Green Paper - Migration & mobility: challenges and opportunities for EU education systems {SEC(2008) 2173}
Date: 2008-07-03
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: child of migrant, cultural difference, education policy, educational system, general education, migrant worker

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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 3.7.2008 
COM(2008) 423 final 

GREEN PAPER 

Migration & mobility: challenges and opportunities for EU education systems 

{SEC(2008) 2173} 

(Presented by the Commission) 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION  

1.  This  Green  Paper  addresses  an  important  challenge  facing  education  systems  today,  a 
challenge which, while not new, has in recent years intensified and become more widespread 
– the presence in schools of large numbers of children from a migrant background who are in 
a weak socio-economic position.  

2.  The  terms  "children  from  a  migrant  background",  "children  of  migrants"  and  "migrant 
pupils" will be used for the specific purpose of this Paper to refer to the children of all persons 
living  in  an  EU  country  where  they  were  not  born,  irrespective  of  whether  they  are  third-
country nationals, citizens of another EU Member State or subsequently became nationals of 
the host Member State. This is, at the same time, a broad concept of "migration" which differs 
from  certain  EU-level  texts  dealing  with  immigration  policy1.  Despite  important  legal  and 
practical  differences  with  the  situation  concerning  third-countries  citizens,  EU  citizens 
residing  in  another  Member  State  have  been  included  in  this  Paper  on  the  basis  that  the 
specific  educational  issues  addressed  in  the  text  are  likely  to  apply  also  to  a  significant 
number  of  them.  This  is  also  mirrored  by  the  fact  that  the  data  sources  on  which  the  Paper 
relies  extensively,  PIRLS  and  PISA,  do  not  distinguish  between  the  countries  of  origin, 
whether their citizens come from the EU or third countries2. 

3. Historically high inflows of third country nationals into the EU, coupled with high internal 
EU mobility in the wake of the two most recent enlargements, mean that schools in a number 
of  EU  countries  are  experiencing  a  sudden  and  steep  rise  in  the  numbers  of  such  children. 
PISA (2006)3 data show that at least 10% of the school population at age 15 within the EU 15 
countries  was  either  born  abroad  or  has  both  parents  born  in  another  country;  the  figure 
approaches  15%  at  the  fourth  grade  of  primary  school.  In  some  countries,  such  as  Ireland, 
Italy  and  Spain,  the  percentage  of  school  pupils  born  in  another  country  has  multiplied  by 
three or four since 2000. In the UK, the number of pupils joining schools shortly after arriving 
from  abroad  has  grown  50  per  cent  in  two  years,  augmenting  an  already  high  number  of 
pupils  from  a  migrant  background.  Furthermore,  migration  flows  tend  to  result  in 
concentrations  of  migrant  pupils  in  urban  areas  and  in  particular  cities;  for  example,  in 
Rotterdam,  Birmingham  or  Brussels,  approximately  half  of  the  school  population  has  an 
immigrant  background.4  In  Madrid,  the  share  of  migrant  pupils  has  multiplied  by  ten  since 
1991. 

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In  this  context,  it  is  important  to  recall  that  EU  citizens,  unlike  third-country  nationals,  enjoy  a 
fundamental  right  –  granted  to  them  by  the  EC  Treaty  –  to  move  freely  within  the  European  Union, 
without  any  particular  integration  requirement  for  their  residence  in  another  Member  State.  This 
constitutes  a  fundamental  difference  in  comparison  to  the  conditions  third-country  nationals  have  to 
fulfil  under  the  existing  EU  and  national  immigration  rules,  before  they  can  reside  in  a  EU  Member 
State.  
Where  the  text  refers  to  migrant  communities,  it  is  intended  to  convey  the  important  point  set  out  in 
Section  2.1  that  the  phenomenon  of  gaps  in  educational  attainment  and  the  factors  which  lie  behind 
them may apply also to subsequent generations (whether naturalised or not), notably where segregation 
from  the  mainstream  community  of  the  host  Member  State  takes  place.  Finally,  the  text  makes  no 
reference  to  groups  of  non-migrant  EU  citizens  with  a  distinct  ethnicity  or  cultural  identity  and  who 
also have a high tendency to social exclusion (e.g. Roma). However, many aspects of the analysis and 
of the set of educational challenges described here would also apply to them.  
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a triennial world-wide test of 15-year-
old  schoolchildren's  scholastic  performance,  the  implementation  of  which  is  coordinated  by  the 
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).  
Table in the annex. 

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4.  The  presence  of  significant  numbers  of  migrant  pupils  has  important  implications  for 
education systems. Schools must adjust to their presence and build their particular needs into 
the  traditional  focus  on  providing  high  quality  and  equitable  education.  Education  is  key  to 
ensuring  that  these  pupils  are  equipped  to  become  integrated,  successful  and  productive 
citizens of the host country, in other words that migration can be positive both for migrants 
and for the host country. Schools must play a leading role in creating an inclusive society, as 
they represent the main opportunity for young people of migrant and host communities to get 
to know and respect each other. Migration can be enriching for the educational experience of 
all: linguistic and cultural diversity may bring an invaluable resource to schools. It can help to 
deepen and strengthen pedagogies, skills, and knowledge itself.   

