Key figures on Europe.
Date: 2008-03-25
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, agricultural statistics, economic statistics, energy market, environmental statistics, industrial statistics, population statistics, regional statistics, trade statistics

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ISSN 1830-7892

Pocketbooks

Key figures on Europe
2007/08 edition

EuropEan Commission

ch01.qxp  21/12/2007  09:54  Page 13

Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers  
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More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu).

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008

ISBN 978-92-79-06613-9
ISSN 1830-7892
Cat. No. KS-EI-07-001-EN-C

Theme: General and regional statistics
Collection: Pocketbooks

© European Communities, 2008
© Cover photo: Piccaya@fotolia.com

Printed in Belgium

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ch00.qxp  21/12/2007  09:52  Page 1

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition
Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition provides a balanced set
of  key  statistical  data  offered  by  Eurostat.  The  presentation
largely  follows  the  statistical  themes  of  Eurostat’s  free
dissemination database (see below for Internet details). Data are
generally  provided  for  the  European  Union  total  (EU-27),  the
euro area and the Member States, and – when available – for
the candidate countries, EFTA countries, Japan and the United
States.

Editor-in-chief: 
Gunter Schäfer

Editorial team: 
Marcin Baryn, Virginie Dohn, Matthias Fritz, Ulrich Wieland

Contact details:
Eurostat,
Statistical Office of the European Communities,
Bâtiment Joseph Bech,
5, Rue Alphonse Weicker
L-2721 Luxembourg
E-mail address: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu

Production, desktop publishing: INFORMA sàrl
Giovanni Albertone, Simon Allen, Edward Cook, 
Séverine Gautron, Andrew Redpath

For more information please consult:
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat

Data extracted on: 02-07-2007

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The editor-in-chief and the editorial team would like to thank all
those who were involved in the preparation of this publication. It
was  published  thanks  to  the  assistance  and  support  of  the
following organisations, units and authors:
EUROSTAT, THE STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (1)
Directorate C: National and European accounts
C1 National accounts - methodology and analysis (S. Reinecke)
C2 National accounts - production (L. Biedma, A. Krüger)
C3 Public finance (L. Frej Ohlsson)
C4 Balance of payments (M. Hult, M. Hussain, M. Lazaro)
C5 Validation of public accounts (P. Parlasca, M. Wozowczyk)
Directorate D: Economic and regional statistics
D1 Key indicators for European policies (L. Ledoux)
D2 Regional indicators and geographical information
(Å. Önnerfors, B. Quennery, D. Rizzi)
D3 Short-term statistics (D. Amil, A. Giannoplidis, J. Fassbender,
C. Lipp-Lingua,  L. Oehman, I. Schoen, S. Visocka)
D4 Prices statistics (C. Wirtz, K. Hayes)
Directorate E: Agriculture and environment statistics;
statistical cooperation
E1 Agriculture statistics - methodology (G. Benoist, G. Burak, 
C. Coyette, R. Knaapi, G. Mahon, C. Ollier, J. Selenius, P. Szabo)
E2 Agriculture statistics - production (R. Ataide Dias, S. Bos, 
E. Maki-Simola, K. Panagopoulos, F. Zampogna)
E3 Environment statistics (J.C. Cabeca, J. Förster, J. Klein, W. Kloek,
P. Nadin, U. Roewer)
Directorate F: Social statistics and information society
F1 Demographic and migration statistics (A. Herm, P. Juchno, 
G. Kyi, D. Thorogood)
F2 Labour market statistics (S. Casali, S. Jouhette, 
A. Ortega-Sanchez, P. Regnard, F. Romans, E. Schaaf)
F3 Living conditions and social protection statistics (T. Bento, 
J-M. Museux, I. Sarantou, L. Wahrig)
F4 Education, science and culture statistics (M. Beck-Domzalska,
B. Felix, L. Mejer, T. Meri, S. Parvan, F. Reis, H. Wilen)
F5 Health and food safety statistics (B. De Norre, S. Gagel, 
A. Karjalainen, E. Niederlaender)
F6 Information society and tourism statistics (C. Demunter, 
G. Di Giacomo, S. Fickinger, M. Lumio, M. Smihily, U. Spörel, 
A. Wirthmann)
Directorate G: Business statistics
G1 Structural business statistics (U. Johansson, P. Sneijers, B. Williams)
G3 International trade statistics - production (G. Gambini)
G4 Energy statistics (A. Gikas)
G5 Transport statistics (H. Strelow)

(1) Eurostat organigram as of December 2007; the latest information is
available on the Eurostat website (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat).

OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

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PREFACE

Official  statistics  play  a  fundamental  role  in
today’s society. Public administrations, policy
makers,  economic  operators,  markets,
researchers  and  citizens  rely  on  high  quality
statistics  to  describe  developments  in  the
economic, social, environmental and cultural
spheres  as  accurately  as  possible.  Statistical
authorities  respond  to  the  needs  of  these
users who require easy and timely access to
such high quality information.

Impartial and objective statistical information is essential in order to
enable  well  informed  decisions  based  on  an  accurate  and  relevant
picture of society. Statistical information underpins transparency and
openness of policy decisions; official statistics therefore are a public
good and a basis for the smooth functioning of democracy.

At  European  level,  statistics  are  increasingly  important  for  the
definition,  implementation,  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  policies.
Europe needs a plethora of statistical data which meet the highest
possible standards in terms of quality. For example, reliable statistics
are  needed  to  assess  macro-economic  developments  such  as
inflation,  employment,  economic  growth  and  the  business  cycle  in
general:  in  order  to  facilitate  economic  policy  coordination  among
Member States; to keep Europe on the path to long-term prosperity,
notably  through  the  revised  Lisbon  strategy  and  the  integrated
guidelines  on  growth  and  employment;  and  finally,  to  reinforce  a
commitment to solidarity and social justice. European statistics thus
constitute  an  essential  information  tool  that  may  help  monitor
European Union strategic objectives, as well as sustaining underlying
policies and supporting instruments.

Eurostat, the Statistical Office of the European Communities, ensures
the collection, production and dissemination of harmonised statistics
at European level. Eurostat gets most of its data from the national
statistical  authorities  in  the  Member  States.  It  then  processes,
analyses  and  publishes  that  data  at  a  European  level,  following
common statistical concepts, methods and standards. Eurostat also
supports  and  encourages  the  development  of  similar  statistical
systems within countries neighbouring the European Union, driving
thereby a process of statistical harmonisation.

I hope this publication will encourage you to use Eurostat’s data for
your information needs and daily work. Please consult our website at
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat which offers you free access to nearly all
Eurostat data and publications.

Hervé Carré, 
Director-General

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Preface

Guide
Abbreviations

Chapter 1: Economy and finance
GDP
Economic output
GDP expenditure and investment
Labour productivity
Interest rates
Consumer price indices
Price convergence and competitiveness
Government public balance and debt
Public procurement and State aid
Government taxes
Foreign direct investment
Official development assistance

Chapter 2: Population and social conditions
World population
EU population
EU population by age class
Marriages and divorces
Births and fertility
Migration
Citizenship and asylum
Life expectancy and mortality
Health problems
Accidents
Healthcare
Pupils and students
Levels of education
Educational expenditure
Lifelong learning
Employment
Employment growth
Unemployment
Labour market demand
Part-time, temporary and secondary employment
Earnings and minimum wages
Low wage earners
Household consumption expenditure
Living conditions
Social protection
Governance

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2

3

7
9

14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
38

40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90

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Chapter 3: Industry, trade and services
Growing and declining activities
Short-term statistics for industry
Short-term statistics for construction
Short-term statistics for retail trade
Short-term statistics for other services
Structure of the business economy
Size of manufacturing and services subsectors
Personnel costs
Profitability
Enterprise size-classes
Labour productivity by sector and enterprise size-class
Products sold
Tourism

Chapter 4: Agriculture, forestry and fisheries
Land use in agriculture and forestry
Farm labour force
Agricultural production
Agricultural economic output
Agri-environment and rural development
Forestry
Fisheries

Chapter 5: International trade
Share in world trade of goods and services
International trade in services
World market for goods
Main EU trading partners
EU trade by product
Trade in goods between EU Member States

Chapter 6: Transport
Modal breakdown of transport
Goods transport
Air and sea passenger transport

Chapter 7: Energy and environment
Production of primary energy
Production of renewable energy
Energy imports
Inland consumption, energy dependency and intensity
Electricity
Final energy consumption
Energy prices
Greenhouse gases
Urban population exposure to air pollution
Water resources

Page

92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
108
110
112
114
116

118
120
122
124
126
128
130

132
134
136
138
140
142

144
146
148

150
152
154
156
158
160
162
164
166
168

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Waste water treatment
Generation of waste
Treatment of municipal waste
Environmental expenditure, EMAS and eco-label
Biodiversity

Page

170
172
174
176
178

Chapter 8: Science and technology
180
Human resources
Research and development expenditure
182
High-technology industries and knowledge intensive services 184
186
Patents
188
Innovation
190
Internet access of households
192
ICT use of individuals
194
Internet access of enterprises
196
E-commerce
198
E-government
200
Telecommunications
202
Telecommunications – turnover and market share

Chapter 9: Europe’s regions
Regional statistics – background and definitions
Population density
Average annual growth rate of population
Gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant
Disposable income
Employment rate
Unemployment rate
Regional data on population and GDP
Regional data on income and labour force
Dispersion of regional employment rates

Annex
Structural indicators
Sustainable development indicators
Classifications
- COICOP
- ISCED
- NACE
- SITC
Contact details – national statistical authorities

204
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
218
224

225
225
226
226
228
230
232
234

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GUIDE

The publication
Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition provides an overview of
data  that  is  available  through  the  European  statistical  system.  It
belongs  to  the  same  family  of  compendium  publications  as  the
more  extensive  Eurostat  yearbook.  The  publication  provides  a
balanced set of key indicators, presenting a broad cross-section of
information  that  is  available  within  Eurostat’s  dissemination
database.  The  publication 
is  part  of  Eurostat’s  current
dissemination  strategy,  insofar  as  it  is  distributed  free  of  charge,
accompanying the vast array of official statistics freely available on
Eurostat’s website.

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition is divided into nine chapters,
each  of  which  contains  information  relating  to  a  particular  topic.
Within  each  chapter  each  double  page  focuses  on  a  subject:  most
start with a short commentary that provides contextual information
(such  as  policy  relevance),  as  well  as  definitions  of  the  indicators
presented, and warnings concerning the interpretation of the data.
The  standard  structure  employed  for  the  majority  of  these  double
pages is to present a graph focused on aggregated European Union
data, as well as a table with a selection of indicators/time periods for
all Member States and other non-Community countries. The balance
of the information presented within the publication reflects to some
degree the volume of information available under each of the themes
within  Eurostat’s  dissemination  database,  while  also  attempting  to
provide information that is of particular interest for the general public.
Eurostat  produces  a  broad  range  of  more  specialised  publications,
which may be accessed through the Eurostat homepage.

The European statistical system
The European statistical system comprises Eurostat and the statistical
offices,  ministries  and  agencies  that  collect  official  statistics  in  the
European Union Member States, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and
Switzerland. The European statistical system concentrates on European
Union policy areas, although harmonisation has extended to nearly all
statistical fields. The European statistical system is a network in which
Eurostat’s role is to lead the way in the harmonisation of statistics in
close cooperation with the national statistical authorities. At the heart
of  the  European  statistical  system  is  the  Statistical  Programme
Committee,  which  brings  together  the  heads  of  Member  States’
national  statistical  offices  and  is  chaired  by  Eurostat.  The  Statistical
Programme Committee discusses joint actions and programmes to be
carried  out  to  meet  European  Union  information  requirements.  It
agrees a five-year programme, which is implemented by the national
authorities and monitored by Eurostat. For a list of contact details for
the national statistical authorities please refer to page 234.

Data coverage
The information presented within this publication was extracted from
Eurostat’s dissemination database during the first week of July 2007;
data  are  generally  available  up  until  2005  or  2006.  Note  that  the

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space constraints associated with the format of this publication mean
that time-series are generally not presented. Longer time-series will
generally be available when consulting Eurostat’s website.

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition presents information for the
27 Member States of the European Union (EU-27), the euro area, as
well as the individual Member States. When available, information is
also presented for the candidate countries, EFTA countries, as well as
Japan and the United States. The EU-27 aggregate is only provided
when information for all 27 Member States is available or has been
estimated.  In  some  cases  it  was  not  yet  possible  to  calculate  the
EU-27 aggregate, even if all 27 individual Member States provided
data; in most of these cases the EU-25 aggregate is shown instead.
A footnote is added when the data refers to a partial total that has
been created from an incomplete set of country information (no data
for  certain  Member  States,  or  only  data  for  an  older  reference
period). The data for the euro area covers the 13 Member States that
share  the  euro  as  a  common  currency:  Belgium,  Germany,  Ireland,
Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria,
Portugal, Slovenia and Finland. Data for the euro area covers all 13
participating  countries,  irrespective  of  when  they  joined  the  euro
area;  otherwise,  a  footnote  is  added.  Cyprus  and  Malta  will  also
become members of the euro area in 2008; however, this could not
be taken into account at the time of writing (September 2007).

Further information
Free access to most Eurostat data is available through the Eurostat
website, which can be found at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat. The
website presents a vast array of information in the form of tables,
databases, methodology and publications: these are all structured
primarily by subjects/themes.

Eurostat data code
A code (such as ‘tec00001’) has been inserted as part of the source
whenever Eurostat data is presented in this publication. This code
allows  the  reader  to  easily  access  the  most  recent  data  on  the
Eurostat website (note that the data on the website is frequently
updated  and  may  also  be  more  detailed  or  have  a  different
measurement unit). For more details, consult the link entitled ‘The
Eurostat data code’ on the Eurostat homepage.

Symbols used for data
An italic font is used in tables to show provisional data, estimates and
forecasts (in other words, data that are likely to change in the future).
The colon (:) is used in tables to represent data that is not available,
either because the value was not provided by the national statistical
authority  or  because  the  value  is  confidential.  In  figures
(charts/graphs) missing information is footnoted as not available. A
dash  (-)  is  used  to  indicate  values  that  are  not  relevant  or  not
applicable. More metadata can be found on Eurostat's website.

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Abbreviations
AAGR
AW
AWU
BMI
BOD
BoP
CAP
CC
CEPA
CFP
Cif
CIS
CMR
CO2
COD
COICOP Classification of individual consumption according to

Average annual growth rate
Average worker
Annual work unit
Body mass index
Biochemical oxygen demand
Balance of payments
Common Agricultural Policy
Classification of types of construction
Classification of environmental protection activities
Common Fisheries Policy
Cost including insurance and freight
Community innovation survey
Carcinogenic, mutagenic and reprotoxic
Carbon dioxide
Chemical oxygen demand

cont.
DAC
DFLE
DSL
ECB
EDI
EDP
EEA

purpose
Continued
Development assistance committee
Disability-free life expectancy
Digital subscriber line
European Central Bank
Electronic data interchange
Excessive deficit procedure
European Economic Area (European Community, 
EU Member States, IS, LI, NO)
European employment strategy
European Free Trade Association (CH, IS, LI, NO)
European index of consumer prices
European Patent Office
European Research Area
European system of accounts

EES
EFTA
EICP
EPO
ERA
ESA 95
ESSPROS European system of integrated social protection statistics
ETS
EU LFS
EUR
EU-SILC EU survey on income and living conditions
FDI
F-km

External trade statistics
European Union labour force survey
Euro

Foreign direct investment
Freight kilometre (unit of measure representing the 
transport of one tonne over one kilometre)
Free on board
Seventh framework programme of the European
Community for research and technological development
for the period 2007 to 2013
Gross domestic product
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development
Gigajoule
Global warming potentials
Harmonised index of consumer prices
Human resources in science and technology

Fob
FP7

GDP
GERD
GJ
GWP
HICP
HRST

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ICD

International statistical classification of diseases and
related health problems
International council for the exploration of the sea
Information and communication technologies
International Monetary Fund
International standard classification of education
Integrated services digital network
Information technology
Japan Patent Office
Job vacancy rate
Kilobit per second
Kilogram
Kilograms of oil equivalent
Kilometre
Kilowatt
Kilowatt hours
Livestock units
Metre

ICES
ICT
IMF
ISCED
ISDN
IT
JPO
JVR
Kbit/s
Kg
Kgoe
Km
kW
kWh
LU
m
MUICP Monetary union index of consumer prices
MWh
n.e.c.
n.e.s.
NACE

Megawatt hours
Not elsewhere classified
Not elsewhere specified
Classification of economic activities in the European
Community
Non-profit institutions serving households
Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics
Official development assistance
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development
Personal digital assistant
Principal European economic indicator
Doctor of philosophy (most common Doctorate degree)
Passenger kilometre (unit of measure representing the
transport of one passenger over one kilometre)
Purchasing power parities
Purchasing power standard
Public water supply
Research and development
Revision
Standard international trade classification
Small and medium-sized enterprises
Short message service
Tons of oil equivalent
Television
Terrawatt hours
Utilised agricultural area

PPPs
PPS
PWS
R&D
Rev.
SITC
SME
SMS
toe
TV
TWh
UAA
UNCAT United Nations convention against torture
UOE
URL
USPTO United States Patent and Trademark Office
VAT
WIPO

Value added tax
World Intellectual Property Organisation

UNESCO / OECD / Eurostat
Uniform resource locator

NPISH
NUTS
ODA
OECD
PDA
PEEI
PhD
P-km

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European Union aggregates and Member States
EU
EU-27 (2)

European Union
European Union of 27 Member States from 1 January
2007 (BE, BG, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LV,
LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK, FI, SE, UK)
European  Union  of  25  Member  States  from  1  May
2004 to 31 December 2006 (BE, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE,
EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, SI,
SK, FI, SE, UK)
European Union of 15 Member States from 1 January
1995 to 30 April 2004 (BE, DK, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU,
NL, AT, PT, FI, SE, UK)

EU-25

EU-15

Euro area (3) At the time of writing the euro area is composed of BE,
DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, SI, FI. The euro area
was initially composed of 11 Member States (BE, DE, IE,
ES,  FR,  IT,  LU,  NL,  AT,  PT,  FI)  –  as  of  1  January  2001
Greece  joined,  and  as  of  1  January  2007  Slovenia
joined; Cyprus and Malta will also become members of
the euro area in 2008
Euro area of BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT,
SI, FI
Euro area of BE, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, FI
Euro area of BE, DE, IE, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, FI

EA-12
EA-11

EA-13

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT

Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Italy

(2) Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated when sufficient
information is available – for example, data relating to the EU-27
aggregate is often presented for periods prior to the accession of Bulgaria
and Romania in 2007 and the accession of ten new Member States in
2004, as if all 27 Member States had always been members of the EU. A
footnote is added when this is not the case and the data for the EU refers
to either another aggregate (EU-25 or EU-15) or to a partial total that has
been created from an incomplete set of country information (no data for
certain Member States).
(3) Note that the euro area aggregate is back-calculated when sufficient
information is available – for example, data relating to the euro area is
often presented for periods prior to the accession of Slovenia in 2007 and
Greece in 2001, as if all 13 Member States had always been members of
the euro area. A footnote is added when this is not the case and the data
for the euro area refers to another aggregate based on either 11 (EA-11)
or 12 (EA-12) participating Member States.

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CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom

Candidate countries to the European Union
HR
MK (4)
TR

Croatia
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Turkey

Member States of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
IS
LI
NO
CH

Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland

Other countries
JP
US

Japan
United States

(4) The code MK is provisional and does not prejudge in any way the
definitive nomenclature for this country, which will be agreed following
the conclusion of negotiations currently taking place on this subject at the
United Nations.

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

GDP

Gross  domestic  product  (GDP)  is  a  central  measure  of  national
accounts,  which  summarises  the  economic  position  of  a  country
(or  region).  GDP  can  be  calculated  using  one  of  three  different
approaches:
–

the  output  approach,  which  sums  the  gross  value  added  of
various industries, plus taxes and less subsidies on products;
the expenditure approach, which sums the final use of goods
and services (final consumption and gross capital formation),
plus exports and minus imports of goods and services, and;
the  income  approach,  which  sums  the  compensation  of
employees,  net  taxes  on  production  and  imports,  gross
operating surplus and mixed income.

–

–

The real GDP growth rate shows the change from one year to the
next  in  GDP,  after  adjusting  for  changes  in  price  levels,  in  other
words removing the effect of inflation. This shows the real change
in an economy, allowing an analysis of an economy over time.
An  analysis  of  the  economy  of  different  countries  can  be  made
easier  by  studying  GDP  per  capita,  so  removing  the  influence  of
the  absolute  size  of  the  population.  Such  comparisons  of  the
wealth  and  competitiveness  of  countries  can  be  made  using
purchasing power standards (PPS). To do this measures of GDP in
national  currencies  are  converted  into  a  common  currency  using
purchasing power parities (PPPs) that reflect the purchasing power
of each currency, rather than using market exchange rates. GDP
per capita in purchasing power standards (the common currency),
therefore eliminates differences in price levels between countries,
as well as allowing a comparison between economies of different
absolute  sizes.  Please  note  that  at  the  end  of  this  publication,  a
chapter presenting regional data includes information for GDP per
capita in PPS.

Figure 1.1: Real GDP growth rate 
(% change on previous year )

6

4

2

0

-2

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

EU-27

Euro area

Japan

United States

Source: Eurostat (tsieb012)

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1

         GDP per capita (PPS)
2006

2001

Growth 
rate of real 
GDP per 
capita
2006

20 800

22 700

24 400

5 900

13 700

26 000

22 900

9 100

26 800

15 300

19 400

23 700

23 300

17 600

7 700

8 400

44 700

11 900

15 400

26 500

25 400

9 600

16 600

5 500

15 400

10 100

24 100

24 000

23 700

8 600

5 000

5 300

26 500

32 600

26 700

30 900

22 800

23 700

26 100

29 000

8 800

18 700

30 000

26 800

15 900

34 100

21 000

24 200

26 800

24 600

22 100

13 300

13 700

66 100

15 500

18 200

31 000

30 600

12 600

17 700

8 900

20 600

14 900

27 800

28 600

28 200

11 900

6 500

7 000

31 700

44 300

31 500

36 400

26 700

2.8

2.8

2.4

6.3

5.7

2.9

3.0

11.6

3.6

4.2

2.0

1.3

1.8

1.5

12.5

7.4

5.2

3.9

2.3

2.8

2.9

7.1

1.0

6.3

4.4

9.8

4.8

3.6

2.1

4.2

5.0

3.7

-0.4

2.1

1.9

:

:

Table 1.1: GDP

               GDP 
              at current prices 
            (EUR 1 000 million)
2006

2001

EU-27

9 524.9

11 536.2

Euro area

7 003.8

8 378.1

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

258.9

15.2

69.0

179.2

314.1

25.1

113.1

219.5

2 113.2

2 309.1

6.9

116.8

133.1

680.7

1 497.2

1 248.6

10.8

9.3

13.6

22.6

59.5

4.3

447.7

215.9

212.3

129.3

44.9

22.0

23.6

139.9

247.3

13.1

175.8

195.2

976.2

1 792.0

1 475.4

14.5

16.2

23.7

33.1

89.9

5.1

527.9

257.9

271.5

155.2

97.1

29.7

43.9

167.9

306.0

1 613.4

1 906.4

22.1

3.8

161.8

8.8

191.0

279.7

34.2

5.0

318.6

13.0

266.9

301.7

4 579.7

3 476.6

11 308.6

10 550.0

Source: Eurostat (tec00001 and tsieb012)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

ECONOMIC OUTPUT

The European system of national and regional accounts (ESA 95)
provides  a  number  of  key  indicators  that  can  be  used  to  assess
macro-economic  conditions,  covering  a  wide  range  of  subjects
including:  output,  expenditure,  and  investment.  The  main
aggregates  of  national  accounts  are  compiled  from  institutional
units  (be  they  non-financial  or  financial  corporations,  general
government,  households,  or  non-profit  institutions  serving
households).
The output of the economy is measured using gross value added,
which  is  defined  as  the  value  of  all  newly  generated  goods  and
services  (at  basic  prices)  less  the  value  of  all  goods  and  services
consumed in their creation (at purchasers’ prices).
Economic output can be analysed by activity (based on NACE) in a
number of ways, for example showing the relative importance of
particular  activities,  highlighting  the  structural  differences
between countries.
An analysis of output over time can be facilitated using a volume
measure of output, in other words by deflating the value of output
to  remove  the  impact  of  price  changes:  each  activity  is  deflated
individually  to  reflect  the  changes  in  the  prices  of  its  associated
products.

Figure 1.2: Gross value added, chain-linked volumes 
for 2000, EU-27 (1995=100)

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Financial intermediation; real estate, renting & business activities

Distributive trades; hotels, restaurants; transport, storage, communication

Total industry

Public admin., defence; education; health, community & personal services

Agriculture, hunting, forestry & fishing

Construction

Source: Eurostat (nama_nace06_k)

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1

Figure 1.3: Gross value added at basic prices, 2006 
(% share of gross value added)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ (1)

DK

DE

EE

IE (1)

EL (1)

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO (1)

SI (1)

SK

FI

SE

UK (1)

HR

TR

NO

CH

Agriculture, hunting, forestry & fishing

Total industry

Construction

Distributive trades; hotels & restaurants; transport, storage & communication

Financial intermediation; real estate, renting & business activities

Public admin., defence; education; health, community & personal services

(1) Data for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tec00003, tec00004, tec00005, tec00006, tec00007 and tec00008)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

GDP EXPENDITURE AND INVESTMENT

Using  the  expenditure  approach  GDP  is  defined  as  private  final
consumption  expenditure  +  government  final  consumption
expenditure + gross capital formation + exports - imports.
In  the  system  of  national  accounts,  only  households,  non-profit
institutions serving households (NPISH) and government have final
for  example  have
consumption,  whereas  corporations 
intermediate consumption. Private final consumption expenditure,
or  that  performed  by  households  and  NPISH,  is  defined  as
expenditure  on  goods  and  services  for  the  direct  satisfaction  of
individual  needs,  whereas  government  consumption  expenditure
includes goods and services produced by government, as well as
purchases of goods and services by government that are supplied
to households as social transfers in kind.
With  respect  to  investment,  gross  capital  formation  consists  of
gross fixed capital formation, plus changes in inventories (stocks).
Gross fixed capital formation is defined as residents’ acquisitions
less  disposals  of  fixed  tangible  or  intangible  assets  that  are  used
repeatedly, or continuously, in production processes for more than
one year; such assets may be outputs from production processes
or  imports.  Investment  may  be  made  by  public  or  private
institutions.
The  final  component  of  GDP,  as  defined  by  the  expenditure
approach,  is  the  balance  of  external  trade,  which  is  equal  to
exports minus imports of goods and services.

Figure 1.4: Expenditure components of GDP, EU-27, 
2006 (%)

External balance 
of goods and 
services
0.2%

Gross capital 
formation
20.7%

Final 
consumption 
expenditure of 
general 
government
21.0%

Final 
consumption 
expenditure of 
households and 
non-profit 
institutions 
serving 
households
58.1%

Source: Eurostat (tec00009, tec00010, tec00011 and tec00012)

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Table 1.2: Investment

        Total investment
        (% of GDP)

 Public investment
 (% of GDP)

1997

2006

1997 (1)

2006

Business investment 
(gross fixed capital 
formation by the private 
sector as % of GDP)
2006

1997 (1)

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

19.5

20.0

11.0

29.9

19.6

21.0

27.7

20.5

19.8

21.8

17.5

18.9

18.5

16.9

22.6

21.7

22.2

21.8

21.9

22.3

22.4

25.2

:

23.1

33.6

18.3

15.6

16.4

24.2

26.4

19.7

22.0

21.7

20.6

20.4

26.2

25.1

22.1

17.8

33.8

27.3

25.7

30.3

20.4

20.8

19.3

34.4

23.1

18.3

21.8

19.3

20.1

20.6

19.9

21.2

24.6

25.8

26.4

19.2

17.9

17.2

30.8

21.0

32.0

18.8

21.6

2.2

1.7

1.4

4.3

1.8

1.8

4.3

2.5

3.4

3.1

2.9

2.2

:

2.2

2.3

3.0

2.7

:

2.9

1.9

3.9

4.1

:

2.9

5.3

3.1

3.1

1.3

:

:

3.5

3.3

:

2.5

1.7

3.7

5.1

1.8

1.4

3.6

3.9

3.6

3.9

3.4

2.3

3.3

3.4

4.2

4.1

4.4

4.2

3.3

1.0

4.1

2.3

2.9

3.7

2.2

2.6

3.2

1.8

:

:

3.1

2.7

:

(1) EU-15 instead of EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (nama_gdp_c, tec00022 and tsier070)

17.0

18.3

9.5

25.7

17.8

19.2

23.4

18.1

16.4

18.7

14.6

16.8

:

14.7

20.3

18.7

19.6

:

19.0

20.4

18.5

21.1

:

23.1

28.2

15.2

12.5

15.1

:

:

16.2

18.6

:

18.2

18.7

22.6

20.0

20.3

16.4

30.3

23.4

22.0

26.4

17.1

18.5

16.0

31.0

19.0

14.2

17.4

15.1

16.7

19.5

15.8

18.9

:

25.8

24.2

16.6

14.7

15.4

:

:

28.9

16.1

:

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

A  wide  array  of  statistical  indicators  have  been  developed  to
measure  labour  productivity.  Labour  productivity  per  person
employed  is  one  such  measure.  It  is  calculated  by  taking  gross
value  added  and  dividing  by  the  total  number  of  persons
employed. The indicator provides confirmation of the most labour
intensive  areas  of  the  European  Union  economy,  as  well  as  an
insight  into  the  apparent  productivity  growth  of  particular
economic activities.
GDP per hour worked is another productivity measure and, when
expressed  in  PPS  (see  page  14  for  a  definition  of  PPS)  which
eliminates  differences  in  price  levels  between  countries,  is
particularly useful in terms of cross-country comparisons; the use
of hours worked as the denominator, rather than the number of
persons  employed,  eliminates  measurement  problems  associated
with  distinguishing  between  full  and  part-time  employment,  the
incidence of which varies greatly between countries and activities.
The data are presented in the form of an index in relation to the
European Union average: if the index rises above 100, then labour
productivity is higher than the European Union average.
The real unit labour cost compares the average compensation per
employee  with  the  labour  productivity  (gross  domestic  product
(GDP) per persons employed). As such it shows the average cost
of each employee (paid person) compared with the average value
that each person, whether paid employee or unpaid workers (such
as the self-employed), produces. The rate of change of this ratio
aims to give an impression of the dynamics of the participation of
the labour production factor in the value added of output.

Figure 1.5: Labour productivity, EU-27 
(EUR 1 000 per person employed)

0

25

50

75

100

Agriculture, hunting, forestry & fishing

Total industry

Construction

Distributive trades; hotels & restaurants;
transport, storage & communication

Financial intermediation; real estate,
renting & business activities

Public administration, defence; education;
health, community & personal services

Source: Eurostat (nama_nace06_c and nama_nace06_e)

1996
2006

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1

Table 1.3: Labour productivity

    Labour 
   productivity per 
  person employed 
    relative to 
    EU-25 
  (EU-25=100)

    GDP per hour worked 
        (EU-15=100)

2005 (1)
:

1997 (2)
109.6

1995
:

104.3

131.0

:

43.7

104.9

108.8

:

96.7

60.5

93.5

115.8

104.8

:

:

30.9

145.2

43.7

:

113.4

99.8

:

60.0

:

:

38.6

93.5

99.1

83.2

:

:

:

115.6

100.1

:

102.1

128.9

:

52.1

102.1

109.4

44.7

121.1

71.7

89.2

118.0

89.9

68.5

:

43.8

161.6

55.0

:

:

98.5

45.5

58.9

:

:

57.1

94.7

101.5

92.2

:

:

89.8

160.7

:

:

2006
96.2

106.3

129.8

34.1

68.0

104.4

102.1

60.7

128.5

102.9

97.0

120.9

105.7

82.6

51.0

56.6

111.4

128.1

28.1

57.2

102.5

106.4

36.3

122.1

87.3

101.1

124.4

123.5

74.4

33.7

37.0

148.3

173.0

59.2

:

105.3

113.8

46.9

69.7

:

67.1

50.0

109.2

105.9

103.3

49.1

40.1

72.2

86.3

110.1

117.7

59.4

65.5

37.0

80.5

68.0

108.6

106.3

106.5

59.3

41.1

:

102.0

115.9

104.4

154.1

102.5

:

:

Real unit 
labour cost 
growth

2006 (3)
-0.7

-0.8

-0.8

-3.4

:

0.2

-1.5

-0.4

:

:

-1.1

-0.4

0.6

:

2.7

0.2

-5.7

0.0

-3.0

-1.4

:

-2.0

-1.1

:

-1.5

-0.9

-1.8

-2.1

-0.3

:

:

:

-2.7

:

0.2

-1.2

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

109.3

116.8

131.7

134.3

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13; Greece: data for 2004.
(2) EU-15 instead of EU-27.
(3) Japan and the United States: data for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tsieb022, tsieb021 and tsieb050)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

INTEREST RATES

An interest rate is defined as the cost or price of borrowing, or the
gain  from  lending;  interest  rates  are  traditionally  expressed  in
annual percentage terms.
Interest  rates  are  distinguished  either  by  the  period  of
lending/borrowing,  or  by  the  parties  involved  in  the  transaction
(business, consumers, governments or interbank operations).
Central  bank  interest  rates  are  key  reference  rates  set  by  the
European Central Bank (ECB) and national central banks (for those
countries outside of the euro area). Central bank interest rates are
also  referred  to  as  ’official  interest  rates’;  they  are  the  main
instrument of monetary policy for central banks.
Long-term  interest  rates  are  one  of  the  convergence  criteria  (or
Maastricht  criteria)  for  European  economic  and  monetary  union.
The data are based upon central government bond yields on the
secondary market, gross of tax, with a residual maturity of around
10 years. Eurostat publishes a number of short-term interest rates,
with  different  maturities:  overnight,  1  to  12-months.  Day-to-day
money rates refer to deposits or loans on the money market with
a maturity of just one business day. The rates shown are reference
rates and are generally interbank rates.

Figure 1.6: Central bank interest rates - official lending
rates for loans (%) (1)

8

6

4

2

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Euro area (2)

United States

Japan

(1) Annual averages.
(2) EA-11 up to 2000; EA-12 from 2001.
Source: Eurostat (tec00096)

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Table 1.4: Interest rates (%) (1)

Chapter 1
Economy and finance

1

     Maastricht criterion rates

1996 (2)
7.5

2001 (2)
5.0

2006
4.0

         Short-term: day-to-day  
          money rates

1996
:

2001 (2)
4.5

2006
2.8

7.2

6.5

:

:

7.2

6.2

:

7.3

14.4

8.7

6.3

9.4

:

:

:

6.3

:

:

6.2

6.3

:

8.6

:

:

:

7.1

8.0

7.9

:

:

:

5.0

5.1

:

6.3

5.1

4.8

10.2

5.0

5.3

5.1

4.9

5.2

7.6

7.6

8.2

4.9

8.0

6.2

5.0

5.1

10.7

5.2

:

:

8.0

5.0

5.1

5.0

:

:

:

3.8

3.4

4.2

3.8

3.8

3.8

4.3

3.8

4.1

3.8

3.8

4.1

4.1

4.1

4.1

3.9

7.1

4.3

3.8

3.8

5.2

3.9

7.2

3.9

4.4

3.8

3.7

4.4

:

:

:

4.6

3.2

120.0

11.6

:

3.3

-

5.2

13.3

7.6

3.7

9.1

-

13.1

-

3.2

23.9

:

2.9

3.2

21.2

7.4

:

:

11.6

3.6

6.3

:

77.9

0.5

5.3

4.4

-

3.6

5.0

4.7

-

3.9

-

-

-

-

-

5.2

5.8

4.4

-

10.9

4.4

-

-

17.1

-

37.8

:

7.4

-

4.1

5.1

93.0

0.1

3.9

2.8

-

2.8

2.1

2.7

-

:

-

-

-

-

-

2.9

3.5

3.4

-

6.4

3.4

-

-

4.1

-

7.0

3.4

3.8

-

2.1

4.7

15.6

0.1

5.0

EU-25

Euro area (3)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

JP

US

(1) Annual averages.
(2) EU-15 instead of EU-25.
(3) EA-11 up to 2000 / EA-12 from 2001.
Source: Eurostat (tec00097 and tec00034)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

CONSUMER PRICE INDICES

Changes in the price of consumer goods and services are usually
referred to as the inflation rate. Price stability is one of the primary
objectives of the European Central Bank (ECB), with the inflation
rate  used  as  a  prime  indicator  for  monetary  policy  management
within  the  euro  area.  The  ECB  has  defined  price  stability  as  an
annual increase in the harmonised index of consumer prices (HICP)
for  the  euro  area  of  close  to  but  below  2  %  (over  the  medium
term).  For  this  purpose,  the  monetary  union  index  of  consumer
prices (MUICP) covers the euro area countries, while Eurostat also
publishes  an  aggregate  index  for  all  European  Union  Member
States, the European index of consumer prices (EICP).
HICPs  are  presented  with  a  common  reference  year,  which  is
currently  2005=100.  Normally  the  indices  are  used  to  create
percentage  changes  that  show  price  increases/decreases  for  the
period  in  question:  although  the  rates  of  change  shown  in  this
publication are annual averages, the basic indices are compiled on
a  monthly  basis.  HICPs  cover  practically  every  good  and  service
that  may  be  purchased  by  households  in  the  form  of  final
monetary  consumption  expenditure.  The  different  goods  and
services are classified according to an international classification of
individual consumption by purpose, known as COICOP/HICP. At its
most  disaggregated  level,  Eurostat  publishes  around  100  sub-
indices,  which  can  be  aggregated  to  broad  categories  of  goods
and services (as shown in the graph below).

Figure 1.7: Harmonised indices of consumer prices, 
annual average rate of change, EU, 2006 (%) (1)
2

-4

-2

0

4

6

Inflation rate

Housing, water, elec., gas & other fuels

Education

Transport

Restaurants & hotels

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco

Miscellaneous goods & services

Food & non-alcoholic beverages

Health

Furnish., household equip. & maintenance

Recreation & culture

Clothing & footwear

Communications

(1) European Union, EU-15 up to April 2004, EU-25 up to December 2006.
Source: Eurostat (prc_hicp_aind)

24

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Table 1.5: Harmonised indices of consumer prices, annual
average rate of change (%) (1)

Chapter 1
Economy and finance

1

2001
2.2

2002
2.1

2003
2.0

2004
2.0

2005
2.2

2006
2.2

AAGR
2001-2006
(%) (2)
2.1

2.3

2.4

7.4

4.5

2.3

1.9

5.6

4.0

3.7

2.8

1.8

2.3

2.0

2.5

1.6

2.4

9.1

2.5

5.1

2.3

5.3

4.4

2.2

1.6

5.8

1.4

2.4

1.4

3.6

4.7

3.9

3.6

1.9

2.6

2.8

2.0

0.3

2.1

5.2

2.6

3.9

1.7

1.9

3.7

2.1

1.5

2.3

-0.1

2.0

1.0

1.4

4.0

3.4

3.1

2.2

2.8

4.0

2.9

-1.1

2.5

4.7

1.9

2.2

1.3

0.7

3.3

2.1

1.9

6.1

2.6

0.9

1.8

3.0

2.3

3.0

3.1

2.3

2.3

1.9

6.2

1.2

3.2

6.8

2.7

1.4

2.0

3.6

2.5

34.5

22.5

15.3

11.9

8.6

7.2

2.7

2.7

1.2

7.5

3.5

2.0

1.9

1.3

5.7

8.4

1.3

2.3

1.4

3.7

7.5

0.1

1.0

1.3

56.8

47.0

25.3

10.1

6.6

2.7

-0.7

2.8

5.3

0.8

-0.9

1.6

1.4

2.0

-0.3

2.3

2.3

0.6

0.0

2.7

2.2

2.5

6.0

1.6

1.7

1.9

4.1

2.2

3.5

3.4

1.9

2.2

2.0

6.9

2.7

3.8

3.5

2.5

1.5

2.1

2.2

2.1

9.1

2.5

2.8

0.8

0.8

2.1

8.1

1.4

1.5

-0.3

3.4

2.2

2.3

7.4

2.1

1.9

1.8

4.4

2.7

3.3

3.6

1.9

2.2

2.2

6.6

3.8

3.0

4.0

2.6

1.7

1.7

1.3

3.0

6.6

2.5

4.3

1.3

1.5

2.3

9.3

4.6

2.5

:

:

2.2

2.0

5.5

1.5

1.8

1.6

3.3

3.2

3.4

3.4

2.0

2.4

2.6

4.9

1.4

2.9

4.8

2.5

2.1

1.8

1.9

2.9

12.9

4.4

5.3

1.1

1.5

1.7

19.1

3.0

1.5

-0.4

2.5

EU

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

IS

NO

JP

US

(1) European Union, EU-15 up to April 2004, EU-25 up to December 2006; Japan and the
United States: CPI instead of HICP.
(2) AAGR: average annual growth rate; Japan and the United States: growth rate for
2001-2005.
Source: Eurostat (tsieb040)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

PRICE CONVERGENCE AND COMPETITIVENESS

Comparisons of price changes between countries depend not only
on  movements  in  price  levels,  but  also  exchange  rates,  and
together these impact on price and cost competitiveness. The real
effective  exchange  rate  aims  to  assess  a  country’s  (or  currency
area’s)  price  or  cost  competitiveness  relative  to  its  principal
competitors in international markets. The real effective exchange
rate  shown  here  is  deflated  by  nominal  unit  labour  costs  and  is
based on an aggregate for 34 industrial countries, made up of the
EU-25  Member  States,  Turkey,  Norway,  Switzerland,  Australia,
Canada, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand and the United States. A rise
in the index means a loss of competitiveness.
Comparative price levels are the ratio between purchasing power
parities  (PPPs)  and  market  exchange  rates  (see  page  14  for  a
definition of PPPs). Comparative price levels are shown as a ratio
in  relation  to  the  European  Union  average  (EU-25=100).  If  the
index  for  a  country  is  higher/lower  than  100,  the  country
concerned  is  relatively  expensive/cheap  as  compared  with  the
European  Union  average.  Price  convergence  is  shown  here
measured by the coefficient of variation of comparative price levels
of household final consumption expenditure: if the coefficient for
the  European  Union  decreases/increases  over  time,  the  national
price levels in the Member States are converging/diverging.

Figure 1.8: International price competitiveness 
(real effective exchange rate), 2006 (1999=100)
110

120

130

100

90

140

150

EU-25
CZ
HU
SK
IE
PT
IT
EE
ES
UK
NL
MT
PL
LT
EL
CY
DK
SI
FI
FR
SE
BE (1)
LV
AT
DE
BG (2)
LU (3)
RO (2)

TR
CH
NO

(1) Value covers Belgium and Luxembourg. (2) Not available. (3) See footnote (1).
Source: Eurostat (ert_eff_ic_a)

26

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Chapter 1
Economy and finance

1

Table 1.6: Price convergence and price levels

Price convergence between EU Member States

2000
33.4

13.2

2001
32.4

14.1

2002
32.0

14.6

2003
32.9

14.1

2004
31.8

13.4

2005
29.6

13.1

2006
28.5

12.9

EU-27

Euro area

Comparative price levels of final consumption by private households 
including indirect taxes (EU-27 = 100)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

2000
102.0

38.7

48.1

130.3

106.6

57.3

2001
103.2

41.0

50.0

135.2

107.0

61.1

2002
101.5

40.8

57.1

133.8

106.6

60.8

2003
106.5

40.7

54.5

141.1

106.1

62.0

2004
105.7

41.7

54.9

139.6

104.7

62.8

2005
105.1

42.4

58.1

2006
105.2

44.1

60.7

140.1

139.4

103.8

103.3

64.3

67.0

114.9

119.3

125.2

126.4

125.6

124.9

125.4

84.8

85.0

82.3

85.4

105.9

104.1

97.5

88.1

58.8

52.7

99.7

88.9

59.0

54.1

80.2

84.6

103.5

102.7

89.1

57.0

54.2

85.9

88.3

110.0

103.6

90.9

54.4

52.3

87.3

90.9

110.5

105.2

90.6

55.5

53.1

88.3

92.0

89.2

93.2

107.6

107.1

104.4

104.4

89.1

56.3

54.6

89.5

58.8

56.4

101.5

103.5

102.1

103.2

105.1

104.6

105.1

49.2

73.3

100.0

101.9

57.9

83.0

42.5

72.9

44.4

120.9

127.6

120.0

:

:

62.5

144.0

137.7

142.6

52.9

74.8

103.0

104.8

64.8

84.4

41.7

73.9

43.4

124.8

119.9

116.8

:

:

47.7

127.9

141.8

146.3

57.4

74.6

102.9

103.4

61.2

86.3

43.0

74.4

44.8

123.9

121.7

117.1

:

:

51.6

134.6

151.2

146.7

58.2

72.0

107.8

103.3

54.4

86.0

43.4

76.2

50.7

126.6

123.5

107.8

64.8

43.9

57.2

138.4

142.1

143.8

61.6

72.8

106.0

103.1

53.2

86.7

44.3

75.4

54.9

123.8

121.8

107.9

65.9

44.1

59.0

138.0

134.9

139.9

63.2

72.8

60.0

73.5

104.6

104.2

101.9

101.3

61.7

85.0

55.5

75.6

55.8

62.9

85.5

58.5

75.8

58.2

123.5

122.5

118.5

117.9

109.2

110.2

68.3

43.9

68.1

71.4

43.9

68.0

153.4

141.8

140.8

140.5

137.0

133.3

Source: Eurostat (tsier012 and tsier011)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

GOVERNMENT PUBLIC BALANCE AND DEBT

Government  debt  is  a  key  element  when  assessing  the
government  sector’s  financial  position.  Both  the  general
government  public  balance  and  general  government  debt  are
reported on 1 April and 1 October of each year to the European
Commission  within  the  framework  of  the  excessive  deficit
procedure (EDP). These two indicators are also important measures
that form part of the convergence criteria for European economic
and monetary union (also known as the Maastricht criteria).
General  government  consolidated  gross  debt  is  expressed  as  a
percentage  of  GDP.  It  refers  to  the  consolidated  stock  of  gross
debt at the end of the year. Under the convergence criteria, the
debt ratio of general government consolidated gross debt to GDP,
should generally be no more than 60 %.
The  public  balance  is  defined  as  general  government  net
borrowing/net  lending  and  is  also  expressed  in  relation  to  GDP.
local
General  government  comprises  central,  state  and 
government,  as  well  as  social  security  funds.  Under  the
convergence  criteria,  the  ratio  of  planned  or  actual  government
deficit (net borrowing) to GDP should be no more than 3 %.

Figure 1.9: Evolution of general government debt and
public balance, EU (% of GDP) (1)

100

75

50

25

0

2

0

-2

-4

-6

1998 1999

2000 2001

2002 2003 2004

2005 2006

General government debt 
(left-hand scale) (2)

Public balance 
(right-hand scale) (3)

(1) Public balance - net borrowing/lending of general government sector; general
government debt - general government consolidated gross debt.
(2) EU-25 up to 2002; EU-27 from 2003.
(3) EU-15 up to 1999; EU-25 from 2000-2002; EU-27 from 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tsieb060 and tsieb070)

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Chapter 1
Economy and finance

1

Table 1.7: General government debt and public balance 
(% of GDP) (1)

          General government debt

         Public balance

EU (2)

Euro area (3)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR (4)

TR (4)

IS (5)

NO

CH

JP (5)

US (5)

2006
61.7

69.1

89.1

22.8

30.4

30.2

67.9

4.1

24.9

1996
72.6

75.2

2001
62.0

69.3

130.2

108.0

66.2

26.3

48.0

59.6

4.7

35.9

:

:

69.7

59.8

:

73.3

111.3

68.1

57.1

114.4

104.6

56.3

56.8

39.9

63.9

123.1

110.9

106.8

:

:

:

7.2

:

:

75.2

67.6

:

62.9

:

:

30.6

57.1

73.5

52.3

:

:

56.6

:

23.0

93.9

73.4

61.9

15.0

22.9

6.7

52.2

63.5

51.5

67.0

36.7

53.6

:

28.4

49.2

43.6

54.3

38.7

:

104.4

47.4

:

25.0

142.3

57.9

65.3

10.0

18.2

6.8

66.0

66.5

48.7

62.2

47.8

64.7

12.4

27.8

30.7

39.1

46.9

43.5

44.2

69.6

36.8

:

:

164.0

63.4

1996
-4.1

2001
-1.3

2006
-1.7

-4.2

-3.7

:

-3.3

-1.9

-3.3

:

0.0

-6.7

-4.7

-4.0

-7.0

:

-0.5

-3.3

1.2

:

:

-1.8

-3.8

-4.9

-4.4

:

:

-8.6

-3.5

-2.7

-4.1

:

:

-1.6

:

-1.5

-5.1

-2.2

-1.8

0.6

1.9

-5.7

1.4

-2.8

-0.3

0.8

-4.9

-0.5

-1.5

-3.1

-2.3

-2.1

-2.1

6.1

-3.4

-6.4

-0.2

0.0

-3.7

-4.3

-3.3

-4.1

-6.5

5.0

2.5

1.0

:

-33.0

0.2

:

-0.3

-6.1

-0.4

-1.6

0.2

3.3

-2.9

4.2

-1.7

3.8

2.9

-2.6

1.8

-2.5

-4.4

-1.5

0.4

-0.3

0.1

-9.2

-2.6

0.6

-1.1

-3.9

-3.9

-1.9

-1.4

-3.4

3.9

2.2

-2.8

-3.9

-1.2

0.1

:

:

-6.5

-4.4

(1) Public balance - net borrowing/lending of consolidated general government sector;
general government debt - general government consolidated gross debt.
(2) EU-15 for 1996; EU-25 for 2001; EU-27 for 2006.
(3) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
(4) 2005 instead of 2006.
(5) 2004 instead of 2006.
Source: Eurostat (tsieb060 and tsieb070)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

PUBLIC PROCUREMENT AND STATE AID

Data on public procurement are based on information contained
in the calls for competition and contract award notices submitted
for  publication  in  the  Official  Journal  of  the  European
Communities (the S series). The indicator shown is based on the
value of public procurement, which is openly advertised relative to
GDP.
State  aid  is  made  up  of  sectoral  State  aid  (given  to  specific
activities  such  as  agriculture,  fisheries,  manufacturing,  mining,
services),  ad-hoc  State  aid  (given  to  individual  enterprises),  and
State  aid  for  horizontal  objectives  such  as  research  and
development, safeguarding the environment, support to small and
medium-sized  enterprises,  employment  creation  or  training,
including  aid  for  regional  development.  The  first  two  of  these
(sectoral  and  ad-hoc  State  aid)  are  considered  potentially  more
distortive to competition.

Figure 1.10: Value of public procurement which is openly
advertised, as a percentage of GDP (%) (1)

0

2

4

6

8

10

EU-25
Euro area (2)
LV
PL
EE
HU
SK
EL
ES
LT
UK
CY
FI
SE
SI
FR
IT
CZ
IE
LU
BE
DK
PT
AT
NL
DE
MT
BG (3)
RO (3)

1995
2005
(1) EU-25, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta,
Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia: not available for 1995.
(2) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
(3) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (tsier040)

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Chapter 1
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1

Table 1.8: State aid (% of GDP)

EU-25 (1)

Euro area (2)

BE

BG (3)

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO (3)

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

          Total State aid
1995
0.98

2000
0.64

2005
0.59

1.10

0.59

:

:

0.62

1.38

:

0.63

1.58

1.05

0.80

1.23

:

:

:

0.50

0.00

:

0.37

1.05

:

0.91

:

:

:

2.81

0.45

0.39

0.72

0.48

0.85

2.45

1.03

0.90

0.10

1.08

0.69

0.91

0.61

0.48

2.63

0.58

0.33

0.35

1.11

3.17

0.50

0.68

0.88

0.85

2.93

0.81

0.56

1.37

0.40

0.20

0.62

0.40

0.21

0.54

0.63

0.90

0.46

0.63

0.20

0.42

0.56

0.45

1.43

0.84

0.58

0.15

1.83

3.16

0.40

0.56

0.77

0.67

1.84

0.64

0.66

1.72

1.08

0.26

(1) EU-15 for 1995.
(2) EA-12 for 1995; EA-13 for 2000 and 2005.
(3) 2004 instead of 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tsier051 and tsier052)

    Sectoral and ad hoc State aid
2005
0.25

2000
0.32

1995
0.58

0.66

0.26

:

0.26

0.21

0.92

0.92

0.42

0.76

0.82

0.57

0.30

0.30

:

:

0.19

0.19

:

0.23

0.86

0.86

0.73

:

0.73

:

2.34

0.14

0.27

0.35

0.16

0.69

2.09

0.23

0.35

0.00

0.84

0.21

0.57

0.33

0.14

2.04

0.66

0.32

0.16

0.80

2.96

0.35

0.48

0.30

0.65

1.65

0.20

0.12

1.07

0.19

0.10

0.27

0.17

0.10

0.15

0.14

0.36

0.33

0.43

0.06

0.18

0.26

0.10

0.98

0.81

0.48

0.00

1.57

3.08

0.17

0.33

0.59

0.50

1.71

0.33

0.33

1.37

0.17

0.08

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

GOVERNMENT TAXES

Tax statistics correspond to revenues which are levied (in cash or in
kind) by subsectors of general government: central, state and local
governments  and  social  security  funds.  These  taxes  can  be
organised  into  three  main  areas,  covered  by  the  following
headings:
taxes  on  income  and  wealth,  including  all  compulsory
–
payments,  levied  periodically  by  general  government  mainly  on
the income and wealth of corporations and households, and some
periodic taxes which are assessed neither on the basis of income
nor wealth;
taxes  on  production  and  imports,  including  all  compulsory
–
payments,  levied  by  general  government  with  respect  to  the
production  and  importation  of  goods  and  services,  the
employment of labour, the ownership or use of land, buildings or
other assets used in production;
social  contributions,  including  all  employers  and  employees
–
social  contributions  payable  to  general  government  (mainly  to
social security funds), as well as imputed social contributions that
represent  the  counterpart  to  social  benefits  paid  directly  by
general government as an employer.
In the European Union as a whole these three types of taxes are
approximately equal in importance, although among the Member
States many governments rely more heavily on one or two of the
categories.

Figure 1.11: Taxes, EU-27 (% of GDP) (1)

15

12

9

6

3

0

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Current taxes on income, wealth, etc

Taxes on production and imports

Social contributions

(1) EU-15 for 1998-1999.
Source: Eurostat (tec00018, tec00020 and tec00019)

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Economy and finance

1

Table 1.9: Taxes (% of GDP)

        Current taxes on 
         income, wealth,
        etc.

           Taxes on 
           production 
           and imports

           Social
           contributions

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

2001
13.4

12.3

17.3

2006
13.3

12.4

16.7

8.1

8.8

29.3

10.9

7.3

12.6

9.4

10.0

12.1

14.7

11.1

7.6

7.8

15.2

10.0

10.1

11.4

15.0

6.6

9.4

6.1

7.8

7.3

18.9

19.8

16.9

16.6

20.1

5.6

8.8

29.5

10.8

7.2

13.1

8.7

11.7

11.8

14.5

10.9

8.4

9.7

13.2

9.4

11.8

11.8

13.1

7.5

8.9

5.2

9.4

5.9

17.1

20.0

17.2

18.5

23.6

2001
13.2

2006
13.7

2001
13.9

2006
13.8

13.0

12.5

14.2

11.0

17.2

11.7

12.1

11.8

14.6

11.0

14.8

14.2

13.0

11.8

12.2

13.1

15.3

13.3

12.2

14.3

12.5

13.5

11.4

16.1

11.5

13.0

16.4

13.1

16.0

13.4

13.6

13.3

19.3

11.0

17.8

12.1

13.4

14.0

13.1

12.3

15.4

14.8

17.8

12.7

11.2

12.6

15.0

14.9

12.9

13.9

13.9

15.4

12.2

15.6

11.5

13.6

17.1

12.9

18.7

12.3

15.7

16.3

11.2

14.2

2.6

18.2

10.8

5.8

13.8

13.0

17.9

12.3

6.8

9.4

9.0

11.8

12.9

8.4

14.7

16.5

13.4

11.4

10.6

15.2

13.6

12.2

14.7

7.7

2.8

9.3

15.5

15.9

8.8

15.0

2.0

17.4

10.4

6.2

14.9

13.0

18.3

13.0

8.0

8.9

8.8

11.0

12.7

7.7

15.3

15.9

12.2

12.5

10.2

14.9

12.1

12.3

13.2

8.3

3.2

8.7

Source: Eurostat (tec00018, tec00020 and tec00019)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

External trade may be complemented or substituted by producing
(and  often  selling)  goods  and  services  in  countries  other  than
where an enterprise was first established: this approach is known
as  foreign  direct  investment  (FDI),  whereby  the  enterprise
concerned  either  invests  to  establish  a  new  plant/office,  or
alternatively, purchases existing assets of a foreign enterprise. FDI
is  a  type  of  international  investment  where  an  entity  that  is
resident  in  one  economy  (the  direct  investor)  acquires  a  lasting
interest  (at  least  10  %  of  the  equity  capital)  in  an  enterprise
operating in another economy.
Outward flows and stocks of FDI (or FDI abroad) report investment
by  entities  resident  in  the  reporting  economy  in  an  affiliated
enterprise abroad. Inward flows and stocks report investment by
foreigners  in  enterprises  resident  in  the  reporting  economy. 

