The life of women and men in Europe : a statistical portrait.
Date: 2008-03-06
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, education, employment statistics, family, population statistics, public health, social life

S t a t i s t i c a l   b o o k s

The life of women and men in Europe

A statistical portrait

2008 edition

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EuropE an Commission

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EUROSTAT
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The life of women and men in Europe: A statistical portrait

This publication has been managed by Unit F2 of Eurostat, responsible for Labour Market 
Statistics, Head of Unit, Mr. Joachim Recktenwald. The opinion expressed are those of the 
individual authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European Com-
mission.

Co-ordinator:

Luis del Barrio (Eurostat Unit F2) 
Statistical Office of the European Communities 
Joseph Bech building 
5 Rue Alphonse Weicker 
L-2721 Luxembourg 
Luis.del-Barrio@ec.europa.eu

Production:

Data processing, statistical analysis, economic analysis, design and desk-top publishing:

Applica sprl (info@applica.be)

Terry Ward, Loredana Sementini, Mayya Hristova, Nirina Rabemiafara, Fadila Sanous-
si, Hélène Calers, Ines Alves, Flavio Bianconi, Alain Elshocht

Most of the data on which this report is based come from Eurostat. Some data, however, 
come from the following institutions and organisations:

European Commission, DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

European Commission, DG Research

EMCDDA – European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction

ICPS – International Centre for Prison Studies

OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

UN – United Nations

WODC – Dutch Ministry of Justice Research and Documentation Centre

Published by: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxemburg

A great deal of additional information on statistics relating to the European Union is avail-
able on the internet. It can be accessed through the Eurostat web-site at:

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

More information concerning equality between women and men is available on the Direc-
torate General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities web-site at:

http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/gender_equality



Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Foreword

Gender equality is a fundamental right and a common value of the European Union. It is 
also a necessary condition for achieving the EU's objectives of growth, employment and so-
cial-cohesion. Over the last few years, significant progress has been made in this field, as can 
be seen from the increasing numbers of female university graduates, employees and political 
decision-makers. However, many more challenges must yet be overcome if gender equality 
is to be achieved. 

In response to these challenges, the European Commission adopted "A Roadmap for Equal-
ity between Women and Men" in 2006, which outlines six priority areas for EU action over 
the  period  2006-2010.  This  strategy  for  promoting  equality,  pursued  in  partnership  with 
Member States and other actors, requires clear information regarding the situation of wom-
en and men in our societies. 

It is essential that statistics are available on the gender inequalities that persist in economic 
life, decision-making, and social, cultural and civil life, for the purposes of informing deci-
sion-makers and increasing public awareness. The second edition of this statistical portrait 
of women and men in Europe has been produced to fulfil this need, by providing up-to-date 
statistics that have been extended to cover the Member States that recently joined the EU.

The  first  part  offers  a  portrait  of  young  people  today,  including  demographic  trends,  the 
types of households in which the boys and girls live, and their levels of education.

The second part provides an overview of the situation of women and men within the most 
active age-group. The figures reveal persistent gender inequalities when it comes to caring 
for dependants, employment and salaries, participation in areas of political and economic 
decision-making, as well as personal health.

The last part presents figures concerning women and men of retirement age. The European 
population is ageing and the differences between the situations of women and men at this 
time of life are striking. The figures reveal gender gaps in terms of life expectancy, employ-
ment, income, personal health and social relations.

This report provides a general review of statistics on gender-related issues by way of com-
parisons, showing the situation of each sex in terms of income and influence, as well as their 
respective  roles  in  society.  Nearly  all  of  the  figures  cited  have  been  previously  published, 
especially in Eurostat publications. They are presented and analysed here in order to high-
light the contrasting positions of women and men in the various facets of their social and 
professional lives, as well as the often significant differences that exist within the European 
Union.

Vladimir Špidla, 
Member of the European Commission,  
responsible for employment, social affairs  
and equal opportunities

Joaquín Almunia, 
 Member of the European Commission, 
responsible for economic and monetary 
affairs, Eurostat commissioner

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Panorama2008.indb   6

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Table of contents

Part 1 — The formative years 

Demographic aspects 

Household circumstances of young people 

Education and the information society 

Health of young women and men and other social aspects 

Part 2 — The working and family years 

Employment patterns and reconciliation of work and family life 

Risk of poverty and earnings 

Educational attainment levels and participation in the information society 

Health and other social aspects 

Part 3 — The retirement years 

Demographic aspects 

Poverty and relative income levels 

Employment in the run-up to retirement 

Health 

Time use and participation in the information society 

Statistical Annex 

Tables 

Sources and methodology 

List of figures and tables 

13

15

22

29

42

51

53

91

99

107

117

119

126

129

141

146

151

153

219

237

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Panorama2008.indb   8

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Introduction

This report is a statistical portrait of the similarities and differences between women and 
men in Europe at various stages of their lives, in their formative years when they are growing 
up and going to school, in the years when they are working and bringing up families and in 
their later years when they have retired. These three stages form the three main parts of the 
report, which are divided by theme rather than strictly by age.

The first part covers children and young people from birth to their early 20s or so, examining 
differences in the number of boy and girl babies born and in the mortality rates of children 
and young people as well as other demographic aspects, the age at which they leave the fam-
ily home, their participation in education and the information society, their lifestyles and 
health status.

The second part focuses on women and men of working age, considering their different po-
sitions in the labour market as well as in government and other key areas of decision-mak-
ing, the differences in their earnings and income, their health and how they tend to spend 
their time.

The  third  part  is  concerned  with  women  and  men  both  in  the  run-up  to  retirement  and 
beyond, considering differences between them in the age at which they stop working, their 
life expectancy, their health and cause of death and the differing ways in which they spend 
their time.

The report is in no way intended to be comprehensive, in the sense of attempting to cover all 
aspects of people’s lives. Instead, aspects are selected which are both important and, equally 
relevant, for which reasonably reliable and up-to-date data exist for all or most EU Member 
States as well as other European countries, which are, of course, broken down by sex, which 
is still not the case in all areas. Where possible, comparisons are made between the latest 
year for which data were available at the time of preparing the report and an earlier year in 
order to see the changes which have occurred in the relative position of women and men over 
the recent past in different countries. In graphs and tables an aggregate figure for the EU 
has been included where possible. The totals for the EU-25 exclude Bulgaria and Romania 
since the data relate to the period before they joined the European Union. In general, the EU 
figure is based on weighted averages of the data for the Member States, where the weights 
used reflect the relative size of the different countries. In cases where data are missing for 
one or more Member States, the EU figure has been calculated excluding these. In most cases 
the countries are ordered in the graphs and tables according to official protocol (i.e. alpha-
betically by the names of countries in the national language). In some cases, countries are 
ranked in terms of the variable being presented in order to give a clearer indication of varia-
tions in this across the Union. Where women and men are both included, ranking is usually 
according to the value for women and men taken together.

Graphs and tables include references to the source of the data and brief notes on the data. 
Fuller details are given in the methodology and sources at the back of the report. Most of 
the data presented come from Eurostat and, in almost all cases, are available in Eurostat’s 
online reference database, which covers a wide range of themes in addition to those included 
in this report.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Introduction

Further information

The life of women and men in Europe: a statistical portrait is available as a paper publication 
as well as in PDF format in English, French and German. The publication may be purchased 
through the usual sales agents for Commission publications (see the inside back cover for 
more  details)  or  alternatively  via  the  EU  Bookshop  http://bookshop.europa.eu).  More  in-
formation  concerning  equality  between  women  and  men  is  available  on  the  Directorate-
 General of the European Commission for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportu-
nities website at http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/gender_equality/index_en.html.

Eurostat and the Directorate-General of the European Commission for Employment, Social 
Affairs  and  Equal  Opportunities  would  gratefully  receive  any  comments  from  readers 
that may help improve future editions of this publication (contact details may be found on 
page 4).

0

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Introduction

Abbreviations, symbols and country codes

Abbreviations

BMI 

CEO 

CoJ 

DG 

EC 

ECB 

EIB 

Body mass index

Chief executive officer

Court of Justice

Directorate-General

European Commission

European Central Bank

European Investment Bank

EMCDDA 

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction

ESS 

European statistical system

EU-SILC 

Statistics on income and living conditions

HBS 

HICE 

HIS 

ICT 

ILO 

ISC 

Household budget survey

Household income, consumption and expenditure survey

Health interview surveys

Information and communication technologies

International Labour Organisation

International standard statistical classifications

ISCED 

International standard classification of education

ISCO 

LFS 

International standard classification of occupations

Labour force survey

NACE Rev. 1  General industrial classification of economic activities within the Euro-

Missoc 

OECD 

PhD 

PISA 

R & D 

SES 

UN 

UOE 

WiS 

WPB 

pean Communities, Revision 1

Mutual information system on social protection

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

Doctor of Philosophy (Philosophiae Doctor)

Programme for international student assessment

Research and development

Structure of earnings survey

United Nations

Unesco/OECD/Eurostat

Women in science database

World prison brief 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Introduction

Symbols

‘:’ 
‘-’ 
‘u’ 
‘()’ 
‘ . ’ 
‘p’ 
‘i’ 

not available 
not applicable or real zero 
unreliable or uncertain data 
data published with warning concerning reliability 
extremely unreliable data 
provisional value 
see information concerning the source

Country codes

EU-25 
EU 
EFTA 
BE 
BG 
CZ 
DK 
DE 
EE 
IE 
EL 
ES 
FR 
IT 
CY 
LV 
LT 
LU 
HU 
MT 
NL 
AT 
PL 
PT 
RO 
SI 
SK 
FI 
SE 
UK 
HR 
TR 
IS 
LI 
NO 
CH 

25 Member States of the European Union 
European Union 
European Free Trade Association 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Croatia 
Turkey 
Iceland 
Liechtenstein 
Norway 
Switzerland

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Women and men in Europe 2007 

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1

The formative years

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Demographic aspects

Age pyramid

More men than women in the EU in younger age groups, 
more women then men in older age groups

The male population of the European Union outnumbers the female up until the age of 45 or 
so, but from that age on, there are increasing numbers of women relative to men in each suc-
cessive age group. Among those aged 65–69, there were some 15 % more women than men 
and among those of 80 and over, twice as many women as men. While the age pyramid is, in 
consequence, skewed slightly towards men in the younger age groups, it is skewed towards 
women substantially in the older age groups.

The pattern described above has not changed greatly since 1990 — and, indeed, since many 
years before then. The main trend has not been in the relative numbers of women and men 
but in the declining numbers of children and young people relative to the increasing num-
bers of older women and men. Whereas the share of the population under 15 in the EU-25 
countries amounted to 19 % in 1990 and the proportion aged 65 and over to 14 %, in 2005, 
the share of those under 15 had fallen to 16 % and that of those aged 65 and over had in-
creased to 17 % (Figure 1).

Accordingly, the proportion of the population in between these two age groups, namely, the 
population of working-age, 15–64, was much the same in 2005 as in 1990, with very similar 
numbers of women and men in both years. 

Fig. 1 Age pyramid in the EU-25, 1990 and 2005

% of total population

1990 (1)

2005

5

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Men

Women

85+
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4

5

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

(1)  EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Population of working age is set to decline in relative terms

This relative constancy of the share of people of working age in the total population of the 
EU,  however,  is  about  to  change.  According  to  the  latest  population  projections,  in  2025, 
there will still be much the same number of women and men of working age, but together 
they will account for a smaller proportion of population in the EU — for around 63 % of the 
total as against 67 % in 2005 (Annex Table A.1). At the same time, the share of those under 15 
will have fallen to 14.4 % while the share of those of 65 and over will have risen to 22.5 %. In 
the latter age group, the imbalance between women and men will have diminished, though 
there are still projected to be some 29 % more women than men of 65 and over (as compared 
with 43 % more in 2005).

In another 25 years beyond that, in 2050 — though of course the estimates involve consid-
erable uncertainty — the share of working-age population in the total is projected to have 
declined further to just under 57 % and the share of those under 15 to only just over 13 % 
(Figure 2). Those  of  65  and  over  will,  therefore,  have  come  to  account  for  30 %  of  overall 
population. Although there is likely to be a slightly more even division between the sexes, 
women will still outnumber men by 24 %.

Fig. 2 Age pyramid in the EU-25, 2005 and 2050

% of total population

2005

2050

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Men

Women

80+
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

Births

More boys born than girls

It is a feature of human biology that more boys are born than girls. The EU is no different 
to the rest of the world in this respect. Although the difference in numbers is not very big, 
it is still significant and it is persistent over time. In 2005, some 51.3 % of babies born in the 
EU-25 countries were male and 48.7 % female, precisely the same division as 15 years earlier 
in 1990 and virtually the same as in 1980 (Figure 3 and Annex Table A.2).

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Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Fig. 3 Difference in male and female births, 1990 and 2005

% of total

Left bar: 1990, right bar: 2005

Boys

Girls

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

5
2
-
U
E

TR: no data for 1990; LI: 1990 and 2005: 50% for boys and girls; FR: France metropolitaine

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

This pattern, moreover, is a common feature of all 25 EU Member States. The division be-
tween girls and boys was the same, or virtually, the same, in nearly all the Member States, 
varying in most cases by less than 0.3 of a percentage point either way. The proportion of 
girls, therefore, rises to above 48.9 % in only three Member States, Denmark, Austria and 
Finland, and then only slightly, as well as in Iceland. At the same time, it falls below 48.3 % 
only in Estonia, Luxembourg and Portugal, as well as in Turkey.

Boys continue to outnumber girls throughout the childhood years

The larger number of boys born than girls means that boys outnumber girls among children. 
Despite the fact that, as shown below, mortality rates among boys tend to be higher than 
among girls, especially in the first year, up to the age of 15, the relative proportions of boys 
and girls in the EU are only slightly different from at birth. Beyond 15, however, the propor-
tion of girls begins to increase, even if very slowly, so that among young people aged 15–24, 
some 49 % were women in 2005 and 51 % men. These proportions were the same 15 years 
before in 1990 (Annex Table A.3).

The proportion of women and men among 15- to 24-year olds are also very similar across 
EU  Member  States  and  other  European  countries.  Only  in  Belgium,  Ireland,  France,  the 
Netherlands, Austria and Portugal was the proportion of young women more than 0.1–0.3 
of a percentage point above the EU-25 average. Moreover, apart from Greece (47.9 %), in no 
country was the proportion less than 48.5 %.

Infant mortality

More boys than girls die during their first year

The larger number of boys born relative to girls is offset to a small extent by higher mortality 
among boys during their first year of life. In 2004, the infant mortality rate — the proportion 
of deaths in the EU-25 among babies in their first year — was 4.8 per 1 000 live births for 
boys as opposed to 3.9 per 1 000 live births for girls (Figure 4 and Annex Table A.4).

The infant mortality rate is higher for boys in all EU countries apart from Ireland, Cyprus 
and Luxembourg. Though higher, it was, nevertheless, less than 6 per 1 000 live births in all 

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1

Part  — The formative years

Fig. 4 Infant mortality rates among boys and girls, 

1990 and 2005

Per 1 000 live born boys/girls

1990 (1)

2005 (2)

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

Boys

Girls

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
LI
NO
CH

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

(1) CY: 1993; LI: 1994; PL: no data; FR: France metropolitaine;
(2) BE, UK: 2002; IT: 2003; FR: 2004;
TR: no data; LI: no data for girls;

EU-25: estimate

Member States, except Latvia, Lithua-
nia, Hungary, Malta, Poland and Slo-
vakia. It is, however, relatively high in 
Bulgaria  and  Romania  (12  per  1 000 
live  births  among  boys  in  the  first 
and  over  16  per  1 000  in  the  second 
in  2005,  in  both  cases  some  3–4  per 
1 000 higher than for girls).

In all countries, the rate has tended to 
fall over time, most especially in those 
in which it was highest. Between 1990 
and 2005, infant mortality, therefore, 
fell  by  7–8  per  1 000  live  births  or 
more in the Czech Republic, Hungary 
and Portugal, and by 12 per 1 000 live 
births in Romania.

Mortality rates among 
children and young people

Mortality rates higher for boys 
than girls throughout EU

Mortality rates fall significantly after 
the first week or two of life and con-
tinue to fall as children pass their first 
birthday. Deaths among boys aged be-
tween one and four years old amount-
ed  to  only  around  25  per  100 000  in 
2005 in the EU as whole, though this 
was still more than for girls for whom 
the figures was just 20 per 100 000.

Deaths among boys are slightly more frequent than among girls in all EU Member States 
and associate countries, apart from Estonia, Cyprus and Malta. The mortality rate for boys 
of this age, however, is still low throughout the Union, at below 35 per 100 000 in 2005 in 
all countries apart from the three Baltic States, Hungary and Slovakia. In both Bulgaria and 
Romania, on the other hand, it was, respectively, 66 and 72 per 100 000.

Deaths among children decline further as they grow older. The mortality rate for girls aged 
5 to 14 was, therefore, only 11 per 100 000 in the EU in 2005, below the rate for boys, which 
was 14 per 100 000. The rate for girls was also below that for boys in all EU Member States 
with the sole exception of Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia; deaths among girls were slightly more 
frequent than among boys in Iceland as well.

Apart from in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania, the mortality rate for boys 
was under 30 per 100 000 in all EU Member States, with the rate for girls lower still (except 
in Cyprus).

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Part  — The formative years

1

Mortality rates among boys increase after 15 much more than among girls

The frequency of death begins to increase as children pass 15, only slowly for girls but more 
quickly for boys who, as described below, are more prone to accidents. Deaths among young 
men aged 15 to 19 across the EU, therefore, averaged 54 per 100 000 in 2005, while for young 
women, they were only 22 per 100 000. In all countries without exception, mortality rates of 
men were significantly higher than for women, in most cases, twice as high or more (Annex 
Table A.5).

Deaths among young men continue to increase as they enter their 20s. For men aged 20 to 
24, the average mortality rate in the EU was 84 per 100 000 in 2005, almost half as high again 
as for those aged 15 to 19. This is in stark contrast to the mortality rate for women of this age 
group which was only slightly higher than for women in the younger age group. Accordingly, 
the mortality rate for men in their early 20s was over three times higher than for women. A 
difference of around this size between the two rates is evident in all European countries. The 
mortality rate of men in this age group was at least 2.5 times higher than the rate for women 
in all countries except the Netherlands and Sweden, and it was more than four times higher 
in Poland and Malta (in the first because of a high rate for men and in the second because of 
a lower rate for women than anywhere else) and five times higher in Lithuania (because of a 
high rate for men).

Age at first marriage

Women and men are 
getting married later 
throughout the EU

The age at which women and men first 
marry has tended to increase marked-
ly across the EU in recent years. There 
are two main factors underlying this. 
First, there is an increasing tendency 
for both young women and men to re-
main in education longer before start-
ing to work and earn income. Second-
ly,  once  they  do  start  working,  both 
women and men tend to give priority 
to  establishing  a  professional  career, 
partly  so  as  to  increase  their  longer-
term  earnings  potential.  It  remains 
the  case,  however,  despite  women 
having  a  longer  life  expectancy  than 
men, that men are older than women 
when they marry.

The average age of men when first mar-
rying was 29.8 in the EU as a whole in 
2003, whereas for women, it was 27.4, 
some  2.5  years  younger.  The  age  dif-
ference was similar in most countries, 
though it was as much as three years 

Fig. 5 Difference in average age at first marriage of men 

and women, 1990 and 2003

Women

Men

1990
2003

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

Age

20

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
LI
NO
CH

20

22

24

26

28

34
Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

30

32

IT, UK: 1990 and 2000; HR: 1990 and 2001;
EE, EL, ES, FR, AT, FI: 1990 and 2002;
IE: only 1990; CY: only 2000; MT, PL, RO, LI: only 2003;
FR: France metropolitaine;
EU-25: estimate

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

in Italy and 3.8 years in Greece, while in Spain, Portugal, Ireland and, most notably in Cy-
prus and Finland, it was under two years. The mean age at first marriage was also relatively 
similar across EU Member States for both women and men. In both cases, however, with the 
exception of Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia, it was significantly lower than average in the new 
Member States. In these countries, the average age for women was under 26 and for men, 
under 29. By contrast, in Denmark and Sweden, the average of women was over 30 and for 
men, over 32 (Figure 5 and Annex Table A.6).

Between 1990 and 2003, the average age at first marriage for both women and men increased 
by around 2.5 years in the EU, the difference between the two remaining much the same. An 
increase in age was common to all Member States. It was particularly large for women and 
men (around 4.5 years) in the Czech Republic and Hungary, where the mean age of marriage 
was especially low in 1990 (under 22 for women and only around 24 for men) and well above 
average in Slovenia and Finland.

Age of women at birth of first child

Women are also older when 
they have their first child

Not  unexpectedly,  the  tendency  for 
the  average  age  at  first  marriage  to 
increase  has  been  accompanied  by  a 
similar rise in the age at which women 
give  birth  to their first child,  though 
there is not a uniform relationship be-
tween the two across Europe. In 2003, 
women  having  their  first  child  were 
on average 28 years old in the EU, two 
years older than in 1990. In Denmark 
and  Sweden,  it  was  around  the  EU 
average and some two years less than 
the average age of women at first mar-
riage.

Indeed,  the  average  age  of  women 
when  giving  birth  to  their  first  child 
is slightly more similar across the EU 
than their average age when marrying 
for the first time. It remains the case, 
however, that the mean age in the new 
Member States, except for Cyprus and 
Slovenia (there are no data for Malta) 
is lower than in other parts of the EU 
(Figure 6 and Annex Table A.7).

Fig. 6 Difference in average age of mother at birth of 

first child, 1990 and 2003

Age
Age

Age in 1990

Age in 2003
Age in 2003

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

EU-25
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
NO
CH

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

Source: Eurostata, DEMO database

BE: no data after: 1997; IT: no data after 1996; MT, TR, LI: no data;
EU-25: estimate; DK, FR: 2001; EE, EL, ES, UK: 2002

20

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Fertility rates

Fertility rates are well below that required to prevent population falling

The increase in the age of women at the birth of their first child over the past 10–15 years has 
been accompanied by a fall in fertility rates over the same period in most Member States, 
though not all.

In 2005, the fertility rate (1) averaged 1.5 in the EU, much less than the rate of 2.1 which is 
required to maintain the population constant (in the absence of immigration), or more pre-
cisely, to replace a woman and her partner (given some mortality among those being born). 
Only in Ireland was the fertility rate close to 2 (outside the EU, it was just over 2 in Iceland 
and Turkey) and only in the three Nordic Member States, France, the Netherlands and the 
UK,  was  it  above  1.6.  By  contrast,  in  all  the  new  Member  States,  except  Estonia,  Cyprus 
and Malta, together with Greece, Spain, Italy, the rate was under 1.4 (Figure 7 and Annex 
Table A.8).

The average fertility rate in the EU declined from just under 1.6 to just under 1.5 between 
1990 and 2005, the fall being especially marked in most of the new Member States, where 
apart from Slovenia, the rate was over 1.8 in 1990. The decline, however, was not common 
to all countries. In five Member States — Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands 
and Finland — the fertility rate increased between 1990 and 2005, even if to a small extent 
in all cases.

Fig. 7 Total fertility rate, 1990 and 2005

Per woman of child-bearing age

1990

2005

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

E

I

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

I
L

O
N

H
C

TR; LI: no data for 1990; BE, EE, IE, HR: 2004; FR: France metropolitaine

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

  The mean number of 
children that would 
be born alive to a 
woman during her 
lifetime if she were 
to pass through her 
childbearing years 
conforming to the 
fertility rates by 
age of a given year. 
It is therefore the 
completed fertility 
of a hypothetical 
generation, computed 
by adding the fertility 
rates by age for women 
in a given year (the 
number of women at 
each age is assumed 
to be the same). The 
total fertility rate is 
also used to indicate 
the replacement level 
fertility.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Household circumstances of young people

Young people aged 18–24

Women leave the parental home earlier than men

The age at which young people leave the family home and start living independently — in 
many cases to pursue their education or training — varies markedly across Europe. In all 
countries, however, young women tend to leave home at an earlier age than young men.

In 2005, 66 % of young women and 78 % of men aged 18–24 in the EU were still living with 
their parents (2). The proportion of young women varied from only 33 % in Denmark and 
39 % in Finland to 90 % in Italy and over 95 % in Malta, with the figure being over 80 % in 
Spain, Luxembourg and Portugal and over 75 % in all the new Member States, except Bul-
garia, Estonia and Romania, where it was only slightly below. In Germany, France, the Neth-
erlands and the UK, the proportion of women in this age group living with their parents was 
between 50 % and 56 % and in the other countries for which data are available, between 63 % 
and 71 %.

The proportion of young men in the same age group living in the family home was higher 
than  that  of  women  in  all  countries,  ranging  from  just  over  48 %  in  Denmark  and  56 % 
in Finland to 94–97 % in Italy, Malta, Slovakia and Croatia and over 85 % in Bulgaria, the 
Czech Republic, Spain, Hungary, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Slovenia 
(Figure 8 and Annex Table A.9).

In most countries, the majority of those aged 18–24 who had moved away from home were 
living with other people, either as a couple or a larger household. This was particularly true 
of women, only 23 % in the EU living alone as against 36 % of young men of the same age 
(Figures 9 and 10 and Annex Tables A.10 and A.11).

Fig. 8 Women and men aged 18-24 living in parental home, 2005

% of women/men aged 18-24

Women

Men

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

R
H

IE: unreliable data; PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

2  These figures are 
based on the EU 
Labour Force Survey, 
which distinguishes 
the household 
circumstances of the 
people covered. It 
should be noted that 
the data relate to 
young people living in 
the same household 
as their parents — or 
parent — so that in 
some cases it might be 
that parents are living 
with their children 
rather than vice versa. 
For the age groups 
covered, however, 
such cases should 
be relatively few and 
ought not to affect the 
results significantly.

22

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

The proportion of young women in this age group living alone, with or without children, 
was below 40 % in all countries apart from Denmark, Germany, Greece and Finland. By con-
trast, the proportion of men living alone was over 40 % in 11 of the 25 countries for which 
data are available.

Of the young women in this age group who had left the parental home, over 35 % had chil-
dren in Italy, Cyprus, Portugal and the UK. In the UK, in stark contrast to other countries, 
almost half the women with children lived alone.

Fig. 9 Household characteristics of women aged 18-24 not living in parental home, 2005

% of women, 18-24, not living in parental home 

Other
Couple with children
Couple
Alone with children
Alone

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

T
P

O
R

K F
S

I

K
U

EE, IE, LT, LU, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data; PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate;
See annex table 'Household status of young people' for details

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 10 Household characteristics of men aged 18-24 not living in parental home, 2005

% of men, 18-24, not living in parental home 

Other
Couple with children
Couple
Alone with children
Alone

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

V
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

T
P

O F
R

I

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

BG, EE, IE, CY, LT, LU, MT, SI, SK, HR: unreliable data; PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate;
See annex table 'Household status of young people' for details

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Young people aged 25–29

Fewer women than men live with their parents 
but number varies greatly across EU

Less than half of young people aged 25–29 lived with their parents in most European coun-
tries in 2005. Even more than for the younger age group, however, the proportion living with 
their parents was higher for men than for women in all countries (some 14 percentage points 
more on average —  Figure 11).

Fig. 11 Women and men aged 25-29 living in parental home, 2005

% of women/men aged 25-29

Women

Men

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

R
H

IE: unreliable data;  LU, PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate;

See annex table "Household status of young people" for details

Source: Eurostat, LFS

In the EU as a whole, only 28 % of women aged 25–29 were still living with their parents, but 
over 50 % in Italy, Malta and Slovakia. In Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France, the Nether-
lands, Finland and the UK, the proportion was under 20 %.

In the four southern Member States and in 9 of the 11 new Member States for which data are 
available, as well as in Croatia, the majority of men aged 25–29 were living in the parental 
household (over 70 % in Bulgaria, Italy, Malta and Croatia). The proportion was under 20 % 
only in Denmark and Finland.

As in the case of the younger age group, most of those aged 25–29 not living with their par-
ents live with someone else rather than alone, either as part of a couple or in a larger house-
hold. In 2005, on average in the EU 17 % of women and 22 % of men in this age group lived 
alone. Almost one third (32 %) of women living alone had a child. In the UK, the proportion 
was well over half.

The proportion living alone with or without their children, however, varies markedly be-
tween countries. For women it was around 25 % or more in Denmark, Germany, Austria, 
Finland and the UK, but under 15 % in the new Member States and the four southern Mem-
ber  States.  For  men,  the  proportion  ranged  from  35 %  or  more  in  Germany,  Austria  and 
Finland to under 10 % in Ireland, Cyprus, Portugal and Slovakia (Figures 12 and 13).

2

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Part  — The formative years

1

Fig. 12 Household characteristics of women aged 25-29 not living in parental home, 2005

% of women, 25-29, not living in parental home 

Other
Couple with children
Couple
Alone with children
Alone

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

T
P

O
R

K F
S

I

K
U

EE, IE, LT, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data; LU, PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate;
See annex table 'Household status of young people' for details

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 13 Household characteristics of men aged 25-29 not living in parental home, 2005

% of men, 25-29, not living in parental home 

Other
Couple with children
Couple
Alone with children
Alone

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

T
P

O
R

K F
S

I

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

EE, IE, LT, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data; LU, PL, SE: no data; EU-25: estimate;

See annex table "Household status of young people" for details

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Median age of young people leaving home

Women are on average two years younger than men when they leave home

The data included in the Labour Force Survey can be used to estimate the median age at 
which young women and men leave the parental home. The median age (3) at which young 
men leave the parental home varies from around 21 in Denmark and Finland to 30–31 in 
Bulgaria, Greece and Italy — and 32 in Croatia — according to data for 2005. For women, 
the average age is lower in all countries, varying from 20 in Denmark and Finland to 27–28 
in Greece, Spain, Italy, Malta and Slovenia (Figures 14 and 15 and Annex Table A.12).

  Age at which 0 % 
of the population 
no longer live in a 
household with their 
parent[s). For more 
details see ‘sources and 
methodology’.

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1

Part  — The formative years

Young women, in general, tend to leave home around three years younger than men (the 
range varies from one year or less in Denmark, Estonia, Cyprus, Malta, Austria and Fin-
land to more than four years younger in Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania as well as 
Croatia). This in part reflects the younger age at which women get married. As noted above, 
however,  a  significant  proportion  of  women  leave  home  either  to  live  alone  or  to  share  a 
house with other people.

Women and men are remaining in the parental home longer

The average age at which young people leave home has tended to rise over time for both men 
and women. There are signs of a slowdown in the rate of increase, however, over the past 10 
years. In Germany and Austria, the median age for men fell over the 10 years 1995 to 2005. 
The median age of men leaving home increased by two years only in Hungary and Malta.

Fig. 14 Median age at which young women leave the parental home, 1995 and 2005

1995

2005

Age

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

DK

FI UK DE NL FR AT BE

EE

LV RO CY LT CZ LU HU BG HR PT

ES

EL

SK

SI

IT MT

CZ, EE, RO, SK: 1998; CY, HU, MT, SI: 2000; LU: 2004; BG, DK, LV, LT, HR: no data before 2002; 
FI: no data before 2004; PL, SE: no data; IE: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
median age estimated

Fig. 15 Median age at which young men leave the parental home, 1995 and 2005

1995

2005

Age

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

DK

FI DE FR UK NL

EE AT CY BE

LU CZ PT HU MT RO ES

LT

SI

LV SK

EL

IT

BG HR

CZ, EE, RO, SK: 1998; CY, HU, MT, SI: 2000; LU: 2004; BG, DK, LV, LT, HR: no data before 2002; 
FI: no data before 2004; PL, SE: no data; IE: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
median age estimated

26

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

For women, the median age of leaving home rose everywhere except in Germany and Ro-
mania, where it fell. The increase in the median age of women and men leaving home was 
particularly large in Malta over these 10 years (rising by two years or more). It was similarly 
large in several of the new Member States over the shorter period for which data are avail-
able (the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia) as well as in Luxembourg, Greece and Italy 
(Figures 14 and 15).

The age range over which women and men leave 
home varies markedly across countries

The age range over which most young people leave home — here defined as the range be-
tween which 20 % have left home and 80 % have done so — varies between countries broadly 
in line with the median age. It tends to be wider in countries where the median age of leaving 
is relatively high than in those where it is low.

Fig. 16 Age range at which women leave the parental home, 2005

Bottom of bar indicates age at which 20% have left home; top of the bar when 80% have done so

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

BE BG CZ DK DE EE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY LV LT

LU HU MT NL AT PT RO SI

SK

FI UK HR

Top of the range > 34 for SK;
LU: 2004; IE, PL, SE: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
age range estimated

Fig. 17 Age range at which men leave the parental home, 2005

Bottom of bar indicates age at which 20% have left home; top of the bar when 80% have done so

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

BE BG CZ DK DE EE

EL

ES

FR

IT CY LV LT

LU HU MT NL AT PT RO SI

SK

FI UK HR

Top of the range >34 for BG, EL, ES, IT, LV, LT, HU, MT, RO, SI, SK and HR;
LU: 2004; IE, PL, SE: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
age range estimated

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Whereas for young women this exodus occurs over the space of three to four years in Den-
mark and Finland (between the ages of 18 or so and 22), it takes place over nine years in Italy 
and Slovenia (between 22–23 and 32) and in Greece, over 13 years (between 18 and 32). For 
men, it occurs over a period of five to seven years in Denmark and Finland (between 19 and 
24–26), while in Italy and Slovenia, it happens over 10 to 11 years (between 26 and 36–37) 
and in Greece, 17 years (between 19 and 36) (Figures 16 and 17 and Annex Table A.13).

28

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Part  — The formative years

1

Education and the information society

Educational performance of girls and boys

Boys perform better at maths than girls, girls better at reading

According to PISA — the OECD’s programme for international student assessment (PISA) 
— while girls generally outperform boys in reading literacy at the age of 15, boys perform 
better than girls in mathematical ability. This tendency is evident in all countries, though the 
extent of the difference between girls and boys varies. On the other hand, in the case of scien-
tific literacy, there is no systematic tendency for girls or boys to do better than the other and 
differences between them are generally relatively small. There is, however, some tendency for 
the ranking of countries in terms of the scores recorded by girls and boys to be similar in the 
different disciplines, with Finland and the Netherlands coming top in all three and Greece 
coming bottom or close to bottom in each case.

In all 19 of the EU Member States covered by the PISA data, which relate to 2003, boys outper-
form girls in mathematical literacy, although the margin is small in a number of countries, 
notably Latvia, the Netherlands and Poland (under 2 %) (Figure 18 and Annex Table A.14). 
The gap, however, reaches around 4 % in Greece, Italy and Slovakia. By contrast, not only do 
girls perform better than boys in reading literacy in all countries, but they do so by a sub-
stantially larger margin. Indeed, the smallest gap in average scores for reading literacy — in 
the Netherlands — is about the same size as the widest gap for mathematical literacy. The 
largest gap is over twice this size, at 10 % in Austria and just under 9 % in Germany, while it 
is around 8 % or more in another six countries (Figure 19).

In science, the performance of girls and boys is more even

The performance of boys and girls in scientific literacy is far more even. The difference in 
the average score is around 1 % or less in all but four of the 19 countries, though boys have a 
slightly higher score than girls in most of the 15 Member States concerned. In the other four 

Fig. 18 Mean score of student performance in mathematical ability, 2003

Mean score

Girls

Boys

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

EL

IT

PT

ES

LV LU HU PL

SK NO IE DE AT

SE DK FR CZ CH LI

IS

BE NL

FI

BG, EE, LT, CY, MT, RO, SI: no data; UK: response rate too low

Source: OECD, PISA 2003

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

— Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg and Slovakia — boys in each case achieve a 3–4 % higher 
score on average than girls (Figure 20).

Fig. 19 Mean score of student performance in reading literacy, 2003

Mean score

Girls

Boys

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

SK

EL

IT

PT

LU HU ES CZ DK LV DE

FR AT PL CH IS NO NL BE

IE

SE

LI

FI

BG, EE, LT, CY, MT, RO, SI: no data; UK: response rate too low

Source: OECD, PISA 2003

Fig. 20 Mean score of student performance in scientific literacy, 2003

Mean score

Girls

Boys

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

PT DK EL

LU NO IT

ES

SK

LV AT PL DE

IS

SE HU IE CH BE

FR

LI

CZ NL

FI

BG, EE, LT, CY, MT, RO, SI: no data; UK: response rate too low

Source: OECD, PISA 2003

The proportion of girls and boys with the lowest 
score varies markedly across countries

These differences in average scores are reflected to some degree in the proportion of girls and 
boys who obtain the lowest score in the three disciplines. Girls, therefore, are in most coun-
tries more likely than boys to have the lowest level scores in mathematical literacy, though 
not in Finland, Belgium, Poland and Latvia, where there are more boys in the bottom rank-
ing. Differences between countries, however, are much larger in this respect than between 
girls and boys, with over 35 % of children having the lowest scores in Greece as opposed to 
under 8 % in Finland (Annex Table A.15).

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

For reading literacy, boys are systematically more likely than girls to appear at the bottom 
end of the marking, the difference in the proportions with the lowest scores ranging from 
15 percentage points in Austria to 6 percentage points in the Netherlands. While the largest 
proportion of girls with the lowest scores is just over 18 % in Greece, in 15 of the 19 countries 
the proportion exceeds this for boys.

In the case of scientific literacy, there is more variability in the relative number of girls and 
boys with the lowest scores (below 400 points), though in most cases the proportions are 
very similar. In 12 of the 19 countries, the proportion of boys with a score below 400 was 
slightly larger than that of girls, despite the average score for boys being  a little higher than 
for girls.

The PISA data also compare girls and boys attending the same school to allow for any ten-
dency for either girls or boys to go to better performing schools. In the case of mathemati-
cal literacy, however, this widens the gender gap, most markedly in Belgium, Hungary and 
Germany. Only in Denmark, does this comparison narrow the difference. The implication 
is that the performance of boys in mathematics exceeds that of girls by more than the basic 
figures suggest.

Women and men completing upper and  
post-secondary education

More women than men successfully complete 
upper and post-secondary education

Although there are marginally fewer women than men in the 17–22 age group across Europe, 
women made up over half of all those of this age successfully completing upper secondary 
and post-secondary non tertiary education (i.e. ISCED levels 3 and 4) in 2004 in 13 of the 17 
countries for which data are available. The only exceptions are Ireland and Bulgaria, where 
men  marginally  outnumber  women,  and  Slovakia  and  Romania,  where  the  numbers  are 
about the same. In Germany and Portugal, women account for almost 57 % of all those com-
pleting education or training at this level (though in Germany, the data exclude vocational 
courses, which are particularly important in this country), and in Denmark, Lithuania and 
Poland, for over 53 %.

Examining these figures in more detail, the share of women is particularly large among those 
completing general education as opposed to vocational courses. This is especially so among 
those  aged  17  to  19,  where  women  accounted  for  55 %  or  more  of  those  achieving  upper 
secondary qualifications (here and in what follows defined to include post-secondary non-
tertiary qualifications) in 2004 in all EU Member States except Ireland, where their share 
was slightly over 50 %. In seven countries, women made up over 60 % of those concerned 
(in Italy, over 65 %). By contrast, men made up the majority of those completing vocational 
courses in the 17–19 age group in most Member States, the exceptions being Belgium, Den-
mark and Ireland, where women accounted for half of those concerned, and Poland, where 
women were in the majority (Figure 21 and Annex Table A.16).

The number of women completing upper secondary programmes is lower relative to men in 
the 20–22 age group than among those younger. Nevertheless, women made up the majority 
of those completing general education courses in nine of the 17 EU Member States for which 
data are available and in another two, they accounted for around a half. Only in Belgium and 
Luxembourg, was the share of women in 2004 much below half (Figure 22).