5. Migration influences the education of children even where their families have a high socio-
economic and educational status. Such pupils may be adversely affected at least in the short 
run by interrupted schooling or by having to face linguistic and cultural difference; however, 
longer-term  prospects  for  their  education  success  look  good  and  their  exposure  to  new 
cultures  and  languages  is  likely  to  enhance  their  human  capital.  Clearly  many  children  of 
migrants, including many in the wave of recent arrivals, will fall into this group. However, the 
focus  of  this  Green  Paper  is  on  the  combination  of  linguistic  and  cultural  difference  with 
socio-economic disadvantage, its tendency to be concentrated in certain areas and particular 
schools. This is a substantial educational challenge and whether systems succeed or fail has 
important  social  consequences.  As  the  evidence  presented  below  will  show,  there  are 
significant and often persistent gaps in the educational attainment of children from a migrant 
background vis-à-vis their peers. In a report published in 1994, the Commission highlighted 
the  risks  which  could  flow  if  educational  opportunities  for  children  of  migrants  were  not 
improved  –  widening  social  divisions  which  are  passed  down  across  generations,  cultural 
segregation,  exclusion  of  communities  and  inter-ethnic  conflict.  The  potential  for  such 
consequences remains. 

6. Responsibility for setting educational policies remains firmly a matter for Member States. 
Nevertheless,  the  challenges  outlined  here  are,  increasingly,  widely  shared.  The  European 
Council of 13-14 March 2008 called on Member States to improve the achievement levels of 
learners  with  a  migrant  background.  The  2008  Joint  Report  on  the  implementation  of  the 
Education and Training 2010 Work Programme drew attention to educational disadvantage of 
many migrant pupils as they require additional attention.5 The analysis which follows shows 
that some countries succeed better than others in reducing the gaps in educational attainment 
between  migrant  pupils  and  the  rest  of  the  host  peers.  There  is  clear  potential  for  mutual 
learning about the  factors which shape  educational  disadvantage  and  the  policies which  can 
help to address it.  

7.  Directive  77/486/CEE  represents  an  earlier  attempt  by  the  EU  to  promote  a  focus  by 
Member States on the education of the children of migrant workers. This Directive applies to 
children for whom school attendance is compulsory under the laws of the host Member State, 
and who are dependants of a worker who is a national of another Member State. It provides 
that Member States should:  

•  ensure  free  tuition  in  their  territory,  adapted  to  the  specific  needs  of  such  children,  in 

particular the teaching of an official language of the host State; and 

5 

Joint  report  2008  of  the  Council  and  the  Commission,  Delivering  lifelong  learning  for  knowledge, 
creativity and innovation, February 2008. 

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•  promote teaching of the mother tongue and culture of the country of origin, in coordination 

with normal education, in cooperation with the Member State of origin. 

8. The Green Paper invites a reflection on the future of the Directive, on what role it might 
now play in addressing the objective which originally underpinned its adoption - to strengthen 
the education of children of migrant workers from EU countries and thus to contribute to one 
of the main four freedoms secured by the Treaty.  

9.  The  educational  challenge  which  school  systems  face  has  evolved  considerably  since 
Directive 77/486/CEE was adopted. In that it deals only with the education of children who 
are  EU  citizens,  this  Directive  does  not  address  a  substantial  part  of  that  challenge  –  the 
education  of  children  who  are  third-country  nationals.6  As  will  be  seen,  the  Directive's 
implementation  has  been  patchy.  The  proposed  reflection  should  address  whether  the 
Directive adds value to Member States' policy efforts in this field and whether it represents 
the best way for the EU to support such efforts.  

10.  This  Green  Paper  also  outlines  a  framework  for  looking  at  the  entire  set  of  challenges 
surrounding the education of children of migrants and invites interested parties to contribute 
their  ideas  about  how  the  EU  might  in  future  support  Member  States  in  formulating  their 
education policies in this area and on how a possible future process of exchange and mutual 
learning might be organised and what it should cover.7 

2. 

THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION OF CHILDREN FROM A MIGRANT BACKGROUND  

2.1.  Many children of migrants suffer from educational disadvantage  

11. There is clear and consistent evidence that many children of migrants have lower levels of 
educational attainment than their peers. The PIRLS survey on literacy shows migrant pupils 
scoring less well than their non-migrant peers by the end of primary school. 