Figure 1.12: Foreign direct investment (FDI) intensity -
average value of inward and outward FDI flows 
divided by GDP, 2005 (%)

-5

0

5

10

15

20

315

25

30
320

EU-27
Euro area (1)
LU
NL
EE
BE
UK
BG
DK
MT
SE
CY
CZ
FR
HU
RO
AT
ES
LV
HR
SK
SI
PL
FI
IT
DE
LT
PT
IE
EL (2)

TR
JP
US

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
(2) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (tsier066)

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1

Table 1.10: Foreign direct investment (FDI) - 
outflows from the reporting economy (1)

      Total outflows of FDI 
       from the reporting economy 
       (EUR 1 000 million) (2)

        Partner countries, 2006
          (EUR 1 000 million) 

EU (3)

BE

BG

CZ

DK (4)

DE

EE

IE

EL (5)

ES (4)

FR

IT (4)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK (5)

FI

SE

UK

HR (6)

TR (6)

IS (6)

CH (6)

JP (6)

US (6)

1996
143.4

2001
634.0

:

:

:

2.0

76.4

:

:

:

4.4

24.0

5.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

25.0

1.5

:

0.6

:

:

:

2.8

3.7

26.8

:

:

:

12.7

18.5

66.5

:

0.0

0.2

14.1

44.3

0.2

4.5

0.7

37.0

103.9

24.0

0.3

0.0

0.0

:

0.4

0.0

56.5

3.5

-0.1

7.0

0.0

0.3

0.1

9.4

7.1

65.7

:

:

0.4

-20.5

42.9

139.4

2006
619.0

49.9

0.1

1.1

6.5

63.3

0.8

17.6

:

71.5

86.7

33.0

0.6

0.1

0.2

65.0

5.9

0.0

18.1

3.3

3.3

2.8

0.0

0.6

0.3

0.0

19.2

63.6

0.2

0.9

:

-43.7

36.9

-10.2

EU-27

436.0

:

0.1

1.0

0.3

32.2

0.8

11.3

60.0

47.7

:

18.3

:

0.0

0.2

37.6

2.6

0.0

0.0

-1.8

3.0

2.3

0.0

0.1

:

0.8

:

57.4

0.1

0.3

:

-16.6

6.3

-21.5

JP

-3.5

0.6

0.0

0.0

0.1

-0.5

0.0

-0.1

:

0.0

1.3

0.0

:

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.2

:

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

:

0.4

0.0

0.0

:

-0.1

:

6.1

US

71.2

1.5

0.0

0.0

2.1

15.6

0.0

4.0

:

8.2

14.7

4.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

9.4

1.2

:

0.2

:

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

:

2.1

0.0

0.0

1.1

-10.6

9.9

:

(1) Negative values represent disinvestment.
(2) To the rest of the world.
(3) Includes intra-EU flows; EU-15 for 1996; EU-25 for 2001; EU-27 for 2006.
(4) Excludes reinvested earnings in 1996.
(5) Excludes reinvested earnings in 2001.
(6) 2005 instead of 2006; partner EU-25 instead of EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (tec00053)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (CONT.)

FDI flows are new investment made during the reference period,
whereas FDI stocks provide information on the position, in terms
of  value,  of  all  previous  investments  at  the  end  of  the  reference
period.
The  intensity  of  FDI  can  be  measured  by  averaging  the  value  of
inward  and  outward  flows  during  a  particular  reference  period
and expressing this as a percentage of GDP.

Figure 1.13: Stocks of foreign direct investment in 
the EU-25, 2004 (% of extra EU-25 FDI) (1)

Rest of the 
world
22.0%

Africa
0.7%

South America
0.8%

Oceania and 
southern polar 
regions
1.8%

Asia
9.4%

Central America
13.6%

North America
51.7%

(1) For information on the classifications used, refer to
http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/sdds/en/bop/bop_fdi_sm.htm.
Source: Eurostat (tec00095)

Figure 1.14: EU-25 stocks of foreign direct investment
abroad, 2004 (% of extra EU-25 FDI) (1)

Oceania and 
southern polar 
regions
2.9%

Africa
4.5%

North America
39.1%

South America
7.0%

Central America
10.3%

Asia
15.4%

Rest of the 
world
20.9%

(1) For information on the classifications used, refer to
http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/sdds/en/bop/bop_fdi_sm.htm.
Source: Eurostat (tec00094)

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1

Table 1.11: Foreign direct investment (FDI) - 
inflows into the reporting economy (1)

        Total inflows of FDI 
        into the reporting economy 
       (EUR 1 000 million) (2)

        Partner countries, 2006
          (EUR 1 000 million) 

EU-27

399.1

JP

10.6

EU (3)

BE

BG

CZ

DK (4)

DE

EE

IE

EL (5)

ES (4)

FR

IT (4)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK (5)

FI

SE

UK

HR (6)

TR (6)

IS (6)

CH (6)

JP (6)

US (6)

1996
86.7

2001
549.1

:

:

:

0.6

9.9

0.1

:

:

5.4

17.3

2.8

:

:

:

:

:

:

11.5

3.5

:

1.0

:

:

:

0.9

4.0

19.2

:

:

:

2.4

0.2

:

0.8

6.3

10.7

29.5

0.6

10.8

1.7

31.7

61.6

16.6

1.1

0.1

0.5

:

4.4

0.3

58.0

6.6

6.4

7.0

1.3

0.3

1.6

4.2

13.3

58.8

:

3.6

0.2

9.9

7.0

66.5

178.0

2006
534.0

57.0

4.1

4.8

5.6

34.2

1.3

10.2

:

16.0

58.0

29.9

1.2

1.3

1.4

8.4

1.3

3.5

0.2

11.1

5.9

9.2

0.3

3.3

3.0

22.1

110.9

1.4

7.9

:

-1.0

2.2

79.9

:

3.6

4.2

4.5

19.2

1.3

10.0

:

15.7

45.3

27.0

:

0.9

2.4

6.3

0.2

7.1

1.3

9.1

5.2

8.9

0.3

:

2.6

:

54.9

0.6

3.7

:

14.2

1.3

US

47.9

2.6

0.1

0.2

1.0

5.0

-0.1

1.2

:

4.4

6.1

1.3

0.0

0.1

0.0

6.9

1.6

0.0

-2.2

:

0.6

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.2

:

22.8

0.0

-0.1

0.1

-15.8

0.1

:

0.4

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.6

0.0

0.7

:

0.1

0.4

0.1

:

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

1.3

:

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

:

2.2

:

0.0

:

-0.1

:

77.3

57.1

:

11.3

(1) Negative values represent disinvestment.
(2) From the rest of the world.
(3) Includes intra-EU flows; EU-15 for 1996; EU-25 for 2001; EU-27 for 2006.
(4) Excludes reinvested earnings in 1996.
(5) Excludes reinvested earnings in 2001.
(6) 2005 instead of 2006; partner EU-25 instead of EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (tec00049)

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1 Chapter 1

Economy and finance

OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

Official development assistance (ODA) consists of grants or loans
that are undertaken by the official sector with the promotion of
economic  development  and  welfare  in  the  recipient  countries  as
the  main  objective.  The  net  disbursements  for  ODA  to
development assistance committee (DAC) countries are expressed
as a percentage of gross national income (GNI) at market prices.
Disbursements  are  the  release  of  funds  to,  or  the  purchase  of
goods or services for a recipient. Disbursements record the actual
international transfer of financial resources, or of goods or services
valued at the cost of the donor.
DAC  countries  refer  to  ’developing  countries  and  territories’  on
Part I of the OECD DAC List of Aid Recipients for which there is a
long-standing  United  Nations  target  of  0.7  %  of  donors’  gross
national product.

Figure 1.15: EU-15 official development assistance, 
(% of gross national income)

UN target

2015 target

2010  target

2006 target

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

1990 

1995 

2000 

2005

2010

2015

Source: OECD

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Chapter 1
Economy and finance

1

Figure 1.16: Official development assistance, 2006 
(% of gross national income) (1)

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

EU-15

SE

LU

NL

DK

IE

UK

BE

AT

FR

FI

DE

ES

PT

IT

EL

CZ

HU (2)

SK

PL

BG (3)

EE (3)

CY (3)

LV (3)

LT (3)

MT (3)

RO (3)

SI (3)

TR

NO

CH

IS

(1) Preliminary results.
(2) 2005.
(3) Not available.
Source: OECD

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

WORLD POPULATION

The chapter on population and social conditions presents a wide
range of statistics related to people in the European Union: how
many  there  are,  their  health,  education,  work,  income  and
expenditure.  The  first  pages  position  the  people  of  Europe  as  a
whole within the world’s population of 6.5 billion in 2005.
Although the world’s population increased significantly from 1960 to
the present, each successive decade recorded a progressively slower
growth, with varying population change in the six continents.
Europe  had  by  far  the  lowest  growth  rates  among  the  different
continents.  Furthermore,  Europe,  Asia,  as  well  as  Latin  America
and  the  Caribbean  recorded  progressively  slower  population
growth rates from one decade to the next. Africa initially recorded
an increasing growth rate, peaking at an annual average growth
of 2.9 % in the 1980s, after which the rate of growth fell to an
average of 2.3 % in the five years to 2005. Northern America and
Oceania both recorded a higher average annual growth rate in the
1960s compared with the 1970s, after which the annual average
rates of growth were relatively stable.
As  a  result  of  the  lower  growth  rates,  the  share  of  the  world’s
population  in  Europe  fell  from  around  one  fifth  in  1960  to  just
over  one  tenth  in  2005.  The  Northern  American  share  also  fell,
though to a far lesser extent while the share of Oceania remained
roughly stable. The share of the other three continents increased,
most notably that of Africa which rose from 9.3 % in 1960 to 14.2
%  in  2005.  Asia  remained  the  largest  continent  in  population
terms, with 3.9 billion persons in 2005, equivalent to some three
fifths of the world population.

Table 2.1: World population (1)

Europe

Africa

Asia

Latin America & the Caribbean

Northern America

Oceania

2005 
(millions)

731.1

922.0

3 938.0

558.0

332.2

33.4

Share of 2005 (%)

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

82.8

30.6

43.3

39.5

61.4

47.5

89.8

39.5

54.3

51.5

69.8

58.8

94.8

52.0

66.9

65.3

76.9

68.4

98.7

69.1

80.8

79.6

85.5

80.0

99.6

89.0

94.1

93.7

95.0

93.1

(1) For information on the classifications used, refer to http://esa.un.org/unpp/.
Source: United Nations - http://esa.un.org/unpp

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Figure 2.1: World population, 2005 (1)

Northern 
America
5.1%

Oceania
0.5%

Latin America & 
the Caribbean
8.6%

Europe
11.2%

Africa
14.2%

Asia
60.4%

(1) For information on the classifications used, refer to http://esa.un.org/unpp/.
Source: United Nations - http://esa.un.org/unpp/

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

EU POPULATION

Total  population  figures  refer  to  the  population  as  of  1  January
each year. The statistics presented should cover the total number
of  inhabitants  of  a  given  area  (irrespective  of  their  nationality).
Data  are  usually  based  on  the  most  recent  census  information,
adjusted  by  the  components  of  population  change.  Population
change  is  the  difference  in  population  between  two  reference
dates and is equal to the sum of natural population change (the
number  of  live  births  minus  the  number  of  deaths)  and  net
migration  (a  measure  of  the  difference  between  those  leaving  a
territory and those arriving).
Eurostat  predicts  that,  under  normal  conditions,  the  EU-27’s
population will rise to around 496 million persons in 2025, after
which it is expected to contract. The increase through to 2025 is
predicted to be unevenly spread with modest gains among EU-15
Member  States  (except  Italy).  While  most  of  the  Member  States
that joined the European Union in 2004 and 2007 are expected to
see  their  population  contract  by  2025,  the  populations  of  Malta
and Cyprus are expected to increase considerably.
Population density is the ratio of mid-year population, as defined
by the number of inhabitants, relative to the size of the territory in
square kilometres (km²).
Note that the final chapter at the end of this publication presents
regional data for population density and population growth.

Figure 2.2: Population change, EU-27 (1 000) (1)

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Net migration (2)

Natural change (3)

(1) Break in series, 1998.
(2) Net migration is estimated as the difference between total population change and
natural population change; it therefore includes corrections due to population
censuses, register counts, etc. which cannot be classified as births, deaths or
migration.
(3) The difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths during
the reference year.
Source: Eurostat (tps00007 and tps00008)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.2: Population indicators

Population, as of 
1 January 2006 
(million) 

    Population, as of 1 January (% of 2006)
2050
95.7

2020
100.7

1990
94.6

1960
81.2

Population 
density, 
2004 
(inhab. 
per km²) 

113.4

122.0

343.6

70.1

132.2

125.4

231.1

31.1

59.5

84.6

83.0

97.9

197.1

129.9

37.1

54.8

175.2

108.6

1 271.5

481.9

99.1

122.1

114.1

94.3

99.2

109.8

17.2

21.9

246.9

78.5

:

92.5

:

15.1

184.8

:

94.6

113.6

101.1

94.6

96.0

116.8

83.3

91.0

88.7

89.8

96.5

74.7

116.3

108.5

82.5

103.0

87.2

91.2

92.5

99.7

94.6

107.4

99.7

98.1

94.6

94.2

94.6

107.5

91.9

76.5

84.6

91.2

89.5

100.9

102.7

88.1

96.6

101.3

100.3

89.2

114.0

102.5

104.2

101.0

99.2

117.4

91.5

94.0

108.8

96.3

123.7

105.3

101.6

97.2

102.2

93.9

99.8

98.3

102.7

106.1

104.2

:

:

:

:

:

:

96.1

103.7

66.1

86.8

99.5

90.5

81.8

130.7

95.3

97.8

104.3

89.7

130.5

82.8

85.2

130.6

88.3

123.7

106.5

99.2

88.3

94.6

79.1

94.8

87.2

98.9

112.7

106.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

EU-27 (1) 

Euro area (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES (1)

FR (1)

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

493.0

316.7

10.5

:

86.8

7.7

101.4

10.3

5.4

82.4

1.3

4.2

11.1

43.8

63.0

58.8

0.8

2.3

3.4

0.5

10.1

0.4

16.3

8.3

38.2

10.6

21.6

2.0

5.4

5.3

9.0

60.4

4.4

2.0

72.5

0.3

4.6

7.5

94.0

84.1

88.0

89.9

67.4

74.6

69.3

72.2

85.1

74.6

91.7

81.0

68.1

98.9

80.9

69.9

85.1

77.3

83.5

84.8

78.9

73.7

84.0

82.6

86.4

92.9

67.9

37.4

58.0

76.9

71.0

(1) Population density: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tps00001 and tps00003)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

43

         
         
          
         
          
           
        
             
          
           
          
             
          
           
          
             
          
             
        
           
          
           
          
           
        
           
          
             
        
             
          
             
          
             
        
           
          
             
        
           
        
             
          
           
          
           
          
           
          
             
          
             
          
             
          
             
        
           
        
             
             
           
             
             
             
ch02.qxp  21/12/2007  09:59  Page 44

2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

EU POPULATION BY AGE CLASS

The impact of demographic change within the European Union is
likely  to  be  of  major  significance  in  the  coming  decades.
Consistently  low  birth  rates  and  higher  life  expectancy  will
transform  the  structure  of  the  European  Union’s  age  pyramid;
probably the most important change will be the marked transition
towards  a  much  older  population  and  this  trend  is  already
apparent  in  many  Member  States.  The  share  of  older  persons  in
the total of the European Union will increase from 2010 onwards,
as the post-war baby-boom generation reaches retirement. These
demographic trends have economic and social consequences, and
were  addressed  by  a  European  Commission  communication
‘towards  a  Europe  for  all  ages  -  promoting  prosperity  and  inter-
generational solidarity’, which promoted active ageing and equal
opportunities. The Lisbon Strategy pays particular attention to the
demographic challenges that face the Union in relation to policies
for economic growth and social cohesion.

Figure 2.3: Age pyramid, EU-27, 2006 
(% of male/female population)

85 and over

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

0-4

10

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10

Male

Female

Source: Eurostat (demo_ppavg)

44

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.3: Population by age class, 2005 
(% of total population)

0-14

17.3

13.8

14.9

18.8

14.5

15.4

20.7

14.5

14.5

18.5

14.1

19.2

14.8

17.1

18.7

15.6

17.6

18.5

16.1

16.7

15.6

15.9

14.4

17.1

17.5

17.6

18.2

16.0

19.9

28.6

22.3

19.7

16.3

          Age (years)

15-24

25-49

50-64

65-79

80+

12.1

13.7

13.4

11.0

11.7

15.6

15.5

12.9

12.3

13.0

10.6

15.9

15.6

15.4

11.5

13.1

14.5

12.0

12.3

16.5

12.6

15.5

13.4

16.1

12.4

12.2

12.9

13.3

16.2

18.0

14.7

12.2

11.8

36.0

35.4

36.9

35.4

36.7

34.7

37.2

37.4

40.0

34.5

37.6

36.7

35.4

36.1

38.7

36.0

34.9

36.8

37.8

36.1

37.2

36.9

38.0

37.9

33.5

33.4

35.3

35.3

36.7

36.9

35.7

35.5

37.6

17.5

19.9

20.8

19.7

18.5

17.7

15.4

17.4

16.4

17.6

18.5

16.3

17.6

16.3

16.8

19.7

19.6

18.7

17.8

17.6

17.5

17.0

18.8

17.3

20.7

19.6

17.6

18.6

16.2

10.6

15.5

17.9

18.5

13.0

14.0

11.0

10.9

14.3

13.4

8.5

14.6

12.5

11.9

14.4

9.3

13.5

12.3

11.1

12.3

10.4

10.5

11.8

10.6

13.2

12.3

12.3

9.3

12.0

11.9

11.6

:

9.4

:

8.7

10.1

11.4

4.1

3.1

3.0

4.1

4.3

3.1

2.7

3.3

4.3

4.5

4.8

2.6

3.0

2.8

3.2

3.3

2.9

3.5

4.2

2.5

3.8

2.4

3.0

2.4

3.9

5.4

4.3

:

1.5

:

3.1

4.6

4.4

BE (1)

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL (1)

ES

FR

IT (1)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

(1) 2004 instead of 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tps00010)

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45

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

MARRIAGES AND DIVORCES

The crude marriage rate is the number of marriages during a year
in  relation  to  the  average  population,  expressed  per  1  000
inhabitants. Equally, the crude divorce rate relates the number of
divorces  to  the  average  population,  again  expressed  per  1  000
inhabitants. Despite a peak in the late 1980s the marriage rate for
the  European  Union  has  been  on  a  downward  trend  since  the
early 1970s, coinciding with an increase in the mean age at first
marriage.
Note that divorce is possible in each of the Member States, except
for Malta. While in many countries divorce was introduced in the
18th and 19th centuries, it was not introduced until 1970 in Italy,
1975 in Portugal, 1976 in Scotland, 1981 in Spain, and 1995 in
Ireland.

Figure 2.4: Mean age at first marriage, EU-25 (years)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2003

2004

Male

Female

Source: Eurostat (tps00014 and demo_nsinagec)

46

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.4: Marriage and divorce indicators

 Marriages 
  (‰ persons)

Divorces 
(‰ persons)

1995 2000 2005
4.9
5.2

5.3

1995 2000 2005
2.1
1.8

:

Mean 
duration of 
marriage 
at divorce 
(years)

2004 (1)
:

Divorces 
per 100  
marriages 

2005
43.0

5.1

5.1

4.4

5.3

6.6

5.3

4.9

4.3

6.0

5.1

:

5.1

5.1

4.4

4.4

5.4

7.2

5.1

4.0

5.0

4.5

5.4

5.0

5.0

10.3

14.1

4.5

6.1

5.1

5.2

6.3

5.3

5.4

5.4

6.6

7.0

4.1

5.1

4.7

3.8

5.6

5.3

8.1

3.9

4.8

4.9

4.7

6.6

5.5

4.9

5.5

6.2

6.2

3.6

4.8

5.1

4.5

5.2

5.0

7.0

:

:

4.6

6.3

13.2

5.0

5.8

:

5.7

5.5

4.6

4.1

4.3

5.1

6.7

4.7

4.6

4.9

5.5

4.8

4.5

4.3

7.8

5.5

5.8

4.4

4.4

5.9

4.5

4.8

5.4

4.6

6.6

2.9

4.9

5.6

4.9

5.2

5.0

7.1

9.1

5.4

5.4

4.8

5.4

:

3.5

1.3

3.0

2.5

2.1

5.2

:

1.0

0.8

2.1

0.5

1.2

3.1

2.8

1.8

2.4

-

2.2

2.3

1.0

1.2

1.6

0.8

1.7

2.7

2.6

3.0

0.9

0.4

:

1.8

1.2

2.4

2.2

1.7

2.6

1.3

2.9

2.7

2.4

3.1

0.7

1.0

0.9

1.9

0.7

1.7

2.6

3.1

2.4

2.4

-

2.2

2.4

1.1

1.9

1.4

1.1

1.7

2.7

2.4

2.7

1.0

0.7

:

1.9

3.9

2.2

1.5

2.0

2.9

1.9

3.1

2.8

2.7

3.0

0.8

1.2

1.7

2.2

0.8

2.0

2.8

3.3

2.3

2.5

-

2.0

2.4

1.8

2.2

1.5

1.3

2.1

2.6

2.2

2.6

1.1

0.8

1.4

1.9

2.7

2.4

2.9

43.4

70.4

43.9

61.3

42.0

57.3

65.8

16.4

21.8

35.2

48.8

18.7

25.8

51.4

56.5

51.8

56.9

-

44.2

50.5

33.2

47.7

22.9

45.1

43.3

46.6

44.7

49.7

22.1

11.2

15.5

35.1

50.2

49.6

53.7

:

14.4

10.5

:

10.8

12.9

9.5

:

13.8

16

:

17.3

11.5

10

11.2

12.6

10.7

-

14

11.1

11

14

10.4

12.3

11.4

13.6

12.3

13.4

12.1

8.5

:

13.3

15.3

13.5

13.5

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

LI

NO

CH

(1) Belgium, Bulgaria and Romania: data for 2003; Estonia, Greece, Cyprus, Latvia,
Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia, Croatia and Macedonia: data for 2000.
Source: Eurostat (tps00012, tps00013 and tps00110)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

47

            
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

BIRTHS AND FERTILITY

Live births are defined as the total number of births excluding still
births. The crude birth rate is the ratio of the number of births to
the average population in a particular reference year (the result is
generally expressed per 1 000 inhabitants). Live births outside of
marriage are generally those where the mother’s marital status at
the time of birth is other than married.
The total fertility rate is the number of children born to a woman
during her lifetime (5). In developed countries a rate of about 2.1
children is considered to maintain a stable population in the long
run, under a hypothetical zero net migration. Fertility rates in the
European  Union  have  generally  been  below  this  natural
replacement  level  across  most  Member  States  for  a  couple  of
decades.  Indeed,  fertility  rates  in  the  majority  of  the  Member
States continued to decline over this period and only a handful of
countries  within  the  European  Union  report  fertility  rates
anywhere near to the replacement level.

(5) The total fertility rate is the mean number of children that would be
born alive to a woman during her lifetime if she were to pass through her
childbearing years conforming to the age specific fertility rates of a given
year.

Figure 2.5: Birth rates, EU-27

11.00

10.75

10.50

10.25

35

30

25

20

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Crude birth rate (‰, left-hand scale) (1)
Live births outside of marriage (%, right-hand scale) (1, 2)

(1) Break in series, 1998.
(2) EU-25 instead of EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (tps00018 and tps00112)

48

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.5: Birth and fertility indicators

 Number of
 live births
 (1 000)

 Crude birth rate 
 (‰)

   Total fertility 
  rate 
  (number of children)

1995
5 130

3 124

115.5

72.0

96.1

69.8

765.2

13.5

48.8

101.5

363.5

759.7

525.6

9.9

21.6

41.2

5.4

112.1

4.6

190.5

88.7

433.1

107.2

236.6

19.0

61.4

63.1

103.4

731.6

50.2

32.2

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

2005
5 134.4

3 257.1

117.8

71.1

102.2

1995
10.8

10.4

11.4

8.6

9.3

64.3

13.3

685.8

14.4

61.0

107.5

466.4

807.8

554.0

9.4

9.4

13.5

9.5

9.2

12.8

9.2

8.2

15.2

21.5

30.5

5.4

97.5

3.9

187.9

78.2

364.4

109.4

221.0

18.2

54.4

57.7

101.3

722.5

42.5

22.5

8.7

11.4

13.3

10.8

12.5

12.3

11.2

11.2

10.7

10.7

9.5

11.5

12.3

11.7

12.6

11.0

16.4

:

16.0

13.8

11.7

:

1 361.0

4.3

60.3

82.2

4.3

56.8

72.9

2005
10.4

1995
:

2005
:

10.3

11.2

9.2

10.0

11.9

8.3

10.7

14.7

9.7

10.7

12.9

9.5

10.9

9.3

8.9

11.7

9.7

9.6

11.5

9.5

9.5

10.4

10.2

9.1

10.1

11.0

11.2

12.0

9.6

11.0

18.9

14.4

12.3

9.8

:

1.6

1.2

1.3

1.8

1.3

1.4

1.8

1.3

1.2

:

1.2

2.0

1.3

1.6

1.7

1.6

:

1.5

1.4

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.3

:

1.8

1.7

:

:

:

:

2.1

1.9

1.5

:

:

1.3

1.3

1.8

1.3

1.5

:

1.3

1.4

1.9

1.3

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.7

1.3

:

1.7

1.4

1.2

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.8

1.8

1.8

1.4

1.5

:

2.1

1.8

1.4

Source: Eurostat (tps00111, tps00112 and tps00015)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

49

             
               
         
                 
         
                 
            
                 
              
                   
            
                 
              
                 
            
                   
              
                 
              
                 
            
                   
            
                 
            
                 
            
                   
                 
                 
              
                   
              
                   
                 
                 
              
                   
                 
                   
            
                 
              
                   
            
                   
            
                 
            
                 
              
                   
              
                 
              
                 
            
                 
            
                 
              
                   
              
                 
         
                 
                 
                 
              
                 
              
                   
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

MIGRATION

Migration  and  asylum  are  highly  political  topics:  the  statistics
produced in this area are used, among others, to monitor common
asylum  policy  and  harmonised  immigration  policies  across  the
European Union. The data are also used to assess the inclusion of
migrant populations and measures to prevent discrimination.
In  many  of  the  Member  States,  migration  is  an  important
component of population change. Net migration is defined as the
difference  between  immigration  into  and  emigration  from  the
territory  considered.  As  the  latter  is  not  easy  to  measure,  net
migration  is  often  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  difference
between  population  change  and  natural  increase.  Eurostat
produces corrected net migration figures by taking the difference
between total and natural population increases. This assumes that
any  movement  of  population  not  attributable  to  natural  change
(births and deaths) is attributable to migration. Corrections due to
population censuses or register counts which cannot be classified
as births, deaths or migrations are also taken into account in the
net migration figures.

Figure 2.6: Net migration, including corrections, EU-27 
(1 000) (1)

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

(1) Break in series, 1998.
Source: Eurostat (tps00008)

50

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.6: Migration indicators (1)

      Net migration 
      (1 000)

      Citizenship of immigrants
      (% of total)

EU-27

1995
660.9

2000
2005
471.7 1 769.1

Latest year Nationals Foreigners
:

:

Euro area

616.1

944.9 1 499.3

BE

BG (2)

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

389.8

641.2

:

133.7

205.1

49.5

324.2

1.8

0.0

10.0

28.7

12.9

-220.6

6.5

10.1

398.3

167.9

-15.6

5.9

77.3

70.6

28.5

6.0

-13.7

-23.7

4.3

17.9

0.1

14.9

2.1

0.2

31.8

29.4

4.0

-5.5

-20.3

3.4

16.7

9.8

57.0

17.3

47.0

-10.1

2.7

-22.3

2.4

24.4

51.0

0.0

36.2

6.7

81.6

0.1

66.2

40.0

14.4

-0.6

-8.8

2.8

17.3

1.0

-22.8

56.4

-12.9

38.4

-7.2

6.4

3.4

9.2

26.7

143.9

193.3

2.3

-2.5

:

1.8

9.7

23.7

8.3

-0.8

0.0

3.9

18.3

32.2

PL (2)

-18.2

-409.9

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

21.9

-26.2

0.8

2.8

4.3

11.6

65.0

-174.8

-1.4

:

-1.4

6.4

24.5

2003

2005

2005

2005

2005

2005

2003

2005

2005

2005

2005

2004

2005

2005

2005

2005

2005

2005

2005

2004

2005

2002

2005

2005

:

16.0

:

2.8

42.8

18.1

:

22.7

:

5.1

:

10.8

10.4

33.9

69.3

8.8

8.8

:

31.3

13.9

:

:

:

11.6

18.5

40.3

21.4

17.9

91.7

19.6

:

56.0

21.9

16.2

:

84.0

:

97.2

57.2

81.9

:

77.3

:

94.9

:

89.2

89.6

66.1

30.7

91.2

91.2

:

68.7

86.1

:

:

:

88.4

81.5

59.7

78.6

82.1

8.3

80.4

:

44.0

78.1

83.8

(1) Latest year: the latest reference year for which information is currently available.
(2) Net migration for 2000: including adjustments due to census revision.
Source: Eurostat (tps00008 and migr_immiagec)

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51

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

CITIZENSHIP AND ASYLUM

The acquisition of citizenship is sometimes viewed as an indicator
for the formal integration of migrants into their host country. The
granting of citizenship usually requires a period of legal residence,
together  with  other  factors  (for  example,  language  proficiency).
Citizenship may be granted to persons who have previously been
citizens of another country or to persons who have been stateless.
Asylum applications refer to all persons who apply on an individual
basis for asylum or similar protection, irrespective of whether they
lodge their application on arrival or from inside the country, and
irrespective of whether they entered the country legally or illegally.
An  asylum  applicant  is  a  person  who  has  requested  protection
under: either Article 1 of the Convention relating to the Status of
Refugees of 28 July 1951, as amended by the New York Protocol
of  31  January  1967;  or  within  the  remit  of  the  United  Nations
convention  against  torture  and  other  forms  of  cruel  or  inhuman
treatment (UNCAT); or the European convention on human rights;
or other relevant instruments of protection.

Figure 2.7: Foreigners in the population, 2006 
(% of total population)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

LU

LV (1)

EE (2)
CY (3)

AT

ES
DE

BE

EL (4)
IE

FR (2)

SE
UK (3)

DK

IT
NL

MT (3)

PT (2)
CZ

SI

FI
PL (2)

HU

LT
SK

BG (2)

RO

(1) Including Latvian non-citizens. (2) Estimates. (3) Data for 2005. (4) Estimate for 2004.
Source: Eurostat (tps00157 and tps00023)

52

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.7: Citizenship and asylum indicators

Acquisition of 
citizenship, 
2005 
(persons) (1)

EU-27

Euro area

:

:

        Asylum applications
2001

2006
: 424 180 192 765

1996

Asylum 
decisions, 
2006 
(number)

237 970

186 490 268 070 119 060

138 750

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

33 709

12 435 24 505

8 870

:

2 626

:

2 430

: 18 095

10 197

5 895 12 510

500

2 730

1 795

8 345

695

3 020

985

117 241

117 335 88 285

21 030

30 760

7 072

3 784

1 896

:

10

5

5

1 180 10 325

4 240

4 245

1 640

5 500

12 265

11 180

42 860

4 730

9 490

5 295

4 065

168 826

17 405 47 290

26 270

37 715

13 406

3 952

20 106

435

954

680 17 400

10 350

1 620

4 540

:

:

:

265

15

425

685

5 432

1 260

9 555

:

:

155

28 488

22 855 32 580

14 465

34 876

6 990 30 125

13 350

4 480

4 225

1 937

1 346

767

2 684

1 393

5 683

600

270

600

235

2 280

35

1 510

415

710

8 150

1 650

10

145

525

2 115

1 270

130

380

500

2 850

2 275

39 573

5 775 23 500

24 320

161 755

29 640 71 365

28 320

8 940

2 660

6 901

434

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

12 655

1 780 14 770

35 685

18 060 18 720

:

:

:

40

5 320

8 580

9 260

5 585

15

445

890

2 020

1 185

14 180

15 490

7 280

105

365

900

2 815

2 520

46 395

27 520

:

:

:

30

4 215

:

(rejections 
as % of 
total 
decisions)

57.8

68.4

70.8

30.9

72.7

80.2

57.8

71.4

90.6

85.9

95.0

92.2

39.7

31.9

7.1

6.7

55.6

60.1

53.6

53.0

37.9

12.8

71.4

74.0

63.3

30.6

61.1

27.3

74.2

:

:

:

66.7

48.0

:

(1) Ireland, France, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Croatia and Switzerland: data for 2004;
Belgium, Greece and Italy: data for 2003; Iceland: data for 2002.
Source: Eurostat (tps00024, tps00021, tps00163 and tps00164)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

53

       
 
 
      
         
      
      
   
              
      
   
      
   
   
      
           
         
         
      
      
   
   
      
         
         
         
      
      
   
   
           
      
      
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LIFE EXPECTANCY AND MORTALITY

Data  on  causes  of  death  provide  information  on  mortality
patterns,  classified  according  to  a  short  list  based  on  the
international statistical classification of diseases and related health
problems  (ICD).  The  information  is  gathered  from  death
certificates,  as  medical  certification  of  death  is  obligatory  in  all
Member  States.  The  statistics  presented  refer  to  the  underlying
cause  of  death,  in  other  words,  the  disease  or  injury  which
initiated the events leading to death, or the circumstances of the
accident or violence which produced the fatal injury.
Infant  mortality  reflects  the  number  of  deaths  of  children  under
one year of age during the year and is presented as a ratio to the
number of live births in that year.
The life expectancy of citizens within the European Union has risen
throughout  recent  decades,  and  the  gap  between  men  and
women  has  narrowed,  perhaps  reflecting  changes  in  work  and
lifestyle patterns. The statistics presented for life expectancy in this
publication  refer  to  the  mean  number  of  years  that  a  newborn
child can expect to live if subjected throughout his/her life to the
current mortality conditions. A similar indicator for life expectancy
at  65  reflects  the  mean  number  of  years  still  to  be  lived  by  a
person who has reached the age 65, if subjected throughout the
rest of his or her life to the current mortality conditions.
The indicators concerning healthy life years show the number of
years that a person is (still) expected to live in a healthy condition.
A  healthy  condition  is  defined  by  the  absence  of  limitations  in
functioning/disability. The indicator is also called disability-free life
expectancy (DFLE).

Figure 2.8: Causes of death, EU-27, 2004 
(standardised rates per 100 000 persons) (1)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

10

20

30

40

50

Cancer (= malignant neoplasm)

Ischaemic heart diseases

Accidents

Pneumonia

Chronic liver disease

Suicide and intentional self-harm

Diseases of the nervous system

Diabetes mellitus

Alcoholic abuse

AIDS (HIV-disease)

Homicide, assault

Drug dependence

(1) Note the change in scale between the two parts of the graph.
Source: Eurostat (tps00117 to tps00151)

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Female

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.8: Life expectancy and mortality indicators, 2005

   Life   
    expectancy 
at birth 
   (years) (2)

   Life  
 expectancy at 
   65 (years) (2)

   Healthy life
  years at 
    birth (3)

   Healthy life   
   years at 
   age 65 (4)

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
9.5
75.3

19.3

61.7

61.9

15.6

81.0

9.1

Infant  
mortality 
  (‰) (1) 

4.4

10.4

68.7

75.8

12.3

15.2

:

:

:

:

3.4

4.4

3.9

5.4

4.0

3.8

3.8

4.0

4.0

4.0

7.8

6.8

2.6

6.2

6.0

4.9

4.2

6.4

3.5

72.1

78.4

13.5

16.8

75.2

79.7

15.2

18.1

74.5

78.7

14.1

16.4

66.3

77.2

12.3

17.1

:

:

:

:

76.0

80.9

16.1

18.3

76.0

82.6

16.2

20.1

76.0

83.1

16.8

21.2

76.2

81.8

15.9

19.6

76.0

80.1

15.9

18.0

64.8

76.0

11.7

16.2

64.7

76.8

12.3

16.7

75.6

81.2

15.7

19.1

67.9

76.0

12.3

15.7

:

:

:

:

76.5

80.9

15.4

19.0

75.8

81.4

16.0

19.3

70.1

78.6

13.4

17.5

74.0

80.4

15.1

18.4

57.9

68.4

55.0

48.0

62.9

65.7

63.2

62.0

65.8

59.5

50.6

51.2

62.2

52.0

68.5

65.0

57.8

61.0

58.4

59.9

68.2

55.1

52.2

64.1

67.2

63.1

64.3

67.0

57.9

53.1

54.3

62.1

53.9

70.1

63.1

59.6

66.6

56.7

6.5

6.9

13.1

14.1

6.5

3.4

9.1

9.5

9.6

8.2

9.4

6.7

5.0

5.1

9.3

5.0

10.5

10.4

6.7

8.3

6.2

5.9

3.4

9.9

9.9

9.1

9.4

9.7

4.8

5.4

4.3

9.2

5.0

11.1

10.9

6.6

10.1

5.1

15.0

68.7

75.5

12.5

15.2

:

:

:

:

4.1

7.2

3.0

2.4

5.0

5.7

12.8

24.6

2.3

3.1

4.2

73.1

80.1

14.2

18.3

69.6

77.4

12.5

16.1

74.6

81.4

15.8

19.7

77.6

81.9

16.5

19.7

75.7

79.5

15.3

17.6

70.6

76.9

12.2

14.9

71.4

75.6

12.5

14.2

:

:

:

:

56.3

54.9

51.7

64.2

63.2

:

:

:

59.9

56.4

52.4

63.1

65.0

:

:

:

7.4

4.8

6.2

10.5

10.3

:

:

:

8.5

5.3

6.5

10.9

11.1

:

:

:

78.5

83.0

17.3

19.8

76.9

81.7

16.2

19.7

66.9

66.5

64.5

63.6

12.2

12.2

12.1

11.8

77.9

83.0

17.1

20.6

:

:

:

:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

(1) The ratio of the number of deaths of children under one year of age during the
year to the number of live births in that year; the value is expressed per 1 000 live
births; France, the United Kingdom and Turkey: data for 2004; Italy: data for 2003;
Belgium: data for 2002.
(2) France: data for 2004; Italy: data for 2003.
(3) Number of years that a person at birth is still expected to live in a healthy
condition; provisional values for 2005.
(4) Number of years that a person at age 65 is still expected to live in a healthy
condition; provisional values for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tps00027, tps00025, hlth_hlye, tsien082, tsien081)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

55

           
   
   
  
         
   
   
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
         
   
   
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
         
   
   
         
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
           
   
   
  
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

HEALTH PROBLEMS

Smoking is widely accepted as one of the leading causes of potential
health problems and has come in for particular attention in terms of
restrictions: legislation has been adopted in a number of Member
States  restricting  or  forbidding  smoking  in  public  places  and/or
workplaces (including in particular bars and restaurants), as well as
on  collective  transport,  while  indirect  taxes,  health  warnings,  and
restrictions on advertising have also targeted smokers.
Obesity and being overweight increase the risk of premature death
and disability. Overweight people are those with a body mass index
(BMI) greater than or equal to 25, while the threshold for obesity is
a BMI of 30. The BMI is a measure of the body fat content of adults
calculated as the ratio between the weight measured in kilograms,
and the square of the height measured in metres.
Salmonellosis  is  a  food-borne  illness  caused  by  the  bacteria
salmonella. Salmonella bacteria cause an infection usually limited to
the gastrointestinal system in humans but these organisms may also
spread to other parts of the body. Salmonellosis is a communicable
disease, threatening human health. Epidemiological surveillance of
communicable diseases was established within the European Union
since  it  can  bring  about  interventions  that  contribute  to  the
reduction of morbidity and/or mortality.

Figure 2.9: People having a long-standing illness or health
problem, 2005 (% of persons aged 15 or more) (1)
20

30

40

10

0

50

FI
SE
UK
HU
EE
DE
FR
LV
PL
SI
PT
NL
CZ
LT
CY
SK
DK
BE
IE
ES
LU
IT
MT
AT
EL

Male
Female

(1) Long-standing is anything that has troubled the respondent over a period of time
or that is likely to affect the respondent over a period of time; provisional data.
Source: Eurostat (SILC)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.9: Health problems (%) (1)

Smokers 
among 
those 
aged 
15-24 

:

26.0

30.5

23.8

29.5

35.3

33.2

29.0

24.6

33.0

28.0

22.7

24.6

30.0

25.5

:

38.6

26.4

28.6

40.9

16.8

18.8

13.9

28.8

17.7

21.9

13.7

33.7

:

23.9

25.7

32.8

Overweight  Obese 
:

:

30.8

33.6

36.4

32.2

39.4

30.9

33.1

43.3

35.7

27.8

31.7

33.7

29.8

32.9

:

33.8

34.5

33.3

34.9

31.8

36.8

33.1

36.2

32.4

36.7

33.8

38.3

:

38.7

25.4

29.1

11.0

12.4

14.4

9.5

20.3

13.3

13.2

10.7

13.3

9.3

8.1

12.3

15.5

16.0

:

18.8

23.0

8.9

8.6

11.4

14.7

8.6

12.3

14.3

14.5

10.1

22.7

:

11.6

6.1

7.6

Incidence of 
salmonellosis 
(new cases 
per 100 000 
persons), 2005 
(2)

42.4

47.1

13.1

322.2

32.8

63.3

23.2

8.5

25.9

14.2

11.0

12.9

7.9

26.7

69.2

46.6

80.8

16.1

:

63.1

41.9

4.9

3.3

76.0

223.8

47.3

39.6

21.3

126.4

31.0

32.2

25.5

          Smokers

Male
:

Female 
:

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

IS

NO

CH

28.3

42.6

31.6

36.3

30.9

49.8

23.9

40.8

34.2

31.6

31.9

38.1

50.6

44.0

:

37.0

29.9

31.6

40.7

41.3

27.1

32.3

47.1

27.8

21.6

16.5

27.7

:

26.5

28.8

33.9

20.1

22.7

18.7

31.9

22.0

18.6

20.5

15.6

22.4

21.2

17.6

10.5

17.0

13.3

:

24.7

17.6

24.9

32.2

19.5

6.8

10.1

23.8

11.7

15.1

18.5

25.7

:

25.7

26.7

23.1

(1) HIS (Health Interview Survey) data (all data except for the final column) are
collected in different years depending on the country, going from 1996 to 2003 - for
more information, see:
http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/sdds/en/hlth/hlth_his_2004_surveys.pdf.
(2) EU-25: data for 2004.
Source: Eurostat (tps00169, tps00170, hlth_ls_bmia and tsdph310)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

57

          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
    
            
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
    
          
         
                 
      
          
         
                 
      
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

ACCIDENTS

The  incidence  rate  of  accidents  at  work  shows  the  number  of
accidents  at  work  with  an  absence  of  more  than  3  days  that
occurred  during  the  year,  relative  to  the  number  of  persons  in
employment. The incidence is shown as an index, with 1998=100
as the reference.
An accident at work is a discrete occurrence in the course of work
that  leads  to  physical  or  mental  harm.  This  includes  accidents  in
the course of work outside the person’s business premises, even if
caused by a third party, and cases of acute poisoning. It excludes
accidents on the way to or from work, occurrences having only a
medical origin, and occupational diseases.
The  incidence  of  fatal  accidents  may  in  part  be  affected  by
structural shifts in the economy towards services, where the risks
of death at work are usually less than within agriculture, industry
or construction.

Figure 2.10: Index of the incidence of serious accidents at
work, EU-25 (1998=100)

110

100

90

80

70

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Female
Total
Male

Source: Eurostat (tsiem0611, tsiem0612 and tsiem0613)

58

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.10: Incidence of accidents at work

Serious accidents (1998=100)
1994
2004
1999
79
100
:

Fatal accidents (1998=100)
2004
1999
76
88

1994
:

:

86

140

:

83

113

:

59

126

88

112

113

:

:

:

96

130

111

110

158

:

107

:

102

:

114

84

127

:

:

123

121

99

96

84

93

95

99

106

:

93

107

101

99

100

75

97

105

93

113

108

99

78

92

100

102

92

91

107

106

84

91

93

97

76

65

58

81

79

73

124

:

66

92

90

75

103

79

82

94

79

83

73

79

84

75

103

98

54

83

86

88

82

59

:

:

123

194

122

110

90

168

:

66

116

127

108

106

:

:

:

:

106

35

:

104

:

109

:

90

:

150

162

106

:

:

130

121

88

106

96

76

71

109

79

:

170

91

85

68

100

115

91

40

107

74

107

100

83

79

93

113

89

75

85

88

104

56

109

98

73

93

84

78

35

100

75

:

67

59

68

50

92

98

113

20

96

90

84

107

86

82

103

77

64

102

81

90

64

88

:

:

EU-25

Euro area (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL (2)

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

NO

JP

US

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
(2) Serious accidents: break in series, 1999.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem0611 and tsiem062)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

HEALTHCARE

Many of today’s healthcare policies include not only cures but also
prevention and early detection. A new programme of Community
action for the period 2003-2008 was agreed in 2002. It has three
main areas: improving health information and knowledge for the
development of public health; enhancing the capability to respond
rapidly  and  in  a  co-ordinated  fashion  to  threats  to  health;  and
promoting  health  and  preventing  disease  through  addressing
health determinants across all policies and activities.
Hospital beds are those which are regularly maintained and staffed
and immediately available for the care of admitted patients. Beds
in  all  hospitals,  including  general  hospitals,  mental  health  and
substance  abuse  hospitals,  and  other  specialty  hospitals  are
covered.  Data  refer  to  occupied  and  unoccupied  beds.  The
number of hospital beds is expressed per 100 000 inhabitants.
Practising  physicians  are  defined  as  physicians  who  provide
services directly to patients (i.e. seeing patients either in a hospital,
practice or elsewhere). The number of physicians is expressed per
100  000  inhabitants  and  is  used  as  a  proxy  for  access  to  the
healthcare system.
A discharge is the formal release of a patient from a hospital after
a procedure or course of treatment. A discharge occurs anytime a
patient  leaves  because  of  finalisation  of  treatment,  signing-out
against medical advice, transfer to another healthcare institution,
or  death.  Data  refer  to  in-patients.  The  number  of  discharges  is
expressed  per  100  000  inhabitants  and  is  the  most  commonly
used measure of the utilisation of hospital services.

Figure 2.11: Number of hospital beds, EU-25  
(per 100 000 inhabitants)

800

700

600

500

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Source: Eurostat (tps00046)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.11: Healthcare indicators

         Practising physicians
        (per 100 000 inhabitants)

          Discharges from hospitals
           (per 100 000 inhabitants)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

1995
344.6

344.9

299.8

251.3

307.0

307.4

:

393.0

268.2

:

:

220.2

277.8

:

204.4

302.8

:

186.1

265.7

231.8

253.8

181.2

:

291.5

207.3

286.0

:

203.6

:

303.0

279.3

175.6

2000
378.6

336.1

337.1

269.4

326.1

308.5

:

447.7

332.6

:

:

238.5

286.5

:

235.7

272.7

:

:

312.6

220.0

263.5

197.4

215.3

334.8

258.2

307.7

197.8

228.5

130

346.9

:

194.5

2005
399.5

365.3

354.9

308.4

341.2

319.3

:

:

2000
16 252

2003
15 963

2005
16 084

:

:

:

19 852

22 942

23 030

16 316

15 936

19 586

:

19 826

18 544

:

:

:

13 805

13 720

13 505

:

:

:

379.9

11 243

11 017

10 780

:

:

257.8

291.9

:

:

278.4

:

:

:

:

:

217.4

:

303.7

244.5

348.1

235.6

:

:

368.1

362.8

:

18 397

16 664

16 445

:

:

:

6 795

6 821

6 617

:

:

:

:

22 819

22 411

18 481

17 460

17 242

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

9 427

10 135

26 251

26 809

:

:

:

:

21 748

22 853

20 305

:

:

15 358

19 876

18 986

19 124

:

20 842

15 272

14 751

:

13 064

:

:

:

12 710

13 215

13 307

:

:

:

17 085

15 723

16 084

15 409

17 077

17 424

:

14 855

15 656

Source: Eurostat (hlth_rs_phys and hlth_co_disch2)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

PUPILS AND STUDENTS

Education  statistics  provide  information  on  a  variety  of  areas,
including  expenditure,  personnel,  participation 
rates,  and
attainment.  The  main  source  of  data  is  a  joint  UNESCO/OECD/
Eurostat (UOE) questionnaire on education statistics.
The indicator of school expectancy corresponds to how many years,
on  average,  a  child  starting  school  can  expect  to  stay  at  school
(calculated by adding the single-year enrolment rates for all ages).
Data  on  the  number  of  pupils  and  students  enrolled  in  the
education  system  cover  all  levels  of  education  from  primary
through to postgraduate studies. The indicator on four-year-olds in
education presents the proportion of children of that age who are
enrolled in education-oriented pre-primary institutions (excluding
nurseries and play centres where there is no qualified educational
teaching). 

Figure 2.12: School expectancy, 2005 (years) (1)
20

10

15

0

5

25

EU-27
Euro area
UK
FI
SE
DK
EE
LT
LV
PL
SI
EL
HU
NL
DE
IE
ES
CZ
IT
PT
FR
BE
AT
SK
BG
MT
RO
CY
LU

HR
MK
TR
IS
NO
CH
LI
US
JP

(1) School expectancy corresponds to the expected years of education over a lifetime
and has been calculated adding the single-year enrolment rates for all ages.
Source: Eurostat (tps00052)

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2

The pupil-teacher ratio in primary education is the number of full-
time  equivalent  pupils  divided  by  the  number  of  full-time
equivalent teachers.
Levels  of  attainment  and  fields  of  education  and  training  are
classified according to the international standard classification of
education (ISCED).

Table 2.12: Pupils and students

   Pupils and 
   students   
   (1 000) (1)

   Four-year
  olds in   
  education 
  (%) (2)

Pupil/ 
teacher  
ratio in  
 primary  
education  
(3) 

18-year- 
 olds in  
education 
(%) 

Students in 
tertiary 
education 
(% of all 
pupils/
students) 
(4)

2000

303
990
1 884
7 769

2 235
1 357
1 906
1 003

2005
EU-27
95 840 98 318
Euro area 56 682 57 585
2 380
BE
1 226
BG
1 912
CZ
1 144
DK
14 549 14 467
DE
289
EE
1 037
IE
2 053
EL
7 537
ES
11 934 12 315
FR
9 409
IT
147
CY
491
LV
805
LT
73
LU
1 976
HU
80
MT
3 289
NL
1 462
AT
8 887
PL
1 913
PT
3 847
RO
410
SI
1 101
SK
1 240
FI
2 114
SE
14 955 16 714
UK
736
HR
374
MK
13 169 16 021
TR
83
IS
6
LI
1 052
NO
1 334
CH
20 583 19 218
JP
62 323 66 597
US

9 049
138
499
767
69
1 906
78
3 171
1 459
9 074
2 032
3 962
389
1 123
1 152
2 090

74
:
989
:

:
386

2000
82.8
89.6
99.2
67.0
81.0
90.6
81.4
78.2
51.1
53.9
99.0
97.9
100.0
55.7
60.6
51.0
94.9
89.5
100.0
99.5
79.5
33.3
72.3
60.3
67.7
:
41.9
72.8
100.0
:
12.4
:
90.9
:
78.1
:
94.9
61.7

2005
85.7
90.8
100.0
73.2
91.4
93.5
84.6
84.2
45.4
57.8
99.3
100.0
100.0
61.4
72.2
56.8
96.3
90.7
94.4
73.4
82.5
38.1
84.0
76.2
75.9
74.0
46.7
88.9
91.8
44.7
15.4
5.0
95.3
50.6
88.9
38.6
94.7
65.3

2005
:
:
12.8
16.3
17.5
10.8
18.8
14.7
17.9
11.1
14.3
19.4
10.6
17.9
12.2
11.3
10.7
10.6
12.1
15.9
14.1
11.7
10.8
17.4
15.0
18.9
15.9
12.2
20.7
18.1
21.2
25.8
11.3
10.3
11.9
:
19.4
14.9

2005
78.0
80.1
88.8
74.9
87.9
81.4
85.5
82.0
89.7
81.4
69.6
78.9
80.5
29.7
85.2
90.1
67.1
79.3
53.9
78.9
76.8
92.9
66.0
58.4
89.4
81.4
93.6
95.7
60.3
62.4
51.9
31.7
75.1
92.8
85.5
80.6
:
60.9

2005
16.5
16.6
14.0
16.7
15.3
16.6
13.6
19.7
18.0
29.5
20.2
14.6
18.2
12.3
23.6
21.9
18.0
18.9
10.7
15.5
14.6
21.8
17.5
16.4
24.9
14.5
22.2
17.4
12.9
16.3
12.1
12.8
16.0
7.6
17.7
13.4
18.1
23.4

(1) Excluding pre-primary education.
(2) Participation rate, including both pre-primary and primary participation.
(3) Pupils per full-time equivalent teacher; Luxembourg and Norway: data for 2004;
Denmark and Iceland: data for 2003; Estonia and the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia: data for 2001.
(4) Luxembourg: data for 2002.
Source: Eurostat (tps00051, tps00053, educ_iste, tps00060 and educ_itertp)

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63

     
    
          
         
 
     
          
 
     
          
    
   
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
 
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
 
   
            
          
    
   
            
          
       
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
         
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
         
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
 
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
       
     
            
          
 
       
            
          
         
     
            
          
            
     
            
          
    
     
            
          
    
     
          
 
     
            
 
     
            
          
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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LEVELS OF EDUCATION

In the last few decades, disparities in educational attainment levels
between the sexes have been reduced throughout the European
Union.  Indeed,  the  situation  has  been  reversed,  and  for  some
indicators women have overtaken men.
One European policy in the area of education is a drive to reduce
the number of school dropouts and early school leavers, defined
as persons aged 18 to 24 with at most lower secondary education
(ISCED  levels  1,  2  or  3c  short)  and  not  in  further  education  or
training. The youth education attainment level is the percentage
of  young  people  aged  20-24  having  attained  at  least  an  upper
secondary education (ISCED level 3a, 3b or 3c long minimum).

