
covering 60 568 livestock units.

  From farm to fork

69

2 Farm production stage

Figure 2.26: Agricultural area enrolled in agri-environmental 
schemes, 2002 (1)
(% of UAA)

0

25

50

75

100

LU

FI

SE

AT

FR

IE

DE

EU-15

PT

IT

UK

BE

DK

ES

EL

NL

(1) The data include agri-environment contracts under the former Regulation (EC) 
2078/1992 and contracts signed in 2000-2002 under the current Regulation (EC) 1257/1999.

Source: Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development, European Commission

70

From farm to fork 

I

3

Processing stage

3 Processing stage

Context

Th  is section refers to the processing of food and beverages. It should 
be  noted  that  for  many  products,  in  particular  wine,  olive  oil, 
eggs and cheese, processing may be done by agricultural holdings 
rather than industrial enterprises. Th  erefore, statistics that focus on 
industrial food and beverage processing while covering industrial 
activities, are likely to under-represent the total processing of food 
and beverages in any particular economy. Enterprises within food 
and beverages processing activities not only generate products for 
fi nal  consumption  (many  of  which  are  essential  daily  products), 
but they also provide intermediate products (such as oils, fats and 
sugars) for other manufacturing activities that are used in a variety 
of manufacturing applications and subsequently are not part of the 
farm  to  fork  food  chain.  Th  e  food  and  beverages  manufacturing 
sector  remains  fragmented,  despite  consolidation,  with  only  a 
small number of large enterprises/groups that have a global market 
presence  and  a  large  number  of  much  smaller  enterprises/groups 
that serve local, regional and national markets.

Food and beverages processing is aff ected by a range of legislation, 
including for example legislation on animal welfare, food hygiene, 
additives and residues, and labelling. More generally, several aspects 
of the CAP may have implications for processes and costs. A 2004 
Council Regulation ((EC) 1/2005) aims to help safeguard animal 
welfare  by  protecting  animals  during  transport.  Th  e  Regulation 
requires that animals are transported so as to avoid injury or undue 
suff ering; the length of journeys should be minimised and carried 
out without delay; animals should be fi t; the means of transport as 
well as loading and unloading practices should avoid injury and 
suff ering  and  ensure  animal  safety;  personnel  should  be  trained 
or competent and carry out tasks without violence; the area and 
space available to animals should be appropriate, as well as water, 
feed and rest being off ered at suitable intervals.

72

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Legislation  on  slaughtering  practices  also  aims  to  minimise  the 
pain and suff ering of animals through the use of properly approved 
stunning and killing methods, based on scientifi c knowledge and 
practical experience. Th  e fi rst legislation was passed in 1974 and 
revised and extended in 1993. In 2004 and 2006 the European Food 
Safety Authority (EFSA) adopted two opinions on stunning and 
killing  methods,  and  the  European  Commission  has  announced 
its intention to propose revisions to this legislation.

National authorities must make sure that rules on animal welfare 
are respected by all animal handlers and keepers. Th  e EU food and 
veterinary offi  ce (FVO) carries out inspections to verify that the 
EU legislation is properly implemented and enforced. Under the 
Community action plan on the protection and welfare of animals 
(COM (2006) 13) adopted by the European Commission in 2006, 
training for national authorities responsible for controlling animal 
welfare standards is foreseen.

As  part  of  a  series  of  measures  to  increase  food  safety  (and 
restore  consumer  confi dence)  new  food  hygiene  measures  were 
adopted in 2004: European Parliament and Council Regulations 
((EC)  852/2004,  853/2004  and  854/2004)  on  food  hygiene  came 
into  force  at  the  start  of  2006.  Food  processing  enterprises  are 
required  to  apply  good  hygiene  practices  for  which  guides  have 
been developed. Specifi c requirements are laid down for products 
of  animal  origin,  and  for  organising  offi  cial  controls  on  such 
products intended for human consumption.

  From farm to fork

73

3 Processing stage

Structural overview

For  animal  food  products,  the  fi rst  stages  are  either  milking  for 
dairy  products  or  slaughtering  for  meat  products.  Figure  3.1 
illustrates  the  very  diff erent  scale  of  dairy  operations  among 
EU-27  Member  States  in  2006,  more  northerly  Member  States 
tended  to  report  larger  dairies  and  the  southern  Member  States 
smaller dairies, with the United Kingdom the main exception.

Figure 3.1: Number of dairies, breakdown by dairy size class 
based on milk collected, 2006 (1)
(% of total number of dairies)

EL
PT
RO
UK
ES
IT
LV
FR
EU-27
SI
AT
HU
BE
CY
EE
IE
LT
PL
SK
SE
DE
DK
CZ
FI
NL

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

<=5 000 tonnes
>5 000 and <=20 000 tonnes
>20 000 and <=50 000 tonnes
>50 000 and <=100 000 tonnes
>100 000 and <=300 000 tonnes
>300 000 tonnes
Unattributed

(1) Luxembourg, not available; Malta has one dairy that collected between 20 000 and 
50 000 tonnes of milk; Greece, Lithuania, Hungary, Slovenia and Finland, 2003.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT6)

74

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Across  the  EU  as  a  whole,  the  number  of  enterprises  operating 
in meat production and processing appears to have fallen during 
the  last  decade;  a  number  of  Member  States  have  seen  a  large 
reduction in their respective numbers of enterprises, notably the 
Czech Republic, Denmark, France and the United Kingdom – see 
Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Number of enterprises
(units)

Production, processing and 
preserving of meat and meat 
products
2000

1995 (1)

2005  (2)

of which:  production and 
preserving of meat
2000 (4)

1995 (3)

2005  

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

:

:

447

2 089

240

:

:

146

:

3 236

15 187

3 662

:

:

:

10

:

:

855

1 402

3 974

447

:

158

53

193

435

54 635

45 347

939

505

1 542

158

782

599

916

159

18 532

12 615

76

156

:

4 092

12 574

3 743

79

156

367

28

333

24

795

1 229

4 521

453

1 579

173

90

222

492

59

129

403

4 298

11 216

3 854

72

132

239

28

619

:

735

1 138

3 597

630

1 038

139

98

238

525

1 294

1 187

1 009

:

:

:

:

66

:

:

66

:

880

1 742

1 770

:

:

:

8

:

:

440

120

2 686

137

:

111

28

38

165

406

:

541

:

:

50

425

23

71

:

798

1 489

1 798

8

48

263

25

202

7

375

157

2 966

119

1 029

95

44

44

175

400

11 168

435

209

:

55

751

24

62

152

891

1 453

1 607

10

55

142

25

417

:

330

158

2 136

179

621

69

68

37

182

306

(1) Bulgaria, France, Poland and the United Kingdom, 1996.
(2) The Czech Republic, 2004.
(3) Portugal and the United Kingdom, 1996.
(4) Romania, 2001.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT5)

  From farm to fork

75

3 Processing stage

Table 3.2: Main structural indicators for the manufacture of 
food products and beverages

Enterprises 
(units)

Persons employed 
(units)

Turnover 
(EUR million)

1995 (1)

2005 (2)

1995 (3)

2005 (4)

1995 (5)

2005 (6)

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

:

:

6 715

5 979

2 409

:

:

694

:

26 753

71 589

64 199

:

:

1 074

217

:

:

5 905

4 736

17 978

7 684

:

1 185

:

1 965

2 586

309 702

: 4 688 100

:

850 333

7 671

5 937

6 082

1 778

99 251

96 681

113 909

106 962

:

:

26 289

1 192

:

30 423

2 812

9 049

91 633

85 133

17 136

19 809

32 709

878 862

844 775

148 758

148 506

425

:

15 195

29 353

67 985

:

960

778

1 434

190

6 766

:

4 585

4 134

16 998

10 268

10 820

826

:

1 861

3 288

:

46 259

:

17 365

49 438

83 691

846

13 393

:

363 573

389 065

53 650

1 094

21 884

10 146

87 785

619 352

649 143

129 618

142 794

429 257

440 892

72 588

94 717

9 571

:

56 394

:

12 671

35 461

52 355

:

666

:

1 273

:

1 269

1 376

2 216

:

131 735

121 826

6 094

9 729

:

:

143 424

124 379

:

75 885

413 665

438 833

112 484

104 942

289 093

203 840

:

:

45 167

:

:

46 936

39 961

:

:

41 680

11 783

18 601

9 103

4 490

1 421

1 923

8 136

:

:

48 708

12 994

34 502

11 588

7 171

1 649

2 624

8 989

:

8 265

6 994

84 429

488 553

463 988

UK
(1) Bulgaria, France, Poland and the United Kingdom, 1996.
(2) The Czech Republic, 2004.
(3) Germany and France, 1999; Lithuania and Hungary, 1998; Romania, 1997; Bulgaria, 
Poland and the United Kingdom, 1996.
(4) Ireland, France and Finland, 2003; Denmark, Italy and Slovakia, 2002.
(5) Germany, France, Austria and Slovakia, 1999; Lithuania and Hungary, 1998; Estonia and 
Romania, 1997; Bulgaria, Poland and the United Kingdom, 1996. 
(6) The Netherlands, 2004; Ireland, France and Finland, 2003; Denmark, Italy and Slovakia, 
2002; the Czech Republic, 2001; Slovenia, 1999.

107 521

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT5)

76

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

In  2005,  there  were  approximately  310 000  food  and  beverage 
(including  animal  feed  products)  manufacturing  enterprises  in 
the  EU-27,  providing  employment  to  4.7  million  persons,  and 
generating EUR 850 billion of turnover – see Table 3.2. France and 
Italy had the largest number of enterprises in this sector, followed 
at  some  distance  by  Germany,  Spain  and  Poland.  However, 
Germany had the largest workforce, followed by France and the 
United  Kingdom  (each  accounted  for  over  10 %  of  the  EU-27’s 
workforce). While the same three Member States were largest in 
terms of turnover, a relatively high degree of turnover specialisation 
was  observed  in  the  Netherlands,  Ireland  and  Belgium,  as  these 
Member States contributed far more to total EU-27 turnover than 
they did to the EU-27’s workforce.

In  terms  of  employment  and  turnover,  the  largest  subsectors 
(based on the 3-digit level of NACE Rev. 1.1) were the manufacture 
of other food products (including, for example, bakery products, 
sugar,  tea  and  coff ee,  and  pasta)  and  meat  and  meat  products 
manufacturing.

Table 3.3: Main structural indicators, EU-27, 2005

Food products and beverages

Meat & meat products

Fish & fish products

Fruit & vegetables

Vegetable & animal oil & fats

Dairy products

Grain mill & starch products

Other food products

Beverages

Enterprises 
(units)
309 702

45 347

4 035

10 200

9 010

13 098

8 300

Persons
employed
(units)
4 688 100

Turnover
(EUR 
million)
850 333

1 029 700

175 613

129 500

283 000

72 600

400 000

124 700

21 006

52 205

38 625

120 000

31 687

230 000

129 139

191 909

2 000 000

22 600

468 900

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT5)

  From farm to fork

77

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.2: Number of enterprises and value added, 
breakdown by enterprise size class, production, processing and 
preserving of meat and meat products, 2005 (1)
(% of total)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

f
o
r
e
b
m
u
N

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

d
e
d
d
a
e
u
a
V

l

DE
ES
FR
IT
UK
DE
ES
FR
IT 
UK

Small

Medium-sized

Large

(1) Small enterprises: 1-49 persons employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons 
employed; large enterprises: 250 or more persons employed.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics: SBS_SC_2D_DADE02)

Figure 3.3: Number of enterprises and value added, 
breakdown by enterprise size class, manufacture of dairy 
products, 2005 (1)
(% of total)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

f
o
r
e
b
m
u
N

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

d
e
d
d
a
e
u
a
V

l

DE
ES
FR
IT
UK
DE
ES
FR
IT 
UK

Small

Medium-sized

Large

(1) Small enterprises: 1-19 persons employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons 
employed; large enterprises: 250 or more persons employed.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics: SBS_SC_2D_DADE02)

78

From farm to fork 

 
 
 
 
Processing stage

3

Figure 3.4: Number of enterprises and value added, 
breakdown by enterprise size class, manufacture of other food 
products, 2005 (1)
(% of total)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

f
o
r
e
b
m
u
N

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

d
e
d
d
a
e
u
a
V

l

DE
ES
FR
IT
UK
DE
ES
FR
IT 
UK

Small

Medium-sized

Large

(1) Small enterprises: 1-19 persons employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons 
employed; large enterprises: 250 or more persons employed.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics: SBS_SC_2D_DADE02)

Figure 3.5: Number of enterprises and value added, 
breakdown by enterprise size class, manufacture of beverages, 
2005 (1)
(% of total)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

f
o
r
e
b
m
u
N

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

d
e
d
d
a
e
u
a
V

l

DE
ES
FR
IT
UK (2)
DE
ES
FR
IT 
UK (2)

Small

Medium-sized

Large

(1) Small enterprises: 1-19 persons employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons 
employed; large enterprises: 250 or more persons employed.
(2) 2004.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics: SBS_SC_2D_DADE02)

  From farm to fork

79

 
 
 
 
3 Processing stage

One    particular  category  of  special  products  that  has  received  a 
lot of attention is organic produce, and it is widely accepted that 
the  market  share  of  organic  produce  has  increased.  Eurostat 
provides data for the vast majority of EU Member States on the 
prevalence of organic operators, including producers, processors 
and  importers  (see  previous  Chapter  for  more  information  on 
organic producers). Focusing on the processing stage, by far the 
largest number of organic operators were located in Italy (5 210), 
followed by France (3 750) and the United Kingdom (3 750); note 
that no data is available for Germany and several other Member 
States (see Table 3.4 for data availability).

An analysis based on Member States for which a full set of data is 
available in Table 3.4 shows that approximately half of the registered 
organic processors dealt with the miscellaneous category of other 
food  products;  the  next  most  common  product  categories  were 
fruit and vegetables, oils and fats, and meat and meat products.

80

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.4: Number of registered organic operators processing 
products from organic farming, 2006
(units)

Meat & 
meat 
products
62

Fruit & 
vege-
tables
74

BE (1)

Oils
 &
 fats
9

:

0

6

:

1

:

502

239

46

:

24

27

:

5

:

182

440

469

1 022

1 450

:

3

:

:

:

0

34

46

:

:

1

:

4

1

:

:

:

:

:

3

7

:

:

:

3

:

0

0

Dairy 
products
35

Grain 
mill 
products
45

Other 
food
products
300

:

12

42

:

2

:

44

51

165

329

:

2

4

:

:

0

0

:

:

:

5

:

3

1

8

183

:

11

13

:

3

:

30

:

195

284

:

:

3

:

:

0

22

:

:

:

:

:

6

1

21

238

:

83

50

:

2

:

306

896

3 190

1 829

:

3

12

:

:

0

32

:

:

:

28

:

19

0

48

2 238

:

28

51

:

1

:

40

125

387

296

:

2

1

:

:

0

2

172

:

:

:

:

2

1

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL (1)

AT (1)

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK
(1) 2005.

35

525

54

532

20

34

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT3)

  From farm to fork

81

3 Processing stage

External trade 

Th  e  EU-27  was  a  net  importer  of  food  products  (including 
coff ee, tea and cocoa) in 2007, the trade defi cit for these products 
totalling EUR 25.1 billion in value, and around 23.3 million tonnes 
in quantity. Figures 3.6 to 3.27 provide an analysis of the EU-27’s 
imports of ten categories of foodstuff s: for each of these an analysis 
is  provided  for  the  quantity  of  imports  between  2000  and  2007 
(note that the scales of the graphs vary considerably) as well as a 
comparison of the change in origin of these imports.

Imports  of  cereals  jumped  from  11.7  million  tonnes  in  2006  to 
22.3 million tonnes in 2007, mainly due to an increase in maize 
imports. Th  e rise in 2007 reversed the downward trend that had 
developed since 2002. By 2007 Brazil had established itself as the 
main  source  of  EU-27  imports  of  cereals,  providing  more  than 
30 % of the total, whereas in 2000 it had not even been in the top 
fi ve suppliers.

Th  e quantity of imports of meat and meat preparations rose each 
year  between  2000  and  2006,  before  dropping  6.6 %  in  2007. 
During the period 2000 to 2007, overall imports rose fastest for 
fresh or chilled meat from cattle (bovines) and for meat from pigs 
(swine),  although  imports  of  pig  meat  fell  considerably  in  2007. 
Th  e  EU-27  also  recorded  a  large  reduction  in  imports  of  frozen 
meat  from  cattle,  and  of  poultry  meat  in  2007.  Brazil  provided 
more than half of the EU-27’s meat imports in 2007, while New 
Zealand’s share was down to 14 %.

Between 2000 and 2007, EU-27 imports of fi sh and seafood rose in 
quantity terms by an average of 4.2 % per annum, with increases 
registered  in  fi ve  out  of  seven  years;  seafood  (crustaceans)  and 
processed  fi sh  (fi sh  fi llets  and  other  fi sh  meat)  recorded  large 
increases. In 2007, Norway was the single biggest supplier of fi sh 
and  seafood  to  the  EU-27,  with  China  second,  and  the  United 
States and Vietnam moving into the top fi ve.

Th  e quantity of imports of dairy products and eggs fell on average 
by 3.0 % per annum between 2000 and 2007. Despite New Zealand’s 
share  of  EU-27  imports  of  dairy  products  and  eggs  increasing 
from  30 %  to  33 %  between  2000  and  2007  it  was  toppled  from 
its place as the main origin of EU-27 imports for these products, 
being replaced by Switzerland (whose share doubled to 38 % over 
the period considered).

82

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Imports of fresh, chilled or frozen vegetables were relatively unstable 
between 2000 and 2007, falling through to 2003, bouncing back in 
2004, before repeating this pattern of decline followed by recovery 
in 2007 – see Figure 3.14. In 2007, Th  ailand was the main source 
of EU-27 imports of fresh, chilled or frozen vegetables, although 
its share had more than halved from 53 % in 2000 to 23 % by 2007. 
In contrast, imports of prepared or preserved vegetables increased 
between 2000 and 2007, despite declining in 2005 and 2006 – see 
Figure  3.16.  China  and  Turkey  together  provided  around  three 
fi ft hs of the EU-27’s imports of prepared or processed vegetables 
in  2007.  EU-27  imports  of  fruit  and  nuts  increased  each  and 
every  year  between  2000  and  2007,  averaging  growth  of  4.6 % 
per  annum.  Th  e  main  suppliers  remained  relatively  unchanged 
between 2000 and 2007 – see Figure 3.19. Preserved and prepared 
fruits and nuts also recorded unbroken growth between 2000 and 
2007 – see Figure 3.20 – with average growth of 6.0 % per annum. 
Th  ailand remained the principal origin of these imports in 2007, 
marginally ahead of China whose share rose from 6 % in 2000 to 
16 % by 2007.

Th  e quantity of sugar (and sugar preparations and honey) imports 
fl uctuated  within  a  relatively  narrow  range  between  2000  and 
2007.  Imports  of  molasses  fell  sharply  in  2005,  but  recovered 
in  2007,  whereas  sugar  cane  and  beet  increased  over  the  period 
studied, despite falls in 2003 and 2007. By 2007, India had replaced 
Pakistan as the main source of EU-27 sugar imports, with the latter 
dropping to fourth place.

Imports of coff ee, tea and cocoa increased in six out of seven years 
between  2000  and  2007,  falling  only  in  2002,  and  the  origin  of 
these imports did not change greatly between 2000 and 2007.

As  noted  earlier,  the  EU-27  was  a  net  importer  of  foodstuff s  in 
2007, although for some individual categories of foodstuff s it was 
a net exporter as can be seen from Tables 3.5 and 3.6. Th  e biggest 
trade surplus, in quantity and value terms, was for dairy products 
and  eggs;  in  value  terms  trade  surpluses  were  also  recorded  for 
cereals, and for prepared or preserved vegetables.