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Children  of  third-country  nationals do  enjoy  access  to  education  on  the basis  of  equal  treatment  with 
children  who  are  nationals  of  the  host  Member  State  if  they  come  under  the  scope  of  Directive 
2003/86/EC on the right to family reunification (OJ L 251 of 3 October 2003, p. 12) and/or Directive 
2003/109/EC on the status of long-term residents (OJ L 16 of 23 January 2004, p. 44). 
The  Green  Paper  draws  on  extensive  research  and documentary  analysis  (see  bibliography  in  annex). 
This  starts  with  the  Eurydice  and  OECD  work  on  education  of  migrant  pupils  and  a  wide  literature 
review provided by the European Forum for Migration Studies at the University of Bamberg. The issues 
have been discussed with the Peer Learning Cluster on Access and Social Inclusion, in the framework 
of the Education and Training 2010 Work Programme.  

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Figure 1 - Difference in performance in reading between pupils with both parents born in the 
country and neither of parents born in the country, 2006 

(performance 
score)

on 

the 

PIRLS 

reading 

scale 

– 

mean 

  both  parents  born 
in the country 

Only one parent born  

Neither parent born 

in the country 

in the country 

Data source: 2006 PIRLS data set 

12.  The  OECD  PISA  survey  on  standard  academic  skills  of  15-year-olds  confirms  that 
migrant pupils in this age group tend to systematically perform less well than host countries 
pupils  across  each  of  the  tested  subject  areas,  science,  mathematics  and,  most  strikingly, 
reading.  

Figure 2 - Differences in student performance in mathematics, by immigrant status and 
country 

(Performance on the mathematics scale – mean score) 

  First-generation students 

  Second-generation students 

  Native students 

Data source: OECD PISA 2006 

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Figure  3  -  Differences  in  student  performance  in  reading,  by  immigrant  status  and 
country 

(Performance on the reading scale – mean score) 

  First-generation students 

  Second-generation students 

  Native students 

Data source: OECD PISA 2006 

Figure  4  -  Differences  in  student  performance  in  science,  by  immigrant  status  and 
country 

(Performance on the science scale – mean score) 

  First-generation students 

  Second-generation students 

  Native students 

Data source: OECD PISA 2006 
13. National indicators confirm this observation.8  

14. This pattern of underperformance in educational attainment is echoed in the comparative 
patterns of enrolment of migrant pupils. Although there has been some improvement over the 
years, in most countries it is less common for migrant pupils to enrol in pre-primary education 
and they tend to do so later than their peers. In primary school, compulsory enrolment ensures 
that  there  is  no  difference  between  the  levels  of  participation  of  migrant  and  other  pupils. 
However, at secondary level, a clear degree of segregation in enrolment emerges as migrant 
pupils  are  over-represented  in  vocationally  oriented  schools  that  typically  do  not  lead  to 
higher education. And, most clearly of all, there is a greater incidence of early school leaving 

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See  in  Germany  Mikrozensus,  2005;  in  the  UK  “Ethnicity  and  education:  the  evidence  on  minority 
ethnic  pupils  aged  5  –  16”,  2006;  in  Italy  “Scolarizzazione  dei  minori  immigrati  in  Italia”,  CENSIS 
2007. 

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among migrant pupils in almost all countries. All these factors contribute to the relatively low 
numbers of migrant students completing university studies. 

15.  Finally,  PISA  highlights  a  particularly  stark  point  for  education  policy  makers  – 
attainment gaps in certain countries within each of the three study domains actually worsen 
from the first generation of migrant pupils to the second. This means that education is in these 
situations  failing  to  act  as  a  force  to  include  migrants,  indeed  that  the  increased  gaps  in 
educational attainment are likely to cement and intensify their social exclusion.  

Figure 5 - Share of early school leavers by nationality, 2005 

(Percentage  of  the  population  aged  18-24  with  only  lower-secondary  education  and  not  in 
education or training, by nationality, 2005) 

  National 

Non-national 

Total 

Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), 2005 

2.2. 

Impact of migration on education systems 

16. Adapting to the presence of high numbers of migrant pupils poses a range of challenges 
for education at the level of the classroom, the school and for school systems. 

17. Within classes and schools, it is necessary to accommodate increased diversity of mother 
tongues,  cultural  perspectives  and  attainments.  New,  adapted  teaching  skills  will  be  needed 
and  new  ways  of  building  bridges  with  migrant  families  and  communities  need  to  be 
developed. 

18. At the level of the school system, the presence of large concentrations of migrant pupils 
can intensify tendencies – already there in even the best school systems - toward segregation 
along socio-economic lines. This can take different forms, as the socially advantaged may quit 
schools  with  high  numbers  of  migrant  pupils9.  Whatever  the  mechanism,  the  phenomenon 
increases  disparities  between  schools  and  adds  significantly  to  the  challenge  of  achieving 
educational equity. 