Figure 2.13: Percentage of the population aged 25 to 64
having a tertiary education, 2006 (%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

EU-27
Euro area
FI
DK
EE
BE
CY
SE
IE
NL
UK
ES
LT
FR
LU
DE
BG
EL
SI
LV
PL
HU
AT
SK
CZ
PT
IT
MT
RO

Male
Female

Source: Eurostat (lfsa_pgaed)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.13: Youth education (%) (1)

       Early school leavers

2001
17.3

19.5

13.6

20.3

:

9.0

12.5

14.1

:

17.3

29.2

13.5

26.4

17.9

2006
15.3

17.8

12.6

18.0

5.5

10.9

13.8

13.2

12.3

15.9

29.9

13.1

20.8

16.0

Male 
2006

Female 
2006

17.5

20.4

14.9

18.2

5.7

12.8

13.9

19.6

15.6

20.7

35.8

15.1

24.3

23.5

13.2

15.1

10.2

17.9

5.4

9.1

13.6

:

9.0

11.0

23.8

11.2

17.3

9.2

:

19.0

21.6

16.1

13.7

18.1

12.9

54.4

15.3

10.2

7.9

44.0

21.3

7.5

:

10.3

10.5

17.7

:

57.3

30.9

9.2

4.7

10.3

17.4

12.4

41.7

12.9

9.6

5.6

39.2

19.0

5.2

6.4

8.3

12.0

13.0

5.3

50.0

26.3

5.9

7.8

13.3

20.9

14.0

44.6

15.1

9.3

7.2

46.4

19.1

6.9

7.3

10.4

13.3

14.6

5.3

56.6

30.5

7.4

8.7

7.0

14.0

10.7

38.8

10.7

9.8

3.8

31.8

18.9

3.3

5.5

6.4

10.7

11.4

5.3

42.7

22.0

4.3

6.9

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

         Youth education 
          attainment, 2006

Total
77.8

73.8

82.4

80.5

91.8

77.4

71.6

82.0

85.4

81.0

61.6

82.1

75.5

83.7

81.0

88.2

69.3

82.9

50.4

74.7

85.8

91.7

49.6

77.2

89.4

91.5

84.7

86.5

78.8

Male
74.8

70.1

79.1

80.0

91.1

73.4

69.8

74.1

81.8

75.5

54.6

80.0

71.7

76.1

75.9

85.3

64.0

81.2

48.1

69.9

84.9

89.6

40.8

76.6

87.7

91.2

82.3

84.5

77.3

Female
80.7

77.6

85.6

81.1

92.4

81.5

73.5

89.8

89.1

86.6

69.0

84.3

79.4

90.7

86.2

91.2

74.5

84.7

52.8

79.6

86.7

93.8

58.6

77.8

91.4

91.7

87.0

88.6

80.3

:

:

:

44.7

38.9

51.7

:

93.3

82.5

:

91.2

80.3

:

95.4

84.7

(1) For both indicators, several breaks in time-series in different years for different
countries are noted, due to changes in survey characteristics and implementation of
harmonised concepts. Early school leavers (EU-LFS spring data): provisional data for
2006 for Latvia, Portugal, Finland, Iceland and Switzerland. Youth educational
attainment (EU-LFS 2006 annual averages): provisional data for 2006 for Greece, Malta
and Norway; 2005 data for Switzerland.
Source: Eurostat (tsisc051, tsisc053, tsisc052, tsiir091, tsiir093 and tsiir092)

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2 Chapter 2

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EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE
Generally  the  public  sector  funds  education  either  by  bearing
directly the current and capital expenses of educational institutions
(direct  expenditure  for  educational  institutions)  or  by  supporting
students and their families with scholarships and public loans. 
Expenditure  on  educational  institutions  from  public  sources
comprises one of two forms:
-

purchases  by  the  government  agency  itself  of  educational
resources  to  be  used  by  educational  institutions  (e.g.  direct
payments  of  teachers’  salaries  by  a  central  or  regional
education ministry);
payments  by  the  government  agency  to  educational
institutions that have responsibility for purchasing educational
resources  themselves  (e.g.  a  government  appropriation  or
block grant to a university, which the university then uses to
compensate staff and to buy other resources).

-

Figure 2.14: Total public expenditure on education as a
percentage of GDP, 2004 (%) (1)

0

2

4

6

8

10

EU-27
Euro area
DK
SE
CY
FI
BE
SI
FR
AT
HU
PL
PT
UK
LT
NL
EE
LV
MT
IE
DE
IT
BG
CZ
ES
EL
SK
LU
RO

HR
TR (2)
MK (2)
IS
NO
CH
US
JP

(1) EU-27 and euro area: estimates. (2) Data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tsiir010)

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2

Expenditure  on  educational  institutions  from  private  sources
comprises  tuition  and  boarding  fees,  teaching  materials  and
equipment, transport to school (if organised by the school), school
provided meals, and expenditure by employers on initial vocational
training.
Expenditure per pupil/student measures how much all sources of
financing  (government,  private  households,  religious  institutions
and enterprises) spend per pupil/student.

Table 2.14: Education expenditure, for all levels of
education combined

         Expenditure 
       on educational 
     institutions from
       public sources
        (% of GDP) (1)

           Expenditure 
          on educational 
        institutions  
        from private 
        sources
          (% of GDP) (2)

        Annual 
      expenditure on  
       public and private
      educational 
         institutions per
          student
          (PPS) (3)

2000
4.59
4.57
4.91
3.79
3.75
6.38
4.19
5.66
4.02
3.65
4.17
5.46
4.35
4.84
5.08
5.66
:
4.29
4.07
4.07
5.28
4.86
5.30
2.80
:
3.89
5.40
6.19
4.46
:
3.36
5.57
5.98
:
3.59
4.80

2004
4.79
4.68
5.69
3.89
4.22
6.90
4.25
4.91
4.25
4.13
4.13
5.59
4.38
5.87
4.70
4.80
3.85
5.05
4.96
4.57
5.04
5.37
5.21
3.21
5.41
3.99
5.95
6.48
4.96
4.48
:
7.22
6.17
5.64
3.52
5.12

2000
0.57
0.55
0.43
0.77
0.43
0.27
0.97
:
0.42
0.24
0.60
0.48
0.44
1.72
0.63
:
:
0.58
0.47
0.45
0.33
:
0.08
0.25
:
0.15
0.12
0.20
0.78
:
0.05
0.56
0.08
0.43
1.23
2.23

2004
5 535
EU-27
5 991
Euro area
6 489
BE
1 821
BG
3 736
CZ
7 658
DK
6 207
DE
:
EE
5 792
IE
4 158
EL
5 283
ES
6 215
FR
6 007
IT
6 097
CY
2 412
LV
2 403
LT
:
LU
3 712
HU
4 094
MT
6 567
NL
7 870
AT
2 747
PL
4 292
PT
:
RO
5 552
SI
2 606
SK
6 255
FI
7 081
SE
6 195
UK
:
HR
:
TR
7 476
IS
8 695
NO
:
CH
6 910
JP
9 960
US
(1) Expenditure on educational institutions from public sources as a percentage of GDP,
for all levels of government combined.
(2) EU-25 instead of EU-27 for 2000.
(3) Based on full-time equivalents; EU-25 instead of EU-27 for 2000.
Source: Eurostat (educ_figdp, tps00068 and tps00067)

2000
4 761
:
5 314
1 277
2 574
7 108
5 677
:
4 481
:
4 304
5 739
:
4 879
1 818
1 716
:
:
3 189
5 211
7 144
1 971
3 943
:
:
1 681
5 455
6 185
4 799
:
:
6 501
7 812
:
6 091
9 200

2004
0.64
0.60
0.34
0.65
0.61
0.32
0.91
:
0.32
0.20
0.61
0.54
0.46
1.17
0.82
0.48
:
0.52
0.46
0.50
0.39
0.59
0.13
:
0.86
0.76
0.13
0.20
0.95
:
:
0.75
0.05
0.61
1.23
2.37

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LIFELONG LEARNING

Lifelong training and education offer an important opportunity for
individuals to maintain or improve their skills situation. Education,
vocational  training  and  lifelong  learning  play  a  vital  role  in  the
economic and social strategy of Europe. The European Council has
adopted strategic goals and objectives for education and training
to  be  attained  by  2010.  Training  is  often  less  regular  and
formalised  than  education  and  particularly  difficult  to  map  in
statistical  terms.  Lifelong  learning  refers  to  the  proportion  of
persons aged 25 to 64 who stated that they received education or
training in the four weeks preceding the (EU labour force) survey.
The  information  collected  relates  to  all  education  or  training
subjects  whether  or  not  relevant  to  the  respondent’s  current  or
possible  future  job;  note  however  that  formal  (official  and  non-
official  programmes)  and  informal  education  and  training  are
covered, but self-learning activities are excluded.

Figure 2.15: Lifelong learning - excluding self-learning
activities, 2006 (% of population aged 25 to 64 participating
in education and training) 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU-27
Euro area
SE (1)
DK
UK (2)
FI
NL
SI
AT
ES
LU
BE (2)
DE
IE
FR
CY
LV (2)
EE
IT
CZ
MT
LT (2)
PL (2)
SK
HU
PT
EL
BG
RO
TR
NO

(1) Data for 2005.
(2) Estimate.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem051)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.15: Lifelong learning - excluding self-learning
activities (% of population aged 25 to 64 participating in
education and training) (1)

          Total 
2001
7.1

2006
9.6

5.2

6.4

1.4

:

8.2

7.5

1.3

5.6

        Male

2001
6.6

5.2

6.9

1.3

:

2006
8.8

7.9

7.4

1.3

5.4

       Female
2001
7.6

2006
10.4

5.2

5.9

1.4

:

8.6

7.6

1.3

5.9

18.4

29.2

16.1

24.6

20.7

33.8

5.2

5.4

:

1.2

4.4

2.7

4.5

3.4

:

3.5

5.3

2.7

4.6

15.9

8.2

4.3

3.3

1.0

7.3

:

17.2

17.5

20.9

:

1.0

23.5

14.2

36.0

7.5

6.5

7.5

1.9

10.4

7.5

6.1

7.1

6.9

4.9

8.2

3.8

5.5

15.6

13.1

4.7

3.8

1.3

15.0

4.3

23.1

32.1

26.6

2.1

2.0

25.7

18.7

26.9

5.7

3.8

:

1.2

4.0

2.5

4.4

3.4

:

2.3

5.9

2.2

5.8

16.5

8.7

3.7

2.9

1.1

6.7

:

14.7

15.4

17.5

:

0.7

19.0

13.8

41.8

7.8

4.2

6.1

2.0

9.3

7.2

5.7

6.5

4.1

2.9

7.6

3.1

5.5

15.3

12.2

4.3

3.7

1.3

13.8

4.0

19.3

27.9

22.0

2.0

1.6

21.6

17.2

27.4

4.8

6.9

:

1.1

4.9

3.0

4.6

3.4

:

4.6

4.7

3.1

3.4

15.2

7.7

4.9

3.6

1.0

7.9

:

19.7

19.7

24.4

:

1.2

28.1

14.5

30.2

7.3

8.6

8.9

1.8

11.5

7.8

6.5

7.8

9.3

6.6

8.7

4.4

5.6

15.9

14.0

5.1

4.0

1.3

16.3

4.6

27.0

36.5

31.2

2.1

2.4

29.8

20.2

26.5

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

(1) Several breaks in time-series in different years for different countries are noted, due
to changes in survey characteristics and implementation of harmonised concepts. 
EU-LFS annual averages: provisional data for 2006 for Belgium, Latvia, Lithuania,
Portugal and the United Kingdom; 2005 data for Sweden, Croatia, Iceland and
Switzerland.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem051, tsiem053 and tsiem052)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

EMPLOYMENT

The  European  employment  strategy  (EES)  was  launched  at  the
Luxembourg Jobs Summit in November 1997 and was evaluated
in  2002,  when  it  was  revamped  to  align  employment  strategy
more closely to the Lisbon objectives. The European Union has set
itself  an  ambitious  target  of  a  70  %  total  employment  rate  by
2010, while in the spring of 2001 an employment rate target for
persons aged between 55 and 64 years of 50 % was added.
The total employment rate is calculated by dividing the number of
persons aged 15 to 64 in employment by the total population of
the same age group. The employed population consists of those
persons who, during the reference week of the (EU labour force)
survey, did any work for pay or profit for at least one hour, or were
not  working  but  had  jobs  from  which  they  were  temporarily
absent;  the  data  include  family  workers.  Employment  rates  are
generally higher among persons having achieved higher levels of
education, and lower among older workers: the employment rate
of  older  workers  is  calculated  by  restricting  the  population  to
persons aged 55 to 64.
Note that the final chapter at the end of this publication presents
regional data for the employment rate.

Figure 2.16: Employment rate - by highest level of
education attained (ISCED 1997), EU-27 (%) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

Total - levels 0-6

Pre-primary, primary and lower
secondary education - levels 0-2

Upper secondary and post-secondary
non-tertiary education - levels 3-4

Tertiary education - levels 5-6

(1) Excludes persons for which the level of education attained is unknown.
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_ergaed)

2001
2006

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.16: Employment rates, 2006 
(% of persons aged 15-64 who are in employment)

        Total 
          employment rate

       Employment rate - 
       older workers (55 to 64)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR (1)

TR

IS (1)

NO

CH (1)

JP (1)

US (1)

Total
64.3

64.5

61.0

58.6

65.3

77.4

67.2

68.1

68.6

61.0

64.8

63.0

58.4

69.6

66.3

63.6

63.6

57.3

54.8

74.3

70.2

54.5

67.9

58.8

66.6

59.4

69.3

73.1

71.5

55.0

45.9

83.8

75.4

77.2

69.3

71.5

Male
71.6

72.6

67.9

62.8

73.7

81.2

72.8

71.0

77.7

74.6

76.1

68.5

70.5

79.4

70.4

66.3

72.6

63.8

74.5

80.9

76.9

60.9

73.9

64.6

71.1

67.0

71.4

75.5

77.3

61.7

68.1

86.9

78.4

83.9

80.4

77.6

Female
57.1

56.5

54.0

54.6

56.8

73.4

61.5

65.3

59.3

47.4

53.2

57.7

46.3

60.3

62.4

61.0

54.6

51.1

34.9

67.7

63.5

48.2

62.0

53.0

61.8

51.9

67.3

70.7

65.8

48.6

23.9

80.5

72.2

70.4

58.1

65.6

Total
43.5

41.7

32.0

39.6

45.2

60.7

48.4

58.5

53.1

42.3

44.1

37.6

32.5

53.6

53.3

49.6

33.2

33.6

30.0

47.7

35.5

28.1

50.1

41.7

32.6

33.1

54.5

69.6

57.4

32.6

30.1

84.3

67.4

65.0

63.9

60.8

Male
52.6

50.8

40.9

49.5

59.5

67.1

56.4

57.5

67.0

59.2

60.4

40.1

43.7

71.6

59.5

55.7

38.7

41.4

50.4

58.0

45.3

38.4

58.2

50.0

44.5

49.8

54.8

72.3

66.0

43.0

44.1

88.9

73.0

74.8

78.9

67.0

Female
34.8

32.9

23.2

31.1

32.1

54.3

40.6

59.2

39.1

26.6

28.7

35.2

21.9

36.6

48.7

45.1

27.8

27.1

11.2

37.2

26.3

19.0

42.8

34.5

21.0

18.9

54.3

66.9

49.1

23.8

16.7

79.6

61.6

55.4

49.4

55.1

(1) Data for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem011, tsiem013, tsiem012, tsiem014, tsiem015 and tsiem016)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

EMPLOYMENT GROWTH

In order to reach the employment rate targets that have been set
employment needs to increase. In the mid-term review of the EES
in 2005, the European Commission made a set of new proposals
concerning employment guidelines for the period 2005 to 2008,
reflecting  a  switch  in  emphasis  in  favour  of  growth  and
employment.  To  create  more  and  better  jobs  the  European
Commission wishes to:
-

attract and retain more people in employment, increase labour
supply and modernise social protection systems;
improve the adaptability of the workforce and business sector;
increase  investment  in  human  capital  through  better

-
-
education and skills.
The  indicator  ‘employment  growth’  gives  the  change  in
percentage  from  one  year  to  another  of  the  total  number  of
employed persons on the economic territory of the country or the
geographical  area.  The  indicator  is  based  on  national  accounts
data;  EU  labour  force  survey  breakdowns  are  applied  to  provide
results by gender.

Figure 2.17: Employment growth, EU-27 
(% change compared with previous year)

3

2

1

0

-1

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Female

Total

Male

Source: Eurostat (tsieb031, tsieb032 and tsieb033)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.17: Employment growth rates 
(% compared with previous year)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

US

1996
0.5

0.6

0.3

:

0.9

1.0

-0.3

-2.3

3.6

-0.4

1.7

0.4

0.6

:

-1.9

0.9

2.6

-0.5

1.5

2.5

0.4

1.2

:

-1.2

-2.0

2.3

1.4

-0.8

0.9

:

2.1

2.3

2.0

1.8

   Total 

    Male

  Female

2006
1.4

1996
:

2006
1.1

1996
:

2006
1.8

1.4

0.9

2.4

1.6

1.8

0.7

5.4

4.2

1.4

3.3

0.8

1.7

1.5

4.8

1.7

3.7

0.7

0.9

1.2

1.4

3.3

0.6

0.2

1.2

2.3

1.4

1.8

0.8

1.5

1.6

:

3.1

1.7

0.1

0.0

:

:

0.5

-1.0

:

2.4

-1.0

1.0

0.2

0.0

:

:

:

1.3

:

:

1.7

0.1

:

:

:

:

:

2.0

-0.4

0.7

:

:

:

:

:

1.0

0.4

1.9

1.6

1.6

0.4

6.5

4.1

0.7

2.3

0.6

1.3

0.4

4.2

0.7

1.3

0.9

0.0

0.9

1.2

3.4

0.8

-0.3

1.5

3.2

1.5

2.1

0.6

:

1.5

:

3.2

:

1.4

0.8

:

:

1.6

0.7

:

5.5

0.6

2.9

0.6

1.7

:

:

:

5.0

:

:

3.6

0.8

:

:

:

:

:

0.7

-1.3

1.3

:

:

:

:

:

1.9

1.5

3.0

1.6

1.9

1.2

4.3

4.4

2.7

4.8

1.2

2.4

3.0

5.5

2.8

6.9

0.4

2.8

1.6

1.6

3.2

0.4

0.8

0.8

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.0

:

2.0

:

3.0

:

Source: Eurostat (tsieb031, tsieb032 and tsieb033)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

UNEMPLOYMENT

Unemployment rates are defined in accordance with International
Labour  Organisation  standards.  Unemployed  persons  comprise
those  aged  between  15  and  74  who  were  without  work  during
the  reference  week  of  the  labour  force  survey.  Persons  without
work are those who had neither a job, nor were at work (for one
hour or more during the reference week) in paid employment or
self-employment;  in  addition,  the  unemployed  have  to  be
available for work and actively seeking work. Note that the final
chapter  at  the  end  of  this  publication  presents  regional  data  for
unemployment rates.
The  duration  of  unemployment  is  defined  as  the  duration  of  a
search for a job, or as the period since the last job was held (if this
period  is  shorter  than  the  duration  of  the  search  for  a  job).  The
long term unemployment rate is the proportion of active persons
in the labour market, who have been unemployed for 12 months
or more.

Figure 2.18: Harmonised long-term unemployment rates,
EU-27 (persons unemployed for 12 months or more as a %
of the total labour force)

6

4

2

0

Total

Male

Female

2001

2006

Source: Eurostat (tsisc061, tsisc063 and tsisc062)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.18: Unemployment rates (% of total labour force)

 Total

  Male

  Female 

Less
 than 
25 years,

25 years 
and
 over,

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

NO

JP

US

2001
8.4

7.8

6.6

19.5

8.0

4.5

7.4

12.4

4.0

10.7

10.3

8.4

9.1

3.8

12.9

16.5

2.0

5.7

7.6

2.2

3.6

2006
7.9

2001
7.5

2006
7.2

2001
9.7

2006
8.8

7.9

8.2

9.0

7.1

3.9

8.4

5.9

4.4

8.9

8.5

9.5

6.8

4.6

6.8

5.6

4.7

7.5

7.3

3.9

4.7

6.3

5.9

20.2

6.7

4.1

6.3

12.6

4.1

7.1

7.5

7.0

7.1

2.6

14.2

18.6

1.7

6.3

6.9

1.8

3.1

6.8

7.4

8.6

5.8

3.3

7.7

6.2

4.6

5.6

6.3

8.7

5.4

4.0

7.4

5.8

3.5

7.2

6.5

3.5

4.4

9.8

7.5

18.6

9.7

5.0

8.9

12.2

3.8

16.1

14.8

10.0

12.2

5.3

11.5

14.3

2.6

5.0

9.3

2.8

4.2

9.3

9.3

9.3

8.8

4.5

9.2

5.6

4.1

13.6

11.6

10.4

8.8

5.4

6.2

5.4

6.2

7.8

8.9

4.4

5.2

18.2

13.8

16.9

13.0

19.8

14.9

4.0

6.6

6.2

7.7

7.3

6.0

3.2

7.2

5.6

6.5

8.2

4.9

5.0

5.9

6.8

9.0

6.1

7.2

19.3

13.4

19.8

12.3

18.7

14.7

9.1

4.9

5.0

8.3

3.6

5.0

4.8

7.7

7.1

5.3

9.9

3.5

4.1

4.6

8.6

5.2

5.5

8.7

3.7

5.2

4.8

7.4

6.9

5.7

9.7

3.6

4.3

4.6

9.7

4.5

4.4

7.4

3.5

4.7

4.7

8.1

7.2

4.9

10.3

3.4

3.9

4.6

Source: Eurostat (tsiem071, tsiem073, tsiem072 and une_rt_a)

2006
17.5

16.8

20.5

19.5

17.5

7.7

14.2

12.0

8.6

25.2

17.9

23.2

21.6

10.4

12.2

9.8

16.2

19.1

16.3

6.6

9.1

29.8

16.3

21.4

13.9

26.6

18.7

21.3

14.1

18.7

8.8

:

:

2006
6.6

7.3

7.0

7.9

6.2

3.2

7.4

5.2

3.5

7.5

7.3

7.9

5.5

3.9

6.0

5.2

3.9

6.5

5.0

3.4

4.0

11.7

6.7

5.7

5.0

11.7

6.2

5.1

3.8

7.8

2.7

:

:

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LABOUR MARKET DEMAND

Two indicators have been selected to illustrate this issue. The job
vacancy rate (JVR) measures the percentage of total posts that are
vacant. This is based on the ratio of the number of job vacancies
to the total number of posts, where the latter is composed of the
number of occupied posts plus the number of job vacancies. A job
vacancy is defined as a post (newly created, unoccupied or about
to become vacant):
-

for which the employer is taking active steps to find a suitable
candidate  from  outside  the  enterprise  concerned  and  is
prepared to take more steps; and

- which the employer intends to fill either immediately or in the

near future.

A  job  vacancy  should  be  open  to  candidates  from  outside  the
recruiting enterprise, however, this does not exclude the possibility
of the employer appointing an internal candidate to the post. A
vacant post that is open only to internal candidates should not be
treated  as  a  job  vacancy.  An  occupied  post  is  a  post  within  an
organisation to which an employee has been assigned.
Information  on  the  average  exit  age  gives  the  average  age  at
which  active  persons  definitively  withdraw  from  the  labour
market. It is based on a probability model considering the relative
changes  of  activity  rates  from  one  year  to  another  at  a  specific
age.  The  activity  rate  represents  the  labour  force  (employed  and
unemployed population) as a percentage of the total population
for a given age.

Figure 2.19: Job vacancy rate (%)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

2003

2004

2005

2006

EU-25

Euro area

Source: Eurostat (jvs_q)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.19: Average exit age from the labour force

  Total 

  Male

  Female

EU-27

2001
59.9

Euro area (1)

59.9

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

IS

NO

CH

56.8

:

58.9

61.6

60.6

61.1

63.2

:

60.3

58.1

59.8

62.3

62.4

58.9

56.8

57.6

57.6

60.9

59.2

56.6

61.9

59.8

:

57.5

61.4

61.8

62.0

:

62.5

63.3

63.9

2005
60.9

60.7

60.6

60.2

60.6

60.9

:

61.7

64.1

61.7

62.4

58.8

59.7

:

62.1

60.0

59.4

59.8

58.8

61.5

59.8

59.5

63.1

63.0

58.5

59.2

61.7

63.7

62.6

59.7

66.3

63.1

62.5

2001
60.4

60.6

57.8

: 

60.7

62.1

60.9

:

63.4

: 

60.6

58.2

59.9

:

:

:

:

58.4

:

61.1

59.9

57.8

62.3

60.5

:

59.3

61.5

61.9

63.0

:

63.3

63.0

64.6

2005
61.4

60.9

61.6

62.4

62.3

61.2

:

:

63.6

62.5

62.0

58.5

60.7

:

:

:

:

2001
59.3

59.6

55.9

: 

57.3

61.0

60.4

:

63.0

: 

60.0

58.0

59.8

:

:

:

:

61.2

57.0

:

:

61.6

60.3

62.0

62.4

64.7

60.8

58.5

55.5

61.6

59.2

:

:

61.1

61.8

64.3

63.4

60.5

65.0

63.1

63.1

56.0

61.3

61.6

61.0

:

60.4

63.6

63.3

2005
60.4

60.6

59.6

58.4

59.1

60.7

:

:

64.6

61.0

62.8

59.1

58.8

:

:

:

:

58.7

:

61.4

59.4

57.4

63.8

61.5

:

57.6

61.7

63.0

61.9

57.4

65.5

63.1

62.0

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem021, tsiem023 and tsiem022)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

PART-TIME, TEMPORARY AND 
SECONDARY EMPLOYMENT

Labour  market  flexibility  may  be  seen  as  a  way  of  encouraging
employers to increase employment and to increase participation in
the labour force. The indicators presented here are all derived from
the EU labour force survey, and cover persons aged 15 to 64.
Persons  with  temporary  contracts  are  those  who  declare
themselves as having a fixed term employment contract or a job
which  will  terminate  if  certain  objective  criteria  are  met,  such  as
completion of an assignment or return of the employee who was
temporarily  replaced.  This  can  be  contrasted  with  those  in
permanent or unlimited employment, for whom no fixed end date
is  foreseen.  The  share  of  temporary  employees  is  shown  as  a
percentage of all employees.
In  the  labour  force  survey,  the  distinction  between  full-time  and
part-time  employment  is  left  to  the  respondent,  since  working
hours  differ  from  one  Member  State  to  the  next  and  between
economic activities.
The indicator on persons with a second job refers only to persons
with  more  than  one  job  at  the  same  time,  and  consequently,
persons  having  changed  job  during  the  reference  period  of  the
labour force survey are not covered.

Figure 2.20: Share of temporary employees, 2006 (%)

0

10

20

30

40

EU-27 (1)
Euro area (1)
ES
PL
PT
FI
SI
SE
CY
NL
IT
DE (1)
FR (1)
EL
BE
CZ
DK
AT
LU
UK
BG
HU
MT
LV
SK
IE
LT
EE
RO

(1) Provisional data.
Source: Eurostat (lfsi_emp_a)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.20: Persons employed part-time and with 
a second job (%)

        Persons employed 
        on a part-time basis

            Persons employed 
            with a second job

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

IS

NO

CH

1996
:

14.1

14.5

:

:

21.9

16.7

:

11.4

5.0

7.6

16.3

6.5

:

:

:

8.0

:

:

38.0

14.0

:

9.2

:

:

:

11.4

20.2

24.6

:

:

:

28.1

2001
16.2

16.1

18.5

3.2

4.9

20.1

20.3

8.2

16.5

4.0

8.0

16.3

8.4

8.4

10.3

9.9

10.4

3.6

7.4

42.2

18.2

10.3

11.1

16.6

6.1

2.3

12.2

21.1

25.1

6.2

:

26.0

31.8

2006
18.1

19.5

22.2

2.0

5.0

23.6

25.8

7.8

:

5.7

12.0

17.2

13.3

7.7

6.5

9.9

17.1

4.0

10.1

46.2

21.8

9.8

11.3

9.7

9.2

2.8

14.0

25.1

25.5

7.9

:

28.7

:

Source: Eurostat (tps00159 and tps00074)

1996
:

2.8

2.6

:

:

6.5

2.4

:

1.7

3.7

1.5

3.4

1.4

:

:

:

0.9

3.9

:

5.2

3.8

:

6.1

:

3.1

:

4.6

7.8

5.0

:

16.9

7.9

5.0

2001
3.8

2.8

3.7

1.0

2.6

10.3

2.4

4.5

1.9

3.2

1.9

3.2

1.3

5.3

4.9

7.2

1.2

1.6

5.5

5.9

5.0

8.5

6.1

5.0

2.5

0.8

3.6

9.5

4.3

:

17.7

8.1

6.5

2006
3.7

3.2

3.8

0.8

2.1

10.1

3.5

3.5

2.2

3.0

2.5

3.0

1.6

4.6

5.7

6.0

1.9

1.8

5.2

6.5

4.3

7.5

5.9

2.7

3.3

1.2

4.2

7.8

3.6

:

:

7.3

:

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

EARNINGS AND MINIMUM WAGES

The structure and evolution of earnings are important features of
any  labour  market,  reflecting  labour  supply  from  individuals  and
labour  demand  by  firms.  Earnings,  productivity,  profits  and
consumption are all inter-related and may be leading determinants
of economic growth and employment performance.
The  gender  pay  gap  in  unadjusted  form  is  defined  as  the
difference  between  average  gross  hourly  earnings  of  male  and
female  paid  employees,  and  is  shown  as  a  percentage  of  men’s
earnings. Some of the underlying factors that may in part explain
gender  pay  gaps  include  sectoral  and  occupational  segregation,
education  and  training,  awareness  and  transparency:  the
European  Union  seeks  to  promote  equal  opportunities  implying
progressive elimination of the gender pay gap.
Gross earnings are remuneration (wages and salaries) in cash paid
directly to an employee, before any deductions for income tax and
social security contributions paid by employees. Data is presented
for full-time employees in industry and services.
Data  on  minimum  wages  are  transmitted  by  national  ministries
responsible for areas such as social affairs, labour or employment.
Minimum  wages  are  fixed  hourly  or  monthly  rates  that  are
determined by governments. They are enforced by law and usually
apply  nationwide  to  all  full-time  employees.  Note  that  minimum
wages  are  gross  amounts,  before  deductions  for  income  tax  or
social  security;  hence,  care  should  be  taken  when  making  any
comparisons  across  countries.  Note  that  not  all  countries  have  a
minimum wage.

Figure 2.21: Gender pay gap, 2005 (%)

EU-27

MT
BE
SI
PT
IT
EL
IE
PL
HU
FR
RO
ES
LU
LT
SE
BG
LV
AT
NL
DK
CZ
UK
FI
DE
SK
CY
EE

0

10

20

30

Source: Eurostat (tsiem030)

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Chapter 2
Population and social conditions

2

Table 2.21: Earnings and minimum wages

Average gross annual
   earnings in industry
  and services (EUR)

EU-27

2000
:

Euro area 28 786

2005
28 992

33 164

   Minimum  
   wage
  (EUR/month)

2003
:

2006
:

:

:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

IS

NO

CH

US

31 644

1 436

:

40 962

37 319

:

:

14 721

17 432

26 712

:

16 335

:

:

35 875

4 173

12 553

31 901

:

:

12 620

:

:

3 583

27 398

31 621

37 677

:

37 639

36 202

43 683

:

36 673

1 163

1 234

1 978

7 405

47 529

41 694

:

:

:

20 439

56

199

:

:

82

261

:

:

138

192

1 073

1 293

605

526

668

631

30 521

1 154

1 218

:

20 549

4 246

:

:

:

116

125

:

:

129

159

42 135

1 369

1 503

7 798

11 180

212

534

247

580

38 700

1 249

1 273

36 032

6 270

14 715

3 155

:

6 374

33 290

34 049

:

201

416

73

451

133

:

:

:

234

450

90

512

183

:

:

42 866

1 106

1 269

:

:

45 485

45 760

189

331

:

:

:

:

:

:

Full-time 
employees 
 on 
minimum 
wage
(% of 
total)

Minimum wage 
as a proportion
 of average 
monthly 
earnings in 
industry and 
services (%)

2005
:

:

:

16.0

2.0

:

:

4.8

3.3

:

0.8

16.8

:

:

12.0

10.3

11.0

8.0

1.5

2.2

:

2.9

4.7

9.7

2.8

1.7

:

:

1.8

:

:

:

:

2005
:

:

:

49.6

39.1

:

:

33.2

52.0

:

40.4

:

:

:

33.6

38.3

50.7

38.2

50.6

45.5

:

33.7

40.5

32.6

45.6

34.4

:

:

37.0

:

:

:

:

:

277

753

1.3

31.97

Source: Eurostat (tec00030, tps00155, tps00156 and earn_minw_avg)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LOW WAGE EARNERS

The  transition  from  gross  to  net  earnings  takes  into  account
income  taxes,  employee’s  social  security  contributions  and,  if
appropriate, family allowances. The amount of these components
and  therefore  the  ratio  of  net  to  gross  earnings  depend  on  the
individual  situation.  A  number  of  different  family  situations  are
considered,  all  referring  to  an  average  worker  (AW).  Differences
exist with respect to marital status, number of workers, number of
dependent  children,  and  level  of  gross  earnings,  expressed  as
percentage of the earnings of an AW.
The tax wedge on labour costs is defined as income tax plus the
employee  and  the  employer’s  social  security  contributions,
expressed as a percentage of the total labour costs (gross earnings
plus the employer’s social security contributions plus payroll taxes
where  applicable).  This  indicator  is  for  single  persons  without
children, earning 67 % of the earnings of an AW.
The  unemployment  trap  measures  the  percentage  of  gross
earnings  which  is  taxed  away  through  higher  tax  and  social
security contributions and the withdrawal of unemployment and
other  benefits  when  an  unemployed  person  returns  to
employment. This indicator is available for single persons without
children, earning 67 % of the earnings of an AW when in work.
The  low  wage  trap  measures  the  percentage  of  gross  earnings
which  is  taxed  away  through  the  combined  effects  of  income
taxes, social security contributions and any withdrawal of benefits
when gross earnings increase from 33 % to 67 % of the earnings
of  an  AW.  This  indicator  is  available  for  single  persons  without
children, and also for one-earner couples with two children.

Figure 2.22: Tax rate on low wage earners, EU-25 (%)

100

75

50

25

0

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Unemployment trap
Low wage trap - one earner couple with two children
Low wage trap - single person without children
Tax wedge on labour cost

Source: Eurostat (tsiem041, tsiem042, tsiem043 and tsiem044)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.22: Tax rate on low wage earners (%)

      Tax wedge
      on labour 
     cost

      Unemploy-
     ment trap

     Low wage 
      trap - single
     person 
      without 
      children

  Low wage 
  trap - one 
  earner couple 
  with two 
  children

2001
40.3

2005
39.4

2001
73.9

2005
75.5

2001
48.0

2005
47.3

2001
54.2

2005
62.3

44.2

50.7

36.9

41.3

40.5

47.7

37.4

17.3

35.1

35.3

47.6

42.7

17.0

41.3

42.2

30.6

48.1

16.6

38.9

42.9

41.8

32.2

45.2

40.3

41.3

41.4

47.8

28.0

42.6

20.9

35.2

27.3

23.2

27.1

42.3

49.1

36.3

42.1

39.3

46.7

39.8

19.9

34.4

35.7

41.4

41.7

19.1

41.0

43.2

29.8

42.9

18.7

41.3

42.5

42.4

31.7

42.4

36.4

35.3

39.5

46.5

29.9

41.9

23.6

34.3

26.7

:

26.7

75.1

86.0

75.2

67.0

92.0

75.0

48.2

73.0

56.0

80.0

81.0

59.0

52.9

86.0

54.1

88.0

67.0

65.2

79.0

67.0

74.0

81.0

76.1

80.5

73.0

80.0

87.0

68.0

:

68.0

75.0

:

56.0

70.0

77.5

85.0

77.0

66.0

90.0

75.0

65.0

74.0

62.0

80.0

82.0

72.0

63.0

87.0

56.4

88.0

55.0

64.0

83.0

67.0

81.0

81.0

60.5

93.0

43.0

77.0

87.0

68.0

:

73.0

75.0

:

59.0

70.0

43.5

56.0

21.8

39.0

84.0

53.0

26.0

46.0

18.0

24.0

41.0

29.0

7.2

31.7

36.0

47.0

42.0

19.0

65.0

35.0

55.0

21.0

28.4

34.9

36.0

56.0

60.0

58.0

:

34.0

40.0

:

17.0

34.0

42.8

57.0

21.4

34.0

81.0

51.0

26.0

50.0

16.0

26.0

34.0

35.0

6.0

32.0

36.0

55.0

30.0

16.0

70.0

34.0

65.0

20.0

30.3

30.0

23.0

64.0

57.0

58.0

:

43.0

38.0

:

19.0

31.0

48.2

42.0

76.1

79.0

95.0

66.0

77.7

75.0

16.0

16.0

53.0

-11.0

53.0

45.0

33.1

59.0

91.0

78.0

22.0

76.0

16.0

17.0

56.0

-7.0

57.7

125.0

100.0

100.0

93.6

42.8

103.0

110.0

28.0

14.4

79.0

79.0

72.0

65.0

13.0

26.2

124.0

14.0

54.0

78.0

65.0

75.0

76.0

17.0

73.0

27.0

96.0

100.0

96.0

62.0

:

77.0

105.0

:

89.0

57.0

93.0

84.0

:

74.0

89.0

:

96.0

44.0

EU-25

Euro area (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
Source: Eurostat (tsiem041, tsiem042, tsiem043 and tsiem044)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE

Consumer policy within the European Union is based on three key
objectives: a high common level of consumer protection; effective
enforcement of consumer protection rules; proper involvement of
consumer organisations in European Union policies. The safety of
consumer  products  is  covered  by  a  wide  range  of  sectoral
legislation,  while  consumer  interests  are  also  safeguarded  by
legislation on unfair commercial practices, misleading advertising,
price  indications,  the  conformity  of  goods,  distance  selling,
doorstep selling, and e-commerce.
Statistics  on  the  final  consumption  expenditure  of  households
cover expenditure incurred on goods or services that are used for
the  satisfaction  of  individual  needs.  Consumption  expenditure
covers  the  purchase  of  goods  and  services,  the  consumption  of
own production (such as garden produce), as well as the imputed
rent  of  owner-occupied  dwellings.  The  data  on  consumption
expenditure may be broken down according to the classification of
individual  consumption  according  to  purpose  (COICOP),  which
identifies  12  different  headings  at  its  most  aggregated  level.
Housing,  energy  costs,  transport,  and  food  and  non-alcoholic
beverages account for a high proportion of expenditure made by
European households.
The indicators presented here include data expressed in PPS (see
page  14  for  a  definition  of  PPS)  which  eliminates  differences  in
price levels between countries.

Figure 2.23: Breakdown of household consumption
expenditure, EU-25, 2005 (% of total household 
consumption expenditure)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Housing, water, elec., gas & other fuels

Transport

Food & non-alcoholic beverages

Miscellaneous goods & services

Recreation and culture

Restaurants and hotels

Furnish., household equip. & maintenance

Clothing & footwear

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco

Health

Communications

Education

Source: Eurostat (tps00079 to tps00090)

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Chapter 2
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2

Table 2.23: Total household consumption expenditure

         As a proportion of GDP (%)
2005
56.9

2000
57.5

1995
56.8

           Per capita (PPS) 
1995
8 800

2000
11 600

2005
13 400

56.5

52.3

70.3

51.8

50.6

54.8

60.3

52.2

76.6

62.9

56.0

59.6

82.4

62.7

65.7

47.6

56.4

78.1

48.4

57.3

59.5

65.6

:

61.6

53.9

50.1

48.3

60.9

70.3

54.5

47.3

57.9

57.4

67.4

57.0

52.1

73.0

54.5

47.0

55.7

59.6

45.7

71.8

63.1

55.4

61.1

83.4

60.7

66.1

46.6

55.6

76.5

49.2

57.0

63.0

64.6

69.1

59.1

56.3

47.5

47.3

61.9

71.5

55.7

40.9

58.3

:

:

56.5

51.1

:

51.4

9 700

9 800

3 400

5 500

12 500

14 100

12 200

14 200

3 900

7 100

:

8 900

:

:

9 700

11 900

56.1

54.3

42.1

:

60.1

56.1

59.7

76.3

60.3

66.1

44.8

54.8

73.5

47.8

57.1

61.8

10 200

12 500

14 500

3 100

5 000

7 600

8 000

8 400

8 500

9 900

11 600

13 700

10 500

:

11 700

13 800

12 600

14 300

10 800

13 900

14 100

10 500

13 800

15 900

2 900

3 500

4 300

5 000

6 900

8 100

14 800

20 800

26 400

4 300

6 000

8 000

:

12 000

12 800

9 000

12 300

14 100

11 300

14 400

16 500

3 800

5 900

7 200

:

7 700

10 400

:

68.5

56.9

57.3

49.6

46.5

60.6

67.4

54.1

:

:

:

:

:

6 500

3 700

8 100

8 800

3 500

8 600

5 400

5 500

10 900

7 700

10 900

12 900

11 300

12 500

10 300

14 000

16 800

3 200

4 300

4 400

10 400

14 300

16 600

9 600

13 100

12 900

15 600

15 800

10 800

:

:

:

:

:

:

EU-25

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

Source: Eurostat (tps00092 and tps00093)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

LIVING CONDITIONS

While comparisons of standards of living are frequently based on
GDP  per  capita,  such  figures  say  little  about  the  distribution  of
wealth and income among private households. For the purpose of
poverty  indicators,  the  national  median  equivalised  disposable
income  is  calculated  from  the  total  disposable  income  of  each
household  (income  received  by  all  members  of  a  household)
divided  by  the  equivalised  household  size  whereby  weights  are
assigned to each member of the household (1.0 to the first adult,
0.5 to other persons aged 14 or over, and 0.3 to each child aged
less than 14). 
The at-risk-of-poverty rate is defined as the proportion of persons
with an equivalised income that is below the threshold of 60 % of
the  national  median  disposable  income.  This  rate  may  be
expressed  before  or  after  social  transfers,  with  the  difference
measuring  the  hypothetical  impact  of  national  social  transfers  in
reducing poverty. Retirement and survivor’s pensions are counted
as income before transfers and not as social transfers. The S80/S20
income  quintile  share  ratio  is  a  measure  of  the  inequality  of
income distribution and is calculated as the ratio of total income
received by the 20 % of the population with the highest income

Figure 2.24: Persons at-risk-of-poverty, 2005 
(% of total population) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

IE 
UK
DK
PL
SE
HU
FI
BE
SI
FR
LV
PT
LT
AT
DE
RO
EE
ES
IT
LU
EL
NL
SK
CY
CZ
MT
BG 

EU-25 after 
social transfers

EU-25 before 
social transfers

After social transfers
Before social transfers

(1) Source: EU-SILC, income data for 2004, except for Ireland (moving income
reference period, 2004-2005) and the United Kingdom (2005). Bulgaria based on
national HBS for 2004 and income data for 2004. Romania based on national HBS for
2005 and income data for 2005. EU aggregates are Eurostat estimates based on
population weighted average of national data. Denmark, Germany, Cyprus, Latvia,
Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom:
breaks in series.
Source: Eurostat (tsisc021 and tsisc022)

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2

(the top quintile) to that received by the 20 % of the population
with  the  lowest  income  (the  bottom  quintile);  all  incomes  are
compiled  as  equivalised  disposable  income.  The  aggregate
replacement  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  median  personal  income  from
pensions of retired persons to the median personal income from
earnings of persons in work aged 50-59. 
The indicators above are derived from the Community statistics on
income and living conditions (EU-SILC).
The indicators relating to jobless households are calculated as the
proportion of persons of the specified age who live in households
where  no  one  is  working.  Students  aged  18-24  who  live  in
households composed solely of students of the same age class are
not  counted  in  the  numerator  or  the  denominator.  The  data
comes from the EU labour force survey (EU LFS).

Table 2.24: Living conditions

  People aged 0-17
 (% of age group 
living in jobless 
households) (1)

 People aged 18-59
 (% of age group 
living in jobless 
households) (1)

Aggregate 
replace-
ment ratio 
(2)

  Inequality
  of income 
 distribution  
(%) (2, 3)

11.0
8.8
8.8
7.4

2005
0.51
0.51
0.42
:
0.51
0.35
0.45
0.47
0.43
0.49
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.28
0.61
0.47
0.63
0.61
0.54
0.43
0.67
0.58
0.59
:
0.42
0.55
0.46
0.58
0.40
:
:

2000 2005
4.9
4.7
4.0
4.0
3.7
3.5
4.1
5.9
5.0
5.8
5.4
4.0
5.6
4.3
6.7
6.9
3.8
4.0
4.1
4.0
3.8
6.6
6.9
4.9
3.4
3.9
3.6
3.3
5.5
4.8
10.0

: 10.1
9.4
:
13.8
14.1
: 17.3
7.9
:
:
:
10.9
:
12.9
9.8
12.1
10.9
12.0
:
:
:
7.6
15.8
:
10.2
8.1
:
6.3
:
8.8
:
:
:
13.5
:
:

1996 2001 2006
9.6
9.6
7.8
7.8
13.5
12.9
14.5
19.0
8.2
8.0
5.0
:
8.9 10.3
8.2
11.3
3.6
5.1
9.5
5.4
3.9
7.1
5.3
3.7
13.3
8.2
6.2
7.2
11.2
4.7
10.0
3.6
11.8
4.9
:
16.2
9.8
:

1996 2001 2006
9.8
9.3
14.3
11.6
7.3
6.9
9.7 10.5
6.0
7.9
8.1
6.3
10.3 10.9
9.2
10.8
4.9
4.9
6.8
12.8
7.0
10.0
7.1
6.7
11.6
13.2
6.7
7.8
7.4
6.9
8.8
7.9
13.5
13.8
5.8
4.3
9.7
8.7
7.2
8.2
9.6
10.0
9.5
:
:
:
10.7
11.2
12.9
:
:
:

:
EU-25
:
Euro area
12.3
BE
:
BG
:
CZ
:
DK
9.1
DE
:
EE
16.3
IE
5.1
EL
11.2
ES
9.6
FR
8.6
IT
:
CY
:
LV
:
LT
4.5
LU
15.0
HU
:
MT
8.9
NL
4.9
AT
:
PL
5.1
PT
:
RO
3.8
SI
:
SK
:
FI
:
SE
20.1
UK
:
HR
:
TR
(1) Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey.
(2) EU-SILC, income data for 2004, except for Ireland (moving income reference
period, 2004-2005) and the United Kingdom (2005). Bulgaria based on national HBS
for 2004 and income data for 2004. Romania based on national HBS for 2005 and
income data for 2005; EU aggregates are Eurostat estimates based on population
weighted averages of national data. 
(3) S80/S20 income quintile share ratio. Data for 2000: ECHP for EU-15 countries,
except Denmark and Sweden (national data). Other countries national data sources.
Source: Eurostat (tsisc071, tsisc072, SILC and tsisc010)

4.5
:
4.3
3.7
:
:
3.5
6.3
4.7
5.8
5.4
4.2
4.8
:
5.5
5.0
3.7
3.3
4.6
4.1
3.4
4.7
6.4
4.5
3.2
:
3.3
:
5.2
:
:

11.2
10.4
5.3
6.4
9.2
7.0
3.9
10.7
:
3.4
13.5
7.9
6.0
4.1
:
3.6
6.8
3.8
9.3
:
:
16.9
:
:

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

SOCIAL PROTECTION

Social  protection  systems  are  highly  developed  in  the  European
Union:  they  are  designed  to  protect  people  against  the  risks
associated with unemployment, parental responsibilities, ill health
and invalidity, the loss of a spouse or parent (survivors), old age,
housing  and  social  exclusion.  The  model  used  in  each  Member
State  is  somewhat  different  and  some  social  protection  benefits
are provided by private social protection schemes, although they
continue to be financed by government (at least partially).
Data  on  expenditure  and  receipts  of  social  protection  are  drawn
up  according  to  the  European  system  of  integrated  social
protection statistics (ESSPROS) methodology (for more details and
definitions, see the publication ‘ESSPROS Manual 1996’, available
from  the  Eurostat  website  (catalogue  number:  CA-99-96--641)).
This  system  has  been  designed  to  allow  a  comparison  of  social
protection flows between Member States.
Note that besides transfers in cash or in kind, total expenditure on
social protection also includes other costs associated with running
the services, such as administration, management and payment of
property income.
Expenditure  on  care  for  the  elderly  concerns  social  protection
expenditure  devoted  to  old  age  care,  covering  care  allowance,
accommodation,  and  assistance  in  carrying  out  daily  tasks  and
other benefits in kind.
The  old-age-dependency  ratio  is  the  ratio  between  the  total
number  of  elderly  persons  of  an  age  when  they  are  generally
economically  inactive  (aged  65  and  over)  and  the  number  of
persons of working age (from 15 to 64).

Figure 2.25: Expenditure on social protection, EU-25, 2004
(% share of total benefits) (1)

Housing
2.0%

Social exclusion 
n.e.c.
1.5%

Old age
41.4%

Survivors
4.5%
Unemployment
6.5%

Family / children
7.8%

Disability
8.1%

Sickness / 
health care
28.3%

(1) Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding. 
Source: Eurostat (tps00107)

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2

Table 2.25: Expenditure on social protection

       Expenditure on 
       social protection 
        (EUR per 
       inhabitant at 
       constant 
      1995 prices)

2000
:

5 442

6 059

:

2004
:

5 821

7 016

:

867

1 150

8 547

7 047

388

3 266

2 259

2 692

6 705

4 529

1 908

392

419

9 460

7 150

517

4 416

2 730

3 025

7 477

4 902

2 464

381

521

8 858

11 258

487

1 467

6 154

6 898

545

690

1 549

6 872

7 338

556

2 276

2 636

:

:

1 774

1 717

572

5 758

8 628

6 444

5 732

8 897

9 981

623

6 633

9 194

6 376

6 281

9 824

10 999

    Expenditure on
    social protection 
    (% of GDP)

2000
26.6

26.7

26.5

:

19.5

28.9

29.2

14.0

14.1

25.7

19.7

29.5

24.7

14.8

15.3

15.8

19.6

19.3

16.3

26.4

28.2

19.5

21.7

:

24.9

19.3

25.1

30.7

27.1

19.3

24.6

27.4

2004
27.3

27.7

29.3

:

19.6

30.7

29.5

13.4

17.0

26.0

20.0

31.2

26.1

17.8

12.6

13.3

22.6

20.7

18.8

28.5

29.1

20.0

24.9

:

24.3

17.2

26.7

32.9

26.3

23.0

26.3

29.5

Expendi-
ture on 
care for 
elderly
(% of 
GDP)

2004
0.6

:

0.1

:

0.4

1.8

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.0

0.6

0.6

0.9

1.2

0.3

0.4

:

0.2

0.3

1.0

2.7

1.0

1.9

1.9

0.3

Old-age 
depen-
dency 
ratio
(%)

2004
24.9

:

26.3

24.9

19.8

22.6

27.8

24.1

26.8

24.5

25.3

16.5

29.4

17.7

24.1

22.5

21.2

22.8

19.2

20.7

23.6

18.7

25.2

21.1

21.7

16.3

23.7

26.4

24.4

:

:

:

EU-25

Euro area (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

CH

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
Source: Eurostat (tps00099, tsp00098, spr_exp_sum and demo_pjanind)

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2 Chapter 2

Population and social conditions

GOVERNANCE

The level of citizen’s confidence in the European Parliament and the
European Commission is expressed as the share of positive opinions
(people who declare that they ‘tend to trust’) about this institution.
The remaining categories, not shown in the table, include negative
opinions (people who declare that they ‘tend not to trust’), as well
as ‘don’t know’ and/or ‘no answer’. The data are based on the bi-
yearly Eurobarometer, a survey which has been used, since 1973,
to monitor public opinion in the Member States (please note that
opinion  polls  can  have  a  significant  volatility  over  time;  they  are
often influenced by recent political or other events within a country
and have therefore to be interpreted with special care).
Voter  turnout  indicators  are  based  on  the  percentage  of  the
population  who  cast  a  vote  (including  those  who  cast  blank  or
invalid votes) in the total population who has the right to vote. In
Belgium,  Luxembourg  and  Greece,  voting  is  compulsory.  In  Italy,
voting is a civic obligation (no penalty).

Figure 2.26: Level of citizens’ confidence in EU institutions,
December 2006 (%)

0

25

50

75

SI
EL
BE
SK
LU
RO
PT
HU
IE
LT
EE
CZ
PL
MT
CY
DK
FI
NL
SE
IT
BG
ES
FR
LV
AT
DE
UK

European Parliament
Commission of the European Communities

Source: European Commission, Eurobarometer opinion poll

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Table 2.26: Good governance (%) 

       Level of citizens'
      confidence in the
        European 
        Parliament

Mar-04
54

Dec-06
52

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

64

60

44

55

51

49

64

70

62

57

68

55

40

52

67

64

55

57

43

53

58

66

59

59

61

55

30

-

-

-

-

-

67

55

62

62

52

59

66

70

51

50

56

57

47

60

63

65

59

58

50

59

61

64

73

71

56

58

25

-

-

-

-

-

   Voter turnout 
  in EU
   Parliamentary 
   elections

Voter turnout in 
  national   
    Parliamentary  
   elections

1999
-

91.0

-

-

50.5

45.2

-

50.2

75.3

63.0

46.8

70.8

-

-

-

87.3

-

-

30.0

49.4

-

40.0

-

-

-

31.4

38.8

24.0

-

-

-

-

-

2004 (1)
45.7

Previous
-

Latest
-

90.8

28.6

28.3

47.9

43.0

26.8

58.8

63.2

45.1

42.8

73.1

71.2

41.3

48.4

89.0

38.5

82.4

39.3

42.4

20.9

38.6

29.5

28.3

17.0

39.4

37.8

38.8

-

-

-

-

-

90.6

66.6

74.0

87.1

79.1

57.4

66.1

75.0

68.7

68.0

82.9

90.1

71.9

58.2

86.5

56.7

95.4

79.1

80.4

46.2

61.0

65.3

70.4

84.2

65.3

81.4

59.4

76.5

87.1

84.1

75.0

43.2

94.0

55.8

57.9

84.5

77.7

57.9

62.6

76.6

75.7

60.3

81.4

91.8

71.2

46.1

91.7

73.5

95.7

80.0

84.3

40.6

64.3

58.5

60.6

70.1

66.7

80.1

61.4

61.7

76.9

87.7

77.4

45.4

(1) Last election in 2004, except for Bulgaria and Romania, 2007.
Source: Eurobarometer opinion poll, European Parliament, International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance

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3 Chapter 3

Industry, trade and services

GROWING AND DECLINING ACTIVITIES

This chapter concentrates on enterprises, covering activities from
mining  and  quarrying  through  manufacturing  to  construction,
distributive  trades,  hotels  and  restaurants,  transport  services,
financial services, real estate, renting, and business services (such
as computer services, accounting, advertising, labour recruitment,
cleaning and security services). These statistics show developments
for  economic  activities  (through  short-term  business  statistics,
compiled  with  monthly,  quarterly  and  annual  frequencies),  or
structural aspects (through structural business statistics, compiled
with an annual frequency). In addition information is provided on
production statistics, and also on tourism.
The information presented in the opening pages of this chapter is
based  upon  short-term  business  statistics.  The  index  of  turnover
shows the evolution of the market for goods and services in terms
of the sales made. The index is not deflated, and so its objective is
to  measure  market  activity  in  value  terms.  Turnover  includes  all
invoiced  duties  and  taxes  on  the  goods  or  services  with  the
exception  of  the  VAT  invoiced  to  customers  and  other  similar
deductible taxes directly linked to turnover. Turnover also includes
all  other  charges  (transport,  packaging,  etc.)  passed  on  to  the
customer, even if these charges are listed separately in the invoice.

Figure 3.1: Fastest growing service activities, average
annual growth rate of turnover, EU-27, 2001-2006 (%) (1)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Transport  and
communications

Wholesale trade

Computer services
and other business
activities

Motor trades

Retail trade

Hotels and
restaurants

(1) Working day adjusted series; estimates for 2006.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot, ebt_ts_who and ebt_ts_ret) 

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3

Figure 3.2: Fastest growing/declining industrial activities
(excluding construction), average annual growth rate of
turnover, EU-27, 2001-2006 (%) (1)

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

Mining and quarrying except energy
producing materials

Coke, refined petroleum products and
nuclear fuel

Basic metals and fabricated metal products

Mining and quarrying of energy producing
materials

Wood and wood products

Rubber and plastic products

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

Chemicals, chemical products and man-
made fibres

Transport equipment

Other non-metallic mineral products

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Pulp, paper and paper products; publishing
and printing

Electrical and optical equipment

Leather and leather products

Textiles and textile products

(1) Gross series; wood products and coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear
fuel: estimates for 2006; electricity, gas and water supply (NACE E): not available.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_intv_a)

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3 Chapter 3

Industry, trade and services

SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR INDUSTRY

In  order  to  improve  the  timeliness  of  the  monthly  and  quarterly
economic  statistics,  the  Council  of  the  European  Union  and  the
European  Commission  announced  the  principal  European
economic  indicators  (PEEIs)  in  the  spring  of  2003.  This  set  of
indicators, of which there are eight short-term business indicators,
are  given  the  utmost  priority  in  terms  of  timely  collection,
compilation,  harmonised  methodologies,  dissemination  and
quality. Among the PEEIs for the industrial economy are the index
of production and the index of domestic output prices.
The  industrial  production  index  shows  changes  in  output  and
activity within industry. It aims to show volume changes in value
added.  In  practice,  proxies  are  used  for  the  compilation  of  the
index, such as deflated turnover or production values, the physical
quantity  of  production,  or  occasionally  the  level  of  labour,  raw
material or energy inputs.
Domestic industrial output price indices (sometimes also known as
industrial  producer  price  indices)  show  the  development  of
transaction prices across industrial activities. Output prices may be
used  as  an  early  indication  of  inflationary  pressures  within  an
economy,  as  may  import  price  indices  for  which  an  index  is
currently  being  developed  for  the  European  Union.  Industrial
output  price  increases/decreases  are  separated  according  to  the
destination of the product, between domestic and non-domestic
markets, as determined by the residency of the third party that has
ordered or purchased the product. Furthermore, within the non-
domestic  market  a  distinction  between  euro  area  and  non-euro
area markets may be made.