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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1

Part  — The formative years

Fig. 21 Women as a share of those aged 17-19 completing upper and post-secondary education, 2004

% of total for each type of education

General (1)

Vocational (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BE

BG DK DE

IE

EL

IT

CY

LT

LU HU

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

SE

TR

IS

LI

NO

CZ, EE, ES, FR, LV, MT, NL, AT, FI, UK, HR, CH: no data;

Source: Eurostat, UOE

(1) LI: no data;

(2) DE: no data

Fig. 22 Women as a share of those aged 20-22 completing upper and post-secondary education, 2004

% of total for each type of education

General (1)

Vocational (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BE

BG DK DE

IE

EL

IT

CY

LT

LU HU

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

SE

TR

IS

LI

NO

CZ, EE, ES, FR, LV, MT, NL, AT, FI, UK, HR, CH: no data;
(1) EL, LI: no data;
(2) DE: no data

Source: Eurostat, UOE

As in the younger group, men made up the majority of those completing vocational courses 
in 2004 in most Member States. The exceptions were Greece, Lithuania, Luxembourg and 
Romania, where women outnumbered men, and Cyprus, where the numbers were much the 
same. In Denmark, Ireland and Italy, the share of women was under 40 % and in Bulgaria, 
under 30 %.

Early school leavers

More men than women leave school without adequate qualifications

Although the proportion of young people attaining upper secondary or tertiary qualifica-
tions is generally increasing across Europe, significant numbers of young women and men 
still leave the education system with only basic schooling. Many of these, moreover, do not 
receive any further education or training once they enter the labour market.

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Fig. 23 Young people aged 18-21 with less than upper secondary education and not in education or 

training, 2005

% of women/men aged 18-21

Women (1)

Men (2)

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

TR; LI: no data; EU-25: estimate;

Source: Eurostat, LFS

EE: too small sample size;

(1) LV, LU: unreliable data;

LT, SI: too small sample size for women;

(2) LT, LU, SI: unreliable data

Fig. 24 Young people aged 22-24 with less than upper secondary education and not in education or 

training, 2005

% of women/men aged 22-24

Women (1)

Men (2)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

TR; LI: no data; EU-25: estimate;

Source: Eurostat, LFS

EE, CH: too small sample size;

(1) DK, LT, LU, SI, HR: unreliable data;

LV, IS: too small sample size for women;

(2) DK, LV, LT, SI: unreliable data

The vast majority of young women and men aged 16 to 17 continue to receive education or 
training after they leave compulsory education. Once they get beyond 17, however, the num-
bers begin to decline.  Among those aged 18 to 21, over 12 % of women and 16 % of men with 
only basic education — i.e. no qualifications beyond compulsory schooling — received no 
education or training in the four weeks before the 2005 survey. Accordingly, there is a high 
probability that they had left the education system without adequate qualifications to pursue 
a rewarding working career.

The proportion varies markedly across countries, especially for men, ranging from over 35 % 
in Spain, Malta and Portugal (in the last two, it was over 40 %) as well as in Croatia to only 
5–6 % in Poland and Slovakia. Among women, the proportion was smaller than that of men 
in all countries, in many cases substantially so. Except in Malta, it was below 27 % every-
where and it was especially small in most of the new Member States (Figure 23 and Annex 
Table A.17).

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Among  those  aged  22  to  24,  early  school  leavers,  defined  in  the  same  way,  amounted  to 
almost 19 % of men and over 14 % of women in 2005 (Figure 24). As for the younger age 
group, the proportion was especially high in Malta — over 45 % for both men and women 
— and was even higher (52 %) for men in Portugal and as well as Croatia. In both countries, 
the proportion for women was much lower, though still over 34 in Portugal. As in these two 
countries, the relative number of women in this age group who had left the education system 
with inadequate qualifications was smaller than for men in most countries, considerably so 
in many.

Women and men in tertiary education

More women than men obtain university degrees or the equivalent

Many more women than men are educated to tertiary — or university — level in most Eu-
ropean countries. The gap between women and men in this respect has, moreover, tended to 
widen in recent years in most countries as participation in tertiary education has increased. 
Fewer women than men, however, go on to undertake advanced research. There are, in addi-
tion, substantial differences between women and men in the subjects studied.

More women than men are enrolled in undergraduate 
programmes across most of the EU

In the EU-25 as a whole, women accounted for almost 55 % of all students enrolled in terti-
ary level education (i.e. lSCED levels 5 or 6) in 2003/2004 (4).

This gap is evident to varying extents throughout the EU. There are more women than men 
enrolled in ISCED 5 level programmes in all EU Member States apart from Germany and 
Cyprus, where the proportion was only just under half in both cases. Men significantly out-
number women in Turkey (representing 58 % of all students). Women accounted for more 
than 60 % of students enrolled in Sweden and the three Baltic States as well as in Iceland and 
Norway (Figure 25 and Annex Table A.18).

The share of women among students increased between 1997/98 and 2003/04 in virtually all 
countries for which data are available for both years. The only exceptions are Finland and 
Lithuania, marginally, and, Cyprus and Bulgaria more markedly.

More men than women continue on to do postgraduate studies

Men  represent  the  majority  of  students  enrolled  in  ISCED  6,  or  advanced  research,  pro-
grammes  in  most  European  countries.  In  the  EU-25  as  a  whole,  women  made  up  almost 
47 %  of  students  in  2003–04.  In  Belgium,  the  Czech  Republic  and  Turkey,  the  figure  was 
under 40 %. Women outnumbered men, however, in the three southern countries of Spain, 
Italy and Portugal, the three Baltic States, Luxembourg, Finland, Bulgaria and Romania as 
well as Iceland (Figure 26 and Annex Table A.19).

Between 1997/98 and 2003/04, the number of women enrolled in ISCED level 6 programmes 
relative to men increased in nearly all countries, by an average of almost 3 percentage points 
in the EU. The only exception is Italy, in which women still outnumber men.

  Since there are 

marginally fewer 
women than men 
in the 8–28 age 
group from which 
most tertiary-level 
students come, these 
proportions slightly 
understate the gap 
between women and 
men in this regard.



Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Fig. 25 Enrolments of women and men in the first stage of tertiary education, 1997/98 and 2003/04

% total

70

65

60

55

50

55

60

65

70

1997/1998 (1)

2003/2004 (2)

Women in majority

Men in majority

BE BG CZ DK DE EE IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT RO SI SK FI SE UK HR TR IS NO CH

(1) BE, CY, MT, TR: 1998/1999; IE: 1999/2000; HR, LI, CH: no data;
(2) LU: 2002/2003; LI: no data

Source: Eurostat, UOE

Fig. 26 Enrolments of women and men in the second stage of tertiary education, 1997/98 and 2003/04

% total

70

65

60

55

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

1997/1998 (1)

2003/2004 (2)

Women in majority

Men in majority

70

65

60

55

50

55

60

65

70

70

65

60

55

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

BE BG CZ DK EE IE

EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU HU NL AT PL PT RO SK FI SE UK HR TR IS NO CH

(1) BE, MT, TR: 1998/1999; IE: 1999/2000; CY, LU, RO, SI, HR, LI, CH: no data;
(2) LU: 2002/2003; MT: data too small; LI: no data; 

Source: Eurostat, UOE

Women are more successful than men in 
completing tertiary level programmes

Women seem to be more successful than men in completing their tertiary-level studies. In 
2004, women made up around 59 % of students graduating with ISCED level 5 qualifications 
in the EU-25, 4 percentage points more than the share of women in enrolments. (The differ-
ence between the two figures might be explained by women completing their studies earlier 
or perhaps taking shorter courses than men as well as by a larger proportion of women com-
pleting their programmes successfully.)

This  gap  is  evident  right  across  Europe.  More  women  than  men  graduated  in  2004  in  all 
countries except Turkey, where women make up a relatively small proportion of students en-
rolled. In Portugal, Poland and the three Baltic States, as well as Iceland, around two thirds 
or more of the students graduating were women.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

The number of women graduating relative to men, moreover, increased between 1998 and 
2004 in all EU Member States, except Spain, France and Slovakia where it remained almost 
the same, and in Cyprus, and Bulgaria, where there was a marked decline. The proportion of 
women also declined in Norway over the same period.

More men than women obtain postgraduate degrees

The situation is very different at postgraduate level. In the EU-25 as a whole in 2004, 57 % 
of those successfully completing their studies were men. Men also outnumbered women in 
most countries. The exceptions are Ireland, Italy (though only marginally so), Cyprus, Por-
tugal, the three Baltic States and Bulgaria (5).

The  share  of  men  among  graduates  at  this  level,  moreover,  was  more  than  their  share  of 
enrolments in most countries, which partly reflects the growing share of women enrolling 
in ISCED 6 programmes (i.e. those graduating are those who initially enrolled some years 
previously when the share of women was smaller).

The number of women among graduates at ISCED level 6, therefore, increased by more than 
that of men between 1998 and 2004 in almost all countries. The only exceptions are Estonia, 
where the share of women declined, and Italy, where it remained much the same. In the EU 
as a whole, the gap between the share 
of women and men narrowed by over 
6 percentage points (i.e. by more than 
the gap in enrolments).

Fig. 27 Graduations of women and men in the first stage 
of tertiary education by field of education in the 
EU-25, 1998 and 2004

Big differences remain in 
the subject areas studied 
by women and men

There is a marked difference between 
the fields of education in which wom-
en  and  men  successfully  complete 
(the  first  stage  of)  tertiary  level  pro-
grammes.  While  women  make  up  a 
large majority of those graduating in 
health and welfare and teacher train-
ing  and  education  programmes  at 
ISCED level 5, outnumbering men by 
more than three to one on average in 
the EU in 2004, the reverse is the case 
in  engineering,  manufacturing  and 
construction.

Similarly in science, mathematics and 
computing programmes, the number 
of men was some 50 % larger than the 
number  of  women,  whereas  in  busi-
ness  and  administration  the  number 
of  women  was  almost  50 %  larger 
than the number of men, in law, 54 % 
larger, and in social sciences and jour-
nalism  and  humanities  and  the  arts, 

 

It should be noted 
that in Slovakia and 
Romania, data on 
graduates include 
those completing a 
lower level research 
degree than the norm, 
a large proportion of 
whom are women, 
which accordingly 
tends to push up 
the overall share of 
women.

% of total graduates

1998

2004

80

60

40

20

0

20

40

60

80

Health 
and Welfare

Education

Humanities 
and Arts

Social science 
and Journalism

Law

Business and 
administration

Services

Agriculture 
and Veterinary

Science, Maths 
and Computing

Women

Engineering, 
Manuf., Construct.

Men

80

60

40

20

0

20

40

60

80

Source: Eurostat, UOE

6

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   36

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Part  — The formative years

1

twice as large or more. In other broad areas, in agriculture and veterinary and services, the 
number of men and women was more similar (Figure 27 and Annex Table A.20).

These differences are also evident in individual Member States and other European coun-
tries. Men, therefore, accounted for over 65 % of students graduating in engineering, manu-
facturing and construction programmes in all the countries in 2004, except Bulgaria and 
Greece (where the figure was 62–63 %). In Germany, Ireland, Cyprus, the Netherlands, Aus-
tria and the UK, they accounted for over 80 % (Figure 28).

The situation is similar, though less extreme, in science, mathematics and computing pro-
grammes. In four of the 26 EU Member States for which there are data, men accounted for 
around two thirds or more of students in 2004 (i.e. outnumbering women by around two to 
one), while in another eight, they made up 60 % or more. On the other hand, women made 
up more than half of total graduates in Bulgaria, Italy, Portugal and Romania and just under 
half in Estonia, Finland and Sweden as well as Croatia (Figure 29).

Fig. 28 Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in engineering, manufacturing and 

construction, 1998 and 2004

% of total graduates

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1998 (1)

2004 (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

(1) FR, CY: 1999; BE: 2000; EL: no data;
(2) FR, MT, FI: 2003; LU: no data

Source: Eurostat, UOE

Fig. 29 Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in science, mathematics and computing, 

1998 and 2004

% of total graduates

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

1998 (1)

2004 (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

(1) FR, CY: 1999; BE: 2000; EL: no data;
(2) FR, MT, FI: 2003; LU: no data

Source: Eurostat, UOE

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Fig. 30 Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in business and administration, 

1998 and 2004

% of total graduates

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1998 (1)

2004 (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

(1) FR, CY: 1999; BE: 2000; EL, UK: no data;
(2) FR, MT, FI: 2003; LU, PL: no data

Source: Eurostat, UOE

In teacher training and education, by contrast, women outnumber men substantially in all 
the countries as well as in health and welfare programmes. This is also the case in all the 
countries in humanities and arts and in social and behavioural science and journalism pro-
grammes.

In other broad areas of study, the numbers of men and women are more balanced in most 
countries, though there are a number of exceptions. In particular, in business and adminis-
tration programmes, women accounted for over 60 % of students in Greece, Spain, France, 
Portugal, Finland and in all the new Member States except Malta (Figure 30). Men, however, 
were in the majority in Denmark, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Austria and made up 
almost half of students in Belgium, Malta and the UK. Equally, men made up over 65 % of 
graduates in agriculture and veterinary programmes in Denmark, Germany, Cyprus (where 
men accounted for 100 % though the figures are small) and Malta, while women accounted 
for around 60 % or more in Estonia, Poland, Portugal, Sweden and the UK.

The share of women graduating has risen in all 
subject areas except science and maths

These relative concentrations of women and men in particular subject areas have diminished 
a little in recent years, but only in some cases. In most fields of education, the share of women 
increased over the six years 1998 to 2004 as their overall share of students graduating at terti-
ary level increased.

The main exception is science, mathematics and computing, where women were in a minor-
ity in 1998 and where their share declined even further in the EU as a whole and in the ma-
jority of Member States. Nevertheless, the share of women increased in eight EU countries 
— the three Nordic Member States, the Czech Republic, Germany, Estonia, Lithuania and 
Slovakia — and remained virtually the same in Belgium and Austria.

The share of women increased by most over this period in engineering, manufacturing and 
construction, where women have traditionally been in a small minority, both in the EU on 
average and in most Member States. The share of women in agriculture and veterinary pro-
grammes, where women have also been in a minority, rose in most countries, the average gap 
with men narrowing to under 3 percentage points.

8

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

The  proportion  of  women  graduating  in  teacher  training  and  education  programmes,  in 
which  women  were  in  a  large  majority,  expanded  only  marginally.  In  health  and  welfare 
programmes, however, the gap between women and men graduating widened even further 
— by around 6 percentage points in the EU as a whole.

The share of women increased equally markedly in business and administrative studies and, 
to a slightly lesser extent, in law.

Teachers

Most teachers below tertiary level are women, at tertiary level, men

Teaching remains predominantly a female occupation at least up to secondary school level. 
In primary and secondary schools, therefore, over 68 % of teachers are women, according 
to data for 2004. The proportion of women is particularly high in most of the new Member 
States — Cyprus and Malta being the exceptions — exceeding 80 % in Latvia and Lithuania 
as well as Bulgaria and exceeding 75 % in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia (no data 
are  available  for  the  Czech  Republic  and  Estonia).  The  proportion  of  women  is  also  over 
75 % in Italy. While it is smaller in other parts of the EU, it is, nevertheless, over 60 % in 
all Member States apart from Greece, where it is only slightly below (Figure 31 and Annex 
Table A.21).

By contrast, in universities and other tertiary-level colleges, the proportion of women among 
teachers  is  much  smaller  and  less  than  that  of  men  in  all  Member  States,  except  Latvia, 
Lithuania and Poland (in the last, women making up around 63 % of the total). In the EU 
as a whole, women accounted for under 40 % of teachers at this level; in Italy, Austria and 
Slovenia, only around 30 % or just over and in Malta for only 23 %.

Fig. 31 Proportion of female teachers, 2004

% of all teachers in each level

Primary/secondary

Tertiary

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

CZ, DK, EE, LU: no data; AT, PL: 2003; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, UOE

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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1

Part  — The formative years

Young women and men in the information society

Only small differences in the regular use of computers 
and the Internet by young men and women

According to the 2006 Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals, 
a larger proportion of young men than women used computers on a regular basis. However, 
the difference in use was small in the EU and most countries (Figure 32). Some 62 % of wom-
en in the EU used a computer on average once a day as opposed to 67 % of men and the gap is 
narrowed to only 2 percentage points if those using one once a week on average are included 
as well (i.e. an additional 19 % of women and 16 % of men, see Annex Table A.22).

There are, however, marked variations in the overall scale of daily use of computers by both 
women and men across the EU, with the proportion ranging from around 75 % or more in 

Fig. 32 Women and men having used a computer on average once a day or almost every day in the last 

three months, 2006

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

% of women/men aged 16-24

Women

Men

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

FR, MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

Fig. 33 Women and men having used Internet on average once a day or almost every day in the last three 

months, 2006

% of women/men aged 16-24

Women

Men

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden as well as in Iceland and Norway, to only 
around 38 % in Bulgaria and under 44 % in Ireland and Greece.

The difference between men and women in the use of the Internet is similarly small. In 2006, 
some 48 % of young women aged 16–24 in the EU used the Internet daily, or almost daily, as 
compared with 53 % of men. The figure for women ranged from over two thirds in Denmark, 
Estonia, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden (as well as Iceland and Norway) to only 27 % 
in Bulgaria and 22 % in Greece (Figure 33).

Women and men use the Internet for different purposes

In 2006, 74 % of women and 72 % of men aged 16–24 in the EU-25 used the Internet in the 
three months preceding the survey for communication purposes, in many cases for sending 
and receiving e-mails. Twice as many men in this age group in the EU than women used the 
Internet for downloading software (38 % as against 19 %). Similarly significantly more young 
men than women (56 % as opposed to 39 %) used it for playing or downloading games and 
music.

On the other hand, more young women than men used the Internet for formal education 
purposes, for arranging travel and accommodation (31–32 % for both activities compared 
with 27 % of men), as well as for seeking health information (25 % of women compared to 
only 10 % of men — Annex Table A.23)

Level of computer skills among women and men

Men are more skilled at using computers than women

The gap between men and women is wider in respect of basic computer skills than in the 
frequency of use. In 2006, almost half (48 %) of young men aged 16–24 in the EU were con-
sidered to have high skills as opposed to only 30 % of women. Moreover, the proportion of 
men with high skills was larger than for women in almost all Member States. While there 
were seven Member States in which at least 60 % of men in this age group had high basic 
computer skills and another six where the figure was over 50 %, the largest proportion of 
women with such skills was in Slovenia at 56 % and only in one other country, Austria, was 
the figure over 50 %.

At the same time, only a slightly smaller proportion of women than men in this age group 
in the EU were assessed as having at least medium-level basic skills and in six countries, the 
proportion of women was larger than for men (Annex Table A.24).

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Health of young women and men and other 
social aspects

Weight indicators of health

Similar numbers of women and men are classed as obese …

Obesity is perhaps the most serious health problem afflicting young people in many parts of 
the EU at the present time. A significant proportion of both young women and young men 
aged 15–24 in a number of Member States are either classed as obese or as overweight and 
so on the way to becoming obese, reflecting both their bad dietary habits and lifestyles. At 
the same time, in many countries, a similar proportion of young women are classed as being 
underweight, which also has potentially serious health implications.

The classification into these groups is based on the body mass index (BMI) (6) from informa-
tion collected by health interview surveys carried out between 1996 and 2003 in EU Member 
States. Since they relate to different years, the findings are not strictly comparable between 
countries. Nevertheless, they provide a broad indication of the situation across the EU.

… but more men than women are overweight

While there are much the same number of young women and young men who are classified 
as being obese in most EU Member States, there are many more men than women who are 
classified as being overweight. By contrast, around twice as many women aged 15–24 as men 
are classed as being underweight by the same measure.

The scale of the problem, however, varies across Member States (7) (Figures 34 and 35 and 
Annex  Table A.25).  The  young  women  and  men  classified  as  obese  are  concentrated  very 
much in a few countries, in particular, the UK (where the figures relate to England rather 
than the UK as a whole and where over 11 % of women and almost 10 % of men were so clas-
sified), Malta (where the figures are almost 10 % for women and just under 14 % for men), 
Germany (6 % of women and almost 8 % of men) and Ireland (around 6 % of both men and 
women). In the other Member States, apart from Denmark and Portugal, where 5–6 % of 
men in this age group were classed as being obese, the proportions were under 5 % (they 
were also 5–6 % in Iceland for both women and men). In Estonia, Italy, Latvia, the Neth-
erlands, Poland, Romania and Slovakia, they were under 2 % for both young women and 
young men.

Being overweight is a more widespread problem. The proportion of young men aged 15–24 
who were classed as being overweight in 2004 and on the way to being obese was over 10 % 
in all the European countries covered except France (where it was 8 %). In all the countries in 
which the relative number of men classed as obese was relatively large, the proportion clas-
sified as overweight was also relatively large. In Lithuania and Malta, the proportion of men 
considered overweight was over 30 %, in Ireland and Greece, over 25 % and in Germany and 
the UK, as well as in Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria and Iceland, over 20 %.

By contrast, in half the 26 Member States for which data are available, the share of women 
aged 15–24 classed as overweight was under 10 %. There are only three Member States — 
Germany, Ireland and the UK — as well as Iceland in which the proportion was over 15 %. 
These are all countries in which the number classed as obese was also relatively large. In the 

6  The body mass index 
(BMI) is a measure 
of a person’s weight 
relative to his/her 
height that correlates 
fairly well with body fat 
content in adults. It is 
calculated as the ratio 
between a person’s 
weight measured 
in kilograms, and 
the square of their 
height measured in 
metres. Someone with 
a BMI between 2 
and 0 is considered 
overweight and a 
person with a BMI of 
0 or more as obese. 
Those with a BMI 
below 8 are classed as 
underweight.

  Data from Germany 
and UK are based on 
measured height and 
weight, while in other 
countries these were 
self-reported.

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

UK, therefore, the proportion of young women classified as either obese or overweight was 
over 30 % and in Germany and Ireland as well as in Malta, over 20 %.

Fig. 34 Distribution of young women aged 15-24 according to the body mass index, 2004

% of women aged 15-24

Underweight

Overweight

Obese

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

LU: no data; UK: data refer to England

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

Fig. 35 Distribution of young men aged 15-24 according to the body mass index, 2004

% of men aged 15-24

Underweight (1)

Overweight

Obese (2)

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

LU: no data; UK: data refer to England;
(1) LT: no data; (2) LT, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

More women than men are classed as being underweight

At the same time as there are large numbers of young women and men overweight in Eu-
rope, there are significant numbers who are underweight, though in this case many more 
women than men.

There is again wide variation in the numbers involved across the EU, though apart from the 
UK, where the proportions are much the same, and Austria, the share of women classed as 
underweight exceeded that of men in all Member States, in most cases, markedly so. Except 
for the UK (8), where the relative number of both women and men concerned was around 

8  The high percentage 
of underweight 
persons in UK, 
compared to other 
EU countries is partly 
explained by the use 
of a different definition 
of the category 
‘underweight’, so 
that more persons 
are included in this 
category.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

17 %, the countries in which the number of young people classed as overweight was relatively 
high (Germany, Ireland and, to a lesser extent, Malta) have comparatively few classed as un-
derweight. In Bulgaria, France, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia and Slovakia, the proportion classified 
as being underweight was around 18–19 %, and in Norway, almost 33 %.

For men, by contrast, the proportion classified as underweight was under 10 % in all coun-
tries except France (12 %), Austria (16 %) and the UK (17 %) in the EU, and in Switzerland 
(10 %) and, above all, Norway (27 %) outside the EU.

Given  the  number  of  young  women  and  men  who  are  considered  either  over-  or  under-
weight,  more  than  half  of  the  young  women  and  men  were  classified  as  being  of  normal 
weight according to the body mass index. The proportions varied from around 80 % or just 
under in Estonia, Poland, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia — all new Member States — to 
only just over half in the UK and Norway.

Causes of death

Many more young men than women die from accidents

The much higher rate of mortality among young men than among young women is prima-
rily  a  result  of  many  more  men  than  women  dying  from  accidents  or  non-illness  related 
causes. But it is also the case that men are more prone than women to contract a fatal illness 
or disease.

In 2005, therefore, three times as many men in the EU aged 15–19 died from accidents and 
other external causes than women — around 38 per 100 000 as opposed to just under 12 per 
100 000 in the case of women. Of these, over half — 21 in every 100 000 — were the victims 
of road and other transport accidents. This was also true of women, though the figure was 
much lower (just below seven in every 100 000 — Figure 36).

These figures vary substantially across the EU, but in all countries, men were much more 
prone to fatal accidents than women. For men in this age group, deaths from external causes 
ranged from 93 per 100 000 in Lithuania and 73 in Estonia to 18 in the Netherlands, with 
no other country, except Bulgaria and Germany, and then only marginally, having a figure 

Fig. 36 Crude death rates of young women and men aged 15-24, by cause, 2005

Crude death rate per 100 000 inhabitants

Other external causes

Other accidents

Transport accidents

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Ext. 
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Women 15-19

Ext. 
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Men 15-19

Ext. 
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Women 20-24

Ext. 
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Men 20-24

Source: Eurostat, Health statistics



Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

below 30 per 100 000. For women, they ranged from 31 per 100 000 in Estonia and 28 in 
Lithuania — figures which were higher than for men in the Netherlands — to under 10 per 
100 000 in Greece, France and the Netherlands.

More men than women also die from illnesses and diseases

The difference between men and women in the number of deaths from illnesses and diseases 
is smaller but the figure for men in their teens was still over 50 % higher than for women in 
2005. Deaths among men aged 15–19, from these causes therefore, averaged almost 14 per 
100 000  in  the  EU  as  opposed  to  just  under  nine  per  100 000  among  women.  Neoplasms 
— or tumours — were the most common single cause, accounting for 34 % of all deaths from 
illnesses and diseases of women and men in this age group, while diseases of the nervous and 
circulatory systems accounted for a further 30 % or so (Annex Table A.26).

Again, deaths from these causes vary markedly across countries, in this case being particu-
larly high among both women and men in Bulgaria and Romania. In all countries, however, 
apart from Bulgaria and Sweden where the figures were much the same, deaths among men 
from illnesses and diseases were significantly higher than among women.

Deaths of men from external causes increase as they get older

A  similar  pattern  is  evident  for  women  and  men  aged  20–24.  Deaths  from  both  external 
causes and illnesses and diseases among women in the EU were slightly higher than among 
the younger age group in 2005 but among men, they were over 60 % higher. Some 65 men 
per 100 000 in the EU, therefore, died from external causes and around 20 per 100 000 from 
illnesses  and  diseases,  the  first  figure  over  4.5  times  higher  than  that  for  women  and  the 
second 65 % higher.

Differences between men and women of a similar scale exist in most Member States. In all 
countries, deaths from external causes among men were over 3.5 times greater than among 
women and over six times greater in Estonia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia. In Estonia and 
Lithuania, they were over 150 per 100 000 , more than twice the EU average and around five 
times more than in the Netherlands, which again had the smallest number of deaths from 
such causes among both men and women (30 per 100 000 for men, just over 10 for women).

At the same time, the number of men dying from illnesses and diseases was over 40 % higher 
than for women in all EU Member States apart from Estonia, Portugal and Slovakia, where 
it was just under 35 % higher, and Denmark and the Netherlands, where the numbers were 
almost the same. In Lithuania and Austria, the number of men dying from these causes, at 
around 30 per 100 000 or more, was over twice the number of women. The death rate among 
men in this age group from illnesses and diseases, however, was even higher in Bulgaria and 
Latvia (37–38 per 100 000).

As for the younger age group, the most common cause of death in this category were neo-
plasms along with diseases of the nervous and circulatory systems, which together account-
ed for 67–69 % of deaths among both women and men in the EU as a whole and a similar 
proportion in most countries.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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1

Part  — The formative years

Smoking

More young men than young women in the EU smoke regularly

While smoking is on the decline in Europe, according to the 2004 round of health inter-
view surveys there are still large numbers of young women and men who smoke cigarettes 
 regularly (Figure 37 and Annex Table A.27).

The numbers concerned vary markedly across the EU, though only in two Member States 
— Sweden and the UK — as well as in Norway outside the EU, were more young women than 
men daily smokers. In around half the countries, however, more women than men in this age 
group smoked occasionally.

The relative number of smokers also varies greatly across countries. For women, the proportion 
of daily smokers ranged from 36–37 % in Austria and the UK and 31 % in Spain and Hungary 
to under 15 % in Lithuania and Slovakia, 10–11 % in Cyprus and Portugal and only 9 % in Ro-
mania. By contrast, the proportion of men aged 15 to 24 who smoked daily was over 23 % in all 
countries apart from Sweden (only just over 10 %) and Romania (19 %), while it was some 45 % 
or more in Estonia, Hungary and Austria and over 40 % in Germany and Latvia.

Men are also more likely than women to smoke heavily

Among smokers, a comparatively small proportion of young women and men smoked more 
than 20 cigarettes a day in most countries, though again men were more likely than women 
to do so. Indeed, the latter was the case in all countries apart from Belgium and Iceland. In 
Cyprus, over 80 % of male smokers had a daily consumption this high and in Greece and the 
Netherlands, over 70 %. On the other hand, the figure was only just over 11 % in the Czech 
Republic and under 10 % in Bulgaria and Austria as well as in Iceland.

Among women smokers, the proportion smoking over 20 cigarettes a day was also much 
larger than elsewhere in Cyprus, Greece and the Netherlands, though in the first two, still 
well  below  the  figure  for  men  (18  percentage  points  lower  in  Greece  and  44  percentage 
points lower in Cyprus). In the Netherlands, some 83 % of women smokers consumed this 
many cigarettes a day, more than the proportion of men. By contrast, in Bulgaria, the Czech 
 Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Malta and Austria, the figure was under 10 %.

Fig. 37 Proportion of young women and men aged 15-24 who smoke, 2004

% of women/men aged 15-24

Daily

Occasionally (1)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E
I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S
I

O
N

H
C

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
LU: no data; (1) FR, IT, UK: no data

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

6

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The formative years

1

Use of cannabis

A larger number of young men than women have used cannabis

Young men are also more likely than young women to use other drugs apart from tobac-
co, according to surveys carried out in schools. Although these surveys only collected data 
on cannabis use, the findings might be indicative of the use of more ‘fashionable’ — and 
 dangerous — drugs.

In 2003, the proportion of young men aged 15 and 16 who had used cannabis on more than 
40 occasions was larger than that of women in all EU Member States apart from Ireland. 
This proportion, however, varied widely across countries, ranging in the case of men from 
12–14 % in the Czech Republic, France and the UK to only 1 % in Greece, Cyprus, Finland 
and Sweden and under 1 % in Romania. Among women, it ranged from 6–7 % in Ireland, 
the Czech Republic and the UK, to under 1 % in the three Baltic States, Cyprus, Hungary, 
Finland, Sweden and Romania (Figure 38 and Annex Table A.28).

How young women and men spend their time

Women and men spend their time in different ways

Information collected from time use surveys (conducted by people keeping a diary of how 
long they spend on different activities during a typical day) indicates that there are significant 
differences in how young women and men spend their time. In the 14 EU Member States for 
which time use surveys were carried out on a reasonably comparable basis at various times 
during the period 1998 to 2004, women aged 15–24 on average spend more time on personal 
care, studying and, above all, on unpaid work around the house, including caring for chil-
dren as well as cooking and cleaning, than men of the same age. By contrast, young men 
spend more time in paid work, in sporting activities, in watching TV and playing computer 
games than young women (Figure 39).

According to the surveys, women in this age group in the 14 countries covered, therefore, spend 
much the same amount of time as men sleeping and eating but an average of around one hour a 
day on other sorts of personal care (Annex Table A.29). Much the same is true in each Member 

Fig. 38 Use of cannabis among students aged 15-16, 2003

Proportion having used cannabis 40+ times

Girls

Boys

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

BE BG CZ DK DE EE

IE

EL FR

IT CY LV LT HU MT NL AT PL PT RO SI

SK FI

SE UK TR NO

ES, LU: no data

Source: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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1

Part  — The formative years

Fig. 39 How do young women and men aged 15-24 spend their time

Minutes per day

Left bar: women; right bar: men

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Leisure

Domestic work

Employment

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

BE

DE

EE

ES

FR

IT

LV

LT

HU

PL

SI

FI

SE

UK

All
countries

SE: age 20-24; 
BG, CZ, DK, IE, EL, CY, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, RO, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, national time use surveys, 1998-2004

State, with similar amounts of time being spent by women and men — though in Italy, both 
spend 12–14 minutes a day more than the average elsewhere — and with women spending more 
time than men in all countries (over 20 minutes a day more in Sweden and the UK).

Young men spend more time than women in paid 
work, women more time studying

Even at this age, men spend on average almost 40 minutes a day more than women working 
in paid employment (2 hours 13 minutes as opposed to 1 hour 35 minutes). Only in Sweden, 
do women spend as much time as men in employment (though here the data relate to those 
aged 20–24), while in Spain, men spend almost an hour longer a day and in Latvia, 1 hour 11 
minutes longer. The time spent in employment by both women and men is particularly long 
in the UK — over three hours a day for men and 2 hours 24 minutes for women.

This is accompanied in the UK by less time being spent in study (96–97 minutes a day) than 
in  most  other  countries  (well  over  two  hours  a  day),  reflecting  the  smaller  proportion  of 
young men and women in full-time education or vocational training. In Estonia, however, 
the time spent is even shorter (only just over 80 minutes a day) (9).

Apart from in Estonia and the UK together with Lithuania and Finland, in each of which 
women and men spend a similar amount of time studying, women spend more time study-
ing than men in all the other Member States. This reflects the larger proportion of women 
than men in this age group enrolled in upper secondary or tertiary education programmes 
in most parts of the EU, as noted above.

Women spend more time than men in unpaid work …

In contrast to the shorter time spent in paid work, women spend much longer in unpaid work 
of various kinds than men — almost an hour a week longer on average in the 14 countries cov-
ered. The difference is particularly marked in the time spent preparing food, washing dishes 
and cleaning the house. The difference, moreover, is repeated to varying extents in all Member 
States. It is especially pronounced in Estonia and Lithuania (at around 90 minutes or more in 
total) as well as in Poland and Italy (over 75 minutes in each case). Indeed, in Italy, whereas 
women aged 15–24 spend on average over an hour a day on preparing food, washing dishes 

  The time spent 

studying is shorter still 
in Sweden but this is 
to be expected given 
the older age group 
covered.

8

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Part  — The formative years

1

and cleaning the house, men spend just eight minutes a day. This contrasts with Sweden, where 
men spend 37 minutes a day on such tasks, significantly more than in most other countries.

… men more time than women on leisure activities

Primarily as a consequence of the longer time spent in domestic chores, young women in 
this  age  group  generally  spend  much  less  time  than  men  on  leisure  activities  —  some  47 
minutes a day less on average in the 14 Member States. The difference is significant in all the 
countries, ranging from over an hour a day in Estonia and France to 24 minutes in Latvia. 
The difference is especially marked in respect of computer games and other computing, in 
which men spend an average of 41 minutes a day and women just 13 minutes. The difference 
is significant in all Member States, even though the overall time spent by men each day varies 
from 65 minutes in Germany to 19 minutes in Estonia.

Men also spend an average of 13 minutes a day more than women on sporting activities, the 
difference being virtually the same in all countries.

There is equally a difference, though smaller, in time spent by women and men watching televi-
sion, which is again repeated in all countries. The overall amount of time involved, however, 
varies markedly from over 2.5 hours a day in the case of men in Estonia and the UK and over 2 
hours a day for women to under 1.5 hours a day for both men and women in Spain and Italy.

In other areas of leisure, while women and men spend a similar amount of time on average 
in socialising, there are differences in the time spent on particular activities included under 
this heading. Women, generally, therefore, spend more time socialising with their families 
than men and less with other people and more time on the telephone.

Similarly, while the time spent travelling by women and men is much the same on average 
across the 14 Member States, women in all countries spend more time travelling to shop and 
men in most countries spend more time travelling for leisure. This is especially the case in 
Italy, where men spend almost an hour a day on average on the latter and women only just 
over 40 minutes.

Young people involved in crime

Crime statistics lack comparability across countries but indicate 
the relative numbers of women and men involved

Comparing statistics on involvement in crime across countries is a difficult task because of 
variations in both criminal justice systems and, partly as a reflection of this, definitions of 
criminal offences. The periodic surveys on crime trends and operations of criminal justice 
systems carried out by the United Nations attempt to apply standardised definitions to the 
data compiled by individual countries. These data may not be fully comparable and are af-
fected to differing degrees by under-reporting. Nevertheless, in so far as this affects women 
and men to similar extents, they provide a reasonable indication of the relative involvement 
of women and men in criminal activity across Europe.

Many more young men than women are convicted 
of crimes throughout the EU

According to the latest statistics available (for 2002), the number of young men — or juve-
niles — convicted in a criminal court considerably outweighs the number of young women 
throughout the EU (juveniles are in most countries defined as those under 18, though under 

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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1

Part  — The formative years

16 in Malta and Portugal and under 19 in Luxembourg). While the proportion of women 
varies across Member States, only in Italy, did it exceed 20 % and elsewhere only in Germany 
and Finland, over 15 %. In Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Poland and Slovenia, the proportion of 
women was under 5 % (Figure 40 and Annex Table A.30).

Fig. 40 Juveniles convicted in criminal courts, 2002

% of all

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Men

Women

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

IE, LU, MT: no data; IE, AT: 1994; EL: 1996; ES: 1999; BG, EE, FR , HU: 2000; PL: 2001; 
PT: estimated from sex breakdown in 1994; BE: data estimated from sex breakdown in 1995; 
LT: estimated from sex breakdown in 1997

Source: UN, 8th Criminal and
Justice Survey

A larger proportion of men than women are also sent to prison

The number of young women relative to men sent to prison after conviction is even lower, 
suggesting that the crimes they commit are generally less serious. The proportion of women, 
therefore, exceeds 6 % only in Bulgaria, Spain, the UK and, most markedly, the Netherlands 
(Figure 41).

Fig. 41 Convicted juveniles admitted to prisons, 2002

% of all

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Men

Women

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

G
B

Z
C

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

O
R

K F
S

I

K
U

BE, LU, MT, SI, SE: unreliable data; DK: no data;
AT: 1994; EL: 1996; IE: 1997; BG, EE, ES, FR: 2000; MT: 2001

Source: UN, 8th Criminal and Justice Survey

0

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2

The working and family years

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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Panorama2008.indb   52

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2

Employment patterns and reconciliation of work 
and family life

Employment of women and men

The proportion of men of working age in employment exceeds that of women throughout 
Europe. In the EU-25 as a whole, some 72 % of men aged 15–64 were in paid employment in 
2006 as compared with just over 57 % of women in the same age group. The proportion of 
men of working age in employment, however, varied, in the EU, from around 81 % in Den-
mark and the Netherlands to just under 63 % in Bulgaria and 61 % in Poland. For women, 
the proportion varied more, from just over 73 % in Denmark and just under 71 % in Sweden 
to just over 46 % in Italy and only 35 % in Malta (Figure 42).

Outside of the EU, there was an even wider variation in employment rates between coun-
tries. In both Iceland and Switzerland, the proportion of men of working age in employment 
was slightly higher than in any EU Member State, at 87 % and just under 85 %, respectively. 
In Iceland, moreover, the proportion of women in employment was significantly higher than 
in Denmark, at 80.5 %. At the other end of the scale, in Croatia, the employment rate of men 
aged 15–64 was just 62 % and for women, just over 49 %. In Turkey, the employment rate of 
women in this age group was only 24 %, while the rate for men was 68 %, lower than in most 
EU Member States but still considerably above the rate for women.

The employment rate of both men and women is lower in the new EU Member States in cen-
tral and eastern Europe than before the transition when everyone able to do so was expected 
to work. In many of the countries, however, the rate has risen over recent years. In the rest 
of the EU, the main tendency has been for the employment of women to increase over the 
long term as growing numbers have entered the labour market. The employment of men has 
tended to change relatively little in most of these countries.