19. The educational challenge must always be seen in the broader social cohesion context – 
any failure to fully integrate migrant pupils within schools is likely to be echoed in a broader 
failure  of  social  inclusion.  Low  educational  attainment,  low  rates  of  school  completion  and 
high early school leaving will undermine the chances of young migrant pupils for successful 
labour market integration later in life. Failure to integrate education systems can also hinder 

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Bloem  and  Diaz  (2007)  report  a  school  in  Aarhus,  in  Denmark,  without  a  single  student  of  Danish 
origin; McGorman et al. (2007) describe the situation in Dublin 15; Burgess et al. (2006) report that in 
Bradford  (UK)  59%  of  children  attend  schools  with  a  single  identity;  Karsten  et  al.  (2006)  describe 
similar developments in the Netherlands.  

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development of the positive social bonds and interaction between different groups necessary 
for  a  cohesive  society.  If  children  of  migrants  leave  school  with  an  experience  of 
underachievement and segregation which carries on in their later life, the risk is that such a 
pattern  is  perpetuated  also  in  the  next  generation.  Conversely,  where  schools  succeed  in 
serving their migrant pupils well, this will prepare the way for their successful integration in the 
labour market and society. In this way, good schooling of migrant pupils answers both to equity and 
efficiency objectives.   

20. Migration can bring culturally and  educationally  valuable elements  to the school. Being 
confronted with other viewpoints and perspectives has the potential to be enriching both for 
students  and  teachers.  Intercultural  skills  and  the  capacity  to  enter  into  a  tolerant  and 
respectful  dialogue  with  people  from  a  different  cultural  background  are  competences  that 
need to be, and can be, built. 

3. 

REASONS FOR EDUCATIONAL  DISADVANTAGE  AMONG CHILDREN FROM  A MIGRANT 
BACKGROUND 

21.  Many  factors  are  likely  to  lie  behind  the  pattern  of  educational  disadvantage  among 
children from a migrant background described above.  

The situation and background of children from a migrant background 
3.1. 
22.  School  performance  is  generally  strongly  correlated  with  socio-economic  conditions.10 
Thus  a  first  cause  of  difficulties  for  migrant  pupils  is  their  often  poor  socio-economic 
background.  Nevertheless,  socio-economic  situation  does  not  account  for  the  full  extent  of 
disadvantage  among  migrant  pupils - PISA shows that  they  are likely to have worse school 
results than other children from a similar socio-economic background, and that this happens 
more in some countries than in others.11  

23. Among the factors which bring this about are the following:  

•  Migrants  and  their  families  experience  a  loss  of  value  of  the  knowledge  they  have 
accumulated, notably their native language, but also their knowledge on the functioning of 
institutions  and  particularly  of  education  systems.  Furthermore,  their  qualifications  may 
not be formally recognised or may be less well regarded.12 

•  Language is a key factor. Proficiency in the language of instruction is a vital condition for 
success at school.13 Even for children of migrants born in the host country, this may be an 
issue if the language of school cannot be reinforced in the home. Language may also be a 
barrier between migrant families and the school, making it hard for parents to support their 
children.  

•  Expectations matter enormously in education. Families and communities that attach great 
importance  to  education  are  likely  to  support  their  children  at  school  more  strongly.14 

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EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living Conditions), 2005. 
Table  in  annex  and  OECD  (2006).  This  is  confirmed  by  studies  such  as  Jacobs,  Hanquinet  &  Rea 
(2007), but contrasted by other research – according for instance to Kristen and Granato (2004), who 
found that, after cross-analysing with SES, migrant/national differences largely disappear. 
The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) provides a common EU framework for the linking of 
national  qualifications  frameworks.  It  should  improve  the  transparency  and  transferability  of 
qualifications earned in any Member State and make this less of a problem for migrating EU citizens.  
Esser (2006). 
A  wide  array  of  research,  especially  in  the  USA,  has  focused  on  the  influence  of  parental  and 
community expectations on achievement of different ethnic groups. A seminal work is Ogbu (1991). 

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Mothers  are  particularly  influential  on  school  performance.15  The  way  women  are 
educated,  empowered  and  able  to  take  decisions  for  their  children  in  a  particular 
community can strongly influence their children’s performance. Incomplete education for 
girls  may  not  only  affect  them,  but  may  transmit  disadvantage  to  the  next  generation. 
Children's  attitudes  to  education  may  be  less  positive  if  they  live  in  a  world  where 
unemployment among their own community is high and labour market and entrepreneurial 
success is rare.  

•  Role models and supportive community attitudes can have a significant influence, but may 
be  absent  if  the  socio-economic  position  of  the  community  is  weak.16  Some  migrant 
communities illustrate the point in a positive way; certain groups of Asian origin in the UK 
are  comparatively  disadvantaged,  yet  produce  very  high  levels  of  admissions  to  the 
national higher education system.  

3.2. 