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Figure 3.6: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of cereals and cereal 
preparations, EU-27
(2000=100)

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Barley
Wheat
Cereals (SITC-04)
Maize

(million tonnes)
Cereals & cereal 
prep.

Maize

Wheat & meslin

Barley

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
22.3

14.7

18.4

11.3

14.4

11.8

11.7

9.0

2.9

3.9

0.2

3.3

5.5

0.7

2.4

12.2

1.5

4.1

6.9

0.7

4.3

7.0

0.5

2.6

7.1

0.2

3.7

5.6

0.2

10.6

6.4

0.1

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

84

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3

Figure 3.7: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, cereals and cereal 
preparations, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Others
20%

USA
28%

Turkey
4%

Australia
4%

Canada
16%

2007

Others
20%

Russia
6%

Canada
9%

Argentina
28%

Brazil
31%

Argentina
14%

USA
20%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

85

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.8: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of meats and meat 
preparations, EU-27
(2000=100)

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Meat of swine
Meat & edible offal of poultry
Meat & meat preparations (SITC-01)
Meat of sheep or goats
Meat of bovine animals, frozen
Meat of bovine animals, fresh or chilled

(1 000 tonnes)
Meat & meat 
preparations
Meat of sheep or 
goats, fresh, chilled 
or frozen
Meat & edible offal 
of poultry, 
fresh, chilled or 
frozen
Meat of bovine 
animals, fresh, 
chilled
Meat of bovine 
animals, frozen
Meat of swine, 
fresh, chilled or 
frozen

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
980 1 188 1 236 1 394 1 423 1 662 1 674 1 563

218

216

218

218

210

221

227

224

129

146

173

314

366

432

303

197

87

76

117

124

150

170

158

172

102

108

140

137

160

196

215

126

13

23

23

32

37

75

95

26

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

86

From farm to fork 

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3

Figure 3.9: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, meat and meat 
preparations, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Others
18%

Brazil
34%

USA
5%

Argentina
9%

Thailand
11%

Uruguay
2%

Argentina
8%

Thailand
10%

New Zealand
23%

2007

Others
11%

Brazil
55%

New Zealand
14%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

87

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.10: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of fi sh, crustaceans 
and molluscs, EU-27
(2000=100)

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Fish fillets & other fish meat
Crustaceans
Fish, frozen
Fish & crustaceans (SITC-03)
Prepared or preserved fish
Fish, fresh or chilled

(1 000 tonnes)
Fish & crustaceans

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
3 747 4 071 4 009 4 309 4 288 4 517 4 897 4 982

848

979

935 1 012 1 083 1 133 1 281 1 359

577

568

581

645

659

688

703

733

744

528

822

540

770

583

752

634

646

635

638

687

717

710

690

705

324

366

379

446

439

469

529

535

Fish fillets & other 
fish meat, fresh, 
chilled or frozen
Fish, fresh or chilled 
(excl. fish fillets)
Fish, frozen

Prepared or 
preserved fish; 
caviar & caviar 
substitutes
Crustaceans, live, 
fresh, chilled, 
frozen, dried or 
salted

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

88

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3

Figure 3.11: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, fi sh, crustaceans and 
molluscs, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Norway
23%

Russia
7%

Iceland
5%

China
5%

Argentina
5%

2007

Norway
17%

China
9%

USA
6%

Vietnam
5%

Iceland
5%

Others
55%

Others
58%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

89

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.12: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of dairy products 
and birds’ eggs, EU-27
(2000=100)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Milk & cream, not concentrated, no added sugars
Butter
Dairy products & birds' eggs (SITC-02)
Cheese & curd
Milk & cream, concentrated or with added sugars

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
324

403

401

335

290

373

402

323

142

143

124

132

106

94

5

88

6

92

6

92

8

92

9

94

80

15

101

90

15

94

85

16

84

75

60

76

36

14

24

13

(1 000 tonnes)
Dairy products & 
birds' eggs
Cheese & curd

Butter

Milk & cream, not 
concentrated or 
contain. added 
sugar or other 
sweet. matter
Milk & cream, 
concentrated 
or contain. added 
sugar or sweet. 
matter

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

90

From farm to fork 

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3

Figure 3.13: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, dairy products and 
birds’ eggs, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Others
20%

New Zealand
30%

Ukraine
7%

Russia
10%

Australia
14%

Switzerland
19%

2007

Others
10%

Croatia
4%

Australia
4%

USA
11%

Switzerland
38%

New Zealand
33%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

91

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.14: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of fresh, chilled or 
frozen vegetables, EU-27
(2000=100)

250

200

150

100

50

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Tomatoes
Onions
Vegetables, fresh, chilled, or frozen (SITC-054)
Dried leguminous vegetables
Roots & tubers of manioc

(1 000 tonnes)
Vegetables, fresh, 
chilled, frozen or 
simply preserved
Roots & tubers of 
manioc, fresh, 
chilled, frozen or 
dried
Dried leguminous 
vegetables
Onions, shallots, 
garlic, leeks & 
other alliaceous 
vegetables, fresh or 
chilled
Tomatoes, fresh or 
chilled

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
6 772 6 254 4 865 4 790 6 253 4 861 4 626 5 398

3 639 2 921 1 631 1 689 2 280

426

313 1 345

1 722 1 677 1 390 1 102 1 733 2 059 1 823 1 097

273

305

402

434

405

317

389

545

211

263

281

293

289

355

355

470

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

92

From farm to fork 

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3

Figure 3.15: Origin of extra EU-27 imports,  fresh, chilled or 
frozen vegetables, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Others
19%

USA
3%

Turkey
3%

Morocco
4%

Canada
18%

Others
41%

Thailand
53%

2007

Thailand
23%

Morocco
11%

Israel
9%

Canada
8%

Turkey
8%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

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3 Processing stage

Figure 3.16: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of prepared or 
preserved vegetables, EU-27
(2000=100)

300

250

200

150

100

50

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Tomatoes
Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts of plants
Vegetables, prepared or preserved (SITC-056)
Dried vegetables
Other vegetables
Mushrooms & truffles

(1 000 tonnes)
Vegetables, roots & 
tubers, prep. or 
preserv. n.e.s.
Vegetables other 
than tomatoes, 
mushrooms & 
truffles 
Vegetables, fruit, 
nuts & other edible 
parts of plants

Tomatoes, prep. or 
preserv.
Dried vegetables 
(not further prep.)
Mushrooms & 
truffles, prep. or 
preserv.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
981 1 085 1 260 1 171 1 066 1 283

838

778

374

379

425

421

481

485

466

524

129

141

188

206

255

272

277

282

110

156

196

279

327

225

136

246

81

56

72

59

86

58

88

65

99

102

102

120

71

64

58

56

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

94

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Figure 3.17: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, prepared or 
preserved vegetables, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Others
22%

China
35%

China
39%

Thailand
6%

USA
7%

Morocco
9%

Others
25%

Thailand
5%

India
5%

Peru
7%

Turkey
21%

2007

Turkey
19%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

95

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.18: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of fruit and nuts, 
EU-27
(2000=100)

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes
Apples, pears & quinces
Grapes
Fruit & nuts, fresh or dried (SITC-057)
Citrus fruit
Bananas

(1 000 tonnes)
Fruit & nuts (not 
incl. oil nuts), fresh 
or dried
Bananas

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
9 124 9 585 9 673 10 421 10 572 11 261 11 732 12 515

3 998 3 880 3 947 4 128 4 075 3 983 4 453 4 750

Citrus fruit

1 757 2 000 1 797 1 924 1 834 2 181 2 041 2 164

Dates, figs, 
pineapples, 
avocados, guavas, 
mangoes
Apples, pears & 
quinces
Grapes

653

708

730

827

925 1 081 1 272 1 330

824

958 1 031 1 174 1 244 1 343 1 157 1 313

629

623

680

722

790

872

942

935

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

96

From farm to fork 

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3

Figure 3.19: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, fruit and nuts, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Ecuador
12%

South Africa
10%

Costa Rica
10%

Colombia
8%

Turkey
7%

Costa Rica
13%

2007

Ecuador
10%

Colombia
10%

South Africa
9%

Others
53%

Others
52%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

Turkey
6%

  From farm to fork

97

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.20: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of preserved fruit 
and fruit preparations, EU-27
(2000=100)

200

180

160

140

120

100

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Fruit & nuts, frozen
Fruit, preserved, & fruit preparations (SITC-058)
Fruits, nuts & other edible parts of plants

(1 000 tonnes)
Fruit, preserv. & 
fruit prep's
Fruits, nuts & other 
edible parts of 
plants, prep. or 
preserv.
Fruit & nuts, frozen

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1 089 1 131 1 210 1 406 1 442 1 452 1 532 1 640

817

836

880 1 005 1 061 1 059 1 114 1 143

239

258

298

362

345

354

373

444

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

98

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Figure 3.21: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, preserved fruit and 
fruit preparations, EU-27
(% of total)

Others
50%

Others
44%

2000

Thailand
21%

Turkey
9%

Serbia & 
Montenegro
7%

China
6%

2007

South Africa
7%

Thailand
16%

China
16%

Turkey
10%

Costa Rica
7%

Serbia
7%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

99

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.22: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of sugar and sugar 
preparations, EU-27
(2000=100)

140

120

100

80

60

40

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Cane or sugarbeet & chemically pure sucrose
Sugar, sugar preparations & honey (SITC-06)
Natural honey
Molasses

(1 000 tonnes)
Sugar, sugar prep's 
& honey
Cane or beet sugar 
& chemically 
pure sucrose
Molasses

Natural honey

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
5 447 5 359 5 746 5 495 5 948 5 177 5 226 5 809

2 472 2 651 2 882 2 765 3 121 3 175 3 269 3 084

2 730 2 444 2 585 2 433 2 451 1 606 1 537 2 320

130

139

135

122

126

138

135

127

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

100

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Figure 3.23: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, sugar and sugar 
preparations, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Pakistan
19%

Others
53%

Others
53%

Brazil
9%

Mauritius
8%

India
6%

Cuba
5%

2007

India
16%

Brazil
14%

Mauritius
8%

Pakistan
5%

Croatia
4%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

101

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.24: Volume of extra EU-27 imports of coff ee, tea and 
cocoa, EU-27
(2000=100)

380

340

300

260

220

180

140

100

60

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Extracts, essences, concentrates of coffee, tea & maté
Cocoa shells, paste & butter
Cocoa beans
Coffee, tea & cocoa (SITC-07)
Coffee
Tea

(1 000 tonnes)
Coffee, tea & cocoa

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
4 535 4 785 4 685 4 919 5 032 5 209 5 427 5 447

Coffee & coffee 
substitutes
Cocoa beans

Tea

Cocoa paste

Extracts, essences, 
concentrates of 
coffee, tea & maté

2 497 2 608 2 598 2 622 2 648 2 531 2 683 2 731

1 178 1 241 1 112 1 261 1 284 1 409 1 334 1 457

267

155

50

279

175

64

277

163

76

271

157

104

272

172

121

271

196

147

275

189

157

268

186

184

Cocoa butter

Cocoa shells

89

9

90

20

117

18

134

13

135

28

140

29

148

29

159

28

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)

102

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Figure 3.25: Origin of extra EU-27 imports, coff ee, tea and 
cocoa, EU-27
(% of total)

2000

Ivory Coast
21%

Others
47%

Others
45%

Brazil
12%

Vietnam
8%

Ghana
6%

2007

Indonesia
6%

Brazil
15%

Ivory Coast
14%

Vietnam
12%

Colombia
5%

Ghana
9%

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC)

  From farm to fork

103

3 Processing stage

Table 3.5: Volume of extra EU-27 trade, EU-27, 2007
(1 000 tonnes)

Meat & meat preparations (SITC-01)

Bovine meat, fresh, chilled

Swine meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Sheep or goat meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Meat & edible offal of poultry, fresh, chilled, frozen

Dairy products & birds' eggs (SITC-02)

Milk & cream, concentrated or cont. added sugar

Cheese & curd

Fish & crustaceans (SITC-03)

Fish, fresh or chilled (excl. fish fillets)

Fish fillets & other fish meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Cereals (SITC-04)

Wheat

Barley

Maize

Vegetables, fresh, chilled or frozen (SITC-054)

Dried leguminous vegetables

Roots & tubers of manioc

Veg., roots, tubers, prep. or preserv. (SITC-056)

Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts

Tomatoes (other than by vinegar or acetic acid)

Imports Exports
2 624

1 563

Net 
trade
1 061

-127

878

-219

556

46

904

5

754

2 512

2 188

794

594

781

500

1 531

-3 452

75

41

-658

-1 319

172

26

224

197

324

13

94

4 982

733

1 359

22 260

19 794

-2 467

6 378

126

8 440

4 892

2 062

4 767

10 604

712

-9 892

5 398

1 097

1 345

1 283

282

246

3 058

-2 340

515

-582

1

-1 344

1 987

87

710

704

-194

463

Fruit & nuts, fresh or dried (SITC-057)

12 515

2 699

-9 816

Bananas

Citrus fruit

Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes

Fruit, preserv. & fruit prep. (SITC-058)

Fruits, nuts & other edible parts, prep. or preserv.

Sugars, sugar prep. & honey (SITC-06)

Cane or beet sugar & chemically pure sucrose

Molasses

Coffee, tea, cocoa (SITC-07)

Coffee

Tea

Cocoa beans

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)   

4 750

1 330

2 164

1 640

1 143

5 809

3 084

2 320

5 447

2 731

268

1 457

10

77

675

465

262

-4 740

-1 253

-1 489

-1 176

-880

2 181

-3 627

1 496

-1 588

15

-2 305

1 097

-4 350

175

-2 557

29

4

-239

-1 453

104

From farm to fork 

 
Processing stage

3

Figure 3.26: Volume of extra EU-27 net trade in selected agri-
food products, EU-27
(million tonnes)

2000

2001

25

20

15

10

5

0

-5

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

2002

2006

2003

2005

2004
Dairy products and birds' eggs
Meat & meat preparations
Cereals
Fish and crustaceans

2007

2000

2001

2003

2002

2006

2005

2007
2004
  Vegetables, roots & tubers, prep. or preserved
  Fruit, preserved, & fruit preparations
  Vegetables, fresh, chilled or frozen
  Sugars, sugar preparations & honey
  Coffee, tea, cocoa
  Fruit & nuts (not incl. oil nuts), fresh or dried

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC) 

  From farm to fork

105

 
 
3 Processing stage

Table 3.6: Value of extra EU-27 trade, EU-27, 2007
(EUR million)

Meat & meat preparations (SITC-01)

Bovine meat, fresh, chilled

Swine meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Sheep or goat meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Meat & edible offal of poultry, fresh, chilled, frozen

Dairy products & birds' eggs (SITC-02)

Milk & cream, concentrated or cont. added sugar

Cheese & curd

Fish & crustaceans (SITC-03)

Fish, fresh or chilled (excl. fish fillets)

Fish fillets & other fish meat, fresh, chilled, frozen

Cereals (SITC-04)

Wheat

Barley

Maize

Vegetables, fresh, chilled or frozen (SITC-054)

Dried leguminous vegetables

Roots & tubers of manioc

Imports Exports
4 218

4 935

Net 
trade
-716

1 121

128

-993

73

968

345

745

28

407

1 989

1 916

21

718

-947

373

6 344

5 598

1 983

2 431

1 955

2 024

16 075

2 494 -13 582

2 338

4 254

5 163

1 479

22

1 887

3 431

557

224

386

198

-1 953

-4 057

6 721

1 558

1 585

952

210

106

930

-1 677

1 996

-1 435

159

1

-397

-222

556

-94

348

Veg., roots, tubers, prep. or preserv. (SITC-056)

1 445

2 001

Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts

Tomatoes (other than by vinegar or acetic acid)

209

127

115

476

Fruit & nuts, fresh or dried (SITC-057)

11 722

2 135

-9 586

Bananas

Citrus fruit

Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes

Fruit, preserv. & fruit prep. (SITC-058)

Fruits, nuts & other edible parts, prep. or preserv.

Sugars, sugar prep. & honey (SITC-06)

Cane or beet sugar & chemically pure sucrose

Molasses

Coffee, tea, cocoa (SITC-07)

Coffee

Tea

Cocoa beans

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC and CN8)   

2 742

1 344

1 195

1 895

1 228

2 178

1 374

206

9 691

4 816

474

2 098

9

-2 732

450

-895

90

-1 105

679

353

1 562

515

2

-1 215

-875

-616

-859

-204

4 028

-5 663

638

235

-4 179

-239

6

-2 092

106

From farm to fork 

 
Processing stage

3

Figure 3.27: Value of extra EU-27 net trade in selected agri-
food products, EU-27
(EUR billion)

10

5

0

-5

-10

-15

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Dairy products and birds' eggs
Cereals
Meat & meat preparations
Fish and crustaceans

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Vegetables, roots & tubers, prep. or preserved
Sugars, sugar preparations & honey
Fruit, preserved, & fruit preparations
Vegetables, fresh, chilled or frozen
Coffee, tea, cocoa
Fruit & nuts (not incl. oil nuts), fresh or dried

Source: Eurostat (External trade data - by SITC) 

  From farm to fork

107

 
 
3 Processing stage

Quantity of output

Th  e  quantity  of  meat  production  within  the  EU-27  has  been 
relatively stable since 2001 in comparison to the decline recorded 
between 1996 and 2001 in the slaughtering of sheep and cattle, and 
the rise in pig slaughtering. In 2006 around 21.8 million tonnes of 
pigs were slaughtered across the EU, far ahead of cattle (8.3 million 
tonnes) and sheep (1.1 million tonnes).

Th  e largest producers of pig meat were Germany, Spain, France, 
Poland and Denmark. Only in Ireland, the United Kingdom and 
Slovenia was meat production from cattle higher than from pigs, 
while the meat production levels from pigs and cattle were very 
similar  in  Luxembourg  and  Romania.  Production  of  meat  from 
sheep is more concentrated than that from pigs or cattle, with the 
United  Kingdom  and  Spain  together  responsible  for  half  of  the 
EU-27  output.  Production  of  meat  from  goats  or  horses  is  even 
more  concentrated,  with  goat  meat  production  concentrated 
in  several  southern  Member  States,  and  horse  meat  production 
concentrated in Italy, Poland, France and Spain.

Figure 3.28: Slaughtered production, EU-27 
(1996=100, based on tonnes of carcass weight)

110

105

100

95

90

85

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Pigs

Sheep

Cattle

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR2)

108

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

No EU-27 total is available for poultry meat production, but from 
the incomplete data it is clear that the volume of slaughtered meat 
was  higher  than  that  from  cattle.  France,  the  United  Kingdom, 
Spain, Poland and Germany all recorded poultry meat production 
in excess of 1 million tonnes.

Table 3.7: Slaughtered production, 2006
(1 000 tonnes of carcass weight)

EU-27

BE 

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

Cattle

8 251

269

23

80

129

1 193

14

572

61

671

1 510

1 111

4

21

47

9

34

1

384

215

355

105

313

38

21

87

137

847

Pigs

21 791

1 006

75

359

1 749

4 662

35

209

123

3 230

2 263

1 556

53

38

106

10

489

8

1 265

505

2 071

339

316

34

122

208

264

697

Sheep

1 086

1

18

2

2

43

1

70

75

227

121

59

3

0

0

0

1

0

16

0

1

12

99

0

1

1

4

330

Goats

Horses Poultry (1)

78

70

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

39

12

8

3

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

:

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

5

6

41

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

0

:

0

0

0

1

0

:

:

100

231

170

1 009

13

130

154

1 257

1 722

628

27

21

66

0

385

4

661

102

1 058

247

:

48

94

87

102

1 517

UK
(1) Bulgaria, 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_IN_PAGR2)

  From farm to fork

109

3 Processing stage

EU output of dairy products in the ten years from 1996 to 2006 
shows a clear pattern of growth for cheese and cream, moderate 
falls for milk and butter, and a sharper decline for skimmed milk 
powder.  Th  e  total  quantity  of  cows’  milk  collected  in  the  EU  in 
2006 was 132.6 million tonnes. Germany, France and the United 
Kingdom  were  the  only  Member  States  to  record  a  double  digit 
share of the EU’s collected milk, with a combined share of 48 %. 
Th  e  United  Kingdom  (6.8  million  tonnes)  reported  the  largest 
quantity  of  drinking  milk  production  ahead  of  Germany  (5.9 
million  tonnes).  Germany  was  the  largest  producer  of  cheese, 
just under 2 million tonnes, while France and Italy also produced 
more  than  1  million  tonnes  of  cheese.  Among  smaller  Member 
States,  Irish  butter  production  was  notably  high,  as  was  Dutch 
cheese production.