Fig. 42 Employment rate of women and men aged 15-64, 2006

% of women/men aged 15-64

Women

Men

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

IS: 2005

Source: Eurostat, LFS (annual averages)

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 43 Changes in employment rate of women and men aged 15-64, 2000-06

% point

Women

Men

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

5
2
-
U
E

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

O
N

H
C

HR: no data for 2000; IS: no data for 2000 and 2006;
ES and SE: break in the series between 2000 and 2006. Change in these two countries is indicative only

Source: Eurostat, LFS

These  tendencies  are  reflected  in  the  changes  which  occurred  over  the  period  2000–06. 
Whereas the proportion of men aged 15–64 in employment increased by under 1 percentage 
point in the EU-25 as a whole over these six years, the proportion of women in employment 
rose by almost 4 percentage points (Figure 43 and Annex Table A.31).

Increases in the employment rate of men were particularly marked in Bulgaria, the three 
Baltic States and Slovakia, while the employment rate declined by more than 1 percentage 
point in the three Benelux countries, Portugal and Romania. Among women, the employ-
ment rate increased by more than 1 percentage point in all Member States except the Czech 
Republic (where it remained much the same), Poland (where it fell slightly) and Slovakia. 
Increases were especially large in Bulgaria, Estonia, Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Latvia.

Outside  the  EU,  the  employment  rate  of  both  women  and  men  declined  in  Turkey  and 
 Norway over this period, as did the employment rate for men in Switzerland.

Fig. 44 Women as a share of total employed aged 15-64, 2006

% of total employed aged 15-64

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

IS: 2005

Source: Eurostat, LFS



Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

These changes in employment rates mean that women came to account for a larger share of 
the total in work between 2000 and 2006. Nevertheless, women made up only just over 44 % 
of those of working age in employment in the EU-25 as a whole in 2006, men almost 56 % 
(Figure 44 and Annex Table A.32).

The share of women in the total employed varies across the EU, reflecting differences be-
tween the employment rates of men and women. The share of women in 2006 ranged from 
50 % in Estonia and almost 50 % in Lithuania — the only two countries in the EU where 
women make up much the same proportion of the people in employment as men — to under 
40 % in Greece, Italy and Malta. In the latter, it was only just over 31 %, by far the smallest 
proportion in the EU. This, however, is still higher than in Turkey, where women accounted 
for only 26 % of the total employed in 2006, slightly less than in 2000.

Activity patterns of employment

More than men, women in employment in the EU tend to be concentrated in a few sectors of 
activity. This concentration, moreover, seems to be increasing rather than falling over time.

Women are more concentrated than men in a few sectors in the EU-25

Comparing the distribution by industry of employed women with that of men, a much larger 
proportion of women work in services, while the reverse is the case in industry.

In the EU-25 in 2005, some 61 % of women in employment worked in just six sectors of activ-
ity, defined at the NACE 2-digit level (of which there are 62 in total) (Figure 45). All of these 
involved the supply of services. They consist of health care and social work (in which 17 % 
of all women in work were employed), retailing (12.5 %), education (11.5 %), public adminis-
tration (7 %), business activities (7 %) and hotels and restaurants (5 %) (Annex Table A.33). 
These six sectors, however, accounted for only 31 % of men in employment.

For men, the degree of concentration is much less than for women. The six most important 
sectors — three of which are also the most important for women — employed 42 % of those 
in work in the EU-25 in 2005. They are construction (which employed 13 % of all men as 
against  just  1.5 %  of  women),  public  administration  (7 %,  much  the  same  as  for  women), 

Fig. 45 Concentration of women and men in employment by NACE 2-digit sector in the EU-25, 2005

Guide to Figure 45

% total employed

Land transport

Agriculture

Business services

Retail

Public
administration

Construction

Health, social

Education

Retail

Men

Women

Hotels, restaurants

Business services

Public  administration

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% men or women employed

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The  figure 
indicates  the 
extent  to  which  women 
and  men  in  employment 
are  concentrated  in  a  few 
sectors of activity in the EU. 
It shows on the horizontal 
axis  the  cumulative  share 
of  women  and  of  men 
employed  in  each  of  the 
62  NACE  2-digit  sectors, 
ranked  according  to  the 
relative number of women 
or men employed in them, 
and on the vertical axis, the 
share of the total employed 
working  in  each  sector.  If 
the  share  of  women  and 
men  employed 
in  each 
same, 
sector  was 
then  the  curves  would  lie 
on  the    degree  line  in 
both  cases.  The  more  the 
curve  diverges  from  the 
  degree  line,  the  more 
women  and  men  are 
concentrated  in  different 
sectors.

the 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

retailing (6 %, half the proportion of women), business activities (6 %, slightly less than for 
women), agriculture (5 % as against 4 % of women) and land transport (4 %, four times the 
share for women). These six sectors accounted for 33 % of women in employment.

Not only, therefore, is women’s employment spread less evenly across sectors, but the sectors 
in which women predominantly work are different from those in which men are concen-
trated. As a result, in some sectors, jobs are mainly filled by women, in others by men (An-
nex Table A.34). Women make up almost 80 % of those employed in health and social work, 
over 70 % of those employed in education and over 60 % of those working in retailing. By 
contrast, women make up just 8 % of the workforce in construction and only 14 % of that in 
land transport, sectors in which men are concentrated.

Some increase in concentration since 2000

The degree of concentration of both women’s and men’s employment increased slightly in the 
five years up to 2005, more for women than for men. In 2005 the top six sectors for women, 
which were the same as in 2000, accounted for 61 % of women in employment in the EU-25, 
2 percentage points more than in 2000 (Annex Table A.35).

The increase over the period is to a large extent due to the growth of jobs in health and social 
work, education and business activities. All three sectors are ones in which overall employ-
ment expanded at a relatively high rate. While the share of jobs filled by women in health 
and social work was the same in 2005 as in 2000, the share in education increased, so that 
women became even more dominant in this sector than before. Women’s share of jobs also 
increased in business activities and public administration, where men were in the majority. 
The  division  of  employment  between  women  and  men,  therefore,  became  more  equal  in 
these two sectors.

The degree of concentration of men’s employment also increased between 2000 and 2005, but 
only marginally, due mainly to a growth of jobs in construction, the top-ranking sector.

The degree of concentration of women’s employment 
is similar across Member States

The largest six employers of women are the same in 11 countries and in the EU as a whole, 
differ by only one sector in another 10, and by two in the remaining six. In 12 of the EU 
Member States, health and social work was the largest employer of women in 2005, as it is 
also in Iceland and Norway. In three Nordic Member States and the Netherlands, it account-
ed for between 28 % and 32 % of all women in employment. In six countries, education is 
the top employer of women while retailing is the largest employer in another six. In Poland, 
Portugal and Romania, however, agriculture remains the main employer of women.

The top six sectors accounted for more than 50 % of women’s employment in all EU Member 
States in 2005. Concentration is highest in the Netherlands and Sweden (71 % of all women 
employed working in the top six sectors), in Norway, the figure was even higher at 73 %, fol-
lowed by the UK, Belgium and Romania (68–69 %) (Figure 46). Concentration is lowest in 
the Czech Republic and Estonia (52–53 % being employed in the top six sectors).

These high degrees of concentration reflect the preponderance of women in a number of sec-
tors. Women made up over 73 % of the workforce in health and social work in all countries, 
apart from Greece, Italy, Cyprus and Malta, and for more than 70 % in education in most 
countries (Figure 47 and Annex Table A.34).

6

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 46 Share of women and men in work employed in top 6 sectors, 2005

% of women/men employed

Women

Men

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 47 Women as a share of total employed in health and social work, 2005

% of total employed in the sector

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Men’s employment is more diversified

Men  are  not  only  less  concentrated  in  a  few  sectors  of  activity  than  women  but  the  sec-
tors concerned vary more between countries. In the great majority of Member States — the 
exceptions are Greece, Cyprus, Lithuania, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal and Romania — 
the top six sectors employed less than half of the men in work in 2005 and under 40 % in 
 Germany, Austria and Finland. The degree of concentration of men’s employment is highest 
in Romania: almost 59 % of men in work being concentrated in the top six sectors, 31 % in 
agriculture alone.

Agriculture is also the largest employer of men in Lithuania and Poland — as it is for women 
in Poland and Romania. In all other Member States, construction is the biggest employer, 
providing jobs for over 10 % of men in work in all of them. This is largely a result of men 
making up virtually all of the workforce in the sector (over 90 % in most cases).

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Part 2 — The working and family years

The other sectors comprising the top six for men differ across the EU. Their make-up is the 
same as for the EU-25 as a whole in only Ireland, Hungary and Poland. This partly reflects 
the small size of agriculture in most Member States but even so, there are no more than two 
Member States which have the same composition of the top six sectors

Concentration of women’s employment is increasing in most Member States

The proportion of women in work employed in the top six sectors increased between 2000 
and  2005  in  most  Member  States  (Figure 48).  The  exceptions  are  Belgium,  Greece,  Malta 
and Slovakia, where it fell slightly, and Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania, where the 
decline was more significant, partly because of the decline in agricultural employment. The 
degree of concentration also rose in Iceland and Norway.

For men, the concentration of employment in the top six sectors increased in 11 EU countries, 
as well as in Norway, declined in 11, as well as in Iceland, and remained broadly unchanged 
in five.

Fig. 48 Change in share of women and men employed in top 6 sectors, 2000-2005

% point

Women

Men

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

5
2
-
U
E

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

HR: no data for 2000; PL: data for 2000 refer to 2004; LU: data for 2005 refer to 2004

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Occupational patterns of employment

As well as in the industries, women are concentrated 
in a smaller number of occupations than men.

There is also a bigger difference between the occupations which men and women have — or 
the jobs that they do — than between the sectors in which they are employed. As in the case 
of sectors, the degree of concentration in a limited number of occupations is much higher 
among  women  than  among  men.  In  2005,  almost  36 %  of  women  in  work  in  the  Union 
were  employed  in  just  six  of  the  130  standard  occupational  categories  (ISCO-88  3-digit) 
whereas the top six occupations for men accounted for just over 25 % of the total in work 
(Figure 49).

8

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 49 Concentration of women and men in employment by ISCO 3-digit occupation in the EU-25, 2005

Guide to Figure 49

the 

The  figure 
indicates  the 
extent  to  which  women 
and  men  in  employment 
in 
concentrated 
are 
a 
limited  number  of 
occupations  in  the  EU.  It 
shows  on  the  horizontal 
axis 
cumulative 
share  of  women  and  of 
in  each 
men  employed 
ISCO  -digit 
of  the  0 
occupations, 
ranked 
according  to  the  relative 
number  of  women  or 
men  employed  in  them, 
and  on  the  vertical  axis, 
total 
the  share  of 
in 
employed  working 
each  occupation. 
If  the 
share  of  women  and 
men  employed 
in  each 
occupation  was the same, 
then  the  curves  would  lie 
on  the    degree  line  in 
both  cases.  The  more  the 
curves  diverge  from  the 
  degree  line,  the  more 
women  and  men  are 
concentrated  in  different 
occupations.

the 

% total employed

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0

Men

Women

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

419 343

512

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% men or women employed

Source: Eurostat, LFS

723

131 713 311
913

513

832 712
522
10

The top occupational groups for women in the EU-25 are different from those for men, though 
there are a few similarities. Shop salespersons and demonstrators, managers of small busi-
nesses and finance and sales associate professionals feature among the top 10 occupations for 
both men and women (Annex Table A.35). However, shop salespersons and demonstrators, 
the top occupational category for women, employing 8 % of those in work, accounted for 
under 3 % of men. The next three largest categories for women, ‘domestic helpers’, ‘personal 
care workers’ and ‘other office clerks’ employed a further 19 % of women between them but 
only 3 % of men.

ISCO-88 occupation codes (EU-25 top six sectors)

Code

Description

Code

Women

Men

Description

22









2

Shop salespersons & demonstrators 

82 Motor vehicle drivers

Domestic & related helpers, cleaners & launderers

2

Building frame & related trades workers

Personal care & related workers

 Managers of small enterprises

Other office clerks

Administrative associate professionals 





Building finishers & related trades workers

Physical & engineering science technicians 

Housekeeping & restaurant services workers

2 Machinery mechanics & fitters

Women  are  more  concentrated  in  a  few  occupations  than  men  in  all  countries  except 
 Lithuania, where the reverse is the case. In Estonia, Latvia and the Czech Republic, the dif-
ference is relatively small. In four Member States — Denmark, France, Cyprus, Luxembourg 
and Sweden — as well as in Norway, the proportion of women in the top six occupations is 
over 15 percentage points larger than for men (Figure 50).

The  highest  concentration  of  women’s  employment  is  in  Cyprus  and  Romania,  where  in 
each case over 50 % of the women employed worked in the largest six occupational groups 
in 2005. In Cyprus, around 19 % of women in employment worked as ‘domestic and related 
helpers,  cleaners  and  launderers’,  reflecting  the  importance  of  employment  in  hotels  and 
private households, and in Romania, just over 27 % worked as ‘crop and animal producers’, 
reflecting the importance of agriculture. The lowest concentration was in Italy and Latvia, 
where the top six occupations accounted for 32–33 % of all women in work.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 50

Share of employment of women and men in top six occupations (ISCO 3-digit), 2005

% of women/men employed

Women

Men

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

For men, the proportion in the top six occupations exceeds 40 % in Greece (where 11 % were 
employed as managers of small enterprises) and Romania (where as for women a relatively 
large proportion — 22 % — worked as crop and animal producers). The degree of concentra-
tion is lowest in Denmark and the Netherlands (around 25 % in each).

In the case of men, just over 5 % of those in employment in the EU-25 worked as ‘motor vehi-
cle drivers’, just under 5 % worked as ‘building frame and related trades’ workers, some 4 % 
as ‘building finishers and related trades’ workers and just under 4 % as machinery mechan-
ics and fitters. Almost 18 % of men in work, therefore, were employed in these four occupa-
tions. These jobs, however, accounted for under 1 % of women in employment.

A similar pattern is repeated in individual countries. In all Member States many more wom-
en than men were employed in secretarial, clerical and sales jobs and as nurses or teach-
ers. Equally, considerably more men than women were employed as craft and related trades 
workers and as machine operators.

Men and women employed in ICT occupations

Many  more  men  than  women  are  also  employed  in  computing  jobs  across  the  EU-25.  In 
2006, some 2.6 % of men in employment in the EU worked as computing professionals or as 
computer associate professionals (ISCO categories 213 and 312), almost four times the pro-
portion of women (0.7 %). This difference was more than 3 to 1 in nearly all countries and 
over 5 to 1 in the Netherlands, Austria and Portugal (Figure 51).

No change in the share of women employed in computing jobs in 2001–2006

The gap between men and women in employment in computing jobs has tended to widen 
rather than narrow over time. In the five years 2001–06, the proportion of men in work em-
ployed in such jobs in the EU increased by 0.3 of a percentage point, whereas the proportion 
of women remained at 0.7 % (Figure 52 and Annex Table A.36). The gap between men and 
women widened in nearly all Member States and in those in which it did not, narrowed only 
marginally, except in Sweden.

60

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 51 Women and men employed in computing occupations, 2006

% of women/men in all occupations

Women (1)

Men (2)

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

H
C

IS, CH: 2005;

Source: Eurostat, LFS

(1) data too small to be published: EE, LT, LU, MT, HR; unreliable data: BG, CY, LV, AT, SI;

(2) data too small to be published: LT; unreliable data: EE, MT, HR

Fig. 52 Change in share of women and men employed in computing jobs, 2001-06

% point

1.8

Women (1)

Men (2)

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

MT, RO, HR: no data for 2001; IS, CH: data for 2006 refer to 2005;
(1) unreliable data: EE, CY, LV, LT, LU, PT, IS (2) unreliable data: EE, LV, LT

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The difference is especially wide among younger people

There is little sign of a longer-term tendency for the gap to narrow. Indeed, the difference 
between the proportion of men in employment working in computing jobs and the propor-
tion of women is wider among young people than among the older generation. In 2006, some 
3.5 % of men aged below 40 and in work in the EU were employed in computing occupations 
as compared with only 0.8 % of women (Figure 53 and Annex Table A.37). Both proportions 
are higher than for those aged 40 and over (1.8 % for men, 0.5 % for women), but much more 
so for men than women. The gap between the proportion of men employed in such jobs and 
the proportion of women was 2.7 percentage points for those under 40 as against 1.3 per-
centage points for those of 40 and over. This difference is repeated to varying extents in all 
Member States.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 53 Share of women and men aged under 40 employed in computing jobs, 2006

% of women/men in all occupations

Women (1)

Men (2)

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

5
2
-
U
E

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

O
N

H
C

(1) data too small to be published: BG, EE, LV, LT, LU, MT, PT, HR; unreliable data: BE, DK, IE, EL, CY, HU, AT, SI;
(2) data too small to be published: LT, MT; unreliable data: EE, HR

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Business activities and financial intermediation make up more 
than 50 % of men and women working in computing jobs

As might be expected, both women and men working in computing jobs were employed to 
a large extent in business activities (NACE K, which includes computer and related activi-
ties) and financial intermediation (NACE J). In 2006, around 59 % of men in computing jobs 
worked in these activities as compared with just over 53 % of women (Figure 54 and Annex 
Table A.38).

A larger proportion of men than women in computing jobs worked in manufacturing. The 
reverse was the case in public administration, education and health, where the proportion of 
women employed in computing jobs was almost twice that of men. Between 2001 and 2006, 
the difference in the shares of women and men employed in computing jobs narrowed in 
manufacturing, whereas it widened in other sectors of activity.

Men and women self-employed and in managerial positions

Many more men than women run their own businesses across the EU. Equally, there are 
many more men than women managing businesses, irrespective of whether they own them 
or not. There is little sign of either of these gaps narrowing over recent years.

In  2005,  self-employed  women  in  industry  and  market  services  in  the  EU  as  a  whole  ac-
counted for 11.5 % of the total number of women working in these sectors, considerably less 
than the proportion of self-employed men (18.7 %) (10).

These figures, however, include both self-employed with employees and those without. Many 
of the latter are professionals or do much the same job as employees except with a different 
status or terms of employment. Entrepreneurs are essentially those with employees, though 
many entrepreneurs managing businesses, even their own, are classified as employees. These 
are considered below.

Around 70 % of women who are self-employed in industry and market services in the EU, 
or some 8 % of the women working in these sectors, do not have employees. This compares 
with just over 60 % of men who are self-employed, or just under 12 % of all those working in 

0  These figures exclude 

employment in 
public administration, 
education, health 
and extra-territorial 
organisations. 
They also exclude 
agriculture in which 
the self-employed 
make up a large 
proportion of total 
employment —  % 
in the case of women 
and  % in the case of 
men

62

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 54 Division between sectors of activity of women and 

men employed in computing jobs in the EU-25, 
2006

% of women/men employed in computing jobs

80

60

40

20

0

20

40

60

80

Women

Men

Manufacturing

Trade,
hotels&restaurants, 
transport and
communication

Business activities
and financial
intermediation

Public
administration, 
education and
health

Other 

the  sectors  concerned.  Accordingly, 
only  3.5 %  of  the  women  working  in 
industry and market services in 2005 
were  self-employed  with  employees, 
whereas for men, the proportion was 
twice as high at around 7 % (Figure 55 
and Annex Table A.39).

The  proportion  of  women  and  men 
who are self-employed with employees 
varies  markedly  between  countries, 
in  part  reflecting  the  importance  of 
small businesses, the nature of the fis-
cal regime and the regulations in place 
(11).  For  men,  it  ranged  from  around 
12–13 %  of  the  total  employed  in  in-
dustry and market services in Greece 
and Cyprus in 2005 and almost 11 % 
in Italy to just over 4 % in the UK, just 
under  4 %  in  Estonia  and  just  over 
3 %  in  Lithuania  —  and  under  2 % 
in Norway. In all Member States, the 
proportion  of  men  exceeded  that  of 
women,  in  most  countries  by  over  3 
percentage points, in Greece, by over 
7 percentage points and in Cyprus, by 
11 points.

80

60

40

20

0

20

40

60

80

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 55 Women and men self-employed in industry and market services, 2005

% of total women/men employed in industry and services*

Without employees

With employees

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
LU: 2004; RO: no data; EU-25: estimate;
*excluding public administration, education, health, and extra-territorial organisations

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  In some countries, 
the tax and social 
contributions system 
may give an incentive 
for people to register 
as self-employed, while 
regulations may restrict 
or encourage this.

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 56 Percentage point difference in the proportion of men and women self-employed with employees 

in industry and market services*, 2000 and 2005

% point difference

2000

2005

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

LU: figure in 2000 negative; figure in 2005 refer to 2004; RO: no data; EU-25: estimate;
*excluding public administration, education, health, and extra-territorial organisations

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Little sign of the 
entrepreneurial gap narrowing

There is little sign of the entrepreneur-
ial gap, measured in this way, narrow-
ing in recent years. Between 2000 and 
2005, the proportion of self-employed 
with  employees  in  the  EU  remained 
virtually unchanged for both women 
and men, leaving the gap at the same 
size as before (Figure 56).

There  are  slightly  more  Member 
States in which the gap between men 
and  women  widened  over  these  five 
years (11 of the 26 for which data are 
available)  than  in  which  it  narrowed 
(eight).

Sectoral concentration of 
self-employed with employees 
is more marked for women

Almost a third of self-employed wom-
en with employees in 2005 worked in 
the  distributive  trades  (retailing  es-
pecially),  in  the  EU-25,  significantly 
more than the sector’s share of wom-
en employees (25 %). Another 16 % of 
self-employed  women  with  employ-
ees  worked  in  business  and  financial 
services,  much less than the share of 
women employees in this sector, while 

Fig. 57 Distribution of self-employed with employees by 

sector in the EU-25, 2000 and 2005

% of women/men self-employed with employees

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

Women

Men

Construction

Tranport &
Communication

Agriculture

Industry (excl.
Construction)

Hotels & 
Restaurants

Community & 
Personal services

Financial & Business
services

Distribution

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

Top bar: 2000; bottom bar: 2005;
EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

6

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

14 % worked in the hotels and restaurants sector and in community and personal services, 
in both cases more than their share of women employees, especially in the first. These four 
sectors accounted for some 75 % of all women entrepreneurs defined in this way.

Men entrepreneurs were much less concentrated in these sectors. Apart from financial and 
business services, in which the proportion for men and women was much the same, each of 
the four sectors accounted for a significantly smaller proportion of men self-employed with 
employees than women — only just over half as against three quarters. Correspondingly, 
more men entrepreneurs worked in industry and construction, over 35 % of the total as op-
posed to just 14 % in the case of women (Figure 57 and Annex Table A.40). The pattern was 
similar in most Member States.

A larger proportion of men than women worked as self-employed with employees in 2005 
in all broad sectors of activity in the EU, (Figure 58). The only sector in which the gap is rea-
sonably small is community and personal services (at around 1 percentage point). This is the 
only sector where there was a larger proportion of women than men self-employed with em-
ployees in a significant number of Member States — Italy, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slov-
enia, Slovakia and the UK — as well as Croatia, Iceland and Norway (Annex Table A.41).

Fig. 58 Women and men self-employed with employees by sector in the EU-25, 2005

% of women/men employed in each sector

Women

Men

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

y
r
t
s
u
d
n

I

,
t
r
o
p
s
n
a
r
T

n
o
i
t
a
c
i
n
u
m
m
o
c

d
n
a

l

a
i
c
n
a
n
F

i

s
s
e
n
i
s
u
b

s
e
c
i

v
r
e
s

EU-25: estimate;

e
r
u
t
l
u
c
i
r
g
A

,

y
t
i
n
u
m
m
o
C

l

a
n
o
s
r
e
p

s
e
c
i

v
r
e
s

n
o
i
t
u
b
i
r
t
s
i
D

n
o
i
t
c
u
r
t
s
n
o
C

,
s
l

e
t
o
H

s
t
n
a
r
u
a
t
s
e
r

s
e
c
i

v
r
e
S

y
m
o
n
o
c
e

l

a
t
o
T

)
1
(

Source: Eurostat, LFS

(1) excluding public administration, education, health, and extra-territorial organisations

Many more men than women in charge of businesses

The relative number of self-employed is only a partial indicator of those running businesses. 
Many business managers, especially in larger companies, are salaried employees of the en-
terprises they work for rather than self-employed. It is equally relevant to consider, therefore, 
the relative number of men and women classified as company directors or senior executives 
and as managers of small enterprises.

As in the case of the self-employed, many more men than women in the EU are classed in 
these two occupational groups — around 5.3 % of men in employment as opposed to 3.2 % 
of women in 2005 (Figure 59). Only in Latvia was the proportion of women similar to that 
of men, while in Denmark, Malta, Slovenia, Finland, as well as Iceland and Norway, it was 
over three times higher.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 59 Women and men managing companies, 2005

% of total women/men employed 

Managers of small enterprises

Directors&CEO

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;           EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The gap between men and women is widest for directors and chief executives of companies 
— the highest level managerial positions. The proportion of men occupying these positions 
was, on average, more than twice that of women in 2005 (around 0.8 % of men in employ-
ment  as  opposed  to  under  0.3 %  of  women).  Only  in  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Hungary,  Poland 
and Romania, was the proportion of men in employment working as ‘directors and chief 
executives’ less than twice the proportion of women, while in the Czech Republic, Denmark, 
Portugal, Sweden and the UK as well as Iceland and Norway, it was over five times higher.

The variation across countries was less marked for ‘managers of small enterprises’, though in 
all cases, proportionately more men than women occupied such positions.

Proportions of women and men managing 
companies little changed since 2000

The proportion of men and women employed as directors and CEOs was virtually the same 
in the EU in 2005 as in 2000 (Annex Tables A.42 and A.43 ). The proportion of employed 
men  and  women  classified  as  managers  of  small  enterprises  was  also  broadly  unchanged 
over these five years. The gap between men and women was much the same in the two years 
over the EU-25 as a whole. Nevertheless, the gap widened in most Member States for which 
data can be compared, most especially in Belgium, Estonia, Lithuania, Hungary and Austria. 
The gap narrowed significantly only in the Czech Republic and Latvia.

66

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Women and men in decision-making positions

While the participation of women in economic and political life has increased significantly 
across Europe over time, their representation in key positions of power and influence is still 
far below that of men.

Women and men in national parliaments

There are fewer women members of national parliaments than men in all European Member 
States, in most cases, considerably fewer.

Sweden is the only country in the EU where women made up close to half of the Members 
of Parliament (just under 49 %) in September 2006 and there are only another four in which 
they made up more than a third — Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland, though 
this is also true of Norway. In all of these countries, however, the proportion was less than 
40 % (Figure 60).

In  more  than  half  of  the  remaining  Member  States  (13  of  the  22),  women  accounted  for 
less than 20 % of Members of Parliament and in seven of these — Ireland, Greece, France, 
Hungary, Malta, Romania and Slovenia — less than 15 %. In Hungary and Malta, women 
accounted for only around 1 in 10 of members, while outside the EU, in Turkey, they made 
up just 4 % of the total, i.e. 1 in 25.

Fig. 60 Women as a share of members of parliament, 2006

% of total 

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

*
P
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

R
H

S

I

O
N

EP: European Parliament (members)

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

Women and men in the European Parliament

Women are also in a small minority in the European Parliament. In 2006 women made up 
only 30 % of members, less than one in three.

Women and men in government

The gender composition of national parliaments is reflected in the representation of women 
in national governments. In Austria, alone in Europe, women made up over half of senior 
ministers in 2006 (Figure 61). In Spain and Sweden, as well as in Norway, they accounted for 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 61 Women as a share of senior government ministers, 2006

% of total 

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

CY, TR: the share of women is zero

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

half, reflecting a deliberate policy on gender balance, while in Finland, women represented 
just under half. Among other Member States, only in the UK, was the proportion of women 
in senior positions of government more than a third, though it was only marginally below a 
third in Germany.

Elsewhere in the EU, the proportion of women in this position was under 30 % in all coun-
tries apart from the Netherlands, and under 20 % in 14 of the 20 remaining countries. In 
Slovenia, women made up only 6 % of senior ministers and in Cyprus, none at all, which was 
also the case in Turkey.

In the majority of countries, the gender balance is slightly more equal among junior min-
isters  in  the  countries  in  which  these  posts  exist,  with  women  holding  half  the  posts  in 
 Luxembourg and the Netherlands and two thirds in Germany (Figure 62). Nevertheless, it is 
still the case that such posts were held only by men in Greece and Austria, while in Portugal, 
the proportion was over 90 %.

Fig. 62 Women as a share of junior government ministers, 2006

% of total 

80

60

40

20

0

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

E
D

E

I

R
F

T

I

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
P

O
R

K
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

O
N

EL, AT: the share of women is zero;
CZ, DK, EE, ES, CY, LV, LT, PL, SI, FI, IS, LI: the post does not exist

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

68

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Moreover,  among  women  in  government,  the  ministries  that  they  have  responsibility  for 
tend to be much less the typically higher level ones, those to do with the economy or basic 
functions (such as foreign and internal affairs, defence and justice), and more those to do 
with social and cultural activities and infrastructure. Except for Austria, where women held 
75 % of ministerial posts in basic functions, there were no EU Member States in 2006 where 
women held more than 40 % of ministerial posts in either ministries responsible for basic 
functions or those responsible for the economy.

By contrast, there were six countries in which women held 50 % or more of the posts in min-
istries to do with infrastructure (the three Nordic Member States plus Spain, France and the 
Netherlands) and nine Member States where they held 50 % or more of the posts in social 
and cultural ministries (Germany, Ireland, Spain, Latvia, the Netherlands, Austria, Finland, 
Sweden and the UK).

Women and men in the European Commission

The balance between women and men among the members of the European Commission 
is  much  the  same  as  the  balance  among  European  Parliament  members.  Only  29 %  of 
 Commissioners in 2006 were women.

Women and men in administrative positions in government

The lack of gender balance in most countries among politicians in government is mirrored 
by a similar or even bigger imbalance among civil servants. Women made up half of senior 
(level 1) civil servants in Sweden in 2006 but for less than 40 % of the total in all Member 
States apart from Slovenia (42 %) (Figure 63). Except in Bulgaria, Spain, Latvia and Roma-
nia, women filled under 30 % of civil service posts at this level in all the other EU Member 
States. In 12 of these 21 countries, women held under 10 % of these posts and in the Czech 
Republic, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Austria and Portugal, none of these posts at all.

Women and men among European civil servants

The gender imbalance among national civil servants is repeated at the European level. Among 
the most senior European Commission officials (A1), women accounted for only 6 % of posts 

Fig. 63 Women as a share of senior civil servants, 2006

% of total 

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

*
C
E

E
B

G
B

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

T
M

L
N

L
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

I
L

O
N

EC: European Commission (A1 officials);
CZ, DE, IT, HU, AT, PT, TR: the share of women is zero

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

in 2006, while in the European Parliament, they made up just 18 % of senior officials and in 
European Council, 17 %.

Women and men among the judiciary

The relative numbers of women and men in the most senior judicial positions across Europe 
are slightly more balanced than among senior civil servants, though it is still the case that in 
most countries they were in a relatively small minority.

Women made up over half the members of national supreme courts in Latvia, Hungary and 
Romania in 2006 and almost half in Slovakia, while in Belgium and Bulgaria, they made 
up over 40 % of members (Figure 64). On the other hand, they represented around 20 % or 
less of members in 10 of the remaining 17 Member States for which data are available and 
in six of these countries, they accounted for less than 10 % of members — Greece, Cyprus, 
 Luxembourg, Poland, Portugal and the UK.

In the European supreme court, the Court of Justice, on the other hand, women made up 
only 12 % of members, just one in seven.

Although women were a little more numerous among the members of the European Court 
of Auditors, men still accounted for 83 % of members.

Fig. 64 Share of women members of supreme courts, 2006

% of total 

80

60

40

20

0

80

60

40

20

0

*
J
o
C

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

R
F

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

CoJ: Court of Justice (members);
LU, LI: the share of women is zero; ES, IT, MT, SE: no data

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

Women and men in central banks

The gender composition of senior positions in Europe’s main financial institutions is more 
unbalanced. Men accounted for over 60 % of members on the main decision-making boards 
of central banks in all EU Member States and for over two thirds of members in all countries, 
apart from Denmark and Finland, although in Slovakia, the proportion of men was only 
marginally over two thirds and in Sweden, only a little over (70 %) (Figure 65).

In 19 of the other 23 countries, for which data are available (i.e. except Germany), however, 
women made up only around 20 % or less of members. In Greece, Italy, Cyprus, Hungary 

0

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 65 Share of men on central bank boards, 2006

% of total 

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

*
B
C
E

ECB: European Central Bank (decision-making body);
DE, LI: no data

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

and Portugal, as well as in Turkey outside the EU, there were no women at all on the deci-
sion-making board.

The  situation  was  similar  on  the  board  of  the  European  Central  Bank,  on  which  women 
made up just 6 % of members.

Women, moreover, accounted for only 4 % of the members of the European Investment Bank 
(EIB). While they were slightly more in evidence on the board of the European Investment 
Fund, which was set up in 1994 under the EIB to provide finance to small enterprises, they, 
nevertheless, made up just 17 % of members (Annex Table A.44).

Women and men in managerial positions in large enterprises

Women are even less well represented in decision-making positions in the business world. 
There are only two EU Member States — Bulgaria and Slovenia — in which women were 
presidents,  or  chairpersons,  of  more  than  10 %  of  the  largest  50  enterprises  and  none  in 
which  the  figure  is  over  20 %  (Figure 66).  Moreover,  there  are  only  two  other  countries, 
Latvia and Poland, in which women were the heads of over 5 % of the largest 50 enterprises, 
and in 13 of the remaining 23 EU Member States, all the heads of the 50 enterprises con-
cerned were men.

Women are only slightly more in evidence on the management boards of the largest 50 en-
terprises. There are no EU countries in which women made up over 25 % of the members of 
these boards and only two, Bulgaria and Sweden, where they made up over 20 % (Figure 67). 
In 13 of the remaining 25 countries, as well as in Turkey, the proportion of women on the 
boards concerned was under 10 % and in four countries — Italy, Spain, Luxembourg and 
Malta — it was under 5 %.

The situation is only marginally more balanced as regards associations of enterprises and 
employees at EU level. Only 12 % of the members of the management boards of the social 
partner organisations at this level were women in 2006. Moreover, just 4 % of the 57 organi-
sations concerned had heads who were women (Annex Table A.44).

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 66 Women as a share of presidents or chairpersons of the largest 50 national enterprises, 2006

% of total 

20

15

10

5

0

G
B

Z
C

E

I

S
E

R
F

T

I

V
L

U
H

T
A

L
P

T
P

O
R

I

S

K
S

R
T

O
N

BE, DK, DE, EE, EL, CY, LT, LU, MT, NL, FI, SE, UK, IS: the 
share of women is zero; LI: no data

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

Fig. 67 Women as a share of management board members of the largest 50 national enterprises, 2006

% of total 

50

40

30

20

10

0

20

15

10

5

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

LI: no data

Source: European Commission,
Women and men in decision-making database

Women and men in science

Women and men employed as science and engineering professionals

Many more men than women are employed in the highest level science and technology jobs 
across the EU. In 2005, almost 3 % of men aged 25–64 in work were employed as physical, 
mathematical and engineering science professionals (ISCO 21, which includes, for example, 
computer analysts, chemists and architects) in the EU, around five times the proportion of 
women (Figures 68 and 69 and Annex Table A.45).

By contrast, a larger proportion of women in work than men are employed in life science and 
health professions (ISCO 22, which includes biologists as well as medical doctors, dentists 
and senior nurses) (Figures 70 and 71).

2

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 68 Women, aged 25-64, employed as physical, mathematical and engineering science professionals, 

2005

% of all aged 25-64, employed

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

5
2
-
U
E

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

LU, TR: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 69 Men, aged 25-64, employed as physical, mathematical and engineering science professionals, 

2005

% of all aged 25-64, employed

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

5
2
-
U
E

LU, TR: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The proportion of men in employment working as science and engineering professionals was 
over twice the proportion of women in all EU Member States, except Bulgaria and Latvia, 
where it was only slightly below. In France, it was 5.5 times larger than that of women, in 
Germany, over six times larger and in the UK, over seven times larger, while in Switzerland, 
the proportion of men was almost nine times larger than that of women.

By contrast, the proportion of women in employment working as life science and health pro-
fessionals was larger than that of men in all EU Member States, except the Czech Republic 
and Malta, where it was the same and Germany, Greece, France, Italy, Austria and the UK, 
where it was smaller. The difference was particularly large in Ireland and Poland, where the 
proportion of women employed in such professions was over four times that of men.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 70 Women, aged 25-64, employed in life science and health professions, 2005

% of all aged 25-64, employed

5

4

3

2

1

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

5

4

3

2

1

0

5
2
-
U
E

LU, TR: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 71 Men, aged 25-64, employed in life science and health professions, 2005

% of all aged 25-64, employed

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

5
2
-
U
E

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

LU, TR: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Women and men working as researchers

More men than women work as researchers in almost all EU Member States, though the gap 
between the two is smaller in the government and higher education sectors than in business 
enterprises.

The proportion of women researchers in business enterprises in 2004 was over a third only in 
five countries, Latvia, where it was just over half, Bulgaria (48 %), Romania (42 %), Lithuania 
(37 %) and Greece (35 %), while in Slovakia, it was just under a third (Figure 72). In 14 of the 
remaining 20 EU Member States for which data are available (there are no data for Malta, 
the Netherlands and the UK), it was under 25 % and in Germany, Luxembourg and Austria, 
under 15 %.

By contrast, women made up around half or more of researchers in the government sector 
in each of the three Baltic States as well as in Bulgaria, Portugal and Romania, while in an-



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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 72 Women as a share of researchers in business enterprises, 2004

% of total

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

BE, BG, DK, DE, EE, EL, FR, IT, CY, IT, LU, PT, SE, IS, NO: 2003; AT, TR: 2002; 
MT, NL, UK: no data

Source: Eurostat, R&D statistics

Fig. 73 Women as a share of researchers in the government sector, 2004

% of total

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

BE, BG, DK, DE, EE, EL, FR, IT, CY, IT, LU, NL, PT, SE, UK, IS, NO: 2003; 
AT, TR: 2002

Source: Eurostat, R&D statistics

other six countries (Spain, Cyprus, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia and Finland), they accounted 
for  40 %  or  more  of  the  total  (Figure 73).  Only  in  Germany,  Luxembourg,  Malta  and  the 
 Netherlands were fewer than 30 % of women researchers.

Similarly, in higher education, more than 40 % of researchers were women in 9 of the 26 
Member States (more than a half in Latvia) for which there are data (there are no data for the 
UK) and more than a third in another 10 countries (Figure 74 and Annex Table A.46). The 
proportion was less than 30 % only in Germany, Malta and the Netherlands.

Women and men in academic posts

Women are less well represented among senior academics than among more junior ones. 
Women accounted for less than 25 % of the most senior positions in academic institutions 
in 2004 in all of the EU Member States, except Latvia and Romania and for less than 20 % 
in all apart from these two plus Portugal and Finland (Figure 75 and Annex Table A.47). In 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 74 Women as a share of researchers in higher education, 2004

% of total

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

R
H

R
T

S

I

O
N

H
C

BE, BG, DK, DE, EE, EL, FR, IT, CY, IT, LU, NL, PT, SE, IS, NO: 2003; 
AT, TR: 2002; UK: no data

Source: Eurostat, R&D statistics

Fig. 75 Women in senior positions in academic institutions, 2004

% of total

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

TR: 2000; FR: 2001; AT: 2002; CY, PT, NO: 2003; IE, LU, HR, CH: no data

Source: DG Research, WiS database

five Member States — Belgium, Germany, Malta, the Netherlands and Austria — women 
occupied less than 10 % of the most senior positions.

Women are better represented in the next level down from the most senior, but even at this 
level, they accounted for under half of the posts concerned in all EU Member States. The pro-
portion of women was less than 40 % in all countries apart from Romania and Finland and 
less than a third in all but another eight countries (Figure 76). In four countries — Germany, 
Cyprus, the Netherlands and Austria — women occupied less than 20 % of posts.