The educational environment  

24.  Even  where  patterns  of  migration  are  similar,  the  performance  of  migrant  pupils  of  the 
same origin varies between European countries.17 This suggests that policies and educational 
approaches  do  matter.  The  structure  of  the  education  system,  and  the  way  schools  and 
teachers relate to them, can have a significant impact on attainment. Peer pressure influences 
achievement.  Migrant  pupils  tend  to  perform  better  when  they  are  taught  together  with 
classmates skilled in the host language and who have high educational aspirations.18  

25. But the tendency towards segregation in many systems is strong. Migrant pupils are often 
concentrated in schools that are de facto segregated from the mainstream and which are in a 
downward  quality  spiral,  reflecting,  for  example,  high  teacher  turnover.  PISA  shows  lower 
performance  of  pupils  in  schools  with  high  concentrations  of  migrant  pupils.19  Segregation 
also  happens  within  schools:  there  is  evidence  that  ability  grouping/tracking  places  a 
disproportionately  high  share  of  migrant  pupils  into  lower-ability  streams  –  reflecting, 
possibly, lower initial levels of educational attainment and/or linguistic capacity.20 Finally, the 
high  concentration  of  children  of  migrants  in  special  schools  for  disabled  pupils  evident  in 
some countries is an extreme case of segregation.21 It is a priori unlikely that migrant pupils 
suffer from very different levels of disability across countries.  

26. All forms of school segregation will weaken the ability of education to deliver on one of 
its  main  objectives  –  to  build  social  inclusion,  friendships  and  societal  bonds  between  
children of migrants and their peers.22 In general, the more the school policies counteract all 
forms of de facto segregation of migrant pupils, the better will be the educational experience.  

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Progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and training - Indicators and benchmarks, 2007. 
Wiley (1977). 
See OECD 2006, Where immigrant students succeed. 
A  seminal  study  on  this  issue  is  Coleman  et  al.  (1966),  demonstrating  that  minority  students  in 
segregated schools perform below their potential. Farley (2005) has reviewed more recent research on 
the  influence  of  peers  on  academic  achievement  and  his  conclusions  basically  support  the  earlier 
findings. 
Table in the annex. 
Schofield (2006). The consequences of early tracking for equity in education have already been dealt 
with in the Commission Communication on Equity and efficiency in education and training systems.  
For instance, in 1999 migrant pupils in Germany were 9.4% of the overall population, but they made up 
15%  of  the  special  schools  population.  See  also  EUMC  (2004).  The  European  Agency  for  Special 
Needs Education is currently carrying out a comparative analysis of the situation of migrant pupils in 
special education in 23 Member States. Results should be published by early 2009. 
Rutter et al. (1979). 

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27.  Educational  approaches  may  contribute  to  the  problem  of  low  expectations  referred  to 
above. Expectations formed, for instance, in respect of less verbal pupils (likely, for language 
reasons, to include many migrant pupils) may underestimate their potential.  

3.3. 

Some Positive Policy Responses 

28. Research and exchanges have identified policies and approaches that are likely to foster 
educational success for migrant pupils. In general, research shows that migrant pupils perform 
better where socio-economic status and educational achievement are less correlated. In other 
words,  those  systems  which  strongly  prioritise  equity  in  education  are  likely  to  be  most 
effective  in  responding  to  their  particular  needs.  Comprehensive  strategies  across  all  levels 
and strands of  the system  will  work best; partial measures may simply transfer problems of 
inequality  or  poor  attainment  from  one  segment  of  the  system  to  another.  Furthermore, 
policies to build equity in  education will  work best  within a  broader framework to  build an 
inclusive society.  

29.  There  are  also  a  range  of  policy  approaches  which  address  specific  aspects  of  migrant 
pupils' educational experiences. 

•  Member States all stress acquisition of the host language as key to integration and have all 
put in place specific provisions to support this23, for example, language classes for newly 
arrived migrant pupils (sometimes also offered to pupils of a migrant background born in 
the  host  country  who  have  not  yet  mastered  its  language).  Other  practices  promote 
language  proficiency  as  early  as  possible  -  early  language  testing  for  all  children;  pre-
school  language  training;  and  equipping  teachers  with  the  competence  to  teach  the  host 
language as a second language. 

•  In addition to this primary focus on the host language, there have been efforts to promote 
learning  of  the  heritage  language,  sometimes  within  the  framework  of  bilateral 
agreements with other Member States envisaged under Directive 77/486/CEE.24 Scope for 
such  learning  is  increased  by  new  opportunities  for  mobility,  media  and  internet  contact 
with the country of origin and e-twinning between schools of host and sending countries. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  reinforcing  the  heritage  language  can  be  educationally 
advantageous. Fluency in the heritage language is valuable for the cultural capital and the 
self confidence of children of migrants and it may also represent a key asset for their future 
employability. Furthermore, an eventual return to the country of origin may be a desirable 
option for some migrant families; education in the heritage language will ease this.  