Figure 3.29: Production of milk products, EU average (1)
(1996=100, based on tonnes)

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Cheese
Cream for direct consumption
Drinking milk
Butter
Skimmed milk powder

(1) EU average based on available information for the same group of Member States across 
all years; the composition of this EU average may vary between products.

Source: Eurostat (Agricultural products statistics, APRO_MK_POBTA)

110

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.8: Cows’ milk collected and products obtained, 2006
(1 000 tonnes)

Cows' 
milk
collected
132 589

Drinking 
milk
32 463

Cream for
direct
con-
sumption
2 513

Skimmed 
milk
powder
868

EU-27

Butter
1 758

Cheese
8 670

BE 

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

2 837

839

2 393

4 492

638

50

601

468

26 876

5 923

606

5 234

670

5 824

22 892

10 193

139

592

1 296

255

1 399

41

10 657

2 674

8 826

1 851

1 133

511

962

2 348

3 130

83

540

435

3 530

3 736

2 884

79

120

90

:

480

29

778

620

1 338

953

174

156

236

732

947

137

2

40

56

696

27

22

9

76

347

130

4

28

18

:

9

0

44

64

241

17

39

14

34

42

90

65

:

20

21

197

7

69

:

1

184

0

0

:

11

:

0

:

45

5

123

7

3

:

6

17

13

UK
Source: Eurostat (Agricultural products statistics, APRO_MK_POBTA)

13 920

6 798

326

72

18

1

33

38

384

4

139

1

38

325

:

0

:

12

:

3

:

125

:

120

29

7

:

7

50

26

:

67

87

119

336

1 995

33

:

154

308

1 858

1 154

12

32

101

:

70

3

714

142

580

66

71

20

47

100

119

362

  From farm to fork

111

3 Processing stage

Figure 3.30 gives an aggregated analysis of production focused on 
particular food and beverage manufacturing activities, rather than 
agri-food products. All of the activities shown recorded long-term 
output  growth  over  the  period  shown,  with  the  highest  overall 
growth  recorded  for  the  processing  and  preserving  of  fruit  and 
vegetables, and the lowest growth for dairy products.

In  contrast,  Table  3.9  provides  a  snapshot  of  the  level  of  sold 
production  for  a  more  detailed  product  analysis,  limited  to  a 
selection  of  products.  Th  is  data,  from  PRODCOM,  shows  the 
quantity of the sold output of several food products and beverages. 
Note that Table 3.11 (later in this chapter) shows a similar analysis 
from the same source for the value of sold production.

Figure 3.30: Production indices for selected agri-food 
products, EU-27
(1990=100)

140

130

120

110

100

90

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables
Prod., process., preserving of meat, meat products
Other food products
Grain mill products, starches and starch products
Beverages
Dairy products

Source: Eurostat (Short-term business statistics, EBT_INPR_AWD)

112

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.9: Volume of sold production of selected agri-
foodstuff s, EU-27, 2006

Preparations used for farm animal feeding 
(excluding premixtures): poultry

Refined white cane or beet sugar in solid form
Fresh bread containing by weight in the dry matter state 
<= 5% of sugars & <= 5% of fat 

Preserved tomatoes; whole or in pieces
Cake and pastry products; other baker's wares 
with added sweetening matter
Grated; powdered; blue-veined & other non-processed cheese 
(excluding fresh cheese; whey cheese and curd)
Flavoured liquid yoghurt / acidified milk (curdled milk; 
cream; yoghurt & other fermented prod., with fruit; 
nuts or cocoa)
Sausages not of liver

Fresh or chilled cuts of beef and veal
Sweet biscuits (incl. sandwich biscuits; 
excl. chocolate coated or related)

Fruit, prepared or preserved, n.e.c. (excluding Muesli)
Sauces and prep's therefor, mixed condiments mixed seasonings 
(excl. soya sauce, tomato ketchup, other tomato sauces, mustard 
flour / meal & prepared mustard)
Roasted coffee, not decaffeinated

Virgin olive oil & its fractions (excl. chemically modified)
Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts of plants, prepared or 
preserved by vinegar or acetic acid

Fish fillets in batter or breadcrumbs including fish fingers
Smoked Pacific; Atlantic and Danube salmon 
(including fillets)

Mineral waters and aerated waters, unsweetened
Quality wine/grape must , v.q.p.r.d. of an alcoholic strength of 
=>15% excluding white wine and sparkling wine

Champagne (important: excluding alcohol duty)

Source: Eurostat (Statistics on the production of manufactured goods, PRODCOM)

(1 000
tonnes)
38 835

19 271
19 094

15 515
7 565

5 436

5 409

4 967

2 619
2 468

2 052
1 803

1 633

1 304
1 185

286
91

(1 000
litres)
48 030
2 576

244

  From farm to fork

113

3 Processing stage

Prices and turnover

Domestic output prices (as opposed to the consumer prices shown 
in  Chapter  5)  for  food  and  beverage  manufacturing  activities 
are  shown  in  Figure  3.31;  as  domestic  price  indices  these  show 
price developments on the domestic market, therefore excluding 
direct exports by producers. Some of these activities, for example 
beverages or the processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables, 
recorded  relatively  regular  growth  in  output  prices,  while  price 
developments for other activities, such as dairy products or meat 
and  meat  products,  was  less  regular.  Th  e  price  development  for 
grainmill  products  (and  starches  and  starch  products)  was  even 
less regular, with output prices initially falling, gently recovering, 
and then surging in 2007.

Figure 3.31: Domestic output price indices for selected agri-
food products, EU-27
(1995=100)

130

120

110

100

90

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

Beverages
Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables
Other food products
Prod., process., preserving of meat, meat products
Dairy products
Grain mill products, starches and starch products

Source: Eurostat (Short-term business statistics, EBT_INPP_A)

114

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Th  e  overall  value  of  sales  (turnover)  by  diff erent  food  and 
beverage  processing  subsectors  can  be  seen  in  Table  3.10.  Th  e 
largest  subsector  was  other  food  processing,  which  includes  the 
manufacture  of  bread  and  confectionery  products,  sugar  and 
chocolate, pasta, dietetic and baby food, as well as tea and coff ee 
processing.  Production,  processing  and  preserving  of  meat  and 
meat products was the next largest subsector at the level of analysis 
shown, followed by beverages and dairy products.

Table 3.10: Turnover of agri-food manufacturing enterprises, 
2005
(EUR million)

Meat & 
meat 
products
175 613

4 955

557

2 194

5 308

Fruit & 
vege-
tables
52 205

2 285

219

229

645

Oils
 &
 fats
38 625

1 472

279

481

459

Dairy 
products
120 000

Other
 food
 prod. (1)
230 000

3 052

207

1 617

:

9 546

696

2 675

3 804

Bever-
ages (2)
129 139

3 987

600

1 954

1 534

32 781

8 129

6 986

23 028

43 788

20 404

173

3 713

772

17 733

34 744

18 987

275

249

414

98

2 576

:

8 267

2 839

8 629

1 699

1 463

509

556

2 535

3 417

36

302

1 021

6 964

7 090

7 160

61

32

36

:

759

:

3 256

1 093

2 982

554

224

106

:

481

970

7 382

:

17

894

9 442

:

6 245

37

:

9

:

534

:

:

240

677

678

414

30

125

:

598

1 782

306

3 328

1 773

9 017

24 059

17 189

179

270

518

:

986

:

7 220

2 009

4 690

1 495

628

258

439

2 076

2 616

9 897

179

10 926

3 222

14 401

37 516

30 250

336

276

441

202

212

:

1 649

16 025

20 942

13 522

248

284

332

175

2 025

1 689

:

13 596

3 869

7 918

2 682

2 029

584

804

2 047

3 617

:

3 857

2 034

5 211

2 136

1 842

250

521

1 021

1 803

31 391

23 544

EU-27

BE 

BG

CZ (3)

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

20 110

UK
(1) Finland, 2004.
(2) Cyprus, 2004.
(3) 2004.

Source:  Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT5)

  From farm to fork

115

3 Processing stage

Selected production and external trade

Data on sold production of a wide range of industrial products are 
available from PRODCOM statistics. PRODCOM data originates 
from surveys of producers, and so concerns their sold production, 
and not the level of fi nal sales to end consumers; producers’ sales 
may  be  domestic  or  for  export,  and  may  be  direct  to  industrial 
clients  for  further  processing,  to  distributors,  or  directly  to 
households.  Table  3.11  provides  a  snapshot  of  the  value  of  sold 
production for a small selection of food products and beverages; 
in  the  2006  PRODCOM  list  there  were  over  320  food  products 
(excluding animal feed and non-food products such as wool and 
waste) and over 30 headings for beverages and related products.

As  well  as  providing  the  value  of  sold  production,  Table  3.11 
also  indicates  the  average  price  per  unit  (the  unit  value)  for  the 
selected  products.  For  example,  sold  production  of  fresh  bread 
in 2006 totalled EUR 23.2 billion, selling (from the producer) at 
an  average  of  EUR  1.21  per  kilogram.  Th  e  lowest  per  kilogram 
price of the selected foods was for preserved tomatoes, 6 cents per 
kilogram from the producer. Among the three selected beverages, 
the  production  of  champagne  and  water  can  be  distinguished 
as  two  extremes:  the  EUR  17.15  per  litre  average  unit  value  for 
champagne far exceeds the 20 cents per litre for mineral water, but 
the total value of mineral water production in 2006 was EUR 9.6 
billion, more than twice the sold production value of champagne.

As  with  the  sold  production  data,  Tables  3.12  and  3.13  provide 
external trade data on a selection of products – the same selection 
of  products  as  in  Table  3.11.  In  quantity  terms,  the  EU  was,  in 
2006,  a  net  exporter  of  large  quantities  of  refi ned  white  sugar, 
recording a trade surplus of 5.5 million tonnes, valued at EUR 1.6 
billion. Net exports of quality wine (excluding white and sparkling 
wine) reached 344 million litres, valued at EUR 2.0 billion.

116

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.11: Value of sold production of selected agri-foodstuff s, 
EU-27, 2006

Fresh bread containing by weight in the dry matter state 
<= 5% of sugars & <= 5% of fat 
Grated; powdered; blue-veined & other 
non-processed cheese (excluding fresh cheese; whey 
cheese and curd)
Cake and pastry products; other baker's wares 
with added sweetening matter

Sausages not of liver

Fresh or chilled cuts of beef and veal

Refined white cane or beet sugar in solid form
Preparations used for farm animal feeding 
(excluding premixtures): poultry

Roasted coffee, not decaffeinated
Flavoured liquid yoghurt / acidified milk 
(curdled milk; cream; yoghurt & other fermented prod., 
with fruit; nuts or cocoa)
Sauces and prep's therefor, mixed condiments mixed 
seasonings (excl. soya sauce, 
tomato ketchup, other tomato sauces, 
mustard flour / meal & prepared mustard)
Sweet biscuits (incl. sandwich biscuits; 
excl. chocolate coated or related)
Virgin olive oil & its fractions 
(excl. chemically modified)
Fruit, prepared or preserved, n.e.c. 
(excluding Muesli)
Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts of plants, 
prepared or preserved by vinegar
or acetic acid
Smoked Pacific; Atlantic and Danube salmon 
(including fillets)
Fish fillets in batter or breadcrumbs 
including fish fingers
Preserved tomatoes; whole or in pieces

Quality wine/grape must , v.q.p.r.d. of an 
alcoholic strength of =>15% excluding white wine and 
sparkling wine
Mineral waters and aerated waters, unsweetened

Champagne (important: excluding alcohol duty)

Average 
price
per unit 
(EUR 
per kg)
1.21

(EUR 
million)
23 194

21 481

3.95

18 167

2.40

17 613

12 460

11 429
8 092

7 967
7 612

3.55

4.76

0.59
0.21

4.88
1.41

5 662

3.14

4 386

1.78

3 855

2.96

2 407

1.17

1 451

1.22

1 397

15.37

1 394

4.88

963

(EUR 
million)
24 185

0.06
Average 
price
per unit 
(EUR 
per litre)
9.39

9 557

4 189

0.20

17.15

Source: Eurostat (Statistics on the production of manufactured goods, PRODCOM)

  From farm to fork

117

3 Processing stage

Table 3.12: Volume of extra EU-27 trade in selected agri-
foodstuff s, EU-27, 2006 (1)

(1 000 tonnes)
Refined white cane or beet sugar 
in solid form
Grated; powdered; blue-veined & other non-
processed cheese (excluding fresh cheese; whey 
cheese and curd)
Preserved tomatoes; whole or in pieces
Sweet biscuits (incl. sandwich biscuits; 
excl. chocolate coated or related)

Sausages not of liver
Cake and pastry products; other baker's wares 
with added sweetening matter
Roasted coffee, not decaffeinated
Fresh bread containing by weight in the dry 
matter state <= 5% of sugars & <= 5% of fat
Flavoured liquid yoghurt / acidified milk 
(curdled milk; cream; yoghurt & other fermented
prod., with fruit; nuts or cocoa)
Sauces and prep's therefor, mixed condiments 
mixed seasonings (excl. soya sauce, tomato 
ketchup, other tomato sauces, mustard flour / 
meal & prepared mustard)

Fresh or chilled cuts of beef and veal
Smoked Pacific; Atlantic and Danube salmon 
(including fillets)
Fish fillets in batter or breadcrumbs including 
fish fingers
Virgin olive oil & its fractions 
(excl. chemically modified)
Fruit, prepared or preserved, n.e.c. (excluding 
Muesli)
Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts of 
plants, prepared or preserved by vinegar or 
acetic acid
Preparations used for farm animal feeding 
(excluding premixtures): poultry

(million litres)
Mineral waters and aerated waters, 
unsweetened
Quality wine/grape must , v.q.p.r.d. of an 
alcoholic strength of =>15% excluding white 
wine and sparkling wine
Champagne (important: 
excluding alcohol duty)

Imports Exports
6 063

602

Net
trade
5 461

95

455

360

333
124

316
95

16
29

0
25

13
4

7

86
83

65
51

41

125

146

16
1

5

33
4

7

86
59

51
47

34

21

17
2

1

199

189

-10

276

87

-189

979

220

-759

:

:

:

Imports Exports
1 251

75

Net
trade
1 176

13

357

344

0

34

34

(1) Quality wine/grape must, mineral waters and aerated waters (unsweetened), and 
champagne, 2005.

Source: Eurostat (Statistics on the production of manufactured goods, PRODCOM)

118

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.13: Value of extra EU-27 trade in selected agri-
foodstuff s, EU-27, 2006
(EUR million)

Quality wine/grape must , v.q.p.r.d. of an 
alcoholic strength of =>15% excluding white 
wine and sparkling wine
Refined white cane or beet sugar
 in solid form
Grated; powdered; blue-veined & other 
non-processed cheese (excluding fresh cheese; 
whey cheese and curd)
Champagne (important: 
excluding alcohol duty)
Mineral waters and aerated waters, unsweetened

Sweet biscuits (incl. sandwich biscuits; 
excl. chocolate coated or related)
Virgin olive oil & its fractions (excl. chemically 
modified)

Roasted coffee, not decaffeinated
Cake and pastry products; other baker's wares 
with added sweetening matter

Sausages not of liver

Preserved tomatoes; whole or in pieces
Sauces and prep's therefor, mixed condiments 
mixed seasonings 
(excl. soya sauce, tomato ketchup, 
other tomato sauces, mustard flour / meal 
& prepared mustard)

Fresh bread containing by weight in the dry 
matter state <= 5% of sugars & <= 5% of fat 
Flavoured liquid yoghurt / acidified milk (curdled 
milk; cream; yoghurt & other fermented prod., 
with fruit; nuts or cocoa)
Smoked Pacific; Atlantic and Danube salmon 
(including fillets)
Fish fillets in batter or breadcrumbs including 
fish fingers
Fruit, prepared or preserved, n.e.c. (excluding 
Muesli)
Vegetables, fruit, nuts & other edible parts of 
plants, prepared or preserved by vinegar or 
acetic acid
Fresh or chilled cuts of beef and veal
Preparations used for farm animal feeding 
(excluding premixtures): poultry

Imports Exports
2 058

40

Net
trade
2 017

346

1 935

1 589

386

1 769

1 383

4

24

52

963

959

592

317

568

265

627

857

230

117
47

12

12
221

7

12

14

17

320
249

211

171
372

69

52

39

25

203
202

199

158
151

62

39

25

8

188

112

-77

709

230

-479

975
:

81
:

-894
:

Source: Eurostat (Statistics on the production of manufactured goods, PRODCOM)

  From farm to fork

119

3 Processing stage

Labelling

Protected geographical indications (PGI) and protected designations 
of  origin  (PDO)  of  agricultural  products  and  foodstuff s  were 
created,  in  part,  to  protect  specifi c  product  names  from  misuse 
and imitation. Th  e names of more than 700 products are currently 
registered  as  either  PDOs  or  PGIs,  of  which  nearly  90 %  of  the 

Table 3.14: Count of registered names of protected designation 
of origin and protected geographical indications, March 2008
(units)

Cheeses
Meat-based 
products
Fresh meat & offal

Fish & fish 
products
Other animal 
products 

Oils & fats

Table olives
Fruit & veg. 
& cereals
Bread, pastry 
cakes, etc.

Beer

Other drinks

Cheeses
Meat-based 
products
Fresh meat & offal

Fish & fish 
products
Other animal 
products 

Oils & fats

Table olives
Fruit & veg. 
& cereals
Bread, pastry 
cakes, etc.

Beer

Other drinks

BE BG CZ DK DE EE

IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT

1
2

-

-

-

1

-
-

1

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

2

-

-

-
2

5

3

-

2
-

-

-

-

-

-
1

-

4
8

3

3

-

1

-
3

4

- 12

- 31

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

1 20 20 45 33
4 29
1

- 10

1

1

-

- 13 53

1

1

1

3

2

6

2

-

2

- 26 21

9 38

- 10
2
- 22 33 26 48

3

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

1

7

-

-

-

-

2

-

5

3

1

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

LU HU MT NL AT PL PT RO SI SK FI SE UK

-
1

-

-

1

1

-
-

-

-

-

-
1

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

4
-

-

-

-

-

-
2

-

-

-

6
2

-

-

-

1

-
3

-

-

-

2 12
- 28

- 27

-

-

- 10

-

-

-

-

-

6

1
21

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

1

-
-

-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

1

-

-

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
1

-

-

-

1 12
-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

1

-

-

7

3

1

-

-
1

-

2

3

Source: Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development, European Commission 
(http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/foodqual/qual1_en.htm)

120

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

certifi ed  products  are  from  the  southern  Member  States  of  Italy, 
France, Spain, Portugal and Greece, and Germany. Th  e main types 
of products that are certifi ed are crops (fruit, vegetables or cereals), 
cheese, oils or fats (mainly olive oil), and fresh meat and off al.