The proportion of women in third level posts (those usually filled by someone who has re-
cently completed a PhD or other doctorate) is larger still. Nevertheless, there were only three 
Member States in 2004 — Estonia, Spain and Finland — in which women made up more 
than half of the occupants of such positions, though in Lithuania, the proportion was close 
to half (Figure 77). In Germany, Greece and the Netherlands, they accounted for under a 
third of the total at this level and in Malta, less than 15 %.

6

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2

Fig. 76 Women in second level posts in academics institutions, 2004

% of total

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

TR: 2000; FR: 2001; AT: 2002; CY, PT, NO: 2003; IE, LU, HR, CH: no data

Source: DG Research, WiS database

Fig. 77 Women in third level posts in academics institutions, 2004

% of total

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

T

I

Y
C

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

S

I

O
N

TR: 2000; AT: 2002; CY, PT, NO: 2003; BG, IE, FR, LV, LU, RO, HR, CH: no data

Source: DG Research, WiS database

Fig. 78 Women in junior posts in academic institutions, 2004

% of total

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

Y
C

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
T

O
N

TR: 2000; FR: 2001; AT: 2002; CY, PT, NO: 2003; IE, IT, LV, LU, PL, HR, IS, CH: no data

Source: DG Research, WiS database

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Women  are  much  more  in  evidence  in  posts  at  the  lowest  academic  level  —  those  which 
either do not require a doctorate or are filled by those still studying for their doctorate. In 8 
of the 22 Member States for which data are available, women occupied half or more of such 
posts, and in another four, they occupied over 45 % (Figure 78). Nevertheless, it was still the 
case that in eight countries, the proportion of women in these posts was less than 40 % and 
in three of these countries — Germany, Cyprus and Malta — only around 35 % or less.

Women and men in fixed-term jobs

Women more likely than men to be in fixed-term jobs in most countries

Almost 15 % of women employees and 14 % of men were employed in jobs with fixed-term 
contracts in the EU in 2005. Around half of these were in such jobs because they could not 
find a permanent job. Some 7.5 % of all women employees and just over 6.5 % of men were 
employed in jobs of this kind involuntarily and not from choice.

fixed-term contracts, 2005

Fig. 79 Proportion of women and men employed on 

The proportion of men and women employed on fixed-term contracts varies markedly across 
the EU. In Spain, it amounted to over 35 % of all women employees in 2005 and to just under 
32 % of men (Figure 79). In Poland, the proportion was around 25 % for both women and 
men, while in Portugal and Finland, it 
was over 20 % for women, in both cas-
es, higher than for men. At the other 
extreme,  less  than  6 %  of  men  and 
women employees were on fixed-term 
contracts in Slovakia and the UK and 
under 4 % in Ireland and Romania (as 
well as probably in Estonia and Malta 
but  the  precise  figures  are  uncertain 
because of the small sample size).

% women/men employees

Other reasons

Involuntarily

40

20

30

30

40

20

10

10

0

Women

Men

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

EE: figures too small to be published; 
CH: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

In  Lithuania,  the  share  of  men  em-
ployed  on  fixed-term  contracts  was 
over twice that of women. But this is 
one of only four countries in the EU 
where the share of men on such con-
tracts  was  larger  than  for  women  in 
2005  (the  others  being  Latvia,  Hun-
gary and Poland).

Many men and women work in 
fixed-term jobs involuntarily

The  relative  number  of  women  and 
men employed under fixed-term con-
tracts involuntarily also varies mark-
edly across the EU and not altogether 
in line with the overall proportion in 
temporary  jobs.  The  largest  propor-
tion,  however,  was  again  in  Spain, 
where  more  than  24 %  of  women 
employees  and  22 %  of  men  worked 

IE
UK
RO
AT
NO
LV
DE
LU
LT
HU
SK
MT
IS
BG
NL
DK
CZ
EU-25
HR
SI
BE
FR
IT
EL
SE
PL
PT
FI
CY
ES

8

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

in  fixed-term  jobs  involuntarily  in  2005.  In  Cyprus,  where  almost  all  those  working  un-
der fixed-term contracts did so involuntarily, the figure for women was just under 19 % as 
against only 7 % of men, while in Finland, it was just over 15 %, again significantly more 
than for men (9 %), and in Portugal, 14 %, only slightly higher than for men. On the other 
hand the proportion of both women and men employees working in fixed-term jobs invol-
untarily was only around 2 % or less in Germany, Ireland, Austria, Romania and the UK as 
well as in Norway.

The proportion for women was also under 2 % in Latvia, though here the figure for men was 
almost 5 %. The share of men employed in fixed-term jobs involuntarily was also larger than 
for women in Lithuania, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, but in most other Member States, 
the reverse was the case.

Men and women in fixed-term jobs increased between 2000 and 2005

The relative number of women and men employed in fixed-term jobs has tended to increase 
a little in the EU over recent years, though not in all countries. The proportion employed in 
such jobs involuntarily has also risen both absolutely and in relation to the total. Between 
2000 and 2005, the proportion for women in the EU as a whole increased from around 6.5 % 
to 7.5 %, the proportion for men from just over 5.5 % to just over 6.5 %.

The proportion of women employees in fixed-term jobs involuntarily increased in most Mem-
ber States over these five years, as well as in Norway (Figure 80 and Annex Table A.48). The 
proportion of men increased in all of the same countries except Bulgaria. The increase for 
both women and men was especially large (over 2 percentage points) in the Czech Republic, 
Cyprus, Poland, Portugal and Slovenia.

Many men and women in fixed-term jobs are under 30

Young women and men under 30 are particularly likely to work under fixed-term contracts 
of employment. Almost a third — 30 % — of both women and men employees under 30 in 
the EU-25 were employed under such contracts in 2005, over double the proportion of those 
of 30 and over. Many of these people are employed on temporary training or probationary 

Fig. 80 Change in share of women and men employees working in fixed-term jobs involuntarily, 2000-05

% point

Women

Men

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

5
2
-
U
E

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

EE, LU, MT: unreliable data for 2000 and 2005;
HR, IS: no data for 2000; CH: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

contracts, but a large number work in 
fixed-term  jobs  because  they  cannot 
find permanent ones.

In  2005,  some  12–13 %  of  men  and 
women  employees  under  30  worked 
in fixed-term jobs involuntarily (Fig-
ure 81  and  Annex  Table A.49).  The 
proportion  was  particularly  high  for 
both young women and men in Spain 
(around  37 %  for  both),  Portugal 
(26–27 %) and Poland (23–24 %). The 
proportion  was  also  well  over  20 % 
for young women in Cyprus, Finland 
and  Sweden  but  in  these  cases  much 
higher than for men (over 7 percent-
age points higher in each).

In  Slovakia,  the  share  of  men  under 
30  employed  on  fixed-term  contracts 
involuntarily  was  over  2  percentage 
points higher than that of women. In 
all other countries, the share of wom-
en on such contracts was either simi-
lar to that of men or larger.

More involuntary employment 
in fixed-term jobs in 
elementary occupations

Fig. 81 The proportion of women and men under 30 

employed on fixed-term contracts, 2005

% women/men employees under 30

Involuntarily

Other reasons

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

AT

UK

RO

NO

DE

HU

SK

LU

BG

NL

CZ

DK

EU-25

IT

HR

EL

BE

FR

SI

CY

PL

SE

FI

PT

ES

Women

Men

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EE, IE, LV, LT, MT, IS: data too small to be 
published; CH: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Men and women in elementary manu-
al occupations and agricultural work-
ers are most likely to be employed in 
fixed-term jobs involuntarily. In both 
these types of job, the proportion of men and women in this position was over 13 % of em-
ployees in 2005 (Figure 82 and Annex Table A.50). The proportion was also relatively high 
among those employed as craft or trades workers or as machine operators as well as among 
sales  and  service  workers.  By  contrast,  only  around  1 %  of  men  and  women  employed  as 
managers worked under fixed-term contracts involuntarily. In all broad occupational groups, 
apart from elementary occupations, the share of women was larger than for men.

In all occupational groups, the share of women and men employed under such circumstanc-
es increased between 2000 and 2005, in most cases, either by a similar amount or more for 
women than for men. The latter was particularly the case in elementary occupations, where 
the difference in shares between men and women narrowed over this period.

Most people in fixed-term jobs involuntarily have short contracts

Many of the women and men working in fixed-term jobs involuntarily have very short con-
tracts of employment. In 2005, 43 % of women in this position in the EU-25 had contracts of 
less than six months, while the proportion of men was slightly larger at 48 % (Figure 83 and 
Annex Table A.51). Another 35 % or so of women and around 30 % of men had contracts 

80

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 82 Women and men employed in fixed-term jobs 
involuntarily by occupation in the EU-25, 2000 
and 2005

2000

% women/men employees in each occupation

20

15

10

5

0

5

10

15

20

2005

Managers

Professionals

Technicians

Clerks

Sales & 
service workers

Skilled 
agricultural workers

Craft & trades 
workers

Plant & machine 
operators

Elementary 
occupations

Women

Men

20

15

10

5

0

5

10

15

20

Source: Eurostat, LFS

of  over  six  months  but  less  than  12 
months. Accordingly, 77–78 % of both 
men  and  women  in  fixed-term  jobs 
involuntarily  had  contracts  of  under 
one year.

The  proportion  of  people  employed 
on  very  short-term  contracts  was  es-
pecially large in Spain, where 64 % of 
women and 62 % of men had contracts 
of less than six months and a further 
29 % of women and 26 % of men con-
tracts of 6 to 12 months.

Women and men living 
in jobless households

More women than men aged 
18–59 in jobless households

One of the primary indicators adopted 
in the EU for monitoring social inclu-
sion is the relative number of women 
and  men  aged  18–59  —  i.e.  of  work-
ing-age  — who  live  in households in 
which  no  one  is  in  work  and  where, 
accordingly, there is no income from 
employment (12). The number of wom-
en  living  in  jobless  households  tends 
to be greater than the number of men. 
In  2005,  just  over  11 %  of  women  in 
the EU aged 18–59 as against just over 

Fig. 83 Women and men employed involuntarily on fixed-term contracts by contract duration, 2005

100

80

60

40

20

0

% of women/men employed involuntarily on fixed-term contracts

More than 12 months
6-12 months
Less than 6 months

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

U
H

L
N

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
AT, CH: no data; EE, IE, LV, LT, LU, MT, IS, NO: data too small to be published; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

100

80

60

40

20

0

2  This excludes student 
households — i.e. 
those comprising 
solely young people 
aged 8–2 who are 
economically inactive 
and in education or 
training.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 84 Proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living in jobless households, 2005

% of women/men aged 18-59

Women

Men

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Y
C

T
P

T
L

I

S S
E

U
L

Z
C

K
D

L
N

V
L

T
M

E

I

E
E

L
E

T
A

T

I

K
S

I

O F
R

R
F

K
U

E
D

U
H

R
H

G
B

E
B

L
P

5
2
-
U
E

SE, IS, NO, CH: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

9 % of men in the EU lived in such households (Figure 84 and Annex Table A.52). The pro-
portion of women concerned varied from over 16 % in Poland and over 15 % in Belgium to 
around 6 % in Cyprus, Portugal and Lithuania. Women outnumbered men in all the coun-
tries for which data are available apart from the three Baltic States and Finland. This was 
especially  the  case  in  Belgium,  Greece  and  the  UK,  where  the  proportion  of  women  was 
around 4 percentage points higher than for men.

Jobless households and household composition

The  variation  across  countries  in  the  relative  numbers  living  in  jobless  households  partly 
reflects differences in household composition, especially in the proportion of women and 
men living alone (here defined as those not sharing the household with another adult irre-
spective of whether they have children or not). This varies markedly across the EU, though in 
most countries there are more women than men living alone, a significant number in some 
countries with children. The relative number of women living alone ranged from 20–21 % 
in the UK, Finland and Germany to under 6 % in Spain, Slovakia and Malta. There are only 
five Member States — Spain, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Italy and Germany — where 
the proportion of men living alone is greater than the proportion of women (Figure 85 and 
Annex  Table A.53,  in  which  the  countries  are  ordered  by  the  proportion  living  in  jobless 
households).

The variations in the proportion of people living alone, with or without their children, across 
the EU are reflected in differences between countries in the composition of jobless house-
holds (Figure 86 and Annex Table A.54). In the Netherlands, Finland and the UK, women 
and men living alone accounted for around half or more of those in jobless households, while 
in Spain, Romania and Slovakia, they make up around 17 %.

On average in the EU, slightly more women (36 %) than men (35 %) in jobless households in 
2005 lived alone.

Almost half the women living as the only adult in a jobless household in the EU had a child 
and, accordingly, are likely to have had more of a problem than others reconciling work with 
caring responsibilities. In the UK, two thirds of women living alone in jobless households 
had a child, accounting for 38 % of all women in jobless households. In Belgium, Germany, 

82

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 85 Proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living in one adult household, 2005

% of women/men aged 18-59

Women

Men

24

21

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

Y
C

T
P

T
L

I

S S
E

U
L

Z
C

L
N

V
L

T
M

E
E

L
E

T
A

T

I

K
S

I

O F
R

R
F

K
U

E
D

U
H

R
H

G
B

E
B

L
P

5
2
-
U
E

IE, SE, IS, NO, CH: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 86 Composition of jobless households in which women and men live, 2005

% female/male population aged 18-59 living in jobless households

Couples and other

One adult without children

One adult with children

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Y
C

T
P

S S
E

I

U
L

Z
C

L
N

V
L

T
M

L
E

T
A

T

I

K
S

I

O F
R

R
F

K
U

E
D

U
H

G
B

E
B

L
P

R
H

24

21

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
EE, LT: unreliable data; DK, IE, SE, IS, CH, NO: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Latvia and the Netherlands, they accounted for around 20 % and in Estonia for just over 
27 % (though the precise figure is uncertain because of the small sample size).

Decline in jobless households reflects increase in employment

In the seven-year period 1998–2005, the proportion of people aged 18–59 living in jobless 
households in the EU fell, broadly reflecting the increase in employment rates (see above). 
The fall was slightly greater for women (1.4 percentage points) than for men (0.7 percentage 
point). The decline was far from uniform across countries, but in the great majority, it was 
larger for women than for men and in five countries, there was a decline for women and an 
increase for men (Figure 87 and Annex Table A.55).

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 87 Percentage point change in the proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living in jobless 

households, 1998-2005

% point

Women

Men

4
3

2
1
0
-1

-2
-3
-4
-5

-6
-7

4
3

2
1
0
-1

-2
-3
-4
-5

-6
-7

V
L

T
L

S
E

T
U I
H

I

G S
B

K
U

E

I

L
E

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

L
N

R
F

U
L

Y
C

E
E

E
D

T
A

T
P

T
M

K
S

Z
C

L
P

O
R

EU-25: estimate; SE, IS, NO, CH: no data; 
IE: 1999; CY, MT, BG: 2000; PL: 2001; DK, HR: no data before 2002; FI: no data before 2003

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Working hours and working arrangements

Women in employment on average work fewer hours than men

Many more women in employment than men work part-time hours. In the EU as a whole, 
almost 94 % of men usually worked 35 hours or more a week in 2005 compared with 64 % of 
women. Almost 9 % of women worked ‘long part-time’ hours (30–34 a week), around 20 % 
worked 15 and 29 hours a week and just over 6 %, less than 15 hours a week (Figure 88 and 
Annex Table A.56).

The  pattern  of  working  time,  however,  varies  greatly  between  Member  States.  In  the 
 Netherlands and Germany, 14–15 % of women worked under 15 hours a week, though this 
was less than in Switzerland (almost 19 %). Elsewhere in the EU apart from Ireland, Austria 
and the UK (6–8 %), the proportion was under 5 %. The proportion of men working under 

Fig. 88 Women and men aged 25-54 in employment by number of hours worked, 2005

35+

30-34

15-29

01-14

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men

Source: Eurostat, LFS

8

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

15 hours a week was less than 1 % in all Member States, except in Denmark, Germany, the 
Netherlands and Sweden (between 1.5 % and 2.2 %).

The Netherlands also has the largest proportion of women and men working between 15 and 
29 hours a week, some 43 % of all those employed (5 % of men). In five other Member States 
— Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg and the UK — as well as Switzerland, the propor-
tion was 26–29 %. By contrast, in Denmark, Greece, Portugal, Finland and Sweden as well 
as in all the new Member States, except Malta, the proportion was under 15 % (in Bulgaria, 
the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia, it was 4 % or less). In the 
 Netherlands too, a significant number of women, almost 16 % in 2005, work long part-time 
hours (30–34). This is slightly more than in Belgium and Malta (14 % in each case) but less 
than in Denmark (17 %) and Sweden (almost 20 %).

Accordingly, only just over a quarter of women (27 %) in the Netherlands in 2005 worked 
what is usually considered full time — 35 hours or more a week. In Germany, the proportion 
was around a half, and in Belgium, the UK, Ireland and Austria, 53–59 % (in Switzerland, 
it was 43 %). In Greece, Portugal, Finland and all the new Member States, except Malta, the 
proportion was over 80 % and in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Romania, 
Slovenia and Slovakia, over 90 %.

The  proportion  of  men  working  35  hours  a  week  or  more  in  2005  was  over  90 %  in  all 
 countries except the Netherlands (87 %) and in most cases, over 95 %.

More women employees than men usually work on Saturdays

Some 23 % of all women employees in the EU usually work on Saturdays as compared with 
just under 21 % of men, according to data for 2005. On the other hand, significantly more 
men than women — 25 % as against 17 % — sometimes worked on a Saturday (Figure 89).

The situation, however, varies markedly across the EU. In 13 of the 25 Member States for 
which data are available (there are no data for Germany and the Netherlands), a larger pro-
portion of women employees usually worked Saturdays than men, in eight, the proportion 
was larger for men and in four, the Czech Republic, Ireland, Lithuania and Portugal, it was 
much the same for both women and men.

Fig. 89 Share of women and men employees working on Saturdays, 2005

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Usually

Never

Sometimes

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
BG, LU: 2004; DE, NL: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

The overall number involved also varies. In the case of women, it ranged from 35 % in Italy 
in  2005  and  30 %  in  Austria  to  9–10 %  in  the  Czech  Republic  and  Hungary  and  8 %  in 
 Lithuania, with the proportion of men varying in a similar way.

In all Member States, except Spain, where it is the same, the proportion of men employees 
working sometimes on Saturdays is larger than that of women, in many cases, markedly so, 
varying from 47 % in Poland (33 % for women) and 42 % in Slovenia (32 % for women) to 
11 % in Italy (6 % for women) and just 4 % in Spain (the same as for women).

There is some evidence of an inverse relationship between the proportion usually working 
on Saturdays and the proportion sometimes doing so, in the sense that in the countries in 
which the former is relatively large, the latter is relatively small  (13). This suggests differences 
in the way that Saturday work is organised across the EU as much as differences in the scale 
of working as such.

Much the same proportion of women and men 
employees usually work on Sundays

A smaller number of women and men employees usually work on Sundays. The proportions 
concerned in the EU are similar according to the 2005 data — just under 11 % in the case 
of both women and men (Figure 90). As in the case of Saturday working, however, a larger 
proportion of men than women work sometimes on Sundays — just over 15 % as opposed 
to just under 12 %.

Although there are more countries in which the proportion of men employees usually work-
ing on Sundays exceeds that of women (15 as against 10), the difference tends to be relatively 
small and in 11 of the 25 Member States for which there are data, there is no significant dif-
ference at all (i.e. 1 percentage point or less). In all but two countries — Denmark (19 %) and 
Slovakia (17 %), the proportion of women usually working on Sundays is 15 % or less. The 
same is true for men, the two countries in this case being Slovakia (23 %) and Malta (20 %). 
At the same time, the proportions for both men and women are over 5 % in all countries 
apart from Cyprus (just over 4 %).

Fig. 90 Share of women and men employees working on Sundays, 2005

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Usually

Never

Sometimes

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
BG, LU: 2004; DE, NL: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  The correlation 

coefficient is -0.62 for 
women employees, 
-0. for men 
employees.

86

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 91 Share of women and men employees usually working both Saturdays and Sundays, 2005

% of women/men employees

Women

Men

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

5
2
-
U
E

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
BG, LU: 2004; DE, NL: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

In most of the countries, the relative number of men employees sometimes working on Sun-
days is larger than for women, the proportion ranging from 27 % in the UK and 24–25 % in 
the Czech Republic and Poland to just 3 % in Spain.

A significant number of employees in the EU who usually work on Sundays also work Sat-
urdays.  Indeed,  relatively  few  employees  seem  to  work  Sundays  without  working  Satur-
days. Around 10 % of both women and men employees usually worked both days in 2005 
(Figure 91 and Annex Table A.57).

As for Sunday working, the proportion usually working the two days is highest for women in 
Denmark and Slovakia (17–18 % in each) and for men in Slovakia and Malta (23 % and 20 %, 
respectively). The proportion for women is also relatively high (over 12 %) in Estonia, Spain, 
France, Austria and Finland, and for men in a slightly different set of counties — Bulgaria, 
Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Austria and Romania. Again, the proportion for women and men is 
over 5 % in all Member States except Cyprus.

Weekend working is much more prevalent among the self-employed

A much larger proportion of those who are self-employed work on Saturdays and Sundays 
than  in  the  case  of  employees.  Around  half  of  both  women  and  men  self-employed  usu-
ally worked on Saturdays in 2005 (Figure 92). The proportion for women exceeds 70 % in 
 Romania and 60 % in France, Lithuania, Malta, Austria and Slovenia (as well as in Croatia) 
and is much the same for men in all of these except Lithuania and Slovenia, where it is small-
er (as it is in Croatia). It is also over 60 % for men, though not for women, in Greece. On the 
other hand, the proportion falls below 30 % for both women and men in the Czech Republic, 
Hungary, Slovakia and Sweden and in the UK for women.

At the same time, around 22 % of self-employed women and men usually worked on Sun-
days in the EU in 2005, the proportion being relatively high — over 30 % — in much the 
same countries as for Saturday working (Figure 93 and Annex Table A.58). Again, almost all 
the self-employed who usually work Sundays also work Saturdays.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 92 Share of women and men self-employed usually working on Saturdays, 2005

% of women/men self-employed

Women

Men

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
BG, LU: 2004; DE, NL: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 93 Share of women and men self-employed usually working on Sundays, 2005

% of women/men self-employed

Women

Men

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
BG, LU: 2004; DE, NL: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Flexibility of working time arrangements for women and men

Flexible working arrangements have a key role to play in helping to ensure that women with 
children are able to pursue a working career. According to data collected by a special ad hoc 
module of the EU labour force survey on working-time arrangements, in the 20 Member 
States covered, only around a quarter of employees aged 25–49 — i.e. in the age group in 
which caring for children is a major issue — had some flexibility in the hours they worked 
in 2004, in that they could ‘bank’ working time in order to take time off later (12 %) or could 
vary their work schedule (10–12 %) (14). A slightly smaller proportion of women than men 
(24 % as against 27 %) enjoyed flexible arrangements (Figure 94 and Annex Table A.59).

The extent to which employees have some flexibility over working hours, varies markedly 
across  countries.  Over  90 %  of  employees  in  this  age  group  had  either  fixed  or  staggered 
hours of work in Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Slovenia and Romania. In a further three Member 

  More specifically, they 
can decide when to 
start or finish work or 
determine their own 
working schedule.

88

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 94 Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49, 2004

Other
Flexible working time arrangements
Working time banking
Fixed or staggered hours

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

O
N

H
C

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men; 
BG, CZ, LV, LT, PL, SE, IS: no data; EU-25: estimate (excl. CZ, LV, LT, PL, SE)

Source: Eurostat, LFS ad hoc module on Work
organisation and working time arrangements

States, Estonia, Italy and Portugal, over 90 % of women employees worked fixed or staggered 
hours and just under 90 % of men, while in Spain and Ireland, this was the case for 88–89 % 
of women and men and in Slovakia for 87 % of women and 83 % of men.

Only in Denmark did over half of women and men employees (almost 55 %) have some flex-
ibility over their working time. In Germany, this was the case for over half of men but under 
half  of  women  (47 %).  There  were  only  two  other  Member  States  —  Austria  and  Finland 
— where more than a third of women and men had some flexibility. In the UK, it was so only 
for men. Outside the EU, in Norway over 40 % of women and men had some flexibility and 
in Switzerland, some 45 % of men employees but only around a third of women.

A smaller proportion of women than men had flexibility over working hours in all Member 
States, except Greece, Spain and Luxembourg.

Working-time arrangements are no more flexible for those with children

Working time arrangements in most parts of Europe do not seem to provide much support 
for people with children. Employees with children seem to be less likely to work in jobs with 
flexible working arrangements than those without. In the 18 Member States for which there 
are data, over 76 % of married or cohabiting women aged 25–49 with children under 12 had 
jobs with fixed or staggered hours of work (Annex Table A.60). This is almost 4 percentage 
points more than for those in this category without children and some 10 percentage points 
more than for women living alone without children.

For women living alone with a child, for whom reconciling employment with caring respon-
sibilities is likely to pose especially acute problems, the proportion with fixed or staggered 
hours of work was also larger (at 74 %) than for women without children. The same pattern 
is evident for men. In the countries covered, some 72 % of men with children living with a 
spouse or a partner had jobs with fixed or staggered hours of work as against 64 % of men 
living alone without children.

Variability by economic activity

Women and men employed in certain branches of economic activity are more likely to have 
some flexibility over hours of work, though the industries concerned vary across Europe as 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

well as between men and women. On average in the EU-25, the proportion of women em-
ployed in ‘public administration’ with some flexibility over working hours was larger — at 
almost 40 % — than in other sectors of economic activity (Figure 95 and Annex Table A.61). 
The proportion was especially large for women in Denmark (84 %), Germany (77 %), Finland 
(73 %)  and  the  UK  (61 %).  In  many  countries,  however —  Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  Portugal, 
Hungary, Slovenia, Cyprus and Malta as well as Romania — very few women (under 6 %) 
had flexibility over hours of work in this sector. In those countries where a relatively large 
number of women had some flexibility over working time arrangements, the proportion of 
men with such working time arrangements was much smaller.

In other public sector activities — education and health and social work — the proportion 
of employees with some flexibility over working time was not only much smaller but it was 
larger for men than for women. This was also the case in private sectors of activity, in each of 
which less than a third of women and men employed seem to have some choice over working 
arrangements.

Fig. 95 Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49 by economic activity 

20

40

60

80

100

Fixed or staggered hours
Working time banking
Flexible working time arrangements
Other

in the EU, 2004

%

0

Agriculture
Mining/Utilities
Manufacturing
Construction
Distribution
Hotels/Restaurants
Transport/Communications
Financial services
Business activities
Public administration 
Education
Health/Social work
Personal/Community services

0

20

40

Top bar: women, bottom bar: men; 
EU: estimate (excl. CZ, LV, LT, PL, SE)

60

100
80
Source: Eurostat, LFS ad hoc module on Work
organisation and working time arrangements

0

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Risk of poverty and earnings

Risk of poverty

Women  of  working  age  are  slightly  more  likely  than  men  to  live  in  households  at  risk  of 
poverty than men, defined as having an equivalised disposable income (15) of below 60 % of 
the national median. In 2005, an average of 15 % of women aged 16–64 in the EU-25 had an 
equivalised disposable income below this threshold as opposed to 14 % of men. Although 
there are marked variations in these figures across the Union, in 16 EU Member States the 
proportion of women with income below the poverty threshold was larger than that of men 
(Figure 96).

The proportion of people in this age group living in households at risk of poverty ranged 
from around 20 % in Poland and Lithuania (22 % in Turkey) to 9 % in Sweden. In all but 
five EU Member States — Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Finland — as well as 
Iceland and Norway, the relative number of women living in a low income household was 
either the same or larger than that of men. Nevertheless, in 10 out of the 17 countries where 
women had a higher risk of living in a low income household, the difference was only around 
1 percentage point. This was also the case in four of the five countries — all except Poland 
— where the risk of poverty was greater among men than women.

The greater risk of poverty among women reflects the larger number of women than men 
who are not in work or, if they are in work, the lower earnings they generally receive (see 
below). Women living alone with a dependent child are especially vulnerable. In 2005, some 
32 % of lone parents in EU-25 countries, almost all of whom were women, had an income 
which placed them at risk of poverty, the proportion being over 25 % in all Member States 
except the three Nordic countries and Slovenia (Figure 97 and Annex Table A.62).

Partly reflecting the high risk of poverty among lone parents, there is less difference in the 
relative number of women and men at risk of poverty than for those above child-bearing age. 
Among those aged 50–64 the proportion of women with income below 60 % of the median 

Fig. 96 Proportion of lone parents at risk of poverty, 2005

% of female/male population aged 16-64

Women

Men

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

Income data refer to 2004, except RO, UK: 2005 and IE: 2004–2005; EU aggregates: 
Eurostat estimates are obtained as a population-size weighted average of national data

Source: EU-SILC and
national sources

  The total disposable 

income of a household 
is calculated by adding 
up the personal 
income components 
by all household 
members plus income 
received at household 
level (net or gross and 
deducting transfers 
where appropriate). An 
individual’s equivalised 
disposable income 
is then obtained by 
dividing the total 
disposable household 
income by the 
equivalent size of 
the household. This 
‘equivalent size’ takes 
account of the size 
and composition of 
the household and 
thus makes income 
comparable. There 
are important implicit 
assumptions in this 
concept of income, 
notably on the 
distribution of income 
and resources within 
the household. Strictly 
speaking, we cannot 
measure an individual’s 
risk of poverty but only 
a household’s risk of 
poverty. The limitations 
for gender-specific 
analysis are apparent. 
Note that the figures 
are those collected 
in 200 and relate 
to income over the 
preceding year — i.e. 
200 for the most 
participant countries.

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 97 Proportion of lone parents at risk of poverty, 2005

% of lone parents

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

Income data refer to 2004, except RO, UK: 2005 and IE: 2004-2005; EU aggregates: 
Eurostat estimates are obtained as a population size weighted average of national data

Source: EU-SILC and
national sources

equivalised disposable income in the country in which they lived was, on average, the same 
as that of men in the EU in 2005 (Annex Table A.63).

Income inequality among women and men

A broader perspective on the extent of inequality in the distribution of income is given by 
relating the equivalised disposable income of the top 20 % of recipients to that of the bottom 
20 %. This indicates that the income of the former was, on average, around five times larger 
than the income of the latter across the EU in 2005, with the degree of inequality marginally 
greater among men than among women (Figure 98 and Annex Table A.64).

The degree of inequality varies markedly across the EU, the ratio of the income of the top 
20 % to the bottom 20 % ranging from over seven times or more in Latvia, Lithuania, Poland 
and Portugal to around 3.5 in each of the three Nordic Member States and Slovenia.

Fig. 98 Income of top 20 % of recipients relative to bottom 20 %, those aged under 65, 2005

S80/S20 income quintile share ratio

Women

Men

10

8

6

4

2

0

5
2
-
U
E

10

8

6

4

2

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

Income data refer to 2004, except UK: 2005 and IE: 2004–2005; EU aggregates: 
Eurostat estimates are obtained as a population-size weighted average of national data

Source: EU-SILC and
national sources

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

In most countries, as is the case at the EU level, the degree of income inequality is greater 
among men than among women, despite more women being at risk of poverty. This reflects 
the larger number of men with high income levels. In seven of the 25 EU Member States, 
however — Greece, France, Italy, Cyprus, Malta, Portugal and Sweden — the reverse was 
the case.

Earnings of men and women

Wage gaps

Across the EU as a whole, average gross hourly earnings of women (those between 16 and 64 
years old and working 15 hours or more a week) were, on average, 15 % below those of men 
in 2005. Women earn less than men in all Member States and in 2005 there were only eight 
countries out of the 27 and only three — Belgium, Malta and Slovenia — where it was small-
er than 9 % (Figure 99). In six countries — Germany, Estonia, Cyprus, Slovakia, Finland and 
the UK — the gap was 20 % or more.

The structure of earnings survey (SES) provides a more detailed insight into the wage gap. 
This relates solely to the position in 2002 and in many countries covers only the business 
enterprise sector — so excluding public administration, education and health as well as agri-
culture (16) — and is confined to enterprises with 10 or more persons employed. Accordingly, 
it gives different figures to those presented above which are estimates for the whole economy. 
In particular, the gap shown by the SES is wider for all countries than that shown by the lat-
ter estimates.

Despite these limitations, the SES enables the wage gap between women and men to be ex-
amined by age, education level, occupation and length of service. These are all aspects which 
affect earnings and which accordingly might provide some explanation for the difference 
between women and men in this regard. For example, part of the explanation might lie in 
women being employed in different occupations to men or having been in jobs for a shorter 
period. However, as indicated below, a significant difference in earnings is apparent even if 
allowance is made for these factors. Women have on average lower earnings than men in all 

Fig. 99 Pay gap between men and women, 2005

Difference between men's and women's average gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men's average gross hourly earnings

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

IE, EL, ES, SI, UK: provisional value; EU-25: estimate;
HR, TR, IS, CH: no data

Source: EU-SILC and national data

40

30

20

10

0

6  The analysis below is 
confined to earnings 
in the economy 
excluding these 
sectors, except in the 
case of occupations 
where it covers these 
sectors in countries 
in which the data are 
available.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Part 2 — The working and family years

age groups, at all education levels, in all — or virtually all — occupations and irrespective of 
the length of service.

Wage gap between women and men of different age

Wage differences between men and women tend to widen with age in the EU. In most coun-
tries, the average earnings of women are lower than those of men to a widening extent the 
older is the age group.

According to the SES, women below 30 earned less than men in the same age group through-
out the EU, their hourly wages on average being 92 % of those of men (Figure 100 and Annex 
Table A.65). There were only three EU Member States — Greece, France and Hungary — in 
which women’s earnings were more than 95 % of those of men and five in which they were 
below 85 %. In one of these, Estonia, the earnings of women in this age group averaged less 
than 80 % of those of men.

For those aged 30–39, women on average earned only some 80 % of what men earned in the 
EU. In this case, there were only eight Member States in which their earnings were more 
than 85 % of those of men and none in which they were more than 90 %. In Estonia, women’s 
earnings averaged under 75 % of those of men and in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, less 
than 70 %.

For those aged 40 and over, the wage gaps widen further, with women earning on average 
just under 70 % of the earnings of men across the EU in 2002. There was only two countries 
— Lithuania and Slovenia — where women’s earnings of those in the 40–49 age group were 
more  than  85 %  of  those  of  men  (in  the  first  only  marginally)  and  only  three  —  Poland, 
 Romania and Slovenia — where this was the case for those in the 50–59 age group.

In general, earnings of men tend to increase with age, at least up to 50, but this is less the case 
for women, for whom the average earnings across the EU for those aged 40–49 and over were 
lower than those aged 30–39. This in part reflects the smaller number of women than men in 
senior positions, noted above.

Fig. 100 Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by age group, 2002

Women relative to men (%)

<30

30-39

40-49

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

MT, HR, TR, IS, CH: no data; CY: no data for age group 30-39

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey



Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 101 Average hourly earnings of women relative to men's by length of service, 2002

 Women relative to men (%)

Under 10 years
10 to 19 years (1)
Over 20 years (2)

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

O
N

CY, MT, SE: no data; 
(1) no data: EE, LV, LU, NL; (2) no data: LV

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey

Length of time in job of women and men

Men on average tend to have been in their present jobs for a longer time than women, partly 
because many fewer of them interrupt their working careers to look after children. In 2002, 
according to the SES, 13 % of women in the EU in the activities covered had been in their 
job for over 20 years as opposed to 19 % of men. This might explain some of the overall wage 
gap, but it is, nevertheless, the case that women earn significantly less than men even when 
they have been in the job for a similar length of time. Indeed, as in the case of age, the wage 
gap tends to widen the longer women and men have been in the same job.

In 2002 the average of hourly earnings of women who had been in their job for less than 10 
years were some 78 % of those of men in the EU as a whole (Figure 101 and Annex Table A.66). 
For those who had been in their job for between 10 and 20 years, they were 75 % of those of 
men and for those working in the same job for 20 or more years, only 71 %.

This tendency for earnings of women relative to men to fall as the length of service increases 
was common to most Member States in 2002, the main exceptions being the Czech Republic, 
Denmark, Germany, France and Austria, where the gap tended to narrow slightly as the time 
in the job lengthened.

The wage gap between women and men by occupation

The jobs that women and men do, in terms of the division of the two between occupations, 
differ markedly. As noted above, many more men than women are employed in managerial 
positions as well as in skilled manual jobs, while many more women than men work as clerks 
or in sales and service jobs. This difference itself contributes to the overall wage gap between 
women and men in so far as a larger proportion of men than women work in higher level 
— and so higher paid — jobs, particularly as managers but also as professionals (especially in 
the activities covered by the SES in many countries (17)). Nevertheless, as in the case of length 
of service, the wage gap remains considerable within each occupational group. Moreover, the 
gap appears to be wider in general in the higher level occupations than the lower level ones 
(Figure 102).

  Many more women 
than men working 
as professionals are 
employed in health 
and education, sectors 
which are not covered 
by the SES 2002 in 
many countries. In the 
analysis here, earnings 
in these sectors are 
included for the 
countries in which the 
data are available.

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

The  hourly  earnings  of  women  em-
ployed as managers (ISCO category 1) 
were only 71 % of those of men on av-
erage in the EU in 2002 (Figure 103). 
In  Slovenia  alone  of  all  Member 
States,  women  managers’  earnings 
averaged only slightly below those of 
men. In all other countries, they were 
less than 90 % of men’s earnings and 
apart from Cyprus, Malta and Roma-
nia, less than 85 %. In Italy, women’s 
earnings  in  this  occupational  group 
were  only  around  65 %  of  men’s  and 
in  the  Czech  Republic  and  Slovakia, 
only around 60 %.

The  wage  gap  for  women  and  men 
employed  as  professionals  and  tech-
nicians  was  only  slightly  narrower, 
women’s earnings being around 73 % 
of those of men on average in the EU 
in  both  occupational  groups  (Annex 
Table A.67).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
wage  gap  was  significantly  narrower 
for  both  clerks  and  sales  and  service 
workers, but it was still the case that 
women’s earnings in each group were 
only  around  84 %  of  men  across  the 
EU as a whole.

In  the  case  of  clerks,  women  earned 
on average more than men in Bulgaria 
(though only around 3 % of men were 

Fig. 102 Average hourly earnings of women relative to 

men's by occupation in the EU-25, 2002

Women relative to men (%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Managers

Professionals

Technicians

Clerks

Sales & service

Craft & related
trades workers

Machine
operators

Elementary
occupations

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey

Fig. 103 Average hourly earnings of women employed as managers relative to that of their male 

counterparts, 2002

Women relative to men (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey

6

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

employed in such jobs in the activities covered by the SES as opposed to 12 % of women) and 
only slightly less than men in Poland, Romania and Sweden.

The wage gap was wider in skilled manual jobs, in which relatively few women were em-
ployed, as well as in elementary manual jobs, in which the numbers of women and men are 
more even. In the latter case, however, women’s average earnings were almost 10 % more than 
for men in Portugal and only around 5 % less in Bulgaria, Romania and the Netherlands. On 
the other hand, in all other countries apart from Hungary and Sweden, they were over 10 % 
less than men’s earnings, in most cases, over 15 % less.

The wage gap between women and men by education level

Differences in the educational attainment levels of women and men also contribute to the 
overall wage gap indicated by the SES, but only marginally since the average attainment level 
of men is only slightly higher than that of women in the sectors covered by the survey in all 
Member States. Women, however, tend to earn less than men at all levels of education and 
especially among those who have completed tertiary education.

The average earnings of women in the EU with only basic schooling (i.e. with no more than 
ISCED  2,  or  lower  secondary  education)  were  only  around  87 %  of  those  of  men  in  2002 
(Figure 104 and Annex Table A.68). This proportion varies across countries, but it was over 
90 % only in France and Hungary and below 75 % in eight Member States.