•  Many countries offer targeted support to counterbalance educational disadvantage. While 
not  directed  at  migrant  groupsper  se,  such  measures  are  likely  to  be  highly  relevant  to 
them.  These  may  be  aimed  at  individuals  –  scholarships  and  possible  quotas  for 
participation in prestigious educational institutions (quotas are often highly controversial). 
Others  are  aimed  at  families,  in  the  form  of  grants  conditional  on  school  attendance  or 
performance; there is evidence that these have had some success. Targeted support is also 
allocated  to  schools  with  a  high  proportion  of  migrant  pupils  but  results  seem  modest, 
perhaps due to lack of critical mass or from being poorly targeted.25  

•  There are numerous programmes to offer additional educational support to target groups, 
for  example,  learning  and  homework  centres  after  regular  classes,  often  implemented  in 

23 

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25 

See the Eurydice Report on school integration of immigrant pupils (2004); an update will be carried out 
in 2008. 
Eurydice Report on school integration of immigrant pupils (2004). 
See the basis of the reform of the priority education policy in France.  

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partnership  with  the  community.  Mentoring  and  tutoring  of  children,  for  example  by 
higher  education  students,  is  provided.  It  has  proved  particularly  successful  when 
undertaken by people of the same origin, and as part of wider partnerships with parents’ 
organisations and community institutions, which may also include other measures, such 
as the appointment of school mediators.26 

•  Second chance education has been used in some systems but with a clear recognition that 
it should not become a parallel, segregated provision for those who do not succeed in the 
mainstream. Adult education, in particular language training, is widely promoted among 
migrant  communities  as  a  means  to  help  to  break  the  intergenerational  transmission  of 
disadvantage highlighted earlier and to ease communication between school and families.  
•  Pre-school  education  brings  major  benefits.27  And,  where  it  places  a  strong  focus  on 
language  development,  it  can  be  of  particular  help  in  equipping  migrant  pupils  for  later 
schooling.28 As noted in section 2.1, children of migrants are often the ones with the lowest 
access;  systems  which  have  put  in  place  financial  support  to  socially  disadvantaged 
families to access childcare have shown some good results.29  

•  Integrated  education,  which  counters  the  tendencies  towards  segregation  mentioned 
before, is an explicit goal in some systems. As segregation is difficult to eliminate once it 
has developed, countries newly experiencing large-scale migration may have an interest in 
a  prevention  strategy,  to  ensure  that  socio-economic  and  ethnic  balance  is  maintained 
right from the start. Schools and services can be networked to spread migrant pupils and so 
avoid  concentrations.  Measures  to  improve  the  attractiveness  of  schools  catering  to  large 
numbers  of  disadvantaged  pupils  -  the  creation  of  so-called  "magnet  schools”30  have 
yielded encouraging results.  

•  Ensuring  quality  standards  in  all  schools  is  a  key  step.  Building  quality  can  involve 
policies  to  build  bridges  with  parents,  improve  infrastructure,  broaden  extra-curricular 
activities and establish an ethos of respect. Above all practices have focused on teaching 
and  leadership.31  Some  systems  have  sought  to  address  high  teacher  turnover  among 
disadvantaged  schools  by  creating  incentives  for  teachers  to  opt  for  and  remain  at  such 
schools.  Training  and  professional  development  of  teachers  on  how  to  deal  with 
diversity  and  motivate  children  in  vulnerable  situations  is  increasing.  Increasing  the 
number of teachers from migrant backgrounds is an explicit goal in some systems. 

•  Deepening  knowledge  about  one's  own  culture  and  about  the  cultures  of  others  may 
support  migrant  pupils'  self-confidence  while  providing  value  for  all  pupils.  Such 
intercultural  education  in  no  way  needs  to  weaken  the  primary  focus  on  the  identity, 
values  and  symbols  of  the  host  country.  It  involves  above  all  building  mutual  respect, 

26 
27 

28 

29 
30 

31 

See examples in the annex. 
See  the  Commission  Communication  on  equity  and  efficiency  in  education  and  training  systems, 
COM(2006) 481 final and the Conclusions of the Education Council of November 2007 on education 
and training as a key driver in the Lisbon Strategy. 
For  example,  Spies,  Büchel  and  Wagner  (2003)  found  that  attending  kindergarten  in  Germany 
substantially increased the likelihood of migrant children attending higher level secondary schools. 
A major and well evaluated example is the HeadStart programme in the US, referenced in the annex. 
Magnet schools were originally initiated in the US in the late 70s. The principle is to attract pupils from 
a variety of middle class neighbourhoods in a metropolitan area through the provision of interesting and 
rare curricula and activities. This may redress socioeconomic balance in the school while strengthening 
the  educational  programme  in  vulnerable  quarters.  There  is  some  experience  with  magnet  schools  in 
Europe as well – see http://schulpreis.bosch-stiftung.de.  
McKinsey report (2007). 

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developing  understanding  of  the  negative  effects  of  prejudices  and  stereotypes  and 
cultivating  the  ability  to  take  different  viewpoints32,  while  increasing  knowledge  of  and 
seeking respect for the core values and fundamental rights of the host society. 

4. 