Table 3.15: Usable production of quality wines
(1 000 hectolitres)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

2002

2007

Total Red/rosé

White

Total Red/rosé

White

1

:

239

0

0

:

66

0

1

:

173

0

2

:

305

:

0

:

117

:

2

:

188

:

8 592

2 824

5 768

8 645

3 370

5 275

0

0

338

11 375

26 449

12 529

:

0

0

125

:

15

0

2 027

:

4 148

:

:

222

0

:

0

0

186

7 050

18 233

6 540

:

0

0

6

:

7

0

0

0

152

4 325

8 216

5 989

:

0

0

119

:

8

0

692

1 335

:

:

:

:

:

0

:

:

:

:

:

:

0

:

0

:

377

13 451

24 811

14 794

1

:

0

124

1 839

0

0

2 010

:

3 318

:

498

270

0

:

0

:

162

8 724

16 195

8 494

:

:

0

6

657

0

0

0

:

215

4 727

8 616

6 300

:

0

0

118

1 183

0

0

813

1 196

:

:

:

184

:

0

:

2

:

:

:

314

173

0

:

8

UK
Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_PD_DMWIN1)

10

0

2

2

  From farm to fork

121

3 Processing stage

Processing externalities

Th  e EU’s food, beverages and tobacco processing sector generated 
over  29  million  tonnes  of  animal  and  vegetal  waste  in  2004, 
of  which  over  6.7  million  tonnes  was  animal  waste  from  food 
preparation – see Table 3.16.

Table 3.16: Generated non-hazardous animal waste within the 
food, beverage and tobacco processing sector, 2004

(% of total 
waste in 
food, bev. &
tob. 
process. 
sector)
:

Animal and 
vegetal
 waste
(1 000 tonnes)
:

(% of total 
waste in 
food, bev. &
tob. 
process. 
sector)
:

Animal waste from 
food preparation 
(1 000 tonnes)
:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

314

348

:

1 255

364

456

767

2 116

:

5 267

146

76

280

8

725

1

5 731

1 419

5 197

352

208

10

228

187

374

52.2

40.6

:

35.8

57.8

15.2

69.5

37.8

:

59.0

36.9

65.0

61.3

58.8

42.0

27.5

71.7

68.2

57.1

33.5

83.4

13.8

46.8

2.2

44.5

32

76

82

353

47

290

13

726

:

132

24

4

6

0

75

2

674

351

1 771

266

2

21

21

242

79

1 433

5.3

8.9

22.6

10.1

7.5

9.7

1.2

13.0

:

1.5

6.0

3.4

1.2

1.4

4.3

72.1

8.4

16.9

19.5

25.3

0.8

28.4

4.3

2.8

9.4

18.4

UK
Source: Eurostat (Waste statistics, ENV_WASGEN)

3 207

41.2

122

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

Table 3.17 concerns waste treatment rather than generation, and 
concerns all animal and vegetal wastes, regardless of whether they 
were  generated  by  the  food,  beverages  and  tobacco  processing 
sector.

Table 3.17: Treatment (recovery) of non-hazardous animal 
waste, 2004

Animal and 
vegetal
 waste 
(1 000 tonnes)
:

(% of
 total waste)
:

Animal waste from 
food preparation 
(1 000 tonnes)
4 216

(% of
 total waste)
0.4

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

:

0

280

:

6 086

37

350

26

733

2 773

3 218

94

67

292

62

90

2

9 965

3 037

824

349

23

5

451

107

334

:

0.0

1.8

:

2.8

1.0

3.0

0.8

2.4

1.1

5.6

13.6

22.2

28.3

1.2

4.1

4.4

15.6

8.3

0.8

3.4

0.4

0.2

6.9

0.6

1.9

UK
Source: Eurostat (Waste statistics, ENV_WASTRT)

6 317

7.4

:

0

10

165

261

4

295

1

494

32

7

3

:

7

0

0

0

277

19

585

270

0

:

16

205

186

853

:

0.0

0.1

1.9

0.1

0.1

2.5

0.0

1.6

0.0

0.0

0.5

:

0.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.4

0.1

0.6

2.7

0.0

:

0.2

1.2

1.0

1.0

  From farm to fork

123

3 Processing stage

Packaging that comes in contact with food and beverage products 
includes  mainly  metal,  cardboard,  plastics,  glass  and  wood. 
Several factors determine the choice of materials, including their 

Table 3.18: Sold production of packaging items used in agri-
foodstuff s

Bottles of 
colourless glass

2006 
(millions) 
(1)
17 795

Change
2002-06
 (%) (2)
-7.7

Bottles of 
coloured glass

2006 
(millions) 
(3)
28 977

Change
2002-06
 (%) (4)
-4.1

Glass 
containers
2006 
(millions) 
(5)
13 638

Change
2002-06
 (%) (6)
-1.8

:

352

:

82

:

18.2

:

:

:

484

0

271

:

39.4

:

:

0

0

:

:

:

:

265

432.5

3 140

-21.1

5 940

-10.6

:

0

0

2 799

1 642

186

0

:

73

0

92

0

:

917

1 497

1 633

208

:

:

233

144

:

:

:

5.5

:

592.6

:

:

:

:

37.1

:

:

-17.4

7.8

8.5

28.1

:

:

177.4

:

:

0

0

3 542

7 495

1 757

0

:

50

0

0

0

:

:

861

2 880

43

0

:

53

24

:

:

:

-12.7

-0.4

-49.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

11.4

16.4

:

:

:

-48.9

:

:

0

0

:

:

:

:

:

960

2 485

6 408

152.3

-0.2

-21.8

0

0

0

0

0

0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

616

28.7

0

0

0

:

0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

-4.7

-4.0

433

2 210

3 670

UK
(1) Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta and Austria, 2005; 
France, 2003, Sweden, 2002.
(2) EU-25, 2003-2006; Bulgaria and Romania, 2004-2006; Hungary and Austria, 2002-2005.
(3) EU-25, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, France, Cyprus, Luxembourg, 
Hungary, Malta, Romania and Slovenia, 2005; the Netherlands, 2004; Sweden, 2002.
(4) EU-25, 2003-2005;  Bulgaria, 2004-2006; France, 2002-2005.
(5) EU-25, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, France, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, 
Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Finland, 2005.
(6) EU-25 and the United Kingdom, 2003-2006; Denmark and Poland, 2002-2005; France, 
2003-2005. 

11.5

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_PD_AAPAC1)

124

From farm to fork 

Processing stage

3

ability to protect the product without spoiling, weight (low weight 
reducing transport costs), cost, and the extent to which they can 
be  reused  or  recycled.  Table  3.18  provides  information  on  the 
production of glass bottles and containers – note that these may 
be used for products other than food and beverages, for example, 
pharmaceuticals or cosmetics.

Table 3.19: National and international road transport of 
foodstuff s, 2006 (1)
(million tonnes)

Total 
foodstuffs 
and animal 
fodder

Cereals

Potatoes, 
fresh or 
frozen fruit 
and veg.

Live animals 
& sugar beet

Oilseeds & 
oleaginous 
fruits and 
fats

Nat.
38.5

7.3

35.4

32.1

344.5

3.1

29.4

27.2

169.2

199.1

121.2

3.7

3.6

4.0

0.7

23.5

:

74.4

21.7

94.5

28.6

38.6

3.6

14.6

19.7

25.3

294.8

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT (4)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Inter.  Nat.
1.7

4.18

Inter. 
(2)
0.27

0.26

1.71

1.46

9.76

0.15

1.04

0.72

3.59

3.69

3.10

0.00

0.42

0.47

0.47

0.77

:

8.55

1.58

3.00

0.56

0.23

0.30

0.43

0.22

0.36

2.04

5.0

11.8

6.8

25.7

0.2

3.1

6.3

35.2

66.7

26.6

0.5

0.6

1.0

0.1

12.3

:

1.3

1.8

10.1

4.8

5.2

0.1

6.5

2.1

3.4

17.5

0.19

0.52

0.07

1.24

0.00

0.08

0.03

0.11

0.86

0.04

:

0.01

0.03

0.04

0.82

:

0.10

0.32

0.13

0.23

0.00

0.08

0.29

:

0.01

0.01

Nat.
7.6

0.3

5.0

3.9

30.7

0.0

1.8

7.2

38.4

76.6

21.4

0.6

0.2

0.2

0.3

2.3

:

19.4

3.2

9.0

3.5

0.6

0.5

0.5

1.2

2.0

36.3

Inter. 
(3)
0.91

Nat.
4.4

Inter.  Nat.
0.7

0.09

Inter. 
(3)
0.32

0.05

0.13

0.23

0.91

0.01

0.04

0.44

8.54

0.87

1.62

0.00

0.02

0.05

0.03

0.15

:

4.83

0.18

0.90

0.16

:

0.07

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.31

0.7

3.9

3.4

15.5

0.0

2.4

0.9

12.8

23.1

9.3

0.1

0.3

0.4

0.0

3.2

:

6.6

1.1

6.0

0.7

1.1

0.2

1.4

1.6

1.6

16.2

:

0.02

0.13

0.15

:

0.09

:

0.12

0.13

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.09

:

0.42

0.02

0.22

0.01

:

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.9

1.2

1.2

12.2

0.0

0.2

1.5

9.9

8.2

2.4

0.0

0.2

0.1

:

2.0

0.0

2.4

0.4

1.1

1.6

0.6

0.0

0.6

0.2

0.2

5.1

0.02

0.15

0.14

0.63

0.01

0.00

0.08

0.41

0.28

0.02

:

0.01

0.04

:

0.09

0.00

0.79

0.04

0.00

0.13

:

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.02

0.03

(1) Goods produced and loaded in reporting country and destined for national or 
international destinations.
(2) Latvia, 2005.
(3) Estonia, 2005.
(4) 2005.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_PD_AATRAN1)

  From farm to fork

125

I

4

Distribution stage

4 Distribution stage

Context

Th  is chapter focuses on food and beverage distributors, in other 
words,  the  interface  between  producers  and  consumers.  In  a 
simplifi ed  presentation,  wholesalers  and  wholesale  agents  are 
intermediaries  between  producers  and  retailers  or  between  two 
producers, for example, between sugar refi ners and confectionery 
producers,  while  retailers  supply  consumers,  sourcing  their 
products  directly 
from  wholesalers. 
from  producers  or 
Traditionally  national  food  retail  markets  within  Europe  have 
been served by a mixture of local shops and national chains. An 
expansion by national groups into other markets within the EU and 
further afi eld has been witnessed in recent years. Accompanying 
this  international  retail  expansion,  food  and  beverage  products 
are  increasingly  traded  internationally,  with  imported  produce 
available alongside local, regional and national produce, such that 
many products that were traditionally considered to be seasonal 
are now available practically all year round. Food retailers can be 
distinguished  between  specialised  retailers,  for  example,  bakers 
and  butchers,  and  non-specialised  food  retailers,  including 
independent  grocers  and  convenience  stores,  as  well  as  national 
and international supermarket, discount and hypermarket chains. 
In many Member States the three largest food retailers are believed 
to account for more than half the food retailing market, and this 
high  concentration  has  raised  concerns  over  competition  and 
buying  power.  As  well  as  in-store  retailers,  markets  and  stalls 
play an important role in food retailing in some Member States, 
particularly in the southern Member States.

Th  e  ability  to  trace  food  through  the  distribution  chain  helps 
producers,  distributors  or  public  authorities  to  withdraw  or 
recall  products  which  have  been  identifi ed  as  unsafe,  helping  to 
ensure  food  safety  while  reducing  disruption  to  trade.  Based  on 
EU  legislation,  traceability  has  been  compulsory  since  2005  for 
all  enterprises  involved  in  food  and  animal  feed.  Th  is  requires 
traceability  systems  to  be  implemented  in  order  to  be  able  to 
identify where products have come from and where they are going. 
Th  ere are special rules for certain categories of food products as 
well as for genetically modifi ed products.

Th  e  EU  is  also  active  in  a  number  of  other  areas  related  to  the 
distribution of food and beverages, notably concerning labelling, 
packaging and food safety, including additives and supplements. A 
1990 Council Directive legislates for nutritional labelling of food 

128

From farm to fork 

Distribution stage

4

products,  while  a  European  Parliament  and  Council  Directive 
from  2000  legislates  for  general  provisions  concerning  labelling, 
presentation  and  advertising  of  food  products.  Among  other 
things,  this  prohibits  the  use  of  information  that  would  mislead 
consumers  or  attribute  medicinal  properties  to  food.  In  January 
2008, the European Commission adopted proposals to revise and 
combine  these  pieces  of  legislation  in  a  new  Regulation,  with  a 
view to help consumers make healthier choices as part of a more 
balanced diet, and so contribute towards combating obesity.

As opposed to nutritional information, a European Parliament and 
Council Regulation on nutrition and health claims made on foods 
was adopted in 2006, and aims to avoid users being confused or 
misled  by  unfounded  or  overstated  claims  about  the  nutritional 
content  or  health  benefi ts  of  food  and  beverage  products. 
Additionally,  the  legislation  should  help  ensure  fair  competition 
for  producers.  Th  e  Regulation  applies  to  food  and  beverage 
products intended for human consumption made available within 
the EU. Implementation of this legislation started in July 2007 and 
is being carried out in stages.

A European Parliament and Council Directive from 2004 legislates 
for materials and articles intended to come into contact with food, 
including packaging. Th  e basic principle is that any such material 
or  article  must  be  suffi  ciently  inert  to  preclude  substances  from 
being transferred to food in quantities large enough to endanger 
human  health  or  to  bring  about  an  unacceptable  change  in  the 
composition or properties of the food.

Food  additives  are  substances  added  intentionally  to  food 
products, for example, to colour, to sweeten or to preserve food. A 
2006 European Parliament and Council Regulation regulates the 
addition  of  vitamins  and  minerals  and  certain  other  substances 
to  food  products.  As  opposed  to  additives,  food  supplements 
are concentrated sources of nutrients or other substances with a 
nutritional or physiological eff ect whose purpose is to supplement 
the normal diet; they are marketed in distinct doses, for example, 
as pills or capsules. A 2002 Directive of the European Parliament 
and Council established rules for the labelling of food supplements 
to help consumers. Mineral and vitamin supplements, as well as 
mineral  and  vitamin  additives,  are  subject  to  evaluation  by  the 
European  Food  Safety  Agency  (EFSA).  Novel  food  products, 
including genetically modifi ed products are also subject to safety 
evaluations – novel food products are those whose consumption 
within the EU was nil or insignifi cant prior to May 1997.

  From farm to fork

129

4 Distribution stage

Table 4.1: Number of enterprises, wholesale and retail activities, 
2005
(1 000)

Wholesale activities

Retail activities

Non-
spec.
store
with 
food,
bev.
or
tob.

Fruit 

Fruit 

Oth.
food
excl. 
dairy 
prod.
eggs 
& fats
43.0
0.6
0.9
:
0.5
1.2
0.1
0.2
3.1
9.3
4.8
7.6
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.9
:
1.7
0.4
1.3
4.3
0.9
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.7
1.9
0.8

Food,
bev. &
tob.
214.0
5.4
5.7
3.0
1.8
10.2
0.5
1.6
15.2
43.7
21.1
35.0
0.5
1.0
0.7
0.3
4.1
:
6.7
2.2
13.8
12.4
8.2
0.4
0.4
1.1
4.4
14.1
1.6

Food,
bev. &
tob. in
spec.
store
474.7 508.8
11.4
6.7
8.1
22.5
7.8
:
2.9
3.3
27.3
20.6
0.2
0.9
2.0
3.2
25.8
30.0
31.3 122.8
47.7
31.2
57.1 115.7
0.8
2.2
0.2
2.3
0.2
3.7
0.3
0.2
7.6
18.0
:
:
9.8
3.1
5.5
3.5
28.4
84.1
31.2
20.3
9.3
62.2
0.5
1.0
0.2
0.2
1.1
3.1
6.4
6.0
31.5
28.6
1.1
5.3

42.5
0.8
0.7
:
0.2
1.8
0.0
0.3
2.9
10.0
3.9
9.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
1.1
:
1.1
0.3
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.6
2.2
0.2

& veg. Meat
22.4
0.9
0.5
:
0.2
1.2
0.0
0.3
1.5
5.7
1.7
2.9
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.4
:
0.9
0.2
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
2.3
0.1

EU-27 (1)
BE
BG
CZ (2)
DK
DE
EE
IE (3)
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO
(1) Includes estimates; retail sale of food, beverages and tobacco in specialized stores, 
unreliable.
(2) 2004.
(3) Wholesale of other food excluding dairy products, eggs and fats, and retail sale of meat 
and meat products, 2004.

& veg. Meat 
76.7 130.0
4.3
1.2
0.5
1.7
:
:
0.7
0.5
2.9
3.6
0.0
0.0
1.3
0.2
6.2
5.3
32.0
16.6
17.4
5.8
32.8
19.7
0.5
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
1.4
2.6
:
:
2.8
1.4
0.3
0.5
6.2
4.9
7.1
4.7
1.1
1.9
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
7.2
4.2
0.1
0.1

Bread,
cake, 
flour
conf. &
sugar 
conf.
66.0
2.4
2.0
:
0.4
3.4
0.0
0.1
8.0
24.3
3.9
8.7
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.7
:
0.9
0.3
1.7
1.7
1.2
0.0
:
0.2
1.6
3.4
0.2

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT8  and Structural business 
statistics, SBS_NA_3B_TR) 

130

From farm to fork 

Distribution stage

4

Structural overview

From  Tables  4.1  and  4.2  it  can  be  seen  that  there  are  more 
enterprises providing food and beverage services (restaurants, bars, 
canteens  and  catering)  than  there  are  own-account  wholesalers 
and  retailers  of  food,  beverages  and  tobacco.  Th  e  number  of 
restaurants, bars, canteens and catering enterprises in the EU-27 
was about 1.4 million in the EU-27 in 2005. In comparison, there 
were 214 000 food, beverage and tobacco wholesalers and nearly 
a million (984 000) food, beverage and tobacco retail enterprises, 
a  slight  majority  of  the  latter  being  enterprises  with  specialised 
stores. Note that the fi gures here are for the number of enterprises, 
not  the  number  of  outlets,  each  enterprise  is  counted  once 
regardless of the number of outlets.

Table 4.2: Number of restaurants, bars, canteens and catering 
enterprises
(1 000)

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ (1)
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO
(1) 2004 instead of 2005.

2000
1 259.0
39.1
21.3
35.1
11.9
139.9
1.0
9.0
73.3
244.3
158.4
210.1
6.2
1.8
2.4
2.1
3.1
1.8
34.6
22.6
39.4
56.4
9.0
7.6
0.5
9.1
17.6
101.4
7.1

2005
1 392.3
40.0
20.9
42.0
12.1
120.5
1.2
9.7
79.7
262.0
179.7
224.4
6.2
2.3
2.7
2.3
29.6
:
31.9
30.3
45.3
78.5
16.7
6.0
1.0
8.7
20.8
115.1
7.4

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT9)

  From farm to fork

131

4 Distribution stage

Retail sales space

Th  e vast majority of specialised food, beverage and tobacco retail 
stores were small, with less than 120 m2 of sales space, as can be 
seen from Figure 4.1. Slightly larger retail stores, with sales space 
of between 120 and 399 m2 were relatively common in Denmark 
and Germany, while across those countries for which information 
is available, larger stores (with 400 m2 or more of sales space) were 
only common in the United Kingdom.

Figures  4.2  and  4.3  (based  on  data  for  the  fi ve  largest  Member 
States) confi rm the dominance of micro and small enterprises in 
terms  of  a  simple  count  of  enterprises:  medium-sized  and  large 
enterprises  (with  50  or  more  persons  employed)  made  up  just 
2.3 % of the enterprise population of food, beverage and tobacco 
own-account wholesalers, and 0.2 % of specialised food, beverage 
and tobacco retailers. In contrast, these medium-sized and large 
enterprises generated more than half (50.7 %) of the value added 
among own-account wholesalers and more than a tenth (13.2 %) 
of the value added generated among specialised retailers.

Figure 4.1: Number of stores by category of sales space, retail 
sale of food, beverages and tobacco in specialized stores, 2002
(% of total)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

BG (1)
CZ
DK
DE
EE
EL
ES
CY (2)
LT
HU
NL
AT
PT
RO
FI
UK

0 to 119 m2

120 to 399 m2

400 to 999 m2

1 000 m2+

(1) 120 to 399 m² includes also 400 to 999 m².
(2) 120 to 399 m² includes also 400 to 2 499 m²; > 1 000 m² includes only 2 500 m² +.