Figure 3.3: Production and domestic output price indices,
total industry (excluding construction), EU-27 (2000=100) (1)

130

120

110

100

90

May-97

May-99

May-01

May-03

May-05

May-07

Domestic output price index
Production index

(1) Trend-cycle series for the index of production; gross series for the index of domestic
output prices.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_inpp_mdm and ebt_inpr_mtr)

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3

Table 3.1: Annual growth rates, total industry 
(excluding construction) (%) (1)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

NO

CH

JP

US

           Production index
2004
2.3

2005
1.2

2006
3.9

      Domestic output price index
2006
5.9

2004
3.0

2005
5.3

2.2

3.2

17.3

9.2

-0.2

3.0

9.7

0.3

1.2

1.6

1.9

-0.3

1.5

6.8

10.8

4.0

6.7

:

4.1

6.3

12.2

-2.7

4.5

4.6

4.1

5.0

3.9

0.4

3.0

9.8

2.3

4.4

5.3

2.5

1.3

-0.4

6.8

6.7

1.8

3.4

11.1

3.0

-0.9

0.6

0.2

-0.8

0.8

5.6

7.1

0.6

7.2

:

-1.1

4.2

4.6

0.3

2.4

3.9

3.8

0.3

1.8

-1.3

5.4

5.7

4.0

5.1

5.9

11.4

3.5

5.8

7.5

5.1

0.5

3.9

1.0

2.6

3.4

5.7

7.3

2.3

10.8

:

1.2

8.2

12.2

2.7

7.7

6.5

9.9

8.1

4.1

0.1

4.6

5.8

-0.8

-           

2.4

2.7

1.2

3.3

7.8

4.6

3.9

2.3

4.5

6.0

5.7

3.0

1.6

:

0.5

3.5

3.4

2.0

2.7

5.9

:

2.4

9.0

8.4

:

2.6

1.8

7.6

2.7

18.5

4.3

3.4

-0.5

2.0

4.3

3.5

:

3.6

:

:

:

4.1

2.2

6.9

3.0

9.4

4.6

:

2.1

5.9

4.9

3.0

4.0

5.1

:

5.9

3.9

8.3

:

7.1

3.3

2.1

4.1

5.1

4.8

9.2

1.6

7.6

5.5

:

1.8

6.9

5.3

3.4

5.6

3.9

:

6.7

13.1

8.4

:

8.2

2.1

2.5

4.7

12.5

12.0

2.7

4.7

1.8

3.8

10.9

3.0

:

6.0

:

:

:

2.4

8.4

5.2

5.9

9.0

2.9

:

8.8

:

:

:

(1) Working day adjusted series for the index of production; gross series for the index
of domestic output prices.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_inpp_a and ebt_inpr_awd)

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3 Chapter 3

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SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR CONSTRUCTION

As with the index of production for industrial activities (shown on
the previous page), the construction production index also aims to
show volume changes in value added; it is also one of the PEEIs.
The index for construction may be split into an index for building
and an index for civil engineering, according to the classification
of  types  of  construction  (CC).  Buildings  are  sub-divided  into
residential  buildings  (in  other  words  buildings  at  least  half  of
which  are  used  for  residential  purposes)  and  non-residential
buildings.  Civil  engineering  works  are  all  constructions  not
classified  under  buildings:  for  example,  railways,  roads,  bridges,
highways, airport runways, dams.
It  is  particularly  difficult  to  compile  a  production  index  for
construction, given that it is difficult to measure output in physical
quantities,  as  almost  every  project  is  unique  in  terms  of  the
building  being  constructed  and  the  site  being  used;  equally  it  is
difficult to obtain reliable output prices to use as a deflator in the
event that output is measured in value terms. Because of this, a
wide  variety  of  approaches  are  used  in  different  countries,
including the use of hours worked as a proxy.

Figure 3.4: Index of production, construction, EU-27
(2000=100) (1)

115

110

105

100

95

90

Apr-97

Apr-99

Apr-01

Apr-03

Apr-05

Apr-07

Building
Construction
Civil engineering

(1) Trend-cycle series; construction from 01-2007 onwards: estimates; building and civil
engineering for 04-2007: estimates.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_copr_m)

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Table 3.2: Annual growth rates for the index of production,
construction (%) (1)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

NO

2000
2.4

3.2

5.0

:

7.7

1.7

-3.3

21.8

:

:

6.9

8.6

6.6

:

8.7

-18.2

:

8.2

:

3.4

0.0

2001
0.4

0.3

-1.9

12.8

8.6

-5.1

-7.7

5.9

7.2

6.5

7.7

0.5

5.8

3.2

5.5

7.1

4.3

8.4

12.0

1.9

-0.8

-1.0

-10.4

:

:

0.1

0.0

7.2

-3.2

0.6

-9.1

-2.2

4.3

:

-7.1

0.1

2.4

1.7

2.0

3.6

1.3

2002
0.9

2003
0.9

0.6

-2.7

3.9

1.1

-3.1

-4.4

22.0

3.9

39.1

5.6

-2.5

5.2

3.3

11.6

21.7

2.1

17.9

4.6

-3.3

0.6

-9.7

-1.3

:

5.4

4.4

1.6

-4.4

4.2

12.8

-0.1

-0.3

-2.9

5.8

7.7

2.3

-4.2

6.0

5.7

-5.7

3.9

-1.0

2.8

6.9

13.1

27.8

1.1

1.7

4.1

-5.5

12.5

-6.9

-8.3

6.9

8.0

6.0

3.8

1.7

5.1

22.9

2.1

2004
0.6

-0.5

-1.9

2005
0.2

-0.4

-3.4

35.2

31.8

7.5

6.1

-5.0

11.1

10.8

2.4

7.0

-5.6

23.0

12.5

-15.9

-38.8

2.1

1.0

2.1

4.5

13.4

6.8

-1.2

5.5

4.2

-1.6

5.2

-1.0

-4.7

9.5

2.5

5.7

3.7

0.7

3.1

2.0

7.3

2.5

3.7

0.6

2.8

15.3

11.5

-0.6

16.2

12.7

1.8

4.8

9.3

-4.9

9.2

3.0

14.3

4.3

4.0

-0.9

-0.8

8.9

2006
4.3

4.3

3.2

4.5

6.9

11.7

6.5

22.4

1.2

7.4

1.8

5.2

4.1

3.9

13.4

21.2

2.2

-1.1

4.1

4.6

1.2

14.9

-6.5

19.3

15.3

16.1

6.2

7.9

1.3

:

6.0

(1) Working day adjusted series.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_copr_a)

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3 Chapter 3

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SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR RETAIL TRADE

Retailing  covers  the  resale  without  transformation  of  new  and
used  goods  to  the  general  public  for  personal  or  household  use
and consumption. Various distinctions can be made, for example
between  non-specialised  and  specialised  retailers,  between  food
and  non-food  retailers,  in-store  and  other  retailers  (retailing  in
markets,  door-to-door  or  remote  selling  for  example),  and
between new and second hand goods.
Turnover  indices  for  retail  trade  are  compiled  in  both  value  and
volume terms. The volume measure is more commonly referred to
as the index of the volume of (retail) sales, which eliminates price
effects.  This  indicator  is  also  one  of  the  PEEIs.  Retail  trade  has  a
particular importance because of its role as an interface between
producers  and  final  customers,  and  because  of  this  retail  sales
turnover and volume of sales indices can be used as a short-term
indicator for final domestic demand by households.

Figure 3.5: Volume of sales index, selected retail trade
activities, EU-27 (2000=100) (1)

130

120

110

100

90

May-98

May-00

May-02

May-04

May-06

Retail trade
Food, beverages and tobacco
Textiles, clothing, footwear & leather goods in specialised stores
Household equipment in specialised stores
Books, newspapers and other sales in specialised stores

(1) Trend-cycle series; all values from March 2007 onwards, except for retail sales of
food, beverages and tobacco: estimates.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_ret)

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Table 3.3: Annual growth rates for the volume of sales
index, retail trade (%) (1)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

NO

2000
2.8

2001
2.6

2.2

4.8

:

5.7

0.8

1.2

8.5

:

9.2

2.7

3.3

-0.6

:

17.3

14.3

7.0

1.0

:

3.9

1.6

:

3.2

:

1.8

0.2

6.0

3.2

0.6

0.2

22.8

8.1

3.8

3.8

4.0

-0.7

9.3

2.6

2.5

2.3

4.3

:

1.9

-1.4

2.3

2.8

0.6

25.8

15.2

7.9

4.8

6.3

4.4

:

2.8

4.5

4.1

2.8

5.7

11.2

1.8

2002
2.3

1.2

-0.7

8.6

3.1

3.2

-1.4

14.1

2.2

4.9

6.1

3.0

-0.5

2.6

12.4

7.8

4.1

8.5

:

0.3

-0.3

-1.3

0.0

0.8

4.0

5.8

2.8

4.6

6.0

9.3

4.3

2003
1.7

0.7

-0.9

2004
3.0

1.6

1.7

2005
2.1

1.4

1.4

2006
2.5

1.3

-1.5

18.1

20.3

17.4

13.3

3.9

3.8

-0.6

0.7

2.4

4.4

3.1

2.4

-0.7

-1.4

13.6

11.1

3.5

9.0

:

-2.4

0.2

4.7

-2.5

5.5

3.0

-5.3

4.1

4.5

3.5

10.9

4.4

2.7

8.1

1.8

3.9

8.7

1.8

6.8

3.3

0.3

12.2

14.6

16.6

4.2

4.4

2.4

3.5

-2.4

3.3

12.4

10.3

2.0

5.4

:

-1.0

1.3

4.8

2.4

5.5

3.5

1.5

1.5

-0.6

4.8

21.6

13.3

0.3

5.7

:

0.8

1.6

1.3

1.7

7.8

7.2

2.0

1.4

-0.5

6.2

19.8

7.2

2.8

4.3

:

4.8

1.9

9.6

1.2

14.1

17.4

24.8

2.9

6.3

4.3

5.0

5.9

6.8

3.4

7.3

9.7

5.0

7.4

2.1

2.3

4.2

1.6

8.8

5.6

9.1

3.2

6.9

6.3

(1) Working day adjusted series.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_ret)

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3 Chapter 3

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SHORT-TERM STATISTICS FOR OTHER SERVICES

The  contribution  of  services  to  the  European  economy  grows
almost every year, and it is important that official statistics are able
to  provide  information  on  this  growing  area.  The  knowledge-
based  economy  and  the  demand  for  intangibles,  either  for
consumption  or  investment  purposes,  as  well  as  international
outsourcing,  has  led  to  a  major  restructuring  of  many  European
economies,  with  a  shift  away  from  industrial  activities  towards
services  activities.  This  weightlessness  that  is  inherent  to  many
sectors  of  the  economy  provides  new  opportunities  and  with  it
competition  both  nationally  and  internationally.  Traditionally,
industrial  and
business  statistics  were  concentrated  on 
construction  activities,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  distributive  trades
and service. Since the early 1990s major developments in official
statistics  within  the  European  Union  have  seen  data  collection
efforts focus more on services. 
The  index  of  turnover  for  other  services  (also  a  PEEI)  shows  the
evolution of sales in value terms. Note that prices for some services
have  actually  been  falling,  perhaps  due  to  market  liberalisation
and increased competition (for example, telecommunications and
other  technology-related  activities).  In  such  cases,  the  rapid
growth  rates  observed  for  turnover  value  indices  for  some
activities would be even greater in volume terms.

Figure 3.6: Index of turnover, selected service activities,
EU-25 (2000=100) (1)

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

Jan-00

Jan-02

Jan-04

Jan-06

Motor trades
Wholesale trade
Hotels & restaurants
Transport & communications
Computer services & other business activities

(1) Trend-cycle series; from 10-2006 onwards: estimates.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot and ebt_ts_who)

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Table 3.4: Annual growth rates for the index of turnover,
selected service activities (%) (1)

Hotels and 
restaurants 
(4)

  Transport
   and 
   commun- 
  ications (5)

  Computer
  services & 
  other 
  business
  activities 
(6)

2005 2006
5.4

3.8

2005 2006
7.8

6.0

2005 2006
8.9

6.5

 Motor 
trades (2)

2005 2006
5.5

4.4

  Wholesale
  trade (3)

2005 2006
8.7

7.8

4.0

0.0

5.0

7.6

5.2

8.3

6.3

5.4

2.1

3.3

3.8

6.1

5.7

5.8

4.8

8.5

11.6

12.2

10.3 13.3

29.7 27.4

19.3 14.5

16.6 19.3

19.4

7.7

7.9

5.9

14.0

10.0

12.6

0.9

7.3

5.4

6.1

9.9

7.2

-0.2

8.7

-0.2

2.7

7.5

1.2

7.4

6.3

17.1 20.7

5.9

6.6

3.1

12.7

10.2

12.8 10.4

4.4

3.8

2.8

8.8

27.5

37.4

31.3

12.1

25.7

16.6

10.1 23.7

16.3 22.2

27.1 16.8

22.4 17.6

4.7

5.5

11.5

20.4

1.2

-1.9

:

7.6

5.0

:

:

4.4

2.9

:

0.4

1.3

:

8.2

3.6

0.6

4.7

:

8.6

5.1

5.0

8.6

:

3.2

2.5

:

:

5.1

3.6

:

:

6.6

6.0

:

7.1

4.6

8.0

5.2

:

:

-0.1

5.5

4.8

5.3

3.3

7.5

:

:

8.8

7.6

1.7

9.2

38.9 50.8

39.0 30.0

39.6 25.2

27.9 19.2

24.9 44.8

21.0 28.5

20.7

6.2

7.2

7.7

7.2

7.4

27.9 11.8

34.0

20.6

31.5 14.5

4.9

1.7

8.3

9.2

9.4 12.1

13.9 16.2

19.2 21.8

13.1 11.9

15.3 18.7

-2.9 15.7

:

:

0.5

:

4.3

10.7

:

13.9

0.9

3.1

:

3.8

5.0

1.7

2.2

4.8

4.3

:

:

4.8

:

6.2 10.5

:

2.5

3.6

1.8

4.1

:

:

-7.6 12.9

7.1 12.4

10.0 16.2

3.1 10.0

20.8 11.1

0.9

-    

1.0

6.7

2.0

-1.1

0.9

2.4

4.4

-18.8

:

67.7

20.8

27.1 25.8

71.2

18.7

-14.6 53.0

7.5 73.3

18.1 13.1

4.7 10.7

9.4 11.1

4.1

21.4

9.7

3.8

7.0 13.4

17.9 14.4

5.7 17.6

11.6 18.3

14.3 15.8

6.6

8.5

-0.3

9.6

7.0

1.6

7.6 10.2

9.8

9.2

14.2 13.8

:

:

4.8

5.4

3.3

9.4

8.7 12.8

5.2

6.1

5.0

6.8

:

6.8

7.0

7.4

6.2

:

3.2

5.9

7.2

:

:

4.3

6.9

8.3

:

:

10.7

2.7

9.4

:

:

9.6

9.1

7.8

:

:

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

NO

(1) Working day adjusted series.
(2) Bulgaria and the Netherlands: gross series.
(3) Bulgaria, Italy and Romania: gross series.
(4) Bulgaria, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria and Croatia: gross series.
(5) Bulgaria, Malta, Austria and Romania: gross series.
(6) Bulgaria, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Romania and Slovakia: gross series.
Source: Eurostat (ebt_ts_othsv, ebt_ts_mot and ebt_ts_who)

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STRUCTURE OF THE BUSINESS ECONOMY

Structural business statistics (SBS) describe the structure, conduct
and  performance  of  economic  activities,  down  to  the  most
detailed  activity  level  (several  hundred  sectors).  SBS  covers  the
‘business  economy’,  which  includes  industry,  construction  and
market  services  (NACE  Sections  C  to  K).  Note  that  financial
services  (NACE  Section  J)  are  kept  separate  because  of  their
specific  nature  and  the  limited  availability  of  most  types  of
standard  business  statistics  in  this  area.  SBS  does  not  cover
agriculture,  forestry  and  fishing,  nor  public  administration  and
(largely) non-market services such as education and health. 
SBS  describe  the  economy  through  the  observation  of  units
engaged  in  an  economic  activity,  which  in  SBS  is  generally  the
enterprise. An enterprise carries out one or more activities at one
or more locations and may comprise one or more legal units. Note
that enterprises that are active in more than one economic activity
(and the value added and turnover they generate and the persons
they  employ,  etc.)  will  be  classified  under  the  NACE  heading
(Statistical  Classification  of  Economic  Activities  in  the  European
Community) which is their principal activity, normally the one that
generates the largest amount of value added.

Figure 3.7: Business demography - enterprise birth rates,
2004 (%) (1)

0

5

10

15

20

RO

EE

UK

LV

SK

BG

LU

HU

CZ

ES

LT

NL

FI

IT

PT

SI

SE

CY

(1) Covers the business economy (NACE Sections C to K) excluding holdings (NACE
Class 74.15); Portugal: sole proprietorships are not covered; Lithuania and Slovenia:
data are for 2003; those Member States for which no data are shown: not available.
Source: Eurostat (tsier081)

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The number of enterprises includes those active during at least part
of the reference period. An enterprise birth amounts to the creation
of a combination of production factors with the restriction that no
other  enterprises  are  involved  in  the  event.  Births  do  not  include
entries  into  the  population  due  to  mergers,  break-ups,  split-off  or
restructuring  of  a  set  of  enterprises.  A  birth  occurs  when  an
enterprise  starts  from  scratch  and  actually  starts  activity.  The  birth
rate is the number of births relative to the stock of active enterprises.
Gross value added at factor cost can be calculated from turnover,
plus capitalised production, plus other operating income, plus or
minus the changes in stocks, minus the purchases of goods and
services,  minus  other  taxes  on  products  which  are  linked  to
turnover but not deductible, minus the duties and taxes linked to
production. As such it corresponds to operating output net of the
cost of operating materials and services consumed. Value added at
factor  costs  is  calculated  gross,  as  value  adjustments  (such  as
depreciation) are not subtracted.

Table 3.5: Structure of the business economy, EU-27, 2004 (1)

  Number of 
  enterprises

(1 000)

(%) 

(EUR 
1 000 
million)

 Value added

Number of 
persons 
employed

(%)  (million)

(%)

NON-FINANCIAL 
BUSINESS ECONOMY

Mining and quarrying

19 050 100.0
0.1

20

5 097 100.0
1.4

69

124.8 100.0
0.6

0.8

Manufacturing

2 315

12.2

1 605

31.5

35.3 28.2

Electricity, gas and water supply

27

0.1

Construction

2 717

14.3

170

433

3.3

8.5

1.7

1.4

13.2 10.6

Distributive trades (2)

6 200

32.5

1 000

19.6

30.6 24.5

Hotels and restaurants

1 607

8.4

164

3.2

8.7

7.0

Transport, storage & 
communication

1 191

6.3

613

12.0

11.7

9.4

Real estate, renting & business 
activities
(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data.
(2) Covers wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and
personal and household goods.
Source: Eurostat (tin00050, tin00002 and tin00004)

4 973

1 044

26.1

20.5

22.9 18.4

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SIZE OF MANUFACTURING AND 
SERVICES SUBSECTORS

Turnover  comprises  the  totals  invoiced  by  the  observation  unit
during the reference period, and this corresponds to market sales
of goods or services supplied to third parties. Turnover includes all
duties and taxes on the goods or services invoiced by the unit with
the exception of the VAT invoiced by the unit vis-à-vis its customer
and other similar deductible taxes directly linked to turnover. It also
includes all other charges (transport, packaging, etc.) passed on to
the customer. Reductions in prices, rebates and discounts as well
as  the  value  of  returned  packing  must  be  deducted.  Income
classified  as  other  operating  income,  financial  income  and
extraordinary  income  in  company  accounts  is  excluded  from
turnover.  Operating  subsidies  received  from  public  authorities  or
the institutions of the European Union are also excluded.
The number of persons employed is defined as the total number
of  persons  who  work  in  or  outside  the  observation  unit  and  are
paid by it, but excludes manpower supplied to the unit by other
enterprises and persons carrying out repair and maintenance work
in  the  unit  on  behalf  of  other  enterprises.  It  includes  paid
employees  as  well  as  working  proprietors  and  unpaid  family
workers.  It  includes  part-time  workers,  seasonal  workers,
apprentices and home workers on the payroll.

Table 3.6: Turnover and employment in selected service
activities, EU-27, 2004 (1)

TOTAL

     Turnover

(EUR 
1 000 
million)
3 995

(%) 
100.0

Hotels and restaurants

386

9.7

Transport, storage & communication

1 533

38.4

11 724

Land transport; pipelines

Water transport

Air transport

Auxiliary transport; travel agents

Post and telecommunications

391

80

100

460

498

Real estate, renting & business activities

2 076

Real estate activities

Renting

Computer and related activities

Research and development

460

126

313

37

9.8

2.0

2.5

11.5

12.5

52.0

11.5

3.2

7.8

0.9

Number of 
persons employed

(1 000)
43 312

8 677

5 571

200

400

2 500

3 058

(%)
100.0

20.0

27.1

12.9

0.5

0.9

5.8

7.1

22 911

52.9

2 500

598

2 570

390

5.8

1.4

5.9

0.9

Other business activities

1 137

28.5

16 863

38.9

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data.
Source: Eurostat (tin00057 and tin00058)

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Figure 3.8: Breakdown of manufacturing value added, 
EU-27, 2004 (% of total manufacturing) (1)

0

5

10

15

Food products and beverages

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

Chemicals and chemical products

Fabricated metal products

Motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers

Publishing, printing & recorded media

Electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c.

Rubber and plastic products 

Other non-metallic mineral products 

Basic metals

Radio, TV and communication equipment

Furniture; manufacturing n.e.c.

Instrument engineering

Other transport equipment

Pulp, paper and paper products

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear fuel

Wood and wood products

Textiles

Wearing apparel; fur

Leather (including footwear)

Office machinery and computers

Tobacco products

Recycling

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data.
Source: Eurostat (tin 00055)

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PERSONNEL COSTS

Average personnel costs are defined as personnel costs divided by
the  number  of  employees,  with  the  result  usually  expressed  in
terms  of  thousand  euro  per  employee.  Personnel  costs  are  the
total remuneration, in cash or in kind, payable by an employer to
an  employee  in  return  for  work  done  by  the  latter  during  the
reference  period.  All  remuneration  paid  during  the  reference
period is included, regardless of whether it is paid on the basis of
working  time,  output  or  piecework.  Included  are  all  gratuities,
workplace  and  performance  bonuses,  ex  gratia  payments,  13th
month  pay  (and  similar  fixed  bonuses),  payments  made  to
employees in consideration of dismissal, lodging, transport, cost of
living  and  family  allowances,  commissions,  attendance  fees,
overtime,  night  work,  etc.,  as  well  as  taxes,  social  security
contributions  and  other  amounts  owed  by  the  employees  and
retained at source by the employers. Also included are the social
security costs for the employer. Payments for agency workers are
not included in personnel costs.
Employees are persons who work for an employer and who have
a contract of employment and receive compensation in the form
of wages, salaries, fees, gratuities, piecework pay or remuneration
in kind. The agreement between employer and employee may be
formal  or  informal.  A  worker  from  a  temporary  employment
agency  is  considered  to  be  an  employee  of  the  temporary
employment agency and not of the unit (customer) in which they
work.  The  number  of  employees  includes  part-time  workers,
seasonal  workers,  persons  on  strike  or  on  short-term  leave,  but
excludes  those  persons  on  long-term  leave.  The  number  of
employees is calculated as the number of jobs and is measured as
an annual average.

Figure 3.9: Average personnel costs, EU-27, 2004 
(EUR 1 000 per employee) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

Electricity, gas and water supply

Transport, storage and communication

Manufacturing

Real estate, renting and business activities

Construction

Mining and quarrying

Distributive trades

Hotels and restaurants

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data.
Source: Eurostat (tin00049)

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Figure 3.10: Average personnel costs, manufacturing, 2004
(EUR 1 000 per employee) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

EU-27

BE

SE

DE

LU

NL

DK

FI

AT

FR

IE

UK

IT

ES

EL

CY

SI

PT

HU

CZ

SK

EE

PL

LT

LV

RO

BG

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; Malta: not available.
Source: Eurostat (tin00049)

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PROFITABILITY

The gross operating rate is one measure of profitability, which is a
key  factor  for  competitiveness  and  enterprise  success.  The  gross
operating rate is the gross operating surplus divided by turnover;
the result is expressed as a percentage.
The gross operating surplus measures the operating revenue that
is  left  to  compensate  the  capital  factor  input,  after  the  labour
factor input has been recompensed, and therefore can be simply
calculated  from  value  added  at  factor  cost  less  personnel  costs.
The surplus is used to recompense the providers of own funds and
debt, to pay taxes, and eventually for self-financing all or a part of
investment. See page 104 for the definition of turnover.
Although  not  always  the  case,  the  gross  operating  surplus  will
generally  be  higher  for  capital-intensive  activities  and  lower  for
those  activities  which  have  a  relatively  high  proportion  of  their
costs  accounted  for  by  personnel  costs.  Equally  the  gross
operating  rate  will  be  low  for  those  activities  with  a  distributive
nature as such activities have very high turnover: this is the case
for  some  energy  supply  activities,  for  retail  and  own-account
wholesale trade, and some other specific services such as reselling
of advertising space and the services of travel agents.

Figure 3.11: Gross operating rate, EU-27, 2004 (%) (1)

0

10

20

30

Mining and quarrying

Real estate, renting and business
activities

Transport, storage and communication

Electricity, gas and water supply

Hotels and restaurants

Construction

Manufacturing

Distributive trades

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; gross operating rate:
gross operating surplus / turnover.
Source: Eurostat (tin00051)

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Figure 3.12: Gross operating rate, distributive trades, 
2004 (%) (1)

0

5

10

15

EU-27 (2)

EL

IE

LV

UK

PL

IT

CY

DE

ES

SI

CZ

SK

LT

NL

AT

EE

FI

RO

PT

SE

BE

DK

FR

HU

LU 

BG

(1) Gross operating rate: gross operating surplus / turnover; Malta: not available.
(2) Rounded estimate based on non-confidential data.
Source: Eurostat (ebd_all)

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ENTERPRISE SIZE-CLASSES

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are often referred to
as the backbone of the European economy, providing a potential
source for jobs and economic growth.
Structural business statistics with a breakdown by size-class is the
main source of data for an analysis of SMEs.
Size can be measured in a number of ways, the most commonly used
for  structural  business  statistics  being  the  number  of  persons
employed.  Less  than  one  enterprise  in  400  within  the  European
Union’s  non-financial  business  economy  employs  250  or  more
persons (and is therefore considered as large), but these enterprises
account for one third of employment and more than two fifths of
value  added.  Nevertheless,  small  and  medium-sized  enterprises
(SMEs, with less than 250 persons employed) generate the majority
of  value  added  and  employ  most  of  the  workforce  in  the  non-
financial business economy. Micro enterprises (those with less than
10 persons employed) in particular play an important role, providing
employment to nearly as many persons as do large enterprises.
Note that gross value added and the number of persons employed
are defined on pages 103 and 104.

Figure 3.13: Value added and employment, breakdown 
by enterprise size-class, non-financial business economy,
EU-27, 2004 (%) (1)

Value added

Employment

Large
43.1%

Large
33.0%

Medium-sized
17.8%

Small
18.8%

Micro
20.2%

Medium-
sized
16.8%

Small
20.8%

Micro
29.5%

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; figures do not sum to
100 % due to rounding; micro enterprises: 1-9 persons employed; small enterprises:
10-49 persons employed; medium-sized enterprises: 50-249 persons employed; large
enterprises: 250 or more persons employed.
Source: Eurostat (tin00052 and tin00053)

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Figure 3.14: Value added at factor costs, breakdown 
by enterprise size-class, EU-27, 2004 (%) (1)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

NON-FINANCIAL BUSINESS ECONOMY

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Textiles and textile products

Leather and leather products

Wood and wood products

Pulp, paper, publishing and printing

Chemicals and man-made fibres

Rubber and plastic products

Other non-metallic mineral products

Basic metals and fabricated metal products

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

Electrical and optical equipment

Transport equipment

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Motor trades

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

Hotels and restaurants

Land transport; pipelines

Water transport

Auxiliary transport activities; travel agents

Post and telecommunications

Real estate activities

Renting

Computer and related activities

Research and development

Other business activities

Micro enterprises (1-9 persons employed)
Small enterprises (10-49 persons employed)
Medium-sized enterprises (50-249 persons employed)
Large  enterprises (250 or more persons employed)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; mining and quarrying,
manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel, and air transport:
not available.
Source: Eurostat (tin00053)

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LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY BY SECTOR AND 
ENTERPRISE SIZE-CLASS

Productivity is a key measure of economic efficiency, showing how
effectively  economic  inputs  are  converted  into  output.  Apparent
labour  productivity  is  defined  as  the  value  added  generated  by
each  person  employed  (measured  by  headcounts);  the  result  is
usually expressed in terms of thousand euro per person employed.
Due  to  the  use  of  head  counts  this  measure  does  not  consider
differences in the extent of part-time work across activities. Part-
time  (and  seasonal)  employment  typically  occurs  in  several  non-
financial services, such as hotels and restaurants, retail trade, and
certain business services.
Size-class data may also be used to study the relative productivity
of  enterprises,  with  productivity  (perhaps  resulting  from  scale
economies)  often  increasing  by  enterprise  size.  Consequently,  in
the  majority  of  activities,  large  enterprises  tend  to  account  for  a
higher  proportion  of  the  total  value  added  generated  than  their
respective share of the number of persons employed.

Figure 3.15: Labour productivity by enterprise size-class,
EU-27, 2004 (EUR 1 000 per person employed) (1)

0

50

100

150
250

200
300

NON-FINANCIAL
BUSINESS
ECONOMY

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas and
water supply

Construction

Distributive trades

Hotels and
restaurants

Transport, storage
and communication

Real estate, renting
and business
activities

Micro enterprises (1-9 persons employed)
Small enterprises (10-49 persons employed)
Medium-sized enterprises (50-249 persons employed)
Large  enterprises (250 or more persons employed)

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; mining and quarrying:
not available.
Source: Eurostat (tin00054)

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Figure 3.16: Labour productivity within manufacturing, 
EU-27, 2004 (EUR 1 000 per person employed) (1)

0

25

50

75

200
100

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear fuel

Chemicals and man-made fibres

Transport equipment

Pulp, paper, publishing and printing

Electrical and optical equipment

Machinery and equipment n.e.c.

MANUFACTURING

Other non-metallic mineral products

Rubber and plastic products

Basic metals and fabricated metal
products

Food products; beverages and tobacco

Manufacturing n.e.c.

Wood and wood products

Leather (including footwear)

Textiles and textile products

(1) Includes rounded estimates based on non-confidential data.
Source: Eurostat (tin00054)

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PRODUCTS SOLD

Statistics  on  the  production  of  goods  are  collected  and
disseminated  through  a  system  called  PRODCOM.  Information
provided  in  PRODCOM  includes  data  for  the  value  and  volume
(quantity) of production in the Member States that has been sold
by their producers in a particular reference year. Commodities are
specified  in  the  PRODCOM  list,  which  includes  around  4  500
products,  updated  on  an  annual  basis.  The  products  are  listed
according to an eight-digit code, of which the first six are directly
aligned with the statistical classification of products by activity in
the European Community, the CPA.
Table  3.7  illustrates  the  information  that  is  available  in  volume
terms, where the measurement unit used varies depending on the
nature of the product. Table 3.8 shows a selection of the products
with the highest values of production sold in the EU-27 in 2006,
excluding  a  few  products:  those  of  a  generic  nature,  sales  of
services  (such  as  repair,  maintenance  and  installation),  and
confidential values. As can be seen, transport equipment products
(CPA 34) dominated, occupying the first two places, with a further
five products among the top twenty.

Table 3.7: Production sold in volume terms, 
selected products, EU-27, 2006

PRODCOM 
code
27.10.32.10 Flat semi-finished products (slabs) 
(of stainless steel)

Product

26.51.12.30 Grey Portland cement 

(including blended cement)

15.93.11.30 Champagne 

(important: excluding alcohol duty)

24.52.11.50 Perfumes
24.11.11.70 Oxygen
20.10.10.34 Coniferous wood; sawn or chipped lengthwise; 
sliced or peeled; of a thickness > 6mm; planed 
(excluding end-jointed or sanded)

Quantity 

(1 000)  Unit
kg

600 153

216 164 665

kg

244 285

litres

34 543
27 392 797
18 981

litres
m³
m³

16.00.11.50 Cigarettes containing tobacco or mixtures of 

795 204 656

units

tobacco and tobacco substitutes (excluding 
tobacco duty)

32.30.20.60 Flat panel colour TV receivers, LCD/plasma, etc. 

13 304

units

excluding television projection equipment, 
apparatus with video recorder/player, video 
monitors, television receivers with integral tube

Source: Eurostat (http://fd.comext.eurostat.cec.eu.int/xtweb/)

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Table 3.8: Production sold in value terms, 
selected products, EU-27, 2006
PRODCOM 
code
34.10.22.30 Motor vehicles with a petrol engine > 1500 cm³ 

Product

(including motor caravans of a capacity > 3000 cm³) 
(excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 persons, 
snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles)

Value 
(EUR million)
119 405

34.10.23.30 Motor vehicles with a diesel or semi-diesel engine > 

96 646

1500 cm³ but <= 2500 cm³ (excluding vehicles for 
transporting >= 10 persons, motor caravans, 
snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles)
15.96.10.00 Beer made from malt (excluding non-alcoholic beer, beer 

containing <= 0.5% by volume of alcohol, alcohol duty)
32.20.11.70 Radio transmission apparatus with reception apparatus
15.81.11.00 Fresh bread containing by weight in the dry matter state 

<= 5% of sugars and <= 5% of fat (excluding with 
added honey; eggs; cheese or fruit)

26.63.10.00 Ready-mixed concrete
15.51.40.50 Grated; powdered; blue-veined and other non-

processed cheese (excluding fresh cheese; whey cheese 
and curd)

21.21.13.00 Cartons; boxes and cases of corrugated paper or 

paperboard

15.81.12.00 Cake and pastry products; other baker's wares with 

added sweetening matter

15.13.12.15 Sausages not of liver
34.10.41.10 Goods vehicles with a diesel or semi-diesel engine, of a 

gross vehicle weight <= 5 tonnes (excluding dumpers for 
off-highway use)

34.10.23.10 Motor vehicles with a diesel or semi-diesel engine <= 
1500 cm³ (excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 
persons, snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles)

29 320

26 906
23 219

22 686
21 623

18 809

18 201

17 686
16 850

16 241

26.51.12.30 Grey Portland cement (including blended cement)
27.10.60.20 Hot rolled flat products in coil (wide strip) of a width of 

15 226
14 801

600 mm or more (of steel other than of stainless steel or 
of high speed steel)

34.10.13.00 Vehicle compression-ignition internal combustion 
piston engines (diesel or semi-diesel) (excluding for 
railway or tramway rolling stock)

14 712

26.61.12.00 Prefabricated structural components for building, of 

13 448

cement

16.00.11.50 Cigarettes containing tobacco or mixtures of tobacco 

13 198

and tobacco substitutes (excluding tobacco duty)
34.10.12.00 Vehicle reciprocating piston engines of a cylinder 

capacity > 1000 cm³

34.10.23.40 Motor vehicles with a diesel or semi-diesel engine > 
2500 cm³ (excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 
persons, motor caravans, snowmobiles, golf cars and 
similar vehicles)

15.11.11.90 Fresh or chilled cuts of beef and veal
21.21.14.00 Folding cartons; boxes and cases of non-corrugated 

paper or paperboard

36.11.11.30 Seats for motor vehicles
15.83.12.30 Refined white cane or beet sugar in solid form
31.30.13.70 Insulated electric conductors whether or not fitted with 

connectors, for a voltage > 80 V but <= 1000 V

12 581

12 489

12 442
11 620

11 617
11 429
11 166

27.10.72.20 Hot dipped metal coated sheet and strip of a width of 

11 106

600 mm or more

28.12.10.50 Aluminium doors, thresholds for doors, windows and 

11 034

their frames
34.30.20.33 Gear boxes
27.10.60.50 Plates and sheets produced on a reversing mill (quarto) 
of a width of 600 mm or more and wide flats (of steel 
other than of stainless steel or of high speed steel)

Source: Eurostat (http://fd.comext.eurostat.cec.eu.int/xtweb/)

10 962
10 944

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TOURISM

Tourism  grew  rapidly  in  the  latter  part  of  the  20th  century.
However,  this  trend  was  briefly  reversed  from  2001  as  concerns
over  terrorism  attacks,  health  and  safety  epidemics,  and  natural
disasters played a role in diminishing demand. 
The Internet has become an important factor within this area of
the  economy,  as  consumers  increasingly  make  their  own
arrangements  for  travel  and  accommodation,  often  driven  by
significant discounts or alternatively by the opportunity to view a
range of options for travel, accommodation and related activities
before booking.
A  tourist  is  defined  as  a  visitor  who  stays  at  least  one  night  in
collective or private accommodation. A night spent is defined as
each  night  that  a  guest  is  registered  to  stay  in  a  hotel  or  similar
establishment.  A  breakdown  of  the  nights  spent  in  hotels  is
provided for residents and non-residents, the former are identified
as  having  lived  for  most  of  the  past  year  in  a  country/place,  or
having  lived  in  that  country/place  for  a  shorter  period  and
intending  to  return  within  a  year  to  live  there.  Note  that  a

Figure 3.17: Nights spent in collective accommodation
establishments, 2006 (million)

Top ten countries of origin for outbound holidays 
(nights spent abroad by residents of the country) (1)

0

200

400

600

800

DE
UK
FR
NL
IT
BE
ES
AT
PL
IE

ES
IT
FR
UK
AT
DE
EL
PT
NL
IE

Top ten tourism destinations 
(nights spent in the country by non-residents) (2)

0

50

100

150

200

250

(1) Denmark, Greece, Spain, Italy, Hungary, Portugal and Slovenia: data for 2005;
Malta and Sweden: not available.
(2) Denmark, Greece, Italy, Hungary, Netherlands and Portugal: data for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tour_occ_ninrnat)

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significant  proportion  of  tourism,  using  the  definitions  above,  is
accounted for by business customers.
Tourism intensity and international tourism receipts relative to GDP
both give an indication of the importance of tourism relative to the
size of an economy. The first shows the number of nights spent by
tourists  relative  to  the  population  of  the  host  country  while  the
second shows the relation between international receipts and GDP.

Table 3.9: Tourism indicators, 2006

Nights spent in hotels 
and other collective 
accomodation establishments 
(millions) (1)

Residents 
1 347.7

1 014.1

Non- 
residents  
954.0

756.9

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

1.0

0.4

1.6

1.3

22.1

0.1

0.9

1.1

11.5

14.2

15.7

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.7

0.0

4.1

2.1

3.0

1.4

1.2

0.2

0.4

1.0

2.7

13.0

1.7

1.3

2.1

1.0

5.5

0.3

2.3

4.5

23.5

11.1

16.7

1.4

0.2

0.2

0.3

1.1

0.7

2.6

7.3

1.1

2.8

0.3

0.5

0.5

0.5

1.1

9.2

Inter-
national 
tourism 
receipts 
relative 
to GDP 
(%) (2)

Tourism  
intensity 
 (nights  
spent per  
inhabitant) 

4.8

5.4

2.8

2.2

4.0

4.9

4.3

3.4

8.0

5.0

8.7

4.7

6.1

0.7

:

2.9

8.2

3.5

1.9

1.1

6.3

2.4

6.1

4.2

1.9

2.1

18.8

13.2

1.4

0.9

5.7

2.0

18.3

4.9

11.9

1.3

4.1

0.9

3.7

2.0

3.5

5.3

4.4

2.5

3.5

8.7

4.0

11.9

1.7

5.1

2.1

4.3

1.1

5.1

2.8

1.1

2.4

1.4

(1) EU-27 and euro area: data are expressed in millions of nights spent; data for the
Member States are expressed in terms of a percentage share of the EU total; Hungary
and the Netherlands: data for 2005.
(2) Greece: data for 2005.
Source: Eurostat (tour_occ_nirnat, tour_occ_ninrnat, tps00001, bop_its_det and
tec00001)

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

LAND USE IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Total area includes all land area and inland water, while land area
includes the total utilised agricultural area, the wooded area, and
other land area, but not inland water. Approximately half of the
European Union’s land is farmed, highlighting the importance of
agriculture in society. Utilised agricultural area (UAA) is defined as
the  area  taken  up  by  arable  land,  permanent  grassland,
permanent  crops,  and  kitchen  gardens  -  it  does  not  include
wooded areas or forests.
Permanent crops are those not grown in rotation, occupying the
soil for a long period and yielding harvests over several years, for
example orchards or vineyards.
Permanent grassland is land used (for five years or more) to grow
herbaceous forage crops; it is usually used for grazing or mowed
for silage or hay.
Arable land is worked regularly, generally under a system of crop
rotation, normally with annual crops like cereals; this category also
includes temporary grassland (<5 years), melons and strawberries,
seedlings, and crops under glass or cover.
Wooded  area  is  land  with  tree  crown  cover  of  more  than  5  %
where  trees  reach  a  height  of  at  least  5  metres  at  maturity,  or
where tree crown cover is over 10 % (irrespective of height).

Figure 4.1: Utilised agricultural area per inhabitant, 2006
(hectares per inhabitant) (1)

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

EU-25
IE
LT
LV
BG
RO
ES
HU
EE
DK
FR
FI
PL
AT
SK
PT
SE
CZ
EL
UK
LU
IT
SI
CY
DE
BE
NL
MT

(1) Ireland, France, Italy, Latvia and Sweden: data for 2005; EU-25 and the United
Kingdom: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (agr_is and tps00001)

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Chapter 4
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4

Table 4.1: Agriculture indicators, 2006 (1 000 hectares)

Total 
land 
area 
(1)

:

:

3 028

10 863

7 727

4 240

35 705

4 239

6 889

13 065

49 959

54 255

29 412

924

6 229

6 268

256

8 961

32

3 379

8 245

30 427

9 191

23 839

2 014

4 810

30 460

41 034

24 082

5 659

76 963

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT 

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

UAA, as a 
share of 
total 
land area 
(%) (2)

Land 
under 
permanent 
crops 
(3)

Permanent 
grassland 
(4)

Arable 
land 
(5)

Wooded 
area 
(6)

:

:

12 134

10 819

56 296 108 019

35 945

60 889

45.7

47.8

46.2

64.1

47.5

18.0

62.5

24.9

50.8

54.5

50.0

17.2

27.8

44.5

50.3

65.0

32.4

56.9

39.3

52.4

41.0

59.2

24.3

40.3

7.5

7.8

69.6

20.9

21

182

42

9

198

11

3

1 132

4 979

1 114

2 463

43

13

36

1

1

36

66

339

774

374

28

25

4

3

32

74

:

:

617

3 748

2 646

486

:

517

1 876

889

227

842

3 099

2 636

2 480

4 882

11 866

194

3 115

746

557

2 285

1 182

2 116

:

4 007

7 625

12 617

18 964

9 932

18 353

15 549

4 411

7 744

10 174

1

629

865

68

116

1 092

1 864

60

:

2 904

2 100

90

:

813

1 789

8

1 060

1 377

3 216

12 342

1 236

8 939

178

1 344

2 259

2 660

5 484

1 732

4 631

285

536

29

563

5 711

258

:

349

3 310

9 200

:

6 743

1 283

2 005

:

23 507

:

205

1 014

4 510

1 777

:

2 766

14 617

:

:

841

1 996

(1) France, Portugal and Romania: total area instead of total land area.
(2) UAA: utilised agricultural area; Ireland, France, Italy, Latvia, Romania, Sweden and
Croatia: data for 2005; the United Kingdom: data for 2003.
(3) Ireland, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Austria, Croatia and Turkey: data for 2005; the Czech
Republic and the United Kingdom: data for 2004; EU-27 and euro area: calculated as
the sum of the latest available data available for each Member State.
(4) Ireland, France, Italy, Latvia, the United Kingdom, Croatia and Turkey: data for
2005; EU-27 and euro area: calculated as the sum of the latest available data available
for each Member State.
(5) Ireland, France, Italy, Latvia and Croatia: data for 2005; the United Kingdom: data
for 2003; EU-27 and euro area: calculated as the sum of the latest available data
available for each Member State.
(6) The Czech Republic, France, Italy, Latvia and Romania: data for 2005; Croatia: data
for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (agr_is)

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

FARM LABOUR FORCE

In the EU-27 there were 18 million persons working on a regular
basis on 7.8 million agricultural holdings (6) in 2005. This number
covers  all  the  persons  providing  (even  small  volumes  of)  labour
input  to  agricultural  holdings,  and  also  includes  persons  whose
main  occupation  is  not  farming.  In  order  to  correct  for  this,
agricultural employment is also measured in terms of Annual Work
Units (AWU) – which measure the equivalent of the work of one
person employed full-time over a 12-month period (7). The volume
of agricultural labour input (including the non regular labour force)
was  9.8  million  AWU.  The  average  volume  of  labour  input  per
person  in  the  EU-27  was  equal  to  half  of  a  full-time  equivalent.
The most important contribution to labour input on farms (8) was
provided  by  the  holder  and  his/her  family;  as  seven  out  of  eight
persons  working  within  agriculture  could  be  attributed  to  the
family labour force.
Nearly one third of the family labour force (holders, their spouses
and  other  family  members)  in  the  EU-27  had  another  gainful
activity,  besides  working  on  the  agricultural  holding.  Where
another  gainful  activity  is  performed,  this  activity  is  usually  the
principal one. Having another gainful activity was more frequent
among the population aged less than 54 years old.

(6) Of at least 1 ESU (European Size Units).
(7) As defined by 1 800 hours (225 working days of 8 hours per day),
unless national provisions governing contracts of employment are
specified.
(8) Of at least 1 ESU.

Figure 4.2: Agricultural labour force, EU-27, 2005 (million)

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0

Holders

Spouses of the
holders

Other family
members

Regular non
family labour
force

Non regular
labour force
(1)

Family labour force

Non family labour force

Persons

AWU (2)

(1) Persons: not available.
(2) AWU: annual work unit.
Source: Eurostat (ef_ov_lfsum)

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Chapter 4
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

4

Table 4.2: Farm labour force, 2005 (1)

Total 
farm  
labour  
force 
(1 000  
AWU) (2) 

Family labour force 

Non family labour
regularly employed

(1 000 
persons)

(1 000  
AWU) 

7 443

(1 000 
persons)

1 834

(1 000  
AWU) 

1 459

EU-27

9 782

16 125

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

69

246

142

58

635

28

148

576

949

844

79

260

44

69

772

34

226

1 272

1 796

667

55

168

29

36

441

15

137

470

609

414

1 271

2 595

1 026

26

82

153

4

229

4

174

152

54

100

286

5

319

12

161

354

1 727

2 671

317

536

1 355

3 000

83

67

83

67

292

168

27

139

118

362

19

66

126

3

137

3

110

138

1 608

252

1 180

75

10

70

49

14

56

116

23

168

14

14

25

195

424

150

5

18

26

1

94

1

77

17

64

48

71

4

60

14

21

Non 
regular 
non 
family 
labour 
force
(1 000 
AWU)

881

3

26

10

2

52

1

4

88

184

92

141

3

2

5

0

9

0

13

4

61

26

121

4

3

5

3

19

11

53

104

20

141

12

7

18

156

339

105

5

14

22

1

83

0

51

10

58

40

53

3

53

8

14

77

197

116

(1) AWU: annual work unit.
(2) Non-regular non family labour force (seasonal workers): excluded.
Source: Eurostat (ef_ov_lfsum)

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Successive reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) have
simplified  rules  and  re-aligned  farm  support  such  that  it  targets
areas  of  consumer  concern,  and  agricultural  production  that
focuses  on  meeting  quality,  environmental  and  food  safety
guarantees.
The  principal  crops  grown  on  arable  land  are  cereals.  Due  to
policies  encouraging  the  use  of  renewable  energy,  cereals,  but
mainly  oilseed  crops  (such  as  rape),  are  more  frequently  grown
and  then  subsequently  fed  into  bio  energy  production.  As
consequence,  a  noticeable  increase  in  the  production  of  these
oilseed crops (especially rape) has taken place.
The quantity of milk is relatively stable because of the milk quota
system.  Rising  milk  yield  per  cow  is  therefore  associated  with  a
decreasing overall cattle herd. The downward trend in cattle and
sheep  numbers  is  also  partly  due  to  the  decoupling  of  support
payments. Pig numbers fell in 2004 but subsequently rose in 2005
and  2006  –  although  this  pattern  could  end,  as  a  result  of
increasing costs for feedstuffs.
Crop  production  figures  relate  to  harvested  production;  milk
production  covers  production  on  the  farm  of  milk  from  cows,
ewes,  goats  and  buffaloes;  data  on  animals  concerns  the
population of animals at the year’s end (December).

Figure 4.3: Evolution of production of rape and sunflower,
EU-27 (million tonnes)

20

15

10

5

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Source: Eurostat (tag00104 and tag00109)

Rape

Sunflower

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Chapter 4
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

4

Table 4.3: Selected agricultural production

Production (1 000 tonnes)

Herds (1 000 heads)

Whole 
milk
Cereals Potatoes
2006 (1) 2006 (2) 2006 (3) 2005 (4)

Sugar 
beet

Cattle

Sheep
2005 (5) 2006 (5) 2006 (5)

Pigs

EU-27

266 843

56 668 126 750 135 384

88 334 161 526

95 250

Euro area 162 540

32 618

83 658

95 000

61 789 104 060

59 252

2 742

5 512

6 386

8 632

2 593

5 667

2 844

2 607

6 304

152

386

692

27

3 138

1 361

2 314

884

2 393

4 492

637

1 013

1 635

1 390

2 741

1 579

13 613

169

98

43 475

10 031

20 647

26 876

12 601

26 602

2 017

619

2 024

3 393

153

403

855

0

:

1 600

18 657

2 502

6 045

606

5 234

1 358

6 569

245

341

58

6 002

1 620

3 826

683

1 033

8 975

6 456

26 034

21 847

61 655

6 354

29 879

23 616

18 902

15 009

8 494

18 697

1 783

10 641

10 720

6 340

9 281

8 227

67

1 159

1 856

161

125

517

409

16

0

456

717

0

175

592

1 296

255

14 664

564

2 271

1 400

:

18

0

41

56

377

839

186

702

19

453

417

1 127

87

272

41

37

9

3 987

1 298

74

12

6 240

5 414

10 611

3 673

11 220

1 755

1 975

4 460

655

2 493

21 776

8 982

11 475

1 016

611

320

15 741

4 016

1 152

494

2 929

3 790

4 128

107

263

576

773

262

1 371

952

2 189

2 679

8 828

1 890

1 150

511

966

2 348

3 130

2 003

3 139

5 281

18 813

312

301

1 407

2 934

454

508

929

1 516

2 295

3 549

6 815

7 678

575

1 105

1 435

1 662

132

333

88

505

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

MK

20 835

5 684

7 150

13 920

10 010

4 731

23 428

588

190

0

:

:

:

:

(1) Harvested production, including rice; Ireland: data for 2005.
(2) Harvested production; United Kingdom: data for 2005.
(3) Harvested production; Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and the United
Kingdom: data for 2005.
(4) Milk collected from farms; Greece and the Netherlands: data for 2005; EU-27 and
euro area: calculated as the sum of the latest available data available for each Member
State.
(5) As of December.
Source: Source: Eurostat (tag00031, tag00108, tag00106, tag00041, tag00016,
tag00018 and tag00017)

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC OUTPUT

The output of agricultural activity includes output sold (including
trade  in  agricultural  goods  and  services  between  agricultural
units),  changes  in  stocks,  output  for  own  final  use  (own  final
consumption  and  own-account  gross  fixed  capital  formation),
output produced for further processing by agricultural producers,
as well as intra-unit consumption of livestock feed products. The
output of the agricultural industry is made up of the sum of the
output  of  agricultural  products  and  of  the  goods  and  services
produced  in  inseparable  non-agricultural  secondary  activities.
Intermediate  consumption  represents  the  value  of  all  goods  and
services used as inputs in the production process, excluding fixed
assets  whose  consumption 
is  recorded  as  fixed  capital
consumption.
Gross  value  added  equals  the  value  of  output  less  the  value  of
intermediate  consumption,  and  is  shown  here  measured  at
producer prices (the producer price excludes subsidies less taxes on
products).  Animal  and  crop  output  are  the  main  product
categories of agricultural output.

Figure 4.4: Agricultural output, EU-27 (EUR million) (1)

200 000

150 000

100 000

50 000

0

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Crop output at producer prices

Gross value added at producer prices of agricultural industry

Animal output at producer prices

(1) Data for 2003 and 2006: estimates.
Source: Eurostat (tag00100, aact_eaa01 and tag00101)

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4

Table 4.4: Agricultural output (EUR million)

     Gross value added 
     at producer prices 
     of agricultural 
      industry
2001
141 056

2006
136 424

EU-27

Crop output at 
producer prices

Animal output at 
producer prices

2001
155 333

2006
162 998

2001
135 535

2006
131 453

Euro area

111 670

106 214

122 250

127 293

98 272

93 480

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

2 289

1 803

1 030

3 109

2 413

1 574

897

2 655

3 035

1 515

1 619

2 623

3 224

1 725

1 775

2 432

3 869

1 531

1 572

5 311

3 593

1 085

1 562

5 050

16 173

13 116

19 019

18 710

20 739

19 495

158

1 988

6 395

162

1 715

6 036

142

1 312

6 516

160

1 366

6 280

228

3 778

2 611

262

3 743

2 744

21 304

21 039

19 323

21 046

13 902

13 513

23 840

22 646

30 344

31 477

22 953

21 542

25 330

24 894

24 960

26 346

14 326

13 124

365

229

353

95

340

205

360

100

:

216

561

72

288

332

578

82

:

280

564

149

293

312

714

149

1 967

2 062

2 571

3 197

2 561

2 057

71

8 589

2 353

5 791

2 284

5 612

359

395

669

987

7 513

47

8 660

2 345

5 534

2 421

7 129

379

364

451

1 004

7 877

52

42

9 779

10 977

2 282

7 058

3 821

6 635

408

658

1 380

1 683

7 751

2 412

6 670

3 473

8 604

504

688

1 397

1 613

7 603

80

8 684

2 669

7 137

2 284

3 854

521

695

1 786

2 201

62

8 363

2 628

7 898

2 398

4 206

478

753

1 710

2 049

11 248

11 669

Eurostat (aact_eaa01, tag00100 and tag00101)

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

AGRI-ENVIRONMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

In  a  Communication  from  2006 (9),  the  European  Commission
adopted  a  list  of  28  agri-environmental  indicators  to  be
maintained and further developed which will: provide information
on the farmed environment; track the impact of agriculture on the
environment; assess the impact of agricultural and environmental
policies  on  the  environmental  management  of  farms;  inform
agricultural  and  environmental  policy  discussions;  illustrate  agri-
environmental relationships to the wider public.
Organic farming can be defined as a method of production which
places  emphasis  on  environmental  protection  and,  with  regard  to
livestock  production,  animal  welfare  considerations.  It  avoids  or
largely  reduces  the  use  of  synthetic  chemical  inputs  such  as
fertilisers, pesticides, additives and medicinal products. The Council
Regulation (EC) N° 834/2007 defines in detail the requirements for
agricultural  products  or  foodstuffs  bearing  a  reference  to  organic
production  methods.  It  notably  defines  a  method  of  agricultural
production  for  crops  and  livestock,  and  regulates  the  labelling,

(9) Development of agri-environmental indicators for monitoring the
integration of environmental concerns into the Common Agricultural
Policy, COM(2006) 508 final; for more information: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2006/com2006_0508en01.pdf.