Fig. 104 Average hourly earnings of women relative to men's by education level, 2002

Women relative to men (%)

Low

Medium

High

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

CY: no data;
LU: no data for 'Low' education level

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey

For  women  with  an  educational  level  higher  than  basic  schooling  but  below  tertiary  (i.e. 
ISCED  3  and  4),  hourly  earnings  averaged  75 %  of  men’s  in  the  EU  as  a  whole,  with  the 
 proportion being above 90 % only in Hungary.

For those who had completed tertiary education (ISCED 5 and 6), women’s earnings in the 
EU were on average just 69 % of those of men. In this case, only in Denmark, Romania and 
Slovenia were their earnings much over 80 % of men’s.

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Indeed, while men with tertiary qualifications earned on average some 63 % more than men 
with only upper secondary education, average earnings of women with tertiary education 
were only 12 % higher than those of men with upper secondary education (Figure 105). In 
Spain and Cyprus, women who had completed tertiary education earned, on average, less 
than men with the lower education level and in Ireland and Italy, only slightly more. Only 
in Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovenia — all new Member States — did women with 
tertiary education earn over 50 % more than men with upper secondary education, whereas 
this  was  the  case  for  men  with  tertiary  education  in  all  but  six  Member  States  (Belgium, 
Denmark, Ireland, Spain, the Netherlands and Finland).

Fig. 105 Difference in average hourly earnings of women and men with tertiary education from those of 

men with upper secondary education, 2002

% difference

167

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

-20

5
2
-
U
E

Women

Men

142

119

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

-20

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

MT: no data

Source: Structure of Earnings Survey

8

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Educational attainment levels and participation 
in the information society

In part 1 of this Panorama, participation of young people in education was examined. It was 
shown that women increasingly outnumber men among those graduating from university 
and other tertiary level institutions. Here the focus is, first, on the longer-term trends in the 
educational attainment levels of women and men; secondly, on the differential employment 
rates of women and men with given education levels; thirdly, on the sectors of activity in 
which those with high education levels are employed and, fourthly, on the access of women 
and men to continuing training.

Long-term trends in education levels

Educational levels of women have risen more 
than those of men over the long term

Comparison of the educational attainment levels of women and men in successive age cohorts 
gives an indication of how these levels have progressively increased over the years in most 
parts of the EU and, correspondingly, how the qualifications of the workforce have gradually 
improved. Comparison of the relative numbers of those aged 50–54 and those aged 30–34 
with different educational attainment levels indicates that education levels of women have 
risen by more than men over the 20 years which separate the two cohorts almost throughout 
all EU Member States. Some 31 % of women aged 30–34 have tertiary level qualifications in 
the EU, according to the LFS data for 2005, as compared with under 19 % of those aged 50–
54 (Figure 106 and Annex Table A.69). At the same time, the proportion of 30–34 year-olds 
with upper secondary qualifications is almost 5 percentage points higher than for the older 
age group, so that 22 % of women aged 30–34 have no qualifications beyond basic schooling 
as against 39 % of 50–54 year-olds.

Although the extent of the difference in education levels between these two age cohorts dif-
fers across the EU, there is only one country, Estonia, where the proportion of women aged 

Fig. 106 Division of women aged 30-34 and 50-54 by educational attainment level, 2005

Tertiary

Upper secondary

Basic

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E
I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T
I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S
I

O
N

H
C

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: age 30-34; right bar: age 50-54; 
MT: unreliable data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   99

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 107 Division of men aged 30-34 and 50-54 by educational attainment level, 2005

Tertiary

Upper secondary

Basic

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: age 30-34; right bar: age 50-54;
MT: unreliable data for age 50-54; HR: unreliable data for age 30-34; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

30–34 with tertiary education is not higher than for those aged 50–54. In Belgium, Ireland, 
Spain,  France,  Cyprus,  Luxembourg  and  Finland,  the  difference  is  around  20  percentage 
points or more.

For men, the difference in education levels between the two age groups is much smaller and 
less uniform. Around 27 % of men aged 30–34 have tertiary level qualifications — 4 percent-
age points less than for women — as compared with just under 22 % of those aged 50–54 
(3 percentage points higher than for women). At the same time, the proportion of men with 
only basic schooling is only 7 percentage points lower for those aged 30–34 than for those 
aged 50–54 (Figure 107). There are five EU Member States — the Czech Republic, Germany, 
Latvia, Romania and Slovakia — where the share of men aged 30–34 who had completed 
tertiary education is smaller than for those aged 50–54, while in Hungary, it is much the 
same.

Education  levels  of  women  have  risen  much  faster  than  for  men  over  the  long  term  and 
there are now significantly more women in the younger age groups with higher education 
levels than men in most parts of the EU. The proportion of women aged 30–34 who have 
completed tertiary education is higher for men in all but four Member States — the Czech 
Republic, Germany, the Netherlands and Austria — and, of these, only in Germany is the 
difference more than marginal. In half the 26 Member States for which data are available (all 
except Malta), the proportion of women in this age group with tertiary qualifications is over 
7 percentage points higher than for men. The overall proportion of women aged 30–34 and 
men with tertiary qualifications, however, still varies markedly across the EU. Whereas in 
Finland, around 52 % of women have this level of qualification and in Denmark, 47 %, in the 
Czech Republic, Romania and Slovakia, the proportion is under 15 %.

Employment rates lower for women than men at all education levels

The proportion of women with tertiary education who are in employment is higher for wom-
en with lower education levels but still significantly smaller than for men. The employment 
rate of women aged 25–64 with tertiary education was just over 80 % in the EU in 2005. This 
compares with a rate for women with only basic schooling of only around 44 %. Nevertheless, 

00

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 108 Employment rates of women and men, aged 25-64, with tertiary education, 2005

% of women/men, aged 25-64, with tertiary education

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

the rate for women with tertiary education was some 7 percentage points lower than for men 
with the same level of education (Figure 108 and Annex Table A.70).

This  difference  varies  from  11–12  percentage  points  in  Greece,  Malta  and  Slovakia  and 
14   percentage  points  in  the  Czech  Republic  to  only  2  percentage  points  in  Romania  and 
Slovenia and just over 1 percentage point in Sweden (and virtually zero in Croatia).

On the other hand, the employment rate for women with only basic schooling in the EU was 
some 26 percentage points below the rate for men with this level of education (Figure 109 
and Annex Table A.70). Apart from Slovakia and Finland, the difference was over 10 per-
centage  points  in  all  countries  and  over  38  percentage  points  in  Greece,  Spain,  Italy  and 
Malta (in the latter, 57 percentage points). In all these countries, under 40 % of women with 
this level of education were in employment in 2005 (only just over 20 % in Malta). This was 
also the case in Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, though here it 

Fig. 109 Employment rates of women and men, aged 25-64, with only basic schooling, 2005

% of women/men, aged 25-64, with basic schooling

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

0

Panorama2008.indb   101

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

was also the case that a relatively small proportion of men with basic schooling were in work 
(under half in the three new Member States and under 30 % in Slovakia).

Women with tertiary education work in different activities than men

There are marked differences in the jobs in which men and women with tertiary education 
are employed. In particular, a much larger proportion of men with tertiary qualifications 
than women are employed in industry, agriculture and business and financial services. These 
broad activities employed half of all men aged 25–64 with such qualifications in the EU in 
2005 as opposed to a quarter of women (Figure 110).

Conversely, many more women than men with tertiary education are employed in education 
and health, almost half (48 %) of women graduates in this age group in employment work in 
these activities as against just 20 % of men.

This difference is repeated in all Member States to varying degrees. The proportion of men 
with  tertiary  education  employed  in  industry  and  agriculture  and  business  and  financial 
services was around half or more in most countries in 2005. On the other hand, it was around 
40 % or less in a number of Member States with relatively low levels of GDP per head, includ-
ing Bulgaria, Greece, Lithuania and Malta (Annex Table A.71). In all these countries, how-
ever, the proportion was still much larger than that for women. Indeed, in only two countries 
in the EU — Luxembourg (because of banking) and Romania (because of agriculture) — was 
the proportion of women graduates employed in these activities over 30 %.

Similarly,  the  proportion  of  women  with  tertiary  education  employed  in  Education  and 
health was under 40 % only in six Member States — Estonia, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia, Romania 
and Luxembourg — in each case still well above the proportion of men with this education 
level working in these activities. In Malta, the share of women with this level of qualification 
working in these two sectors was around two thirds, in Denmark and Sweden, as well as 
Norway, around 60 % or just below.

Fig. 110 Women and men aged 25-64 with tertiary education in the EU-27 by sector of activity, 2005

Industry+Agriculture

Business+Financial services

Public administration

Education+Health

Other services

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Women

Men

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

% of women/men with tertiary education in employment

Source: Eurostat, LFS

02

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 111 Participation of women and men aged 25-64 in employment in continuing training, 2003

% of women/men in employment

Women 

Men

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

H
C

5
2
-
U
E

BG, CZ, EL, PL: no data

Source: Eurostat, LFS 2003 ad hoc module on Life-long learning

More women than men participate in continuing training

According to the special ad hoc module of the labour force survey conducted in 2003, some 
23 % of women aged 25–64 in employment and 19 % of men participated in (non-formal) 
continuing vocational training at some time during the preceding year (Figure 111).

The proportion of women participating in continuing training was larger than that of men in 
all Member States except Slovakia, though the extent of the difference varied as did the over-
all scale of participation. The rate of participation of women in continuing training ranged 
from over 55 % of the total employed in Denmark, Finland and Sweden and just over 45 % in 
the UK, the only countries in the EU where the proportion exceeded a third, to under 10 % 
in Greece, Italy and Hungary and only around 1 % in Romania. The rate of participation of 
men was also relatively high in the first four countries, but in each case at least 6 percentage 
points less than the rate for women. In all other Member States, the proportion was 30 % or 
less, in Greece, Lithuania and Hungary, under 5 % and in Romania, under 1 %.

The extent of participation in continuing training varies markedly with the level of educa-
tional attainment. At the same time, more women than men tend to participate in training at 
all levels of education. For women with tertiary education in the EU the rate of participation 
in continuing training was around 40 % of those in employment as compared with just over 
33 % of men. For those with upper secondary education, the proportions were just over 20 % 
for women and 18 % for men, and for those with only basic schooling, just over 8 % and 7 %, 
respectively (Annex Table A.72).

These differences both between women and men and those with different education levels 
are common to nearly all Member States. For those with tertiary education, there is only one 
EU country, Belgium, where the proportion of women participating in training was smaller 
than that of men (though this was also the case in Switzerland) (Figure 112).

In  Sweden,  over  70 %  of  the  women  concerned  participated  in  continuing  training,  in 
 Denmark and Finland, over two thirds and in Slovenia and the UK, over 60 %. In all of these 
countries, the proportion for men was at least 3–4 percentage points lower and in Slovenia, 
12 percentage points lower. At the same time, there were five Member States — Greece, Italy, 
Hungary,  the  Netherlands  and  Romania  —  in  which  the  proportion  of  women  with  this 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

0

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 112 Participation of women and men with tertiary education in continuing training, 2003

% of women/men, aged 25-64, with tertiary education

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

O
N

H
C

BG, EE, MT: no data; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS 2003 ad hoc module on Life-long learning

 education level participating in continuing training was less than 20 %. This, however, was 
the case for men not only in these countries but also in Spain, Latvia and Lithuania.

Use of computers and the Internet by women and men aged 25–54

The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) has become an essential fea-
ture of both economic and social activity across Europe. Men, however, are more regular 
users of both computers and the Internet than women in nearly all countries. Apart from the 
differences in the specific group of intense computer users employed in computing jobs de-
scribed above, men aged 25–54 use computers and the Internet more than women whether it 
is for work, leisure or communication. More men than women also report having a relatively 
wide range of basic ICT skills (18).

More men use computers daily than women

Some 54 % of men aged 25–54 in the EU used a computer daily, or almost daily, according 
to the Community survey of ICT usage conducted in 2006. This is 7 percentage points more 
than the proportion of women of the same age (Figure 113 and Annex Table A.73). Though 
more  men  than  women  use  computers  this  frequently  in  most  countries,  there  are  eight 
Member  States  —  Bulgaria,  Czech  Republic,  Estonia,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Hungary,  Poland 
and Slovakia — plus Iceland where the reverse is true. In five of these Member States, howev-
er — all except Estonia, Hungary and Slovakia — the proportion of women using computers 
daily was well below the EU average. By contrast, in Luxembourg, Austria, Sweden and the 
UK, where the proportion of women was markedly below that of men (10 percentage points 
or more), it was still above the EU average.

Men also use the Internet more than women

8  The respondent’s ICT 
competences were 
measured using a self-
assessment approach 
and by indicating 
whether he/she is 
able to carry out 
specific tasks related to 
computer and Internet 
use.

The use of the Internet by those aged 25–54 is broadly in line with computer usage. Around 
34 % of women in this age group in the EU used the Internet daily, or almost so, as com-
pared with 43 % of men. The proportion of women exceeds that of men only in the three 
Baltic States (Figure 114 and Annex Table A.74). The difference in the scale of usage between 
countries, however, is much more pronounced than the difference between men and women. 

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 113 Women and men having used a computer on average every day or almost every day in the last three 

months, 2006

% of women/men aged 25-54

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

FR, MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

Fig. 114 Women and men having used the Internet on average every day or almost every day in the last 

three months, 2006

% of women/men aged 25-54

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

The proportions for both men and women using the Internet daily vary from 57 % or more 
in Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden, as well as Iceland and Norway, to under 
24 % in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Greece and Poland.

More men than women have basic computer skills

The gap between men and women is even wider in respect of basic computer skills than in 
the take-up and use of ICT. In 2006, around a third of men aged 25–54 but only 18 % of 
women  were  recorded  as  having  high  basic  skills  (Figure 115  and  Annex  Table A.75).  Al-
though the extent of the difference varies, more men than women are assessed to have such 
skills in all countries. The gap between men and women was particularly wide (over 20 per-
centage points) in Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria and Sweden 
as well as Norway.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

0

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 115 Women and men aged 25-54 assessed to have high computer skills, 2006

% of women/men aged 25-54

Women

Men

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

Men are more skilled at using the Internet than women

Only a small number of women and men aged 25–54 have high Internet skills. In 2006 in 
the EU-25 only 3 % of the women at this age were highly skilled in the Internet usage com-
pared to 9 % of men (Figure 116 and Annex Table A.75). Although the figure was very low 
in all Member States, everywhere men performed better than women. The only exception is 
Estonia where women not only performed as well as men but the proportion of both women 
and men with high Internet skills was the highest in Europe — around 20 %. The gender gap 
was more than 10 percentage points in favour of men in Denmark, Luxembourg, Finland, 
Sweden as well as Norway.

Fig. 116 Women and men aged 25-54 assessed to have high Internet skills, 2006

% of women/men aged 25-54

Women

Men

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

FR, MT: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

06

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Health and other social aspects

Women’s and men’s health

Self-perceived health status

According to the health surveys conducted at different times in different European countries 
at the end of the 1990s and beginning of the present decade, more women in the EU consider 
that they have health problems than men (19) (Figure 117 and Annex Table A.76).

This is the case in the great majority of EU Member States. There are only two countries 
— Ireland and Finland — where a smaller proportion of men in this age group than women 
regard  themselves  as  being  in  good  health  and  only  another  two  —  Austria  and  the  UK 
— where the proportions are much the same.

The overall proportions of women and men reporting their health to be good vary mark-
edly across countries, in some degree in line with the average level of household income. In 
the countries where this is highest such as Belgium, Denmark, Germany and Ireland, the 
proportions of both women and men reporting good health exceed 80 %, while in countries 
where it is lowest, such as the three Baltic States and Poland, the proportion is 50 % or less.

Nevertheless, there are clearly factors other than income affecting the number of women and 
men perceiving themselves to be in good health, since in Greece and Cyprus, where the level 
of household income is well below the EU average, the proportion reporting good health is 
also above 80 %. At the same time, in Slovenia, where income levels are higher than in most 
of the other new Member States, the proportion so reporting is less than 30 %, smaller than 
in any other country.

Body mass index

Although women might consider themselves to be, on average, less healthy than men, the 
body  mass  index,  which  measures  a  person’s  weight  relative  to  their  height  and  indicates 
how far this diverges from the norm, tells a different story (20). Being overweight is a major 

Fig. 117 Self-perception of health of women and men aged 25-64, 2004

% of women/men aged 25-64

Good

Fair

Bad

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
LU: no data; UK: data refer to England

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

100

80

60

40

20

0

  Figures for age group 
2–6 are estimates 
obtained by averaging 
the data reported 
for the age groups: 
2–, –, – 
and –6 using the 
population size of 
these as weights.

20  The definition of being 
overweight is where 
the ratio of a person’s 
weight measured in 
kilograms and the 
square of their height 
measured in metres 
is between 2 and 0, 
while being obese is 
where the ratio is 0 or 
more.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

0

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Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 118 Women and men aged 25-64, measured as being overweight, 2004

% of women/men aged 25-64

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Overweight

Obese

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
LU, HR, TR: no data; UK: data refer to England

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

indicator of impending health problems, significantly increasing the risk of heart disease, 
in particular. In most of the Member States, a larger number of men than women of work-
ing age are recorded by the health interview surveys, carried out between 1996 and 2003, as 
 being overweight and much the same proportion as being obese (Figure 118).

The proportion of men measured as being obese according to the body mass index varies 
from 28 % in Malta, 24 % in the UK and 20–21 % in Germany and Hungary to only around 
9 % in Italy and Romania. The proportion of women who are obese is similarly high in the 
first four countries (though it is some 7 percentage points less than for men in Malta) and 
relatively low in the latter two. Indeed, in most cases, there is relatively little difference be-
tween the two proportions, the main exceptions being Estonia and Latvia, where many more 
women than men (18 % as against 10 % and 21 % as against 14 %, respectively) are recorded 
as being obese, and Malta, where as noted the reverse is the case.

Many more men than women, however, are considered to be overweight on the same meas-
ure in all countries. The proportion for men is around 55 % in Austria, over 50 % in both 
Greece and Slovakia and over 40 % in all EU Member States apart from Estonia, France and 
Latvia, where in each case it is around 37 % or higher. By contrast, the figure for women is 
less than this throughout the EU. It is above 35 %, and then marginally, only in Greece and 
in most countries, the proportion of women considered overweight is below 30 %.

Combining those overweight with those regarded as obese indicates that in Germany, the UK 
and Malta, some 70 % of men fall into this category, while in Greece, Austria and Slovakia, 
the  figure  is  over  65 %.  The  only  countries  in  which  the  proportion  falls  below  50 %  are 
France and Estonia, and then only slightly. It also falls below 50 % in both Norway and Swit-
zerland, in the former of which it is around 43 %, less than in any of the EU Member States.

The proportion of women who are either obese or overweight is smaller than that of men 
in all EU countries except Estonia and Latvia. Indeed Latvia is one of only three Member 
States where the figure for women is over 50 %, the others being Germany and the UK. At 
the same time, there are only four countries in the EU — Denmark, France, Italy and Austria 
—  in  which  the  proportion  falls  below  35 %  (though  this  is  also  the  case  in  Norway  and 
 Switzerland). In Austria, the figure is just under 30 %, over 35 percentage points less than 
that of men.

08

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Being underweight, which can equally be a cause of health problems, is much less prevalent 
among women and men aged 25–64 than among the younger generation. As in the case of 
the latter, more women than men in this age group are considered to be underweight accord-
ing to the body mass index (Annex Table A.77). Only in two EU Member States — Italy and 
Cyprus — is the proportion 5 % or more, though this is also the case in Switzerland and, 
most especially, in Norway, where the figure is as high as 26 %.

In all countries, the proportion of men who are measured as being underweight is less than 
that of women. Only in France, Hungary and Portugal, Slovenia and the UK in the EU does 
the figure exceed 1 % and only in the latter two countries, is it more than 2 %. In Norway, 
however, it reaches 24 %.

Women and men who smoke

Smoking,  like  being  overweight,  is  an  important  cause  of  health  problems.  Universally 
throughout Europe, more men than women smoke regularly.

According to the health interview surveys, the overall number of people aged 25–64 smoking 
regularly varies considerably across the EU (Figure 119 and Annex Tables A.78 and A.79).

In the case of men, it is particularly high in Estonia and Latvia, at just over 56 %. It also 
exceeds 50 % in Bulgaria and Greece (though in the former, only 21 % of these smoke 20 
cigarettes or more a day) and is around 50 % in both Poland and Slovenia. By contrast, only 
around 24 % of men smoke daily in Ireland and just 19 % in Sweden. Apart from these two 
countries, however, the figure is below 30 % only in Slovakia and Finland, though it is only 
slightly over 30 % in the UK.

Among women in this age group, the proportion smoking daily varies less between coun-
tries and in a different way than for men. Bulgaria apart, in the countries in which smok-
ing is most prevalent among men — Estonia, Greece and Latvia — the number of women 
smokers is less than the EU average. The proportion of women who smoke daily is highest in 
Denmark and Austria, at around 35 % in both cases, and apart from Hungary, these are the 
only EU Member States where the figure exceeds 30 %. At the same time, there are only eight 

Fig. 119 Women and men aged 25–64 smoking cigarettes daily, 2004

% of women/men aged 25-64

Women

Men

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

H
C

LU: no data

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996-2003

  Women and men in Europe 2007

0

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

countries in which it falls below 20 % and just five — Cyprus, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania 
and Slovakia — where it is less than 15 %.

Causes of death

Death rates among men of working age are substantially higher than among women through-
out Europe. This holds for both external causes of death — from accidents and so on — and 
those resulting from illness or disease.

In the EU as a whole, almost four times as many men died from external causes in 2005 as 
women — 68 per 100 000 as opposed to 18 (Figure 120). As in the case of those aged under 
25, the difference between men and women is especially marked in respect of transport and 
other accidents.

In all EU Member States, the death rate among men in this age group from external causes 
was over twice that of women. The numbers involved, however, vary markedly across coun-
tries, ranging, among men, from 375 deaths per 100 000 in Lithuania and 318 deaths per 
100 000  in  Latvia  to  30  in  Malta  and  35  in  the  Netherlands  (Annex  Table A.80).  Among 
women, deaths from external causes are also highest in Lithuania and Latvia (76 per 100 000 
and 66, respectively), though apart from in these countries and Estonia (54), the number 
involved was less than 40 in all countries.

The difference in death rates between men and women from illnesses and diseases is less 
marked than for external causes, but it is still substantial. For men, the numbers concerned 
in 2005 ranged from 861 per 100 000 in Latvia and 838 in Hungary to under 250 per 100 000 
in Ireland, Cyprus, Malta and Sweden. Among women, the numbers ranged from 353 per 
100 000 in Latvia and 371 in Hungary to 113 in Cyprus and 127 in Spain.

Neoplasms, or tumours, are the primary causes of death from illnesses and diseases in the 
EU, accounting for around 42 % of deaths among men aged 25–64 from non-external causes 
and for over half (56 %) of the deaths among women. Nevertheless, despite the higher pro-
portion, in most Member States fewer women died from tumours than men (106 per 100 000 
in the EU as against 148), the only exceptions being Denmark, Ireland, Cyprus, the Nether-
lands and Sweden.

Fig. 120

Crude death rates of young women and men aged 25-64, by cause, 2005

Crude death rate per 100 000 inhabitants

Other external causes

Other accidents

Transport accidents

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

354

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

External
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Women

External
causes

Illnesses/
diseases

Men

Source: Eurostat, Health statistics

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

In  contrast  to  the  situation  elsewhere,  in  the  new  Member  States,  apart  from  the  Czech 
 Republic and Slovenia, as well as in Finland, diseases of the circulatory system were respon-
sible for a larger number of deaths among men than tumours. This was also the case among 
women in Bulgaria, Latvia and Romania.

How women and men spend their time

Women and men of working age spend their time in different ways, as revealed by time use 
surveys. These surveys were carried out on a reasonably comparable basis in 14 EU Member 
States between 1998 and 2004. They show that how women and men in different countries 
spend their time is affected by levels of income as well as whether or not they have children.

Focusing on those aged 25–44, men in the 14 countries spend on average some 308 minutes 
a day, or just over five hours, working in paid employment as compared with 176 minutes, or 
just under three hours a day in the case of women (Figure 121 and Annex Table  A.81). This 
mainly reflects the smaller proportion of women with a paid job, though partly the shorter 
hours which women with a job tend to work in many countries.

On average, men in the highest income countries (defined in terms of median household 
income, equivalised for differences in household size and composition and expressed in pur-
chasing power parity terms) — specifically the UK, Germany, Belgium, France and Sweden 
— spend less of their time doing paid work than those in the lowest income countries — 
Latvia,  Lithuania,  Estonia,  Poland  and  Hungary.  (The  median  household  income  in  the 
former countries averaged around 3.5 times more in purchasing parity terms than that in the 
latter ones in 2001–02.). But the difference is small (around 18 minutes a day). Women also 
spend less time doing paid work in the former countries, but the difference is much larger, 
averaging around 45 minutes a day.

In contrast to paid work, women spend considerably more time doing unpaid domestic work 
than men. In the 14 countries taken together, they spent some 278 minutes a day on average 
as opposed to 116 minutes a day in the case of men, i.e. some 2 hours 40 minutes a day more. 
Women spend more time than men on all domestic work except gardening and household 
maintenance, particularly on cooking, washing and cleaning as well as childcare. The latter 

Fig. 121 Time spent by women and men, aged 25-44, on paid work and unpaid domestic work

Minutes per day

Left bar: women; right bar: men

Paid work

Unpaid domestic work

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

All
countries

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

LT

LV

EE

PL

HU

ES

SI

IT

FI

SE

FR

BE

DE

UK

BG, CZ, DK, IE, EL, CY, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, RO, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, national time use surveys, 1998-2004

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

took up only 22 minutes a day on average of men’s time but one hour a day of women’s. The 
difference is especially large in Italy, where women spent over five hours a day on domestic 
work, whereas men spent just 73 minutes.

In general, however, women spent more time in the lower income countries doing unpaid 
domestic work than in the higher income ones — around 22 minutes a day more on average. 
This means that overall, work of all kinds took up over an hour more a day in the five lowest 
income countries than in the five highest income ones. By contrast, men spent slightly less 
time in the lowest income countries doing unpaid work. Overall while work absorbed more 
of their day than in lower income countries, the difference is much smaller than for women 
(only around a quarter as large).

The longer time spent on unpaid work means that in total women in the 14 countries taken 
together spent an average of 30 minutes more a day working than men. In the highest in-
come  countries,  however,  the  difference  was  only  around  10  minutes,  while  in  the  lowest 
income ones, it was almost an hour.

The shorter time spent working by men in the 14 countries is reflected in them having more 
leisure time than women — some 36 minutes a day more on average. On the other hand, 
there is a less of difference in the time spent on leisure activities between men and women 
in the highest and lowest income countries than would seem to be implied by the difference 
in working time. Men in the highest income countries spent the same amount of time, on 
average, on leisure pursuits as those in the lowest income countries, while women spent just 
under half an hour more (Figure 122). In both cases, the time freed up by working less goes 
on  personal  care,  eating  and  travel  to  and  from  work,  for  shopping  and  for  transporting 
children as much as on leisure.

The use of leisure time, moreover, varies between women and men as well as between coun-
tries with different income levels. Men spend their additional leisure time as compared with 
women partly playing sport (around five minutes more a day on average) but mostly watching 
television — some 20 minutes more a day.

Fig. 122 Time spent by women and men, aged 25-44, on leisure activities

Minutes per day

Left bar: women; right bar: men

Other
Social activities
Watching TV

400

300

200

100

0

All
countries

400

300

200

100

0

LT

LV

EE

PL

HU

ES

SI

IT

FI

SE

FR

BE

DE

UK

BG, CZ, DK, IE, EL, CY, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, RO, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, national time use surveys, 1998-2004

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Both women and men in the higher income countries tend to spend more time on social 
activities than in the lower income ones (some 20 minutes a day more in the case of women, 
12 minutes in the case of men). On the other hand, both women and men, but particularly 
the latter, in lower income countries spend more time watching television (some 28 minutes 
a day more in the case of men), which usually involves much lower cost.

Women and men involved in crime

Suspected offenders

According  to  the  European  sourcebook  of  crime  and  criminal  justice  statistics,  a  much 
smaller number of women than men are involved in crime of various kinds, even though 
the statistics do not enable a reliable comparison between countries of the absolute numbers 
involved (21).

In the 23 Member States for which data are available, women made up under 20 % of all those 
suspected of criminal offences in 2003 in all except three countries — Austria, Luxembourg 
and Germany (Figure 123). In these latter three countries, they accounted for 20–25 %. At 
the other extreme, they accounted for 10 % or less of those suspected of offences in Slovakia, 
Bulgaria, Poland, Lithuania and Spain.

Fig. 123 Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Total criminal offences, 2003

%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

SK

BG PL

LT

ES

EE

CZ MT NL

RO EL HU PT

FR

FI

SI

UK

SE

IE

AT

LU DE

BE, CY, DK, IT: no data;
UK: data refer to England and Wales

Source: European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, 2006

Theft

The number of women charged with theft is higher in relation to men than for any other 
category of offence. Nevertheless, it is still the case that women accounted for 30 % or less 
of all those arrested on suspicion of theft in 2003 in all 22 Member States for which data are 
available and under 25 % in all except Germany and Sweden (Figure 124). They accounted 
for under 10 % in Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Lithuania and the Czech Republic.

2  The statistics cover 
all women and men 
involved in crime and 
not only those aged 
2–6.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Fig. 124 Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Theft, 2003

%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

PL

SK

RO LT

CZ

EL

BG ES

SI MT

PT HU FR

NL

EU

FI

LU UK

IE

AT

SE DE

BE, CY, DK, EE, IT: no data; 
UK: data refer to England and Wales

Source: European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, 2006

Robbery

In the case of robbery, which unlike theft involves stealing from people with force or the 
threat of force, women made up a considerably smaller proportion of suspected offenders 
than in the case of theft. In all Member States, women accounted for less than 13 % of sus-
pects and in all apart from four — Finland, Malta, the UK and Austria — women made up 
under 10 % of these (Figure 125).

Fig. 125 Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Robbery, 2003

%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

LT

PT

BG

EL

PL

RO SK

SI

SE

FR

IE

NL

CZ

LU HU DE

ES

AT

UK MT

FI

BE, CY, DK, EE, IT: no data; 
UK: data refer to England and Wales

Source: European Sourcebook of Crime and
Criminal Justice Statistics, 2006



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Part 2 — The working and family years

2

Fig. 126 Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Drug offences, 2003

%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BG

PL

FR

EL

SI

SK

HU

IE

UK

PT

CZ

DE

NL

SE

LU

AT

FI

MT

RO

LT

BE, CY, DK, EE, IT, ES: no data;
UK: data refer to England and Wales

Source: European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, 2006

Drug offences

Women are also in a small minority of those arrested on suspicion of drug offences (the pos-
session, sale, transportation, production and so on of these), making up less than 15 % of 
suspected offenders in all but five Member States — Austria, Finland, Malta, Romania and 
Lithuania (Figure 126). In the first two of these, they accounted for 15–16 %, in Malta and 
Romania, 20–21 % and in Lithuania, 26 %.

Convicted criminals

The relative number of women and men convicted of crimes is broadly in line with those ar-
rested on suspicion of committing an offence. In 2002 (or the latest year for which data are 
available), women accounted for less than 20 % of those convicted in all Member States and 
less than 15 % in all but five countries — Belgium, Germany, Cyprus, Austria and the UK 
(Figure 127 and Annex Table A.82).

Fig. 127 Adults convicted in criminal courts, 2002

% 

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Women

Men

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

PL ES LU EE BG PT LV FR DK SK

SI NL

IE RO CZ HU SE EL

IT

LT

FI BE CY AT DE UK

Data estimated from sex breakdown - BE: 1995; LT: 1997; PT: 1994; 
BG, EE, FR, HU: data refer to 2000; EL: 1996; ES: 1999; IE, AT: 1994; PL: 2001

Source: UN, 8th Criminal and Justice Survey

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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2

Part 2 — The working and family years

Prison population

The relative number of women sent to prison for the offences they commit is even smaller. 
According  to  the  latest  figures  (compiled  by  the  International  Centre  for  Prison  Studies), 
women accounted on average for just 5 % of the total prison population in 2006 (Figure 128). 
The largest shares were in Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands, though these amounted to 
only 7–9 % of the total. In all other countries, except Finland, where the figure was just over 
6 %, the share of women was less than 6 % and in eight countries (six of them new Member 
States), less than 4 %.

Fig. 128 Female prison population on a selected day in 2006

% total prison population

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

CY PL LT BG IE

FR EE MT SI BE SK DK RO UK CZ IT LU DE SE AT LV HU EL

FI PT ES NL

UK: average of share obtained for England & Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland; 
2005 data: EE, FR, IT, LT, HU, AT, SI, SK, SE, RO; 2004: DK, EL, NL; 2002: MT

Source: International Centre for 
Prison Studies

6

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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3

The retirement years

  Women and men in Europe 2007



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Panorama2008.indb   118

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3

Demographic aspects

Women outnumber men among those aged 65 and over …

Around 17 % of the population in the European Union are aged 65 and over. Of these 59 % 
are women. The proportion of women increases with age, women making up 64 % of those 
aged 75 and over and just over 71 % of those of 85 and over.

The proportion of the total population who are 65 and over varies across EU Member States. 
In 2005, it ranged from 18–19 % in Germany, Greece and Italy to just over 11 % in Ireland 
and Slovakia (as well as in Liechtenstein). Women made up the majority of the population 
in this age group in all EU-25 countries, the proportion varying from 55 % in Greece and 
Cyprus to just over 66 % in the three Baltic States (Figure 129 and Annex Table A.83).

… and more so as they grow older

In the older age groups, women accounted for 70 % or more of those aged 75 and over in 
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia and over 60 % in all countries apart from Greece 
and Cyprus (Figure 130). They made up over 75 % of those aged 85 and over in Germany, 
Estonia, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Finland and below 65 % only in Bulgaria, Greece 
(where it was only 57 %) and Cyprus.

At age 65 men can expect to live over 3 years less than women

The larger number of women than men of 65 and over is reflected in differences in their life 
expectancy. According to the latest estimates (for 2005), at age 65, women in the EU can 
expect to live, on average, another 20 years or slightly more while men can expect to live 
around 17 years, over three years less. Over the period 1990 to 2005, the life expectancy of 
women and men at age 65 rose marginally more for men across the EU than for women, by 
around 26 months as against 21 months, closing the gap only a little (Figure 131).

There are some differences in life expectancy at age 65 across the EU. For women, the years 
they can expect to live ranged in 2005 from 21 or more in Spain, France and Finland — and 
outside of the EU in Iceland, Lichtenstein and Switzerland — to just over 16 in Bulgaria and 

Fig. 129 Relative numbers of women and men aged 65 and over, 2005

% of total population aged 65+

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Men

Women

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

R
T

S

I

I
L

O
N

H
C

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 130 Relative numbers of women and men aged over 75 and 85, 2005

% of total population aged 75+ / 85+

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

Men

Women

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

S

I

I
L

O
N

H
C

Left bar: 75+; right bar: 85+; TR: no data

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

Fig. 131 Difference in life expectancy of women and men 

at age 65, 1990 and 2005

Number of years

Men

Women

1990
2005

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
LI
NO
CH

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

IE, CY (only for 1990), LV (only for 1990), MT, TR: no data; 
LT, UK: 1993; BG, LI: 1994; PL: 1997; IT: 2003; FR: 2004;
FR: France metropolitaine; EU-25: estimate

Romania. Life expectancy for men at 
the same age is estimated to be longest 
in the EU in France, as for women, at 
just under 18 years — though it is just 
over 18 years in Iceland, Lichtenstein 
and  Switzerland —  and  shortest  in 
Latvia, at just over 12 years.

Life expectancy continues to 
increase in all Member States

Between 1990 and 2005, life expect-
ancy  at  65  increased  for  both  wom-
en  and  men  in  all  Member  States. 
The 
largest  increases,  of  around 
three years or more for both women 
and  men,  occurred  in  Ireland  and 
 Finland.  Since  the  biggest  increases 
in  most  cases  occurred  in  countries 
where  life  expectancy  in  1990  was 
below  the  EU  average,  there  was 
some convergence in this regard over 
the period.

Average life expectancy 
of women exceeds that 
of men by two years 
once they reach 75 …

At the age of 75, women in the EU can 
expect to live another 12 years, on av-
erage,  according  to  estimates  based 
on 2005 data, while men can expect 

20

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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to live a further 10 years (Figure 132). 
These figures represent an increase of 
around 16 months for women and 17 
months for men as compared with 15 
years  earlier  in  1990.  The  increase  is 
common to all Member States.

Across  the  EU,  life  expectancy  for 
women at 75 is longest in France where 
at  75,  they  can  expect  on  average  to 
live  another  14  years  (around  five 
months  longer  than  in  Switzerland), 
while  in  Spain,  Finland  and  Sweden 
— as well as in Iceland, and Lichten-
stein and Norway — they can expect 
to live a further 13 years. By contrast, 
in Bulgaria and Romania, life expect-
ancy for women at 75 is only just over 
nine years.

For men at the same age, life expectan-
cy is also longest in France, at around 
11 years (about the same as in Iceland 
and Switzerland but over one year less 
than in Lichtenstein). It is some five to 
six months less than this in Spain and 
Sweden but around three years less in 
Bulgaria, Latvia and Slovakia.

Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 132 Difference in life expectancy of women and men 

at age 75, 1990 and 2005

Number of years
6
8
7

Men

Women

1990
2005

9

10

11

12

13

14

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
LI
NO
CH

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Source: Eurostat, DEMO database

… and by around eight 
months at age 85

CY, LV: no data for 1990; TR: no data; 
UK: 1993; MT, LI: 1994; PL: 1997; IT: 2003; FR: 2004;
FR - France metropolitaine; EU-25: estimate

When they reach 85, women in the EU 
can expect, on average, to live for just 
over another six years and men for 5.5 years, around five months longer for women than in 
1990 and some 9–10 months longer for men (Annex Table A.84). The longest life expectancy 
for women at this age is again in France, at just over seven years. This is slightly longer than 
in Iceland, Lichtenstein and Switzerland (all seven years) and around four months longer 
than in Ireland, the country with the next longest life expectancy for women in the EU. At 
the other extreme, life expectancy for women of this age in Bulgaria and Romania is some 
2.5 years less than in France.

For men, life expectancy at 85 in France, is just under six years, as it is in Germany, Ireland 
and Spain, which is slightly less than in Iceland (six years) and over one year less than in 
 Lichtenstein. It is shortest in Bulgaria, at just over four years, and under five years in all of 
the new Member States except Poland where it is exactly five years.

Women can expect a longer disability-free life than men

Perhaps more important than life expectancy as such is the quality of life when people pass 
65 and, therefore, the number of years they can expect to live without disability. Based on 
the data for 2003, women at 65 are estimated to be able to live, on average in the EU, just 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

2

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3

Part  — The retirement years

over another 10.5 years free of disabil-
ity, while for men, the figure is around 
eight months less. While in the great 
majority of Member States, disability-
free  life  expectancy  is  slightly  longer 
for  women  than  for  men,  in  three 
countries  —  Germany,  Cyprus  and 
Portugal —  the  reverse  is  the  case 
(Figure 133 and Annex Table A.85).

The  number  of  disability-free  years 
that women and men at 65 can expect 
to  live,  however,  varies  across  coun-
tries  and  not  altogether  closely  con-
nected with life expectancy as such. In 
France where life expectancy is long-
est,  the  estimated  number  of  years 
without disability is less than the EU 
average, at under nine years for both 
women and men. It is also below aver-
age in Denmark, Sweden and the UK. 
It is longest for women in the EU in It-
aly, at 14.4 years, followed by Belgium, 
Spain and Austria at over 12 years in 
each case. It is shortest for women at 
only just over seven years, in Hungary 
and Finland.