Source: Eurostat (Distributive trade statistics, DT_OTH_3D52_SPA) 

132

From farm to fork 

Distribution stage

4

Figure 4.2: Number of enterprises and value added, breakdown 
by employment size class, wholesale of food, beverages and 
tobacco, average for the fi ve largest Member States, 2005 (1)
(% of total)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Number of enterprises

Value added

250+
50 to 249
20 to 49
10 to 19
2 to 9
1

(1) Germany, Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics, SBS_SC_3CE_TR02) 

Figure 4.3: Number of enterprises and value added, 
breakdown by employment size class, retail sale of food, 
beverages and tobacco in specialized stores, average for the 
fi ve largest Member States, 2005 (1)
(% of total)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Number of enterprises

Value added

50+
20 to 49
10 to 19
2 to 9
1

(1) Germany, Spain, France, Italy (2004) and the United Kingdom.

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics, SBS_SC_3CE_TR02) 

  From farm to fork

133

4 Distribution stage

Employment

Food,  beverage  and  tobacco  distribution  enterprises  are  major 
employers in the EU, with a total of close to 10 million persons 
working  in  own-account  wholesaling,  the  specialised  retailing 
of  food,  beverages  and  tobacco,  and  restaurants,  bars,  canteens 
and catering enterprises. It should be noted that the data shown 
in Table 4.3 and Figures 4.4 and 4.5 are based on a simple count 
of  persons  employed,  and  that  (in  particular)  specialised  food, 
beverage and tobacco retailers and restaurants, bars, canteens and 
catering enterprises may well employ a large proportion of part-
time  workers  relative  to  other  areas  of  the  economy  (including 
wholesalers).

Table 4.3: Number of persons employed, 2005
(1 000)

Wholesale 
of food,
beverages
 & tobacco
1 835.9
34.7
39.5
30.1
20.3
211.9
5.1
20.9
73.7
338.6
189.3
164.3
5.7
11.7
14.4
6.3
31.8
:
71.8
26.3
112.1
67.0
95.8
2.3
10.5
8.8
31.9
206.8
15.1

Retail sale of
food, beverages
& tobacco in 
specialized stores
1 442.9
32.4
19.7
23.0
11.7
159.6
1.1
9.9
72.5
263.0
102.1
218.0
1.8
1.9
1.3
1.2
18.9
:
56.4
22.6
114.3
47.9
33.1
1.7
2.9
4.5
16.8
206.6
6.0

Restaurants; 
bars; 
canteens 
& catering
6 663.4
137.8
81.9
137.1
77.0
812.2
11.5
90.0
215.9
933.4
631.6
810.3
18.3
24.1
28.9
11.4
101.0
:
238.0
134.1
165.0
217.0
74.4
20.9
10.1
40.5
86.5
1 555.2
55.2

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ (1)
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO
(1) 2004.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT8 and FOOD_ACT9 and 
Structural business statistics, SBS_NA_3B_TR)

134

From farm to fork 

Distribution stage

4

Figure 4.4: Number of persons employed, wholesale of food, 
beverages and tobacco
(1 000)

400

300

200

100

0

1998

1999

2000

2001

ES
FR

2002
DE
IT

2003

2004

2005

UK

Source: Eurostat (Structural business statistics, SBS_NA_3B_TR)

Figure 4.5: Number of persons employed, retail sale of food, 
beverages and tobacco in specialized stores
(1 000)

400

300

200

100

0

1998

1999

2000

2001

ES
DE

2002
IT
FR

2003

2004

2005

UK

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT8)

  From farm to fork

135

4 Distribution stage

Turnover

While the EU-27’s turnover index for specialised food, beverage 
and tobacco retailing has increased or been stable every year since 
1998 except in 2004 (see Figure 4.6) the volume of sales has fallen, 
implying that the turnover growth resulted from price increases 
rather than increased sales. Note that, unlike the other indicators 
presented  in  this  chapter,  the  turnover  index  in  Figure  4.7  for 
restaurants, bars, canteens and catering also includes hotels.
Table 4.4: Turnover, 2005
(EUR million)

Wholesale activities

Retail activities

Fruit 

Food,
bev. &
tob.

Fruit 

Oth.
food
excl. 
dairy 
prod.
eggs 
& fats
71.7 105.1
2.9
4.4
0.3
0.3
:
:
3.4
2.4
16.0
14.7
0.2
0.1
0.6
1.2
4.3
1.7
17.3
7.7
12.5
8.2
20.6
7.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.1
:
0.1
0.7
0.6
:
:
6.3
5.7
2.1
1.1
1.7
2.0
4.6
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.1
1.0
0.1
2.0
1.3
6.1
9.6
5.9
0.2

Restau-
rants, 
bars, 
can-
teens
 & cater-
ing
278.5
8.0
0.5
2.5
3.5
27.2
0.2
5.9
6.0
38.2
40.4
36.1
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.8
1.8
:
10.5
6.3
2.6
6.4
0.9
0.7
0.2
3.3
5.6
69.4
3.2

Bread,
cake, 
flour
conf. &
sugar 
conf.
12.4
0.4
0.0
:
0.1
1.6
0.0
0.1
1.4
3.0
0.6
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
:
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
:
0.0
0.3
2.3
0.1

& veg. Meat

776.8 113.0
3.5
28.8
0.2
3.8
:
7.3
1.2
19.5
17.8
127.0
0.1
1.1
2.1
14.1
2.9
19.5
22.8
88.6
16.4
111.3
12.4
90.4
0.3
1.1
0.2
1.7
0.2
1.7
0.0
5.1
0.7
7.1
:
:
10.6
54.1
1.1
14.2
2.1
21.9
1.5
16.5
0.8
11.2
0.1
0.6
0.2
2.0
0.4
6.1
1.6
18.2
13.0
101.8
1.2
21.2

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ (1)
DK
DE
EE
IE (2)
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI (3)
SE
UK
NO
(1) 2004.
(2) Wholesale of other food excluding dairy products, eggs and fats, and retail sale of meat 
and meat products, 2004.
(3) Retail sale of meat and meat products, 2004.

& veg. Meat 
30.4
1.8
0.0
:
0.3
1.9
0.0
0.6
1.3
4.8
5.9
5.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
:
1.3
0.2
0.9
1.2
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
:
3.6
0.0

12.5
0.3
0.0
:
0.1
1.0
0.0
0.1
0.7
2.1
1.9
3.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
:
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
1.7
0.0

Food,
bev. &
tob. in
spec.
store
126.9
4.1
0.3
1.1
1.1
13.4
0.1
1.2
6.5
24.0
13.8
20.9
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.8
:
4.5
3.2
5.4
2.8
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.3
3.5
17.2
1.7

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_ACT8 and FOOD_ACT9, and 
Structural business statistics, SBS_NA_3B_TR)

136

From farm to fork 

Distribution stage

4

Figure 4.6: Selected indices (working day adjusted), retail sale 
of food, beverages and tobacco in specialized stores, EU-27 (1)
(2000=100)

140

130

120

110

100

90

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Implicit price index (deflator)
Turnover
Volume of sales

(1) Includes Eurostat estimates.

Source: Eurostat (Short-term business statistics, EBT_TS_RET)

Figure 4.7: Turnover indices (working day adjusted), EU-27 (1)
(2000=100)

140

130

120

110

100

90

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Wholesale of food, beverages and tobacco
Hotels and restaurants

(1) Includes Eurostat estimates.

Source: Eurostat (Short-term business statistics, EBT_TS_WHO and EBT_TS_OTHSV)

  From farm to fork

137

I

5

Consumption stage

5 Consumption stage

Context

Th  is chapter focuses on consumers, looking at the availability of 
food and beverages for human consumption, expenditure on food 
and  beverages,  prices  paid,  as  well  as  their  health  and  opinions 
concerning  food  production,  practices  and  policies.  Food  and 
beverages  are  amongst  the  most  important  consumption  items, 
satisfying the basic physiological needs of hunger and thirst and 
forming  one  of  the  most  recurrent  expenditure  items  for  the 
majority of EU households. Th  ere is great diversity across the EU 
as  regards  food  and  beverage  products,  and  these  oft en  form  a 
part of local, regional and national, cultural identity. At the same 
time, however, there are examples of convergence in consumption 
patterns, perhaps refl ecting greater consumer awareness and more 
international distribution networks.

Th  ere are health issues related to food that are not directly linked 
to the inherent safety of the food, but to the level and balance of 
food  consumption.  Guideline  daily  amounts  (GDAs)  are  guides 
for  the  amount  of  energy  and  nutrients  that  a  typical  healthy 
adult should be eating in a day, including the proportion of fats, 
carbohydrates, proteins, and fi bre, as well as sodium (salt). Many 
nutritionists and health experts believe that healthy eating habits 
should  be  established  from  an  early  age  and  for  this  reason  the 
consumption  habits  of  young  people  are  of  particular  interest, 
with increasing rates of child obesity a particular concern.

140

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

European  consumers  consider  not  only  price,  but  also  quality, 
when  purchasing  food. Th  e  EU  works  to  safeguard  food  quality 
in many ways, with policies on food safety and hygiene, labelling 
and nutritional information, food additives (see previous chapter), 
animal  and  plant  health  and  welfare  regulations,  as  well  as 
restrictions on pesticide residues. One practical aspect concerning 
food safety within the EU is the rapid alert system for food and 
feed (RASFF), which is a notifi cation system for concerns about 
food and drinks (including alcoholic drinks), providing a system 
for the swift  exchange of information between Member States and 
the coordination of response actions to food safety threats. In 2006 
by far the single largest number of notifi cations in 2006 concerned 
nuts  and  nut  products,  followed  by  fruit  and  vegetables,  and 
fi sh and fi sh products; 29 % of notifi cations concerned products 
originating  within  the  EU-27,  and  just  under  a  tenth  (8 %  to 
9 %) originated from each of China, Turkey, Iran and the United 
States.

Specifi c instruments have been developed to recognise the origin or 
quality of specifi c food products. Th  ese include rules on protected 
geographical  indications  (PGI)  and  protected  designations  of 
origin (PDO) of agricultural products and foodstuff s. Th  ese rules 
were created in 1992 with the aim of protecting specifi c product 
names  from  misuse  and  imitation  and  to  help  consumers  by 
giving  them  information  concerning  the  specifi c  characteristics 
of products. More details on these products can be found in the 
previous chapter.

  From farm to fork

141

5 Consumption stage

Volume of food and beverages available 
for human consumption

Figures  5.1  to  5.4  and  Tables  5.1  to  5.4  show  data  on  gross 
apparent  human  consumption,  compiled  from  supply  balance 
sheets  that  estimate  food  availability  to  the  consumer  and  not 
actual consumption by households. Th  e information presents, in 
quantity terms, the apparent consumption of selected food items 
in 2007. Wide disparities exist between the consumption of certain 
food items across EU Member States, usually related to whether or 
not a product can be supplied locally. For example, the principal 
consumers of vegetable oils and fats are Greece, Spain and Italy.

Figure 5.1 and Table 5.1 show information for a number of crop 
based products. Average annual consumption per capita of wheat, 
a major constituent of bakery products and pasta, was over 100 kg. 
Wheat consumption was high in Greece, Romania, Bulgaria and 
Italy,  while  consumption  of  potatoes  was  highest  in  Ireland  and 
Poland. Among the products shown, apparent sugar consumption 
varied least between Member States.

Figure 5.1: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average, 2007 (1)
(kg)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Wheat

Potatoes

Sugar

Vegetable
oils & fats

Rice

(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

142

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Table 5.1: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), 2007 (1)
(kg) 

EU (2)

Wheat
110.2

Rice
5.6

Potatoes
74.7

Vegetable 
oils & fats
17.5

Sugar
34.8

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

106.8

168.3

99.8

100.8

78.6

50.7

86.5

196.2

98.6

108.0

150.2

:

87.3

88.7

66.0

134.1

97.6

76.8

77.5

108.4

109.8

173.8

100.8

108.3

57.7

67.9

3.5

3.9

:

1.6

3.5

3.0

7.8

4.8

6.2

6.5

10.4

:

2.7

2.5

:

5.9

9.5

4.6

3.1

2.0

17.6

3.1

3.6

5.8

4.5

6.7

84.8

38.3

75.1

55.1

68.6

84.4

123.1

93.7

81.9

50.6

44.7

:

102.4

79.4

79.9

59.2

100.0

:

54.8

120.7

86.8

91.3

65.7

54.3

85.8

79.7

:

16.4

:

:

18.1

11.7

:

48.6

33.3

15.5

27.9

:

:

13.4

:

:

18.4

19.0

12.2

5.3

21.1

12.7

:

:

5.0

2.7

52.2

26.0

38.4

40.4

37.4

54.8

31.8

28.6

29.0

36.5

43.6

:

35.0

26.6

51.1

42.9

44.1

27.5

38.1

33.8

30.4

30.3

:

36.8

39.1

48.3

100.8

UK
(1) Latest year available has been used to replace data that were not available for 2007.
(2) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

24.3

96.9

5.6

23.7

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

  From farm to fork

143

5 Consumption stage

Figure  5.2  and  Table  5.2  show  information  for  selected  fruits 
(including tomatoes). Annual apparent consumption of oranges, 
apples and pears together exceeded 55 kg per capita on average, 
while  the  consumption  of  tomatoes  (fresh  and  processed)  was 
over  32  kg.  Annual  apparent  consumption  of  oranges  exceeded 
100 kg per capita in France, in contrast to an average consumption 
just  above  5  kg  per  capita  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany  or 
Austria. Denmark topped the ranking (among the Member States 
with  data  available)  for  apples,  with  over  50  kg  consumed,  on 
average, per capita, while Poland, Lithuania and Bulgaria reported 
average  consumption  of  less  than  10  kg.  Th  e  highest  per  capita 
consumption of pears was in Italy (12 kg) and the lowest in Poland 
and Lithuania (both less than 1 kg); Austria was the only Member 
State where the apparent consumption of pears was greater than 
that of oranges. Southern Member States topped the ranking for 
the consumption of tomatoes, averages exceeding 70 kg per capita 
in Greece, Malta and Italy.

Figure 5.2: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average, 2007 (1)
(kg) 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Oranges

Apples

Processed
tomatoes

Fresh 
tomatoes

Pears

(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

144

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Table 5.2: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), 2007
(kg) 

EU (1)

Apples
17.7

Oranges
32.9

Pears
5.1

Fresh 
tomatoes
15.2

Processed 
tomatoes
17.4

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

26.0

5.7

:

53.6

16.9

25.2

12.8

20.6

17.3

24.0

17.5

:

:

6.1

21.8

24.5

20.7

:

28.6

7.9

30.0

13.3

:

:

22.0

21.9

19.1

10.2

:

:

5.9

25.3

66.8

60.3

30.8

116.6

38.3

:

:

10.9

:

15.2

24.9

:

5.7

13.2

23.2

9.0

:

:

48.7

36.3

5.9

1.3

:

7.8

2.4

3.6

9.7

5.6

8.2

5.3

12.4

:

:

0.7

4.5

3.2

3.2

:

7.6

0.9

10.6

1.8

:

:

3.3

6.1

7.9

14.5

:

32.2

7.8

9.9

6.9

57.0

17.0

14.0

31.0

:

:

2.5

10.0

9.4

36.8

:

8.8

8.6

10.6

21.9

:

:

10.5

10.2

18.0

7.8

:

:

14.6

10.5

10.9

23.0

22.3

16.7

40.0

:

:

11.2

18.4

9.2

36.8

:

15.0

9.1

7.9

14.2

:

:

13.6

16.7

UK
(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

11.6

2.4

5.1

8.6

7.3

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

  From farm to fork

145

5 Consumption stage

Similar information for meat and for fi sh and seafood products is 
shown  in  Figure  5.3  and  Table  5.3.  Th  e  highest  annual  apparent 
consumption  among  these  products  was  recorded  for  pork 
products, averaging over 40 kg per capita, a level that was higher 
than the combined total of poultry, cattle, sheep and goats. Spain, 
Austria, Germany, Denmark and Belgium reported the highest per 
capita apparent consumption of pig meat, all recording averages in 
excess of 50 kg, while the United Kingdom, Lithuania and Greece 
recorded per capita averages below 30 kg. Spain also recorded the 
highest per capita apparent consumption of poultry meat: the two 
Iberian Member States, as well as Ireland and the United Kingdom 
all  recorded  annual  apparent  consumption  of  poultry  meat 
averaging  around  30  kg  per  capita.  Th  e  Czech  Republic  recorded 
by far the lowest apparent consumption of poultry meat, just 2.3 kg 
per  capita.  A  more  complete  set  of  data  is  available  for  fi sh  and 
seafood, showing high average apparent consumption in Portugal 
and Lithuania (both over 50 kg per capita), as well as in Spain and 
Malta. Th  e lowest annual average apparent consumption of fi sh and 
seafood was recorded in Bulgaria (2.8 kg per capita), with Hungary 
and Romania also recording averages below 5 kg per capita.

Figure 5.3: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average, 2007 (1)
(kg) 

0

10

20

30

40

50

Pigs

Fish & seafood

Poultry

Cattle

Sheep & goats

(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

146

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Table 5.3: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), 2007
(kg) 

EU (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

Cattle
8.8

22.1

:

:

27.5

12.7

:

17.7

16.7

15.5

26.8

25.0

:

:

10.0

32.5

:

26.4

19.1

18.2

6.6

18.4

:

:

:

18.8

23.8

Poultry
21.8

21.1

:

2.3

21.7

16.6

:

31.0

19.3

32.1

23.0

15.3

:

:

11.8

11.5

:

22.9

18.6

18.7

19.8

29.8

:

:

:

16.2

13.9

Pigs
41.3

51.8

:

:

52.1

53.9

:

38.5

28.4

60.9

34.4

39.0

:

:

26.1

44.1

:

33.0

42.4

57.0

48.1

44.2

:

:

:

33.7

36.1

Sheep 
& goats
3.0

Fish & 
seafood
23.6

1.8

:

:

1.3

1.0

:

5.4

11.5

5.2

4.2

1.5

:

:

0.2

1.7

:

2.5

1.4

1.2

0.1

3.1

:

:

:

0.4

1.1

:

2.8

10.4

23.1

12.3

20.3

17.7

23.1

45.5

29.2

24.8

28.7

9.6

54.5

:

4.3

39.1

23.8

11.8

10.0

55.3

3.2

7.5

6.5

30.6

27.7

UK
(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

21.6

29.8

21.1

6.4

21.2

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

  From farm to fork

147

5 Consumption stage

Consumption  of  dairy  products  and  eggs  are  presented  in  Figure 
5.4 and Table 5.4: average per capita apparent consumption of milk, 
cheese and butter in the EU was just over 100 kg, of which more 
than  80 %  was  accounted  for  by  drinking  milk.  Finland,  Ireland 
and  Sweden  recorded  the  highest  average  apparent  consumption 
of  drinking  milk,  all  in  excess  of  130  kg  per  capita.  Th  e  lowest 
fi gure  was  in  Latvia  (32  kg),  equivalent  to  just  one  fi ft h  of  the 
level  in  Finland.  Apparent  consumption  of  cheese  was  highest  in 
Luxembourg,  followed  by  Greece,  both  with  an  average  per 
capita  consumption  above  25  kg.  Slovakia  and  Hungary  had  the 
lowest apparent consumption of cheese, just over 6 kg per capita. 
Luxembourg,  France,  Finland  and  Germany  recorded  the  highest 
levels of apparent consumption of butter, all in excess of 6 kg per 
capita.  Several  southern  Member  States  recorded  low  apparent 
butter consumption, with Spain, Malta and Greece all averaging 1 kg 
per capita or less, although Hungary was lowest in this ranking with 
an average of 0.8 kg. Unlike the dairy products shown, the apparent 
consumption of eggs did not vary greatly between Member States, 
ranging from an average of 9 kg per capita in Portugal and Finland 
to 18 kg per capita in Spain.