Figure 4.5: Agricultural holdings with another 
gainful activity than agricultural production, 2005 
(% of all holdings)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU-25
FI
FR
UK
DE
NL
RO
AT
DK
LU
SE
CZ
PT
LV
EE
IT
CY
PL
HU
IE
MT
BE
SI
ES
SK
BG
EL
LT

Source: Eurostat (tag00096)

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Chapter 4
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

4

processing, inspection and marketing of organic products within the
Community, and the import of organic products from non-member
countries. Organic farming areas can be distinguished between fully
converted and those under conversion.
Livestock density is the number of livestock units (LU) per utilised
agricultural area (see page 118 for definition).
Irrigable area is the area that is equipped for irrigation; the areas
actually irrigated depend on the weather conditions of a particular
year.

Table 4.5: Agri-environment, 2005

Share of 
area 
occupied by 
organic crop 
(% of UAA)

Share of area 
occupied by 
organic 
farming 
(% of UAA) (2)

Livestock 
density 
index
(units per 
km²)

UAA
(1 000 
hectares)
 (1)

183 641

EU-27

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

NO

1 386

5 265

3 606

2 712

17 035

834

4 305

3 805

25 835

29 584

14 710

163

1 734

2 837

129

5 863

10

1 924

3 263

15 906

3 786

14 270

511

1 941

2 267

3 201

16 761

1 181

:

Total 
irrigable
area 
(hectares)

:

21 710

111 600

47 030

432 030

:

:

0

1 593 780

3 765 130

2 706 480

3 972 670

45 850

790

4 420

:

152 750

3 020

407 920

119 420

124 200

616 970

808 370

4 430

180 140

70 500

167 000

208 380

:

0.80

2.80

0.49

0.58

1.75

1.07

0.38

1.47

0.62

0.58

0.82

0.75

1.61

0.27

0.46

1.22

0.58

4.50

3.26

0.75

0.72

0.56

0.47

1.08

0.42

0.51

0.57

0.90

:

:

1.4

:

6.3

4.9

:

:

0.5

5.4

1.8

:

5.0

0.1

1.2

0.5

:

1.4

0.0

2.4

:

:

2.9

:

3.1

1.4

6.0

6.2

3.1

:

:

:

2.1

:

:

6.1

4.1

:

0.7

0.7

:

1.7

7.5

:

:

:

2.2

:

:

2.2

8.7

:

2.3

:

:

:

7.1

7.0

4.8

:

:

1.21

117 140

(1) UAA: utilised agricultural area; the United Kingdom: data for 2003; EU-27: total
includes the United Kingdom value for 2003.
(2) Data for 2002.
Source: Eurostat (agr_is, tag00098, tag00095 and ef_ov_kvaaesu) and European
Environment Agency

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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

FORESTRY

The  European  Union  has  approximately  177  million  hectares  of
forests and other wooded land, around 42 % of its land area, and
the area of land devoted to forestry is gradually increasing. About
60 % of wooded land is under private ownership.
Total  roundwood  production  (or  removals),  comprises  all
quantities  of  wood  removed  from  the  forest  and  other  wooded
land. This volume measure is reported in cubic metres underbark
(in other words, excluding bark).
Total  sawnwood  production  is  that  produced  either  by  sawing
lengthways  or  by  a  profile-chipping  process,  whereby  the  wood
exceeds 6 mm in thickness. Products within this category include:
planks,  beams,  joists,  boards  and  rafters,  be  they  planed,
unplaned, or end-jointed.
Paper  and  paper  board  comprises  graphic  papers,  sanitary  and
household  papers,  packaging  materials,  and  other  paper  and
paperboard.  It  excludes  manufactured  paper  products  such  as
boxes, cartons, books and magazines.

Figure 4.6: Total roundwood, EU-27 (million m³ under bark)

500

400

300

200

100

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Non-coniferous

Coniferous

Source: Eurostat (for_rem41)

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Chapter 4
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4

Table 4.6: Roundwood, sawnwood and paper production

        Roundwood 
        (1 000 m³)

       Sawnwood 
        (1 000 m³)

1995

2005

1995

2005

Paper and 
paperboard  
production (1 000 t)
2005

1995

EU-27

334 164 453 830

82 996 108 109

76 238

97 591

Euro area (1)

180 363 235 884

50 723

64 488

54 258

72 801

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

US

:

2 838

4 950

5 862

257

569

:

1 285

:

1 897

12 365

15 510

3 498

4 003

2 282

2 285

585

196

153

756

362

326

969

423

39 343

56 946

14 207

21 931

15 284

21 679

3 709

2 204

1 961

5 500

2 648

1 523

353

678

337

16 075

15 531

3 312

36 061

63 171

10 071

9 736

8 691

1 862

48

10

6 890

12 843

5 960

6 045

:

277

4 331

5 940

-

-

1 104

1 110

15

1 300

940

:

231

-

428

2 062

1 015

191

3 660

9 715

1 590

4

4 227

1 500

133

215

-

279

14 405

16 471

7 814

11 074

20 651

31 944

9 350

11 106

12 178

14 501

1 866

5 323

2 733

9 302

3 870

1 831

1 777

513

661

3 342

1 010

4 321

527

2 621

36

42

833

3 684

8 302

6 949

-

18

70

-

321

-

2 962

3 614

1 477

1 050

375

449

739

64

45

510

5 697

10 332

9 999

-

39

113

-

571

-

3 471

4 950

2 732

1 577

371

763

858

50 219

52 250

10 007

12 269

11 922

12 391

63 600

98 200

14 970

17 600

7 555

2 603

8 482

4 018

2 295

2 770

578

624

9 120

6 305

324

11 775

6 039

592

19 279

16 185

4 966

6 445

1 305

1 643

-

9 045

4 749

-

9 667

5 285

-

2 212

1 504

-

2 326

1 591

-

2 283

1 145

-

2 223

1 751

469 830 471 862

85 313

95 619

76 477

81 437

(1) Data for 1995: excludes Belgium and Luxembourg.
Source: Eurostat (tag00072, tag00073 and tag00074)

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129

       
       
  
  
  
    
      
      
      
          
    
      
      
          
    
    
      
      
      
      
      
          
    
      
    
      
      
      
            
              
    
      
      
      
          
          
      
          
      
          
    
    
    
      
    
      
    
      
      
          
      
      
    
    
    
    
      
      
      
          
    
      
      
      
      
      
  
    
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4 Chapter 4

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

FISHERIES

The  Common  Fisheries  Policy  (CFP)  was  designed  to  deal  with
biological,  economic  and  social  dimensions  of  fishing.  It  was
introduced in 1983 and can be divided into four main areas: the
conservation  of  stocks;  structures  (such  as  vessels,  port  facilities
and fish processing plants); the organisation of the market for fish
in the European Union; and external fisheries policy.
To  ensure  sustainable  fishing,  it  is  not  only  the  quantity  of  fish
taken from the sea that is important, but also their species, size,
and  the  techniques  used  in  catching  them,  as  well  as  the  areas
where  they  are  caught.  This  may  be  extended  to  more  general
protection  of  marine  ecosystems,  avoiding  pollution  and  other
forms of environmental damage.
Restructuring within the fisheries sector has led to the European
Union’s fleet capacity declining, as quotas have been imposed to
ensure a better balance between the number of vessels and fish.
This  has  often  resulted  in  a  loss  of  employment  in  coastal  areas
which in many cases may face limited employment opportunities.
The total annual catch of fishery products is measured in terms of
the catch from all oceans and internal waters of the world; data are
expressed  in  the  live  weight  equivalent  of  the  landings  (in  other
words, as taken from the water, before processing). The total power
of the fishing fleet is expressed in kilowatts; data generally refer to
the fleet size on 31 December of each reference year.
Data  on  trade  in  fishery  products  include  edible  fishery  products
(fish, crustaceans and molluscs), inedible products (meals, oils and
fats as well as sponges, corals, etc.) and aquatic plants.

Figure 4.7: Total power of the fishing fleet (1 000 kilowatts)

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0

2004

2005

2006

EU-25

Iceland

Norway

Source: Eurostat (tag00082)

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Chapter 4
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

4

Table 4.7: Fishery indicators

           Annual catch - all regions

        (1 000 tonnes 
         of live weight)

          (% share of 
          world catch)

        External 
        trade, 2006
          (EUR million)

EU-27

1995
8 054

2005
5 719

1995
8.6

2005
6.1

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

36

8

4

1 999

239

132

390

152

1 179

675

397

9

149

57

0

7

5

438

0

429

264

49

2

2

155

405

910

:

:

25

5

4

911

286

100

262

92

856

595

298

2

151

140

-

8

1

549

0

156

212

6

1

2

132

256

669

:

:

634

1 624

2 524

2

6 120

5 326

426

1 661

2 393

1

4 178

4 846

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.1

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.2

1.3

0.7

0.4

0.0

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.5

0.0

0.5

0.3

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.4

1.0

:

:

0.7

1.7

2.7

0.0

6.6

5.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.9

0.6

0.3

0.0

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

0.0

0.2

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.3

0.7

:

:

0.5

1.8

2.6

0.0

4.5

5.2

Imports
:

1 533

29

128

2 287

3 002

70

169

480

5 083

4 079

3 754

46

61

151

66

48

31

Exports
:

920

13

57

3 082

1 347

108

359

421

2 275

1 360

562

20

130

168

12

6

51

1 867

2 344

266

693

1 215

108

53

56

214

1 622

2 974

91

17

41

79

677

422

:

:

15

646

436

10

15

4

21

1 244

1 405

127

6

60

1 453

4 403

11

:

:

Source: Eurostat (tag00076, tag00077, tag00093 and tag00094)

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

SHARE IN WORLD TRADE OF 
GOODS AND SERVICES

Statistics on international trade are an important data source for
many  public  and  private  sector  decision-makers  at  an
international, European Union and national level. These data are
extensively  used  for  multilateral  and  bilateral  trade  negotiations,
to  define  and  implement  anti-dumping  policies,  and  to  evaluate
the progress of the Single Market.
It is important to note that there are two main sources for statistics
on  international  trade.  On  the  one  hand,  there  is  external  trade
statistics  (ETS)  which  provide  information  on  trade  in  goods,
collected  on  the  basis  of  customs  and  VAT  declarations.  ETS
provide  detailed  information  on  the  value  and  volumes  of
international trade in goods per commodity. On the other hand,
there  is  the  Balance  of  Payments  (BoP),  which  registers  all  the
transactions of an economy with the rest of the world. The current
account of the BoP provides information not only on international
trade  in  goods  (generally  the  largest  category),  but  also  on
international  transactions  in  services,  income  and  current
transfers.  For  all  these  transactions  BoP  registers  the  value  of
exports  (credits)  and  imports  (debits),  the  difference  of  which  is
usually  referred  to  as  the  balance.  A  negative  balance,  that  is  a
current  account  deficit,  shows  that  a  country  is  spending  more
abroad than it is earning from abroad and is therefore a net debtor
towards the rest of the world.
Trade integration of goods and services is the average value of debits
and credits (summed together and divided by two) given relative to
GDP. This indicator is calculated for both goods and services, based
on  BoP  data;  if  the  values  increase  over  time,  then  the  reporting
territory became more integrated within the international economy.
It  is  normal  that  smaller  countries  will  display  a  higher  recourse  to
international trade, as they are more likely to import a range of goods
and services that are not produced within the domestic market.

Figure 5.1: Trade integration, EU-25 (% of GDP)

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Source: Eurostat (tsier064 and tsier065)

Goods

Services

132

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Chapter 5
International trade

5

Table 5.1: International trade in goods and services, 2005
(% of GDP) (1)

    Goods

  Services

Exports

Imports

Balance

Exports

Imports

Balance

EU-25

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

9.7

15.3

70.8

43.4

63.2

32.0

34.9

57.0

51.9

7.8

17.3

20.5

21.1

8.8

33.8

46.1

39.1

56.3

41.8

55.3

40.1

31.7

20.6

28.0

52.8

67.4

33.5

36.7

17.2

10.5

14.7

69.2

63.1

61.8

28.9

28.1

70.5

33.6

23.0

24.9

22.1

21.0

34.5

52.3

57.2

51.0

58.0

62.7

48.0

39.2

32.7

31.8

37.8

56.5

72.4

28.6

31.4

22.7

-0.9

0.6

1.6

-20.1

1.3

3.1

6.8

-13.6

18.4

-15.2

-7.6

-1.5

0.0

-24.9

-19.2

-11.6

-11.6

-1.7

-20.9

7.4

0.9

-0.9

-11.3

-9.8

-3.6

-5.0

4.9

5.4

-5.6

3.8

5.0

15.0

15.5

8.7

16.4

5.6

22.6

28.6

15.2

8.3

5.4

5.1

38.2

13.8

12.1

111.2

11.6

27.2

12.8

16.5

5.4

8.2

5.0

11.6

9.4

8.7

12.2

9.0

3.2

4.5

13.8

12.8

8.0

14.6

7.3

15.4

34.9

6.6

5.8

5.0

5.1

16.1

10.0

8.2

68.0

10.8

16.7

11.7

14.8

4.7

5.4

5.5

8.7

8.7

7.8

9.9

7.2

0.5

0.4

1.2

3.2

0.7

1.8

-1.7

7.2

-6.3

8.7

2.5

0.5

0.0

22.0

3.8

3.9

43.2

0.8

10.5

1.1

1.7

0.6

2.8

-0.5

3.3

0.8

0.9

2.3

1.9

(1) EU-25: extra-EU trade flows; euro area: extra-euro area trade flows; Member States
and other countries: trade flows with the rest of the world.
Source: Eurostat (tec00039, tec00040 and tec00001)

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SERVICES

Balance of Payment statistics are of particular interest for analysing
the services economy, as external trade statistics only cover goods.
The provision of services tends to contribute an increasing share of
the  economic  wealth  of  the  European  Union,  and  accounts  for
more than 50 % of GDP in each Member State. Nevertheless, the
value of exports and imports of goods is approximately three times
higher than that of services. Part of this imbalance may be due to
the nature of some services: for example, the provision of services
of proximity or alternatively professional services that are bound by
distinct  national  legislation,  making  it  difficult  to  trade  many
services across borders.
Due to their intangible nature, trade in services is more difficult to
record  than  trade  in  goods,  with  difficulties  associated  with
defining the service, its value, and the flows associated with each
service; as such, there may be some elements of under-reporting
in the statistics that are presented. The three main categories that
may  be 
include
identified  within  the  services  account 
transportation, travel, and other services (essentially other business
services, financial services and royalties and license fees).

Figure 5.2: International trade in services, EU-27, 2006 
(EUR 1 000 million) (1)

0

30

60

90

120

150

Other business services

Transportation

Travel

Financial services

Royalties and license fees

Computer and information services

Construction services

Insurance services

Communications services

Government services, n.e.c.

Personal, cultural and recreational services

(1) Provisional values; extra-EU trade flows.
Source: Eurostat (bop_its_det)

Credits
Debits

134

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Chapter 5
International trade

5

Table 5.2: International trade in services 
(EUR 1 000 million) (1)

        Credits

          Debits

          Net balance

EU-27 (2)

Euro area

2001
331.2

321.1

2006
441.5

426.1

47.4

4.1

10.6

41.8

139.1

2.8

55.1

28.4

84.5

94.2

78.4

5.8

2.1

2.9

40.6

10.6

2.1

75.0

37.0

16.3

14.1

5.5

3.5

4.3

12.8

39.4

182.8

8.4

19.6

26.2

93.4

:

2.4

7.8

27.9

99.2

1.8

27.5

21.7

62.3

89.6

64.4

3.7

1.3

1.3

:

7.4

1.2

57.3

37.2

10.9

10.5

2.3

2.2

3.1

6.5

25.3

133.6

:

17.9

19.6

72.1

2001
313.3

324.7

:

1.9

6.1

24.5

158.6

1.2

41.0

12.9

39.3

69.7

64.4

1.3

0.8

0.8

:

5.8

0.8

60.0

35.2

10.0

7.6

2.4

1.6

2.6

9.0

26.3

111.5

:

7.7

17.0

121.0

247.6

2006
373.1

391.1

42.2

3.2

9.4

36.6

175.0

2.0

62.5

13.0

62.3

86.0

79.9

2.4

1.6

2.0

24.0

9.3

1.3

72.4

25.9

14.6

9.2

5.5

2.6

3.8

12.4

29.0

139.9

2.8

8.9

25.1

108.0

273.0

2001
17.8

-3.5

:

0.5

1.7

3.4

-59.4

0.6

-13.5

8.8

23.0

19.9

0.0

2.4

0.6

0.5

:

1.6

0.4

-2.8

2.1

0.9

2.9

-0.1

0.5

0.5

-2.5

-1.0

22.0

:

10.2

2.9

-48.9

68.4

2006
68.5

35.0

5.1

1.0

1.2

5.2

-35.9

0.8

-7.4

15.3

22.1

8.3

-1.5

3.4

0.5

0.9

16.6

1.3

0.8

2.6

11.1

1.7

4.9

0.0

0.9

0.5

0.4

10.4

42.8

5.6

10.6

1.2

-14.5

60.6

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

NO

JP

US

316.0

333.6

(1) EU-27: extra-EU trade flows; euro area: extra-euro area trade flows; Member States
and other countries: trade flows with the rest of the world.
(2) EU-25 for 2001.
Source: Eurostat (tec00040)

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

WORLD MARKET FOR GOODS

International trade in goods forms an increasing part of the world
economy,  with  globalisation  extending  its  influence  and  with
growth in a number of rapidly developing economies, notably the
well documented cases of China and India, but also some of the
New  Independent  States  (the  States  of  the  former  Soviet  Union,
excluding  the  Baltic  States),  particularly  those  where  indigenous
energy supplies are of particular importance.
Extra-EU  trade  statistics  cover  the  trading  of  goods  with  non-
member  countries,  whereas  trade  between  Member  States  is
usually  referred  to  as  intra-EU  trade.  Note  that  an  important
distinction is usually made when reporting data for the European
Union, insofar as external trade data is usually provided in relation
to extra-EU trade only. As such, the data presented for the EU-27
treats this as a single trading block, and reports exports from the
whole of the EU-27 to the rest of the world and imports from the
rest of the world into the EU-27. In contrast, when reporting data
for  individual  European  Union  Member  States,  world  trade
includes both intra-EU and extra-EU flows.
The  statistics  for  exported  goods  are  recorded  at  their  free-on-
board  (fob)  value,  which  is  their  market  value  at  the  customs
frontier  of  the  exporting  economy,  including  charges  made  for
insurance and transport services up to the frontier. Import values
are usually presented in terms of cost, insurance, freight (cif). All
values  are  generally  provided  excluding  import  duties  or  other
Community taxes.

Figure 5.3: External trade of goods, 2005 
(% share of world total) (1)

Exports

Imports

EU-27
18.0%

Others
47.2%

Canada
4.9%

Japan
7.6%

United 
States
12.1%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
10.2%

Others
40.6%

Canada
4.4%

Japan
6.4%

United 
States
22.0%

EU-27
19.0%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
7.6%

(1) Excluding intra-EU trade.
Source: Eurostat (Comext), IMF

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Chapter 5
International trade

5

Table 5.3: Main players in the world market for
internationally traded goods (1)

             Value 
          (EUR 1 000 million)

       Share of world total 
         (%)

2001

2005

2001

2005

EXPORTS
World
EU-27
United States
China
Japan
Canada
Hong Kong
South Korea
Russia
Singapore
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
Malaysia
Switzerland
Brazil
Thailand
Norway
Australia
India
United Arab Emirates
Indonesia
Turkey
Venezuela
Iran
South Africa
Algeria
IMPORTS
World
EU-27
United States
China
Japan
Canada
Hong Kong
South Korea
Mexico
Singapore
India
Australia
Switzerland
Turkey
Thailand
Malaysia
United Arab Emirates
Russia
Brazil
Saudi Arabia
South Africa
Indonesia
Norway
Israel
Philippines
Iran

4 764.8
884.7
795.9
292.2
423.5
291.1
207.2
161.5
91.9
129.0
177.2
74.0
94.8
90.8
65.5
70.6
64.2
67.7
50.0
43.7
60.4
34.9
30.1
26.1
34.4
20.5

5 116.4
979.1
1 278.9
241.4
373.9
268.5
209.4
152.7
207.8
124.0
65.1
72.7
93.3
45.9
66.4
77.2
33.1
41.0
67.7
47.6
30.7
33.4
35.3
36.7
34.7
19.5

5 856.8
1 053.2
709.1
599.5
443.0
288.1
227.5
219.8
191.2
177.2
172.0
120.9
110.2
104.3
94.6
86.4
82.9
81.1
78.2
73.7
66.9
59.0
50.7
42.7
41.2
35.1

6 197.9
1 179.8
1 363.3
470.7
399.6
274.0
223.7
203.5
192.5
151.4
107.2
102.8
101.3
92.5
91.4
86.2
78.9
77.9
63.9
47.4
47.3
45.3
43.7
35.7
35.3
34.7

100.0
18.6
16.7
6.1
8.9
6.1
4.3
3.4
1.9
2.7
3.7
1.6
2.0
1.9
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.0
0.9
1.3
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.4

100.0
19.1
25.0
4.7
7.3
5.2
4.1
3.0
4.1
2.4
1.3
1.4
1.8
0.9
1.3
1.5
0.6
0.8
1.3
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.4

100.0
18.0
12.1
10.2
7.6
4.9
3.9
3.8
3.3
3.0
2.9
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.6

100.0
19.0
22.0
7.6
6.4
4.4
3.6
3.3
3.1
2.4
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6

(1) Excluding intra-EU trade.
Source: Eurostat (Comext), IMF

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

MAIN EU TRADING PARTNERS

The United States accounts for a little less than one quarter of the
EU-27’s  exports  of  goods,  a  share  that  has  fallen  somewhat  in
recent  years;  note  that  between  2001  and  2006  the  value  of
EU-27 exports to the Ukraine, Russia, Turkey and China more than
doubled.
For  imports,  the  trading  partner  is  the  country  of  origin.  The
traditional position of the United States as the principal origin of
EU-27 imports and of Japan in the top 3 is no longer the case. The
value of imports from the United States and from Japan has fallen
(between 2001 and 2006), while imports from China, India and a
number  of  natural  resource  rich  countries  have  increased.  As  a
result,  in  2006,  China  overtook  the  United  States  as  the  single
largest supplier of goods to the EU-27.

Figure 5.4: Main trading partners of the EU-27 for goods,
2006 (% share of extra-EU-27 trade)

EU-27 exports

EU-27 imports

United 
States
23.2%

Switzer-
land
7.5%

Russian 
Feder-
ation
6.3%

Rest of 
the 
world
45.1%

Switzer-
land
5.3%

Rest of 
the 
world
49.3%

Japan
3.9%

Turkey
4.3%

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
5.5%

Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_maineu)

China 
(excl. 
Hong 
Kong)
14.4%

United 
States
13.2%

Russian 
Feder-
ation
10.4%

Japan
5.7%

Norway 
5.9%

138

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Table 5.4: Development of trade with the top 20 EU-27
trading partners

Chapter 5
International trade

5

2001

2006

Share of  
EU-27  
total 
 (%) 

(EUR 
1 000 
million)

Share of  
EU-27  
total 
 (%) 

(EUR 
1 000 
million)

Average 
annual 
growth 
rate, 
2001-2006 
(%)

Rank 
2006

884.7
245.6
76.5
31.6
30.7
21.9
45.5
27.2
22.4
14.2
13.0
15.8
21.8
15.7
12.6
15.2
7.1
18.6
13.5
14.9
13.5

EXPORTS
Total extra EU-27
United States
Switzerland
Russian Federation
China (excl. Hong Kong)
Turkey
Japan
Norway
Canada
United Arab Emirates
India
South Korea
Hong Kong
Australia
South Africa
Singapore
Ukraine
Brazil
Saudi Arabia
Israel
Taiwan
IMPORTS
Total extra EU-27
China (excl. Hong Kong)
United States
Russian Federation
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Turkey
South Korea
Brazil
Taiwan
Libya
Algeria
Saudi Arabia
India
Canada
Singapore
South Africa
Malaysia
Thailand
Iran
Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_maineu)

979.1
82.0
203.3
65.9
46.4
81.1
63.6
22.1
23.3
19.6
26.1
11.6
16.2
13.2
13.5
18.6
15.2
16.4
17.2
13.2
6.8

100.0
27.8
8.6
3.6
3.5
2.5
5.1
3.1
2.5
1.6
1.5
1.8
2.5
1.8
1.4
1.7
0.8
2.1
1.5
1.7
1.5

100.0
8.4
20.8
6.7
4.7
8.3
6.5
2.3
2.4
2.0
2.7
1.2
1.7
1.3
1.4
1.9
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.3
0.7

1 157.2
268.9
87.0
72.4
63.6
49.8
44.8
38.4
26.6
25.2
24.3
22.8
21.6
21.3
19.9
19.7
18.3
17.7
17.6
14.0
13.2

1 350.2
194.3
177.9
140.6
79.2
77.3
71.5
41.7
39.1
27.1
26.5
25.8
24.0
23.5
22.6
19.8
19.5
18.5
17.9
14.7
14.4

100.0
23.2
7.5
6.3
5.5
4.3
3.9
3.3
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.1

100.0
14.4
13.2
10.4
5.9
5.7
5.3
3.1
2.9
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.1

5.5
1.8
2.6
18.0
15.7
17.9
-0.3
7.2
3.5
12.2
13.4
7.6
-0.2
6.4
9.6
5.3
20.8
-0.9
5.4
-1.3
-0.4

6.6
18.8
-2.6
16.4
11.3
-1.0
2.4
13.5
10.9
6.7
0.3
17.3
8.2
12.3
10.9
1.3
5.1
2.5
0.7
2.2
16.3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

EU TRADE BY PRODUCT

External  trade  statistics  report  export  and  import  values  and
volumes for goods using a product classification. One of the most
common classifications for studying aggregate product statistics is
the  standard  international  trade  classification  of  the  United
Nations (SITC Rev. 3); this classification allows a comparison to be
made on a worldwide basis.
Imports are defined as goods which enter the statistical territory of
the European Union from a third country and are placed under the
customs  procedure  for  free  circulation  (as  a  general  rule  goods
intended for consumption), inward processing or processing under
customs control (goods for working, processing) immediately or after
bonded  warehousing;  while  exports  are  goods  which  leave  the
statistical  territory  of  the  European  Union  for  a  third  country  after
being  placed  under  the  customs  procedure  for  exports  (definitive
export)  or  outward  processing  (goods  for  working,  processing)  or
following inward processing.
A  positive  balance  of  trade  is  known  as  a  trade  surplus  and
consists  of  exporting  more  (in  terms  of  value)  than  one  imports.
On the contrary, a negative balance of trade is known as a trade
deficit and consists of importing more than one exports. Neither is
necessarily damaging in a modern economy, although large trade
surpluses  or  trade  deficits  may  sometimes  be  a  sign  of  other
economic problems. Overall the EU-27 tends to register a negative
trade balance, particularly due to trade deficits for fuels (mineral
oil and lubricants) and other raw materials.

Figure 5.5: Extra-EU-27 trade by product, EU-27, 2006 
(EUR 1 000 million)

0

300

600

900

1 200

1 500

TOTAL - all products

Machinery and
transport equipment

Other manufactured
products

Mineral fuels &
lubricants

Chemicals and
related products

Food, drinks and
tobacco

Raw materials

Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_intertrd)

Imports
Exports

140

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Chapter 5
International trade

5

Table 5.5: Extra EU-27 trade in goods by main trading
partners (EUR 1 000 million)

EXPORTS

Extra EU-27

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

849.7

884.7

891.9

869.2

952.9 1 053.2 1 157.2

United States

238.2

245.6

247.9

227.3

235.5

252.9

268.9

China (excl. Hong Kong)

Russian Federation

Switzerland

Japan

Norway

Turkey

South Korea

India

Canada

IMPORTS

Extra EU-27

United States

China (excl. Hong Kong)

Russian Federation

Switzerland

Japan

Norway

Turkey

South Korea

India

Canada

TRADE BALANCE

Extra EU-27

United States

25.9

22.7

72.5

45.5

26.4

31.9

16.7

13.7

21.1

30.7

31.6

76.5

45.5

27.2

21.9

15.8

13.0

22.4

35.1

34.4

72.8

43.5

28.2

26.6

17.7

14.3

22.9

41.5

37.2

71.4

41.0

27.7

30.9

16.5

14.6

21.6

48.4

46.0

75.2

43.4

30.8

40.1

17.9

17.2

22.1

51.9

56.9

82.6

43.7

33.9

44.6

20.2

21.3

23.9

63.6

72.4

87.0

44.8

38.4

49.8

22.8

24.3

26.6

992.7

979.1

937.0

935.3 1 027.5 1 179.9 1 350.2

206.3

203.3

182.6

158.1

159.4

163.8

177.9

74.6

63.8

62.6

92.1

47.2

18.7

27.0

12.9

19.0

82.0

65.9

63.6

81.1

46.4

22.1

23.3

13.5

18.6

90.2

106.2

128.7

160.4

194.3

64.5

61.7

73.7

48.0

24.6

24.6

13.7

16.7

70.7

59.1

72.4

51.0

27.3

26.0

14.1

16.0

84.0

112.6

140.6

62.0

74.7

55.3

32.7

30.7

16.4

16.4

66.6

74.1

67.2

36.1

34.4

19.1

17.4

71.5

77.3

79.2

41.7

39.1

22.6

19.8

-143.0

-94.4

-45.1

-66.0

-74.6 -126.7 -193.0

31.9

42.3

65.3

69.2

76.1

89.1

91.0

China (excl. Hong Kong)

-48.8

-51.3

-55.1

-64.8

-80.3 -108.5 -130.7

Russian Federation

-41.0

-34.3

-30.1

-33.5

-37.9

-55.7

-68.2

Switzerland

10.0

12.9

11.1

12.3

13.2

16.0

15.5

Japan

Norway

Turkey

South Korea

India

Canada

-46.6

-35.6

-30.2

-31.4

-31.3

-30.4

-32.5

-20.8

-19.2

-19.9

-23.4

-24.5

-33.3

-40.8

13.2

-10.2

0.8

2.1

-0.2

-7.4

-0.5

3.8

2.0

-6.9

0.7

6.2

3.6

7.4

8.6

8.2

-9.6

-12.7

-14.2

-16.3

0.5

5.6

0.8

5.7

2.2

6.5

1.7

6.8

Source: Eurostat (tet00040)

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5 Chapter 5

International trade

TRADE IN GOODS BETWEEN EU MEMBER STATES

Intra-EU  trade  statistics  report  trade  between  European  Union
Member States. Whereas extra-EU trade statistics are required for
a  common  trade  and  customs  policy,  intra-EU  trade  statistics
measure the integration of the Member States in a common single
market.
Note that countries that are near the centre of Europe are more
likely to have a higher proportion of intra-EU trade than countries
that are geographically on the periphery of the European Union.
Intra-EU trade generally accounts for the majority of trade flows
recorded for the Member States, although Dutch intra-EU imports
were slightly less than extra-EU imports in 2006.
Intra-EU trade statistics are collected directly from trade operators
as  a  result  of  customs  controls  being  abolished  between  the
borders  of  the  Member  States  during  the  creation  of  the  single
market.

Figure 5.6: Intra-EU-27 trade, 2006 (% of total trade)

0

25

50

75

100

Average for Member States
LU

SK
CZ
NL

HU
PL
PT

BE
AT
LV

ES
DK
RO

CY
SI
EE

FR
IE
DE

LT
EL
UK

IT
SE
BG

FI
MT

Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_intratrd)

Arrivals

Dispatches

142

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Chapter 5
International trade

5

Table 5.6: Member States' intra-EU-27 trade 
(EUR 1 000 million)

      2001

     2006

EU-27

Arrivals Dispatches
1 872.6
1 783.8

Balance
-

Arrivals Dispatches
2 489.1
2 407.4

Balance
-

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

143.6

165.6

4.6

30.2

36.8

3.5

32.2

40.1

350.5

406.0

3.2

37.8

22.6

118.6

247.8

163.3

2.2

3.0

3.7

11.2

24.7

1.8

3.0

59.4

8.1

96.9

231.9

166.6

0.3

1.8

3.5

9.6

28.5

1.1

125.5

210.0

67.1

39.0

33.8

11.7

8.8

11.9

25.3

49.4

59.2

32.6

21.9

9.6

7.3

12.7

29.2

49.8

22.1

-1.2

2.0

3.3

55.6

-0.2

21.6

-14.5

-21.7

-16.0

3.4

-1.9

-1.2

-0.2

-1.6

3.7

-0.8

84.5

-8.0

-6.4

-12.0

-2.1

-1.5

0.9

3.9

0.4

201.4

224.1

9.3

59.8

49.5

6.9

64.8

52.4

22.7

-2.4

5.0

3.0

461.4

564.5

103.1

7.8

39.6

28.9

153.8

293.4

198.2

3.8

7.0

9.6

14.9

42.8

2.2

5.0

56.3

10.5

116.3

254.7

197.4

0.8

3.6

7.1

16.3

46.9

1.1

-2.9

16.7

-18.4

-37.4

-38.7

-0.7

-3.0

-3.5

-2.5

1.4

4.1

-1.1

164.9

292.2

127.3

89.6

72.9

40.2

25.8

14.9

27.7

35.0

70.4

81.2

69.3

26.7

18.2

12.7

28.9

35.2

70.6

-8.4

-3.6

-13.4

-7.7

-2.3

1.2

0.1

0.2

205.7

182.4

-23.4

283.0

225.5

-57.5

Source: Eurostat (ext_lt_intratrd)

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6 Chapter 6

Transport

MODAL BREAKDOWN OF TRANSPORT

Transport is defined as any movement of passengers and/or goods
(freight). Increased trade, both within the single European market
and outside, have driven rapid growth in road and maritime freight
transport  services.  Each  mode  of  transport  has  its  own  particular
advantages  in  relation  to  a  set  of  criteria  covering  issues  such  as
capacity,  speed,  cost,  safety,  flexibility,  energy  consumption,  and
environmental impact. European transport policy aims to create a
transport system that allows each mode of transport to play a role
in a developing transport infrastructure, resulting in more efficient,
cost effective and sustainable transport solutions.
For the purpose of statistical comparisons between different modes
of transport, standardised units are often used for measuring freight
(in tonne-kilometres, which represent the movement of one tonne
over  a  distance  of  one  kilometre)  and  passenger  (passenger-
kilometres,  which  represent  one  passenger  travelling  a  distance  of
one  kilometre)  transport  volumes.  The  indicators  of  transport
volumes  shown  in  Figure  6.1  show  the  real  change  in  inland
transport: road, rail and inland waterways for freight; passenger cars,
buses, coaches, and trains for passengers. The indicators are based
on the ratio of the transport volumes to GDP in constant prices (1995
prices), and this is expressed as an index with 1995=100. Rail and
inland  waterways  freight  transport  are  based  on  movements  on
national territory, regardless of the nationality of the vehicle or vessel.
Road  freight  transport  is  based  on  all  movements  of  vehicles
registered in the reporting country. For passenger transport all data
should be based on movements on the national territory, regardless
of  the  nationality  of  the  vehicle,  however,  data  collection
methodology is not harmonised across the European Union.

Table 6.1: Annual growth of passenger and freight
transport, EU-25 (%)

GDP at 1995 prices

Passenger transport (in p-km) (1)

Freight transport (in t-km) (2)

Average, 
1995-2005

2004-2005

2.3

1.8

2.8

1.7

1.8

2.2

(1) Passenger cars, powered two-wheelers, buses and coaches, tram and metro,
railways, air and sea.
(2) Road, sea, rail, inland waterways, pipelines and air.
Source: European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, Energy
and Transport in Figures, 2006

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Chapter 6
Transport

6

Table 6.2: Modal breakdown of inland passenger and 
freight transport

                Passenger-kms, 2002 
                 (% of total)

       Freight tonne-km, 2004 
      (% of total)

EU-27 (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT (2)

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

NO

Car
84.9

83.3

:

80.0

80.3

85.5

:

82.3

78.2

82.8

86.6

83.2

:

66.5

86.3

80.7

61.7

:

86.4

76.3

77.0

87.5

:

80.0

69.6

84.1

83.0

88.1

:

:

:

Bus
8.6

10.4

:

11.9

12.0

7.5

:

14.0

20.2

12.3

4.8

11.4

:

25.5

11.0

13.8

24.5

:

4.3

14.7

13.5

9.1

:

13.8

22.9

11.1

8.9

6.4

:

:

:

88.8

88.2

11.2

7.4

Rail
6.5

6.3

:

8.1

7.7

7.0

:

3.6

1.7

4.8

8.6

5.4

-

8.0

2.7

5.5

13.8

-

9.3

9.1

9.5

3.4

:

6.2

7.5

4.8

8.1

5.5

:

:

:

-

4.5

Railway
17.6

Road
76.5

13.4

25.4

25.4

7.8

20.3

64.6

1.7

2.6

4.8

16.0

9.7

-

70.2

43.9

4.1

25.0

72.4

70.8

74.5

92.2

66.0

35.4

98.3

97.4

95.2

80.5

90.3

100.0

29.8

56.1

92.5

69.2

-

100.0

3.6

32.6

30.8

5.3

21.7

22.7

29.5

23.3

36.0

11.9

23.1

11.2

5.6

-

14.7

65.8

64.4

69.0

94.7

67.3

77.3

70.3

76.5

64.0

88.0

76.0

88.8

94.4

100.0

85.3

Water-
ways

5.9

14.1

3.7

0.1

-

13.6

0.0

-

-

-

3.5

0.0

-

0.0

0.0

3.6

5.8

-

30.6

3.0

0.2

-

11.0

-

0.3

0.2

-

0.1

1.0

-

-

-

-

(1) Passenger-kms: average of those Member States for which data are available.
(2) The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian ÖBB and
included in their statistics.
Source: Eurostat (tran_pass and tran_good)

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6 Chapter 6

Transport

GOODS TRANSPORT

The  growth  in  the  use  of  road  networks  has  often  outpaced  the
speed with which new, or improved, roads have been built. This has
resulted  in  increased  congestion,  particularly  evident  around  and
within Europe’s major conurbations. Although motorways constitute
only  a  small  part  of  the  entire  road  network  within  the  European
Union, their length has more than tripled over the last 30 years.
Considering  only  inland  transport,  there  has  been  considerable
growth in road freight transport, accompanied by a slower increase
in the volume of goods transport by railway. As such the volume of
freight transported by road in the European Union (EU-25) is more
than four times as high as the volume transported by railway. More
than two thirds of the volume of road freight transport by vehicles
registered in European Union Member States is national, although
this  proportion  varies  greatly  between  Member  States  depending
on  the  geography  of  the  country,  with  small  land-locked
Luxembourg specialised in international transport contrasting with
the national transport dominated island of Cyprus.
For  air  and  sea  transport  the  indicators  provided  in  Table  6.2  are
presented  in  tonnes  (loaded/unloaded),  rather  than  tonne-
kilometres. The European Union relies heavily on maritime transport
for  trade,  in  particular  that  relating  to  bulky,  low  value  goods  that
cannot  be  transported  economically  using  other  transport  modes,
with  most  of  the  international  trade  passing  through  one  of  the
major sea ports. The weight of freight (and mail) transported by air is
low, although generally the average value of air freight is high.

Figure 6.1: National and international road transport of goods,
2005 (% based on million tonne-kms of laden transport) (1)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

BE CZ DK DE EE IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU HU NL AT PL PT SI SK FI SE UK

International
National

(1) Bulgaria, Malta and Romania: not available.
Source: Eurostat (road_go_ta_to)

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Chapter 6
Transport

6

Table 6.3: Goods transport, 2005

Goods 
transported by 
road 
(million t-km)

Goods 
transported
      by rail
(million t-km)

Air 
transport of 
goods
(1 000 tonnes)

Sea 
transport of 
goods
(million tonnes) 
(1)

EU-27 (2)

:

391 923

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT (3)

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

LI

NO

CH

43 847

:

43 447

23 299

310 103

5 824

17 910

:

233 230

205 284

:

1 393

8 394

15 908

:

25 152

:

90 958

37 490

111 826

42 882

:

11 032

22 566

31 856

38 575

:

:

:

:

:

18 247

:

8 130

5 212

14 823

1 968

95 421

10 639

303

613

11 635

40 701

22 761

-

19 779

12 457

392

9 090

-

5 025

18 957

49 972

2 422

17 022

3 245

9 463

9 706

21 783

22 638

2 835

9 077

-

-

3 149

:

11 994

695

3 718

207

17

56

7

3 006

10

89

106

526

1 477

754

39

15

10

625

55

15

25

-

100

285

47

52

151

400

341

509

7

60

26

-

-

4

1 551

461

182

31

130

18

5

4

120

:

2 451

18

334

63

-

87

334

-

55

65

48

13

-

100

178

586

26

:

5.7

-

202

-

(1) Goods handled in ports.
(2) Air transport of goods: excluding Sweden.
(3) The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian ÖBB and
included in their statistics.
Source: Eurostat (ttr00005, ttr00006, ttr00011 and mar_go_aa)

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6 Chapter 6

Transport

AIR AND SEA PASSENGER TRANSPORT

There has been substantial increase in the use of air transport in
recent years. Some of this may be attributed to the deregulation
of air transport markets, which resulted in increased competition
and the development of low-cost air carriers. As a result, it is now
relatively  common  for  many  Europeans  to  take  several  holidays
within the same year and to visit a number of countries, often for
short breaks. Alongside the environmental impact of air transport
and  the  construction/expansion  of  airports,  one  of  the  main
concerns  for  the  development  of  air  transport  networks  is  the
capacity  of  the  system,  which  in  many  cases  has  reached
saturation,  resulting  in  congestion  for  travellers  (delayed  flights
and overloaded air traffic control systems. The information on the
number of air passengers refers to the total number of passengers,
therefore both arrivals and departures. To avoid double counting
the  figures  for  the  Member  States  only  count  passengers  on
domestic flights once, while the figure for the EU-25 only counts
passengers on intra-EU flights once.
The  information  presented  for  sea  passengers  covers  passengers
using seagoing vessels on voyages which are undertaken wholly or
partly at sea. Service staff are not regarded as passengers, nor are
non-fare paying crew members, or infants in arms. Passengers are
counted both inward and outward, regardless of destination.

Figure 6.2: Top 15 airports (in terms of air passenger
transport), passengers embarked and disembarked, EU-27,
2005 (million passengers)

0

25

50

75

London Heathrow (UK)

Paris Charles-de-Gaulle (FR)

Frankfurt Rhein-Main (DE)

Amsterdam Schiphol (NL)

Madrid Barajas (ES)

London Gatwick (UK)

Roma Fiumicino (IT)

Munchen F.J. Strauss (DE)

Barcelona Transoceanico (ES)

Paris Orly (FR)

Manchester Ringway International (UK)

London Stansted (UK)

Palma de Mallorca (ES)

Kobenhavn Kastrup (DK)

Milano Malpensa (IT)

Source: Eurostat (avia_paoa)

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Table 6.4: Air and sea passenger transport

Chapter 6
Transport

6

Air passengers, 
2005 (millions)
960

660

18

5

11

22

146

1

24

31

144

108

88

7

2

1

2

8

3

46

20

7

20

4

1

2

12

23

204

3

:

54

3

-

19

29

EU-27 (1)

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

MK

TR

IS

LI

NO

CH

            Sea passengers 
           (passengers handled in 
           ports per 100 inhabitants)

2001

75.5

78.0

13.4

0.0

-

894.7

38.7

419.9

101.6

458.8

46.0

45.5

152.5

:

1.1

2.9

-

-

:

12.8

-

11.5

5.3

-

1.7

-

322.9

364.2

58.5

:

828.8

:

127.0

-

:

-

2003

84.8

92.8

7.1

0.1

-

903.7

38.9

381.4

94.5

933.6

48.1

44.4

144.1

40.1

5.1

3.9

-

-

41.8

12.4

-

8.3

5.9

-

2.4

-

313.9

366.3

56.7

:

2005

78.8

84.7

8.8

0.2

-

885.6

35.7

510.9

79.7

776.6

52.1

41.3

134.7

25.9

6.2

4.8

-

-

44.2

13.0

-

4.3

6.3

-

1.8

-

326.8

362.0

50.3

:

962.8

1 089.9

:

141.1

-

102.3

-

:

143.7

-

144.6

-

(1) Average of those Member States for which data are available.
Source: Eurostat (ttr00012, mar_pa_aa and tps00001)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

PRODUCTION OF PRIMARY ENERGY

Any kind of extraction of energy products from natural sources to
a usable form is called primary production, for example, from coal
mines  or  oil  fields.  Note  that  the  transformation  of  energy,  for
example, electricity generation in thermal power plants from coal
or oil is not considered as primary production.
Solid  fuels  cover  fossil  fuels  such  as  hard  coal,  lignite,  and  peat.
Primary  production  of  crude  oil  covers  all  production  within
national boundaries, including offshore production. Natural gas is
measured as the dry marketable production, after purification and
extraction  of  NGLs  (natural  gas  liquids)  and  sulphur;  it  does  not
include  quantities  re-injected,  extraction  losses,  or  quantities
vented  and  flared.  The  heat  produced  in  a  reactor  as  a  result  of
nuclear fission is regarded as primary production of nuclear heat,
in  other  words  nuclear  energy.  Renewable  energy  sources  cover
the production of energy from biomass, hydropower, geothermal
energy, wind and solar energy. 

Figure 7.1: Production of primary energy, EU-27, 2005 (%) (1)

Renewables
13.4%

Crude oil
14.3%

Nuclear energy
28.9%

Natural gas
21.1%

Solid fuels
21.9%

(1) Figures do not add up to 100 % due to rounding.
Source: Eurostat (ten00077, ten00078, ten00079, ten00080 and ten00081)

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Table 7.1: Energy production

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

         Total production 
        (primary energy, 
          million toe)

1995

939.8

445.1

10.9

10.2

31.4

15.5

2005

890.0

448.3

13.9

10.6

32.4

31.2

140.8

134.9

3.5

4.0

9.7

31.2

126.0

29.2

0.0

1.6

3.7

0.0

13.5

-

65.9

8.5

97.9

2.6

32.1

3.0

4.8

13.2

31.5

4.2

1.7

10.3

30.1

135.2

27.6

0.1

2.3

3.7

0.1

-

61.8

9.4

77.7

3.6

27.5

3.5

6.5

16.2

34.3

248.9

201.0

4.1

26.5

1.6

3.8

23.6

2.6

181.6

233.6

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

      Share of total production, 2005 (%)

Solid 
fuels 

Crude 
oil

Natural 
gas

Nuclear 
energy 

Renew-
ables 

21.9

16.8

0.0

39.6

72.7

-

41.9

75.3

47.8

83.0

20.8

0.0

0.2

-

0.1

0.5

-

14.3

3.2

-

0.3

0.9

60.6

2.6

-

-

1.0

0.5

0.9

21.1

18.6

0.0

3.6

0.5

30.1

10.5

-

27.9

0.2

0.5

0.6

22.3

35.8

-

-

5.9

-

-

-

-

-

28.9

43.3

88.2

45.6

19.7

-

31.2

-

-

-

49.3

86.1

0.0

-

-

72.4

13.4

17.7

11.8

10.9

6.2

9.3

12.4

16.9

24.3

15.9

28.9

12.3

41.7

100.0

99.9

21.1

-

100.0

-

-

0.0

88.0

0.0

21.1

34.0

9.7

13.1

0.9

5.9

0.0

44.4

-

0.4

-

3.7

10.1

1.1

-

-

91.0

14.9

5.0

-

19.9

35.3

0.0

0.5

-

0.0

42.7

26.8

9.6

-

0.1

1.9

-

-

39.2

49.4

3.1

-

61.4

32.7

-

1.7

-

-

-

5.2

43.6

69.8

37.0

54.4

10.5

-

-

-

-

-

3.6

75.1

5.9

100.0

18.4

22.2

13.5

49.8

44.7

1.7

23.8

42.9

100.0

5.6

10.3

16.9

13.5

22.6

34.6

11.4

Source: Eurostat (ten00076, ten00077, ten00078, ten00079, ten00080 and ten00081)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

PRODUCTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy has an important role to play in reducing CO2
emissions.  A  sustainable  energy  policy  is  in  part  reliant  upon
increasing the share of renewable energy, which may at the same
time help improve the security of energy supply by reducing the
Community’s  growing  dependence  on  imported  energy  sources.
Renewable  energy  sources  are  expected  to  be  economically
competitive  with  conventional  energy  sources  in  the  medium  to
long term.
The proportion of electricity from renewable energy measures the
contribution  of  electricity  produced  from  renewable  energy
sources  in  relation  to  national  electricity  consumption,  which
comprises total gross national electricity generation from all fuels,
plus electricity imports, minus electricity exports.
Renewable  energy  sources  include  renewable  non-fossil  energy
sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydro-power and energy
from  renewable  biomass/wastes.  The  latter  refers  to  electricity
generated from the combustion of wood and wood wastes, other
solid wastes, biogas (including landfill, sewage, and farm gas) and
liquid biofuels.

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

Figure 7.2: Electricity generated from renewable energy
sources, EU-27
600

500

400

300

200

100

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Biomass- and waste-fired power stations (TWh, left-hand scale)

Wind turbines (TWh, left-hand scale)

Geothermal power plants (TWh, left-hand scale)

Hydro power plants (TWh, left-hand scale)

Electricity from renewable energy as a proportion of gross electricity
consumption (%, right-hand scale)

Source: Eurostat (nrg_1071a)

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Table 7.2: Primary production of renewable energy

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

         Total production 
        (primary energy, 
          1 000 toe)

EU-27

1995
83 580

2005
119 445

Euro area

55 697

79 125

      Share of total production, 2005 (%)

Solar 
energy 

Biomass 
& waste 

Geo-
thermal 
energy 

Hydro 
power 

Wind 
energy 

0.7

0.9

0.2

-

0.1

0.3

2.2

-

0.0

6.2

0.8

0.1

0.2

599

370

598

1 534

6 517

486

164

1 289

5 601

17 903

7 540

42

1 637

1 149

2 012

2 897

16 714

713

400

1 633

8 711

16 694

11 504

50

82.0

1 406

2 287

501

46

626

-

899

5 862

3 924

2 601

2 797

542

503

777

74

1 180

-

2 243

7 092

4 564

3 579

5 048

774

881

6 133

8 073

13 147

15 364

1 951

720

3 399

900

10 777

10 131

1 566

2 637

11 575

12 994

-

-

2.7

0.2

-

1.0

1.3

-

0.6

-

-

-

0.0

0.0

0.9

-

3.8

-

0.0

67.6

65.3

97.0

64.7

89.6

79.8

72.9

99.0

62.5

60.6

58.9

71.7

29.4

18.0

87.3

94.6

79.7

90.9

-

90.7

53.1

95.4

81.9

64.0

61.5

53.7

85.1

58.7

79.2

39.4

52.6

0.1

9.8

4.5

6.5

0.1

2.9

-

0.1

0.8

-

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.8

41.6

-

-

0.4

-

7.4

-

-

0.5

0.2

1.8

1.6

-

0.9

-

-

0.0

-

9.9

77.0

-

22.1

20.8

1.5

32.5

10.2

0.1

10.1

0.3

13.5

26.4

19.3

26.9

27.0

-

12.5

5.0

10.8

1.4

-

0.4

43.5

4.1

11.4

34.4

38.5

45.3

14.7

40.7

12.6

60.6

33.6

22.9

89.9

5.1

6.5

1.2

0.0

0.1

19.6

14.0

0.7

24.0

6.7

21.0

0.5

1.8

-

0.2

-

6.8

0.1

-

7.9

1.6

0.3

4.2

-

-

0.1

0.2

0.5

7.4

-

0.0

0.0

0.3

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

Source: Eurostat (ten00082)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

ENERGY IMPORTS

Net  imports  of  primary  energy  are  calculated  as  imports  minus
exports;  they  exclude  transit  quantities  (notably  via  gas  and  oil
pipelines),  except  for  electrical  energy  whose  transit  is  recorded
under foreign trade statistics.
Dependency on energy imports (see overleaf) has increased from
40  %  of  gross  consumption  in  the  1980s  to  over  50  %  in  the
EU-27 today. Increased globalisation and rising living standards are
likely to result in higher demand for energy, for use in freight and
passenger  transportation,  as  well  as  to  heat  homes  and  power
household appliances. Despite increased production from nuclear
energy  and  renewable  sources,  this  increased  consumption  has
coincided with an overall fall in primary production, in particular of
hard  coal  and  lignite  and  of  crude  oil.  Naturally  the  result  of
increased  consumption  and  reduced  production  has  been
increased  net  imports.  A  shift  in  the  energy  mix,  notably  an
increase  in  the  consumption  of  natural  gas  particularly  for
electricity generation, has lead to particularly large increases in net
imports of natural gas.
Whilst  energy  production  may  be  expected  to  continue  to  fall,
particularly for fossil fuels as reserves are depleted, notably in the
North  Sea,  net  imports  can  be  expected  to  rise  further.  To
constrain  this  increased  dependency  on  imports,  production  of
other  sources  would  need  to  increase,  in  combination  with  a
reduction  in  energy  use.  In  2006  the  European  Commission
proposed  an  energy  efficiency  action  plan  to  save  20  %  of  the
European Union’s energy consumption by 2020.

Figure 7.3: Extra-EU imports of natural gas, EU-27, 2005 (%)

Egypt 
1.7%

Others
7.9%

Qatar 
1.7%

Libya  
1.8%

Nigeria
3.7%

Algeria 
19.1%

Russia
41.9%

Norway
22.3%

Source: Eurostat (nrg_124a)

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.3: Net imports of energy per capita 
(toe per inhabitant)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

1999
1.6

2000
1.7

2001
1.8

2002
1.8

2003
1.8

2004
1.9

2005
2.0

2.4

4.6

1.1

0.9

2.5

4.8

1.1

0.9

2.5

4.7

1.1

1.0

2.5

4.4

1.1

1.1

2.6

4.8

1.2

1.1

-0.6

-1.3

-1.1

-1.6

-1.3

2.5

1.4

3.1

1.8

2.4

2.2

2.5

3.6

0.9

1.2

7.8

1.4

2.6

1.6

2.4

0.2

2.2

0.4

1.8

2.2

3.3

2.0

-0.8

1.0

0.7

3.5

2.5

1.1

3.2

2.0

2.5

2.2

2.7

3.7

0.9

1.2

8.3

1.4

2.2

2.2

2.4

0.3

2.1

0.4

1.7

2.2

3.6

2.2

-0.7

0.9

0.8

3.7

2.6

1.2

3.6

2.0

2.4

2.2

2.6

3.6

1.1

1.1

8.4

1.4

1.9

2.0

2.5

0.2

2.1

0.4

1.7

2.3

3.6

2.2

-0.4

0.9

0.7

3.3

2.5

1.1

3.5

2.1

2.6

2.2

2.7

3.6

1.0

1.1

8.9

1.4

2.3

1.9

2.6

0.3

2.2

0.4

1.7

2.3

3.6

2.2

-0.5

1.1

0.7

3.4

2.6

1.1

3.4

2.0

2.6

2.2

2.7

3.7

1.1

1.2

9.2

1.6

2.3

2.2

2.8

0.3

2.1

0.5

1.8

2.4

4.3

2.5

-0.2

1.1

0.8

3.2

2.6

4.7

1.2

1.1

-1.8

2.6

1.2

3.4

2.2

2.7

2.3

2.7

3.3

1.3

1.3

2.7

4.7

1.2

1.2

-1.9

2.6

1.1

3.3

2.1

2.9

2.3

2.7

3.7

1.2

1.5

10.0

10.1

1.6

2.3

1.8

2.8

0.4

2.1

0.6

1.9

2.5

4.0

2.2

0.2

1.1

0.8

3.7

1.7

2.4

2.3

3.0

0.4

2.3

0.5

1.9

2.3

3.7

2.2

0.5

1.2

0.9

3.6

-40.8

-44.2

-45.0

-46.0

-45.4

-45.8

-43.5

Source: Eurostat (ten00083 and tps00001)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

INLAND CONSUMPTION AND 
ENERGY DEPENDENCY AND INTENSITY

Gross  inland  consumption  represents  the  quantity  of  energy
necessary to satisfy inland demand of a national territory. It may
be defined as primary production plus imports, recovered products
and  stock  changes,  less  exports  and  fuel  supply  to  maritime
bunkers  (for  seagoing  ships  of  all  flags).  It  therefore  reflects  the
energy necessary to satisfy inland consumption within the limits of
national territory. In 1997 a target was set to increase the share of
renewable energies in gross energy consumption to 12 % by 2010
within  the  European  Union.  In  2007  a  new  target  was  set  for
renewable energy to contribute 20 % of the energy mix by 2020.
The energy dependency rate is defined as net imports divided by
gross consumption, expressed a percentage; gross consumption is
equal to gross inland consumption plus the energy (oil) supplied to
international  marine  bunkers.  A  negative  dependency  rate
indicates a net exporter of energy. A dependency rate in excess of
100 % indicates that energy products have been stocked.
Energy  intensity  may  be  measured  as  the  ratio  between  gross
inland consumption of energy and gross domestic product (GDP)
at constant prices (1995). The ratio is expressed as kgoe (kilogram
of  oil  equivalent)  per  thousand  euro.  Note  that  if  an  economy
becomes more efficient in its use of energy, and its GDP remains
constant, then the ratio for this indicator should fall. However, the
economic  structure  of  an  economy  plays  an  important  role  in
determining the intensity, as post-industrial economies with large
service sectors will, a priori, display low levels of energy intensity,
while developing economies may have a considerable proportion
of their economic activity within industrial sectors, thus leading to
a higher value for the indicator.