ADDRESSING THE ISSUE AT THE EUROPEAN LEVEL 

30. The content and organisation of education and training are national competences. It is at 
the  national  or  regional  level  that  strategies  need  to  be  defined  and  implemented.  Member 
states  have  expressed  an  interest  in  co-operating  on  inclusion  of  children  of  migrants.  The 
European  Commission  can  facilitate  such  co-operation.  The  shared  nature  of  the  challenge 
and  of  the  factors  which  lie  behind  it,  coupled  with  the  range  of  approaches  being 
implemented in different Member States, regions and cities, suggests that there is scope for a 
fruitful dialogue. 

31.  The  European  Union  already  undertakes  a  number  of  different  types  of  activity  which 
impact, directly or indirectly, on Member States policies on these issues. In addition, the role 
played  by  Directive  77/486/CEE  in  shaping  the  policy  effort  in  this  field  needs  to  be 
considered.  

4.1. 

Role of EU programmes and Actions 

32. The European Commission already supports a number of programmes and actions which 
relate, inter alia, to this issue. In 2005, the Commission put forward 'A Common Agenda for 
Integration:  a  framework  for  the  integration  of  third-country  nationals  in  the  European 
Union'33, proposing measures to put into practice the Common Basic Principles on Integration 
(CBPs),34  together  with  a  series  of  supportive  EU  mechanisms  including  National  Contact 
Points  on  Integration,  European  Integration  Forum  and  Annual  Reports  on  Migration  and 
Integration. In addition, the European Fund for the Integration of Third-country Nationals is 
further facilitating integration measures for migrant youth and children. The Recommendation 
of the European Parliament and the Council on “Key Competences for Lifelong Learning” of 
18  December  2006  lists  the  type  of  attitudes,  knowledge  and  skills  with  which  education 
should  provide  people  to  facilitate  their  personal  fulfilment  and  development,  active 
citizenship,  social  inclusion  and  employment  in  modern  Europe.  Competences  numbers  6 
(Social  and  Civic  Competences)  and  9  (Cultural  awareness)  are  particularly  relevant  in  the 
context  of  a  high  incidence  of  migrant  pupils  and  may  be  useful  as  a  framework  for 
developing national educational approaches. 

33. The Lifelong  Learning Programme, especially the actions Comenius (school education), 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  (vocational  training)  and  Grundtvig  (adult  education)  and  the  Youth 
Programme  support  projects  related  to  intercultural  education,  school  integration  of  migrant 
pupils and social inclusion for disadvantaged youth. Examples are listed in the Annex.  

34. Cohesion Policy, via the Structural Funds, in particular the ESF and the ERDF, have the 
capacity to support social inclusion projects and measures at national level and regional level. 
The  “Regions  for  economic  change”  through  the  Urbact  Programme  initiative  will  foster 
trans-national cooperation and exchange of best practices. Social inclusion of migrant youth 

32 

33 
34 

See  the  Recommendations  of  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  Key  competences  for 
lifelong  learning,  notably  competences  number  6  (Social  and  Civic  Competences)  and  9  (Cultural 
awareness).  
COM(2005) 389. 
Council Document 14615/04. 

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has  a  high  priority.  The  Community  programme  for  employment  and  social  solidarity, 
Progress, also provides scope for trans-national co-operation.  

35. The 2007 European Year on Equal opportunities for all and the 2008 European Year on 
Intercultural  Dialogue  provide  a  framework  for  promoting  a  European  debate  on  inclusion 
and on migrant youth. 

4.2. 

European level policy exchanges  

36. The Open Method of Coordination for Education and Training provides a forum for co-
operation  and  exchange  between  Member  States  on  common  educational  challenges.  The 
Commission  will  make  proposals  for  a  new  framework  for  this  process  in  December  2008, 
which  could,  inter  alia,  accommodate  policy  exchange  on  this  issue.  This  could  include  an 
exploration  of  the  possible  development  of  indicators  or  benchmarks  related  to  the  gaps  in 
educational attainment and enrolment of migrant pupils.  

37.  The  European  Commission  works  closely  with  international  organisations  who  also 
address education and migration as part of their work, such as the OECD and the Council of 
Europe. This co-operation will continue to be a priority. 

4.3. 

The  role  of  Directive  77/486/CEE  on  the  education  of  the  children  of  migrant 
workers35 

38.  In  the  context  of  the  policy  reflection  set  out  here,  the  question  arises  as  to  what  role 
Directive 77/486/CEE can in future play in helping to shape national policy making.  
39. Transposition, implementation and monitoring of the Directive have proven difficult,36 at 
least in part because the context of managed migration through bilateral agreements between 
Member States, in which the Directive was conceived, was not current anymore by the time of 
its adoption. Given the difficulty experienced in  generating the bilateral cooperation  needed 
for  formal  implementation  within  the  then  EC  of  nine  member  states,  it  is  not  clear  how 
implementation can now be meaningfully improved within an EU of 27 Member States. 