Figure 5.4: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average, 2007 (1)
(kg) 

0

20

40

60

80

100

Drinking milk

Cheese

Eggs

Butter

(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

148

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Table 5.4: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), 2007
(kg) 

Drinking 
milk
82.5

EU (1)

Butter
4.2

Cheese
16.5

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

69.2

:

51.5

99.8

64.1

112.8

147.2

65.0

103.8

70.2

57.7

115.2

31.6

95.7

56.9

64.4

75.4

79.4

77.5

93.7

91.6

:

:

:

156.8

131.2

5.1

:

4.6

1.8

6.4

2.7

2.9

0.9

1.0

7.7

2.8

2.0

2.3

2.8

8.4

0.8

0.9

:

4.8

3.5

1.7

:

1.2

2.4

7.0

4.4

18.9

:

13.1

23.2

20.4

15.3

8.3

25.7

10.1

23.4

21.0

16.4

11.1

12.7

29.8

6.1

21.1

21.5

17.6

12.8

9.9

:

11.4

6.4

18.8

17.2

Eggs
13.1

12.7

:

:

17.0

12.7

:

10.9

10.3

18.0

15.2

11.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

13.5

14.2

:

8.5

:

:

:

9.3

12.1

UK
(1) Average of available countries using previous reference periods when no data were 
available for 2007.

117.2

10.0

3.3

11.2

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

  From farm to fork

149

5 Consumption stage

A time-series of average apparent consumption per capita is shown 
in  Figures  5.5  and  5.6  –  note  that  all  of  the  fi gures  use  the  same 
scale  for  ease  of  comparison.  Apparent  consumption  of  vegetable 
oils and fats fell signifi cantly between 1999 and 2002, while apparent 
rice  consumption  fell  between  2004  and  2006.  Th  e  developments 
of  apparent  consumption  for  potatoes,  sugar  and  wheat  were,  in 
comparison,  relatively  stable,  aft er  a  period  of  growth  between 
1998  and  2000.  In  contrast,  the  development  of  consumption  for 
fruit crops was more volatile, particularly for oranges and tomatoes. 
Apparent  consumption  of  meat  and  fi sh  products  was  generally 
stable, although a downward trend for sheep and goat meat can be 
noted, as well as a sharp fall (followed by a rebound) of poultry meat 
consumption in 2003. Apparent consumption of dairy products and 
eggs  was  also  relatively  stable  over  the  period  observed,  with  the 
strongest trend being an increased consumption of cheese.

Figure 5.5: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average (1)
(1996=100) 

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Cereals
Potatoes
Sugar

Wheat
Rice
Oils and fats

(1) EU average is based on the available countries for each reference period.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

150

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Figure 5.6: Gross human apparent consumption per capita 
(availability for human consumption), EU average (1)
(1996=100) 

160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70

160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70

160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Apples
Pears
Processed tomatoes

Oranges
Fresh tomatoes

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Total meat
Poultry
Sheep and goats

Cattle
Pigs
Fish and seafood

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Drinking milk

Cheese

Butter

Eggs

(1) EU average is based on the available countries for each reference period.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_CH_CONCAP, and Population 
statistics, DEMO_PJAN)

  From farm to fork

151

5 Consumption stage

Prices

Prices of products in diff erent countries could be compared simply 
by  converting  them  into  a  common  currency  using  ordinary 
exchange  rates.  Purchasing  power  standards  (PPS)  are  a  type  of 
exchange rate constructed to take account of price level diff erences 
between countries. Th  ey are therefore more suitable for international 

Table 5.5: Comparative price levels indices, food products, 2006
(EU-27=100) 

Bread &
cereals 
100.0
EU-27
109.9
BE
42.1
BG
61.4
CZ
150.1
DK
107.8
DE
69.9
EE
121.3
IE
95.0
EL
112.2
ES
103.7
FR
109.5
IT
108.3
CY
59.4
LV
61.6
LT
120.1
LU
61.0
HU
76.6
MT
89.6
NL
126.4
AT
59.9
PL
95.8
PT
56.7
RO
93.5
SI
56.2
SK
141.4
FI
131.9
SE
103.5
UK
87.6
HR
55.0
MK
70.0
TR
188.1
IS
164.3
NO
142.1
CH
Source: Eurostat (Purchasing power parities, PRC_PPP_IND)

Food 
100.0
111.1
55.1
67.7
138.9
105.8
74.1
124.5
96.7
92.6
107.2
115.6
103.8
68.0
63.0
116.6
70.0
81.0
89.0
111.5
64.7
87.4
69.6
87.6
65.8
119.5
119.2
113.0
87.0
55.2
82.5
162.7
158.8
145.8

Meat 
100.0
122.7
47.7
60.0
148.8
118.3
64.4
129.0
90.8
81.3
121.8
118.2
80.4
57.7
50.3
119.6
65.2
69.1
105.3
121.2
52.5
82.2
60.3
82.9
58.1
118.9
132.9
126.6
85.5
52.6
78.3
189.2
181.6
195.0

Fish
100.0
127.7
62.3
75.9
137.0
120.5
72.7
122.8
100.6
88.6
106.1
121.6
141.2
71.1
56.6
110.0
75.3
82.2
114.5
111.3
67.2
70.1
84.2
101.3
68.3
110.4
108.6
90.5
84.5
64.0
75.0
112.1
127.3
141.8

Milk, 
cheese
& eggs 
100.0
109.8
83.7
80.5
116.6
87.2
79.6
127.3
138.8
96.9
100.6
126.4
139.8
75.5
75.6
112.5
83.7
111.7
78.6
98.0
67.5
106.1
95.8
83.6
75.6
110.5
104.8
115.9
89.0
62.9
117.5
149.5
160.6
127.1

Fruit, 
veg. & 
pota-
toes
100.0
104.2
49.1
63.7
129.2
115.7
82.2
130.9
72.0
94.4
107.9
114.4
89.1
73.0
67.7
130.5
64.4
70.0
89.2
106.5
69.4
79.1
69.7
85.6
62.0
123.1
122.5
119.8
77.8
43.4
70.6
152.8
142.3
130.3

Oils 
& fats 
100.0
110.9
95.2
82.7
135.0
88.4
88.9
97.8
118.2
88.6
107.0
112.4
133.5
94.5
90.6
112.4
89.7
97.6
66.3
114.8
82.7
97.0
96.3
105.9
99.8
118.4
118.4
104.4
103.3
80.0
93.1
139.3
155.8
162.7

152

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

comparisons.  By  comparing  these  with  regular  exchange  rates,  a 
price level index (PLI) can be constructed that refl ects the relative 
price  level  diff erences  between  the  countries.  Price  level  indices 
compiled  for  2006  show  that  food  products  were  cheaper  in  the 
eastern  Member  States,  and  were  particularly  expensive  in  the 
Nordic  countries  and  Ireland.  Price  levels  for  food  in  the  most 
expensive Member State, Denmark, were 2.5 times as high as in the 
least expensive, namely Bulgaria.

Table 5.6: Comparative price level indices, beverages, 2006
(EU-27=100)

Food &
 non-alcoholic 
beverages
100.0
110.1
56.2
68.9
141.8
105.4
75.6
125.3
98.1
92.3
104.8
115.1
106.9
69.5
64.2
114.9
70.7
83.5
88.6
109.9
66.2
87.8
70.6
87.5
66.7
120.7
118.9
113.7
88.4
56.1
83.7
163.9
158.5
141.8

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
Source: Eurostat (Purchasing power parities, PRC_PPP_IND, FOOD_PD_PRC1)

Non-alcoholic 
beverages
100.0
101.2
72.4
81.6
169.5
102.9
90.9
134.8
118.0
87.8
83.5
109.2
141.8
89.0
79.1
104.4
77.4
108.3
83.6
97.5
84.5
93.4
82.7
87.5
76.6
132.5
118.1
121.3
107.3
67.3
100.7
177.1
160.4
104.6

Alcoholic 
beverages
100.0
97.4
68.9
85.3
127.4
81.7
88.9
179.5
109.3
81.0
91.0
112.7
117.9
91.9
78.8
87.1
76.3
116.5
92.6
81.0
90.9
98.3
90.0
86.7
71.7
169.6
144.1
151.7
112.9
64.9
175.0
225.7
227.3
95.6

  From farm to fork

153

5 Consumption stage

Within the EU, the harmonised index of consumer prices for food 
rose by an average of 1.9 % between 1996 and 2007, very close to 
the overall (all-items) infl ation rate over the same period. Th  e price 
of  alcoholic  and  non-alcoholic  beverages  rose  less  quickly,  both 
by  an  annual  average  of  about  1.0 %,  while  restaurant  prices  rose 
faster, averaging 3.0 % per annum. Th  e latest annual infl ation rates 
show food prices grew by 3.5 % in 2007, compared with an overall 
infl ation rate of 2.3 %. At the time of writing, this trend was even 
more evident, as rising food prices and security of supply across the 
globe  have  become  major  political  issues,  leading  to  export  bans 
in some countries, and increased concerns about food prices and 
supply.

Figure 5.7: Evolution of harmonised indices of consumer prices, 
EU (1)
(2005=100) 

115

110

105

100

95

90

85

80

75

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

All-items
Food
Non-alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverages
Restaurants

(1) 1996-1998, estimates; EU-15 from 1996-2004, EU-25 from 2005-2006, EU-27 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_PD_PRC2, PRC_HICP_AIND)

154

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Figure 5.8: Evolution of harmonised indices of consumer 
prices, EU (1)
(2005=100) 

115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75

115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75

115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75

1996

2002

2000

1998
Food
Meat
Milk, cheese & eggs

2006

2004
Cereals
Fish & seafood

1996

2002

2000

2004

1998
Food
Fats & oils
Fruit
Vegetables
Sugar, jam, honey, chocolate & confectionery

2006

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Coffee, tea & cocoa
Mineral waters, soft drinks, fruit & vegetable juices
Spirits
Wine
Beer

(1) 1996-1998, estimates; EU-15 from 1996-2004, EU-25 from 2005-2006, EU-27 for 2007.

Source: Eurostat (Food: From farm to fork statistics, FOOD_PD_PRC2)

  From farm to fork

155

5 Consumption stage

Many Member States impose excise duties on alcoholic beverages, 
and these vary greatly as can be seen from Figure 5.9. In the case of 
wine, currently 15 Member States do not impose any excise duty, and 
all of these are producers of wine. Th  e highest excise duties on wine 
are imposed by countries with relatively small or no domestic wine 
production, the Nordic and Baltic Member States, Poland, Ireland, 
the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Netherlands. In contrast, all 
Member States apply an excise duty on beer. As well as refl ecting 
national traditions, high levels of excise duty may refl ect concerns 
about excessive alcohol consumption, and/or a government’s desire 
to raise tax revenue in this way.

Figure 5.9: Excise duty per hectolitre, January 2008 (EUR)
(EUR) 

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

FI

LV

PT

MT

Beer 
(per degree 
Plato) (1)

Beer 
(per degree 
of alcohol) (2)

6 000

5 000

4 000

3 000

2 000

1 000

0

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

IE

15 
MS

Still
wine

SE

BG

Alcohol

Maximum

Mean

Median

Minimum

(1) <=7° Plato for the Netherlands; <=8° Plato for Portugal; only applicable in Belgium, 
Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, 
the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia.
(2) Only applicable in Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, France, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, 
Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Source: Directorate-General for Taxation and Customs Union, European Commission (http://
ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/excise_duties/alcoholic_
beverages/rates/excise_duties-part_I_alcohol-en.pdf)

156

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Whereas  the  individual  governments  of  Member  States  have  a 
relatively  large  degree  of  freedom  in  setting  excise  duties,  VAT 
rates  are  less  varied  between  Member  States.  Th  ere  is  agreement 
on a minimum rate of 15 % for VAT on most goods and services: 
a higher standard rate is allowed within certain limits as are lower 
rates and exemptions for some items.

Table 5.7: VAT rates generally applied, January 2008 (%)
(%) 

Foodstuffs
6/12/21

20.0

5.0

25.0

7/19

18.0

0/4.8/13.5

9.0

4/7

5.5/19.6

4/10

0/5/15

18/5

5/18

3.0

20.0

0.0

6.0

10.0

3/7/22

5/12/21

19.0

8.5

19.0

17.0

12/25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

Mineral 
water/
fruit juices
6.0

Beer
21.0

Wine
21.0

Restau-
rants
21.0

20.0

5.0

25.0

19.0

18.0

21.0

9.0

7.0

5.5

20.0

15.0

18.0

18.0

3.0

20.0

18.0

6.0

20.0

22.0

5.0

19.0

8.5

19.0

17.0

12.0

20.0

19.0

25.0

19.0

18.0

21.0

19.0

16.0

19.6

20.0

15.0

18.0

18.0

15.0

20.0

18.0

19.0

20.0

22.0

21.0

19.0

20.0

19.0

22.0

25.0

20.0

19.0

25.0

19.0

18.0

21.0

19.0

16.0

19.6

20.0

15.0

18.0

18.0

12.0

20.0

18.0

19.0

20.0

22.0

12.0

19.0

20.0

19.0

22.0

25.0

20.0

19.0

25.0

19.0

18.0

13.5

9.0

7.0

13.5

10.0

8.0

18.0

18.0

3.0

20.0

18.0

6.0

10.0

7.0

12.0

19.0

20.0

19.0

22.0

25.0

0/17.5

UK
Source: Directorate-General for Taxation and Customs Union, European Commission (http://
ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/vat/how_vat_works/
rates/vat_rates_en.pdf)

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

  From farm to fork

157

5 Consumption stage

Consumption expenditure

Th  e development of household consumption expenditure between 
1995  and  2006  can  be  seen  in  Figure  5.10;  the  indices  are  based 
on constant price data and so are not aff ected by infl ation, but as 
they  represent  overall  expenditure  (rather  than  per  capita)  they 
may  be  infl uenced  by  changes  in  the  size  of  populations.  Overall 
total  household  consumption  expenditure  rose  by  29.3 %  during 
this 11-year period, while expenditure on non-alcoholic beverages 
rose  slightly  faster  (31.7 %)  and  catering  services  slightly  slower 
(24.8 %), with expenditure on food and alcoholic beverages rising 
slower still.

Household  budget  survey  (HBS)  data  is  presented  in  Figure  5.11 
in  PPS  rather  than  euro  and,  as  such  the  analysis  is  based  on  an 
adjustment to comparable price levels. In 2005, annual expenditure 
on food and beverages (including catering services) averaged PPS 
4 900  per  household  within  the  EU-27.  National  averages  ranged 
from  less  than  PPS  3 000  per  household  in  Romania,  Bulgaria, 
Hungary,  Estonia  and  Poland,  to  over  PPS  7 500  per  household 

Figure 5.10: Evolution of household consumption expenditure, 
volumes, EU-27
(1995=100) 

135

130

125

120

115

110

105

100

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

Total household consumption expenditure
Food
Non-alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverages
Catering services

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts detailed breakdowns, NAMA_CO3_K)

158

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

in  Luxembourg,  Malta,  Ireland,  Cyprus  and  Greece.  As  can  be 
seen  from  Figure  5.11,  catering  services  generally  accounted  for 
a large proportion of average household expenditure on food and 
beverages among Member States with higher total expenditure on 
food and beverages, with Italy a notable exception. Another value 
of  note  was  the  level  of  Irish  expenditure  on  alcoholic  beverages, 
averaging PPS 1 500 per household, a little over two and a half times 
the next highest fi gure.

Figure 5.11: Mean consumption expenditure on food and 
beverages, 2005
(PPS per household) 

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

LU
MT
IE
CY
EL
ES
IT
BE
AT
UK
PT
FR
HR
SI
EU-27
NO
NL
FI
SE
DK
LV
LT
SK
DE (1)
CZ
PL
EE
HU
BG
RO

Food 
Alcoholic beverages 

Non-alcoholic beverages 
Catering services

(1) Catering services, not available.

Source: Eurostat (Consumption expenditure of private households, HBS_EXP_T121)

  From farm to fork

159

5 Consumption stage

Food  and  beverages  (including  catering  services)  accounted  for  a 
combined  23.2 %  of  household  consumption  expenditure  in  the 
EU-27 in 2006, according to the weights used for the harmonised 
index of consumer prices. An analysis of this total is shown in Tables 
5.8 and 5.9, with some 14.0 % of expenditure on food, 1.3 % on non-
alcoholic  beverages,  1.8 %  on  alcoholic  beverages,  and  8.0 %  on 
catering services. With the exception of Bulgaria, among the food 
categories shown in these tables meat accounted for the largest share 
of household consumption expenditure, averaging 3.6 % across the 
EU and reaching a high of 9.1 % in Romania. Of the food categories, 

Table 5.8: Structure of consumption expenditure, 2007
(%) 

Bread 
& 

Food, 
bev. & 
cater-
ing 
serv.
23.2
24.0
33.0
24.1
19.9
15.7
26.5
27.7
32.4
35.4
22.2
25.9
28.6
31.4
32.3
17.7
25.9
24.2
18.7
22.9
22.6
31.4
37.6
23.3
24.7
22.8
20.2
22.2

cereals  Meat 
3.6
4.6
4.4
4.1
3.1
2.5
5.2
3.0
3.8
5.5
4.4
4.0
4.0
6.5
6.8
2.2
3.9
3.6
2.6
2.8
5.3
4.8
9.1
3.8
4.2
3.1
2.7
2.1

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
Source: Eurostat (Harmonised indices of consumer prices - Item weights, PRC_HICP_INW)

Fruit 
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.3
1.9
1.1
1.2
1.5
1.6
1.3
0.7
1.2
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.5
1.9
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.1
0.9

Oils 
& fats 
0.5
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.3
1.6
0.9
0.4
0.9
0.6
0.9
1.0
0.3
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.4
1.1
0.8
1.7
0.6
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.2

Milk, 
cheese 
& eggs 
2.1
2.0
3.7
3.1
2.0
1.5
3.4
1.5
3.1
3.0
2.3
2.4
3.1
4.3
3.3
1.5
3.6
2.4
1.7
1.9
2.8
2.2
5.8
2.4
3.0
2.7
2.3
1.2

Fish & 
sea-
food
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.9
0.4
1.3
3.1
1.3
1.2
0.7
1.2
1.6
0.6
0.1
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.6
3.2
1.1
0.5
0.2
0.6
0.9
0.4

Vege-
tables 
1.6
1.6
3.6
1.5
1.7
1.1
2.0
1.8
2.0
1.9
1.5
1.9
2.3
2.1
1.8
0.9
1.8
1.9
1.3
1.3
2.0
1.9
3.7
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.4
1.4

2.5
3.1
4.9
2.9
2.3
1.9
3.0
2.3
2.2
3.3
2.3
3.3
2.9
4.3
4.8
2.1
3.3
3.0
2.5
2.2
3.5
3.0
8.4
2.9
2.3
2.7
2.2
1.5

160

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

either bread and cereals, or milk, cheese and eggs had generally the 
next  largest  shares,  averaging  2.5 %  and  2.1 %  across  the  EU-27 
respectively; Portugal was an exception as the share of household 
consumption expenditure on fi sh and seafood (3.2 %) was higher 
than both of these categories, while in Spain the share of expenditure 
on fi sh and seafood (3.1 %) was also higher than on milk, cheese and 
eggs. Across the EU as a whole, the share of household consumption 
expenditure on alcoholic beverages was fairly evenly split between 
spirits, wine and beer, although there were large variations in some 
Member States.