Figure 7.4: Breakdown of gross inland consumption by fuel,
EU-27 (%)
50

40

30

20

10

0

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Crude oil and petroleum products   
Natural gas
Solid fuels
Nuclear energy                     
Renewable energies                  

Source: Eurostat (nrg_101a, nrg_102a, nrg_103a, nrg_104a and nrg_1071a)

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.4: Gross inland consumption of energy, 
energy dependency and intensity

      Energy 
    dependency 
     (%)

2000

2005

        Energy intensity 
     (kg of oil equivalent
        per EUR 1 000) (1)
2005

2000

          Gross inland 
         consumption 
         (million toe)

2000

1 712

1 165

57.2

18.6

40.3

19.7

2005

1 811

1 241

55.0

19.9

44.8

19.5

340.1

345.5

4.6

14.3

28.1

122.7

259.0

172.5

2.4

3.9

7.1

3.6

25.0

0.8

75.7

28.7

90.8

24.1

37.1

6.4

17.5

32.5

47.8

5.6

15.1

31.2

143.5

275.4

186.8

2.5

4.7

8.6

4.7

27.9

1.0

81.0

34.0

93.9

26.7

39.1

7.3

19.4

34.5

51.6

7.8

77.4

3.2

26.1

8.9

85.2

3.6

32.2

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

46.7

64.2

77.8

46.5

23.1

52.3

65.4

78.2

47.1

27.4

-33.7

-51.6

59.8

30.8

84.5

69.3

76.5

50.9

87.3

98.8

57.0

60.4

99.8

56.0

61.6

25.8

89.5

68.5

81.2

51.6

84.4

100.7

56.0

58.4

98.0

62.9

100.9

100.0

38.6

65.6

11.1

87.2

21.8

52.5

66.5

55.9

39.0

53.3

65.4

31.2

37.8

71.8

18.0

88.2

27.4

52.2

64.6

54.7

37.2

13.9

58.6

71.9

28.8

213.1

184.2

236.1

208.1

183.4

205.7

1 931.1

1 582.4

888.4

125.0

159.7

1 214.8

175.1

263.6

227.0

186.6

186.9

282.3

756.0

1 208.4

186.6

600.5

303.2

198.5

134.4

680.2

241.5

823.4

114.1

157.0

966.9

143.9

236.5

219.2

185.5

190.7

246.9

644.8

949.1

189.9

543.6

269.9

195.6

149.3

584.7

241.4

1 457.2

1 164.9

341.7

955.9

260.1

215.0

227.3

442.3

492.0

483.8

193.1

320.5

868.6

241.5

204.3

202.6

:

438.3

433.8

211.6

231.4

232.3

-16.7

-735.8

-609.1

(1) Gross inland consumption of energy divided by GDP.
Source: Eurostat (ten00086, nrg_100a and nrg_ind_332a)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

ELECTRICITY

Gross  electricity  generation  at  the  plant  level  is  defined  as  the
electricity measured at the outlet of the main transformers, in other
words the consumption of electricity in the plant auxiliaries and in
transformers  is  included.  There  has  been  a  shift  in  fuels  used  for
electricity  generation:  among  the  main  sources  natural  gas  has
increased  at  the  expense  of  coal,  lignite  and  oil  due  to  lower
emissions from gas, and there has been an increase in the use of
renewables,  particularly  wind  turbines.  The  indicator  of  electricity
from renewable energy sources is the ratio between the electricity
produced  from  renewable  energy  sources  and  the  gross  national
electricity consumption. Electricity produced from renewable energy
sources  comprises  the  electricity  generation  from  hydro  plants
(excluding  pumping),  wind,  solar,  geothermal  and  electricity  from
biomass/wastes.  Gross  national  electricity  consumption  comprises
the total gross national electricity generation from all fuels (including
autoproduction),  plus  electricity  imports,  minus  exports.  The
European Parliament and Council set indicative targets in 2001 for
the  promotion  of  electricity  from  renewable  energy  sources,
whereby 22 % of the EU-15’s gross electricity consumption should
be electricity produced from renewables by 2010; the target for the
EU-25  and  the  EU-27  is  21  %.  These  targets  also  represent  an
important  contribution  towards  complying  with  the  commitments
made by the European Union under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (see
page 164 for more information).
Final consumption of electricity covers the electricity delivered to
the  final  consumer’s  door  (in  the  industry,  transport,  household
and  other  sectors)  for  all  energy  uses.  It  excludes  deliveries  for
transformation  and/or  own  use  of  the  energy  producing
industries, as well as network losses.
The  indicator  on  the  market  share  of  the  largest  electricity
generator is based on net electricity production, and as such the
electricity  used  by  generators  for  their  own  consumption  is  not
taken into account.

Figure 7.5: Gross electricity generation, by fuel used in
power-stations, EU-27, 2005

Biomass-fired 
power stations
2.4%

Wind turbines
2.1%

Others
2.4%

Oil-fired power 
stations
4.2%
Lignite-fired 
power stations
9.3%

Hydro power 
plants
10.3%

Nuclear power 
plants
30.2%

Coal-fired 
power stations
19.1%

Natural gas-
fired power 
stations
20.0%

Source: Eurostat (nrg_105a)

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Table 7.5: Main indicators for electricity, 2005

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Total 
electricity 
gener-
ation 
(TWh)

Electricity 
from 
renew-
ables 
(%)

EU-27

3 310.4

Euro area

2 268.2

   Final consumption 
   of electricity

(million 
toe)

237.0

167.3

6.9

2.2

4.8

2.9

44.5

0.5

2.1

4.4

20.8

36.3

25.8

0.3

0.5

0.7

0.5

2.8

0.1

9.0

4.9

8.5

4.0

3.4

1.1

2.0

7.0

(kgoe 
per 
capita)

482.7

531.3

660.0

284.5

464.7

532.6

539.4

384.4

509.6

394.9

483.9

581.1

441.8

453.8

212.4

199.1

275.3

367.5

551.1

595.1

222.6

378.3

155.0

548.7

364.9

1 328.9

11.4

1 263.1

29.7

1.2

11.1

0.7

9.6

494.3

277.7

154.3

2 285.6

2 089.1

Market 
share 
of the 
largest 
generator 
(%)

House-
hold 
final 
consump-
tion 
(1995=100)

-

-

122.1

:

85.0

117.6

:

72.0

33.0

:

92.0

71.0

97.0

35.0

89.1

38.6

100.0

92.7

70.3

82.6

99.1

101.5

110.3

151.8

151.5

146.6

177.3

137.6

117.0

188.8

135.4

138.7

38.7

100.0

:

:

18.5

53.9

36.4

50.1

83.6

23.0

47.0

20.5

87.0

38.0

:

30.0

113.6

155.8

123.0

104.7

138.7

168.4

129.8

115.6

94.1

126.6

100.6

114.3

90.5

213.5

163.9

96.8

1 162.6

:

109.9

14.0

:

2.8

11.8

4.5

28.2

10.5

1.1

6.8

10.0

15.0

11.3

14.1

0.0

48.4

3.9

3.2

4.6

0.0

7.5

57.9

2.9

16.0

35.8

24.2

16.5

26.9

54.3

4.3

36.1

24.7

99.9

87.0

44.4

82.6

36.3

620.3

10.2

25.4

60.0

294.1

575.4

303.7

4.4

4.9

14.8

4.1

35.8

2.2

100.2

65.7

156.9

46.6

59.4

15.1

31.5

70.5

158.4

400.5

12.4

162.0

8.7

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

138.1

108.4

Source: Eurostat (ten00087, nrg_ind_333a, ten00097, tps00001, tsier031 and
nrg_105a)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Final  energy  consumption  includes  all  energy  delivered  to  the
consumer’s  door;  it  excludes  deliveries  for  transformation  and/or
own  use  of  the  energy  producing  industries,  as  well  as  network
losses.  Final  energy  consumption  by  transport  covers  the
consumption of energy products in all types of transportation: rail,
road,  international  and  domestic  air  transport  and  inland
navigation/coastal  shipping,  but  excluding  maritime  shipping.
Energy  consumption  for  transportation  has  grown  strongly  in
recent  years.  In  2007  a  minimum  target  that  biofuels  should
account for 10 % of transport petrol and diesel by 2020 was set.
Per  capita  energy  consumption  varies  greatly  between  Member
States  reflecting  in  particular  economic  development  and
consumption  patterns,  the  degree  of  industrialisation  (and  the
industrial structure), and climatic conditions. The particularly high
energy  consumption  per  capita  recorded  in  Luxembourg  can  in
part be explained by petrol purchases by residents of neighbouring
countries  and  drivers  of  road  freight  transporters  in  transit,  and
also by its industrial structure.

Figure 7.6: Final energy consumption (million toe)

1 200

900

600

300

0

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

EU-27
Euro area

Source: Eurostat (ten00095)

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Chapter 7
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7

Table 7.6: Final energy consumption

         (million toe)

        (toe per capita)

EU-27

1996
1 111.6

2000
1 108.3

2005
1 168.6

1996
2.3

Euro area

739.1

761.3

808.9

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

36.4

11.5

25.8

15.3

36.9

8.6

22.4

14.6

36.4

9.5

25.8

15.3

231.2

218.2

217.9

2.9

8.3

16.9

65.3

148.6

114.5

1.5

3.8

4.5

3.3

16.3

0.4

51.7

22.6

65.7

13.9

29.5

4.4

10.7

22.4

34.6

2.4

10.7

18.5

79.4

152.1

123.3

1.6

3.3

3.7

3.5

15.8

0.4

50.1

23.1

55.1

16.9

22.5

4.4

10.5

24.2

34.4

2.8

12.3

20.7

97.2

158.2

134.1

1.7

4.0

4.5

4.4

18.1

0.5

51.6

27.3

57.2

18.7

24.5

4.9

10.6

25.2

33.7

149.9

151.7

151.6

4.7

48.7

1.8

17.7

5.3

54.8

2.1

18.1

6.3

62.3

2.2

18.6

Source: Eurostat (ten00095 and tps00001)

2.5

3.6

1.4

2.5

2.9

2.8

2.0

2.3

1.6

1.7

2.5

2.0

2.2

1.5

1.2

7.9

1.6

1.0

3.3

2.8

1.7

1.4

1.3

2.2

2.0

4.4

3.9

2.6

1.0

0.8

6.6

4.0

2000
2.3

2.5

3.6

1.0

2.2

2.7

2.7

1.7

2.8

1.7

2.0

2.5

2.2

2.4

1.4

1.1

8.2

1.5

1.1

3.2

2.9

1.4

1.7

1.0

2.2

2.0

4.7

3.9

2.6

1.2

0.8

7.6

4.0

2005
2.4

2.6

3.5

1.2

2.5

2.8

2.6

2.1

3.0

1.9

2.3

2.5

2.3

2.3

1.7

1.3

9.7

1.8

1.3

3.2

3.3

1.5

1.8

1.1

2.4

2.0

4.8

3.7

2.5

1.4

0.9

7.5

4.0

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

ENERGY PRICES

A competitive and reliable energy sector is an essential part of an
industrialised  economy.  The  energy  sector  has  been  highlighted
recently  due  to  concerns  over  the  security  of  supply  caused  by
instabilities in the Middle East, disputes over pipelines for delivery,
or  adverse  weather  conditions  that  affect  refinery  output.  With
rapid  growth  in  demand  for  fossil  fuels  from  several  developing
countries, imbalances arose between supply and demand, leading
to pressure on prices. This was most evident for oil prices which
have  risen  strongly  since  the  end  of  2002,  the  effects  of  which
were  evident  in  higher  prices  for  industry  and  consumers.  As  oil
and gas (the price of which is related to that for oil) are among the
main fuels used to generate electricity, there were also knock on
effects  on  electricity  prices.  Some  protection  against  such  price
increases can be achieved through diversification, particularly for
electricity generation, for example from renewable energy sources
or nuclear power; changing the product mix to avoid reliance on
any one type of energy or any single country as a supplier.
The  indicators  shown  for  transport  fuels  are  the  average  at  the
pump  prices  for  consumers,  for  unleaded  petrol  (Euro-super  95)
and automotive diesel.
Electricity and gas tariffs vary from one supplier to another. They
may  be  the  result  of  negotiated  contracts,  especially  for  large
industrial consumers. For smaller consumers they are generally set
according  to  the  amount  of  electricity  or  gas  consumed,  and  a
number  of  other  characteristics  that  vary  from  one  country  to
another.  Tariffs  also  generally  include  fixed  charges.  Therefore,
there is no single price for electricity or gas in any European Union
country.  In  order  to  compare  prices  over  time  and  between
countries,  two 
’standard  consumers’  are  presented,  one
representing  domestic  consumers  and  one  industrial  consumer.
The actual price paid by real consumers will differ from these. All
electricity price data are given in euro per kWh (excluding taxes)
and correspond to prices applicable on 1 January of the reference
year, a similar set of criteria are used for gas prices, except the unit
changes to euro per GJ.

Figure 7.7: Average gasoline and diesel prices, EU-25 
(EUR / litre) (1)

1.50

1.20

0.90

0.60

0.30

0.00

2001

2004

2003

2002
Unleaded gasoline, including taxes (Euro-super 95)
Automotive diesel oil, including taxes
Unleaded gasoline, excluding taxes (Euro-super 95)
Automotive diesel oil, excluding taxes

2005

2006

(1) Weighted average of the individual Member States’ consumer prices at the pump.
Source: European Commission, Directorate General for Transport and Energy
(http://ec.europa.eu/energy/oil/bulletin/index_en.htm)

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Table 7.7: Energy prices, excluding taxes

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

     Electricity 
    prices:
     households
    (EUR/kWh)
    (1)

2002

2007

Electricity 
prices:
industrial
users
(EUR/kWh) (2)
2002
2007

:

:

0.11

:

0.06

0.09

0.13

0.05

0.09

0.06

0.09

0.09

0.14

0.08

:

:

0.11

0.07

0.06

0.09

0.09

0.08

0.12

:

0.09

:

0.07

0.07

0.10

0.09

0.12

0.12

0.12

0.05

0.09

0.12

0.14

0.06

0.15

0.07

0.10

0.09

0.17

0.12

0.06

0.07

0.15

0.10

0.09

0.14

0.11

0.09

0.14

0.09

0.09

0.13

0.09

0.11

0.13

0.14

:

:

0.08

:

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.05

0.08

0.06

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.09

:

:

0.06

0.06

0.07

:

:

0.06

0.07

:

0.06

:

0.04

0.03

0.06

0.04

0.08

0.08

0.09

0.05

0.08

0.06

0.09

0.05

0.11

0.07

0.08

0.05

0.10

0.10

0.04

0.05

0.10

0.08

0.09

0.09

0.08

0.05

0.09

0.08

0.08

0.09

0.05

0.06

0.10

0.07

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

NO

Natural gas  
prices: 
households
(EUR/GJ) (3)
2002
2007

:

:

11.68

12.53

 Natural gas   
 prices: 
   industrial
users
 (EUR/GJ) (4)
2002

2007

:

:

8.89

8.94

6.89

5.22

6.56

5.77

8.34

10.33

5.25

:

5.81

7.36

7.94

7.53

13.64

:

4.68

4.49

9.24

13.97

7.28

12.15

:

4.99

:

3.69

7.27

14.74

4.88

:

:

10.46

12.27

9.19

11.42

9.95

11.79

:

:

:

:

6.35

5.97

6.64

10.87

3.88

5.97

:

:

7.03

12.30

8.78

10.98

6.64

8.76

13.19

13.22

:

7.60

:

4.34

4.93

5.87

:

:

:

5.90

4.91

:

:

5.62

6.15

6.26

:

7.31

10.75

6.41

:

:

9.64

:

:

6.18

:

:

7.07

7.63

8.46

:

5.29

6.02

9.85

9.48

:

8.40

8.91

7.54

7.76

7.32

7.33

8.00

7.61

9.63

15.09

5.93

11.06

6.63

11.20

5.42

10.55

:

:

:

:

(1) Annual consumption of 3 500 kWh of which 1 300 kWh is overnight (standard
dwelling of 90 m²).
(2) Annual consumption of 2 000 MWh, maximum demand of 500 kW and annual
load of 4 000 hours; Luxembourg: 50 % power reduction during hours of heavy
loading
(3) Annual consumption of 83.7 GJ (equipment: cooking, water heating and central
heating).
(4) Annual consumption of 41 860 GJ, and load factor of 200 days (1 600 hours).
Source: Eurostat (nrg_pc_priceind)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

GREENHOUSE GASES

Industrialised countries that are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol,
adopted in December 1997, are required to reduce their emissions
of six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons,  perfluorocarbons  and  sulphur  hexafluoride)
to, on average, 5.2 % below their 1990 level, by the period 2008
to  2012.  For  its  part,  the  European  Union  agreed  to  an  8  %
reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions, with reductions for the
EU-15 Member States agreed under the so-called burden sharing
agreement,  which  allows  some  countries  to  increase  their
emissions,  provided  these  are  offset  by  reductions  in  other
Member States. In 2007 the objective of a 20 % reduction (relative
to 1990) by 2020 was set, with the objective of a 30 % reduction
in  the  same  timescale  put  forward  as  the  European  Union’s
contribution  to  a  global  and  comprehensive  agreement  for  the
period beyond 2012.
Emissions of the six greenhouse gases covered by the Protocol are
weighted  by  their  global  warming  potentials  (GWPs)  and
aggregated  to  give  total  emissions  in  CO2 equivalents.  The  total
emissions are presented as indices, which were set to 100 for the
Kyoto base year. The index of greenhouse gas emissions therefore
shows  trends  in  emissions  of  the  Kyoto  basket  of  six  gases.  The
indicator does not include ozone depleting substances with global
warming properties, as covered by the Montreal Protocol.

Figure 7.8: Index of total greenhouse gas emissions, EU-27
(Kyoto base year=100)

96

95

94

93

92

91

90

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

(1) Generally 1990=100.
Source: Eurostat (tsien010)

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Table 7.8: Greenhouse gases

Total 
emissions, 
2005
(million 
tonnes of CO2 
equivalents)
5 176.9

Emissions 
per capita, 
2005
(tonnes of 
CO2 
equivalents)
10.5

EU-27

Euro area 

3 264.4

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU (3)

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

143.9

69.8

145.6

64.0

1 001.5

20.7

70.0

139.2

440.6

553.4

582.2

9.9

10.9

22.6

12.7

80.5

3.4

212.1

93.3

399.0

85.5

153.7

20.3

48.7

69.3

67.0

657.4

29.7

312.9

3.7

54.2

53.6

1 359.9

7 241.5

10.8

13.7

9.0

14.2

11.8

12.1

15.3

16.8

12.5

10.2

8.8

9.9

13.0

4.7

6.6

27.6

8.0

8.5

13.0

11.3

10.5

8.1

7.1

10.1

9.0

13.2

7.4

10.9

6.7

4.3

12.5

11.7

7.2

:

:

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

         Index of total greenhouse 
        gas emissions
        (Kyoto base year=100) (1)

Target 
(2)

-

-

92.5

92.0

92.0

79.0

79.0

92.0

113.0

125.0

115.0

100.0

93.5

-

92.0

92.0

72.0

94.0

-

94.0

87.0

94.0

1995
93.4

97.8

2000
90.7

98.3

103.6

100.4

2005
92.1

100.6

97.9

52.8

74.2

92.2

81.3

48.0

125.4

125.4

152.3

98.1

112.1

163.7

42.0

46.9

100.4

65.5

50.7

75.9

98.4

82.7

45.9

123.9

118.6

132.8

99.3

106.6

144.7

38.8

38.9

75.2

64.3

65.6

78.7

110.0

88.9

53.8

106.4

101.9

110.0

99.1

102.5

119.5

48.2

45.3

77.0

65.9

122.4

104.9

101.7

77.2

129.0

154.8

99.9

98.9

102.7

118.1

69.0

68.0

116.7

135.0

140.4

127.0

66.2

91.4

72.3

100.6

102.0

91.1

70.4

129.8

93.6

100.2

96.8

106.5

105.3

49.1

92.6

65.8

98.5

94.5

86.4

81.1

164.0

109.9

107.6

98.0

106.8

114.4

54.4

100.4

66.4

97.4

92.6

84.3

95.5

184.0

110.5

108.8

101.7

107.8

116.3

92.0

92.0

92.0

100.0

104.0

87.5

95.0

-

110.0

101.0

92.0

94.0

-

(1) Generally 1990=100.
(2) Emission reduction targets for 2008-2012 are those agreed upon in Council
Decision 2002/358/EC (for EU Member States) or in the Kyoto protocol (for all other
countries).
(3) Break in series for index of total greenhouse gas emissions, 1995.
Source: Eurostat (env_air_emis, tps00001 and tsien010)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

URBAN POPULATION EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION

Air  contains  gases  and  particles  released  by  fuel  combustion,
industrial processes and other activities. Some of these can result
in  environmental  problems,  including  negative  effects  on
ecosystems, flora, fauna and human health.
Human exposure to elevated ozone concentrations can give rise to
inflammatory responses and decreases in lung function. In 2002 a
long-term  objective  for  ozone  was  set  at  120  microgram  ozone
per m³ as a maximum daily 8-hour mean within a calendar year.
The  indicator  shows  the  population  weighted  yearly  sum  of
maximum  daily  8-hour  mean  ozone  concentrations  above  a
threshold (70 microgram ozone per m³) at the urban background
stations in agglomerations.
Fine  particulates  (PM10),  in  other  words  particulates  whose
diameter is less than 10 micrometers, can be carried deep into the
lungs where they can cause inflammation and a worsening of the
condition  of  people  with  heart  and  lung  diseases.  In  1999  an
annual limit on PM10 and other pollutants in ambient air was fixed
at  40  microgram  of  PM10  per  m³.  The  indicator  shows  the
population  weighted  annual  mean  concentration  of  particulate
matter at urban background stations in agglomerations.

Figure 7.9: Urban population exposure to air pollution by
particulate matter, EU-25 (micrograms per cubic metre) (1)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

(1) Population weighted annual mean concentration of particulate matter.
Source: Eurostat (tsien042)

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.9: Urban population exposure to air pollution

          Exposure to air pollution 
        by ozone 
       (micrograms per m³ * day) (1)

    Exposure to air pollution by 
    particulate matter 
    (micrograms per m³) (2)

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

1999
3 854

3 846

:

4 766

2 574

3 545

:

:

7 159

6 553

4 036

7 882

:

3 811

:

:

:

:

2 318

5 350

3 344

1 360

:

4 666

:

2 435

2 231

1 413

:

:

2002
3 707

2 234

:

4 574

2 630

3 194

4 326

:

13 040

4 389

3 749

6 521

:

:

:

:

:

:

1 552

6 318

4 476

2 545

:

6 008

6 019

2 314

2 956

889

:

:

2005
3 990

2 688

:

5 531

1 472

3 323

1 328

:

9 625

4 089

4 245

7 748

:

307

5 047

:

5 091

:

1 490

5 730

4 022

3 894

:

6 053

7 430

1 692

2 851

1 250

66

:

1999
27.0

34.7

:

28.1

:

25.1

:

15.8

:

26.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

36.4

:

37.7

37.6

:

:

36.5

15.7

14.1

24.4

:

:

2002
28.4

34.1

:

39.8

24.1

26.5

21.3

:

42.8

29.8

21.7

42.2

:

:

:

:

:

:

34.4

26.7

44.0

33.7

:

30.9

28.6

16.9

19.4

23.2

:

:

2005
28.0

30.9

:

39.8

23.4

24.2

20.7

13.8

41.1

31.7

20.4

42.8

:

:

22.9

:

37.7

:

32.0

28.9

39.4

34.8

:

36.4

33.2

15.3

19.5

23.6

19.6

18.6

(1) Population weighted yearly sum of maximum daily 8-hour mean ozone
concentrations above a threshold (70 microgram of ozone per m³).
(2) Population weighted annual mean concentration of particulate matter.
Source: Eurostat (tsien041 and tsien042)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

WATER RESOURCES

the 

remainder 

transpiration; 

Freshwater resources are renewed through natural processes (the
hydrological cycle), whereby, depending on the country’s climatic
conditions, approximately two thirds of the precipitation (rain, hail
and  snow)  falling  on  land  returns  to  the  atmosphere  through
evaporation  and 
recharges
groundwater,  lakes,  streams  and  rivers.  Statistics  on  water
resources are usually calculated on the basis of long-term annual
averages of at least 20 years, to take account of the fluctuations
in rainfall and evaporation/transpiration from one year to the next.
Evapotranspiration is the volume of water that is transported from
the  ground  (including  inland  water  surfaces  –  streams,  rivers,
freshwater lakes and glaciers) into the atmosphere by evaporation
or by transpiration of plants.
The  internal  flow  is  the  volume  of  river  run-off  and  groundwater
recharge derived from precipitation; in other words, precipitation less
evapotranspiration. External inflow is the volume of inflow derived
from  rivers  and  groundwater  that  originate  in  a  neighbouring
territory.  The  sum  of  these  two  categories  is  called  freshwater
resources, which refers to the volume of water resulting from internal
flow and external inflow. Outflow is the volume of water that flows
from  rivers  and  groundwater  into  the  sea  and  into  neighbouring
territories.  The  total  additional  freshwater  resources  available  are
calculated as the sum of internal and external flows.
The proportion of the population that is connected to public water
supplies  is  defined  as  the  share  of  the  total  population  which  is
served by (public or private) economic units with piped water of
(usually) drinking water quality.
Figure  7.10  shows  the  extent  of  household’s  connection  to  the
public  water  supply  (PWS)  network.  Although  the  data  set  is
incomplete,  in  all  available  Member  States  except  Romania,  the
proportion of households connected to the PWS was close to or in
excess  of  three  quarters,  and  in  many  Member  States  the
proportion exceeded 90 %.

Figure 7.10: Population connected to public water supply,
2005 (% of total) (1)

100

75

50

25

0

CY MT NL IT FR DE BG DK BE HU SI

IE CZ AT PL PT SK LT EE RO

(1) Bulgaria and Slovakia: data for 2003; Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
Estonia, Ireland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Romania, Slovenia: data for 2002;
Germany and France: data for 2001; Italy: data for 1999; Portugal: data for 1998;
Greece, Spain, Luxembourg, Finland and the United Kingdom: not available.
Source: Eurostat (ten00012)

168

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.10: Water resources, long-term annual average 
(1 000 million m³) (1)

Precipi-
tation

28.5

:

54.7

38.5

:

30.6

:

115.0

346.5

:

:

:

42.2

44.0

2.0

58.0

:

29.8

98.0

193.1

82.2

154.0

31.7

37.4

222.0

335.6

:

19.1

501.0

200.0

:

60.1

Evapo-
transpi-
ration

Internal 
flow

16.1

:

39.4

22.1

190.0

18.6

:

55.0

235.4

:

:

:

:

28.5

1.1

52.0

:

21.3

43.0

138.3

43.6

114.6

13.2

24.3

115.0

:

:

:

273.6

30.0

:

20.0

12.4

18.9

15.2

16.3

117.0

12.0

:

60.0

111.1

:

:

:

:

15.5

0.9

6.0

:

8.5

55.0

54.8

38.6

39.4

18.6

13.1

107.0

170.0

:

1.4

227.4

170.0

369.0

40.2

External 

inflow Outflow
17.8

8.3

0.5

0.7

:

:

9.1

:

12.0

:

11.0

:

0.0

17.4

9.0

0.7

19.4

16.0

1.9

:

11.9

:

:

111.1

168.0

:

:

33.5

25.9

1.6

Fresh 
water 
resources

20.7

19.4

16.0

16.3

188.0

21.1

:

72.0

111.1

:

:

:

:

24.5

1.6

114.0

120.4

120.0

:

81.2

29.0

8.3

35.0

2.9

13.5

67.3

3.2

:

:

6.3

6.9

:

12.4

13.1

:

86.3

84.0

63.1

34.0

17.9

32.3

81.7

110.0

179.0

:

:

178.0

170.0

381.4

53.5

:

89.7

84.0

63.1

73.6

42.3

32.1

80.3

110.0

179.0

:

7.6

234.3

170.0

381.4

53.3

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

(1) The minimum period taken into account for the calculation of long-term annual
averages is 20 years.
Source: Eurostat (ten00001)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

WASTE WATER TREATMENT

The population connected (10) to urban waste water treatment relates
to  the  proportion  of  persons  who  are  connected  to  any  kind  of
sewage treatment that is carried out in municipal treatment plants by
public authorities or private companies (on behalf of local authorities).
There are three broad types of urban waste water treatment that
are  distinguished  when  collecting  statistical  information  in  this
area:  primary,  secondary  and  tertiary  water  treatment.  Primary
treatment  of  waste  water  involves  physical  or  chemical  processes
(such  as  sedimentation)  in  which  the  biological  oxygen  demand
(BOD)  and  suspended  solids  are  reduced  by  at  least  20  %  and
50 %  respectively.  Secondary  treatment  generally  involves
biological  treatment,  with  a  secondary  settlement  procedure  that
should  result  in  a  BOD  removal  of  at  least  70  %  and  a  chemical
oxygen demand (COD) removal of at least 75 %. Tertiary treatment
goes  a  stage  further  and  removes  nitrogen  and/or  phosphorous
and/or any other pollutants affecting the quality of the water.

(10) Including transport of sewage to waste water treatment plants by truck.

Figure 7.11: Population connected to waste water
treatment, by type of treatment, 2003 (% of total) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

BE (2)
BG (3)
CZ
DK (2)
DE (4)
EE (5)
IE (6)
EL (7)
ES
FR (6)
CY (8)
LV
LT
LU (3)
HU (5)
MT
NL (5)
AT (9)
PL
PT (3)
RO
SI (5)
FI (6)
SE (10)
UK (9)

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

(1) Italy and Slovakia: not available. (2) Data for 1998. (3) Data for 2003. (4) Data for
2004. (5) Data for 2002. (6) Data for 2001. (7) Data for 1997. (8) Data for 2000. 
(9) Primary and secondary: data for 1998; tertiary: data for 2004. (10) Primary: data for
2000; secondary and tertiary: data for 2002. 
Source: Eurostat (ten00022, ten00023 and ten00024)

170

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.11: Population connected to urban waste water
treatment (% of total) (1)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

MK

TR

IS

NO

CH

1997
35

1999
:

2001
:

36

62

88

:

72

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

24

13

98

:

47

:

:

:

49

78

:

:

5

14

4

70

95

37

65

:

:

69

66

:

:

:

:

33

:

:

93

29

13

98

:

52

:

:

19

50

80

:

:

5

:

16

73

96

38

68

:

93

69

70

:

:

79

:

:

:

:

:

50

13

98

86

55

:

:

20

51

81

:

:

:

:

33

74

:

2003
:

40

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

62

95

:

13

:

:

58

60

:

:

53

:

:

:

:

:

50

:

:

2005
:

:

75

:

:

:

:

:

92

:

:

:

67

70

:

:

13

:

:

60

:

28

:

55

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

97

(1) Any kind of sewage treatment (primary to tertiary) in municipal treatment plants
run by public authorities or by private companies (on behalf of local authorities) whose
main purpose is sewage treatment.
Source: Eurostat (ten00021)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

GENERATION OF WASTE

In 

these  materials  are  discarded. 

Waste refers to materials for which the generator has no further
use  for  their  own  purpose  of  production,  transformation  or
consumption; 
some
circumstances there may be statutory requirements on a producer
to dispose of waste in a certain manner, for example, when waste
materials  are  toxic.  The  construction  industry  is  by  far  the  most
important waste generating activity.
Municipal  waste  is  part  of  the  total  waste  stream;  it  consists  of
waste  collected  by  or  on  behalf  of  municipal  authorities  and
disposed  of  through  the  waste  management  system.  Waste
generated by households is an important part of municipal waste,
but depending on the national waste management system it can
also include part of the waste generated by commerce, offices and
public  institutions.  For  areas  not  covered  by  a  municipal  waste
scheme,  an  estimation  has  been  made  of  the  amount  of  waste
generated. The quantity of waste generated is expressed in kg per
person per year.
Wastes which are considered particularly dangerous for man and
the environment have been classified as hazardous waste. Specific
rules are established for the collection, handling and recycling of
this type of waste.

Figure 7.12: Generation of waste by source, EU-27, 2004
(million tonnes)

1 000

750

500

250

0

Households

Manufacturing

Construction

Non-hazardous

Hazardous

Source: Eurostat (env_wasgen)

172

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.12: Municipal waste generated (kg per capita) (1)

EU-27

1997
499

1998
497

1999
511

2000
523

2001
522

2002
527

2003
519

2004
518

2005
518

Euro area 

541

542

555

569

570

467

516

334

665

460

505

273

658

643

633

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

463

577

318

588

658

422

547

363

561

497

468

650

254

421

607

487

361

590

532

315

405

333

589

275

448

416

533

:

499

445

619

606

458

495

293

593

647

400

557

378

566

508

472

664

247

443

629

484

385

593

532

306

423

284

584

259

466

431

543

:

506

452

647

616

459

503

327

627

638

413

581

393

615

509

498

670

244

350

650

482

477

599

563

319

442

322

440

603

408

662

516

509

680

270

363

658

445

547

616

581

316

472

363

551

513

261

485

428

570

:

254

503

428

578

336

459

454

457

596

640

466

615

660

372

705

417

658

529

516

703

302

377

650

451

542

615

578

290

472

345

479

239

466

442

592

346

454

469

635

659

572

461

500

279

665

640

406

698

423

645

533

524

709

338

401

656

457

541

622

609

275

439

383

407

283

449

468

600

228

447

478

677

675

563

445

499

280

672

601

418

736

428

655

535

524

724

298

383

684

463

581

610

609

260

447

364

418

297

453

471

594

298

443

485

696

671

560

465

471

278

696

587

449

753

433

608

544

538

739

311

366

563

464

463

289

737

601

436

740

438

597

543

542

739

310

378

696

705

454

624

625

627

256

436

378

417

274

455

464

605

505

418

506

724

665

459

611

624

630

245

446

382

423

289

468

482

584

504

413

521

759

666

(1) Lithuania and Malta: break in series for 1999; Hungary: break in series for 2000;
Estonia: break in series for 2001; Portugal, Slovenia and Slovakia: break in series for
2002; Croatia, Turkey and Switzerland: break in series for 2004.
Source: Eurostat (tsien051)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTE

Waste  treatment  is  defined  as  physical,  thermal,  chemical  or
biological processes which change the characteristics of waste in
order  to  reduce  its  volume  or  hazardous  nature,  to  facilitate  its
handling, or to enhance recovery of raw materials.
Treatment of municipal waste can be classified into three principal
categories:
-

landfill,  which  is  defined  as  the  depositing  of  waste  into  or
onto  land,  including  specially  engineered  landfill,  and
temporary storage of over one year on permanent sites;
incineration, which refers to the thermal treatment of waste in
a specifically designed plant, and;
recycling,  which  is  a  reprocessing  of  waste  in  a  production
process which diverts it from the waste stream.

-

-

The  disposal  of  waste  can  have  a  serious  environmental  impact:
for example, landfill takes up land space, and may cause air, water
and  soil  pollution.  Incineration  can  also  result  in  emissions  of
dangerous air pollutants, unless properly regulated.

Figure 7.13: Treatment of municipal waste, EU-27 
(kg per capita)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Recycling

Incineration

Landfilling

Source: Eurostat (tsien051, tsien052 and tsien053)

174

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Table 7.13: Municipal waste landfilled (kg per capita)

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

EU-27

Euro area 

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
233

288

289

288

279

271

290

285

257

243

254

254

247

235

222

208

201

265

209

477

262

143

433

256

108

382

99

81

62

388

399

403

310

318

272

277

282

214

82

225

396

419

322

298

225

380

593

247

400

163

367

65

216

421

439

329

319

228

374

597

238

421

145

391

323

334

115

186

295

231

235

70

189

306

269

155

465

491

172

275

126

440

177

281

130

461

67

199

399

478

344

317

230

365

601

230

443

146

396

345

54

186

300

310

230

512

181

294

121

456

68

180

412

517

358

331

224

382

605

227

350

140

404

441

40

195

312

303

261

67

165

438

554

372

339

220

385

613

252

344

138

376

494

57

196

310

338

302

455

402

185

280

108

469

196

306

98

469

332

:

:

:

:

342

328

425

69

359

333

383

68

368

338

417

66

351

354

345

328

66

351

336

40

47

160

295

540

380

364

215

346

634

285

335

131

375

494

50

192

278

355

272

358

209

284

99

474

341

358

353

274

22

58

404

205

41

137

308

504

386

359

212

331

638

280

322

129

384

516

51

187

265

319

307

357

222

286

93

465

224

355

359

274

11

51

407

201

34

115

274

480

393

364

205

314

653

248

328

129

390

543

17

183

251

293

288

348

233

278

64

440

294

360

364

253

8

47

396

222

31

104

283

451

397

309

203

306

659

259

334

43

405

209

38

89

274

444

380

317

196

296

653

243

340

127

127

294

569

11

126

241

291

305

313

222

273

42

419

486

343

365

243

4

362

543

9

113

226

278

310

330

228

282

23

375

486

339

368

233

4

(1) Lithuania and Malta: break in series for 1999; Hungary: break in series for 2000;
Portugal: break in series for 2002; Hungary, Croatia and Turkey: break in series for
2004.
Source: Eurostat (tsien052)

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7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURE, 
EMAS AND ECO-LABEL

Environmental  protection  expenditure  covers  all  expenditure  on
activities  directly  aimed  at  the  prevention,  reduction  and
elimination of pollution or nuisances resulting from production or
consumption. Note that activities which may be beneficial to the
environment, but that primarily satisfy technical needs, or health
and safety requirements, are excluded.
Environmental protection expenditure may be classified according
to  the  economic  sector  (agriculture,  industry,  services,  public
sector, and households) carrying out the expenditure, according to
a  financial  breakdown  of  the  expenditure  (treatment  and
prevention 
investment,  current  expenditure,  subsidies)  or
according to the environmental domain covered (air, waste, water,
etc. - of which nine areas are distinguished in the single European
standard  statistical  classification  of  environmental  protection
activities (CEPA)).
Specialised producers are public or private businesses that provide
environmental  services,  such  as  waste  or  waste  water
management.  Non-core  expenditure  consists  of  administrative
costs such as labour costs associated with running environmental
departments or government funded agencies.
Organisations participating in the EU eco-management and audit
scheme (EMAS) are committed to evaluate and improve their own
environmental performance, comply with relevant environmental
legislation, prevent pollution, and provide relevant information to
the public. The Community eco-label is awarded to products and
services with reduced environmental impacts. The existing scheme
has been in operation since 1993. For more information refer to
the DG Environment website at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment.

Figure 7.14: Figure 7.14: Distribution of environmental
protection expenditure by the public sector, EU-25, 2002 
(% share of total)

Air
1.8%

Wastewater
7.6%

Waste 
27.3%

Non-core
63.3%

Source: Eurostat (ten00055)

176

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Table 7.14: Environmental expenditure, EMAS and eco-label

Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Public 
sector, 
2002 
(% of 
GDP)

Industry, 
 2002  
(% of  
GDP) 

Number of sites 
implemented 
EMAS, 
2006

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

0.53

0.52

0.36

:

1.20

0.44

0.29

:

:

0.25

0.32

0.78

:

0.16

0.10

:

0.64

:

:

0.44

0.45

0.55

0.20

0.74

0.19

0.37

0.27

0.46

0.14

0.13

0.28

:

0.42

0.55

1.02

:

:

:

0.85

:

:

0.26

:

0.97

0.30

0.23

0.46

:

0.50

:

0.41

0.39

0.96

0.28

1.22

0.78

1.26

0.42

0.40

0.25

0.29

:

:

:

5 198

334

:

22

282

1 940

2

8

54

831

17

743

0

0

0

1

11

1

19

373

2

57

:

1

3

50

85

362

:

:

:

:

Eco-label 
awards,
2006 (1)
338

4

:

2

55

21

0

9

16

21

50

95

1

0

0

0

1

1

11

12

3

6

:

4

0

3

16

7

:

:

0

3

(1) September 2006.
Source: Eurostat (ten00049 and ten00052), European Commission, Directorate General
for Environment

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

177

                      
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
                       
ch07.qxp  21/12/2007  10:15  Page 178

7 Chapter 7

Energy and environment

BIODIVERSITY

The European Union policy on nature conservation is part of the
European  Union  biodiversity  strategy.  Protected  areas  for
biodiversity  are  based  on  areas  proposed  by  countries  under  the
Habitats Directive. The indicator shown in Figure 7.15 reflects the
share of the total area of a country that is considered as protected
areas.
The  indicators  concerning  fish  catches  relate  to  the  catches  of  a
number of fish stocks that have been assessed to be outside safe
biological limits. In general terms, it is considered that a stock is
within safe biological limits if its current biomass is above the value
corresponding  to  a  precautionary  approach  advocated  by  the
international council for the exploration of the sea (ICES). Further
details on the way ICES formulates advice in precautionary terms
can be obtained from the ICES website http://www.ices.dk.
The  population  index  of  farm  birds  is  an  aggregated  index  of
population  trend  estimates  of  a  selected  group  of  breeding  bird
species dependent on agricultural land for nesting or breeding. It
is indexed on the year 1990. Indices are calculated for each species
independently  and  are  then  combined  using  an  unweighted
geometric  mean.  Aggregated  European  Union  indices  are
calculated using population-dependent weighting factors for each
country and species.

Figure 7.15: Protected areas for biodiversity - 
Habitats Directive, 2007 (%) (1)

0

10

20

30

40

SI
ES
PT
EE
EL
LU
HU
IT
SE
FI
MT
SK
LV
AT
IE
BE
LT
DE
CZ
FR
NL
PL
DK
CY
UK

EU-27

(1) Area proposed under the Habitats Directive as a percentage of total area; Bulgaria
and Romania: not available.
Source: Natura 2000 database, conclusions from biogeographical seminars and
Directorate-General Environment/Member States bilateral meetings

178

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Chapter 7
Energy and environment

7

Table 7.15: Biodiversity

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Fish catches from stocks outside of safe biological limits (% of total catches) (1)

Demersal

Pelagic

Benthic

Industrial

30

10

27

-

35

9

40

-

47

15

37

-

50

3

38

-

51

4

31

-

42

5

49

-

61

49

41

-

46

4

36

-

61

22

31

41

62

12

29

39

:

:

:

:

Farmland bird index (1990=100)

EU-25

91.3 79.2 80.0 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.5 76.7 76.6 75.9 78.8

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

NO

CH

94.6 88.5 87.5 85.7 83.6 64.9 72.5 56.0 63.9 72.3 67.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

118.5 107.9 86.4 86.4 71.3 72.9 78.9 80.9 70.0 85.4 65.8

84.2 83.7 80.0 78.3 84.1 79.9 78.3 73.6 71.0 68.1 60.3

119.4 126.9 115.6 110.8 125.5 113.9 107.7 98.8 84.9 92.3 97.5

57.4 83.1 77.2 74.5 77.2 82.9

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 100.0 113.1 116.2 115.8 116.5 108.0 107.8 108.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 100.0 112.2 116.6 123.2 126.1 128.8 119.0 115.3 118.6 121.8

82.8 87.7 89.4 87.1 83.3 82.0 81.4 82.0 78.1 83.0 82.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

: :

:

100.0 93.3 78.4 74.1 81.7 88.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

100.0 109.0 109.7 119.8 111.0 104.0 127.7 113.2 118.6 108.7 117.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: :

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

79.4 83.9 82.2 80.7 79.4 77.7 75.2 73.6 73.2 75.2 76.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: :

: :

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

100.0 95.0 92.6 84.9 86.1 90.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 100.0 101.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

96.6 87.7 85.2 91.0 91.1 89.9 97.1 91.9 94.2 94.2 91.7

90.5 84.8 81.1 82.4 72.9 72.4 73.6 68.7 70.7 61.6 61.1

83.1 81.2 76.0 72.8 74.4 78.7 81.2 76.8 73.3 71.9 71.1

100.0 51.8 53.1 51.4 57.6 57.8 55.2 50.3 47.9 46.5 45.8

:

:

:

: 100.0 110.6 92.6 99.7 94.2 101.9 111.5

(1) Benthic: fish which live permanently on the seabed and include skate and other
flatfish; demersal: fish which live close to the sea bed and include cod and haddock;
pelagic: fish which live in the open sea and include herring, mackerel, blue whiting
and tuna; industrial: fish which are used for reduction into fish meal and oil and
include sand eel, Norway pout and sprat.
Source: Eurostat (tsien071), EBCC, RSPB, BirdLife, Statistics Netherlands

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

HUMAN RESOURCES

The European Commission has placed renewed emphasis on the
conversion  of  Europe’s  scientific  expertise  into  marketable
products  and  services,  while  also  focusing  on  improving  the
mobility of European researchers, encouraging networks between
researchers from different Member States, and promoting R&D as
an occupation for women.
The  indicator  on  tertiary  graduates  in  science  and  technology
includes new graduates from all institutions completing graduate
and post graduate studies in science and technology fields, and is
calculated as a percentage of all graduates.
Researchers  are  professionals  engaged  in  the  conception  or
creation  of  new  knowledge,  products,  processes,  methods  and
systems, and in the management of the projects concerned. The
data on the number of researchers are presented in the form of
head-counts and therefore do not take account of the differences
that may exist between countries with respect to the propensity to
employ researchers on a part-time basis.
The indicator of human resources in science and technology (HRST)
is shown as a share of the economically active population in the age
group 25-64. HRST is defined as persons having either successfully
completed tertiary education in an S&T field of study, or employed
in an occupation where such an education is normally required.
The term PhD is defined as general tertiary programs which lead
to  the  award  of  an  advanced  research  degree,  e.g.  a  doctor  in
economics.  The  programs  are  therefore  devoted  to  advanced
study  and  original  research  and  are  not  based  on  course-work
only. They usually require 3-5 years of research and course work,
generally after a Master’s degree. In that sense, indicators on the
number  of  PhD  students  provide  an  idea  of  the  extent  to  which
countries will have researchers at the highest level. The number of
PhD  graduates  is  measured  by  graduates  from  ISCED  level  6
education.  The  number  of  graduates  refers  to  new  graduates  in
the  reference  year,  not  the  total  number  available  in  the  labour
market in that year.

Figure 8.1: Science and technology graduates, 2004 
(per 1 000 males/females aged 20-29 years) (1)

40

30

20

10

0

BE BG CZ DK DE EE IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU HUMT NL AT PL PT RO SI SK FI SE UK

Male

Female

(1) France: data for 2002; Malta and Finland: data for 2003; Luxembourg: not
available.
Source: Eurostat (tsiir043 and tsiir042)

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Table 8.1: Researchers, 2004 (1)

Researchers (1 000)

EU-27

Total
1 787.0

Business 
enter-
prises

Govern-
ment

Higher 
educ-
ation

Male 
(%) 

Fem-
ale 
(%)

700.4

194.9 873.2 72.0 28.0

Euro area 1 206.9

497.3

143.5 555.2

:

:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

IS

NO

CH

JP

44.5

11.4

34.2

39.5

20.0

1.4

12.0

21.7

2.2

6.5

8.0

3.4

22.3 71.9 28.1

3.4 53.8 46.2

14.1 71.5 28.5

14.2 71.9 28.1

397.1

179.0

47.9 171.8 80.8 19.2

5.7

16.3

28.1

1.1

6.8

4.4

0.6

0.6

3.0

3.8 57.5 42.5

8.9 70.0 30.0

20.5 62.9 37.1

170.0

40.0

24.2 105.4 63.9 36.1

247.2

112.6

26.6 103.8 72.2 27.8

110.6

31.7

17.8

57.4 70.1 29.9

1.2

5.6

11.6

2.0

30.4

0.9

45.6

44.1

96.5

35.9

27.3

5.8

17.4

51.2

34.0

:

13.1

3.5

35.7

43.2

0.3

0.6

0.6

1.6

5.5

0.2

31.2

20.6

10.2

6.1

9.3

1.9

2.2

27.2

30.6

0.2

0.6

1.8

0.4

5.9

0.0

8.5

2.3

0.7 67.9 32.1

4.5 47.2 52.8

9.3 51.4 48.6

0.0 82.6 17.4

19.0 65.5 34.5

0.6 76.4 23.6

12.4 82.8 17.2

20.9 76.4 23.6

14.4

71.9 61.1 38.9

5.0

6.6

1.3

2.7

5.3

3.4

19.9 55.7 44.3

11.2 57.3 42.7

2.6 67.5 32.5

12.4 58.8 41.2

18.2 71.0 29.0

37.6 25.3 74.7

:

10.0

:

:

:

1.2

1.3

14.9

14.0

4.7

1.0

4.3

1.0

7.2 58.9 41.1

1.1 60.6 39.4

16.2 70.6 29.4

28.3

73.3 26.7

830.5

497.6

36.3 284.3 88.4 11.6

Human 
resources 
in S&T 
(% of 
labour 
force)

PhD 
graduates 
ISCED 6 
(% of 
population 
aged 
25-29)

38.3

39.4

46.2

30.0

34.9

50.2

43.0

43.4

40.1

30.6

38.3

39.6

34.6

39.8

34.8

38.1

:

32.1

31.1

48.9

38.0

31.2

21.9

23.0

39.4

31.4

48.7

47.8

42.4

:

45.4

48.0

49.4

:

0.24

0.23

0.23

0.08

0.19

0.22

0.52

0.22

0.21

0.16

0.22

:

0.16

0.03

0.05

0.13

:

0.11

0.02

0.27

0.49

0.19

:

0.15

0.24

0.19

:

0.50

0.43

:

0.05

0.26

0.60

:

(1) All data on researchers: EU-25 instead of EU-27; all data on researchers for EA-12
instead of EA-13; Belgium, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Sweden, Iceland, Norway and Japan: data for the total number of researchers are for
2003; Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, Portugal, Sweden, Iceland and Japan: data for
researchers in business enterprises are for 2003; Belgium, Greece, Luxembourg,
Portugal, Sweden, Iceland, Norway and Japan: data for researchers in government are
for 2003; Belgium, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Iceland,
Norway and Japan: data for researchers in higher education are for 2003; Belgium,
Denmark, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Iceland, Norway
and Japan: data for the gender breakdown of researchers are for 2003; all data on
human resources in S&T: data for 2006, except Iceland and Switzerland (2005); all data
on PhD graduates: data for 2004, except Malta (2003).
Source: Eurostat (tsc00003, tsc00005, tsc00025 and hrst_fl_tegrad), OECD (MSTI)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURE

Research and development (R&D) lies at the heart of the European
Union’s  strategy  to  become  the  most  competitive  and  dynamic
knowledge-based economy by 2010. Indeed, one of the goals set
in  Lisbon  was  for  the  European  Union  to  increase  its  R&D
expenditure to at least 3 % of GDP by 2010. In December 2006
the seventh framework programme of the European Community
for research and technological development for the period 2007
to 2013 (FP7) was established, to be applied from January 2007.
FP7  will  be 
implemented  through  specific  programmes
corresponding  to  the  main  themes  of  European  research  policy.
The  European  Commission  has  been  active  in  establishing  a
European  Research  Area  (ERA),  which  is  designed  to  overcome
some of the barriers that are thought to have hampered European
research  efforts,  for  example,  by  addressing  geographical,
institutional, disciplinary and sectoral boundaries.
Research and development is defined as comprising creative work
undertaken  on  a  systematic  basis  to  increase  the  stock  of
knowledge (of man, culture and society) and the use of this stock
to devise new applications.
Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (often referred to as GERD) is
composed  of  four  separate  sectors  of  performance:  business
enterprises, government, higher education, and private non-profit
organisations.  Expenditure  data  consider  the  research  spend  on
the national territory, regardless of the source of funds; data are
usually  expressed  in  relation  to  GDP,  otherwise  known  as  R&D
intensity.

Figure 8.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) 
(% of GDP)

4

3

2

1

0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

JP (1)
US (2)
EU-27 (3)

(1) Break in series for 1996.
(2) Break in series for 1998; provisional: 2005
(3) Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (tsiir021), OECD (MSTI)

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Table 8.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD),
2005 (%)

Share 
of GDP (1)

1.84

1.86

1.82

0.50

1.42

2.44

2.51

0.94

1.25

0.61

1.12

2.13

1.10

0.40

0.57

0.76

1.56

0.94

0.61

1.78

2.36

0.57

0.81

0.39

1.22

0.51

3.48

3.86

1.73

1.22

0.66

2.83

1.51

2.93

3.20

2.67

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

JP

US

Share of GERD (2)

Industry
54.5

Government
34.8

Abroad
8.5

56.2

60.3

28.2

54.1

59.9

66.8

36.5

58.7

28.2

48.0

51.7

:

18.9

34.3

20.8

80.4

39.4

18.6

51.1

45.7

30.3

31.7

44.0

65.2

36.6

69.3

65.0

44.2

43.0

41.3

43.9

49.2

69.7

74.5

61.4

36.1

23.5

65.8

40.9

27.1

30.4

44.1

32.9

46.4

41.0

37.6

:

63.7

46.0

62.7

11.2

49.4

59.8

36.2

36.4

60.7

60.1

49.0

27.2

57.0

26.3

23.5

32.8

46.6

50.6

40.1

41.9

22.7

17.7

30.4

6.4

12.9

5.5

4.0

10.3

2.5

17.0

6.6

21.6

6.2

8.8

:

11.5

18.5

10.5

8.3

10.7

21.6

11.3

17.6

5.7

5.0

5.5

6.8

6.0

6.8

7.3

17.2

2.6

1.3

14.5

7.4

5.2

0.3

:

(1) Italy, the Netherlands, Romania, the United Kingdom, Croatia, Iceland, Switzerland
and the United States: data for 2004; Japan: data for 2003; Turkey: data for 2002.
(2) Bulgaria, Germany, Estonia, Spain, France, Cyprus, Romania, Finland, the United
Kingdom, Croatia and Switzerland: data for 2004; Belgium, Denmark, Greece,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Japan and the
United States: data for 2003; Malta and Turkey: data for 2002.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00001, tsiir022, tsiir023 and tsiir024)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

HIGH-TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIES AND 
KNOWLEDGE INTENSIVE SERVICES

External trade statistics provide information on the proportion of
high-technology exports within total exports (of goods). Note that
only  extra-EU  exports  are  considered  when  calculating  this
indicator  for  the  EU-27  as  a  whole,  while  intra-EU  and  extra-EU
exports are combined when calculating the indicator for individual
Member States. High-technology products are defined (using the
standard international trade classification - SITC Rev.3) as products
from  the  following  categories:  aerospace,  computers  and  office
machinery,  electronics,  pharmaceuticals,  instruments,  electrical
machinery, and armaments.
Within  the  technology  and  knowledge  classification,  high-  and
medium-high-technology manufacturing activities are defined as:
chemicals  and  chemical  products  (NACE  Subsection  DG);
machinery  and  equipment  (NACE  Subsection  DK);  electrical  and
(NACE  Subsection  DL);  and  transport
optical  equipment 
equipment  (NACE  Subsection  DM),  while  knowledge-intensive
services  are  defined  as:  water  transport  (NACE  Division  61);  air
transport (NACE Division 62); post and telecommunications (NACE
Division 64); financial intermediation (NACE Section J); real estate,
renting and business activities (NACE Section K); education (NACE
Section  M);  health  and  social  work  (NACE  Section  N)  and
recreational,  cultural  and  sporting  activities  (NACE  Division  92).
The  employment  indicators  are  compiled  from  data  from  the
EU labour force survey.