Fig. 133 Disability-free life expectancy of women and men 

at age 65, 2003

Number of healthy years

Men

Women

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

EU-25

BE (1)

CZ (2)

DK (1)

DE (1)

IE (1)

EL (1)

ES (1)

FR (1)

IT (1)

CY

HU  (2)

MT  (2)

NL (1)

AT (1)

PL

PT (1)

FI (1)

SE (1)

UK (1)

NO (2)

W -9.2; M-10.8 

W -12.5
    M-12.6 

W -7.7; M-8.4 

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

W -11,9; M-12,1 

For  men,  the  estimated  number  of 
disability-free  years  they  can  expect 
to  live  at  65  is  also  relatively  long  in 
 Belgium  and  Italy,  as  for  women, 
at  just  under  12  years  (but  less  so  in 
 Austria, at just over 10), though it is longest in Cyprus at 12.6. As also in the case of women, 
it is shortest in Hungary and Finland, at only just over six and 6.5 years, respectively.

(1) estimated value; (2) provisional value;
BG, EE, LV, LT, LU, RO, SI, SK, HR, TR, IS, LI, CH: no data; 
CZ, MT, PL: 2002; EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, Health statistics

More women than men aged 65–74 live alone

The larger number of women aged over 65 than men has implications for their household cir-
cumstances. According to the labour force survey for 2005 there are many more women than 
men aged 65–74 living alone, some 30 % in the EU as a whole (or rather in those countries for 
which data are available — i.e. excluding Denmark, Ireland and Sweden) as opposed to just 
13 % of men (Figure 134 and Annex Table A.86). (It should be emphasised that because the 
LFS covers only private households, those living in communal households, such as nursing 
homes, are excluded from the data presented here).

These relative proportions vary across countries. The proportion of women aged 65–74 living 
alone ranged from 37 % or more in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Finland to 
only around 22 % or less in Spain, Cyprus, Malta and Portugal. For men, the proportion liv-
ing alone ranged from a high of just under 20 % in Lithuania and 10–15 % in most countries, 
to 7–8 % in Greece, Spain, and Portugal, all countries where the proportion of women living 
alone was also relatively small.

22

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 134 Women and men aged 65–74 by type of household, 2005

% of women/men aged 65–74

One adult (1)

Couple 

Other* (2)

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
DK, IE, SE: no data;
*Other – two adults (not a couple) or more

(1) unreliable data for men in EE, CY, SI;
(2) unreliable data for men in EE

Source: Eurostat, LFS

While many more women than men live alone, a similar number, of course, share a house 
with a spouse or partner in the same age group, though since there are a greater number of 
women than men aged 65–74, the proportion involved is smaller than for men.

More women than men share a house other 
than with their spouse or partner

By contrast, a similar proportion of women and men, 22–23 % in the EU as a whole shared 
a house with another person, or persons, either a relative (such as a son or daughter) or a 
friend. The proportions concerned were particularly large in Spain, Latvia and Lithuania, 
where over 40 % of women in each case and over 40 % of men in Spain and over 35 % in the 
other two countries lived in a household with other people other than with their spouse or 
partner. The proportions were also relatively large — over 35 % for both men and women 
— in Malta, Poland and Romania and only slightly smaller in Portugal. On the other hand, 

Fig. 135 Proportion of women and men aged 65–74 living with their children, 2005

% of women/men aged 65–74

Children of the person do not live in the same household 

Children of the person live in the same household (1)

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
DK, IE, SE: no data

(1) unreliable data for men in EE;

Source: Eursotat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

the proportions involved were under 8 % in the Netherlands and only around 11–13 % in 
Finland and the UK.

In the former group of countries, therefore, a significant proportion of women and men in 
this age group had access to the potential support which living with other people, especially 
those of working age, implies.

Many  of  the  people  concerned  were  the  children  of  the  women  or  men  in  question.  On 
average in the EU in 2005, just under 20 % of women and men aged 65–74 lived with their 
son or daughter, the proportion exceeding a third for both in Spain, Latvia and Poland and 
over 30 % for both in Lithuania and Romania. By contrast, many fewer women and men 
in this age group (only around 10 % or less) lived with their children in Germany, France, 
 Netherlands, Finland and the UK (Figure 135 and Annex Table A.87).

The difference in the proportion of women and 
men living alone widens with age

The difference in the proportion of women and men living alone increases with age. In 2005, 
some 52 % of women aged 75 and over lived alone compared to only 21 % of men of the same 
age (Figure 136).

In Germany and the Netherlands, over 60 % of women in this age group lived alone, and in 
the Czech Republic, France, Italy, Slovenia, Finland and the UK, between 55 % and 60 %. 
At the other extreme, a relatively small proportion of women of 75 and over lived alone in 
Latvia (19 %) and Spain (30 %) and only slightly more (under 40 % in each case) in Cyprus, 
Malta, Poland and Portugal.

Conversely,  in  all  of  the  latter  countries,  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  women  lived  in 
households where there was at least one other person, other than their spouse or partner, 
typically of working age.

The proportion of men of 75 and over living alone was under 25 % in all Member States apart 
from the UK (where the figure was just over 30 %) and around 20 % or less in most countries. 
The proportion was especially small in Spain (as well as in Estonia and Latvia, though the 
precise figures are too small to be reliable). By the same token, a relatively large proportion 

Fig. 136 Women and men aged 75 and over by type of household, 2005

% of women/men aged 75+

One adult (1)

Couple (2)

Other* (3)

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

5
2
-
U
E

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
DK, IE, SE: no data;

(1) unreliable data for women in EE; for men in EE, LV, LT, MT, SI;
(2) unreliable data for women in EE, LT, MT, SI, CH; for men in EE;
(3) unreliable data for men in EE, LT, MT, SI

Source: Eurostat, LFS

*Other – two adults (not a couple) or more

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The retirement years

3

of men in these countries — though much smaller than for women — shared a household 
with at least one other person other than their spouse or partner (52 % in Latvia and 37 % 
in Spain).

In most cases, the persons concerned were their sons or daughters. In Latvia, over 40 % of 
men  aged  75  and  over  lived  with  their  children  and  in  Spain,  some  30 %  compared  with 
around 14 % in the EU as a whole. For women in the same age group, the EU average was 
around  18 %,  though  in  Latvia,  the  figure  was  over  60 %  and  in  Estonia,  over  75 %  (Fig-
ure 137).  At  the  other  extreme,  only  around  6 %  of  women  and  men  of  this  age  shared  a 
house with their children in the Netherlands and just 4 % in Germany.

Fig. 137 Proportion of women and men aged over 75 living with their children, 2005

% of women/men aged 75+

Children of the person do not live in the same household (1)

Children of the person live in the same household (2)

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

E
D

E
E

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

K
U

Left bar: women; right bar: men;
DK, IE, SE: no data;

(1) unreliable data for women and men in EE;
(2) unreliable data for women in MT; for men in EE, LT, LU, MT, SI

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

Poverty and relative income levels

Men aged 65 and over tend to be more at risk of poverty than 
those below 65 in almost half the EU Member States 

A larger proportion of elderly women aged 65 and over live in households at risk of poverty 
than their younger counterparts in the large majority of Member States. In many parts of 
the EU, women and men of 65 and over are more at risk of poverty than those below this age. 
This in part reflects their reliance on retirement pensions which in many cases are signifi-
cantly lower than the income from employment of the people concerned when they were of 
working age and which, additionally, may not have kept pace with the subsequent growth of 
earnings.

In 2005, an average of 21 % of women aged 65 and over in the EU was at risk of poverty, de-
fined as having an equivalised disposable income (22) below 60 % of the national median, as 
compared with 16 % of men (Figure 138 and Annex Table A.88). These figures compare, in 
turn, with the 14 % of both women and men aged 55–64 who are estimated to be at risk of 
poverty on the same definition, indicating that women face a greater increase in the risk of 
poverty than men after they reach 65.

The proportions of women and men of 65 and over at risk of poverty varies considerably 
across countries. For women, in 2005 the proportion ranged from over 50 % in Cyprus, some 
36 % in Ireland and 30–32 % in Greece and Spain to only 7 % in the Czech Republic, 6 % in 
the Netherlands and 5 % in Luxembourg.

For men, the proportions vary in a similar way in most countries, with a smaller proportion 
of elderly men than women at risk of poverty in all Member States apart from Luxembourg 
and Portugal, though in some cases, there are marked differences between the relative num-
bers of men and women at risk. The proportion of men aged 65 and over with income below 
the  poverty  risk  threshold,  calculated  as  60 %  of  national  median  equivalised  disposable 
income, therefore, ranged from almost 50 % in Cyprus, 30 % in Ireland and just under 30 % 
in Portugal to 5 % in Bulgaria, Poland and the Netherlands, 4 % in Hungary and just 2–3 % 

Fig. 138 Proportion of women and men aged 65 and over at risk of poverty, 2005

% of female/male population aged 65+

Women

Men

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

22  For more details 
see sources and 
methodology.

26

Income data refer to 2004, except: RO, UK: 2005 and IE: 2004–2005; EU aggregates: 
Eurostat estimates are obtained as a population-size weighted average of national data.

Source: EU-SILC and
national sources

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Part  — The retirement years

3

in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In all cases, apart from the Netherlands, these figures 
are significantly lower than for the proportion of women.

In Bulgaria, the figure for women was some 18 percentage points higher than that of men 
(though the data are obtained from national sources which are not fully comparable with 
the EU-SILC on which the estimates for other Member States are based). The difference is 
only slightly less in each of the three Baltic States and Slovenia (14–16 percentage points). 
This difference both in these countries and elsewhere is likely to be a consequence, in part, 
of the larger numbers of women than men living alone, without access to any other source 
of income apart from their own.

Income inequality is less among women and men 
aged 65 and over than for those younger

There are significant differences in the equivalised disposable income of women and men 
aged 65 and over which are only partly reflected in the total income received by the 20 % of 
the population with the highest equivalised income (top quintile) relative to that received by 
the 20 % with the lowest income (bottom quintile). The degree of income dispersion, how-
ever, is slightly smaller for those in this age group than among those aged under 65. The top 
20 % of income recipients aged 65 and over in the EU, therefore, had an average level of dis-
posable income in 2005 which was some four times larger than the bottom 20 % (Figure 139 
and Annex Table A.89). This compares with a ratio of around five times for women and men 
under 65 (see section on poverty in part 2).

As in the case of those aged under 65, the extent of income inequality among those aged 65 
and over is particularly wide in Portugal, where the top 20 % had over six times the income 
of the bottom 20 %. The ratio was also relatively large in Greece and Italy (where the ratio 
was well over four times), again in line with the above average degree of income inequality 
among those under 65. In France and Cyprus, however, where inequality by this measure 
is similarly high, this contrasts with those under 65 for which income dispersion was well 
below average. These are the only two countries in which the extent of income dispersion 
is wider among those aged 65 and over than among those younger than this. In all other 

Fig. 139 Income of top 20 % of recipients relative to bottom 20 %, those aged over 65, 2005

S80/S20 income quintile share ratio

Women

Men

10

8

6

4

2

0

5
2
-
U
E

10

8

6

4

2

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

Income data refer to 2004, except: UK: 2005 and IE: 2004–2005; BG, RO: no data; EU aggregates: 
Eurostat estimates are obtained as a population-size weighted average of national data.

Source: EU-SILC and
national sources

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

Member States, apart from Austria and Slovenia, where it was much the same, the degree of 
inequality was lower in the older age group than in the younger.

At the other extreme, income inequality among those of 65 and over was much less than 
average in Denmark and Sweden as well as in three of the new Member States, the Czech 
Republic, Hungary and Slovakia, where in each case, the ratio of the income of the top 20 % 
of income recipients to that of the bottom 20 % was less than three in 2005. This is also in 
line with the relatively small degree of dispersion among those under 65.

In  13  of  the  25  EU  Member  States,  the  degree  of  income  inequality  by  this  measure  was 
similar  among  women  and  men  in  this  age  group  in  2005.  In  12  countries,  however,  the 
difference between the ratio for women and that for men was 0.3 or more. In nine of these 
countries, the extent of dispersion was wider among men than women, most especially in 
Portugal  and  the  Netherlands.  In  only  three  countries  in  the  EU  —  the  Czech  Republic, 
Austria and Slovenia — was income dispersion, therefore, significantly wider among elderly 
women than among elderly men. 

28

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Employment in the run-up to retirement

Many women and men stop working well before 
they reach official retirement age

Although the official age of retirement in the EU is for the great majority of people from 60 
upwards, in most cases, 65 (see below), there are, nevertheless, a significant proportion of 
women and men who are not in employment after the age of 55. In view of the impending 
decline in population of working age in the near future in most parts of the EU, and the 
consequent implications for the size of the labour force, a growing concern of policy is to 
increase the number of people of 55 and over in work.

This concern is shown in the inclusion of a specific target in the EU employment strategy, 
and as part of the Lisbon agenda, to raise the proportion of those aged 55–64 who are em-
ployed to 50 % by 2010. In 2005, this proportion stood at 42.5 % in the EU-25 and there were 
just eight Member States — the three Nordic countries, Estonia, Ireland, Cyprus, Portugal 
and the UK — where it exceeded 50 %. The corresponding employment rates for women and 
men in this age group averaged just under 34 % and 52 %, respectively.

Less than half of women aged 55–59 are in employment …

Subdividing those aged 55–64 into two five-year age groups shows a substantial decline in 
the relative number of both women and men in employment as they go from their late 50s 
into their early 60s. In both cases, however, a much smaller proportion of women are in em-
ployment than men.

In 2005 significantly less than half of women aged 55–59 were in employment in the EU 
— 46 % — as opposed to 65 % of men, which still means that over a third were not in work 
(Figure 140 and Annex Table A.90).

There are large variations across countries in the proportion of both employed women and 
men in this age group. The employment rate for women ranged from over 70 % in Denmark, 
Estonia and Sweden and over 60 % in Lithuania, Finland and the UK to only around 30 % 
or just over in Belgium, Greece, Italy and Slovenia, 23 % in Poland and Slovakia — and only 

Fig. 140 Employment rate of women and men aged 55-59, 2005

% of women/men aged 55-59

Women (1)

Men

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate;

(1) MT: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

slightly more in Croatia — and much the same in Malta (where the figure is uncertain be-
cause of the small sample size). The range for men was narrower but still extended from over 
80 % in Cyprus, Denmark and Sweden and 75–80 % in the Czech Republic, the Netherlands 
and  the  UK,  to  55–60 %  in  Bulgaria,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Hungary,  Romania  and 
Slovenia, as well as Croatia, just under 55 % in Belgium and only just over 40 % in Poland.

Low employment rates of those aged 55–59 were, therefore, common to both women and 
men in a number of countries (in Belgium, Italy, Poland and Slovenia, in particular, as well 
as in Croatia), reflecting in part a lack of employment opportunities generally (in Poland, 
especially), in part, a widespread tendency for people to take early retirement.

In other countries, the low overall employment rate of this age group was largely a result of 
only a small proportion of women being in work (in Greece, Malta and Slovakia, especially, 
the employment rate of women in each case being 40–45 percentage points less than that of 
men). In sharp contrast, in both Estonia and Finland, more women in this age group were 
employed than men.

… and under 20 % of women aged 60–64 are in work and only 35 % of men

The  number  of  women  and  men  in  employment  in  the  age  group  60–64,  which  in  most 
countries, immediately precedes the official age of retirement, is substantially smaller than 
among those aged 55–59 throughout the EU. On average, only just over a third of men (35 %) 
and just under 20 % of women were in work in this age group in 2005. (Figure 141).

Only in Sweden were more than half women aged 60–64 in employment and only in four 
other Member States — Estonia, Portugal, Finland and the UK — was the proportion above 
30 %, though only marginally in the UK. In Belgium, Italy and Hungary, as well as Slovenia 
(where the figure is uncertain because of the small sample size), only around 10 % of women 
of  this  age  were  employed  and  in  Bulgaria,  Austria  and  Slovakia,  as  well  as  Luxembourg 
(where the data are also uncertain for the same reason) and Malta (where the data are too 
small to be reliable) the figure was less than 10 %.

While the proportion of men in employment in this age group was significantly larger than 
for women in all countries, apart from France and Finland, where the numbers were more 

Fig. 141 Employment rate of women and men aged 60–64, 2005

% of women/men aged 60–64

Women (1)

Men (2)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate;

(1) LU, MT, SI: unreliable data; 
(2) MT, SI: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

0

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Part  — The retirement years

3

similar, there were still only six Member States where the proportion was over 50 % (Estonia, 
Ireland, Cyprus, Lithuania, Sweden and the UK). In Hungary, Austria, Slovenia and Slovakia, 
the proportion of men in work was only around 20 % or slightly above and in France and 
Luxembourg, just 14–15 %. In Ireland, Spain, Cyprus, and Lithuania, the difference in the 
employment rate between men and women was 25 percentage points, though in each case, 
the proportion of women employed was the same as or above the EU average.

In some countries, many remain in work after the official retirement age

Few women and men in most EU Member States continue in employment after the official 
age of retirement, though in some countries, a significant number remain in work, many 
of them employed in agriculture. On average in the EU-25, only 5 % of women aged 65–69 
were in  employment in  2005 and just 11 % of men (Figure 142). In Latvia, however, 15 % 
of women in this age group were employed, in Portugal, 22 % and in Romania, as many as 
25 %. In all four of these, a significant proportion of men were also employed — 25 % in 
Latvia, 28 % in Romania, and 36 % in Portugal, marginally above the EU average figure for 
men aged 60–64. Over 30 % of men of 65–69 were also in employment in Cyprus, almost 
24 % in Ireland and just over 22 % in Denmark. In each of these countries, under 10 % of 
women of this age were still in work. In addition, some 19–20 % of men were employed in 
Sweden and the UK, again well above the proportion of women (9–10 %), but elsewhere the 
figure was under 16 % in all countries.

Women and men with high education levels remain longer in employment

The likelihood of those aged 55 and over being in employment is closely related to their level 
of educational attainment. This is particularly true of women but it is only slightly less the 
case for men, especially in many of the new Member States.

In 2005 the employment rate of women aged 55–59 with tertiary education was 70 % in the 
EU as a whole, while the rate for those with upper secondary education was 49 % and that 
for those with only basic schooling, just 36 %. This compares with employment rates for men 
with these education levels of 81 %, 65 % and 57 %, respectively. Whereas the gap between 

Fig. 142 Employment rate of women and men aged 65–69, 2005

% of women/men aged 65–69

Women (1)

Men (2)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

5
2
-
U
E

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate;

(1) BE, BG, EE, CY, LT, LU, MT, AT, SI, SK: unreliable data;

Source: Eurostat, LFS

(2) EE, LT, LU, MT, SI, SK: unreliable data

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

women and men with tertiary education was, therefore, 11 percentage points, for those with 
only basic schooling it was 21 percentage points (Figures 143 and 144).

A similar pattern of difference is evident for all Member States, with the exception of Greece, 
Romania and, to a lesser extent, Cyprus, Portugal and Slovenia (though here the data are 
uncertain because of the small sample size). In the first two countries, both women and men 
with only basic schooling had a higher employment rate than those with upper secondary 
education, reflecting the relatively large numbers employed in agriculture, in many cases in 
very small holdings. In Cyprus and Portugal, the higher employment rate among those with 
only basic schooling was confined to men, in Slovenia, to women (Annex Table A.91).

The difference in employment rates between women with tertiary education and those with 
only basic schooling was especially wide in Ireland, Spain, Italy and Luxembourg as well as 
in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia among the new Member States. In all of these, 
the difference was over 40 percentage points. For men, the difference was equally wide in 
most of these countries.

Fig. 143 Employment rate of women aged 55–59 by education level, 2005

% of women aged 55–59

Low

Medium

High

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

O
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate; EE, LT, LU, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Fig. 144 Employment rate of men aged 55–59 by education level, 2005

% of men aged 55–59

Low

Medium

High

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

O
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate; EE, LT, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

2

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 145 Employment rate of women aged 60–64 by education level, 2005

% of women aged 60–64

Low

Medium

High

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

U
H

L
N

L
P

T
P

O F
R

I

E
S

5
2
-
U
E

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate;
BG, EE, CY, LV, LT, LU, MT, AT, SI, SK, UK, HR: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Employment rates of those aged 60–64 with tertiary education 
are over twice as high as for those with basic schooling ...

For those aged 60–64, employment rates are also significantly affected by educational attain-
ment levels, but in this case, the effect on women and men is similar. The difference between 
the employment rate of men with tertiary education and that of women, is only slightly less 
than the difference in respect of men and women with only basic schooling. In 2005, 49 % of 
men of this age with tertiary education in the EU were employed as against 34 % of women, 
while 27 % of men with basic schooling were employed as compared with 13 % of women.

A  similar  pattern  of  difference  is  again  evident  in  most  Member  States,  with  the  same 
countries as for those aged 55–59 having higher employment rates among those with basic 
 schooling than among those with higher education levels.

For women, the employment rate of those with tertiary education was still as high as 73 % in 
Sweden and around 65 % in Estonia (though the precise figure is uncertain), but in all other 
Member States, it was 50 % or less and in most cases, much less. For those with only basic 
schooling, the rate was over 25 % only in Portugal, Romania and Sweden and under 10 % in 
six countries (Figure 145).

For men aged 60–64, the employment rate was similarly high (over 70 %) for those with ter-
tiary education in Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania, but below 50 % in 13 of the 27 EU Mem-
ber States. For men with only basic schooling, the rate was over 50 % only in Ireland, Cyprus 
and Sweden and below 10 % in France and Hungary (Figure 146).

... and the same is true of those aged 65–69

For those aged 65–69, the likelihood of being in employment for both women and men is 
again  much  greater  for  those  with  a  high  education  level  in  most  parts  of  the  EU.  In  the 
 Union as a whole, some 19 % of men with tertiary education were employed in 2005 and 11 % 
of women, while 9 % of men with only basic schooling were in work and 4 % of women.

In  Italy,  some  44 %  of  men  in  this  age  group  with  tertiary  education  were  still  employed 
and in the Czech Republic and Sweden, over 30 %, while in Denmark, the figures was only 
slightly less. In each case, this was significantly more than the women employed (though the 

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Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 146 Employment rate of men aged 60–64 by education level, 2005

% of men aged 60–64

Low

Medium

High

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

O
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

LU: 2004; EU-25: estimate;

EE, LV, LT, LU, MT, SI, HR: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

precise proportion is uncertain because of the small sample size). In most countries, how-
ever, relatively few men or women aged 65–69 are employed.

There  are  even  fewer  women  and  men  with  only  basic  education  in  employment  in  this 
age group in most parts of the EU. In contrast to the norm, however, in both Portugal and 
 Romania, 37 % of men with only basic schooling were employed, while some 21 % of women 
with this level of education were also in work in Portugal and 30 % in Romania. Apart from 
in these two countries as well as in Ireland and Cyprus, under 20 % of men with this level 
of education were employed and, in most cases, under 15 %. The proportion of women with 
this education level in work was under 10 % in all countries except Slovenia.

Relatively few women and men work reduced 
hours in the years before retirement

In most parts of the EU, only a small minority of women and men reduce the hours they work 
as  they  approach  retirement.  In  some  countries,  however,  the  numbers  making  a  phased 
transition from employment to retirement are significant. Since in all Member States, the 
relative number of women and men working less than 30 hours a week is much the same 
for those aged 50–54 as for those aged 45–49, any tendency for hours of work to be reduced 
 occurs after people pass their mid-50s.

In  2005,  some  33 %  of  women  in  the  EU  aged  55–59  worked  less  than  30  hours  a  week, 
around 6 percentage points more than for those aged 50–54, while 9 % worked less than 15 
hours a week, over 2 percentage points more than for  those aged 50–54 (Figure 147). For 
men, the difference was much smaller but still perceptible. Around 7 % of those aged 55–59 
worked less than 30 hours a week as against 5 % of those five years younger.

The increase in the proportion of women working less than 30 hours a week between these 
two age groups was particularly marked (10 percentage points or more) in Poland, Portugal 
and  Slovenia (though the numbers involved are very small in the last). In each case, however, 
this was from a relatively low level to one which was still below the EU average. For men, the 
increase was significantly larger than average in the Netherlands, where the proportion was 
already higher than elsewhere (Annex Table A.92).

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 147 Employed women and men aged 55–59 by groups of hours usually worked per week, 2005

% of women/men aged 55–59, employed

35+

30–34

15–29

<15

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O F
R

E
S

K
U

EU-25: estimate;

Source: Eurostat, LFS

BG, EE, CY, LV, LT, LU, MT, AT (only for men), SI, SK, HR: unreliable data

Part-time working increases as the retirement age nears …

There is a further increase in the relative number of both women and men working under 
30 hours a week as they move from their late 50s to their early 60s. Some 45 % of women 
aged 60–64 in employment in the EU-25, therefore, worked under 30 hours a week in 2005, 
around 12 percentage points more than in the case of those aged 55–59. The main increase is 
among those working less than 15 hours a week, who accounted for some 18 % of all women 
employed in this age group, double the proportion among those aged 55–59. The increase is 
especially pronounced in the Czech Republic, though this largely reflects the small number 
in the younger age group working short hours. By contrast, there is little sign of any increase 
in Belgium or Italy.

For men aged 60–64, the proportion in employment working less than 30 hours a week in 
the EU-25 was almost 8 percentage points more than for those aged 55–59. This still means, 
however, that the vast majority, over 85 %, worked 30 hours or more a week. Nevertheless, 
the increase in the number of men working shorter hours was marked in Finland and the 
Netherlands (19–20 percentage points), raising the share to over a quarter in the first and to 
around a third in the Netherlands. At the other extreme, in Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Spain 
and Lithuania, over 95 % of men aged 60–64 in employment in 2005 worked 30 hours or 
more a week (Figure 148).

… and increases even more after the official retirement age

The relative number of women and men working short hours increases as they pass the nor-
mal retirement age. In 2005 some 60 % of the relatively few women aged 65–69 in work were 
employed for less than 30 hours a week, 15 percentage points more than for those aged 60–64 
(Annex Table A.92). The main increase was among those working less than 15 hours a week, 
who made up just under a third of all women in employment in this age group. The propor-
tion was around 60 % in Germany and over 75 % in the Netherlands. On the other hand, it 
was under 20 % in Portugal and also small in Romania (though the precise figure is uncer-
tain) the two countries with the largest number of women employed in this age group.

A significant proportion of men aged 65–69 in employment also work relatively short hours. 
In 2005, some 40 % in the EU worked less than 30 hours a week. Some 45 % of these — i.e. 

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Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 148 Employed women and men aged 60–64 by groups of hours usually worked per week, 2005

% of women/men aged 60–64, employed

35+

30–34

15–29

<15

100

80

60

40

20

0

5
2
-
U
E

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

U
H

L
N

L
P

T
P

O
R

I

F

E
S

K
U

EU-25: estimate;

BG, EE, IE, CY, LV, LT, LU, MT, AT, SI, SK, HR: unreliable data

Source: Eurostat, LFS

18 % of all those in work — were employed for less than 15 hours a week. As in the case of 
women, the proportion of men in this age group working under 30 hours a week was in most 
cases relatively small in the Member States where a relatively large number of men were in 
employment. The main exceptions are Sweden and the UK, where some 55 % of the men 
aged 65–69 still in employment worked under 30 hours a week, with in Sweden, over half of 
these working under 15 hours a week.

The effective retirement age differs more between 
countries than the official age

The official age of retirement, or the age at which women and men are entitled to draw a full 
retirement pension, varies between 60 and 65 for women and between 62 and 65 for men in 
most European countries. The age at which women and men actually withdraw from the 
labour market into retirement, however, differs more markedly between countries. In most 
cases, it is well below the official age. It also differs between individuals so that there is no 
unique effective age of retirement but a range over which women and men make the transi-
tion from work to retirement.

Women in the EU retire on average 17 months earlier than men

The effective age of retirement can be measured as the age at which the proportion of women 
or men who are economically active has fallen to half of that at the age of 50. In 2005, the 
effective  retirement  age  in  the  EU  was  60.7  for  men  and  59.4  for  women  (Figure 149  and 
Annex Table A.93). Women, therefore, retire on average some 17 months earlier than men 
and, of course, as compared with men, there are fewer women economically active to retire 
(some 73 % of women in the EU were economically active at the age of 50 as opposed to 90 % 
of men).

Women retire earlier than men on this measure in all Member States except Luxembourg. 
While in most countries, the difference in the effective retirement age is relatively small, in 
10 Member States — Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Spain, Cyprus, Austria, 
Slovenia, Slovakia and the UK — women retired over three years earlier than men in 2005. 
This was also the case in Croatia.

6

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 149 Effective age of retirement of women and men, 2005

Age

Women

Men

68

65

62

59

56

53

50

5
2
-
U
E

68

65

62

59

56

53

50

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

EU-25: estimate

Source: Eurostat, LFS; effective age estimated

In  five  of  these  countries  —  the  Czech  Republic,  Slovenia,  Slovakia,  Austria  and  Croatia 
— the effective age of retirement for women was only around 55–57. This was equally the 
case in Belgium, Italy, Hungary and Poland, where men also retire, on average, at a relatively 
young age (at only 57 in Poland and around 58 in Belgium and Italy).

By  contrast  in  Estonia  and  Cyprus,  the  effective  age  of  retirement  of  men  was  65  and  in 
 Ireland, Portugal, Sweden and the UK, around 64. In each case, Cyprus apart, the effective 
age for women was also well above the EU average — over 63 in Sweden, almost two years 
higher than anywhere else in the EU.

The effective retirement age is well below the official age in most of the EU

The effective age of retirement is well below the official age in most Member States. The of-
ficial retirement age is 65–66 for men in 14 of the 27 EU Member States, 65–67 in Denmark 
and 61–67 in Sweden. In eight other countries, it is 62–63. This leaves three Member States, 
France, Malta and the Czech Republic, where it is respectively, 60, 61 and 61.5.

In just under half the countries, 13 of the 27, the retirement age of women is the same as for 
men. In the other 14 countries, it is lower, though in a number of cases, it is in the process 
of being gradually increased to bring it into line — or more into line — with that of men. In 
2005, the official retirement age for women was one year lower than for men in Belgium and 
Malta, 1.5 to 2.5 years lower in Latvia, Slovenia and Lithuania and 3.5 years lower in Estonia, 
while in the Czech Republic, it was 1.5 to 6.5 years lower (women being able to retire between 
55 and 60). In five Member States — Greece, Italy, Austria, Poland and the UK — where men 
retired at 65, it was five years lower. It was also five years lower in Bulgaria and Romania, 
where men retired at 63 (Figures 150 and 151).

In five of these latter countries — Bulgaria, Greece, Austria, Romania and the UK — this 
difference in the official retirement age is reflected in the effective age of retirement being 
significantly lower for women than for men, but less than five years lower. In Poland, how-
ever,  the  effective  age  for  women  was  under  two  years  less  than  for  men  in  2005  and  in 
Italy, only around one year less. This emphasises the marked difference in many countries 
between the age at which women and men tend to retire in practice and the official age. In 
Italy and Poland, therefore, as well as Belgium and Luxembourg, the effective age at which 

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Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 150 Official and effective age of retirement of women, 2005

Effective age

Official age

Age

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

50

48

CZ BG RO EE EL FR

IT

LT MT AT PL UK LV SI HU SK BE SE DE ES CY LU NL PT

FI

IE DK

Sources: MISSOC and Eurostat, LFS; effective age estimated

Fig. 151 Official and effective age of retirement of men, 2005

Effective age

Official age

Age

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

50

48

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

FR MT CZ LV HU SK LT BG EE RO SI

SE BE DE EL ES

IT CY LU NL AT PL PT

FI UK IE DK

Sources: MISSOC and Eurostat, LFS; effective age estimated

men withdraw from the labour force is around seven to eight years below the official age (and 
over five years below in Austria).

For women, the effective age of retirement was also around seven years below the official age 
in Belgium and over six years below in Luxembourg and, accordingly, only slightly below 
the effective age for men. In a number of other countries, however — specifically, Denmark, 
Germany, Spain, Ireland, Cyprus, Portugal and Slovakia — where the official age of retire-
ment  is  the  same  for  women  as  for  men,  women  on  average  actually  withdrew  from  the 
labour force at least two years earlier than men.

By contrast, in Estonia, the effective age of retirement was some two years after the official 
age for both women and men, so that the difference in the retirement age was maintained. 
Apart from Lithuania in the case of men and the UK, if marginally, in the case of women, 
this was the only country in the EU in which the effective age of retirement was above the 
official age.

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3

Women and men tend to retire over a range of years

The median gives only a partial picture of the effective age of retirement across the EU. In 
practice, women and men withdraw from the labour force across a range of different ages. 
An indication of the span of this range is given by, on the one hand, the age at which the 
activity rate has fallen to 80 % of those economically active at 50 (i.e. the age at which 20 % 
can assumed to have retired) and, on the other, the age at which it falls to 20 % (i.e. the age 
at which 80 % have retired).

For women, in the EU as a whole, this age range in 2005 was much the same as for men, at 
just over eight years. The lower and upper age limits were, however, both some 18 months 
less than for men (Figures 152 and 153). For women in the EU, therefore, 20 % of those in 
the workforce at 50 have retired by the time they reach 55 and 80 % by the time they reach 
63 or so.

Fig. 152 Effective age range of retirement of women, 2005

Age

75

70

65

60

55

50

75

70

65

60

55

50

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

5
2
-
U
E

The bottom of the range shows the age at which the participation rate is 80 % of the national 
average at age 50; the top of the range shows the age at which this is 20 %

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
effective age range estimated

Fig. 153 Effective age range of retirement of men, 2005

75

70

65

60

55

50

Age

5
2
-
U
E

75

70

65

60

55

50

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

R
H

The bottom of the range shows the age at which the participation rate is 80 % of the national 
average at age 50; the top of the range shows the age at which this is 20 %

Source: Eurostat, LFS;
effective age range estimated

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

For men, this age range extended from 56.6 to 64.8. In other words, 20 % of the men in the 
labour force in the EU retire before they reach 57 and 80 % before they reach 65, the official 
retirement age in most countries.

The age ranges concerned vary markedly between countries ...

These age ranges, however, vary markedly between Member States. In 2005, they varied from 
16–17 years for both women and men in Portugal and around 9–10 years in Greece, Ireland, 
Cyprus and Latvia to under five years in the Czech Republic, Malta and Slovakia. In most 
of  the  former  group  of  countries  (all  except  Greece),  moreover,  men,  though  not  women, 
tend to start retiring at a relatively late age. Some 80 % are still in the workforce at 60 and a 
significant proportion continues to work into their late 60s — and early 70s in Portugal. In 
Romania, the range was even wider at around 20–21 years and as in Portugal, a substantial 
proportion of both women and men are still working in their 70s (mainly in agriculture).

The range was also relatively wide in Poland (where 20 % of men retire before 55 and 20 % of 
women by the age of 53) and relatively narrow in Bulgaria, France, Luxembourg, Hungary, 
Austria and Sweden. In the first five countries, as well as in the Czech Republic, Malta and 
Slovakia, retirement tends to happen at a relatively young age, with 80 % of men retiring 
before the age of 62 (around 60 in France and Luxembourg) and 80 % of women by the age 
of 61 or so (by 57 in Slovakia).

… but are similar for women and men

In most countries, the range was similar for women and men, indicating a common pat-
tern of transition from work to retirement and much the same extent of variation between 
individuals. The  exceptions  are,  on  the  one  hand,  Denmark,  Estonia  and  Italy,  where  the 
range for men was over three years wider than for women and, on the other, Spain as well as 
Croatia where the reverse was the case, with women beginning to retire at a relatively early 
age but a significant proportion remaining in the workforce after the age of 63.

0

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Health

Fewer women than men aged 65 and over consider 
themselves to be in good health

The health interview surveys conducted in all EU Member States, except Luxembourg, as 
well as in Iceland, Norway and Switzerland over the period 1996–2003 give an indication of 
how healthy women and men consider themselves to be. Although it is hazardous to attach 
too much importance to differences between countries, especially small differences, because 
of  different  norms  and  attitudes,  the  data  collected  should  provide  a  reasonable  guide  to 
 differences between how women and men perceive their health.

Among those aged 65–74, a larger proportion of women than men across the EU regarded 
their health as being less than good. There are only two Member States, Ireland and the UK 
(though also Iceland), where a larger share of women than men considered their health to 
be good. Moreover, there are only three countries — the Netherlands, Finland and the UK 
— where a larger proportion of men than women considered their health to be bad, though 
in  another  four,  Belgium,  Germany,  Ireland  and  Austria,  the  proportions  were  much  the 
same (Figure 154 and Annex Table A.94).

In Poland and Portugal, more than half of the women of this age perceived their health to 
be bad and only 7 % to be good. The proportion of women reporting their health to be good 
was  only  slightly  larger  in  Latvia  and  Hungary  and  40 %  considered  themselves  to  be  in 
bad health. The latter was also the case in France, though here nearly the same proportion 
— 41 % — regarded their health as being good.

Overall,  with  the  exception  of  the  Czech  Republic,  Cyprus  and  Malta,  there  is  a  marked 
tendency for more people aged 65–74 in the new Member States, and women in particular, 
to perceive their health as being bad than in EU-15 countries, France and Portugal apart. 
In Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden, therefore, under 10 % of both 
women and men reported being in bad health. Moreover, in all these countries, together with 
Denmark and the UK, around 60 % or more of women and men considered their health to 
be good, while outside the EU, in Switzerland, the figure was even higher. There is evidence, 

Fig. 154 Self-perceived health status of women and men aged 65–74, 2004

% of women/men aged 65–74

Good

Fair

Bad

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

U
H

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

F

E
S

K
U

Left bar: women, right bar: men;
LT, LU, SK: no data; UK: data refer to England

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996–2003

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 155 Self-perceived health status of women and men aged 75–84, 2004

% of women/men aged 75–84

Good

Fair

Bad

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y H
C

T
M

L
N

T
A

L
P

T
P

I

O S
R

I

F

E
S

K
U

Left bar: women, right bar: men;
LV, LT, LU, SI (men), SK: no data; UK: data refer to England

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996–2003

therefore, of self-perceived health status being positively related to the level of prosperity, a 
common finding of research studies in this area.

Not surprisingly, as people get older, fewer consider their health to be good, though there 
continues to be a tendency for more women to report bad health than men. Among those 
aged 75–84, therefore, only in two Member States, Finland and the UK, did a larger propor-
tion of women than men report their health as being good and only in these two countries 
plus  the  Netherlands  and  Austria  did  more  men  than  women  report  being  in  bad  health 
(Figure 155).

In  general,  the  pattern  of  differences  between  countries  in  the  relative  numbers  report-
ing bad health is similar for the younger age group. The proportion is, therefore, larger in 
most of the new Member States than in the rest of the EU, again especially among women. 
Even among this age group, 60 % or more of women and men considered their health to be 
good in Germany and Ireland, as well as Switzerland, and 49 % or more in Denmark and 
the Netherlands, while the figure was only around 10 % in Estonia, Hungary, Poland and 
 Romania, though also in Portugal.

In most countries, more women than men also report 
having a long-standing illness or health problem

The health interview surveys also ask people whether they have a long-term illness or health 
problem. Like the question on the state of people’s health, this too relies on self perception. 
Partly  because  there  is  scope  for  differences  in  interpretation  of  what  constitutes  a  long-
term problem, the relative numbers reporting such problems vary markedly across coun-
tries, again reflecting cultural and similar differences. The results, which are available for 16 
Member States, indicate that in five countries — the Czech Republic, Spain, Latvia, Hungary 
and Poland — around 80 % or more of women and men aged 65–74 considered that they 
had a long-standing illness or health problem, while the figure was over 70 % in Cyprus and 
Sweden and over 60 % in the UK, slightly more than in Bulgaria and Romania. At the same 
time, only 40–42 % of women and men considered they had such a problem in Greece and 
37–39 %  in  Belgium,  the  lowest  figures  in  the  countries  surveyed  (Figure 156  and  Annex 
Table A.95).

2

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 156 Women and men aged 65-74 having long-standing illness or health problems, 2004

% of women/men aged 65–74

Women

Men

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

BE

BG

CZ

DK

EL

ES

CY

LV

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

RO

SE

UK

EE, SI: incomparable data;
DE, IE, FR, IT, LT, LU, PT, SK, FI: no data

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 1996–2003

As in the case of those reporting bad health, however, a larger proportion of women than 
men considered that they had a long-standing illness or health problem in the great majority 
of countries covered — all apart from Belgium, Greece and the UK.