Table 5.9: Structure of consumption expenditure, 2007
(%) 

Sugar, 
jam, 
honey, 
choc. & 
confec.
1.1
1.1
2.4
1.1
1.6
0.9
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.7
1.0
1.2
0.9
1.8
2.0
0.8
1.2
0.8
1.1
1.0
1.4
0.5
1.8
1.3
1.1
1.4
1.7
1.1

Food 
prod. 
n.e.c. 
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.9
0.1
0.4
0.6
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.7
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.7
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.2

Coffee, 
tea & 
cocoa
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.3
1.1
1.0
0.4
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.2
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.3

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Min. 
water, 
soft 
drinks, 
fruit & 
veg. 

juices  Spirits  Wine 
0.7
0.5
1.1
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.8
1.5
1.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
1.8
2.6
1.7
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.2
1.0
0.5
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.8
1.8
1.3
2.6
1.1
1.2
0.8
1.7
0.7
0.3
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.7
1.9
0.7
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.9
1.3
1.1
1.2
0.6
0.9
0.5

0.9
1.3
0.7
1.2
1.3
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.6
0.7
1.1
1.1
1.7
1.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
0.5
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.0

Cater-
ing 
serv.
8.0
6.7
9.8
6.3
5.0
4.2
6.7
14.6
15.2
13.5
5.8
8.6
10.4
6.4
6.7
6.8
6.3
7.1
5.5
10.5
2.7
12.6
1.1
6.4
7.9
7.4
5.6
11.9

Beer 
0.6
0.5
0.4
2.2
0.9
1.1
1.9
0.9
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
1.4
1.7
0.6
1.9
0.8
0.5
0.5
2.0
0.2
0.7
0.8
1.5
1.6
0.7
0.4

Source: Eurostat (Harmonised indices of consumer prices - Item weights, PRC_HICP_INW)

  From farm to fork

161

5 Consumption stage

Food and beverages are to a large extent essential items of expenditure 
and as such it can be expected that, once a certain level of expenditure 
has been achieved, the level of expenditure does not increase greatly 
as income rises; there may however be some product substitution 
with better quality products purchased as income rises, and a greater 
consumption of services (catering services, for example). Figure 5.12 
shows the percentage composition of consumption expenditure for 
households  based  on  the  socio-economic  category  of  the  head  of 
the  household.  Th  e  highest  shares  for  food  are  recorded  for  the 
unemployed and retired persons, who overall are likely to be on low 
incomes. Th  e lowest shares of household consumption expenditure 
devoted  to  food  were  recorded  for  the  self-employed  and  non-
manual workers. Alcoholic beverages showed the least variation in 
their share of household consumption expenditure (between 1.0 % 
and 1.2 %) across these categories, while catering services showed 
the greatest (between 3.3 % and 5.6 %).

A more direct analysis of income eff ects is shown in Figure 5.13. As 
expected, the share of expenditure on food and beverages appears 
inversely  related  to  income,  and  for  the  EU-27  the  proportion 
of  household  expenditure  allocated  to  food  and  non-alcoholic 
beverages was around two thirds higher for households in the lowest 
income quintile than those in the highest quintile.

Figure 5.12: Structure of consumption expenditure by socio-
economic category of head of household, EU-27, 2005
(%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Unemployment

Manual workers

Inactive population - other

Retired

Self-employed

Non manual workers

Food
Non-alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverages
Catering services 

Source: Eurostat (Consumption expenditure of private households, HBS_STR_T221)

162

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Figure 5.13: Structure of consumption expenditure by income 
quintile, food and non-alcoholic beverages, 2005
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
NO

First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth

Source: Eurostat (Consumption expenditure of private households, HBS_STR_T223)

  From farm to fork

163

5 Consumption stage

Consumer externalities

Guideline daily amounts (GDAs) are guides for the total amount of 
energy and nutrients that a typical healthy adult should be eating 
in a day, including fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and fi bre, as well 
as sodium (salt) – the GDAs for women are shown in Table 5.10 
along with recommended daily allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and 
minerals. It is hoped that such guidelines, combined with product 
labelling, can help consumers to understand better how individual 
products contribute to achieving an overall balanced diet. For any 
individual,  energy  and  nutrient  requirements  may  be  higher  or 
lower than the published GDAs, based on their gender, age, weight, 
level  of  physical  activity,  and  other  factors:  GDAs  are  not  strict 
targets for each individual.

Table 5.10: Female guideline daily amounts (GDAs) based on a 
daily intake of 2 000 kcal (1)

Energy
Total fat
Saturated fat
Carbohydrates
Total sugars
Protein
Fibre
Sodium (salt)

2 000 kcal (calories)
<= 70g
<= 20g
270g
<= 90g
50g
>= 25g
<= 2.4g (6g)

Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin C
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folic acid
Vitamin B12
Blotin
Pantothenic acid
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Magnesium
Zinc
Iodine
(1) mg = milligram = 1/1 000 of a gram; µg = microgram = 1/1 000 000 of a gram.

800μg
5μg
10mg
60mg
1.4mg
1.6mg
18mg
2mg
200μg
1μg
0.15mg
6mg
800mg
800mg
14mg
300mg
15mg
150μg

Source: The European Food Information Council (EUFIC) (http://www.euﬁ c.org/article/en/
health-lifestyle/diet-weight-control/artid/Making_sense_of_Guideline_Daily_Amounts) 
and Council Directive 90/496/EEC of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling for 
foodstuffs

164

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

As  well  as  risking  nutritional  defi ciencies,  a  poor  diet  (as  well  as 
other factors, for example, a lack of exercise or hereditary factors) 
may lead to weight problems. Th  e direct health problems of being 
overweight or obese may be compounded by the costs arising from 
the treatment of weight-related illnesses. Obesity causes a range of 
chronic diseases, including diabetes, cancers and heart disease. Th  e 
body mass index (BMI) is defi ned as a person’s weight in kilograms 
divided by the square of their height (kg/(m2)). Table 5.11 shows the 
proportion of the population classifi ed as overweight (BMI greater 
than 25) or obese (BMI greater than 30). Th  e proportion of obese or 
overweight persons generally rises to a peak between the ages of 55 
and 64 or between 65 and 74, before dropping off  again.

Table 5.11: Proportion of the population who are either 
overweight or obese, by age, 2004 (1)
(%)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS
NO
CH
(1) Proportion of the population with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 or more.

35-44
39.6
46.5
47.2
40.6
55.3
41.8
52.6
55.4
47.6
35.6
35.9
43.1
46.7
43.8
:
54.2
58.5
41.4
43.3
47.9
51.0
47.9
52.6
48.5
46.6
44.9
63.0
50.3
35.4
35.4

15-24
12.7
17.2
16.6
19.4
26.5
11.5
25.8
21.2
17.3
10.6
12.6
16.9
10.0
20.0
:
21.1
33.9
13.5
17.1
11.6
19.7
12.5
15.7
10.3
17.9
18.2
31.1
27.2
14.2
11.0

25-34
33.3
32.8
35.5
34.3
42.7
28.2
38.2
36.3
35.8
27.9
24.3
33.7
32.0
28.4
:
39.6
47.8
35.1
35.3
32.4
36.4
32.9
32.0
36.6
37.8
37.0
53.1
43.8
28.7
27.9

45-54
50.1
56.8
66.7
49.2
68.1
59.2
58.3
63.9
58.5
44.5
49.7
58.5
59.8
63.7
:
62.0
68.8
52.3
54.7
60.4
61.1
57.8
59.6
66.8
54.5
48.0
68.9
59.3
36.6
44.5

55-64
57.6
60.3
78.4
54.4
76.8
68.5
59.9
69.9
67.9
55.0
57.6
63.6
68.0
73.1
:
69.3
68.3
56.7
59.0
66.2
63.1
56.1
69.7
77.4
60.4
57.8
69.7
65.5
41.5
49.2

Source: Eurostat (Health status: indicators from surveys (SILC, HIS, LFS), HLTH_IS_BMIA)

  From farm to fork

165

5 Consumption stage

Foodborne  diseases  pose  a  threat  to  human  health  and  the 
well-being  of  individuals  and  their  dependents. Th  ere  are  a  small 
number of diseases which have a high incidence rate, most notably 
Campylobacteriosis  and  Salmonellosis,  and  a  range  of  much  less 
common  diseases,  for  example,  variant  Creutzfeldt-Jakob  Disease 
(vCJD)  which  has  been  strongly  linked  to  contaminated  meat 
products.  Incidence  rates  vary  greatly  between  countries  and 
reference years, as can clearly be seen from Table 5.13, although it 
should be noted that there may be under-reporting of diseases, and 
the extent of this may also vary between countries.

According  to  the  World  Health  Organisation  new  foodborne 
disease threats occur due to increased travel and trade, microbial 
adaptation and changes in the food production system, as well as 
human demographics and behaviour.

Table 5.12: Number of cases and incidence rates of various 
foodborne and waterborne diseases, 2005 (1)

EU-25

Member States

Incidence 
rate
 (per
100 000 
inhab.)
0.0

Incidence 
rate
(per
100 000 
inhab.)
0.2

Highest 
incidence 
rate
LT

Confirmed
cases (units)
147

1 428

197 802

34

7 960

336

14 637

1 476

180 303

7 255

153

489
14

5 199

9 535

0.3

45.0

0.0

2.8

0.1

5.2

0.3

39.1

1.8

0.0

0.1
0.0

1.2

2.3

PT

CZ

BE

IE

LT

EE

DK

CZ

LT

LV

SE
SI

CZ

LT

1.4

296.2

0.1

13.8

0.4

24.3

0.9

322.2

13.4

2.1

2.7
0.2

16.7

14.6

Botulism

Brucellosis

Campylobacteriosis

Cholera (2)

Cryptosporidiosis

Echinococcosis

Giardiasis

Listeriosis

Salmonellosis

Shigellosis

Trichinellosis

Tularaemia
Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob 
disease (vCJD)
Verocytotoxinogenic 
Escherichia coli (VTEC)

Yersiniosis (non-pestis)

(1) Some of these diseases may be transmitted from person to person, as well as through 
contaminated food or water; note the ﬁ gures refer to the latest reference year and that 
these diseases are occur as outbreaks, hence, their incidence may ﬂ uctuate considerably 
from one year to the next.
(2) Cases may have been imported.

Source: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), The First European 
Communicable Disease Epidemiological Report, December 2007 (http://ecdc.europa.eu/
pdf/ECDC_epi_report_2007.pdf)

166

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Table 5.13: Microbiological foodborne diseases, 2006

Number of
outbreaks 
(units)
:

Number 
of
cases (units)
:

Incidence 
rate 
(per 100 000
inhabitants)
89.7

of which, 

salmonellosis
(per 100 000
inhabitants)
35.9

EU-27 (1)

BE (2)

BG

CZ

DK (3)

DE (4)

EE

IE (5)

EL (3)

ES (3)

FR (2)

IT (3)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL (2)

AT (3)

PL

PT (3)

RO (3)

SI

SK

FI

SE

116.0

:

165.0

35.0

:

2.0

13.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

207.0

:

172.0

53.0

49.0

:

:

:

:

25.0

57.0

46.0

:

1 038.0

:

59 002.0

7 988.0

52 575.0

111.0

1 200.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

1 014.0

613.0

6 857.0

176.0

476.0

:

:

:

2 426.0

498.0

20 484.0

1 861.0

:

10.0

:

583.7

147.5

63.6

8.3

29.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

29.9

129.7

68.1

43.7

2.9

:

:

:

11.2

24.8

379.3

35.4

:

91.4

13.8

248.3

30.4

63.6

33.7

10.0

11.0

11.5

17.2

6.4

12.8

35.0

104.8

64.8

96.8

15.9

0.6

60.6

34.7

4.0

3.0

74.8

161.4

48.8

44.7

22.8

:

78 797.0

UK (6)
(1) Incidence rate, 2005.
(2) Incidence of salmonellosis, 2004.
(3) 2005.
(4) Incidence of salmonellosis, 2005.
(5) Number of cases and total incidence rate, 2005; number of outbreaks, 2004.
(6) Number of cases and total incidence rate, 2004.

131.7

Source: European health for all database (http://data.euro.who.int/hfadb)

  From farm to fork

167

5 Consumption stage

Even without accounting for food packaging, food scraps account 
for a signifi cant part of household waste. Table 5.14 gives an idea of 
the degree of household waste from animal and plant products.

Table 5.14: Household animal and vegetal wastes, 2006

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS (1)

NO
(1) 2004.

Volume 
(1 000 tonnes)
934.8

Share of total
household waste (%)
20.5

:

108.7

38.9

7 676.5

1.3

538.7

:

10.0

2 973.8

:

:

:

0.8

62.5

45.5

1.8

1 703.4

661.3

:

:

:

25.2

:

95.1

386.0

3 244.4

11.0

271.7

:

3.1

1.9

22.3

0.3

27.2

:

0.0

11.1

:

:

:

0.1

33.2

1.5

1.8

18.5

18.2

:

:

:

2.4

:

8.1

10.0

10.4

7.8

13.1

Source: Eurostat (Waste Statistics Regulation, ENV_WASGEN)

168

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Consumer attitudes

As  well  as  dealing  with  agricultural  matters,  the  common 
(European) agricultural policy (CAP) is an important policy tool 
for rural and environmental development. Over time agricultural 
priorities  have  shift ed;  for  example,  concerns  over  food  safety/
health,  and  environmental  and  animal  welfare  concerns  have 
become  more  prominent.  From  2003,  a  phase  of  reform  and 
transformation  of  the  CAP  began,  moving  towards  a  more 
market-orientated  system,  where  fi nancial  support  to  farmers  is 
also  dependent  on  meeting  food  safety,  quality,  environmental, 
plant health, and animal health and welfare standards.

In  2006  a  Eurobarometer  survey  studied  consumers’  attitudes 
towards  agriculture  and  the  CAP.  Respondents  were  asked  to 
name  up  to  fi ve  priorities  for  the  EU’s  agricultural  policy,  with 
the  most  commonly  mentioned  replies  covering  healthy/safe 
products,  a  fair  standard  of  living  for  farmers,  reasonable  prices 
for  consumers,  and  respect  for  the  environment;  security  of 
supply, one of the original motivations for the CAP was last among 
of the list of priorities shown in Figure 5.14. Respondents’ interest 
in receiving more information on agricultural topics was clearly 
focused on food safety, mentioned by half of all respondents, with 
environmental  impacts  and  farm  animal  welfare  the  next  most 
commonly cited items.

  From farm to fork

169

5 Consumption stage

Figure 5.14: Priorities for European agricultural policy, EU-25, 
2006 (1)
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Ensuring agricultural products are
healthy and safe

Ensuring a fair standard of living
for farmers

Ensuring reasonable food prices
for consumers

Promoting respect for the
environment

Ensuring that farm animals are
well treated

Helping farmers to adapt prod. to
consumer’s expectations

Enhancing rural areas

Favouring methods of organic
production

Encouraging quality production

Improving compet. of European
agriculture

Stabilising the markets of
agricultural products

Protecting family type farms

Ensuring info. on where food
comes from/how it was produced

Promoting sustainable
agricultural practices

Ensuring availability of supplies of
agricultural products

Total mentions

First priority

(1) Up to a maximum of ﬁ ve answers allowed.

Source: Europeans, Agriculture and the Common Agricultural Policy, Eurobarometer 276, 
November-December 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_276_
en.pdf)

170

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Figure 5.15: Agricultural topics on which the public would like 
more information, EU-25, 2006
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Safety of the food products

Environmental effects of farming

Welfare of farm animals

Main aims of the CAP

Why farmers receive income sup.

EU budget for agric. in country

Reasons why there is a CAP

Daily life of farmers in own county

EU budget for agric. in the EU

Others

Don't know

(1) Any number of answers allowed.

Source: Europeans, Agriculture and the Common Agricultural Policy, Eurobarometer 276, 
November-December 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_276_
en.pdf)

  From farm to fork

171

5 Consumption stage

Another  Eurobarometer  survey  from  earlier  in  2006  focused 
specifi cally on animal welfare. Respondents were asked to provide 
up to two reasons why they would favour buying food products 
produced  in  a  way  that  was  more  animal-friendly.  Of  the  top 
four answers, three concerned the impact on consumers: namely, 
that the food would be healthier, of better quality or taste better; 
only  the  third  ranked  answer  –  that  the  food  would  come  from 
healthier  animals  –  concerned  the  animals  themselves. Th  e  fi ft h 
most common answer was that increased purchases of products 
from animal-friendly production systems would help the farmers 
of such animals. Only 3 % of respondents said that they did not 
buy such products.

Figure 5.16: What would be the main reasons why you would 
buy food products produced in a more animal friendly way, 
EU-25, 2006 (1)
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Healthier

Better quality

From healthier animals

Taste better

Aid farmers treating animals well

Come from happier animals

Better for the environment

Good value for money

Better for society

None of the above

Do not buy these products

Don't know

(1) Maximum of three answers allowed.

Source: Attitudes of EU citizens towards animal welfare, Eurobarometer 270, September-
October 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_270_en.pdf)

172

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Th  e ability of consumers to make purchasing choices with respect 
to animal welfare is determined by the availability of information 
on the products they are buying. Th  e same Eurobarometer survey 
addressed  the  issue  of  communicating  to  consumers  the  animal 
welfare/protection  conditions  under  which  food  products  had 
been sourced. Th  e use of a written explanation or a logo were the 
two most common suggestions, each identifi ed by more than one 
third of respondents.

Figure 5.17: Which of the following would be for you the best 
way to identify the animal welfare/protection conditions under 
which food products are sourced, EU-25, 2006 (1)
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Written information on wrapping

Logos on product wrapping

Grading or scoring system

Posters or displays in the shop

Colour coding on wrapping

Image of the production system

Others

Don't know

(1) Maximum of two answers allowed.

Source: Attitudes of EU citizens towards animal welfare, Eurobarometer 270, September-
October 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_270_en.pdf)

  From farm to fork

173

5 Consumption stage

Consumers appear to accept that production costs may be higher 
to  achieve  higher  levels  of  animal  welfare.  Over  two  thirds  of 
respondents  to  a  Eurobarometer  survey  in  2006  thought  that 
farmers  should  be  fi nancially  compensated  for  any  such  higher 
production costs, although the survey did not look at the issue of 
where the compensation should come from, for example, higher 
prices paid by consumers or subsidies.

Figure 5.18: Do you believe that farmers should be fi nancially 
compensated for any higher production costs linked to farming 
animals under more welfare-friendly conditions, EU-25, 2006
(%)

Don't know
8%

No, certainly 
not
7%

No, probably 
not
13%

Yes, certainly
34%

Yes, 
probably
38%

Source: Attitudes of EU citizens towards animal welfare, Eurobarometer 270, September-
October 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_270_en.pdf)

174

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

A related question in the same survey looked at fair competition for 
traded food products. Nearly 90 % of respondents indicated that 
they thought that the same animal welfare/protection conditions 
should be respected for imported products as for those produced 
within the EU.

Figure 5.19: Do you believe that imported foods from outside 
the European Union should respect the same conditions of 
animal welfare/protection as those applied in the European 
Union, EU-25, 2006
(%)

No, certainly 
not
1%

Don't know
6%

No, probably 
not
4%

Yes, 
probably
23%

Yes, certainly
66%

Source: Attitudes of EU citizens towards animal welfare, Eurobarometer 270, September-
October 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_270_en.pdf)

  From farm to fork

175

5 Consumption stage

An earlier Eurobarometer survey, carried out at the end of 2005, 
focused  on  issues  linking  health  and  food,  as  well  as  physical 
activity. A poor diet and lack of physical activity were among the 
main  risk  factors  identifi ed  by  respondents  for  various  diseases. 
But what constitutes a healthy diet? Figure 5.20 shows the answers 
that  this  question  provoked  (respondents  were  allowed  to  give 
as  many  answers  as  they  wished).  Th  e  need  for  a  balanced  diet 
was  reported  by  just  over  two  thirds  of  respondents,  a  similar 
proportion as reported the need to eat more fruit and vegetables. 
Other factors raised by at least 10 % of respondents concerned the 
level  of  consumption  of  fat,  sugar,  salt,  meat,  fi sh  and  additives, 
while limiting the overall calorie intake was also mentioned.