Figure 8.3: Exports of high-technology products 
(% of total exports)

MT
LU
IE
UK
HU
FR
NL
FI
CY
DE
AT
CZ
SE
DK
EE
PT
BE
EL
IT
ES
SI
SK
RO
BG
LV
LT
PL

EU-25 (2004)

EU-25 (2000)

0

25

50

75

2004
2000

Source: Eurostat (tsiir140)

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Table 8.3: Employment in high- and medium-high-
technology manufacturing and knowledge-intensive
services (% of total employment)

            High- and medium-high-
           technology manufacturing
2006

1996

2001

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES (1)

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE (1)

UK

HR

IS (2)

NO

CH (2)

:

:

6.4

:

:

5.9

9.2

:

4.4

2.1

4.6

5.5

6.3

:

:

:

1.4

6.2

:

3.8

4.7

:

3.6

:

7.7

:

5.3

6.4

6.2

:

1.4

4.9

5.6

6.0

6.3

6.0

5.0

7.6

6.0

9.3

3.9

3.7

2.0

4.9

5.8

6.3

1.0

1.6

2.5

1.0

6.1

4.8

3.2

4.7

:

3.1

4.6

7.9

5.8

5.3

6.0

5.6

:

1.7

3.5

5.5

5.6

5.9

6.0

4.3

8.8

5.0

9.0

2.6

3.0

2.0

4.1

5.1

6.2

0.8

1.5

1.8

:

6.0

2.8

2.6

5.5

4.5

2.7

5.4

7.5

8.0

4.7

5.4

4.5

4.4

1.8

3.9

5.0

(1) Break in series for 2001.
(2) 2005 instead of 2006.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00011 and tsc00012)

       Knowledge-intensive 
        services

1996

:

:

34.6

:

:

40.1

27.9

:

30.1

20.5

23.6

33.6

24.7

:

:

:

33.4

25.3

:

36.4

26.5

:

21.8

:

20.8

:

37.4

44.2

37.3

:

38.4

40.6

34.0

2001

30.8

30.4

2006

32.6

32.8

37.8

23.1

24.1

42.7

31.0

28.0

31.9

22.5

24.8

35.0

26.9

26.5

24.7

26.8

35.8

26.3

27.8

40.0

29.3

:

19.4

11.0

23.0

25.3

39.1

46.1

40.5

:

40.9

43.6

37.7

38.6

21.7

25.0

43.8

34.3

26.8

34.9

24.9

27.0

36.4

30.1

28.3

24.5

25.0

:

28.5

31.2

42.3

30.4

24.6

22.7

14.5

26.3

24.9

41.1

47.5

43.0

22.1

43.1

46.2

40.0

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

PATENTS

Patents reflect a country’s inventive activity and also show its capacity
to exploit knowledge and translate it into potential economic gains.
In this context, indicators based on patent statistics are widely used
to  assess  the  inventive  and  innovative  performance  of  a  country.
Patents are used to protect R&D results, but they are also significant
as a source of technical information, which may prevent re-inventing
and re-developing ideas because of a lack of information. The use of
patents is relatively restricted within the European Union - this may
be  for  a  number  of  reasons  including  relative  cost,  the  overlap
between  national  and  European  procedures  and  the  need  for
translation into foreign languages.
Official statistics on patents are provided to Eurostat by the European
Patent Office (EPO). From 2006 the main raw data source is the new
international  Patent  Database  PATSTAT  held  by  the  EPO  and
developed in cooperation with the WIPO, the OECD and Eurostat.
European  patent  applications  refer  to  applications  filed  directly
under  the  European  Patent  Convention  or  to  applications  filed
under the Patent Co-operation Treaty and designated to the EPO
(Euro-PCT), regardless of whether the patents are granted or not.
Applications are assigned to a country according to the inventor’s
place of residence, using fractional counting if there are multiple
inventors  to  avoid  double  counting.  To  normalise  the  data,  the
total  number  of  applications  at  the  EPO  is  also  divided  by  the
population and expressed as applications per million.

Figure 8.4: European high-technology patents, 2003 
(per million inhabitants) (1)

0

30

60

90

120

150

FI
SE
NL
DK
DE
FR
AT
UK
BE
IE
LU
IT
EE
CY
SI
ES
HU
EL
PT
CZ
SK
PL
LT
LV
BG
RO

(1) The data refers to the ratio of patent applications made directly to the EPO or via
the Patent Cooperation Treaty and designating the EPO (Euro-PCT) in the field of high-
technology patents per million inhabitants of a country; the definition of high-
technology patents uses specific subclasses of the International Patent Classification as
defined in the trilateral statistical report of the EPO, JPO and USPTO; Malta: not
available.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00010)

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In  contrast  to  European  patents  data,  United  States  Patent  and
Trademark Office (USPTO) data refers to patents granted and data
are  recorded  by  year  of  publication  as  opposed  to  the  year  of
filing. Patents are allocated to the country of the inventor, using
fractional counting in the case of multiple inventor countries. The
methodology  used  is  not  harmonised  with  that  of  Eurostat  and
therefore the comparison between EPO and USPTO patents data
should be interpreted with caution.

Table 8.4: Patents

               European patent 
               applications 
               (units)

EU-27
Euro area
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

2000
61 214
48 410
1 490
23
107
1 196
25 221
15
288
74
1 058
8 439
4 493
11
16
9
102
207
5
3 907
1 393
121
59
19
72
39
1 814
3 269
7 769
56
90
43
640
3 081
24 432
49 389

2003
62 250
50 528
1 496
34
163
1 270
25 728
21
306
123
1 274
9 202
5 002
12
14
20
90
192
4
3 956
1 581
160
78
26
101
44
1 591
2 547
7 217
81
133
44
533
3 113
27 987
48 786

      Patent applications,
       per million 
       inhabitants
2000
126.9
158.1
145.6
2.8
10.4
224.5
307.0
10.6
76.1
6.8
26.4
139.5
78.9
15.5
6.7
2.5
234.2
20.2
11.8
246.3
174.1
3.1
5.8
0.8
36.1
7.2
350.8
369.0
132.2
12.2
:
154.0
143.0
430.0
192.6
174.9

2003
128.0
162.5
144.5
4.3
15.9
235.8
311.7
15.5
77.3
11.2
30.6
149.1
87.3
16.4
5.9
5.8
200.5
18.9
8.8
244.3
195.1
4.2
7.5
1.2
50.4
8.1
305.6
284.9
121.4
18.2
1.9
153.6
117.1
425.6
219.1
167.6

Patents 
granted by 
the USPTO, 
per million 
inhabitants, 
2000 (1)
49.2
62.0
53.8
0.5
2.8
71.6
127.9
0.7
38.5
1.3
7.2
53.5
29.8
1.7
2.5
1.8
83.4
5.3
5.3
82.4
69.5
0.5
1.4
0.1
11.9
1.3
118.8
132.2
51.9
3.1
:
70.0
45.3
174.9
276.0
274.7

(1) The methodology used is not harmonised with that of Eurostat and therefore the
comparison between EPO and USPTO patents data should be interpreted with caution.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00010 and tsiir051), USPTO

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

INNOVATION

For  the  purpose  of  the  community  innovation  survey  (CIS)  an
innovation  is  a  new  or  significantly  improved  product  (good  or
service)  introduced  to  the  market  or  the  introduction  within  an
enterprise of a new or significantly improved process. Innovations
are based on the results of new technological developments, new
combinations  of  existing  technology  or  the  utilisation  of  other
knowledge  acquired  by  the  enterprise.  Innovations  may  be
developed by the innovating enterprise or by another enterprise.
However,  purely  selling  innovations  wholly  produced  and
developed  by  other  enterprises  is  not  included  as  an  innovation
activity, nor is introducing products with purely aesthetic changes.
Innovations  should  be  new  to  the  enterprise  concerned:  for
product innovations they do not necessarily have to be new to the
market  and  for  process  innovations  the  enterprise  does  not
necessarily have to be the first one to have introduced the process.
Enterprises with innovation activity include all types of innovator,
namely  product  innovators,  process  innovators,  as  well  as
enterprises  with  only  on-going  and/or  abandoned  innovation
activities.  The  proportion  of  enterprises  with  innovation  activity
may also be referred to as the propensity to innovate.
Enterprises  may  cooperate  with  other  parties  (for  example
suppliers, 
educational/research
establishments) when engaging in an innovative activity.

competitors, 

customers, 

Figure 8.5: Enterprises engaged in innovation activity, 2004
(% of all enterprises)

0

20

40

60

80

DE
AT
LU
IE
IS
DK
BE
SE
EE
CY
FI
UK
PT
CZ
NO
IT
EL
ES
NL
FR
LT
SI
PL
SK
HU
MT
RO
LV
BG

EU-27

Source: Eurostat (inn_cis4_prod)

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Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

Table 8.5: Innovation activity, 2004 
(% of enterprises with innovation activity)

Enterprises which 
introduced new or improved 
products to the market

      Enterprises engaged 
       in some form of 
       cooperation on innovation

Total
40.7

Industry Services
40.3

41.0

Total National
30.9
35.7

56.4

41.5

47.7

26.9

41.9

44.5

44.4

20.9

38.6

31.1

14.6

34.5

34.5

51.6

36.3

25.0

48.3

48.4

46.4

30.1

27.9

46.6

41.6

49.6

52.4

47.8

50.6

42.1

46.9

33.8

37.2

55.5

44.3

23.4

42.6

32.0

16.0

38.0

39.9

42.2

37.1

25.3

49.5

49.3

44.1

32.1

29.2

44.3

39.4

49.8

47.5

47.1

71.1

40.3

48.6

18.3

47.2

29.8

44.5

16.8

33.6

28.6

12.3

30.8

27.6

54.2

35.0

24.6

47.2

47.4

50.5

26.8

25.1

53.7

47.0

49.3

57.8

48.4

22.0

38.4

42.8

16.0

34.8

32.3

24.0

18.2

39.5

13.0

36.9

38.8

56.1

30.4

36.8

31.9

39.4

17.4

42.2

19.4

17.5

47.2

37.7

44.4

42.8

30.6

17.9

34.1

38.7

15.3

28.7

:

19.6

17.2

36.9

12.4

27.5

36.0

50.9

22.0

34.2

16.0

35.7

15.2

36.1

17.9

13.3

:

33.5

44.0

40.2

:

Other 
Europe

US and 
others

24.0

12.0

24.5

27.8

4.7

24.5

:

11.9

4.3

16.2

2.5

18.3

22.7

30.8

27.3

17.7

22.9

20.5

9.9

17.6

10.6

7.5

:

29.7

30.0

21.2

:

10.9

6.3

6.2

9.6

2.6

9.7

:

6.0

1.3

9.6

1.1

4.0

17.5

13.7

10.5

5.0

18.1

9.4

3.0

5.1

3.6

1.7

:

7.7

13.7

6.9

:

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Source: Eurostat (inn_cis4_prod and inn_cis4_coop)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

INTERNET ACCESS OF HOUSEHOLDS

The i2010 initiative (European information society in 2010) seeks
to promote modern public services and a dynamic environment for
e-business through widespread availability of broadband access at
competitive  prices.  The  policy  covers  regulation,  research,
deployment, and promoting cultural diversity. Its main objective is
to  ensure  that  Europe’s  citizens,  businesses  and  governments
make  the  best  use  of 
information  and  communication
technologies  (ICT),  in  order  to  improve  competitiveness,  support
growth  and  create  jobs,  as  well  as  addressing  key  societal
challenges.  At  the  heart  of  the  policy  is  a  desire  to  ensure  that
social and geographical differences are overcome, thus creating an
inclusive digital society that provides opportunities for all.
For  the  indicators  presented  here  households  are  defined  as
having at least one member in the age group 16 to 74 years old.
Internet access refers to whether anyone in the household could
use the Internet at home, if desired, even if just to send an e-mail.
The most commonly used technologies to access the Internet are
divided  between  broadband  and  dial-up  access.  Broadband
includes  digital  subscriber  lines  (DSL)  and  uses  technology  that
transports data at high speeds. A dial-up access using a modem
can  be  made  over  a  normal  or  an  ISDN  telephone  line,  often
referred to as narrowband.

Figure 8.6: Internet access for households, 
breakdown by degree of urbanisation, EU-25 
(% having access to the Internet at home)

0

20

40

60

Total

Densely-populated area
(at least 500 inhabitants/square kilometre)

Intermediate urbanised area
(between 100 and 499 inhabitants/square
kilometre)

Sparsely populated area
(less than 100 inhabitants/square
kilometre)

Source: Eurostat (tsiir031 and isoc_ci_in_h)

2005
2006
2007

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Table 8.6: Internet access for households, 2007 (%) (1)

Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

Using 
a broadband 
connection (2)

Using a modem 
(dial-up access 
over a normal 
telephone line)
      or ISDN

Using a mobile 
phone over 
narrowband 
(WAP, GPRS, etc.)

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

42

42

56

15

28

70

50

48

31

7

39

43

25

20

32

34

58

33

:

74

46

30

30

8

44

27

60

67

57

76

67

14

16

6

3

7

8

28

10

24

18

8

7

16

19

8

3

19

5

:

8

13

7

9

14

15

10

5

28

12

6

17

5

6

1

1

0

12

9

2

1

1

1

5

7

5

29

22

4

3

:

1

:

6

10

1

24

18

:

6

2

0

23

(1) The categories presented are not mutually exclusive.
(2) The availability of broadband is measured by the percentage of households that are
connectable to an exchange that has been converted to support xDSL-technology, to a
cable network upgraded for Internet traffic, or to other broadband technologies.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_it_h)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

ICT USE OF INDIVIDUALS

While  information  and  communication  technologies  (ICTs)  have
become  available  to  a  wider  public,  in  terms  of  accessibility  and
cost,  there  remains  a  gap  between  users  and  non-users,  often
referred to as the ’digital divide’. This divide may be attributed to
a number of factors, including a lack of infrastructure (particularly
in  remote,  rural  areas),  or  a  lack  of  computer  literacy/skills  that
may be necessary to take part in the information society, or a lack
of awareness or interest in what the information society can offer.
To  benchmark  ICT-driven  developments,  Eurostat  has  established
annual information society surveys on ICT use in enterprises and in
households/by individuals. These surveys initially concentrated on
access  and  connectivity,  however,  their  scope  has  subsequently
been extended to cover a variety of socio-economic breakdowns,
so that regional diversity, gender specificity, age and educational
differences can also be studied.
For the indicators presented a computer is defined as a personal
computer,  powered  by  one  of  the  major  operating  systems
(Windows,  Mac  OS  or  Linux);  handheld  computers  or  palmtops
(PDAs)  are  also  included.  The  ordering  of  goods  and  services
includes  confirmed  reservations  for  accommodation,  purchasing
financial  investments,  participation  in  lotteries  and  betting,
Internet auctions, as well as information services from the Internet
that are directly paid for. Goods and services that are obtained via
the  Internet  for  free  are  excluded.  Orders  made  by  manually
written e-mails should be excluded.

Figure 8.7: Place of Internet use, EU-27, 2007 
(% of individuals who accessed the Internet during the 
last 3 months) (1)

100

75

50

25

0

At home

At place of
work (other
than home)

At neighbours,
friends or
relative's house

At place of
education

At other places 
(e.g. airport,
hotel, etc.)

(1) The categories presented are not mutually exclusive.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_ifp_pu)

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Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

Table 8.7: ICT use by individuals (% of the population aged
16-74 carrying out the activity in the last three months)

Using a computer  
2003 2006 2007
63

59

:

EU-27

Using the Internet 
2003 2006 2007
57

52

:

  Purchased goods 
  or services over 
  the Internet
2003 2006 2007
23

20

:

Euro area (1)

52

BE

BG

CZ

DK (2)

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

MK

TR (3)

IS

NO

:

:

38

78

66

:

40

26

46

:

40

:

:

36

61

:

:

:

56

:

36

:

:

:

73

81

68

:

17

83

80

60

67

30

52

86

76

62

58

38

54

55

43

44

53

47

76

54

:

84

68

48

42

30

57

61

80

87

73

34

:

90

85

64

70

35

55

84

78

65

62

40

57

69

43

47

58

52

80

58

:

87

73

52

46

34

58

64

81

88

78

:

:

91

90

42

:

:

28

71

54

:

31

16

37

:

29

:

:

24

53

:

:

64

41

:

26

:

:

:

66

77

61

:

13

81

75

53

62

24

44

83

69

61

51

29

48

47

36

34

50

42

71

45

:

81

61

40

36

21

51

50

77

86

66

25

:

88

81

59

67

31

49

81

72

64

57

33

52

64

38

38

55

49

78

52

:

84

67

44

40

24

53

56

79

80

72

:

:

90

85

12

:

:

3

16

24

:

5

1

5

:

4

:

:

1

20

14

2

7

31

38

4

21

3

10

19

5

5

5

2

23

15

2

8

43

41

6

26

5

13

26

7

8

6

4

18

35

37

:

:

18

8

:

2

:

:

:

14

21

24

:

0

20

24

5

:

36

23

9

5

1

8

7

29

39

38

1

:

31

47

7

:

43

26

11

6

2

9

10

32

39

44

:

:

32

48

(1) EA-12 instead of EA-13 for 2003 and 2006.
(2) Using a computer in the last month for 2003 and 2006.
(3) 2004 instead of 2003.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_cfp_cu, isoc_ci_ifp_iu and tsc00021)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

INTERNET ACCESS OF ENTERPRISES

Although the digital divide usually refers to a gap in participation
in  the  information  society  by  individuals,  similar  studies  can  be
made in relation to the business community. Most enterprises in
the  European  Union  are  connected  to  the  Internet,  and  the
likelihood  that  an  enterprise  has  an  Internet  connection  rapidly
approaches  100  %  as  the  average  size  of  the  enterprise
considered grows.
The indicator on enterprises having a website refers to the use of
a website by the enterprise, regardless of ownership of the site. It
includes  not  only  the  existence  of  a  website  which  is  located  in
servers which belong to the enterprise or are located at one of the
enterprise’s sites, but also third party websites (for example that of
an enterprise group).

Figure 8.8: Internet access, breakdown by 
enterprise size-class, EU-27 (% of total) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

Total

Small enterprises 
(10-49 persons
employed)

Medium-sized
enterprises 
(50-249 persons
employed)

Large enterprises 
(250 persons
employed or more)

2005
2006
2007

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their
main activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O
(Groups 92.1 and 92.2 only).
Source: Eurostat (tsc00016)

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Table 8.8: Internet access among enterprises (% of total) (1) 

Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

           Access 
           to the 
           Internet

2006
92

2007
94

     Access to  the 
     Internet through 
     a broadband 
    connection
2006
71

2007
77

   Enterprises 
    with 
     homepage 
     or website
2006
62

2007
65

94

95

75

95

98

95

92

94

94

93

:

93

86

80

88

93

80

:

97

98

89

83

58

96

93

99

96

93

99

94

95

97

75

95

97

95

94

94

:

94

:

94

88

86

89

94

86

95

:

97

92

90

:

96

98

99

95

93

:

95

75

84

57

69

83

73

76

61

58

87

:

70

55

59

57

76

61

:

82

69

46

66

31

75

61

89

89

77

95

86

80

86

61

77

80

80

78

66

:

90

:

76

69

57

53

81

70

89

:

72

53

76

:

79

76

91

87

78

:

85

63

69

33

70

83

73

58

64

60

47

:

57

43

34

42

60

42

:

79

78

53

35

24

62

61

80

86

75

75

72

64

72

31

71

84

78

62

66

:

49

:

57

47

39

48

63

47

57

:

78

53

42

:

67

70

81

85

75

:

72

EU-27

Euro area (2)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their
main activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O
(Groups 92.1 and 92.2 only).
(2) EA-12 instead of EA-13 for 2006.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00016, tsc00017 and isoc_pi_b3)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

E-COMMERCE

Enterprise statistics in relation to the use of e-commerce are based
upon  sales  or  purchases  via  the  Internet  and  other  electronic
networks, such as electronic data exchange (EDI). Orders received
via manually typed e-mails are excluded. The year given relates to
the survey year, whereas e-commerce data relates to the year prior
to  the  survey.  The  population  (size  and  activity)  coverage  is  the
same as for the Internet access statistics on the previous page.
The indicator of turnover (sales) from e-commerce is shown as a
percentage of the total turnover.
The  percentage  of  enterprises  purchasing  online  rises  among
larger enterprises, which may be due to their investment in more
advanced  networks  and  their  more  frequent  purchases,  which
promote the use of systems such as EDI, often linked to logistical
and stock control. Equally, in nearly all Member States with data
available, a larger proportion of enterprises have made purchases
online  than  have  received  orders  online,  reflecting  the  greater
complexity  of  handling  orders  received  online  than  making
purchases.

Figure 8.9: E-commerce among enterprises, EU-27, 2007 
(% of total) (1)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Enterprise
turnover
from e-commerce

Enterprises
having purchased
online (2)

Enterprises having
received orders
online (2)

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their
main activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O
(Groups 92.1 and 92.2 only).
(2) Only enterprises purchasing/ordering online at least 1 % of total purchases/orders
are included.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_pi_g1, isoc_ec_ebuy and tsc00022)

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Table 8.9: E-commerce among enterprises (% of total) (1)

Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

          Enterprise  
          turnover from 
          e-commerce

Enterprises
having purchased
online (2)

Enterprises having
   received orders 
     online (2)

2006
11

2007
11

2006
28

2007
30

2006
14

2007
15

9

8

0

7

17

14

:

17

3

7

:

2

2

1

5

:

7

:

:

10

6

8

1

9

0

14

14

17

8

14

9

11

1

9

22

11

:

19

:

9

:

2

1

2

5

:

6

:

:

:

6

7

:

9

3

:

14

19

:

18

28

16

3

17

34

48

17

53

11

15

:

10

10

3

17

30

11

:

32

37

16

14

5

18

:

23

44

51

38

49

30

43

3

22

36

52

13

54

:

16

:

10

12

5

18

34

7

:

:

42

13

12

:

21

8

19

48

49

:

48

12

15

2

8

34

18

14

23

7

8

:

3

6

2

13

11

9

:

23

15

9

7

3

11

:

14

24

30

22

28

14

18

1

9

33

24

7

31

:

8

:

2

7

2

14

13

4

:

:

18

9

9

:

10

5

15

27

29

:

32

EU-27

Euro area (3)

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

(1) Covers all enterprises with 10 or more persons employed; enterprises have their
main activity in NACE Sections D, F, G, H (Groups 55.1 and 55.2 only), I, K and O
(Groups 92.1 and 92.2 only).
(2) Only enterprises purchasing/ordering online at least 1 % of total purchases/orders
are included.
(3) EA-12 instead of EA-13 for 2006.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_pi_g1, isoc_ec_ebuy and tsc00022)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

E-GOVERNMENT

The  indicator  of  online  availability  of  public  services  shows  the
percentage of 20 selected basic services which are fully available
online,  in  other  words  for  which  it  is  possible  to  carry  out  full
electronic case handling. However, only relevant services within a
country  are  considered  for  the  calculation  of  the  ratio.
Measurement  is  based  on  a  sample  of  URLs  of  public  websites
agreed with Member States as relevant for each service.
The indicators of usage of e-government services are based on the
household/individuals  and  enterprise  surveys  of  ICT  usage,  and
therefore  have  the  coverage  defined  on  pages  190  (households)
and 194 (enterprises). The indicators for the individuals are based
on usage during the three months prior to the survey, and concern
interaction with public authorities, i.e. having used the Internet for
one or more of the following activities: obtaining information from
public  authorities'  websites,  downloading  official  forms,
submitting completed forms. 

Figure 8.10: E-government online availability, 2007 
(% of online availability of 20 basic public services)

0

25

50

75

100

AT
MT
PT
SI
UK
SE
DE 
EE
ES
FR
IT
FI
DK
NL
BE
CZ
IE
HU
EL
CY
LU
LT
RO
SK
LV
PL
BG

Source: Eurostat (tsiir100)

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Table 8.10: E-government usage of individuals, 2007 (%)

Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

EU-27

Euro area

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

IS

NO

Total
30

Male
33

Female
28

33

23

6

16

58

43

30

32

12

26

41

17

20

18

18

52

25

:

55

27

15

19

5

30

24

50

53

38

59

60

36

26

6

17

62

47

29

34

14

29

42

19

21

16

17

62

25

:

61

32

15

22

6

29

23

51

55

42

63

65

30

20

7

15

55

39

32

31

9

24

40

14

19

20

19

41

25

:

49

23

15

17

5

31

24

50

50

34

54

55

Source: Eurostat (tsiir111, tsiir112 and tsiir113)

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The  European  telecommunications  sector  was  historically
characterised by public service, monopoly providers, often run in
conjunction with postal services. Liberalisation moves began in the
first half of the 1980s and, at first, concerned value added services
or  business  users,  while  basic  services  were  left  in  the  hands  of
monopoly  providers.  By  1998,  telecommunications  were,  in
principle, fully liberalised across all of the then Member States.
The indicator of mobile subscriptions shows subscriptions to public
cellular  mobile  telecommunication  systems  and  also  includes
active  pre-paid  cards.  Note  that  an  increasing  number  of  people
have  multiple  mobile  subscriptions  (for  example,  for  private  and
work use). SMS messages are short-message services, traditionally
sent between mobile phones but now also to and from a range of
other SMS enabled devices and through online web services.
The  telecommunications  prices  are  all  based  on  the  price
(including VAT) in euro of a 10 minute call at 11 am on a weekday
in  August,  based  on  normal  rates.  Three  markets  are  presented,
namely  a  local  call  (3km),  a  national  call  (200km)  and  an
international call (to the United States).

Figure 8.11: Mobile phone subscriptions and the use of
SMS, 2005

Mobile subscriptions 
(per 100 inhabitants) (1)

Average number of SMS 
messages sent (per inhabitant) (2)

0

50

100

150

200

0

500 1 000 1 500 2 000

LU
LT
IT
CZ
PT
UK
EE
AT
CY
IE
NL
FI
DK
SE
ES
DE
EL
HU
SI
BE
SK
LV
MT
BG
FR
PL
RO

CY
DK
LT
IE
MT
CZ
PT
FI
PL
EL
BE
ES
SK
DE
SI
SE
FR
UK
AT
NL
HU
EE
RO
BG
LU

(1) Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom: data are sourced from ITU.
(2) The Netherlands: data for 2003; the United Kingdom: data for 2001; Italy and
Latvia: not available.
Source: Eurostat (tsc00014, isoc_tc_sms and tps00001)

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Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

Table 8.11: Price of fixed line telecommunications (1)

           Local calls 
           (EUR)

        National calls 
       (EUR)

       Calls to the 
     United States 
       (EUR)

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

NO (2)

2001
0.39

0.54

2006
0.36

0.57

:

0.40

0.41

0.43

0.23

0.51

0.36

0.28

0.39

0.25

0.16

0.36

0.35

0.31

0.35

:

0.32

0.69

0.35

0.30

:

0.17

0.42

0.23

0.29

0.59

0.33

:

0.56

0.37

0.39

0.23

0.49

0.31

0.19

0.36

0.22

0.22

0.36

0.39

0.31

0.40

0.25

0.33

0.49

0.50

0.37

:

0.26

0.60

0.24

0.29

0.44

0.34

2001
1.17

0.54

:

2.44

0.41

1.23

0.23

0.94

0.98

1.60

0.96

1.44

0.40

1.03

1.20

:

2006
0.74

0.57

:

0.56

0.37

0.49

0.23

0.82

0.74

0.85

0.89

1.15

0.22

1.03

0.79

:

1.23

1.04

:

0.48

0.77

1.22

1.13

:

0.17

1.17

0.88

0.29

1.17

0.34

:

0.49

0.59

1.00

0.65

:

0.26

1.29

0.94

0.29

0.44

0.34

2001
:

1.84

:

:

2.71

1.23

:

1.91

2.91

4.25

2.97

2.79

3.82

5.92

11.96

1.44

4.29

:

0.78

4.32

10.58

2.89

:

2.98

8.92

4.80

1.10

3.50

1.18

2006
1.79

1.98

:

2.02

2.38

0.46

2.13

1.91

3.49

1.53

2.32

2.12

0.66

5.94

4.07

1.37

2.88

1.64

0.85

1.90

1.23

3.11

:

1.40

1.23

4.90

1.18

2.23

0.77

(1) The indicator gives the price in euro of a 10-minute call at 11 am on a weekday
(including VAT) for respectively a local call (3 km), a national call (200 km) and an
international call to the United States; prices refer to August of each year; normal
tariffs without special rates are used.
(2) 2005 instead of 2006.
Source: Eurostat (tsier0211, tsier0212 and tsier0213), Teligen 

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8 Chapter 8

Science and technology

TELECOMMUNICATIONS - 
TURNOVER AND MARKET SHARE

The  indicator  of  total  turnover  in  value  terms  is  based  on  sales
from  all  telecommunication  services,  including  leased  lines,  fixed
network  services,  cellular  mobile  telecommunication  services,
interconnection  services,  and  Internet  service  provisions.  In  the
majority  of  Member  States  (with  data  available)  turnover  from
mobile services exceeds that from fixed network services.
Although  overall  expenditure  on  telephony  has  increased,  the
proportion accounted for by ex-monopoly providers has generally
been  reduced,  as  fixed-line  voice  operations  have  shrunk,  while
new entrants in mobile and data service providers have captured
much of the growth experienced within the telecommunications
sector.
The two indicators presented here on market share refer to mobile
telecommunications 
long-distance
telecommunications.  The  market  share  of  the  leading  mobile
operator is calculated on the basis of the estimates of the number
of  mobile  subscribers.  The  market  share  of  the  incumbent  is
defined  as  the  enterprise  active  in  the  market  just  before
liberalisation  and  the  market  share  is  calculated  on  the  basis  of
retail revenues. A long distance call is a call from one local network
to another.

fixed-line 

and 

Figure 8.12: Market shares, telecommunication 
(% of total market) (1)

100

75

50

25

0

BE CZ DK DE EE IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU HUMT NL AT PL PT SI SK FI SE UK

Share of the leading operator in mobile telecommunication, 2006
Share of the incumbent in fixed telecommunications: long distance calls, 2005

(1) Bulgaria and Romania: not available; Denmark, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg,
Finland and Sweden: not available for fixed telecommunications.
Source: Eurostat (tsier033 and tsier0322), National Regulatory Authorities

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Chapter 8
Science and technology

8

Table 8.12: Turnover from telecommunications, 2005 
(EUR million) (1)

Total 
turnover

:

1 693

3 927

5 376

68 300

570

4 075

8 034

40 878

47 246

33 581

380

:

729

593

4 691

175

:

4 793

:

6 267

3 220

948

1 492

4 250

8 059

:

1 758

9 145

3 832

10 428

Fixed
 network 
services

1 031

424

1 558

1 448

Cellular 
mobile
services

4 092

793

2 369

1 949

Internet 
service 
provision

:

58

228

214

25 100

23 500

3 400

162

1 925

3 284

8 310

12 012

18 746

147

:

129

226

:

57

:

1 560

:

1 618

848

163

307

599

2 356

:

684

4 926

1 277

3 156

352

1 922

4 305

12 094

16 207

13 585

189

:

341

228

:

79

:

2 691

:

2 055

1 510

388

898

2 138

1 790

:

940

3 822

1 681

3 103

:

:

123

2 265

3 243

1 249

30

:

62

18

252

8

:

440

:

255

228

73

64

:

700

:

79

396

503

174

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT (2)

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR (3)

NO

CH

(1) Possibility of double counting in the breakdown of the total turnover.
(2) 2001 instead of 2005.
(3) 2004 instead of 2005.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_tc_tur), National Regulatory Authorities

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9 Chapter 9

Europe’s regions

REGIONAL STATISTICS - 
BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS

Regional  statistics  cover  a  broad  range  of  statistical  areas,  with
information  on, 
for  example,  demography,  migration,
employment  and  unemployment,  education,  health,  agriculture,
energy,  industry,  trade  and  services,  tourism,  transport,  research
and  development  and  regional  accounts.  The  concepts  and
definitions  used  are  as  close  as  possible  to  those  used  for  the
production of data at a national level.
Regional statistics are used for a wide range of purposes, including
the  allocation  of  structural  funds  which  aim  to  foster  economic
and  social  cohesion  in  the  European  Union.  In  this  context,
regional data are used as an objective base for selecting regions
eligible  for  funding,  and  for  ex-post  analysis  of  the  effects  of
European structural policies.
To  classify  regional  data,  territorial  units  are  grouped  together
according to the NUTS classification system. This is a hierarchical
classification, which subdivides each Member State into a number
of  regions  at  different  levels.  The  NUTS  regions  are  in  general
administrative  units,  reflecting  the  remit  of  local  or  regional
authorities within a particular territory.
This  chapter  presents  the  latest  regional  information  available  at
the NUTS 2 level for a selection of key socio-economic indicators,
as well as a national indicator summarising difference in regional
employment rates.
Population density - the ratio of mid-year population, as defined
by  the  number  of  inhabitants,  to  the  given  area  of  a  territory,
expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square
kilometre.
Population growth - the difference in population between two
reference  periods;  equal  to  the  sum  of  natural  increase  (births  -
deaths)  and  net  migration  (immigration  -  emigration);  the
information  presented  is  an  average  annual  growth  rate  for  the
period 2000 to 2005.
GDP per inhabitant - national currency GDP levels are converted
into a common currency using exchange rates (purchasing power
parities) that reflect the purchasing power of each currency; GDP
per  inhabitant  in  a  common  currency,  the  purchasing  power
standard  (PPS),  therefore  eliminates  differences  in  price  levels
between  countries,  as  well  as  allowing  a  comparison  between
economies of different absolute sizes.

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Chapter 9
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Disposable  income  per  inhabitant -  income  received,  in  the
form  of  wages,  operating  surplus,  rent,  interest,  dividends  and
social  benefits,  from  which  are  deducted  taxes,  social  security
contributions  and  other  current  transfers;  data  are  derived  from
household accounts and are presented in the common currency of
the  purchasing  power  consumption  standard  (PPCS)  per
inhabitant.
Employment  rate  (%) -  calculated  by  dividing  the  number  of
persons aged 15 to 64 in employment by the total population of
the  same  age  group;  the  employed  population  consists  of  those
persons who during the reference week did any work for pay or
profit for at least one hour, or were not working but had jobs from
which they were temporarily absent.
Unemployment rate (%) - unemployed persons comprise those
aged 15 to 74 who were without work during the reference week,
who were available for work, and who were actively seeking work
(which involves having been in contact with a public employment
office to find work, having been in contact with a private agency
(temporary  work  agency,  firm  specialising  in  recruitment  to  find
work), or applying directly to employers to find work).
Dispersion  of  regional  employment  rates -  this  indicator
shows  the  regional  differences  in  employment  rates  (see  above)
within  countries  and  groups  of  countries.  The  dispersion  of
regional employment rates is zero when the employment rates in
all regions are identical, and it will rise if there is an increase in the
differences  between  employment  rates  among  regions.  The
indicator is not applicable for Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Cyprus,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta or Slovenia as these Member
States comprise only one or two NUTS level 2 regions.
For  more  information  on  regional  data  collection  and  the  NUTS
classification, please refer to: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/
nuts/introduction_regions_en.html.

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9 Chapter 9

Europe’s regions

Map 1: Population density, by NUTS2 regions, 2004
(inhabitants per km²) (1)

(1) Spain, France, Scotland: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024)

206

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(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Population density,by NUTS 2 regions, 2004(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:24)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:11)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)(cid:240)(cid:12)(cid:54)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:41)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:22)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:22  Page 207

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9

Map 2: Population change, by NUTS2 regions, annual
average, 2000-05 (% per annum) (1)

(1) Brandeburg: data for 1999-2005; France and United Kingdom: data for 2000-04.
Source: Eurostat (d2jan)

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(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Population change,by NUTS 2 regions,(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:17)(cid:22)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:17)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:17)(cid:25)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:17)(cid:25)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:24)(cid:11)(cid:8)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:92)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:12)(cid:37)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:69)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:12)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:16)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:24)(cid:41)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:56)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:46)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:16)(cid:19)(cid:23)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:22  Page 208

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Map 3: Gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant, 
by NUTS 2 regions, 2004 (PPS per inhabitant) (1)

(1) Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Portugal: provisional data.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00005)

208

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(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Gross domestic product (GDP)per inhabitant,by NUTS 2 regions, 2004(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:51)(cid:54)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:12)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:29)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:22  Page 209

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Map 4: Disposable income of private households, 
by NUTS 2 regions, 2004 (EUR per inhabitant) (1)

(1) Greece and the United Kingdom: estimates; Italy and the Netherlands: provisional
data; Portugal: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00026)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

209

(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Disposable incomeof private households,by NUTS 2 regions, 2004(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:56)(cid:53)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:12)(cid:42)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:56)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:46)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:44)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:51)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:22)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:22  Page 210

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Chapter 9
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Map 5: Employment rate, by NUTS 2 regions, 2005 (%)

Source: Eurostat (tgs00007)

210

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Employment rate,by NUTS 2 regions, 2005(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:24)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:19)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:11)(cid:8)(cid:12)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:23  Page 211

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Europe’s regions

9

Map 6: Unemployment rate, by NUTS 2 regions, 2005 (%)

Source: Eurostat (tgs00010)

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

211

(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)Unemployment rate,by NUTS 2 regions, 2005(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:24)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:11)(cid:8)(cid:12)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)ch09.qxp  21/12/2007  10:23  Page 212

9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP
Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
0.4

Population 
density, 2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
344

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))

GDP per 
capita, 2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
26 759

6 232

1.0

BBEE LLGGIIUU MM
RRéé gg iioo nn   dd ee   BBrr uu xxee llllee ss -- CCaa pp iitt aa llee //
BBrr uu ss ss ee llss   HH oo oo ff dd ss tt ee dd ee lliijjkk   GGee ww ee ss tt
PP rr oo vv..  AAnn tt ww ee rr pp ee nn

PP rr oo vv..  LLiimmbb uu rr gg   ((BB))

PP rr oo vv..  OO oo ss tt -- VVllaa aa nn dd ee rr ee nn

PP rr oo vv..  VVllaa aa mmss -- BBrr aa bb aa nn tt

PP rr oo vv..  WWee ss tt -- VVllaa aa nn dd ee rr ee nn

PP rr oo vv..  BBrr aa bb aa nn tt   WWaa lllloo nn

PP rr oo vv..  HH aa iinn aa uu tt

PP rr oo vv..  LLiièè gg ee

PP rr oo vv..  LLuu xxee mmbb oo uu rr gg   ((BB))

PP rr oo vv..  NN aa mmuu rr

BBUU LLGGAARRIIAA

SS ee vvee rr oo zzaa pp aa dd ee nn

SS ee vvee rr ee nn   tt ss ee nn tt rr aa llee nn

SS ee vvee rr oo iizztt oo cchh ee nn

YYuu gg oo iizztt oo cchh ee nn

YYuu gg oo zzaa pp aa dd ee nn

YYuu zzhh ee nn   tt ss ee nn tt rr aa llee nn

CCZZ EE CCHH   RREE PP UU BBLLIICC

PP rr aa hh aa

SS tt øø ee dd nn íí  ÈÈee cchh yy

JJ iihh oo zzáá pp aa dd

SS ee vvee rr oo zzáá pp aa dd

SS ee vvee rr oo vvýýcchh oo dd

JJ iihh oo vvýýcchh oo dd

SS tt øø ee dd nn íí  MMoo rr aa vvaa

MMoo rr aa vvss kk oo ss llee zzss kk oo

DD EE NN MMAARRKK

GGEE RRMMAANN YY

SS tt uu tt tt gg aa rr tt

KKaa rr llss rr uu hh ee

FFrr ee iibb uu rr gg

TT üübb iinn gg ee nn

OO bb ee rr bb aa yyee rr nn

NN iiee dd ee rr bb aa yyee rr nn

OO bb ee rr pp ff aa llzz

OO bb ee rr ff rr aa nn kk ee nn

MMiitt tt ee llff rr aa nn kk ee nn

UU nn tt ee rr ff rr aa nn kk ee nn

SS cchh ww aa bb ee nn

BBee rr lliinn

BBrr aa nn dd ee nn bb uu rr gg   --   NN oo rr dd oo ss tt   ((22))

BBrr aa nn dd ee nn bb uu rr gg   --   SS üüdd ww ee ss tt   ((22))

BBrr ee mmee nn

HH aa mmbb uu rr gg

DD aa rr mmss tt aa dd tt

GGiiee ßßee nn

KKaa ss ss ee ll

MMee cckk llee nn bb uu rr gg -- VVoo rr pp oo mmmmee rr nn

BBrr aa uu nn ss cchh ww ee iigg

HH aa nn nn oo vvee rr

LLüünn ee bb uu rr gg

599
338
467
493
363
332
341
268
58
124
70
52
64
69
58
104
71
132
2 408
106
69
133
121
120
136
232
125
231
379
394
233
202
240
116
113
153
236
158
179
3 799
75
101
1 641
2 297
506
198
152
75
205
240
110
165

0.4
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.3
0.7
0.5
-1.1
:
:
:
-0.3
:
:
-0.1
-0.3
0.6
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.9
0.4
0.3
-0.1
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
0.0
0.4
0.3
0.0
-0.2
-0.8
-0.1
0.1
0.5
0.5

53 381

31 080
21 826
23 858
27 973
24 910
25 783
17 546
19 852
18 498
18 644
7 134
5 503
5 681
6 299
6 420
10 550
5 509
16 171
33 784
15 024
14 962
13 049
13 688
14 483
12 856
13 141
26 772
24 903
30 328
28 876
24 647
25 850
36 408
24 735
25 646
24 308
29 499
25 229
26 235
21 755
16 385
18 433
33 508
41 972
33 825
22 322
24 225
16 895
22 809
23 612
18 098
21 265

WWee ss ee rr -- EE mmss
(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(2) Population growth: data for 1999-2005.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

212

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Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

KKöö llnn

TT rr iiee rr

HH aa llllee

LLee iippzziigg

DD ee ss ss aa uu

GGRREE EE CCEE

KKoo bb llee nn zz

IIRREE LLAANN DD

MMüünn ss tt ee rr

DD ee tt mmoo lldd

DD rr ee ss dd ee nn

SS aa aa rr llaa nn dd

EE SS TT OO NN IIAA

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))

AArr nn ss bb ee rr gg

CChh ee mmnn iitt zz

GGEE RRMMAANN YY

TT hh üürr iinn gg ee nn

DD üüss ss ee lldd oo rr ff

MMaa gg dd ee bb uurr gg

RRhh ee iinn hh ee ss ss ee nn -- PP ff aa llzz

SS cchh llee ss ww iigg -- HH oo llss tt ee iinn

SS oo uutt hh ee rr nn   aa nn dd   EE aa ss tt ee rr nn

BBoo rr dd ee rr ,,  MMiidd llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   WWee ss tt ee rr nn

AAnn aa tt oo lliikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa ,,  TT hh rr aa kk ii          

Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP
Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
0.1
-0.1
0.5
0.1
0.2
-0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
-0.3
-1.1
-0.7
-0.4
-1.6
-1.2
-1.0
0.4
-0.8
-0.4
1.7
2.0
1.6
0.3
0.1
0.5
0.0
-0.1
0.3
1.1
0.3
-0.1
0.0
0.5
-0.3
0.5
0.4
1.4
0.2
-0.1
0.7
0.3
1.2
1.9
0.8
2.3
0.0
1.4
0.2
1.8
2.4
3.1
1.2
2.5
0.1

Population 
density, 2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
231
991
592
380
318
473
189
104
295
412
256
211
246
120
187
99
179
146
31
60
34
82
85
43
101
32
53
38
96
66
36
39
1 040
53
57
72
83
91
100
102
289
55
57
26
703
26
23
26
204
187
184
86
110
3 759

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   FFoo rr aa ll  dd ee   NN aa vvaa rr rr aa

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   VVaa llee nn cciiaa nn aa

PP rr iinn cciippaa dd oo   dd ee   AAss tt uurr iiaa ss

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   dd ee   MMaa dd rr iidd

KKee nn tt rr iikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa

CCaa ss tt iillllaa -- LLaa   MMaa nn cchh aa

DD yytt iikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa

RRee gg iióó nn   dd ee   MMuurr cciiaa

IIoo nn iiaa   NN iiss iiaa                     

SS tt ee rr ee aa   EE llllaa dd aa           

VVoo rr ee iioo   AAiigg aa iioo       

NN oo tt iioo   AAiigg aa iioo         

DD yytt iikk ii  EE llllaa dd aa         

CCaa ss tt iillllaa   yy  LLee óó nn

PP ee lloo ppoo nn nn iiss oo ss

EE xxtt rr ee mmaa dd uurr aa

IIllllee ss   BBaa llee aa rr ss

PP aa ííss   VVaa ss ccoo

IIppee iirr oo ss           

CCaa nn tt aa bb rr iiaa

AAnn dd aa lluuccííaa

TT hh ee ss ss aa lliiaa

SS PP AAIINN   ((22))

CCaa tt aa lluuññ aa

KKrr iitt ii            

LLaa   RRiioo jjaa

AArr aa gg óó nn

GGaa lliicciiaa

AAtt tt iikk ii

GDP per 
capita, 2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
24 903
27 784
25 829
20 579
23 470
22 799
20 738
20 511
23 313
23 284
17 425
19 442
18 474
16 295
18 111
17 574
22 380
17 508
11 978
30 414
21 518
33 653
18 245
12 194
14 661
13 482
14 264
14 521
16 492
11 714
18 511
14 847
24 230
13 021
21 903
17 313
21 658
17 416
18 705
21 084
26 975
27 252
23 520
23 095
28 416
20 398
17 011
14 419
25 900
20 185
24 579
16 679
18 140
19 430

CCiiuudd aa dd   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd ee   CCee uutt aa
(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(2) Population density: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

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9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))

SS PP AAIINN   ((22))

CCiiuudd aa dd   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd ee   MMee lliillllaa

CCaa nn aa rr iiaa ss

FFRRAANN CCEE   ((11))

ÎÎllee   dd ee   FFrr aa nn ccee

CChh aa mmppaa gg nn ee -- AArr dd ee nn nn ee

PP iiccaa rr dd iiee

HH aa uutt ee -- NN oo rr mmaa nn dd iiee

CCee nn tt rr ee

BBaa ss ss ee -- NN oo rr mmaa nn dd iiee

BBoo uurr gg oo gg nn ee

NN oo rr dd   --   PP aa ss -- dd ee -- CCaa llaa iiss

LLoo rr rr aa iinn ee

AAllss aa ccee

FFrr aa nn cchh ee -- CCoo mmtt éé

PP aa yyss   dd ee   llaa   LLoo iirr ee

BBrr ee tt aa gg nn ee

PP oo iitt oo uu-- CChh aa rr ee nn tt ee ss

AAqq uuiitt aa iinn ee

MMiidd ii-- PP yyrr éé nn éé ee ss

LLiimmoo uuss iinn

RRhh ôô nn ee -- AAllppee ss

AAuuvvee rr gg nn ee

LLaa nn gg uuee dd oo cc-- RRoo uuss ss iilllloo nn

PP rr oo vvee nn ccee -- AAllppee ss -- CCôô tt ee   dd ''AAzzuurr

CCoo rr ss ee

GGuuaa dd ee lloo uuppee

MMaa rr tt iinn iiqq uuee

GGuuyyaa nn ee

RRéé uunn iioo nn

IITT AALLYY

PP iiee mmoo nn tt ee

VVaa llllee   dd ''AAoo ss tt aa //VVaa lllléé ee   dd ''AAoo ss tt ee

LLiigg uurr iiaa

LLoo mmbb aa rr dd iiaa

PP rr oo vviinn cciiaa   AAuutt oo nn oo mmaa   BBoo llzzaa nn oo //BBoo zzee nn

PP rr oo vviinn cciiaa   AAuutt oo nn oo mmaa   TT rr ee nn tt oo

VVee nn ee tt oo

FFrr iiuullii-- VVee nn ee zziiaa   GGiiuulliiaa

EE mmiilliiaa -- RRoo mmaa gg nn aa

TT oo ss ccaa nn aa

UU mmbb rr iiaa

MMaa rr cchh ee

LLaa zziioo

AAbb rr uuzzzzoo

MMoo lliiss ee

CCaa mmppaa nn iiaa

PP uugg lliiaa

BBaa ss iilliiccaa tt aa

CCaa llaa bb rr iiaa

SS iicciilliiaa

SS aa rr dd ee gg nn aa

CCYYPP RRUU SS

LLAATT VVIIAA

Population 
density, 2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
83
5 139
248
98
937
52
97
146
63
82
51
324
99
216
70
104
111
65
73
59
43
134
51
89
149
31
261
349
2
301
197
173
38
297
409
64
81
266
159
191
158
103
158
310
122
74
431
211
61
136
197
69
130
37

Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
1.4
0.6
2.6
0.7
0.6
-0.1
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.6
1.0
1.2
0.3
0.9
0.3
1.5
0.9
1.0
1.2
0.7
3.4
1.6
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
0.9
0.4
1.0
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.6
-0.1
0.2
0.2
-0.2
-0.2
0.1
0.1
1.6
-0.6

GDP per 
capita, 2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
21 658
18 906
19 950
24 146
37 527
22 463
19 471
21 758
21 699
20 278
21 169
19 130
19 959
23 176
20 999
22 043
21 198
20 244
21 957
21 551
19 728
24 253
20 318
18 863
22 560
18 745
14 380
15 973
11 690
13 006
23 095
25 703
27 577
23 584
30 426
30 141
27 292
27 386
25 246
28 034
25 130
21 708
23 115
28 345
18 246
16 583
14 708
15 008
16 215
14 728
14 477
17 508
19 648
9 775

(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(2) Population density: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

214

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Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

Population 
density, 2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
55
175
109
410
100
88
69
95
87
74
1 272
482
246
192
183
333
396
256
842
971
1 226
212
490
529
99
75
83
4 072
60
74
119
74
55
142
122
142
145
214
382
87
118
110
60
113
74
72
145
112
115
59
120

Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
-0.5
1.0
-0.2
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
-0.4
-0.5
-0.3
-0.4
1.2
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
2.9
1.1
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
-0.1
0.5
0.1
0.4
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.7
-0.2
-0.5
0.3
0.2
-0.7
-0.4
-0.3
-0.5
-0.3
0.1
-0.4
-0.3
-0.6
-0.7
-0.3
-0.5
0.0

GDP per 
capita, 2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
10 981
53 978
13 751
21 837
13 148
14 359
9 811
9 138
9 003
9 494
15 988
27 946
33 059
22 714
21 696
24 399
23 859
20 736
33 906
33 045
28 561
25 542
27 900
25 093
27 666
19 305
22 440
38 632
23 356
23 824
25 857
30 487
28 254
28 905
10 908
10 049
16 523
9 324
12 260
7 568
7 617
8 443
8 148
11 728
10 149
9 765
11 113
9 378
9 756
8 469
10 659

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))

LLIITT HH UU AANN IIAA

LLUU XXEE MMBBOO UU RRGG

HH UU NN GGAARRYY

KKöö zzéé pp -- MMaa gg yyaa rr oo rr ss zzáá gg

KKöö zzéé pp -- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

NN yyuu gg aa tt -- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

DD éé ll-- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

ÉÉ ss zzaa kk -- MMaa gg yyaa rr oo rr ss zzáá gg

ÉÉ ss zzaa kk -- AAllff öö lldd

DD éé ll-- AAllff öö lldd

MMAALLTT AA

NN EE TT HH EE RRLLAANN DD SS

GGrr oo nn iinn gg ee nn

FFrr iiee ss llaa nn dd

DD rr ee nn tt hh ee

OO vvee rr iijjss ss ee ll

GGee lldd ee rr llaa nn dd

FFllee vvoo llaa nn dd

UU tt rr ee cchh tt

NN oo oo rr dd -- HH oo llllaa nn dd

ZZ uuiidd -- HH oo llllaa nn dd

ZZ ee ee llaa nn dd

NN oo oo rr dd -- BBrr aa bb aa nn tt

LLiimmbb uurr gg   ((NN LL))

AAUU SS TT RRIIAA

BBuurr gg ee nn llaa nn dd

NN iiee dd ee rr öö ss tt ee rr rr ee iicchh

WWiiee nn

KKää rr nn tt ee nn

SS tt ee iiee rr mmaa rr kk

OO bb ee rr öö ss tt ee rr rr ee iicchh

SS aa llzzbb uurr gg

TT iirr oo ll

VVoo rr aa rr llbb ee rr gg

PP OO LLAANN DD

££óó dd zzkk iiee

MMaa zzoo ww iiee cckk iiee

MMaa ³³ oo pp oo llss kk iiee

ŒŒ ll¹¹ ss kk iiee

LLuu bb ee llss kk iiee

PP oo dd kk aa rr pp aa cckk iiee

ŒŒ ww iiêê tt oo kk rr zzyyss kk iiee

PP oo dd llaa ss kk iiee

WWiiee llkk oo pp oo llss kk iiee

ZZ aa cchh oo dd nn iioo pp oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

LLuu bb uu ss kk iiee

DD oo llnn oo œœ ll¹¹ ss kk iiee

OO pp oo llss kk iiee

KKuu jjaa ww ss kk oo -- PP oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

WWaa rr mmiiññ ss kk oo -- MMaa zzuu rr ss kk iiee

PP oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

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9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP

Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
0.6
0.6
1.8
0.5
0.9
0.1
0.3
0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.2
-0.4
0.0
-0.5
-0.3
0.1
-0.1
-0.5
-0.1
0.0
0.2
0.3
-0.6
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.8
0.3
0.6
-0.3
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.5
0.0
-0.4
-0.5
0.0
0.2
-0.5
0.1
-0.8
0.0
0.4
-0.6
-0.2
0.0

Population 
density, 
2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
114
175
82
84
948
24
104
294
94
82
75
104
92
100
1 257
81
61
99
110
293
124
83
100
17
10
63
23
5
17
22
286
39
94
13
5
3
24
61
247
381
252
73
424
1 990
467
2 117
252
92
824
1 039
421

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))
PP OO RRTT UU GGAALL  
NN oo rr tt ee
AAllgg aa rr vvee
CCee nn tt rr oo   ((PP ))
LLiiss bb oo aa
AAllee nn tt ee jjoo
RRee gg iiãã oo   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd oo ss   AAççoo rr ee ss
RRee gg iiãã oo   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd aa   MMaa dd ee iirr aa
RROO MMAANN IIAA
NN oo rr dd -- VVee ss tt
CCee nn tt rr uu
NN oo rr dd -- EE ss tt
SS uu dd -- EE ss tt
SS uu dd -- MMuu nn tt ee nn iiaa
BBuu ccuu rr ee ºº tt ii-- IIllff oo vv
SS uu dd -- VVee ss tt   OO lltt ee nn iiaa
VVee ss tt
SS LLOO VVEE NN IIAA
SS LLOO VVAAKKIIAA
BBrr aa tt iiss llaa vvss kk ýý  kk rr aa jj
ZZ áá pp aa dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
SS tt rr ee dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
VVýýcchh oo dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
FFIINN LLAANN DD
IItt ää -- SS uuoo mmii
EE tt ee llää -- SS uuoo mmii
LLää nn ss ii-- SS uuoo mmii
PP oo hh jjoo iiss -- SS uuoo mmii
ÅÅllaa nn dd
SS WWEE DD EE NN
SS tt oo cckk hh oo llmm
ÖÖ ss tt rr aa   MMee llllaa nn ss vvee rr iigg ee
SS yydd ss vvee rr iigg ee
NN oo rr rr aa   MMee llllaa nn ss vvee rr iigg ee
MMee llllee rr ss tt aa   NN oo rr rr llaa nn dd
ÖÖ vvrr ee   NN oo rr rr llaa nn dd
SS mmåå llaa nn dd   mmee dd   öö aa rr nn aa
VVää ss tt ss vvee rr iigg ee
UU NN IITT EE DD   KKIINN GGDD OO MM  ((22))
TT ee ee ss   VVaa llllee yy  aa nn dd   DD uurr hh aa mm
NN oo rr tt hh uummbb ee rr llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   TT yynn ee   aa nn dd   WWee aa rr
CCuummbb rr iiaa
CChh ee ss hh iirr ee
GGrr ee aa tt ee rr   MMaa nn cchh ee ss tt ee rr
LLaa nn ccaa ss hh iirr ee
MMee rr ss ee yyss iidd ee
EE aa ss tt   RRiidd iinn gg   aa nn dd   NN oo rr tt hh   LLiinn ccoo llnn ss hh iirr ee
NN oo rr tt hh   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
SS oo uutt hh   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
WWee ss tt   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
DD ee rr bb yyss hh iirr ee   &&   NN oo tt tt iinn gg hh aa mmss hh iirr ee
LLee iiccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee ,,  RRuutt llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   
NN oo rr tt hh aa mmpptt oo nn ss hh iirr ee
LLiinn ccoo llnn ss hh iirr ee
HH ee rr ee ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee ,,  WWoo rr ccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   
WWaa rr ww iicckk ss hh iirr ee
(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(2) Population growth: data for 2000-2004.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