Among  those  aged  75–84,  the  proportion  reporting  such  problems  is  slightly  larger  than 
for those 10 years younger but the relative numbers are similar across Member States. Once 
again the proportion of women reporting a long-standing problem tends to be larger than 
that of men. Indeed, there are only two countries, Belgium and Bulgaria, where the relative 
number of men exceeds that of women.

Men aged 65 and over are far more likely to smoke than women

The health interview surveys report in addition on the number of smokers among those of 65 
and over. They indicate that men in this age group, as in younger ones, are much more likely 
to smoke regularly than women. Among those aged 65–74, therefore, the proportion of men 
smoking on a daily basis was larger than for women in all 24 of the EU Member States for 
which data are available (Figure 157 and Annex Table A.96).

The  numbers  involved,  however  varied  considerably  between  countries,  with  over  half  of 
men in this age group smoking daily in Slovenia, over 35 % in Denmark and 30 % in Latvia 
but only around 15 % or less in the Czech Republic, Germany, France and Portugal, as well 
as  in  Iceland.  Among  women,  the  proportion  smoking  daily  was  highest  in  Denmark,  at 
30 %, but this country apart, the figure was under 20 % in all Member States and 6 % or less 
in half of them (only 1–2 % in Spain, Portugal and Romania).

The  relative  number  of  women  of  this  age  smoking  occasionally  was  even  lower,  exceed-
ing 3 % only in Austria (5 %). Among men, the proportion was not much higher, in most 
 countries under 5 % and only in Greece (10 %) and Slovenia (13 %), over 7 %.

Smoking tends to decline markedly with age. The proportion of men aged 75–84 smoking 
daily was more than 20 % only in Denmark and Austria (there are no data for Slovenia) and 
was under 10 % in eight of the 20 countries for which there are data. The proportion of wom-
en was much smaller, under 15 % in all countries apart from Denmark and Austria — where 
the figures were still below those of men (by 4 percentage points in each case) — and less 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

Fig. 157 Women and men aged 65–74 smoking cigarettes, 2004

% of women/men aged 65–74

Occasional smoker (1)

Daily smoker (2)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BE BG CZ DK DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

H MT NL AT

PL

PT RO SI

FI

SE UK

Left bar: women; right bar: men;

(1) FR, IT, LT, LU, MT (men), SK, UK: no data;
(2) LT, LU, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, Health Interview Surveys, 
1996–2003

than 5 % in 13 of the 20 Member States covered. The proportion of women and men smoking 
occasionally in this age group exceeded 4 % only in Austria among both men and women 
and in Greece among men.

Many more men than women aged 65–74 die from external causes ...

According  to  the  latest  data  (for  2005),  in  line  with  the  figures  for  those  in  younger  age 
groups, well over twice as many men than women among those aged 65–74 die from external 
causes — around 92 per 100 000 as against 37. In both cases, some 18 % of those concerned 
were killed in road or other transport accidents (Annex Table A.97). Although these figures 
vary  substantially  between  Member  States,  in  all  of  them,  except  Malta,  men  were  much 
more likely to be involved in fatal accidents than women.

…but with large variations across the EU in the numbers involved

The  figures  for  women  in  this  age  group,  ranged  from  24  per  100 000  in  Greece  and  the 
UK to 108 per 100 000 in Lithuania, around four times as many. For men, they varied from 
only 21 per 100 000 in Malta (less than the figure for women in any Member State) and 46 
per 100 000 in the UK to 286 per 100 000 in Estonia, 314 per 100 000 in Latvia and 407 per 
100 000 in Lithuania. In each of the last three countries, as well as in Slovakia, the figures for 
men were four to five times higher than the figures for women, even given that these were 
higher than anywhere in the Union.

Many more men than women also die from illnesses and diseases

Men are also much more likely than women to die from illnesses and diseases. In 2005, there 
were almost twice as many men aged 65–74 in the EU-25 than women who died from such 
causes — on average 2 551 per 100 000 as opposed to 1 309. Among these, neoplasms, includ-
ing both malignant and benign cancers, were the most common cause, accounting for just 
over 40 % of all deaths from illnesses and diseases, just ahead of diseases of the circulatory 
system (including heart problems) which accounted for just under 40 %.

In individual countries, the number of deaths of women in this age group from illnesses and 
diseases ranged from 949 per 100 000 in France to 2 496 per 100 000 in Bulgaria (a higher 



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Part  — The retirement years

3

figure than for men in 14 of the Member States). For men, the number varied from 1 973 
per 100 000 in Cyprus to 4 961 per 100 000 in Latvia. In eight countries, all new Member 
States — Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia — more than 
half the women and men of this age who died from such causes died from diseases of the 
 circulatory system.

Deaths of women from external causes increase as 
they get older but remain less than for men

In the EU-25 as a whole in 2005, some 110 women aged 75–84 per 100 000 died from exter-
nal causes compared with 185 men per 100 000. In addition, 4 199  per 100 000 women died 
from illnesses and diseases as against 6 551  per 100 000 men.

As for the younger age group, the number of men of this age in Malta who died from external 
causes was less than for women, again the only country where this was so. By contrast, in 
Greece and Portugal 2.5 times as many men per 100 000 died of external causes as women. 
For women, the figures ranged from 44 per 100 000 in Greece to 216 per 100 000 in Cyprus 
and for men, from 109 per 100 000 in the UK to 350 per 100 000 in Hungary.

The most common cause of death among those in this age group dying from illnesses and 
diseases were problems of the circulatory system. These accounted for half the total in the 
case  of  women  and  around  45 %  in  the  case  of  men.  This  was  around  twice  the  number 
of  women  dying  from  neoplasms  and  around  50 %  more  of  the  men.  Across  the  EU,  the 
number of women dying from illness and diseases varied from 2 984 per 100 000 in France 
to 7 756 per 100 000 in Bulgaria, while among men, it varied from 5 422 again in France to 
10 084 per 100 000 in Slovakia (10 033 in Bulgaria).

Among women aged 85 and over, the number of deaths from external causes averaged 456 
per 100 000 compared with 572 per 100 000 for men. The number of deaths from such causes 
among  women,  however,  varied  considerably  across  the  EU  from  only  90  per  100 000  in 
Greece and 99 in Romania to 710 per 100 000 in France, while for men, they ranged from 
170–171 per 100 000 in Greece and Romania to 888 per 100 000 in France, 903 in Denmark 
and 954 in Estonia.

Deaths from illnesses and diseases averaged 15 040 per 100 000 for women of this age in the 
EU and 17 655 per 100 000 for men. In this age group, deaths from problems with the cir-
culatory system accounted for almost 60 % of all deaths from illnesses and diseases among 
women and just over 50 % among men, while neoplasms were responsible for some 12 % of 
such cases for women and around 18 % for men.

Across Member States, the number of deaths of women from illnesses and diseases ranged 
from 11 710 per 100 000 in France to 21 776 per 100 000 in Romania, while for men, they 
varied from 14 998 per 100 000 to 22 766 per 100 000 in the same countries.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Part  — The retirement years

Time use and participation  
in the information society

How women and men aged 65 and over spend their time

Women and men spend similar amounts of time on personal care 
but different amounts on domestic chores and leisure activities

Time use surveys provide an indication of how women and men aged 65 and over spend 
their time. In the 14 EU Member States in which surveys were carried out over the period 
1998–2004 they indicate that women and men in this age group spend similar amounts of 
time each day on personal care, covering sleeping and eating, in particular — around 12.5 
hours on average, or slightly more than half their time. Women, however, spend much more 
time  than  men  on  domestic  chores,  while  men  spend  more  time  than  women  on  leisure 
 activities (Figure 158).

While the time devoted to sleeping, eating and other personal care is much the same for 
women and men in most Member States, there are marked differences between countries in 
the overall amount. In France, both women and men aged 65 and over spent over 13 hours a 
day on these activities, almost two hours more than in Finland, Sweden and the UK.

Women spend far more time than men on domestic chores in all countries

The time devoted to domestic chores also varies significantly between countries. In all coun-
tries, women spend much more of their time on these activities than men — around 1 hour 
40 minutes more on average. In Italy, Estonia, Lithuania and Slovenia, however, these activi-
ties absorbed over five hours a day of women’s time and only slightly less in Spain, whereas 
in Finland, it was under four hours. The time spent by men also varies, from only just over 
two hours a day in Spain and just 20 minutes more in Italy — in both cases almost three 
hours less than women — to around 3 hours 45 minutes a day in Estonia and Lithuania, in 

Fig. 158 How do women and men aged 65 and over spend their time

Minutes per day

Left bar: women; right bar: men

Leisure

Domestic chores

Sleeping, eating

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

BE

DE

EE

ES

FR

IT

LV

LT

HU

PL

SI

FI

SE

UK

All
countries

BG, CZ, DK, IE, EL, CY, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, RO, SK: no data

Source: Eurostat, national time use surveys, 1998–2004

6

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Part  — The retirement years

3

both cases still around 85 minutes a day less than women. This compares with a difference of 
around one hour a day in Finland and just under 55 minutes in both Sweden and the UK.

The difference in the time absorbed by domestic chores between women and men is attrib-
utable  to  a  large extent to  differences in the time spent on cooking and food preparation 
generally. The time amounted, on average, to 79 minutes a day for women as compared with 
just under 29 minutes a day for men. In Slovenia, women spent as much as 106 minutes a 
day on this activity and in Hungary, 97 minutes a day, while in each case, men in these two 
countries spent only 22–23 minutes a day, a difference of 83 minutes and just under 75 min-
utes a day, respectively. At the other extreme, in the UK, the difference between women and 
men in the time spent on food preparation amounted to 30 minutes a day and in Sweden and 
Germany, to 37–38 minutes.

In addition, women spent, on average, 54 minutes a day on cleaning the house, some 38 min-
utes more than men. The variation between countries in the time spent by women, however, 
is considerable, from 84 minutes a day in Italy to just 30 minutes a day in Latvia and Finland 
(Annex Table A.98). By contrast, men spent between 11 and 15 minutes a day on cleaning in 
each of these countries.

Men spend more time than women on gardening 
and similar amounts of time on shopping

The only domestic work on which men routinely spend more time than women across the 
EU is gardening, which on average took up some 30 minutes of men’s time a day and 12 min-
utes of women’s time. Perhaps surprisingly, women and men spend a similar amount of time 
on shopping — around 33–34 minutes a day, though with a range of under 20 minutes a day 
in Lithuania and Slovenia to around 39–40 minutes a day in Germany.

The time spent on voluntary work also varies between countries, with men in this age group 
on average spending slightly more time than women. The amount of time involved, how-
ever, is relatively small in all Member States, ranging from 23 minutes a day among men in 
France, Finland and Germany to under 10 minutes a day among both women and men in 
Lithuania and Hungary and just six minutes a day for women in Slovenia.

Men spend more time than women on most kinds of leisure activity ...

The corollary of women spending more time on housework is that they have less time to 
spend on leisure activities. On average, women in the countries covered spent around over 
six hours a day on these activities as compared with seven hours a day spent by men. The 
difference between men and women in this regard, however, varies from just over two hours 
a day in Spain and 1 hour 40 minutes in Italy to 33 minutes a day in the UK and just 26–27 
minutes a day in Finland and Sweden.

The main leisure pursuits on which men spend more time than women are watching TV 
or videos, physical activities, particularly walking, and reading. The overall differences be-
tween countries, however, are wider than between men and women, even if in all Member 
States, men spent more time than women on all of these pastimes, with the sole exception of 
reading in Finland, where men and women spent the same amount of time.

As regards watching TV or videos, men spent on average just over three hours a day on this, 
around 23 minutes a day more than women. In Hungary, both men and women spend over 
3.5 hours a day on the activity, both of them over an hour more a day more than men in 
Germany and over 80 minutes more than women.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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3

Part  — The retirement years

The time spent on physical activity also varies markedly. At one extreme, men aged 65 and 
over in Spain spent 99 minutes a day walking and on other physical activities, 51 minutes 
more than women. At the other extreme, men in the UK spent just 17 minutes, still eight 
minutes more than women, while men in Hungary, spent 19 minutes, 80 minutes less than 
their counterparts in Spain, women only seven minutes.

Although, with the exception of Finland, men spent more time reading books and other ma-
terial in all Member States, the amount of time concerned varied from around 75 minutes a 
day in Sweden, and 73 minutes in Finland to just 30 minutes a day in Spain, where women 
spent just 13 minutes.

The amount of time spent travelling by people in this age group also varies between coun-
tries but again is systematically longer for men than women — some 12 minutes a day on 
average.

... but women on average spend as much time as men on social activities

In contrast to the above, the time women and men spend on social activities is much the 
same on average (52–54 minutes a day). There is, however, a sharp distinction between the 
northern countries, where women spend more time than men — around 12 minutes a day or 
more in the UK, Finland and Sweden — and the southern countries, where the reverse is the 
case (men spending 9–10 minutes more a day in Spain and Italy).

Women and men aged 55–74 in the information society

More men use computers daily than women

A larger proportion of men than women aged 55–74 use computers on a regular basis. In the 
EU as a whole, some 26 % of men in this age group surveyed in 2006 reported using a com-
puter at least once a day during the preceding three months as opposed to 14 % of women 
(Figure 159 and Annex Table A.99).

The  scale  of  use  among  women  and  men  aged  55–74  is  substantially  lower  than  among 
those younger. Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden (together with Iceland and 

Fig. 159 Women and men aged 55–74 having used a computer on average once a day or almost every 

day in the last three months, 2006

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

% of women/men aged 55–74

Women

Men

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

5
2
-
U
E

FR, MT, RO: no data

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

8

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Part  — The retirement years

3

Fig. 160 Women and men aged 55–74 having used the Internet on average once a day or almost every 

day in the last three months, 2006

% of women/men aged 55–74

Women

Men

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5
2
-
U
E

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

MT, RO: no data; PT: no data for women

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in households
and by individuals

 Norway) stand out, with 29 % or more of women and 37 % or more of men in this age group 
using  computers.  There  are  no  countries,  except  Latvia  to  a  very  small  extent,  where  the 
proportion of women using a computer was larger than for men, though it was the same 
or  virtually  the  same  as  for  men  in  Estonia,  Bulgaria  and  Lithuania. The  gender  gap  was 
pronounced in Luxembourg, where the proportion of men using a computer daily was 36 
percentage points higher than for women.

Men also use the Internet more than women

The frequency of Internet use among women and men aged 55–74 is similar to that of com-
puters, with a significant gap between the proportion of men — 18 % — and the proportion 
of women — 9 % — using them on a daily basis in the EU-25 as a whole (Figure 160).

Fig. 161 Women and men aged 55-74 assessed to have high computer skills, 2006

% of women/men aged 55-74

Women

Men

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

5
2
-
U
E

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

E
B

G
B

Z
C

K
D

E
D

E
E

E

I

L
E

S
E

R
F

T

I

Y
C

V
L

T
L

U
L

U
H

L
N

T
A

L
P

I

T S
P

I

K F
S

E
S

K
U

S

I

O
N

MT, RO: no data;
EE, PT: the share of women equals zero

Source: Eurostat, Community survey on ICT usage in
households and by individuals

  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   149

12/02/2008   18:30:53

 
3

Part  — The retirement years

In all EU Member States more men than women use the Internet on average at least once a 
day. Moreover, the share of men using the Internet was three to four times larger than that of 
women in Greece, Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg and Slovenia.

More men than women have basic computer skills

The gap between men and women is even wider for basic computer skills than in the take-up 
and use of ICT. In 2006, 12 % of men aged 55–74 surveyed in the EU-25 were considered to 
have high skills as opposed to only 3 % of women (Figure 161 and Annex Table A.100).

In all countries, except Denmark and Norway, the proportion of women with high computer 
skills was under 10 %, while for men, the proportion with high skills was 10 % or more in 
11 Member States as well as in Iceland and Norway. The gap between men and women was 
particularly wide (12 percentage points or more) in Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, the 
Netherlands, Austria, Sweden, the UK as well as in Iceland.

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   150

12/02/2008   18:30:55

 
A

Statistical Annex

Panorama2008.indb   151

12/02/2008   18:30:56

Panorama2008.indb   152

12/02/2008   18:30:56

Annex Tables

A

H
C

O
N

I
L

S
I

R
T

R
H

K
U

E
S

I
F

K
S

I
S

O
R

T
P

L
P

T
A

L
N

T
M

U
H

U
L

T
L

V
L

Y
C

T
I

R
F

S
E

L
E

E
I

E
E

E
D

K
D

Z
C

G
B

E
B

5
2
-
U
E

3
8

.

7
8

.

.

1
4
3

.

3
4
3

8
8

.

8
5

.

9
7

.

4
8

.

.

9
3
3

.

0
4
3

3
9

.

6
6

.

2
9

.

7
9

.

.

8
1
3

.

0
3
3

5
9

.

8
6

.

6
9

.

.

1
0
1

.

3
2
3

.

3
3
3

5
8

.

2
6

.

6
9

.

8
9

.

.

5
5
3

.

1
5
3

0
6

.

0
4

.

7
8

.

8
8

.

.

4
5
3

.

8
5
3

5
6

.

6
4

.

.

2
2
1

.

8
2
1

.

7
1
3

.

7
2
3

9
5

.

7
4

.

.

9
0
1

.

4
1
1

.

5
2
3

.

4
3
3

4
6

.

3
5

.

:

:

:

:

:

:

.

3
4
1

.

9
4
1

.

9
2
3

.

8
3
3

2
2

.

9
1

.

7
9

.

.

2
0
1

.

4
4
3

.

1
4
3

5
7

.

2
4

.

8
7

.

2
8

.

.

8
3
3

.

5
3
3

.

3
0
1

5
6

.

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

3
9

.

7
9

.

.

7
2
3

.

6
2
3

5
9

.

3
6

.

8
8

.

3
9

.

.

1
3
3

.

8
2
3

2
9

.

9
6

.

8
7

.

2
8

.

.

4
1
3

.

7
1
3

.

4
1
1

5
9

.

2
7

.

5
7

.

.

8
8
2

.

9
9
2

.

4
4
1

.

2
2
1

7
8

.

2
9

.

.

7
1
3

.

7
2
3

.

2
0
1

6
7

.

6
8

.

0
9

.

.

1
2
3

.

1
3
3

8
9

.

4
7

.

3
8

.

8
8

.

.

8
9
2

.

9
0
3

.

9
1
1

.

3
0
1

9
7

.

4
8

.

.

0
9
2

.

4
0
3

.

9
2
1

.

4
1
1

5
9

.

9
9

.

.

4
3
3

.

9
3
3

6
8

.

7
4

.

5
8

.

9
8

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0
3
3

.

7
3
3

6
9

.

3
6

.

8
7

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2
8

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3
9
2

.

1
0
3

.

6
3
1

.

9
0
1

4
7

.

8
7

.

.

3
8
2

.

5
9
2

.

7
4
1

.

3
2
1

.

5
2
1

.

0
3
1

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5
2
3

.

8
1
3

2
6

.

1
4

.

3
8

.

7
8

.

.

9
5
3

.

4
5
3

3
7

.

3
4

.

8
6

.

2
7

.

.

6
3
3

.

5
3
3

.

2
1
1

6
7

.

2
6

.

6
6

.

.

8
8
2

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1
9
2

.

6
6
1

.

7
2
1

.

2
0
1

.

7
0
1

.

4
4
3

.

1
4
3

9
6

.

7
3

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0
7

.

4
7

.

.

6
4
3

.

7
5
3

5
9

.

8
5

.

5
6

.

9
6

.

.

0
1
3

.

8
2
3

.

9
2
1

.

0
0
1

2
6

.

6
6

.

.

8
7
2

.

2
8
2

.

9
6
1

.

3
4
1

.

6
1
1

.

1
2
1

.

1
3
3

.

9
2
3

0
6

.

3
4

.

7
7

.

1
8

.

.

9
4
3

.

6
4
3

6
8

.

0
6

.

8
6

.

2
7

.

.

3
3
3

.

6
3
3

.

2
1
1

9
7

.

1
6

.

4
6

.

.

6
8
2

.

3
9
2

.

3
6
1

.

3
3
1

.

2
0
1

.

7
0
1

.

9
3
3

.

1
2
3

8
7

.

5
5

.

6
7

.

0
8

.

.

1
4
3

.

2
3
3

9
9

.

1
7

.

9
6

.

3
7

.

.

0
2
3

.

7
1
3

.

7
2
1

4
9

.

4
6

.

7
6

.

.

3
7
2

.

7
7
2

.

8
7
1

.

1
4
1

.

3
2
1

.

9
2
1

.

7
2
3

.

1
2
3

2
6

.

7
3

.

1
8

.

6
8

.

.

3
5
3

.

9
4
3

2
8

.

0
5

.

1
7

.

5
7

.

.

2
2
3

.

2
2
3

.

4
2
1

7
8

.

3
6

.

7
6

.

.

6
8
2

.

0
9
2

.

4
6
1

.

9
2
1

5
8

.

0
9

.

.

9
3
3

.

7
3
3

8
9

.

1
5

.

8
7

.

3
8

.

.

9
3
3

.

0
4
3

7
9

.

3
6

.

7
6

.

1
7

.

.

0
2
3

.

1
2
3

.

4
2
1

7
9

.

0
6

.

3
6

.

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2
8
2

.

1
9
2

.

8
6
1

.

6
3
1

9
8

.

3
9

.

.

0
4
3

.

0
5
3

7
7

.

1
5

.

0
9

.

4
9

.

.

4
3
3

.

1
4
3

1
8

.

9
5

.

8
7

.

3
8

.

.

4
1
3

.

9
1
3

.

2
1
1

4
9

.

7
7

.

2
8

.

.

7
9
2

.

0
1
3

.

9
2
1

.

5
0
1

.

7
0
1

.

3
1
1

.

5
3
3

.

6
3
3

3
6

.

7
4

.

6
8

.

1
9

.

.

2
4
3

.

9
4
3

7
7

.

6
5

.

5
7

.

0
8

.

.

2
1
3

.

9
1
3

.

5
1
1

8
9

.

0
7

.

5
7

.

.

4
0
3

.

4
0
3

.

1
3
1

.

6
1
1

.

0
0
1

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5
0
1

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8
3
3

.

5
2
3

2
8

.

1
5

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6
7

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0
8

.

.

0
5
3

.

7
3
3

9
9

.

7
5

.

9
6

.

4
7

.

.

1
2
3

.

7
1
3

.

4
3
1

6
8

.

7
6

.

1
7

.

.

0
9
2

.

1
9
2

.

0
6
1

.

1
2
1

)
1
(
0
9
9
1

4
8

.

8
8

.

.

2
4
3

.

1
5
3

5
8

.

9
4

.

.

1
1
1

.

5
1
1

.

5
4
3

.

1
2
3

1
7

.

7
3

.

5
0
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1
9

.

6
9

.

.

1
3
3

.

9
3
3

4
8

.

8
5

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3
8

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8
8

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1
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.

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2
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2
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3
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1
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7

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8
3
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1
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6

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0
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1
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8

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3
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6

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0
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1
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5
9
2

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3
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1

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0
1

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4
3

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1
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2
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6
3

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7

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7

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3

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1
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4
5

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7

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3
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2
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6

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2
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1
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1
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2

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1

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4

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0
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4
9

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8
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8
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1
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3

6
6

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3
5

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7

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8

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8
2
3

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4
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3

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6
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1

5
8

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4
6

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9
6

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1
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2
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1

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2
8

.

6
8

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5
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3

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3

7
8

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0
6

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9
6

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3
7

.

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2
3
3

.

2
3
3

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4
1
1

1
8

.

9
5

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2
6

.

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2
1
3

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7
1
3

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1
4
1

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9
0
1

4
5

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8
5

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3
6
2

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2
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4
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1

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1
9

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9

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4
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3

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9

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6
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1
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1
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8
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1

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1
1

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9

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4
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1

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2
3
3

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1
3
3

9
7

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5
5

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0
7

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5
7

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1
4
3

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7
4
3

7
9

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1
7

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3
6

.

6
6

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4
2
3

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8
2
3

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3
2
1

6
9

.

6
5

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9
5

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2
6
2

.

6
6
2

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8
9
1

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9
5
1

5
9

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.

0
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1

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6
3
3

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1
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3

6
7

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0
6

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7

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4
7

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4
3
3

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3

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1
8

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5
6

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6

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1

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6

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3
6

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1
7
2

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1
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4
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1

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1
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1

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1

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3

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0
3

5
6

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9
4

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1
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1

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6
0
1

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8
3
3

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3
4
3

3
6

.

9
4

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9
8

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4
9

.

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5
2
3

.

9
2
3

8
8

.

6
7

.

8
7

.

2
8

.

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6
8
2

.

2
9
2

.

0
4
1

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2
2
1

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9
0
1

.

4
1
1

.

2
4
3

.

9
1
3

1
8

.

5
3

.

5
7

.

9
7

.

.

4
5
3

.

7
2
3

.

0
1
1

5
5

.

9
7

.

3
8

.

.

9
2
3

.

9
0
3

.

2
3
1

8
6

.

2
7

.

6
7

.

.

1
0
3

.

5
9
2

.

8
5
1

9
9

.

8
7

.

2
8

.

.

2
4
3

.

0
5
3

9
9

.

0
5

.

0
7

.

4
7

.

.

0
3
3

.

9
3
3

.

0
1
1

6
7

.

3
6

.

7
6

.

.

8
0
3

.

7
1
3

.

7
3
1

.

9
0
1

8
5

.

1
6

.

.

7
7
2

.

8
8
2

.

3
7
1

.

2
4
1

4
8

.

8
8

.

.

2
3
3

.

1
4
3

1
9

.

4
6

.

2
9

.

6
9

.

.

8
2
3

.

4
3
3

6
8

.

4
6

.

7
7

.

2
8

.

.

0
1
3

.

8
1
3

.

4
1
1

9
9

.

6
7

.

1
8

.

.

5
9
2

.

8
0
3

.

8
2
1

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3
1
1

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6
0
1

.

1
1
1

.

0
3
3

.

8
2
3

8
7

.

7
4

.

3
7

.

7
7

.

.

4
5
3

.

6
5
3

6
8

.

5
5

.

6
6

.

0
7

.

.

7
1
3

.

4
2
3

.

8
2
1

6
9

.

1
6

.

5
6

.

.

0
8
2

.

5
8
2

.

9
6
1

.

1
4
1

.

0
0
1

.

5
0
1

.

4
3
3

.

1
3
3

3
7

.

7
5

.

7
6

.

1
7

.

.

7
4
3

.

3
4
3

.

0
0
1

1
7

.

7
5

.

0
6

.

.

8
1
3

.

7
2
3

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  Women and men in Europe 2007 



Panorama2008.indb   153

12/02/2008   18:30:57

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   154

12/02/2008   18:30:58

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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  Women and men in Europe 2007 

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Panorama2008.indb   155

12/02/2008   18:30:59

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   156

12/02/2008   18:31:00

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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  Women and men in Europe 2007 



Panorama2008.indb   157

12/02/2008   18:31:01

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

A.14  –  Relative  student  performance  in  reading, 
mathematical and scientific literacy, 2003

A.15 - Percentage of students with low performance 
in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy, 2003

% difference in mean score of boys/girls

%

Reading

Maths

Scientific

Reading (1)

Maths (1)

Scientific (2)

Girls rel Boys

Boys rel Girls

Boys rel Girls

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

BE

CZ

DK

DE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

LV

LU

HU

NL

AT

PL

PT

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

LI

NO

CH

7.5

6.6

5.3

8.9

5.8

8.3

8.5

8.0

8.6

8.2

7.1

6.6

4.2

10.1

8.3

7.9

7.2

8.4

7.4

:

:

7.8

12.5

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10.3

7.4

1.4

2.9

3.3

1.8

3.0

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1.7

3.9

0.6

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1.6

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2.7

3.8

1.4

1.3

:

:

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5.5

1.3

3.2

0.0

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3.7

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2.6

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1.0

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1.4

1.3

3.0

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1.0

:

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2.0

BE

CZ

DK

DE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

LV

LU

HU

NL

AT

PL

PT

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

LI

NO

CH

13.0

15.0

12.7

16.3

7.7

18.5

14.5

12.1

17.2

11.6

17.1

14.9

8.6

13.1

10.3

15.1

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2.4

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:

:

27.8

9.5

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11.3

11.8

22.4

23.5

20.5

28.1

14.3

32.5

27.9

23.5

31.1

25.0

28.5

25.5

14.3

28.2

23.4

29.5

30.9

9.0

17.7

:

:

44.1

26.9

12.7

24.8

21.2

15.7

18.1

17.4

21.4

18.7

41.9

23.4

16.5

34.0

23.1

23.4

23.9

11.7

18.4

21.4

31.3

22.0

6.2

17.9

:

:

55.8

11.5

14.4

21.1

15.7

17.2

15.1

13.4

21.4

15.0

35.8

22.5

16.8

29.7

24.4

20.0

22.2

10.2

19.2

22.7

28.7

18.0

7.3

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:

:

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18.3

10.2

20.6

13.4

15.4

12.1

24.7

18.2

12.8

22.3

18.7

15.6

20.9

15.8

21.8

14.0

11.6

16.7

17.4

23.1

17.6

4.6

16.6

:

:

38.3

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13.3

20.5

15.8

17.5

11.2

20.6

19.0

13.4

21.0

19.6

17.7

21.6

18.7

21.1

15.5

10.6

20.2

17.9

23.9

16.1

6.9

15.7

:

:

38.9

18.7

11.0

22.0

15.3

Negative figures mean that girls perform better 
UK: Response rate too low 
Source: OECD, PISA database, 200

UK: Response rate too low 
() Level  or below (below 2 score points) 
(2) Below 00 score points 
Source: OECD, PISA database, 200

8

W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   158

12/02/2008   18:31:02

 
Annex Tables

A

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

Panorama2008.indb   159

12/02/2008   18:31:03

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

H
C

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S
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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   160

12/02/2008   18:31:03

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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  Women and men in Europe 2007 

6

Panorama2008.indb   161

12/02/2008   18:31:04

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   162

12/02/2008   18:31:05

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

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  Women and men in Europe 2007 

6

Panorama2008.indb   163

12/02/2008   18:31:06

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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12/02/2008   18:31:08

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

Panorama2008.indb   166

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W o m e n   a n d   m e n   i n   E u r o p e   2 0 0 7  

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Panorama2008.indb   169

12/02/2008   18:31:12

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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C

n
e
M

0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   170

12/02/2008   18:31:13

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

H
C

O
N

S
I

R
T

R
H

K
U

E
S

I
F

K
S

I
S

O
R

T
P

L
P

T
A

L
N

T
M

U
H

U
L

T
L

V
L

Y
C

T
I

R
F

S
E

L
E

E
I

E
E

E
D

K
D

Z
C

G
B

E
B

5
2
-
U
E

l

)
d
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

Panorama2008.indb   171

12/02/2008   18:31:15

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

A.34 — The largest sectors employing women and men, 2005 (1) (% women/men in each sector)

TOP 6 among women

Health, So-
cial work 
(85) 

Other serv. 
activities 
(93) 

Private 
hholds  
(95) 

Manuf. 
wearing 
apparel 
(18)

Education 

Retailing  

 (80) 

(52) 

Mining 
uranium 
thorium 
(12)

TOP 6 among men

Cons- 
truction 
(45) 

Other  
mining 
(14) 

Mining 
coal lignite  
(10) 

Mining  
metal  
(13) 

Manuf. ba-
sic metal  
(27) 

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

87.4

92.4

62.2

100.0

88.9

91.5

100.0

88.7

96.2

91.3

83.6

86.1

97.2

56.4

48.0

100.0

78.2

100.0

87.8

96.3

100.0

99.0

63.6

100.0

94.9

60.8

100.0

61.7

92.5

:

-

91.6

:

79.0

73.6

85.0

89.3

100.0

68.3

97.4

73.7

61.1

76.2

69.0

75.1

78.0

95.2

91.5

40.6

86.0

42.2

96.4

72.3

85.2

88.3

87.9

79.2

89.9

91.2

81.2

62.2

88.5

:

80.5

79.6

:

() LU: 200; EU-2: estimate 
Source: Eurostat, LFS

77.5

78.7

77.7

78.7

83.1

76.8

83.6

82.2

64.4

73.4

77.9

65.4

72.9

85.0

81.2

76.9

77.7

53.8

81.0

73.8

81.2

81.6

77.9

83.6

82.4

88.2

83.0

79.0

76.4

:

85.4

82.4

:

71.8

73.0

76.2

79.4

61.8

64.4

97.6

74.0

73.1

77.1

74.3

71.8

81.0

57.8

85.0

87.4

68.8

82.3

81.3

83.0

76.2

84.6

58.8

83.6

75.2

82.5

78.9

75.5

91.1

:

90.8

88.2

:

70.5

68.3

78.9

76.2

55.6

67.9

82.5

70.9

60.8

65.4

66.1

74.3

74.1

80.4

76.5

62.8

77.6

54.4

60.6

70.7

77.8

76.2

72.3

77.2

76.7

65.6

74.3

73.0

78.4

:

69.1

65.0

:

61.1

60.7

63.6

66.6

54.2

66.4

74.1

63.5

48.9

61.3

61.2

50.4

58.9

72.2

69.6

65.0

65.1

39.4

57.8

67.4

68.2

55.7

63.0

63.9

70.5

67.7

62.5

59.3

65.7

:

60.3

65.0

:

97.7

100.0

-

90.0

-

100.0

-

-

-

100.0

-

-

100.0

-

100.0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

:

-

-

:

91.8

91.5

90.2

91.3

90.8

87.3

87.6

95.0

98.2

94.5

91.2

94.7

94.1

87.1

90.2

91.7

93.6

95.6

90.5

85.4

93.2

95.6

89.9

93.5

93.7

93.0

93.5

89.6

92.4

:

93.5

93.6

:

91.0

70.0

93.2

82.7

9.5

91.3

100.0

92.0

93.9

93.5

89.9

89.1

85.4

100.0

75.0

100.0

91.1

100.0

79.9

82.8

100.0

94.2

89.6

100.0

95.3

92.1

93.6

94.6

92.4

:

100.0

82.4

:

89.1

-

90.8

91.0

-

92.0

76.7

87.5

97.4

97.6

93.6

89.1

85.5

86.6

-

-

100.0

-

86.9

89.2

86.5

-

100.0

100.0

-

51.5

44.5

-

79.3

-

-

-

87.3

-

83.8

89.0

93.7

94.3

66.2

100.0

100.0

:

-

100.0

:

-

-

-

-

100.0

-

-

100.0

84.2

94.7

92.5

-

86.2

100.0

90.5

100.0

-

:

-

-

:

88.2

91.2

75.0

82.5

80.6

88.3

100.0

89.0

95.3

93.2

92.0

89.9

100.0

91.3

92.3

93.4

83.9

100.0

95.0

83.3

83.0

82.3

79.6

78.6

83.8

84.3

85.8

86.4

90.9

:

94.7

80.7

:

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   172

12/02/2008   18:31:15

 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

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

Panorama2008.indb   173

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A

Annex Tables

A.36 — Employment in computing activities by sex, 
2001 and 2006 (1) 
(% women/men in all occupations)

2001

2006

% point change 
2001-2006

Women Men Women Men Women Men

A.37 - Employment in computing activities by sex and 
age, 2006 (1) (% women/men in all occupations)

<40 year old

≥40 year old

Women

Men

Women

Men

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

0.7

0.5

(0.9)

0.9

0.9

0.7

.

0.9

0.3

0.6

0.7

0.6

(0.5)

.

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(1.0)

0.6

:

0.9

0.6

0.5

(0.5)

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(0.4)

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:

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0.8

0.8

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2.6

(4.9)

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3.2

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1.6

0.4

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2.8

1.4

1.2

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0.7

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1.6

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EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

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0.5

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3.9

() IS, CH: 200 
Figures in brackets: unreliable data 
Figures replaced by ‘ . ‘: extremely unreliable data 
Source: Eurostat, LFS

() IS, CH: 200 
Figures in brackets: unreliable data 
Figures replaced by ‘ . ‘: extremely unreliable data  
Source: Eurostat, LFS



Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   174

12/02/2008   18:31:17

 
Annex Tables

A

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  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   175

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A

Annex Tables

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(
s
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c
i
v
r
e
s

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   176

12/02/2008   18:31:19

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

f
o
%

l

;
s
e
e
y
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p
m
e
h
t
i

l

w
d
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s
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m
/
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f
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%

(

)
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2

,

)
1
(

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2
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2
6

.

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

6
5

.

0
2

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1
6

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4
4

.

9
4

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4
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4
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4
4
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3
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5
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8
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3
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1
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1
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3
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.

8
3

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0
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2
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4
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3
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3
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2
3
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  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   177

12/02/2008   18:31:20

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

H
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x
e

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   178

12/02/2008   18:31:21

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

.

8
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  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   179

12/02/2008   18:31:22

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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3
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5
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U
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E
B

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B

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C

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E
I

L
E

S
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C

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L

U
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M

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:


2
-
U
E

80

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   180

12/02/2008   18:31:23

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

s
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6
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4
4
A

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%
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%
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W

%
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%
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%
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%
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%
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%
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E
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:

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c
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S

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

Panorama2008.indb   181

12/02/2008   18:31:24

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

A.44 (Continued) – Women and men in decision-making positions, 2006

Central administrations

Supreme Courts 

Level 1 officials

Members

Women %

Men %

Women %

Men %

Central banks
Members of highest  
decision-making body
Men %
Women %

Top 50 publicly quoted companies

President

Women %

Men %

Members of highest  
decision-making body
Men %
Women %

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

LI

NO

7.0

36.0

0.0

6.0

0.0

27.0

14.0

6.0

38.0

20.0

0.0

18.0

38.0

8.0

25.0

0.0

7.0

8.0

0.0

21.0

0.0

32.0

42.0

29.0

23.0

50.0

23.0

:

0.0

8.0

46.0

24.0

93.0

64.0

100.0

94.0

100.0

73.0

86.0

94.0

62.0

80.0

100.0

82.0

62.0

92.0

75.0

100.0

93.0

92.0

100.0

79.0

100.0

68.0

58.0

71.0

77.0

50.0

77.0

:

100.0

92.0

54.0

76.0

43.0

44.0

21.0

26.0

21.0

17.0

33.0

6.0

:

33.0

:

8.0

70.0

19.0

0.0

61.0

:

16.0

18.0

8.0

2.0

71.0

36.0

49.0

26.0

:

8.0

:

4.0

25.0

0.0

32.0

57.0

56.0

79.0

74.0

79.0

83.0

67.0

94.0

:

67.0

:

92.0

30.0

81.0

100.0

39.0

:

84.0

82.0

92.0

98.0

29.0

64.0

51.0

74.0

:

92.0

:

96.0

75.0

100.0

68.0

9.0

17.0

17.0

36.0

:

13.0

9.0

0.0

11.0

17.0

0.0

0.0

29.0

25.0

13.0

0.0

25.0

11.0

6.0

11.0

0.0

13.0

20.0

33.0

38.0

30.0

21.0

:

0.0

33.0

:

43.0

91.0

83.0

83.0

64.0

:

87.0

91.0

100.0

89.0

83.0

100.0

100.0

71.0

75.0

87.0

100.0

75.0

89.0

94.0

89.0

100.0

87.0

80.0

67.0

62.0

70.0

79.0

:

100.0

67.0

:

57.0

Source: European Commission, women and men in decision-making database

0.0

16.0

2.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

0.0

4.0

4.0

4.0

0.0

7.0

0.0

0.0

5.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

8.0

2.0

2.0

19.0

3.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

:

4.0

0.0

:

4.0

100.0

84.0

98.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

98.0

100.0

96.0

96.0

96.0

100.0

93.0

100.0

100.0

95.0

100.0

100.0

98.0

92.0

98.0

98.0

81.0

97.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

:

96.0

100.0

:

96.0

7.0

21.0

13.0

10.0

12.0

16.0

5.0

8.0

4.0

7.0

2.0

7.0

19.0

10.0

3.0

12.0

4.0

6.0

6.0

11.0

7.0

11.0

19.0

6.0

19.0

23.0

13.0

:

6.0

7.0

:

27.0

93.0

79.0

87.0

90.0

88.0

84.0

95.0

92.0

96.0

93.0

98.0

93.0

81.0

90.0

97.0

88.0

96.0

94.0

94.0

89.0

93.0

89.0

81.0

94.0

81.0

77.0

87.0

:

94.0

93.0

:

73.0

82

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   182

12/02/2008   18:31:24

 
Annex Tables

A

A.44 (Continued) – Women and men in decision-making positions, 2006

European institutions

President Women %

Men %

European Commission (Commissioners)

European Commission (A1 officials)

European Parliament (members)

European Parliament (A1 officials)

Council of the EU (A1 officials)

European Court of Justice (members)

European Court of Auditors (members)

European Central Bank (Decision-making body)

European Investment Bank 

European Investment Fund

European Social Partners

European NGOs

M

-

M

-

-

M

M

M

M

M

M: 96%

M: 70%

Source: European Commission, Women and men in decision-making database

29

6

30

18

17

12

17

6

4

17

12

39

71

94

70

82

83

88

83

94

96

83

88

61

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

Panorama2008.indb   183

12/02/2008   18:31:24

 
A

Annex Tables

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Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   184

12/02/2008   18:31:25

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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12/02/2008   18:31:25

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   186

12/02/2008   18:31:26

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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Panorama2008.indb   187

12/02/2008   18:31:26

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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88

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   188

12/02/2008   18:31:27

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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5
A

.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

8

Panorama2008.indb   189

12/02/2008   18:31:28

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

H
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0

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   190

12/02/2008   18:31:28

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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A

.