Figure 5.20: What do you think eating a healthy diet involves, 
EU-25, 2005 (1)
(%)

0

20

40

60

80

Eat variety of foods/balanced diet

Eat more fruit and vegetables

Avoid/do not eat too much fat

Avoid/do not eat too much sugar

Eat more fish

Do not eat too many calories

Avoid/do not eat too much salt

Eat less meat

Avoid/do not eat additives

Eat organic food

Eat more carbohydrates

Eat less carbohydrates

Eat more meat

Eat less fruit and vegetables

Eat less fish

Others

Don't know

(1) Any number of answers allowed.

Source: Health and food, Eurobarometer 246, November-December 2005 (http://ec.europa.
eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_246_en.pdf)

176

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Follow-up  questions  asked  respondents  about  changes  they  had 
made  to  their  own  diet  in  the  previous  twelve  months.  Around 
one fi ft h of respondents (22 %) said they had changed their diet, 
ranging from 15 % in Italy to 43 % in Sweden. Overall, a quarter 
(25 %)  of  women  had  changed  their  diet  compared  to  one  fi ft h 
(19 %) of men. Analysing just those respondents who had changed 
their diet, Figure 5.21 shows the most common changes – these 
generally correspond to the changes that were most oft en cited as 
needed for a healthy diet. Th  e most common changes were to eat 
more fruit and vegetables or to eat less fat; drinking more water 
was the third most common change.

Figure 5.21: What kind of changes did you make to your diet, 
EU-25, 2005 (1)
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

More fruit and vegetables

Less fat

Drinking more water

Eat less sugar

Fewer calories

Less salt

Less alcohol

Less meat

More meat

Less fruit and vegetables

More calories

More alcohol

Eat more sugar

More fat

More salt

Drinking less water

Others

Don't know

(1) Among those who changed their diet in the last 12 months, any number of answers 
allowed.

Source: Health and food, Eurobarometer 246, November-December 2005 (http://ec.europa.
eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_246_en.pdf)11

  From farm to fork

177

5 Consumption stage

EU legislation concerning genetically modifi ed (GM) food is based 
on  the  principles  that  it  must  be  safe,  properly  labelled  in  order 
to enable consumers to exercise freedom of choice, and traceable. 
In 2005 a Eurobarometer survey asked consumers for their views 
on  several  biotechnologies,  including  GM  foods.  Overall,  the 
analysis  of  the  results  concluded  that  GM  food  is  oft en  viewed 
by Europeans as not being useful, as being morally unacceptable, 
and as being a risk for society. Support for GM technology varied 
greatly between countries, reaching a high of 46 % in the Czech 
Republic, while a low of 13 % was recorded in Luxembourg – see 
Figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22: Support for GM foods, 2005 (1)
(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

CZ
PT
MT
FI
ES
IT
SK
UK
IE
DK
EU-25
BE
NL
LT
HU
PL
SE
DE
AT
FR
SI
EE
CY
LV
EL
LU

(1) Whether the technology should be encouraged.

Source: Europeans and biotechnology in 2005: patterns and trends, Eurobarometer 64.3 
(http://www.ec.europa.eu/research/press/2006/pdf/pr1906_eb_64_3_ﬁ nal_report-
may2006_en.pdf)

178

From farm to fork 

Consumption stage

5

Th  e  reasons  for  buying  GM  food  were  also  studied  in  the  same 
survey.  Respondents  were  asked  under  what  conditions  they 
would buy GM food. Just over half said they would buy GM food 
if it was healthier, and around half of all respondents said that they 
would buy GM food if it contained less pesticide residues and/or if 
it was more environmentally friendly.

Figure 5.23: Reasons for buying GM foods, EU-25, 2005
(%)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Healthier

Contained less
residues

More environ.
friendly

Approved by
authorities

Cheaper

Yes, definitely
No, probably not
Don't know

Yes, probably
No, definitely not

Source: Europeans and biotechnology in 2005: patterns and trends, Eurobarometer 64.3 
(http://www.ec.europa.eu/research/press/2006/pdf/pr1906_eb_64_3_ﬁ nal_report-
may2006_en.pdf)

  From farm to fork

179

I

6

Annex

6 Annex

Data sources

FOOD domain: from farm to fork statistics

Th  is domain provides access to various statistical collections from 
a  broad  variety  of  diff erent  sources.  Only  statistics  providing 
information on food products and the food sector that have been 
considered relevant for food safety purposes are included.

Th  e domain is structured in four main collections:

• 

• 

• 

• 

Food consumption;

From production to distribution – which quality label and at 
which price;

Inputs to the food chain;

Actors involved in the food chain.

Th  e  data  contained  in  this  domain  have,  by  and  large,  been 
drawn together from other Eurostat data sources. Th  e domain is 
an  ideal  starting  point  for  those  interested  in  the  subject  matter 
as it provides a single point of entry to a cross-section of topics 
that cover the complete food chain from producer to consumer. 
It  should  however  be  noted  that  more  detailed  statistics  may 
sometimes  be  available  by  referring  to  the  specifi c  data  sources 
detailed below.

Agricultural products

Annual statistics on the production of 200 specifi c crops (principally 
crop areas, production and yields) are mostly covered by Council 
regulations,  although  the  data  for  fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  are 
collected  under  gentlemen’s  agreements  from  Member  States. 
Crop production fi gures relate to harvested production.

Statistics  on  milk,  eggs  and  meat  product  are  also  compiled 
according  to  Community  legislation.  Milk  production  covers 
production  on  the  farm  of  milk  from  cows,  ewes,  goats  and 
buff aloes.  Data  on  animals  generally  concern  the  population  of 
animals at the year’s end (i.e. in December).

Agricultural products: supply balance sheets

Each  supply  balance  sheet  refers  to  all  the  uses  and  all  the 
transactions  which  have  occurred  on  the  market  between 
harvesting  or  production  (fi nished  product)  and  the  wholesale 

182

From farm to fork 

Annex

6

stage  (just  before  reaching  the  retail  or  consumer  market).  Th  e 
balance compares the uses and resources of the product (or group 
of  products)  concerned  for  a  given  reference  area  (Community 
and/or Member State) and for a given reference period (calendar 
and/or crop year).

Economic accounts for agriculture

Th  e EAA comprise a production account, a generation of income 
account, an entrepreneurial income account, and some elements 
of a capital account. For the output items of agricultural, hunting 
and related service activities, Member States transmit to Eurostat 
values  at  basic  prices  as  well  as  their  components  (the  value  at 
producer  prices,  subsidies  on  products,  and  taxes  on  products). 
For  the  items  of  intermediate  consumption,  values  at  purchaser 
prices are transmitted. Th  e data for the production account and 
for gross fi xed capital formation are transmitted in both current 
prices and the prices of the previous year.

European business trends

Th  e  retail  trade  turnover  indices  are  business  cycle  indicators 
which show the monthly activity of the retail sector in value and 
volume  terms.  Th  e  volume  measure  of  the  retail  trade  turnover 
index is more commonly referred to as the index of the volume 
of (retail) sales. Retail trade turnover indices can also be used as 
short-term indicators for fi nal domestic demand.

External trade statistics

Th  e  compilation  of  external  trade  statistics  is  divided  into  two 
diff erent  statistical  systems;  these  are  extra-EU  trade  statistics 
(Extrastat  –  based  on  customs  declarations)  and  intra-EU  trade 
statistics  (Intrastat).  Extra-EU  trade  statistics  cover  the  cross 
border trading of goods between Member States and non-Member 
countries,  whereas  intra-EU  trade  statistics  cover  the  trading  of 
goods  between  Member  States.  Th  is  conceptual  separation  is 
mainly  due  to  diff erent  data  collection  instruments,  but  it  is  as 
well a result of diverging policy impact. Whereas extra-EU trade 
statistics are required for a common trade and customs policy of 
the Community, intra-EU statistics measure the integration of the 
Member States’ trade in a common market.

  From farm to fork

183

6 Annex

Harmonised indices of consumer prices

Harmonised indices of consumer prices are economic indicators 
constructed  to  measure  the  changes  over  time  in  the  prices  of 
consumer goods and services acquired by households. HICPs give 
comparable measures of infl ation between the Member States and 
for other countries. Th  ey are calculated according to a harmonised 
approach  and  a  single  set  of  defi nitions. Th  e  coverage  of  HICPs 
is  defi ned  in  terms  of  ‘household  fi nal  monetary  consumption 
expenditure’,  by  reference  to  national  accounts  concepts  (ESA 
1995).

Structural business statistics

SBS  covers  the  ’business  economy’,  which  includes  industry, 
construction  and  services  (NACE  Sections  C  to  K).  Note  that 
SBS does not cover agriculture, forestry and fi shing (among other 
activities). SBS describe the economy through the observation of 
units engaged in an economic activity: in SBS the most commonly 
used unit is the enterprise.

Th  ese data are compiled in the context of the Council Regulation 
on  structural  business  statistics  (EC,  EURATOM)  No.  58/97  of 
December 1996 (and later amendments). Th  e main characteristics 
(variables) within SBS include:

• 

• 

• 

business demography variables (e.g. number of enterprises);

output related variables (e.g. turnover, value added);

input related variables;

• 

• 

• 

labour input (e.g. employment, hours worked);

purchases of goods and services;

capital expenditure (e.g. tangible investments).

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6

Survey on the structure of agricultural holdings

Th  e basic farm structure survey (FSS) is carried out by Member 
States every 10 years (the full scope being the agricultural census) 
and  intermediate  sample  surveys  are  carried  out  three  times  in 
between. Th  e Member States collect information from individual 
agricultural  holdings  and  data  are  forwarded  to  Eurostat.  Th  e 
information  collected  covers 
livestock  numbers, 
management  and  farm  labour  input  (including  age,  gender  and 
relationship to the holder). Th  e survey data can then be aggregated 
to  diff erent  geographic  levels  (Member  States,  regions,  and  for 
basic surveys also districts) and can be arranged by size class, area 
status, legal status of the holding, objective zones, and farm type 
(including by specialised/non-specialised status, using economic 
criteria).

land  use, 

PRODCOM

PRODCOM statistics provide detailed information on the output 
(sold  production)  of  mining,  quarrying  and  manufacturing 
products – as defi ned by the statistical classifi cation of products by 
activity (CPA). Th  e statistics are based on the Prodcom List which 
consists of about 4 500 headings.

• 

• 

• 

Products are listed at an 8-digit level; 1 to 6 digits refer to the 
CPA.

Most  headings  correspond  to  one  or  more  Combined 
Nomenclature (CN) codes.

Some headings (mostly industrial services) do not correspond 
to a CN heading.

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Glossary

Annual work unit:

Th  e number of hours to one annual work unit (AWU) corresponds 
to the number of hours actually worked in a normal full-time job. 
Th  e  system  of  national  accounts  states  that  full-time  equivalent 
employment  in  a  given  country  is  defi ned  as  the  total  hours 
worked divided by the average annual number of hours worked in 
full-time jobs within the economic territory.

Agricultural holding:

Th  e  basic  unit  underlying  the  FSS  is  the  agricultural  holding. 
A  holding  is  defi ned  as  a  technical-economic  unit  under  single 
management engaged in agricultural production. Th  e FSS covers 
all  agricultural  holdings  with  a  utilised  agricultural  area  (UAA) 
of  at  least  one  hectare  (ha)  and  those  holdings  with  a  UAA  of 
less than 1 ha if their market production exceeds certain natural 
thresholds.

Basic price:

Th  e basic price is the price receivable by the producers from the 
purchaser for a unit of a good or service produced as output minus 
any tax payable on that unit as a consequence of its production or 
sale  (i.e.  taxes  on  products)  plus  any  subsidy  receivable  on  that 
unit as a consequence of its production or sale (i.e. subsidies on 
products). Th  e basic price excludes any transport charges invoiced 
separately  by  the  producer.  However,  it  includes  any  transport 
margins charged by the producer on the same invoice, even if they 
are included as a separate item on the invoice.

Body mass index (BMI):

Th  e  BMI  is  a  measure  of  a  person’s  weight  relative  to  his  or  her 
height that correlates fairly well with body fat content in adults. 
BMI is accepted by experts as the most useful measure of obesity 
for  adults  when  only  weight  and  height  data  are  available.  BMI 
is calculated as the result of dividing body weight (in kg) by the 
square of a person’s height (in metres).

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6

Degree of self-suffi    ciency:

Th  e degree of self-suffi  ciency of a given region indicates up to what 
point ’domestic production’ (from a domestic raw material) of this 
region is in a position to cover all the needs or ’domestic use’ (total 
use for humans, animals and industry) of this region. With regard 
to  (agricultural)  balance  sheets,  the  degree  of  self-suffi  ciency  is 
calculated using the ’domestic use’ concept.

Extra-EU exports/imports:

Extra-EU  exports/imports  are  recorded  at  the  frontier  country 
where the goods are placed under the customs procedures. Extra-
EU  trade  statistics  do  not  record  exchanges  involving  goods 
in  transit,  placed  in  a  customs  warehouse,  or  given  temporary 
admission.

Farm labour force:

Th  e  farm  labour  force  includes  all  persons  having  completed 
their  compulsory  education  (i.e.  having  reached  school-leaving 
age)  who  carried  out  farm  work  on  the  holding  covered  by  the 
survey  during  the  12  months  up  to  the  date  of  the  survey.  Th  e 
fi gures  include  holders,  even  when  not  working  on  the  holding; 
their spouses, on the other hand, are only accounted for if they are 
actually engaged in farm work on the holding. Persons of retiring 
age who continue to work on the holding are also included.

Farm type and standard gross margin:

Th  e Community classifi cation of types of farming was established 
by Commission Decision 78/463/EEC of 7 April 1978. Th  ese farm 
types classify holdings according to their main source of income. 
A holding is considered to be specialised if it earns more than two 
thirds of its total income from a single type of production.

Th  e  standard  gross  margin  is  a  concept  similar  to  value  added. 
Each type of agricultural production, whether crop or livestock, 
is  assigned  a  SGM,  i.e.  a  standard  income  per  production  unit. 
Th  e  SGM  of  a  holding,  assessing  the  potential  gross  margin,  is 
determined by a set of standard coeffi  cients which can be used to 
value areas under crops and numbers of animals. It is obtained by 
adding the partial SGMs produced by the holding. It is expressed 
in hectares wheat-equivalent or economic size units (ESU). Since 
1986, 2 ESU have been worth ECU 2 400, which is approximately 
3 hectares wheat-equivalent.

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Food borne diseases:

Food  borne  illnesses  are  defi ned  as  diseases,  usually  either 
infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body 
through the ingestion of food.

Gross human apparent consumption:

Quantities  of  products  made  available  for  human  consumption 
in  all  forms:  quantities  consumed  without  further  processing 
and  quantities  supplied  by  the  distributive  trades  and  the  food 
(processing) industry. It is a derived statistic obtained from supply 
balance sheets and calculated as:

(commercial  production  +  estimated  own  account  production 
for self consumption + imports + opening stocks)
– 
(exports + usage input for processed food + seed + feed + non-
food usage + wastage + closing stocks).

Gross nitrogen balance:

Th  is  indicator  estimates  the  potential  surplus  of  nitrogen  on 
agricultural land. Th  is is done by calculating the balance between 
nitrogen  added  to  an  agricultural  system  and  nitrogen  removed 
from the system per hectare of agricultural land.

Th  e indicator accounts for all inputs to and outputs from the farm. 
Th  e inputs consist of the amount of nitrogen applied via mineral 
fertilisers  and  animal  manure  as  well  as  nitrogen  fi xation  by 
legumes, deposition from the air, and some other minor sources. 
Nitrogen output is contained in the harvested crops, or grass and 
crops  eaten  by  livestock  (escape  of  nitrogen  to  the  atmosphere, 
e.g. as N2O is diffi  cult to estimate and is therefore not taken into 
account).

Gross value added:

Th  e  gross  value  added  (GVA)  is  the  value  created  by  any  unit 
engaged  in  an  activity  involving  production.  It  is  a  component 
of  an  essential  aggregate:  gross  domestic  product  (GDP),  whose 
value  represents  the  activity  of  the  economic  agents  on  a  given 
economic  territory.  GVA  at  market  prices  is,  for  each  branch  of 
activity, the diff erence between the value of actual output (goods 
and  services)  and  that  of  the  intermediate  consumption  used  in 
the production process.

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6

Guideline daily amounts (GDAs):

Guideline daily amounts are a guide to the total amount of energy 
and nutrients that a typical healthy adult should be eating in a day. In 
general, GDAs are available for energy (calories) and the four most 
important  nutrients  that  may  increase  the  risk  of  developing  some 
diet-related diseases: fats, saturated fats, sugars, and sodium (or salt). 
GDAs for carbohydrates, proteins and fi bre may also be given at the 
manufacturer’s discretion. Guidelines for adults are based on typical 
requirements  for  healthy  men  and  women  over  18  years  of  age,  of 
normal  weight  and/or  for  weight  maintenance.  Th  e  energy  GDA 
values are derived from estimated average population requirements 
for energy and take account of the current activity levels and lifestyle 
of an average citizen, which tends to be fairly sedentary.

Livestock unit:

Th  e livestock unit (LSU) is used to compare or aggregate numbers 
of animals of diff erent species or categories. Equivalences based on 
the food requirements of the animals are defi ned. By defi nition, a 
cow weighing 600 kg and producing 3 000 litres of milk per year 
= 1 LSU, a calf for slaughter = 0.45 LSU, a nursing ewe = 0.18 LSU, 
a sow = 0.5 LSU and a duck = 0.014 LSU.

Organic farming:

Farming  is  considered  to  be  organic  if  it  complies  with  Council 
Regulation  (EEC)  No.  2092/91  of  24  June  1991  on  organic 
production  of  agricultural  products  and  indications  referring 
thereto  on  agricultural  products  and  foodstuff s,  amended  by  a 
Council  Regulation  of  24  February  2004.  Organic  farming  can 
be  defi ned  as  a  method  of  production  which  places  the  highest 
emphasis  on  environmental  protection  and,  with  regard  to 
livestock production, animal welfare considerations. It avoids, or 
largely reduces, the use of synthetic chemicals such as fertilisers, 
pesticides, additives and medicinal products.

PDO and PGI:

A PDO (protected designation of origin) covers the term used to 
describe foodstuff s which are produced, processed and prepared 
in a given geographical area using recognised know-how.

In  the  case  of  the  PGI  (protected  geographical  indication)  the 
geographical  link  must  occur  in  at  least  one  of  the  stages  of 
production, processing or preparation.

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Price level indices:

Price  level  indices  are  calculated  as  a  ratio  between  purchasing 
power  parities  (PPPs)  and  exchange  rates  for  each  country,  and 
are expressed relative to some standard; in this publication the EU 
average is used as a standard and is set to equal 100. PLIs provide 
a  comparison  of  countries’  price  levels  with  respect  to  the  EU 
average – if the price level index is higher than 100 the country 
concerned is relatively expensive compared with the EU average 
and vice versa.

Utilised agricultural area:

Th  e  utilised  agricultural  area  (UAA)  is  the  total  of  arable  land, 
permanent pasture and meadow, land used for permanent crops, 
and  kitchen  gardens.  Th  e  UAA  excludes  unutilised  agricultural 
land, woodland and land occupied by buildings, farmyards, tracks, 
ponds, etc.

Waste generation and treatment:

On the basis of Regulation (EC) No. 2150/2002 of the European 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  waste  statistics,  data  on  the 
generation and treatment of waste is collected from the Member 
States.  Th  e  information  on  waste  generation  has  a  breakdown 
in  sources  (several  business  activities  according  to  NACE  and 
household  activities)  and  in  waste  categories  (according  to 
the  European  waste  classifi cation  for  statistical  purposes).  Th  e 
information on waste treatment has a breakdown in fi ve treatment 
incineration  with  energy  recovery,  other 
types  (recovery, 
incineration, disposal on land, and land treatment) and in waste 
categories.

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European Commission

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 — 190 pp. — 10.5 x 21 cm

Theme: Agriculture and fisheries
Collection: Pocketbooks

ISBN 978-92-79-008736-3