GDP per 
capita, 2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
16 086
12 648
16 586
13 824
22 745
15 115
14 175
19 532
7 301
7 093
7 629
5 070
6 612
6 111
13 862
6 183
8 395
17 920
12 196
27 802
11 336
10 035
9 102
24 834
18 336
28 681
21 929
21 852
31 461
25 865
35 621
21 862
23 700
22 450
23 587
23 772
23 113
24 536
26 455
19 274
22 231
20 500
27 929
24 957
21 908
18 776
22 315
24 199
20 402
24 670
23 999

27 065

20 108

23 904

114

325

213

0.4

0.6

1.5

216

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Table 9.1: Regional data on population and GDP

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

EE UU -- 2277  ((11))
UU NN IITT EE DD   KKIINN GGDD OO MM  ((22))
SS hh rr oo ppss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   SS tt aa ff ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
WWee ss tt   MMiidd llaa nn dd ss
EE aa ss tt   AAnn gg lliiaa
BBee dd ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee   &&   HH ee rr tt ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
EE ss ss ee xx
IInn nn ee rr   LLoo nn dd oo nn
OO uutt ee rr   LLoo nn dd oo nn
BBee rr kk ss hh iirr ee ,,  BBuucckk iinn gg hh aa mmss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   
OO xxff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
SS uurr rr ee yy,,  EE aa ss tt   aa nn dd   WWee ss tt   SS uuss ss ee xx
HH aa mmppss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   IIss llee   oo ff   WWiigg hh tt
KKee nn tt
GGlloo uuccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee ,,  WWiilltt ss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   NN oo rr tt hh   
SS oo mmee rr ss ee tt
DD oo rr ss ee tt   aa nn dd   SS oo mmee rr ss ee tt
CCoo rr nn ww aa llll  aa nn dd   IIss llee ss   oo ff   SS cciillllyy
DD ee vvoo nn
WWee ss tt   WWaa llee ss   aa nn dd   TT hh ee   VVaa llllee yyss
EE aa ss tt   WWaa llee ss
NN oo rr tt hh   EE aa ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
EE aa ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
SS oo uutt hh   WWee ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
HH iigg hh llaa nn dd ss   aa nn dd   IIss llaa nn dd ss   ((33))
NN oo rr tt hh ee rr nn   IIrr ee llaa nn dd   ((33))
CCRROO AATT IIAA
SS jjee vvee rr oo zzaa pp aa dd nn aa   HH rr vvaa tt ss kk aa
SS rr ee dd ii}} nn jjaa   ii  IIss tt oo èènn aa   ((PP aa nn oo nn ss kk aa ))   HH rr vvaa tt ss kk aa
JJ aa dd rr aa nn ss kk aa   HH rr vvaa tt ss kk aa
TT UU RRKKEE YY
{{ss tt aa nn bb uu ll
TT ee kk iirr dd aa ~~
BBaa ll||kk ee ss iirr
{{zzmmiirr
AAyydd ||nn
MMaa nn iiss aa
BBuu rr ss aa
KK oo ccaa ee llii
AAnn kk aa rr aa
KK oo nn yyaa
AAnn tt aa llyyaa
AAdd aa nn aa
HH aa tt aa yy
KK ||rr ||kk kk aa llee
KK aa yyss ee rr ii
ZZ oo nn gg uu lldd aa kk
KK aa ss tt aa mmoo nn uu
SS aa mmss uu nn
TT rr aa bb zzoo nn
EE rr zzuu rr uu mm
AA~~ rr ||
MMaa llaa tt yyaa
VV aa nn
GGaa zziiaa nn tt ee pp
ªª aa nn ll||uu rr ff aa
MMaa rr dd iinn

Population 
density, 2004
 (inhabitants
 per km²)
113
247
242
2 863
178
563
446
9 210
3 594

Population 
growth, 
2000 -2005
(AAGR, %)
0.3
0.0
0.0
-0.5
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.8
0.1

GDP per 
capita, 
2004
(PPS/
inhabitant)
21 503
26 455
21 062
25 087
24 439
29 598
22 437
65 138
24 493

370

474
435
431

296

199
145
164
143
141
68
106
175
9
120
78.5
192.0
57.3
58.6
92.5
2 125.7
74.8
64.4
298.8
80.9
69.3
112.9
140.8
173.4
54.1
76.2
126.5
119.7
55.1
42.3
101.0
30.8
79.5
90.2
33.4
38.6
50.6
50.7
140.0
90.3
72.8

0.0

-0.2
0.2
0.2

0.2

0.4
1.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
3.4
-0.7
-0.6
0.2
0.1
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

37 379

28 051
25 444
21 336

30 844

21 405
17 025
20 857
17 261
26 430
33 100
25 926
23 946
19 361
21 292
10 562
13 362
7 373
10 275
6 000
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

(1) Population density: data for 2003; population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(3) Population growth: data for 2000-2004.
(3) Population density: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00024, d2jan and tgs00005)

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9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
15 765

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
61.1

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
8.4

14 977

EE UU -- 2277

BBEE LLGGIIUU MM
RRéé gg iioo nn   dd ee   BBrr uuxxee llllee ss -- CCaa ppiitt aa llee //
BBrr uuss ss ee llss   HH oo oo ff dd ss tt ee dd ee lliijjkk   GGee ww ee ss tt
PP rr oo vv..  AAnn tt ww ee rr ppee nn

PP rr aa hh aa

BBUU LLGGAARRIIAA

JJ iihh oo zzáá pp aa dd

PP rr oo vv..  LLiièè gg ee

JJ iihh oo vvýýcchh oo dd

PP rr oo vv..  NN aa mmuurr

SS ee vvee rr oo zzáá pp aa dd

PP rr oo vv..  HH aa iinn aa uutt

YYuugg oo zzaa ppaa dd ee nn

YYuugg oo iizztt oo cchh ee nn

SS ee vvee rr oo vvýýcchh oo dd

SS tt øø ee dd nn íí  ÈÈee cchh yy

SS ee vvee rr oo zzaa ppaa dd ee nn

SS ee vvee rr oo iizztt oo cchh ee nn

SS tt øø ee dd nn íí  MMoo rr aa vvaa

CCZZ EE CCHH   RREE PP UU BBLLIICC

PP rr oo vv..  LLiimmbb uurr gg   ((BB))

MMoo rr aa vvss kk oo ss llee zzss kk oo

YYuuzzhh ee nn   tt ss ee nn tt rr aa llee nn

SS ee vvee rr ee nn   tt ss ee nn tt rr aa llee nn

PP rr oo vv..  BBrr aa bb aa nn tt   WWaa lllloo nn

PP rr oo vv..  LLuuxxee mmbb oo uurr gg   ((BB))

PP rr oo vv..  VVllaa aa mmss -- BBrr aa bb aa nn tt

PP rr oo vv..  OO oo ss tt -- VVllaa aa nn dd ee rr ee nn

PP rr oo vv..  WWee ss tt -- VVllaa aa nn dd ee rr ee nn

16 149
14 853
16 365
18 780
15 505
17 851
13 319
13 808
13 395
13 936
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
4 283
5 786
4 562
4 186
3 777
4 023
4 096
3 909
3 786
16 498
17 402
19 913
19 012
18 415
19 074
20 391
16 369
16 800
17 501
18 731
17 355
17 997
14 738
14 704
14 967
19 517
23 081
19 220
17 151
16 881
13 950
16 696
17 485
17 496
16 024
WWee ss ee rr -- EE mmss
Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

MMee cckk llee nn bb uurr gg -- VVoo rr ppoo mmmmee rr nn

BBrr aa nn dd ee nn bb uurr gg   --   SS üüdd ww ee ss tt

BBrr aa nn dd ee nn bb uurr gg   --   NN oo rr dd oo ss tt

BBrr aa uunn ss cchh ww ee iigg

UU nn tt ee rr ff rr aa nn kk ee nn

MMiitt tt ee llff rr aa nn kk ee nn

NN iiee dd ee rr bb aa yyee rr nn

OO bb ee rr ff rr aa nn kk ee nn

OO bb ee rr bb aa yyee rr nn

DD aa rr mmss tt aa dd tt

SS cchh ww aa bb ee nn

DD EE NN MMAARRKK

GGEE RRMMAANN YY

OO bb ee rr ppff aa llzz

HH aa nn nn oo vvee rr

KKaa rr llss rr uuhh ee

TT üübb iinn gg ee nn

LLüünn ee bb uurr gg

SS tt uutt tt gg aa rr tt

HH aa mmbb uurr gg

FFrr ee iibb uurr gg

BBrr ee mmee nn

GGiiee ßß ee nn

KKaa ss ss ee ll

BBee rr lliinn

54.8

63.5
60.5
66.7
67.5
65.7
60.0
52.9
56.1
61.1
59.1
55.8
:
:
:
:
61.5
:
64.8
71.3
67.0
67.8
61.5
65.7
64.1
62.1
59.3
75.9
66.0
70.1
69.0
71.0
70.2
71.2
71.6
70.3
68.4
68.6
69.0
70.0
58.5
61.7
63.6
59.3
66.5
67.2
66.8
65.9
60.7
62.3
64.8
65.3
64.8

16.3

6.2
7.1
4.9
4.4
4.7
9.0
14.0
11.9
7.9
10.4
10.1
:
:
:
:
7.6
:
:
3.5
5.2
5.1
13.5
5.6
7.7
9.7
13.9
4.8
9.4
7.3
7.6
6.4
6.8
5.8
6.5
6.5
10.3
8.7
8.2
6.5
19.4
19.9
16.8
16.6
10.5
8.2
9.0
9.3
21.4
11.6
10.5
9.7
10.2

218

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Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
17 402
18 830
18 378
17 303
19 036
18 155
16 767
16 063
17 065
17 116
15 007
14 900
14 655
14 081
14 304
14 153
16 634
14 294
3 545
17 269
16 099
17 535
:
10 043
11 469
10 004
10 362
9 464
6 197
8 542
10 514
9 799
17 018
10 344
10 297
10 425
11 963
10 496
11 627
12 120
14 952
14 986
13 004
12 850
14 247
11 722
9 909
8 896
13 488
10 975
13 154
9 412
9 622
11 647

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
66.0
63.0
63.6
63.1
66.6
61.5
68.0
67.7
66.0
62.1
64.2
62.8
60.9
60.7
57.5
62.4
66.4
62.4
64.4
67.6
66.1
68.2
60.1
59.5
57.9
52.1
60.4
56.3
64.1
56.6
60.0
63.6
61.4
56.8
61.0
64.9
63.3
61.1
55.8
62.0
65.5
69.1
69.1
68.2
68.5
62.7
61.4
54.4
69.3
64.5
67.9
55.4
62.8
53.2

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
9.4
10.7
9.5
9.5
10.2
12.2
8.8
7.3
9.3
10.8
17.8
18.3
20.5
21.3
22.3
18.7
10.3
17.2
7.9
4.3
4.4
4.3
9.8
11.8
11.1
18.0
9.4
11.5
8.5
10.6
10.9
8.7
8.8
10.2
9.3
7.1
9.2
9.9
10.2
8.5
7.3
5.6
6.2
5.8
6.8
8.7
9.2
15.8
7.0
8.8
7.2
13.8
8.0
19.7

EE UU -- 2277

GGEE RRMMAANN YY

DD üüss ss ee lldd oo rr ff

KKöö llnn

MMüünn ss tt ee rr

DD ee tt mmoo lldd

AArr nn ss bb ee rr gg

KKoo bb llee nn zz

TT rr iiee rr

RRhh ee iinn hh ee ss ss ee nn -- PP ff aa llzz

SS aa aa rr llaa nn dd

CChh ee mmnn iitt zz

DD rr ee ss dd ee nn

LLee iippzziigg

DD ee ss ss aa uu

HH aa llllee

MMaa gg dd ee bb uurr gg

SS cchh llee ss ww iigg -- HH oo llss tt ee iinn

TT hh üürr iinn gg ee nn

EE SS TT OO NN IIAA

IIRREE LLAANN DD

BBoo rr dd ee rr ,,  MMiidd llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   WWee ss tt ee rr nn

SS oo uutt hh ee rr nn   aa nn dd   EE aa ss tt ee rr nn

GGRREE EE CCEE

AAnn aa tt oo lliikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa ,,  TT hh rr aa kk ii          

KKee nn tt rr iikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa

DD yytt iikk ii  MMaa kk ee dd oo nn iiaa

TT hh ee ss ss aa lliiaa

IIppee iirr oo ss           

IIoo nn iiaa   NN iiss iiaa                     

DD yytt iikk ii  EE llllaa dd aa         

SS tt ee rr ee aa   EE llllaa dd aa           

PP ee lloo ppoo nn nn iiss oo ss

AAtt tt iikk ii

VVoo rr ee iioo   AAiigg aa iioo       

NN oo tt iioo   AAiigg aa iioo         

KKrr iitt ii            

SS PP AAIINN

GGaa lliicciiaa

PP rr iinn cciippaa dd oo   dd ee   AAss tt uurr iiaa ss

CCaa nn tt aa bb rr iiaa

PP aa ííss   VVaa ss ccoo

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   FFoo rr aa ll  dd ee   NN aa vvaa rr rr aa

LLaa   RRiioo jjaa

AArr aa gg óó nn

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   dd ee   MMaa dd rr iidd

CCaa ss tt iillllaa   yy  LLee óó nn

CCaa ss tt iillllaa -- LLaa   MMaa nn cchh aa

EE xxtt rr ee mmaa dd uurr aa

CCaa tt aa lluuññ aa

CCoo mmuunn iidd aa dd   VVaa llee nn cciiaa nn aa

IIllllee ss   BBaa llee aa rr ss

AAnn dd aa lluuccííaa

RRee gg iióó nn   dd ee   MMuurr cciiaa

CCiiuudd aa dd   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd ee   CCee uutt aa

Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

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219

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9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

EE UU -- 2277

SS PP AAIINN

CCiiuudd aa dd   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd ee   MMee lliillllaa

CCaa nn aa rr iiaa ss

FFRRAANN CCEE

ÎÎllee   dd ee   FFrr aa nn ccee

CChh aa mmppaa gg nn ee -- AArr dd ee nn nn ee

PP iiccaa rr dd iiee

HH aa uutt ee -- NN oo rr mmaa nn dd iiee

CCee nn tt rr ee

BBaa ss ss ee -- NN oo rr mmaa nn dd iiee

BBoo uurr gg oo gg nn ee

NN oo rr dd   --   PP aa ss -- dd ee -- CCaa llaa iiss

LLoo rr rr aa iinn ee

AAllss aa ccee

FFrr aa nn cchh ee -- CCoo mmtt éé

PP aa yyss   dd ee   llaa   LLoo iirr ee

BBrr ee tt aa gg nn ee

PP oo iitt oo uu-- CChh aa rr ee nn tt ee ss

AAqq uuiitt aa iinn ee

MMiidd ii-- PP yyrr éé nn éé ee ss

LLiimmoo uuss iinn

RRhh ôô nn ee -- AAllppee ss

AAuuvvee rr gg nn ee

LLaa nn gg uuee dd oo cc-- RRoo uuss ss iilllloo nn

PP rr oo vvee nn ccee -- AAllppee ss -- CCôô tt ee   dd ''AAzzuurr

CCoo rr ss ee

GGuuaa dd ee lloo uuppee

MMaa rr tt iinn iiqq uuee

GGuuyyaa nn ee

RRéé uunn iioo nn

IITT AALLYY

PP iiee mmoo nn tt ee

VVaa llllee   dd ''AAoo ss tt aa //VVaa lllléé ee   dd ''AAoo ss tt ee

LLiigg uurr iiaa

LLoo mmbb aa rr dd iiaa

PP rr oo vviinn cciiaa   AAuutt oo nn oo mmaa   BBoo llzzaa nn oo //BBoo zzee nn

PP rr oo vviinn cciiaa   AAuutt oo nn oo mmaa   TT rr ee nn tt oo

VVee nn ee tt oo

FFrr iiuullii-- VVee nn ee zziiaa   GGiiuulliiaa

EE mmiilliiaa -- RRoo mmaa gg nn aa

TT oo ss ccaa nn aa

UU mmbb rr iiaa

MMaa rr cchh ee

LLaa zziioo

AAbb rr uuzzzzoo

MMoo lliiss ee

CCaa mmppaa nn iiaa

PP uugg lliiaa

BBaa ss iilliiccaa tt aa

CCaa llaa bb rr iiaa

SS iicciilliiaa

SS aa rr dd ee gg nn aa

CCYYPP RRUU SS

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
11 963
11 709
10 577
17 209
20 912
15 912
16 112
16 465
16 881
15 678
16 655
14 104
16 035
17 113
16 446
15 721
15 537
15 766
16 119
15 728
16 510
17 003
16 397
14 897
16 582
14 776
:
:
:
:
15 493
16 458
17 403
16 679
17 467
17 917
16 045
15 275
16 514
17 663
15 802
14 509
14 585
15 589
12 392
12 305
10 348
10 767
10 909
10 480
10 384
11 721
:
2 932

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
63.3
51.3
59.7
63.1
64.2
62.1
59.8
64.4
67.2
63.8
64.2
57.7
62.0
67.6
63.2
66.1
63.7
65.0
62.6
66.0
67.8
64.6
66.8
55.6
57.5
52.8
45.0
47.7
42.7
40.9
57.6
64.0
66.3
61.1
65.5
69.2
65.1
64.6
63.2
68.4
63.8
61.6
63.6
58.5
57.3
51.2
44.2
44.6
49.3
44.6
44.1
51.5
68.5
63.3

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
9.2
13.9
11.7
9.7
9.5
10.0
11.4
8.4
7.2
7.8
8.1
13.2
10.2
7.1
7.9
7.7
7.3
8.4
8.3
7.5
6.4
8.4
7.3
12.3
11.2
10.9
25.9
18.7
24.8
30.1
7.7
4.7
3.2
5.8
4.1
2.7
3.6
4.2
4.1
3.8
5.3
6.1
4.7
7.7
7.8
10.1
14.9
14.6
12.3
14.4
16.2
12.9
5.3
8.9

LLAATT VVIIAA
Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

220

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Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
3 297
:
4 721
6 749
4 426
4 901
4 024
4 343
3 394
3 660
:
14 668
13 024
12 783
13 539
13 081
14 060
13 714
15 504
15 412
14 507
13 685
14 191
14 078
17 717
17 288
18 109
18 964
16 586
16 697
17 266
17 874
17 567
18 058
3 581
3 538
4 448
3 156
3 954
2 888
2 690
3 068
3 025
3 730
3 598
3 241
3 606
2 947
3 343
3 011
3 342

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
62.6
63.6
56.9
63.3
60.2
62.1
53.4
49.5
50.2
53.8
53.9
73.2
69.4
71.9
72.2
72.9
73.7
73.5
75.9
73.7
73.0
73.1
74.3
70.1
68.6
68.1
69.9
63.8
66.5
68.9
70.5
72.7
71.0
70.8
52.8
54.1
57.6
55.0
49.5
56.0
52.3
51.6
56.9
54.0
48.3
51.1
49.3
52.5
51.5
48.7
51.0

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
8.3
4.5
7.2
5.1
6.3
5.9
8.8
10.6
9.0
8.1
7.0
4.7
6.6
4.9
5.7
4.9
4.3
6.6
3.7
4.9
4.9
3.3
3.9
5.4
5.2
6.0
4.3
9.1
4.8
4.1
4.0
3.2
3.5
5.3
17.7
17.3
14.8
15.2
19.0
14.3
16.7
18.9
14.4
17.1
22.7
19.1
22.8
16.9
19.8
20.4
18.9

EE UU -- 2277

LLIITT HH UU AANN IIAA

LLUU XXEE MMBBOO UU RRGG

HH UU NN GGAARRYY

KKöö zzéé pp -- MMaa gg yyaa rr oo rr ss zzáá gg

KKöö zzéé pp -- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

NN yyuu gg aa tt -- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

DD éé ll-- DD uu nn áá nn tt úú ll

ÉÉ ss zzaa kk -- MMaa gg yyaa rr oo rr ss zzáá gg

ÉÉ ss zzaa kk -- AAllff öö lldd

DD éé ll-- AAllff öö lldd

MMAALLTT AA

NN EE TT HH EE RRLLAANN DD SS

GGrr oo nn iinn gg ee nn

FFrr iiee ss llaa nn dd

DD rr ee nn tt hh ee

OO vvee rr iijjss ss ee ll

GGee lldd ee rr llaa nn dd

FFllee vvoo llaa nn dd

UU tt rr ee cchh tt

NN oo oo rr dd -- HH oo llllaa nn dd

ZZ uuiidd -- HH oo llllaa nn dd

ZZ ee ee llaa nn dd

NN oo oo rr dd -- BBrr aa bb aa nn tt

LLiimmbb uurr gg   ((NN LL))

AAUU SS TT RRIIAA

BBuurr gg ee nn llaa nn dd

NN iiee dd ee rr öö ss tt ee rr rr ee iicchh

WWiiee nn

KKää rr nn tt ee nn

SS tt ee iiee rr mmaa rr kk

OO bb ee rr öö ss tt ee rr rr ee iicchh

SS aa llzzbb uurr gg

TT iirr oo ll

VVoo rr aa rr llbb ee rr gg

PP OO LLAANN DD

££óó dd zzkk iiee

MMaa zzoo ww iiee cckk iiee

MMaa ³³ oo pp oo llss kk iiee

ŒŒ ll¹¹ ss kk iiee

LLuu bb ee llss kk iiee

PP oo dd kk aa rr pp aa cckk iiee

ŒŒ ww iiêê tt oo kk rr zzyyss kk iiee

PP oo dd llaa ss kk iiee

WWiiee llkk oo pp oo llss kk iiee

ZZ aa cchh oo dd nn iioo pp oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

LLuu bb uu ss kk iiee

DD oo llnn oo œœ ll¹¹ ss kk iiee

OO pp oo llss kk iiee

KKuu jjaa ww ss kk oo -- PP oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

WWaa rr mmiiññ ss kk oo -- MMaa zzuu rr ss kk iiee

PP oo mmoo rr ss kk iiee

Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

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9

Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
9 183
7 237
9 272
7 912
10 951
8 253
7 540
8 351
1 773
1 753
1 754
1 436
1 750
1 638
2 501
1 684
2 023
7 752
3 623
5 634
3 528
3 249
3 034
15 271
13 231
15 539
13 880
13 013
18 238
15 793
18 148
15 351
15 519
14 496
15 203
14 194
14 782
15 538
17 813
15 075
15 224
17 038
18 630
15 799
15 643
15 787
16 046
18 340
15 631
16 067
16 352

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
67.5
65.9
68.0
71.4
66.8
67.0
63.0
67.6
57.6
55.9
54.1
61.4
54.6
57.9
59.3
60.1
56.5
66.0
57.7
69.6
60.6
55.2
51.5
68.4
61.9
71.7
67.0
63.9
77.2
72.5
74.9
70.6
69.7
70.1
71.7
69.8
75.1
73.4
71.7
66.6
67.1
76.6
73.5
69.8
70.4
65.9
68.0
76.3
68.5
72.0
72.5

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
7.6
8.8
6.2
5.2
8.6
9.1
: 
4.5
7.2
5.9
8.4
5.7
7.9
9.2
6.9
6.6
6.7
6.5
16.3
5.3
12.5
19.6
23.1
8.4
11.6
6.9
8.8
11.1
: 
7.4
6.7
8.1
8.5
8.7
8.2
8.7
5.9
6.8
4.8
6.0
6.1
3.8
3.3
4.8
4.3
5.6
5.4
2.9
5.3
4.6
4.3

17 337

16 731

18 236

74.8

73.1

76.5

4.6

3.3

2.6

EE UU -- 2277
PP OO RRTT UU GGAALL  
NN oo rr tt ee   ((11))
AAllgg aa rr vvee   ((11))
CCee nn tt rr oo   ((PP ))   ((11))
LLiiss bb oo aa   ((11))
AAllee nn tt ee jjoo   ((11))
RRee gg iiãã oo   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd oo ss   AAççoo rr ee ss   ((11))
RRee gg iiãã oo   AAuutt óó nn oo mmaa   dd aa   MMaa dd ee iirr aa   ((11))
RROO MMAANN IIAA
NN oo rr dd -- VVee ss tt
CCee nn tt rr uu
NN oo rr dd -- EE ss tt
SS uu dd -- EE ss tt
SS uu dd -- MMuu nn tt ee nn iiaa
BBuu ccuu rr ee ºº tt ii-- IIllff oo vv
SS uu dd -- VVee ss tt   OO lltt ee nn iiaa
VVee ss tt
SS LLOO VVEE NN IIAA
SS LLOO VVAAKKIIAA
BBrr aa tt iiss llaa vvss kk ýý  kk rr aa jj
ZZ áá pp aa dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
SS tt rr ee dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
VVýýcchh oo dd nn éé   SS lloo vvee nn ss kk oo
FFIINN LLAANN DD
IItt ää -- SS uuoo mmii
EE tt ee llää -- SS uuoo mmii
LLää nn ss ii-- SS uuoo mmii
PP oo hh jjoo iiss -- SS uuoo mmii
ÅÅllaa nn dd
SS WWEE DD EE NN
SS tt oo cckk hh oo llmm
ÖÖ ss tt rr aa   MMee llllaa nn ss vvee rr iigg ee
SS yydd ss vvee rr iigg ee
NN oo rr rr aa   MMee llllaa nn ss vvee rr iigg ee
MMee llllee rr ss tt aa   NN oo rr rr llaa nn dd
ÖÖ vvrr ee   NN oo rr rr llaa nn dd
SS mmåå llaa nn dd   mmee dd   öö aa rr nn aa
VVää ss tt ss vvee rr iigg ee
UU NN IITT EE DD   KKIINN GGDD OO MM
TT ee ee ss   VVaa llllee yy  aa nn dd   DD uurr hh aa mm
NN oo rr tt hh uummbb ee rr llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   TT yynn ee   aa nn dd   WWee aa rr
CCuummbb rr iiaa
CChh ee ss hh iirr ee
GGrr ee aa tt ee rr   MMaa nn cchh ee ss tt ee rr
LLaa nn ccaa ss hh iirr ee
MMee rr ss ee yyss iidd ee
EE aa ss tt   RRiidd iinn gg   aa nn dd   NN oo rr tt hh   LLiinn ccoo llnn ss hh iirr ee
NN oo rr tt hh   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
SS oo uutt hh   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
WWee ss tt   YYoo rr kk ss hh iirr ee
DD ee rr bb yyss hh iirr ee   &&   NN oo tt tt iinn gg hh aa mmss hh iirr ee
LLee iiccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee ,,  RRuutt llaa nn dd   aa nn dd   
NN oo rr tt hh aa mmpptt oo nn ss hh iirr ee
LLiinn ccoo llnn ss hh iirr ee
HH ee rr ee ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee ,,  WWoo rr ccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   
WWaa rr ww iicckk ss hh iirr ee

(1) Disposable income: data for 2003.
Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

222

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Chapter 9
Europe’s regions

9

Table 9.2: Regional data on income and labour force

Disposable 
income, 
2004 
(EUR/inhabitant)
:
17 813
16 521
15 132
17 685
20 321
19 570
23 383
20 175

Employment 
rate, 
2005
(%)
63.4
71.7
73.5
67.1
74.9
76.1
74.8
62.7
70.3

 Unemploy-
ment rate, 
2005 
(%)
8.7
4.8
3.6
6.3
4.1
3.8
3.8
7.8
6.5

20 892

21 224
18 408
18 687

18 396

18 103
16 073
16 813
15 474
16 372
17 619
17 477
16 222
15 778
15 271
:
:

78.0

75.5
75.0
74.4

77.9

74.6
72.3
73.2
66.4
71.4
76.8
73.4
69.4
73.4
66.0
55.0
46.0

3.5

3.7
3.9
4.2

3.5

3.5
3.4
3.8
5.1
3.5
3.9
5.0
6.3
3.7
4.7
12.6
8.8

EE UU -- 2277
UU NN IITT EE DD   KKIINN GGDD OO MM
SS hh rr oo ppss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   SS tt aa ff ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
WWee ss tt   MMiidd llaa nn dd ss
EE aa ss tt   AAnn gg lliiaa
BBee dd ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee   &&   HH ee rr tt ff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
EE ss ss ee xx
IInn nn ee rr   LLoo nn dd oo nn
OO uutt ee rr   LLoo nn dd oo nn
BBee rr kk ss hh iirr ee ,,  BBuucckk iinn gg hh aa mmss hh iirr ee   
aa nn dd   OO xxff oo rr dd ss hh iirr ee
SS uurr rr ee yy,,  EE aa ss tt   aa nn dd   WWee ss tt   SS uuss ss ee xx
HH aa mmppss hh iirr ee   aa nn dd   IIss llee   oo ff   WWiigg hh tt
KKee nn tt
GGlloo uuccee ss tt ee rr ss hh iirr ee ,,  WWiilltt ss hh iirr ee   
aa nn dd   NN oo rr tt hh   SS oo mmee rr ss ee tt
DD oo rr ss ee tt   aa nn dd   SS oo mmee rr ss ee tt
CCoo rr nn ww aa llll  aa nn dd   IIss llee ss   oo ff   SS cciillllyy
DD ee vvoo nn
WWee ss tt   WWaa llee ss   aa nn dd   TT hh ee   VVaa llllee yyss
EE aa ss tt   WWaa llee ss
NN oo rr tt hh   EE aa ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
EE aa ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
SS oo uutt hh   WWee ss tt ee rr nn   SS ccoo tt llaa nn dd   ((33))
HH iigg hh llaa nn dd ss   aa nn dd   IIss llaa nn dd ss   ((33))
NN oo rr tt hh ee rr nn   IIrr ee llaa nn dd   ((33))
CCRROO AATT IIAA
TT UU RRKKEE YY

Source: Eurostat (tgs00026, tgs00007 and tgs00010)

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9 Chapter 9

Europe’s regions

Table 9.3: Dispersion of regional employment rates (1)

    Total

   Male

     Female

EU-25

2000
13.4

Euro area (2)

12.9

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

7.9

10.3

5.8

-

5.7

-

-

5.1

10.7

6.9

17.5

-

-

-

-

9.0

-

2.2

2.5

6.9

4.3

4.6

-

9.1

6.8

4.5

7.1

2005
11.9

10.5

8.4

7.1

5.5

-

5.6

-

-

4.3

8.3

7.3

2000
20.5

21.6

10.1

11.7

7.5

-

6.5

-

-

9.0

17.4

9.7

16.0

30.5

-

-

-

-

9.9

-

2.0

4.1

5.6

3.3

4.5

-

9.8

5.5

3.0

5.7

-

-

-

-

9.7

-

2.8

4.4

8.7

8.2

6.5

-

10.4

7.8

5.6

7.5

2005
16.9

16.8

10.5

8.0

6.7

-

4.8

-

-

8.4

13.8

9.4

26.6

-

-

-

-

10.8

-

2.6

3.4

7.0

5.6

8.2

-

11.7

6.1

3.5

6.3

2000
9.9

2005
9.7

8.2

6.7

9.4

5.0

-

6.2

-

-

3.3

7.4

4.9

9.8

-

-

-

-

8.6

-

2.2

2.2

5.8

3.2

3.3

-

8.7

6.2

4.2

6.9

7.8

6.8

7.0

4.8

-

7.2

-

-

2.9

5.3

5.8

8.9

-

-

-

-

9.4

-

2.1

4.9

5.1

3.1

2.8

-

8.5

5.1

2.8

5.6

(1) Coefficient of variation of employment rates (of the age group 15-64) across
regions (NUTS 2 level) within countries.
(2) EA-12 instead of EA-13.
Source: Eurostat (tsisc041, tsisc042 and tsisc043)

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ANNEX

Annex

STRUCTURAL INDICATORS
During the Lisbon European Council of March 2000, the Heads of
State of the European Union agreed to set a strategic goal for the
next  decade  ’of  becoming  the  most  competitive  and  dynamic
knowledge-based  economy  in  the  world  capable  of  sustainable
economic  growth  with  more  and  better  jobs  and  greater  social
cohesion’.  Structural  indicators  (SI)  are  used  to  underpin  the
Commission’s  analysis  in  an  annual  progress  report  to  the
European Council on the implementation of the Lisbon strategy. In
2005, the European Commission presented a new approach to the
Lisbon strategy, focusing in particular on growth and jobs.
The list of structural indicators covers six broad domains under the
following headings: general economic background, employment,
innovation  and  research,  economic  reform,  social  cohesion,  and
the environment.
More information regarding structural indicators may be found on
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/
Eurostat’s 
structuralindicators. Alternatively, for further information, contact
Eurostat’s  structural  indicators  co-ordination  team,  at:  estat-
structuralindicators@ec.europa.eu.

website 

at: 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
The European Union’s Sustainable Development Strategy, adopted
by  the  European  Council  in  Gothenburg  in  June  2001,  and
renewed  in  June  2006,  aims  to  continuously  improve  quality  of
life,  both  for  current  and  for  future  generations,  through
reconciling economic development, social cohesion and protection
of the environment. A set of sustainable development indicators
has been developed to monitor progress in the implementation of
the sustainable development strategy. The indicators are organised
under ten different themes that reflect different political priorities:
socio-economic  development,  sustainable  consumption  and
production, social inclusion, demographic changes, public health,
climate  change  and  energy,  sustainable  transport,  natural
resources, global partnership, and good governance.
More  information  regarding  sustainable  development  indicators
may  be  found  on  Eurostat’s  website  at:  http://ec.europa.eu/
eurostat/sustainabledevelopment.  Alternatively, 
further
information, contact Eurostat’s sustainable development indicators
team at: estat-sdi@ec.europa.eu.

for 

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CLASSIFICATIONS
The following are excerpts taken from various classifications that
are used within Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition. A more
complete  listing  of  each  classification  may  be  obtained  on  the
Eurostat  website,  by  accessing  the  RAMON  classifications  server
at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon.

COICOP
Classification  of  individual  consumption  according  to  purpose
(COICOP).  This  is  used  to  classify  the  purpose  of  individual
consumption expenditures incurred by three institutional sectors,
namely households, non-profit institutions serving households and
general  government.  Below  is  an  extract  of  those  COICOP
headings that have been used in this publication.

01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages
The  food  products  classified  here  are  those  purchased  for
consumption at home. The group excludes: food products sold for
immediate  consumption  away  from  the  home  by  hotels,
restaurants, cafés, bars, kiosks, street vendors, automatic vending
machines,  etc.,  cooked  dishes  prepared  by  restaurants  for
consumption  off  their  premises,  and  cooked  dishes  prepared  by
catering  contractors  whether  collected  by  the  customer  or
delivered  to  the  customer’s  home  (11.1.1);  and  products  sold
specifically as pet foods (09.3.4).
The  non-alcoholic  beverages  classified  here  are  those  purchased
for  consumption  at  home.  The  group  excludes  non-alcoholic
beverages sold for immediate consumption away from the home
by  hotels,  restaurants,  cafés,  bars,  kiosks,  street  vendors,
automatic vending machines, etc. (11.1.1).

02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco
The  alcoholic  beverages  classified  here  are  those  purchased  for
consumption  at  home.  The  group  excludes  alcoholic  beverages
sold for immediate consumption away from the home by hotels,
restaurants, cafés, bars, kiosks, street vendors, automatic vending
machines, etc. (11.1.1).
The  beverages  classified  here  include  low  or  non-alcoholic
beverages which are generally alcoholic such as non-alcoholic beer.

03 Clothing and footwear
Clothing  includes  clothing  materials,  garments,  other  articles  of
clothing  and  clothing  accessories,  cleaning,  repair  and  hire  of
clothing.
Footwear includes shoes and other footwear including repair and
hire of footwear.

04 Housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels
Actual rentals for housing, actual rentals paid by tenants including
other  actual  rentals,  maintenance  and  repair  of  the  dwelling,
water supply and miscellaneous services relating to the dwelling,
electricity, gas and other fuels.

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05 Furnishings, household equipment and routine
maintenance of the house
Furniture  and  furnishings,  household  textiles,  household
appliances,  glassware,  tableware  and  household  utensils,  tools
and  equipment  for  house  and  garden,  goods  and  services  for
routine household maintenance.

06 Health
Medical products, appliances and equipment, out-patient services,
hospital services.

07 Transport
Purchase of vehicles, operation of personal transport equipment,
transport services.

08 Communication
Postal  services,  telephone  and  telefax  equipment  and  telephone
and telefax services.

09 Recreation and culture
Audio-visual,  photographic  and 
information  processing
equipment, other major durables for recreation and culture, other
recreational items and equipment, gardens and pets, recreational
and cultural services, newspapers, books and stationery, package
holidays.

10 Education
This  division  covers  educational  services  only.  It  does  not  include
expenditures on educational materials, such as books (09.5.1) and
stationery  (09.5.4),  or  education  support  services,  such  as
healthcare services (06), transport services (07.3), catering services
(11.1.2) and accommodation services (11.2.0).
It  includes  education  by  radio  or  television  broadcasting.  The
breakdown  of  educational  services  is  based  upon  the  level
categories  of  the  1997  international  standard  classification  of
education  (ISCED)  of  the  United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

11 Restaurants and hotels
Catering services, accommodation services.

12 Miscellaneous goods and services
Personal  care,  electric  appliances  for  personal  care  and  other
appliances,  articles  and  products  for  personal  care,  personal
effects n.e.c., social protection, insurance, financial services n.e.c.,
other services n.e.c. 

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ISCED
This classification is designed to serve as an instrument suitable for
assembling, compiling and presenting comparable indicators and
statistics of education.

LEVEL 0 - Pre-primary education
Programmes at level 0 (pre-primary), defined as the initial stage of
organised  instruction,  are  designed  primarily  to  introduce  very
young  children  to  a  school-type  environment,  i.e.  to  provide  a
bridge between the home and a school-based atmosphere.

LEVEL 1 - Primary education or first stage of basic education
Programmes at level 1 are normally designed on a unit or project
basis to give students a sound basic education in reading, writing
and  mathematics  along  with  an  elementary  understanding  of
other  subjects  such  as  history,  geography,  natural  science,  social
science,  art  and  music.  In  some  cases  religious  instruction  is
featured. The core at this level consists of education provided for
children,  the  customary  or  legal  age  of  entrance  being  not
younger than five years or older than seven years. This level covers
in principle six years of full-time schooling. Throughout this level
the programmes are organised in units or projects rather than by
subjects.

LEVEL 2 - Lower secondary or second stage of basic education
The contents of education at this stage are typically designed to
complete the provision of basic education which began at ISCED
level 1. In many, if not most countries, the educational aim is to lay
the foundation for lifelong learning and human development. The
programmes  at  this  level  are  usually  on  a  more  subject-oriented
pattern  using  more  specialised  teachers  and  more  often  several
teachers conducting classes in their field of specialisation. The end
of this level often coincides with the end of compulsory education.

LEVEL 3 - (Upper) secondary education
This  level  of  education  typically  begins  at  the  end  of  full-time
compulsory  education  for  those  countries  that  have  a  system  of
compulsory  education.  More  specialisation  may  be  observed  at
this level than at ISCED level 2 and often teachers need to be more
qualified or specialised than for ISCED level 2.The entrance age to
this level is typically 15 or 16 years. The educational programmes
included  at  this  level  typically  require  the  completion  of  some  9
years  of  full-time  education  (since  the  beginning  of  level  1)  for
admission  or  a  combination  of  education  and  vocational  or
technical experience and with as minimum entrance requirements
the  completion  of  level  2  or  demonstrable  ability  to  handle
programmes at this level.

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LEVEL 4 - Post-secondary non-tertiary education
ISCED  4  captures  programmes  that  straddle  the  boundary
between upper-secondary and post-secondary education from an
international  point  of  view,  even  though  they  might  clearly  be
considered as upper-secondary or post-secondary programmes in
a  national  context.  ISCED  4  programmes  can,  considering  their
content, not be regarded as tertiary programmes. They are often
not significantly more advanced than programmes at ISCED 3 but
they  serve  to  broaden  the  knowledge  of  participants  who  have
already  completed  a  programme  at  level  3.  Typical  examples  are
programmes  designed  to  prepare  students  for  studies  at  level  5
who, although having completed ISCED level 3, did not follow a
curriculum  which  would  allow  entry  to  level  5,  i.e.  pre-degree
foundation courses or short vocational programmes.

LEVEL 5 - First stage of tertiary education (not leading
directly to an advanced research qualification)
This  level  consists  of  tertiary  programmes  having  an  educational
content more advanced than those offered at levels 3 and 4. All
degrees  and  qualifications  are  cross-classified  by  type  of
programmes, position in national degree or qualification structures
and cumulative duration at tertiary.

LEVEL 6 - Second stage of tertiary education (leading to an
advanced research qualification)
This  level  is  reserved  for  tertiary  programmes  which  lead  to  the
award of an advanced research qualification. The programmes are
therefore devoted to advanced study and original research and are
not based on course-work only.

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NACE
The statistical classification of economic activities in the European
Communities (NACE) is the classification that is used for the bulk
of  the 
information  collected  for  business  statistics;  the
classification  currently  in  use  is  NACE  Rev.1.1.  During  2007  and
2008 major changes to all international classifications of activities
have  taken  place  or  are  planned,  including  ISIC  (under  the
auspices  of  the  United  Nations),  NAICS  (the  North  American
industry  classification),  and  JSIC  (the  Japanese  classification).
Within  Europe,  Eurostat  has  worked  together  with  National
Statistical  Institutes,  other  Directorate-Generals  of  the  European
Commission  and  business  and  trade  associations,  towards
finalising the structure for NACE Rev. 2, which is consistent with
ISIC  Rev.4.  One  of  the  most  important  changes,  apart  from  this
increase in international comparability of data, is the introduction
of  a  new  section  in  the  classification  to  cover  information  and
communications,  as  well  as  changes  to  reflect  the  growing
importance of service activities. Below is an extract of the NACE
Rev. 1.1 headings that have been used in this publication.

Section C: Mining and quarrying
Subsection CA:  Mining and quarrying of energy producing

materials

Subsection CB: Mining and quarrying, except of energy

producing materials

Section D: Manufacturing
Subsection DA: Manufacture of food products, beverages and

tobacco

Subsection DB: Manufacture of textiles and textile products
Subsection DC: Manufacture of leather and leather products
Subsection DD: Manufacture of wood and wood products
Subsection DE: Manufacture of pulp, paper and paper products;

publishing and printing
Subsection DF: Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum
products and nuclear fuel

Subsection DG: Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products

and man-made fibres

Subsection DH: Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
Subsection DI: Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral

products

Subsection DJ: Manufacture of basic metals and fabricated

metal products

Subsection DK: Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c.
Subsection DL: Manufacture of electrical and optical equipment
Subsection DM: Manufacture of transport equipment
Subsection DN: Manufacturing n.e.c.

Section E: Electricity, gas and water supply

Section F: Construction

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Section G: Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor
vehicles, motorcycles and personal and household goods
Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles
Division 50:
and motorcycles; retail sale of automotive fuel
Division 51:  Wholesale trade and commission trade, except

Division 52:

of motor vehicles and motorcycles
Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and
motorcycles; repair of personal and household
goods

Section H: Hotels and restaurants

Section I: Transport, storage and communication

Section K: Real estate, renting and business activities
Division 72:
Division 74:

Computer and related activities
Other business activities

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SITC
The  standard  international  trade  classification  (SITC)  is  used  for
compiling international trade statistics on all merchandise entering
international trade, and to promote international comparability of
international  trade  statistics;  the  classification  currently  in  use  is
SITC  Rev.3.  The  commodity  groupings  of  SITC  reflect  (a)  the
materials used in production, (b) the processing stage, (c) market
practices  and  uses  of  the  products,  (d)  the  importance  of  the
commodities  in  terms  of  world  trade,  and  (e)  technological
changes.  Below  is  an  extract  of  those  SITC  headings  that  have
been used in this publication.

SITC 0 and 1: Food and live animals; beverages and tobacco
Live  animals,  meat  and  meat  preparations,  dairy  products  and
birds’ eggs, fish (not marine mammals), crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic invertebrates, and preparations thereof, cereals and cereal
preparations, vegetables and fruit, sugars, sugar preparations and
honey,  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  spices,  and  manufactures  thereof,
feeding  stuff  for  animals  (not  including  unmilled  cereals),
miscellaneous  edible  products  and  preparations,  beverages,
tobacco and tobacco manufactures.

SITC 2 and 4: Crude materials, inedible, except fuels;
animal and vegetable oils, fats and waxes
Hides,  skins  and  furskins,  oil-seeds  and  oleaginous  fruits,  crude
rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed), cork and wood, pulp
and  waste  paper,  textile  fibres  (other  than  wool  tops  and  other
combed  wool)  and  their  wastes  (not  manufactured  into  yarn  or
fabric),  crude  fertilizers  and  crude  minerals  (excluding  coal,
petroleum  and  precious  stones),  metalliferous  ores  and  metal
scrap, crude animal and vegetable materials, n.e.s., animal oils and
fats, fixed vegetable fats and oils, crude, refined or fractionated,
animal or vegetable fats and oils, processed; waxes of animal or
vegetable  origin;  inedible  mixtures  or  preparations  of  animal  or
vegetable fats or oils, n.e.s.

SITC 3: Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials
Coal,  coke  and  briquettes,  petroleum,  petroleum  products  and
related materials, gas, natural and manufactured, electric current.

SITC 5: Chemicals and related products, n.e.s.
Organic  chemicals,  inorganic  chemicals,  dyeing,  tanning  and
colouring  materials,  medicinal  and  pharmaceutical  products,
essential oils and resinoids and perfume materials; toilet, polishing
and  cleansing  preparations,  fertilizers,  plastics  in  primary  forms,
plastics  in  non-primary  forms,  chemical  materials  and  products,
n.e.s.

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SITC 6 and 8: Manufactured goods classified chiefly by
material; miscellaneous manufactured articles
Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furskins, rubber
manufactures,  n.e.s.,  cork  and  wood  manufactures  (excluding
furniture), paper, paperboard and articles of paper pulp, of paper
or of paperboard, textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and
related  products,  non-metallic  mineral  manufactures,  n.e.s.,  iron
and  steel,  non-ferrous  metals,  manufactures  of  metals,  n.e.s.,
prefabricated  buildings;  sanitary,  plumbing,  heating  and  lighting
fixtures and fittings, n.e.s., furniture, and parts thereof; bedding,
mattresses,  mattress  supports,  cushions  and  similar  stuffed
furnishings, travel goods, handbags and similar containers, articles
of  apparel  and  clothing  accessories,  footwear,  professional,
scientific  and  controlling  instruments  and  apparatus,  n.e.s.,
photographic  apparatus,  equipment  and  supplies  and  optical
goods,  n.e.s.;  watches  and  clocks,  miscellaneous  manufactured
articles, n.e.s.

SITC 7: Machinery and transport equipment
Power-generating  machinery  and  equipment,  machinery
specialized  for  particular  industries,  metalworking  machinery,
general industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s., and machine
parts,  n.e.s.,  office  machines  and  automatic  data-processing
machines, 
telecommunications  and  sound-recording  and
reproducing  apparatus  and  equipment,  electrical  machinery,
apparatus  and  appliances,  n.e.s.,  and  electrical  parts  thereof
(including  non-electrical  counterparts,  n.e.s.,  of  electrical
household-type  equipment),  road  vehicles  (including  air-cushion
vehicles), other transport equipment.

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CONTACT DETAILS – 
NATIONAL STATISTICAL AUTHORITIES
BELGIUM:
Statistics Belgium
Postal address: Rue du Progrès, 50 - 1210 Bruxelles
Phone: (32) 2 277 55 04
Fax: (32) 2 277 55 19
E-mail: info.stat@economie.fgov.be
Internet site: http://www.statbel.fgov.be
BULGARIA:
National Statistical Institute
Postal address: 2, P. Volov Str. – 1038 SOFIA
Phone: (359 2) 9857 700, 647, 771
Fax: (359 2) 9857 640
E-mail: info@nsi.bg
Internet site: http://www.nsi.bg
CZECH REPUBLIC:
Czech Statistical Office
Postal address: Na padesátém 81 – 100 82 PRAHA 10
Phone: (420) 274 051 111
Fax: (420) 274 054 070
E-mail: infoservis@gw.czso.cz
Internet site: http://www.czso.cz
DENMARK:
Danmarks Statistik
Postal address: Sejrøgade 11, Postboks 2550 – 2100 KØBENHAVN Ø
Phone: (45) 3917 3917
Fax: (45) 3917 3999
E-mail: dst@dst.dk
Internet site: http://www.dst.dk
GERMANY:
Statistisches Bundesamt
Postal  address:  Gustav-Stresemann-Ring  11,  Postfach  5528  –
65189 WIESBADEN
Phone: (49) 611 75 2405
Fax: (49) 611 75 3330
E-mail: info@destatis.de
Internet site: http://www.destatis.de
ESTONIA:
Statistical Office of Estonia
Postal address: 15 Endla Street – 15174 TALLINN
Phone: (372) 625 9300
Fax: (372) 625 9370
E-mail: stat@stat.ee
Internet site: http://www.stat.ee
IRELAND:
Central Statistics Office
Postal address: Skehard Road – CORK
Phone: (353) 21 4535 000
Fax: (353) 21 4535 555
E-mail: info@cso.ie
Internet site: http://www.cso.ie

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GREECE:
National Statistical Service of Greece
Postal address: 46, Peiraios str. and Eponiton – 185.10 PIREUS
Phone: (30 210) 485 2000
Fax: (30 210) 4822 722
E-mail: info@statistics.gr
Internet site: http://www.statistics.gr
SPAIN:
Instituto Nacional de Estadística
Postal address: Paseo de la Castellana, 183 – MADRID 28071
Phone: (34) 91 583 9100
Fax: (34) 91 583 9158
E-mail: info@ine.es
Internet site: http://www.ine.es
FRANCE:
Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques
Postal  address:  18,  boulevard  Adolphe  Pinard  –  75675  PARIS  –
Cedex 14
Phone: (33) 1 4117 5050
Fax: (33) 1 4117 6666
E-mail: http://www.insee.fr/en/ppp/contacter.htm
Internet site: http://www.insee.fr
ITALY:
Istituto Nazionale di Statistica
Postal address: Via Cesare Balbo – 00184 ROMA
Phone: (39) 06 4673 1
Fax: (39) 06 4673 3101
E-mail: info@istat.it 
Internet site: http://www.istat.it
CYPRUS:
Statistical Service of Cyprus
Postal address: Michalakis Karaolis street – 1444 NICOSIA
Phone: (357) 22 602 129
Fax: (357) 22 661 313
E-mail: enquiries@cystat.mof.gov.cy
Internet site: http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf
LATVIA:
Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia
Postal address: Lacplesa Street 1 – 1301 RIGA
Phone: (371) 736 6803
Fax: (371) 783 0137
E-mail: ic@csb.gov.lv
Internet site: http://www.csb.gov.lv
LITHUANIA:
Statistics Lithuania
Postal address: 29 Gedimino pr. – LT-01500 VILNIUS
Phone: (370) 5 236 48 12
Fax: (370) 5 236 48 45
E-mail: statinfo@stat.gov.lt
Internet site: http://www.stat.gov.lt

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LUXEMBOURG:
Service Central de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques
Postal address: Centre Administratif Pierre Werner 13, rue Erasme
– 1468 LUXEMBOURG-KIRCHBERG
Phone: (352) 247 842 19
Fax: (352) 464 289
E-mail: statec.post@statec.etat.lu
Internet site: http://www.statec.public.lu
HUNGARY:
Hungarian Central Statistical Office
Postal address: Keleti Karoly u. 5-7 P.O. Box 51 – 1525 BUDAPEST
Phone: (361) 345 6789
Fax: (361) 345 6788
E-mail: belane.takacs@ksh.gov.hu
Internet site:
http://portal.ksh.hu
MALTA:
National Statistics Office
Postal address: Lascaris – VALETTA VLT 2000
Phone: (356) 259 972 19
Fax: (356) 259 972 05
E-mail: nso@gov.mt
Internet site: http://www.nso.gov.mt
NETHERLANDS:
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek
Postal  address:  Prinses  Beatrixlaan  428  Postbus  959  –  2273  XZ
VOORBURG
Phone: (31) 88 570 70 70
Fax: (31) 70 387 74 29
E-mail: infoserv@cbs.nl
Internet site: http://www.cbs.nl
AUSTRIA:
Statistik Austria
Postal address: Guglgasse 13 – 1110 WIEN
Phone: (43) 1 711 28 7070
Fax: (43) 1 715 68 28
E-mail: info@statistik.gv.at
Internet site: http://www.statistik.at
POLAND:
Central Statistical Office
Postal address: Al. Niepodleglosci 208 – 00-925 WARSAW
Phone: (48) 22 608 30 00
Fax: (48) 22 608 38 60
E-mail: dane@stat.gov.pl
Internet site: http://www.stat.gov.pl
PORTUGAL:
Instituto Nacional de Estatística
Postal address: Avenida António José de Almeida, 2 – 1000 LISBOA
Phone: (351) 218 426 100
Fax: (351) 218 426 380
E-mail: info@ine.pt
Internet site: http://www.ine.pt

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ROMANIA:
Institutul National de Statistica
Postal address: 16 Libertatii Bvd., sector 5 – BUCARESTI
Phone: (4021) 318 1871
Fax: (4021) 318 1874
E-mail: romstat@insse.ro
Internet site: http://www.insse.ro
SLOVENIA:
Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia
Postal address: Voarski pot 12 – 1000 LJUBLJANA
Phone: (386) 1 241 51 04
Fax: (386) 1 241 53 44
E-mail: info.stat@gov.si
Internet site: http://www.stat.si
SLOVAK REPUBLIC:
Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic
Postal address: Mileticova 3 – 824 67 BRATISLAVA
Phone: (421) 2 50 236 111
Fax: (421) 2 555 61 350
E-mail: elena.stavova@statistics.sk
Internet site: http://www.statistics.sk
FINLAND:
Statistics Finland
Postal address: Työpajakatu 13 – FI-00022 HELSINKI
Phone: (358) 9 1734 1
Fax: (358) 9 1734 2474
E-mail: library@stat.fi
Internet site: http://www.stat.fi
SWEDEN:
Statistics Sweden
Postal address: Box 24300 – 104 51 STOCKHOLM
Phone: (46) 8 5069 4000
Fax: (46) 8 661 52 61
E-mail: scb@scb.se
Internet site: http://www.scb.se
UNITED KINGDOM:
Office for National Statistics
Postal  address:  Head  of  the  Government  Statistical  Service,  1
Drummond Gate – LONDON SW1V 2QQ
Phone: (44) 845 601 3034
Fax: (44) 1633 652 747
E-mail: info@statistics.gov.uk
Internet site: http://www.statistics.gov.uk

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CROATIA:
Croatian Bureau of Statistics
Postal address: Ilica 3 – 10000 ZAGREB
Phone: (385 1) 4806 111
Fax: (385 1) 4806 148
E-mail: stat.info@dzs.hr
Internet site: http://www.dzs.hr
FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA:
State Statistical Office
Postal address: Dame Gruev 4 – SKOPJE
Phone: (389 2) 3295 641
Fax: (389 2) 3111 336
E-mail: info@stat.gov.mk
Internet site: http://www.stat.gov.mk
TURKEY:
Turkish Statistical Institute
Postal  address:  Necatibey  Caddesi  No:  114  06100  –  Yücetepe  /
ANKARA
Phone: (90 312) 410 0410
Fax: (90 312) 425 3387
E-mail: info@tuik.gov.tr
Internet site: http://www.die.gov.tr
ICELAND:
Statistics Iceland
Postal address: Borgartuni 21a – 150 REYKJAVIK
Phone: (354) 528 1000
Fax: (354) 528 1099
E-mail: information@statice.is
Internet site: http://www.statice.is
NORWAY:
Statistics Norway
Postal address: P.O. Box 8131 Dep. – 0033 OSLO 1
Phone: (47) 21 09 00 00
Fax: (47) 21 09 49 73
E-mail: ssb@ssb.no
Internet site: http://www.ssb.no
SWITZERLAND:
Bundesamt  für  Statistik  /  Office  fédéral  de  la  statistique  /  Ufficio
federale di statistica
Postal address: Espace de l’Europe 10 – 2010 NEUCHÂTEL
Phone: (41) 32 713 60 11
Fax: (41) 32 713 60 12
E-mail: info@bfs.admin.ch
Internet site: http://www.statistik.admin.ch

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European Commission

Key figures on Europe – 2007/08 edition

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 Ð 238 pp. Ð 10.5 x 21 cm

.

Theme: General and regional statistics
Collection: Pocketbooks

ISBN 978-92-79-06613-9
ISSN 1830-7892

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