40. There is, secondly, a question of the Directive's scope. The challenge now concerns to a 
considerable extent the education of children coming from third countries. Their situation is 
not covered by the Directive.  

41.  Finally,  the  added-value  of  the  Directive's  provisions  for  educational  policy-making 
should be assessed. The Directive's first provision – that Member States shall "ensure that free 
tuition  to  facilitate  initial  reception  is  offered  in  their  territory  [to  the  children  of  migrant 
workers], including, in particular, the teaching of the official language or one of the official 
languages  of  the  host  State  "  –  seems  to  have  had  little  impact  in  shaping  Member  States' 
policies  in  the  face  of  the  complex  set  of  challenges  described  in  this  text.  Member  States 
have  all  developed  their  own  approaches  to  the  teaching  of  the  host  country  language. 
Looking to the wider questions regarding the teaching of children from a migrant background, 
the  question  must  be  asked  whether  Member  States  are  likely  to  be  helped  more  by  the 
Directive  or  through  a  mix  of  policy  exchange  and  programme  support  for  policy 
development.  

The Directive's second provision – that Member States shall "in cooperation with the States of 
origin, take appropriate measures to promote in coordination with normal education, teaching 

35 

36 

Council Directive 77/486/EEC of 25 July 1977 on the education of the children of migrant workers, OJ 
L 199, 6.8.1977, p. 32–33. 
See COM(94) 80 and the Eurydice Report 2004.  

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of  the  mother  tongue  and  culture  of  the  country  of  origin"  –  allows  a  large  degree  of 
flexibility  in  the  way  the  obligation  is  to  be  achieved.  It  has  had  some  patchy  impact37  and 
can, in the circumstances as outlined in section 3.1 above, be shown as an educationally valid 
approach. Moreover, the volume of intra-EU mobility of workers from EU Member States has 
increased  sharply  in  recent  years  in  the  wake  of  the  2004  and  2007  enlargements.  This, 
potentially, may bring about a renewed interest in the promotion of heritage language learning 
among  children  of  migrants  in  general.  Whether  this  is  best  implemented  via  legislative 
instruments based on the Treaty's different legal regimes for EU and third-country nationals 
or via the promotion of voluntary arrangements – which might be within or outside the formal 
school system – is unclear. Reflecting the Directive's requirement to deliver this objective in 
cooperation with the Member State of origin, the creation of networks, school twinning could 
be used to develop teaching of the heritage language in particular schools or localities with the 
support  of  the  Lifelong  Learning  programme.  Teacher  training  could  also  be  developed  to 
support such teaching.  

5. 

PROPOSAL FOR A CONSULTATION 

42.  The  Commission  feels  that  it  would  be  valuable  to  undertake  a  consultation  with 
interested parties about education policy for children from a migrant background. Interested 
parties are invited to make their views known about: 

•  the policy challenge; 

•  good policy responses to this challenge; 

•  the  possible  role  of  the  European  Union  in  supporting  Member  States  to  address  these 

challenges; and 

•  their views on the future of Directive 77/486/EEC. 

43.  Respondents  are  invited  to  use  the  following  broad  questions  as  a  guide  when  framing 
their contributions.  

A. The policy challenge 

1.  What  are  the  important  policy  challenges  related  to  the  provision  of  good  education  to  children 
from a migrant background? In addition to those identified in this paper, are there others that should 
be taken into account? 

B. The policy response 

2.  What  are  the  appropriate  policy  responses  to  these  challenges?  Are  there  other  policies  and 
approaches beyond those listed in this paper that should be taken into account? 

C. The role of the European Union 

3. What actions could be undertaken via European Programmes to impact positively on the education 
of children from a migrant background? 

4. How should these issues be addressed within the Open Method of Coordination for Education and 
Training? Do you feel that there should be an exploration of possible indicators and/or benchmarks as 
a means to focus policy effort more strongly on closing the gaps in educational attainment? 

D. The future of Directive 77/486/EEC 

5. How can Directive 77/486/EEC, taking into account the history of its implementation and bearing 
in mind the changed nature of migration flows since its adoption, play a role in supporting Member 

37 

Eurydice Report 2004. 

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States' policies on these issues? Would you recommend that it be maintained as it stands, that it should 
be  adapted  or  repealed?  Would  you  propose  alternative  approaches  to  support  Member  States' 
policies on the issues it addresses?  

44. Consultation on the issues above will be open until 31 December 2008.  

45. Contributions may be sent to:  

European Commission  
DG Education and Culture 
Consultation on Education and Migration 
B-1049 Bruxelles 
E-mail EAC-migrantchildren@ec.europa.eu 

46.  The  European  Commission  will  analyse  the  results  of  this  consultation  and  publish  its 
conclusions in early 2009. Please note that contributions and the names of the authors may be 
published, unless the authors explicitly refuse their consent to publication when sending the 
contribution. 

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