  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   191

12/02/2008   18:31:29

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   192

12/02/2008   18:31:30

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   193

12/02/2008   18:31:31

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

l

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E
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Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   194

12/02/2008   18:31:32

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Panorama2008.indb   195

12/02/2008   18:31:33

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

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6

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   196

12/02/2008   18:31:34

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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
2
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U
E

  Women and men in Europe 2007



Panorama2008.indb   197

12/02/2008   18:31:35

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

H
C

O
N

S
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R
T

R
H

K
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I
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
2
-
U
E

8

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   198

12/02/2008   18:31:36

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

A

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

Panorama2008.indb   199

12/02/2008   18:31:37

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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12/02/2008   18:31:38

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Panorama2008.indb   202

12/02/2008   18:31:39

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Annex Tables

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12/02/2008   18:31:40

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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20

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   204

12/02/2008   18:31:40

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Panorama2008.indb   205

12/02/2008   18:31:41

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

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12/02/2008   18:31:43

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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208

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   208

12/02/2008   18:31:44

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex Tables

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A

.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

20

Panorama2008.indb   209

12/02/2008   18:31:45

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

H
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Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   210

12/02/2008   18:31:46

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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  Women and men in Europe 2007

Annex Tables

A

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u
4
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2

Panorama2008.indb   211

12/02/2008   18:31:48

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A

Annex Tables

A.97 - Crude death rates by causes of women and men aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85+, 2005 (1) (per 100 000 inhabitants)

A.97  (Continued)  -  Crude  death  rates  by  causes  of  women  and  men  aged  65-74,  75-84  and  85+,  2005  (
inhabitants)

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

 37

 7

 19

 12

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

1 309

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

 539

 38

 465

 267

 92

 17

 41

 35

2 551

1 054

 53

 949

 495

 110

 9

 81

 19

4 199

1 000

 151

2 070

 979

 185

 25

 107

 54

6 551

1 992

 196

2 845

1 517

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

Women 65-74

 35

 7

 13

 14

 51

 8

 31

 12

 54

 7

 29

 19

 32

 4

 15

 12

 60

 7

 33

 21

 30

 10

 13

 7

 24

 11

 12

 2

 31

 6

 15

 10

2 496

1 876

2 035

1 208

1 785

1 459

1 029

1 001

 484

 16

1 727

 269

 698

 41

 870

 266

 118

 122

 21

 50

 47

4 543

 982

 27

2 957

 577

 70

 13

 33

 24

7 756

 742

 52

6 304

 658

 164

 26

 69

 69

10 033

1 280

 85

7 650

1 018

 20

 63

 40

3 532

1 337

 55

1 647

 492

 171

 12

 138

 21

6 155

1 213

 128

4 001

 812

 251

 24

 170

 57

8 664

2 304

 164

5 000

1 196

 905

 53

 545

 532

 87

 13

 41

 32

2 995

1 197

 54

1 109

 635

 175

 12

 135

 28

5 050

1 413

 144

2 088

1 405

 238

 28

 149

 60

7 759

2 384

 199

3 334

1 841

 517

 30

 412

 249

 73

 10

 31

 33

2 358

 922

 46

 904

 485

 102

 7

 74

 21

4 359

1 037

 119

2 237

 966

 161

 17

 89

 55

6 395

1 845

 169

2 978

1 403

2 379

2 175

 384

 18

 467

 160

 77

 31

 36

 11

 912

 21

 941

 300

 44

 14

 26

 3

 401

 43

 304

 253

 80

 22

 32

 26

2 309

1 008

 58

 663

 581

 82

 10

 56

 15

 531

 37

1 019

 198

 684

 47

 411

 318

Men 65-74

 286

 26

 167

 93

4 499

1 441

 46

2 486

 527

 65

 9

 38

 18

 943

 59

 877

 500

Women 75-84

 98

 9

 61

 28

5 500

 973

 46

3 949

 532

 77

 10

 61

 7

4 746

1 254

 112

1 888

1 491

 889

 59

2 574

 704

 788

 242

1 489

1 194

Men 75-84

 192

 19

 103

 70

8 932

2 304

 98

5 686

 843

 123

 112

 151

 14

 96

 13

7 060

2 000

 172

2 941

1 947

 34

 64

 14

5 681

1 766

 63

2 893

 959

 27

 79

 45

6 234

1 922

 250

2 043

2 019

 49

 6

 27

 17

 949

 467

 48

 230

 204

 113

 11

 53

 49

2 110

1 051

 67

 569

 423

 148

 8

 111

 29

 30

 7

 15

 7

 57

 7

 28

 21

 87

 12

 51

 24

1 164

1 259

2 141

 514

 37

 380

 233

 78

 23

 32

 23

2 385

1 121

 49

 797

 418

 113

 10

 93

 10

 460

 57

 421

 322

 100

 48

 20

 32

1 973

 644

 60

 796

 472

 216

 18

 156

 42

 577

 20

1 321

 223

 314

 35

 183

 95

4 961

1 400

 55

2 967

 539

 117

 12

 75

 31

 885

 224

1 109

 766

 270

 22

 162

 86

5 422

1 972

 282

1 881

1 288

 988

 137

1 779

 808

 177

 35

 105

 37

6 247

2 117

 166

2 642

1 321

 678

 150

2 567

1 517

 247

 48

 151

 48

6 423

1 634

 191

2 861

1 737

 879

 40

4 541

 456

 222

 20

 138

 63

9 298

2 156

 35

6 275

 832

4 226

3 713

2 984

3 712

4 912

5 917

LT

 108

1 893

 530

1 113

 228

 407

 226

 138

4 491

1 328

2 527

 599

 126

5 867

 953

4 367

 496

 308

 165

 112

8 979

2 067

5 806

1 028

22

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   212

12/02/2008   18:31:49

 
Annex Tables

A

A.97  (Continued)  -  Crude  death  rates  by  causes  of  women  and  men  aged  65-74,  75-84  and  85+,  2005  (1)  (per  100  000 
inhabitants)

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

Women 65-74

 108

 16

 53

 40

 41

 10

 31

 0

 64

 9

 34

 21

 34

 0

 28

 6

 28

 3

 14

 11

 45

 6

 18

 20

 44

 12

 18

 14

 38

 9

 8

 21

 52

 13

 26

 13

 79

 12

 21

 46

 37

 10

 18

 9

 54

 7

 34

 13

 37

 4

 20

 14

 24

 3

 13

 7

 53

 9

 26

 18

1 893

1 248

2 252

1 360

1 324

1 164

1 724

1 197

2 480

1 416

2 136

1 135

1 257

1 547

1 934

 100

 131

 114

 530

 21

1 113

 228

 407

 44

 226

 138

4 491

1 328

 37

2 527

 599

 126

 28

 61

 37

5 867

 953

 52

4 367

 496

 308

 30

 165

 112

8 979

2 067

 78

5 806

1 028

 392

 67

 505

 284

 687

 27

1 133

 406

 114

 188

 24

 48

 42

2 345

 911

 36

 905

 492

 109

 0

 103

 7

4 191

1 005

 232

1 996

 957

 148

 0

 91

 57

5 689

1 851

 363

2 260

1 215

 33

 93

 63

4 490

1 402

 51

2 244

 792

 198

 11

 156

 31

6 569

1 122

 72

4 462

 912

 350

 46

 190

 114

9 566

2 097

 116

5 917

1 436

 459

 51

 538

 312

 21

 7

 7

 7

2 727

1 017

 85

1 123

 502

 152

 10

 133

 10

5 358

 742

 152

2 893

1 570

 609

 36

 372

 307

 50

 9

 23

 18

2 352

1 070

 50

 762

 470

 8

 75

 17

4 285

1 121

 138

1 639

1 388

 129

 155

 0

 86

 43

7 679

1 819

 244

3 453

2 163

 24

 99

 31

7 041

2 273

 179

2 525

2 064

 495

 30

 371

 267

 623

 30

 819

 252

 424

 37

 417

 319

 508

 16

1 630

 326

 622

 24

 496

 274

 597

 29

1 210

 301

 133

 146

 108

 144

 184

 151

Men 65-74

 18

 55

 60

2 235

 869

 37

 791

 537

 30

 57

 59

3 720

1 423

 37

1 694

 565

 6

 96

 29

4 339

1 065

 152

2 195

 928

 239

 24

 135

 80

6 253

1 872

 190

2 879

1 312

 18

 74

 22

5 184

1 046

 83

3 318

 738

 208

 40

 103

 65

7 914

2 174

 98

4 348

1 293

 29

 22

 58

2 320

 887

 58

 754

 621

 80

 11

 31

 37

 39

 71

 35

4 354

1 036

 24

2 594

 700

 18

 85

 81

2 983

1 226

 31

1 102

 625

 29

 76

 46

4 342

1 370

 38

2 287

 646

Women 75-84

 71

 14

 41

 16

 166

 12

 95

 59

4 734

1 113

 61

2 537

1 024

 87

 13

 51

 23

6 818

1 011

 67

4 866

 874

Men 75-84

 296

 26

 120

 149

7 507

2 227

 76

3 395

1 809

 194

 25

 102

 67

10 084

2 236

 102

6 303

1 444

4 380

7 601

 815

 166

2 097

1 302

 199

 30

 51

 117

6 738

1 677

 210

2 688

2 163

 737

 40

6 179

 645

 163

 46

 80

 37

9 503

1 247

 53

7 085

1 119

 464

 76

 404

 190

 178

 18

 117

 44

 590

 50

 385

 232

 95

 12

 47

 36

 663

 45

 461

 378

 46

 6

 24

 16

2 308

2 083

2 414

 761

 105

1 046

 396

 127

 7

 107

 13

3 886

 915

 347

1 892

 732

 299

 39

 209

 51

6 376

1 668

 477

2 979

1 251

 836

 61

 832

 355

 113

 9

 82

 21

4 038

1 076

 174

1 886

 902

 193

 18

 129

 46

6 159

1 797

 191

2 948

1 223

 966

 61

 891

 496

 82

 6

 65

 10

4 555

1 191

 145

1 817

1 403

 109

 13

 75

 22

6 654

2 005

 202

2 692

1 755

 586

 28

 987

 333

 175

 25

 75

 75

3 896

1 409

 42

1 741

 704

 185

 13

 145

 26

6 673

1 162

 81

4 285

1 146

 291

 35

 162

 93

8 987

2 269

 115

4 899

1 705

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

53

0

43

11

37

8

22

8

1 148

1 218

 648

 32

 340

 128

 57

 11

 46

 0

 599

 56

 348

 216

 94

 14

 55

 24

45

3

20

23

 995

 510

 43

 254

 188

 93

 15

 38

 40

1 811

2 176

1 855

 843

 137

 626

 205

 42

 14

 28

 0

3 989

 818

 479

1 677

1 015

 180

 18

 144

 18

5 768

2 013

 377

2 192

1 186

 941

 70

 798

 367

 868

 58

 593

 335

 111

 120

 6

 98

 8

4 092

1 069

 172

1 838

1 013

 198

 29

 149

 20

6 384

2 024

 227

2 774

1 359

 9

 80

 31

3 345

 892

 214

1 435

 804

 196

 21

 100

 75

5 332

1 694

 275

2 145

1 219

LV

 87

 12

 51

 24

2 141

 577

 20

1 321

 223

 314

 35

 183

 95

4 961

1 400

 55

2 967

 539

 117

 12

 75

 31

5 917

 879

 40

4 541

 456

 222

 20

 138

 63

9 298

2 156

 35

6 275

 832

  Women and men in Europe 2007

2

Panorama2008.indb   213

12/02/2008   18:31:50

 
A

Annex Tables

A.97  (Continued)  -  Crude  death  rates  by  causes  of  women  and  men  aged  65-74,  75-84  and  85+,  2005  (1)  (per  100  000 
inhabitants)

A.97  (Continued)  -  Crude  death  rates  by  causes  of  women  and  men  aged  65-74,  75-84  and  85+,  2005  (1)  (per  100  000 
inhabitants)

EU-25

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

IT

CY

LV

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

 456

 8

 409

 38

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

15 040

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

External causes, of which:

Transport

Other accidents

Other external causes

1 753

 462

8 709

4 117

 572

 29

 441

 102

Illnesses and diseases, of which:

17 655

Neoplasms

Diseases of nervous system

Diseases of circulatory system

Other illnesses and diseases

3 246

 493

8 861

5 054

() DK: 200; IT: 2002; FR, SE, NO, CH: 200 
Source: Eurostat, health statistics

 115

 4

 42

 69

 576

 13

 513

 50

 670

 10

 612

 48

 348

 7

 296

 44

Women 85+

 234

 0

 161

 73

 224

 0

 215

 9

 90

 7

 78

 5

 242

 8

 209

 24

 710

 7

 646

 58

 562

 9

 537

 16

 451

 0

 353

 98

 262

 20

 193

 50

19 734

19 195

13 969

15 565

16 817

14 240

19 263

13 936

11 710

13 715

14 442

15 339

 789

 88

1 779

 278

17 751

14 895

1 106

2 243

 246

 24

 109

 113

 710

 35

 526

 150

1 973

 266

7 820

3 910

 903

 46

 756

 102

1 764

 287

1 283

 113

10 171

14 526

3 344

 896

1 644

 415

6 913

5 268

1 810

 123

13 960

3 371

Men 85+

 464

 18

 333

 113

 954

 0

 677

 277

 337

 20

 310

 7

 171

 47

 94

 29

1 347

 738

6 514

5 336

 355

 19

 266

 70

1 633

 775

5 479

3 823

 888

 23

 700

 166

1 720

 347

8 609

3 039

 630

 35

 531

 64

 960

 196

8 564

4 723

 608

 61

 517

 30

 975

 59

13 527

 777

 377

 19

 226

 132

21 993

21 645

17 760

16 481

20 751

16 649

16 641

16 365

14 998

17 138

17 599

17 555

1 336

 129

3 269

 276

18 567

15 137

1 961

2 962

3 273

 320

9 260

4 908

2 782

 368

9 464

3 867

3 140

 123

15 363

2 124

3 142

 356

7 314

5 836

3 087

 106

10 128

3 320

2 956

 594

6 135

6 679

3 348

 786

6 204

4 660

3 166

 376

9 433

4 163

2 523

 213

9 210

5 653

2 091

 75

13 826

1 563

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

LT

 226

 143

20 175

1 311

17 844

 953

 459

 278

 145

22 077

2 331

17 621

2 053

2

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   214

12/02/2008   18:31:51

 
   
Annex Tables

A

)  (per  100  000 

A.97  (Continued)  -  Crude  death  rates  by  causes  of  women  and  men  aged  65-74,  75-84  and  85+,  2005  (1)  (per  100  000 
inhabitants)

LV

 262

 20

 193

 50

15 339

 975

 59

13 527

 777

 377

 19

 226

 132

17 555

2 091

 75

13 826

1 563

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

HR

TR

IS

NO

CH

Women 85+

 226

 24

 143

 60

 266

 0

 244

 22

 559

 8

 509

 41

 397

 0

 397

 0

 467

 7

 400

 60

 428

 10

 377

 41

 435

 16

 372

 47

 231

 6

 120

 106

 99

 14

 69

 16

 570

 18

 453

 98

 154

 3

 101

 49

 457

 3

 436

 18

 433

 5

 376

 52

 364

 7

 340

 17

 574

 7

 553

 14

20 175

14 736

17 870

15 122

14 197

15 442

15 051

14 841

21 776

16 436

19 987

14 370

13 731

15 467

19 145

1 311

 68

17 844

 953

 459

 36

 278

 145

1 975

 710

8 233

3 817

 628

 0

 489

 140

1 569

 160

14 263

1 878

 805

 54

 545

 207

1 257

 463

9 464

3 938

 301

 60

 120

 120

1 906

 433

5 897

5 961

 575

 31

 456

 89

1 811

 381

1 401

 126

10 370

11 566

2 880

1 958

 722

 41

 523

 159

 476

 45

 339

 92

1 433

 303

8 382

4 724

 341

 31

 129

 181

 795

 88

1 771

 123

1 289

 87

19 566

10 902

16 456

1 327

3 640

2 155

Men 85+

 170

 45

 78

 47

 860

 60

 540

 260

 336

 42

 193

 101

1 467

 976

8 108

3 819

 843

 57

 680

 105

1 548

 384

8 029

3 770

 747

 27

 580

 141

1 999

 450

6 942

6 076

 347

 21

 287

 39

1 519

 101

14 808

2 716

 815

 50

 676

 89

22 077

18 436

19 677

16 356

18 133

17 558

17 617

17 504

22 766

19 728

21 919

17 151

17 066

16 570

22 258

2 331

 72

17 621

2 053

3 142

1 187

9 008

5 098

2 508

 254

14 305

2 610

1 804

 481

8 358

5 713

3 743

 500

6 945

6 945

3 183

 532

2 532

 147

10 208

11 974

3 636

2 964

2 737

 345

8 114

6 308

1 274

 57

3 321

 160

2 462

 92

19 417

11 244

16 231

2 019

5 002

3 134

2 812

1 102

8 806

4 432

2 978

 419

9 359

4 310

3 281

 496

6 894

5 898

2 991

 179

14 905

4 183

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

 314

 0

 314

 0

 518

 12

 503

 3

 475

 9

 426

 40

13 966

13 351

13 189

1 883

1 334

6 159

4 590

 353

 0

 353

 0

1 651

 443

7 319

3 938

 726

 22

 660

 44

1 478

 726

7 397

3 588

 661

 34

 501

 126

16 291

16 981

15 505

2 750

1 269

7 546

4 725

3 258

 523

8 222

4 979

2 916

 762

7 955

3 871

  Women and men in Europe 2007

2

Panorama2008.indb   215

12/02/2008   18:31:52

 
   
A

Annex Tables

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Panorama2008.indb   216

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  Women and men in Europe 2007

2

Panorama2008.indb   217

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Panorama2008.indb   218

12/02/2008   18:31:54

Sources and methodology

Sources and methodology

Sources

Most of the data on which this report is based come from Eurostat and a great deal are pub-
lished on Eurostat’s online database. The exceptions are the OECD programme for interna-
tional student assessment (PISA), the time use survey, the eighth United Nations survey on 
crime trends and the operations of criminal justice systems (2001-02), the Statistical bulletin 
2006  published  by  the  European  Monitoring  Centre  for  Drugs  and  Drug  Addiction,  the 
European database on women and men in decision-making (established by the European 
Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities), 
Directorate-General for Research database on women in Science, the International Centre 
for Prison Studies database ‘World prison brief (WPB)’, the European sourcebook of crime 
and criminal justice statistics and the mutual information system on social protection (Mis-
soc).

Community statistics on income and living conditions – EU-SILC

EU-SILC (Community statistics on income and living conditions) is an instrument which 
aims at collecting timely and comparable cross-  sectional and longitudinal, multidimen-
sional micro data on income, poverty and social exclusion. It is anchored in the European 
statistical system (ESS).

From 2005 on the EU-SILC covers 25 EU Member States together with Iceland and Norway, 
while Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey and Switzerland have initiated surveys in 2006.

Minimum sample sizes, which are specified in the EU-SILC framework Regulation (EC) No 
1177/2003, are designed to ensure that the survey is representative of the characteristics of 
the population in each country.

For the EU-25 countries, the minimum effective sample size is some 250 000 individuals liv-
ing in 121 000 private households. Actual national sample sizes vary according to the size of 
country and the national reporting requirements ranging from 3 500 households in Malta 
to 22 000 in Italy. The reference population of EU-SILC is all private households and their 
current members residing in the territory of the Member State at the time of data collec-
tion. Persons living in collective households and in institutions are generally excluded from 
the target population. A household is defined in terms of shared household expenses. If not 
shared, then the person(s) constitute separate household(s) at the same address.

For a detailed description of the EU-SILC methodology and variables, see:

http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/dsis/eusilc/library?l=/udb_user_database

The European Union labour force survey – LFS

The  European  Union  labour  force  survey  is  a  quarterly  large  sample  survey  covering  the 
population in private households in the EU, EFTA (except Liechtenstein) and the candidate 
countries. It provides data on labour participation of people aged 15 and over as well as those 
outside the labour force. Conscripts in the military or those on community service are not 
included.  The  sample  covered  amounts  to  1.4  million  individuals  approximately  (average 
quarter 2006). The sampling rates vary between 0.14 % and 3.30 % across the countries.

The main statistical objectives of the labour force survey are to collect detailed data on those 
in employment, unemployment and inactivity in a particular reference week. The concepts 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Sources and methodology

and definitions used in the survey conform to the International Labour Organisation (ILO) 
conventions.

Employed persons are those aged 15 year and over (16 and over in Spain, the United King-
dom and Sweden (1995-2001); 15-74 years in Denmark, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Finland, 
Norway and Sweden (from 2001 onwards); 16-74 in Iceland) who during the reference week 
performed work, even for just one hour a week, for pay, profit or family gain or were not at 
work but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent because of, e.g. ill-
ness, holidays, industrial dispute and education and training.

Unemployed persons are those aged 15-74 (in Spain, Norway, Sweden (1995-2000), the Unit-
ed  Kingdom  and  Iceland  16-74)  who  were  without  work  during  the  reference  week,  were 
currently available for work and were either actively seeking work in the past four weeks or 
had already found a job to start within the next three months.

Inactive persons are those who neither classified as employed nor as unemployed.

Employment/activity rates represent employed/active persons as the percentage of the same 
age population.

Employees are defined as those who work for a public or private employer and who receive 
compensation in the form of wages, salaries, payment by results or payment in kind; non-
conscript members of the armed forces are also included.

Self-employed is defined as: a person who works in his own business, professional practice 
or farm for the purpose of earning a profit, even if the enterprise is failing to make a profit, 
or who spends time on the operation of a business, professional practice or farm even if no 
sales were made, no services supplied or nothing produced (for example, someone undertak-
ing maintenance activities, waiting for a client or attending a conference), or who is in the 
process of setting up a business, farm or professional practice. The self-employed are further 
divided between those who employ at least one other person and those who do not.

Level  of  educational  attainment  is  defined  according  to  the  international  classification  of 
education 1997 (ISCED 1997). Note that this is a feature of the persons.

Classification by economic activity is based on the general industrial classification of eco-
nomic activities (NACE Rev.1). Note that this is a feature of the enterprises/establishments 
for which the work is done.

Classification by occupation is based on the international standard classification of occupa-
tions. Note that this is a feature of the job.

For more details, see:

http://circa.europa.eu/irc/dsis/employment/info/data/eu_lfs/index.htm

Community survey on ICT usage in households and by individuals

The aim of this survey is the timely provision of statistics on individuals, households and the 
information society. Annual time series are available from 2002 onwards. Data are collected 
from national statistical institutes in the Member States, since 2005 based on the framework 
Regulation (EC) No 808/2004 (OJ L 143, 30.4.2004) which established the systematic pro-
duction of statistics on the information society.

For more information on the ICT usage survey and its methodology, see:

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page?_pageid=2973,64549069,2973_64553608&_
dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL

220

Women and men in Europe 2007 

Panorama2008.indb   220

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Sources and methodology

Methodology

The totals for the EU-25 referred to in the text and included in the figures and tables exclude 
Bulgaria and Romania since the data relate to the period before they joined the European 
Union

Part 1

Demographic aspects

Data  on  population  structure,  population  projections,  births,  mortality  rates,  age  at  first 
marriage, age of women at first birth and fertility rates come from Eurostat’s database on 
demographic statistics and population projections.

Data on population structure refer to the population on 1 January. It comprises the usual 
resident population of a given area on 1 January of the year in question (or, in some cases, 
on 31 December of the previous year). The population is based on data from the most recent 
census adjusted by the components of population change produced since the last census, or 
based on population registers.

The  population  projections  are  based  on  a  baseline  variant  trend  scenario  with  base  year 
2004. They describe the possible future demographic developments assuming that the forces 
present in the past will mostly continue to work in the future. The projections are compa-
rable from country to country. Three scenarios are published: the variants high and low are 
the two plausible cases of demographic change, while the baseline scenario incorporates the 
‘best’ hypotheses.

Data  on  live  births  refer  to  births  of  children  that  showed  any  sign  of  life.  They  are  the 
number  of  births  excluding  stillbirths  (total  births  include  live  births  and  stillbirths).  In 
most countries the definition of a live birth matches the World Health Organisation defini-
tion. The most common exception to this definition is that further criteria on birth weight 
and/or length of gestational period are added (Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Finland). Data 
for France in 1990 refer to metropolitan France only.

Infant mortality rate is the ratio of the number of deaths of children under one year of age 
during the year to the number of live births in that year. The value is expressed per 1 000 live 
births. Data for France in 1990 refer to metropolitan France only.

Mortality is measured using deaths by age at last birthday. The crude death rate is calculated 
as the ratio of the number of deaths during the year to the average population in that year. 
The value in the text is expressed per 100 000 inhabitants.

In all the countries included, marriages are defined to include religious as well as civil ones. 
The relationship between the two, however, differs. In 15 countries (Cyprus, Denmark, Es-
tonia, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Slovak Republic, 
Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom) a religious marriage is recognised by the state as equiv-
alent to a civil marriage. In France, a religious marriage has no consequences for marital 
status, unless it has been contracted abroad.

The first marriage rates by age are the number of first marriages of women (or men) of age x 
to the average female (or male) population of age x. The age is that reached during the year. 
Data for France refer to metropolitan France only.

The mean age of women at first birth refers to the mean age of women when their first child 
is born. For a given calendar year, the mean age of women at first birth can be calculated 
using the fertility rates for first births by age (in general, the reproductive period is between 
15 and 49 years of age). Calculated in this way from the fertility rates by age, the mean age 

  Women and men in Europe 2007

22

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Sources and methodology

is not weighted, i.e. the different numbers of mothers at each age are not taken into account. 
Fertility rates by age of the mother (age specific fertility rate) refer to the number of births to 
mothers of age x to the average female population of age x. The age is that reached during the 
year. Data for France refer to metropolitan France only.

Total fertility rate refers to the mean number of children that would be born alive to a wom-
an during her lifetime if she were to pass through her childbearing years conforming to the 
fertility rates by age of a given year. It is therefore the completed fertility of a hypothetical 
generation,  computed  by  adding  the  fertility  rates  by  age  for  women  in  a  given  year  (the 
number of women at each age is assumed to be the same). The total fertility rate is also used 
to indicate the replacement level fertility; in more developed countries, a rate of 2.1 is consid-
ered to be replacement level. Data for France refer to metropolitan France only.

Household circumstances

Data on household structure and age of young people leaving the parental home come from 
the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above). There is no household information available for 
Sweden, Iceland, Norway or Switzerland.

It should be noted that the data relate to young people living in the same household as their 
parent(s) so that in some cases it might be that parents are living with their children rather 
than vice versa. For the age groups covered, however, such cases should be relatively few and 
ought not to affect the results significantly.

The age range at which young people leave home is a proximate measure based on whether 
or not respondents and their parents are living in the same household. A calculation is made 
for each single year of age in the age range 16 to 34, and the age at which 20 %, 50 % and 80 % 
of the population do not live with their parents is estimated.

Education

Educational performance

Data on literacy of various kinds come from PISA 2003, the OECD programme for inter-
national  student  assessment.  PISA  is  an  internationally  standardised  assessment  that  was 
jointly  developed  by  participating  countries  and  administered  to  15-year-olds  in  schools. 
The survey was implemented in 43 countries in the first assessment in 2000 and in 41 coun-
tries in the second assessment in 2003. Tests are typically administered to between 4 500 and 
10 000 students in each country.

OECD/PISA 2003 covers reading, mathematical and scientific literacy not so much in terms 
of mastery of the school curriculum, but in terms of important knowledge and skills needed 
in adult life. Emphasis is on the mastery of processes, the understanding of concepts and the 
ability to function in various situations within each area. PISA scores can be located along 
specific scales developed for each subject area, designed to show the general competencies 
tested by PISA. These scales are divided into levels, beginning at level 1 with questions that 
require only the most basic skills to complete and increasing in difficulty with each level. In 
each test subject, the score for each participating country is the average of all student scores 
in that country. The average score among OECD countries is 500 points and the standard 
deviation is 100 points. About two thirds of students across OECD countries score between 
400 and 600 points.

The complete report with details of the methodology can be found at:

http://www.pisa.oecd.org

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Sources and methodology

Upper secondary, post-secondary and tertiary education

The source of the data is the joint UIS (Unesco Institute of Statistics)/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) 
questionnaires  on  education  statistics.  Data  are  classified  according  to  the  international 
standard classification of education (ISCED), 1997 revision, and relate to ISCED level 3 (up-
per secondary), level 4 (post-secondary) and levels 5 and 6 (tertiary), which are defined as 
follows:

ISCED 3: upper secondary level of education (3A, 3B, 3C) — the final stage of secondary edu-
cation in most countries. There are substantial differences in the typical duration of ISCED 
3 programmes both across and between countries, typically ranging from two to five years 
of schooling.

ISCED 3A: programmes at level 3 designed to provide direct access to ISCED 5A.

ISCED 3B: programmes at level 3 designed to provide direct access to ISCED 5B.

ISCED 3C: programmes at level 3 not designed to lead directly to ISCED 5A or 5B. Therefore, 
these programmes lead directly to labour market, ISCED 4 programmes or other ISCED 3 
programmes.

ISCED 4: post-secondary, non-tertiary education (4A, 4B, 4C) — these programmes straddle 
the boundary between upper secondary and post-secondary education from an internation-
al point of view, even though they might clearly be considered as upper secondary or post-
secondary  programmes  in  a  national  context.  Typically,  they  have  a  full-time  equivalent 
duration of between six months and two years.

ISCED 4A: programmes at level 4, designed to provide direct access to ISCED 5A.

ISCED 4B: programmes at level 4, designed to provide direct access to ISCED 5B.

ISCED 4C: programmes at level 4 not designed to lead directly to ISCED 5A or 5B. These 
programmes lead directly to labour market or other ISCED 4 programmes.

ISCED 5: first stage of tertiary education (5A, 5B).

ISCED 5A: programmes that are largely theoretically based and are intended to provide suf-
ficient qualifications for gaining entry into advanced research programmes and professions 
with high skills requirements. Duration categories: medium: three to less than five years; 
long: five to six years; very long: more than six years.

ISCED 5B: programmes that are generally more practical/technical/occupationally specific 
than ISCED 5A programmes. Duration categories: short: two to less than three years; three 
to less than five years; long: five to six years; very long: more than six years.

ISCED 6: second stage of tertiary education (leading to an advanced research qualification) — 
this level is reserved for tertiary programmes that lead to the award of an advanced research 
qualification. The programmes are devoted to advanced study and original research.

Graduations of young women and men from programmes in ISCED 3 and 4 are classified 
according  to  programme  orientation.  Pre-vocational  and  vocational  programmes  are  ag-
gregated.

General education: programmes which are not designed explicitly to prepare participants for 
a specific class of occupation or trades or for entry into further vocational or technical educa-
tion programmes. Less than 25 % of the programme content is vocational or technical.

Pre-vocational education: programmes which are mainly designed to introduce participants 
to the world of work and prepare them for entry into further vocational or technical educa-
tion. Successful completion does not lead to a labour-market relevant vocational or technical 

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Sources and methodology

qualification. For a programme to be considered as pre-vocational, at least 25 % of its content 
has to be vocational.

Vocational education: programmes which prepare participants for direct entry, without fur-
ther training, into specific occupations. Successful completion of such a programme leads to 
a labour-market relevant vocational qualification.

Data  on  enrolments  for  2003/04  in  Belgium  exclude  independent  private  institutions  and 
the German speaking community. No data are available for ISCED 6 in Germany, Romania 
and Slovenia. Most tertiary students in Cyprus and Luxembourg study abroad and are not 
included in the data.

Data on graduates for 1998 in Belgium are available for the Flemish community only; from 
2000 to 2005 data exclude second qualification in non-university tertiary education in the 
Flemish community and data for the German speaking community. Data on graduates for 
1998 in Estonia exclude masters degrees (ISCED 5A). From 1990 to 2005 the fields of educa-
tion in Cyprus are limited. Data for 1998 in Luxembourg should be considered with caution 
as the country does not have a complete university system. From 1998 to 2000 data in Austria 
on ISCED level 5B refer to previous year. In Romania data from 1998 to 2002 exclude second 
qualification and advanced research programmes (ISCED level 6). In Slovakia data for 1998 
exclude second qualifications. In the United Kingdom, a change in the reporting methodol-
ogy results in not comparable data 2001 and later years with 2000 and previous years.

The classification in the analysis on fields of study distinguishes the following fields:

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

education: including teacher training (ISC 141), education science (ISC 142),

humanities and arts: including arts (ISC 21), humanities (ISC 22),

social and behavioural science, journalism and information: social and behavioural 
science (ISC 31), journalism and information (ISC 32),

business and administration: business and administration (ISC 34),

law: law (ISC 38),

science, mathematics and computing: life sciences (ISC 42), physical sciences (ISC 
44), mathematics and statistics (ISC 46), computing (ISC 48),

engineering, manufacturing and construction: engineering and engineering trades 
(ISC  52),  manufacturing  and  processing  (ISC  54),  architecture  and  building  (ISC 
58),

agriculture and veterinary: agriculture, forestry and fishery (ISC 62), veterinary (ISC 
64)

health and welfare: health (ISC 72), social services (ISC 76),

services: personal services (ISC 81), transport services (ISC 84), environmental pro-
tection (ISC 85), security services (ISC 86).

Early school leavers

Data come from the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above) and are based on people aged 
18-24 with at most lower secondary education (i.e. ISCED 3c low or below) who received no 
education or training in the last four weeks.

Teachers

Data come from the UOE data collection and levels of education are defined as follows:

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Sources and methodology

•

•

primary/secondary: includes ISCED level 1, level 2, level 3 and level 4,

tertiary: includes ISCED level 5 and level 6.

Data for Belgium exclude the German community and all independent private institutions. 
In the Netherlands, ISCED 1 includes ISCED 0. In Finland ISCED level 3 includes ISCED 
levels 4 and 5B and teachers in vocational and technical programmes at ISCED 5A.

Information society

Data on the frequency and regular use of computers and the Internet, purposes of Internet 
usage, and levels of computer and Internet skills come from the 2006 Community survey on 
ICT usage in households and by individuals, which covers individuals aged 16-74.

Frequency and regularity of use of a computer or the Internet by individuals, purposes of 
Internet usage: the data relate to respondents who used computers or the Internet within the 
last three months. The reference period, in general, is the first quarter of 2006. 

Level of basic computer/Internet skills: the respondent’s ICT competencies are measured us-
ing a self-assessment approach, i.e. the respondent simply indicates whether he/she is able to 
carry out specific tasks related to computer/Internet use, without these skills being assessed, 
tested or actually observed. Six computer/Internet-related items were used to recode the re-
spondents into levels of skills: persons who ticked one or two of the six computer-related 
items were coded as having a ‘low level of basic computer/Internet skills’, persons who ticked 
three or four items were coded as having a ‘medium level’ while those who ticked five or all 
activities were labelled as having a ‘high level of basic computer/Internet skills’.

The  six  computer-related  items  are  the  following:  copy  or  move  a  file  or  folder;  use  copy 
and paste tools to duplicate or move information within a document; use basic arithmeti-
cal formulae (add, subtract, multiply, divide) in a spreadsheet; compress files; connect and 
install new devices, e.g. a printer or a modem; write a computer program using a specialised 
programming language.

The six Internet-related items are the following: use a search engine to find information; send 
an e-mail with attached files, post messages to chat rooms, newsgroups or an online discus-
sion forum; use the Internet to make phone calls; use peer-to-peer file sharing for exchang-
ing movies, music, etc.; create a web page.

Health and other social aspects

Health

Data  on  weight  indicators  and  smoking  behaviour  come  from  health  interview  surveys 
(HIS). The HIS data are collected in different years depending on the country, going from 
1996 to 2003.

Body mass index (BMI): the BMI or Quetelet’s index is a measure of a person’s weight relative 
to his or her height that correlates fairly well with body fat content in adults. BMI is accepted 
by experts as the most useful measure of obesity for adults when only weight and height data 
are available. BMI is calculated as the result of dividing body weight (in kg) by body height 
(in m) squared.

For BMI the following subdivision (according the international obesitas taskforce, OTF) is 
used:

•

•

underweight: less than 18.5 (20 in the UK)

normal weight: between 18.5 (20 in the UK) and less than 25

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Sources and methodology

•

•

overweight: between 25 and less than 30

obese: equal or greater than 30.

Data in Germany and the UK are based on measured height and weight, while in other coun-
tries these were self-reported. Data for the UK relate to England only.

Smoking behaviour: for France, Italy and the UK no distinction is made between daily and 
occasional smoking.

Use of cannabis

Data come from The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Statistical 
bulletin 2006.

Figures for Germany relate to six regions only (Bavaria, Brandenburg, Berlin, Hesse, Meck-
lenburg-Western Pomerania and Thuringia). Figures for Turkey relate to one major city in 
each of six regions (Adana, Ankara, Diyarbakir, Istanbul, Izmir and Samsun). Comparison 
between men and women in relation to use 40 or more times is limited because numbers are 
often too small to be statistically significant.

The complete report with details of the methodology can be found at:

http://ar2006.emcdda.europa.eu/en/home-en.html

Causes of death

Data on causes of death come from Eurostat’s database on health statistics and refer to the 
underlying cause which — according to the World Health Organisation — is ‘the disease or 
injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or the circum-
stances  of  the  accident  or  violence  which  produced  the  fatal  injury’.  Data  relate  to  crude 
death rates per 100 000 women/men in the selected age groups.

Causes  of  death  are  aggregated  from  the  65  causes  defined  in  the  ‘European  shortlist’  of 
causes of death. This shortlist is based on the international statistical classification of dis-
eases and related health problems.

Time use surveys

Data come from national time use surveys conducted from 1998 and 2004 in 14 EU Member 
States. A representative sample of individuals completed a diary for one weekday and one 
weekend day distributed over the whole year. The data are given in minutes per day. The av-
erage time covers all those sampled whether they performed the activity in question or not. 
In Sweden the data related to the age group 18-24 refer to 20-24.

The complete report with details of the methodology can be found at:

http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/dsis/tus/library?l=/comparable_statistics&vm=detailed&s
b=Title

Crime

Data come from the eighth United Nations survey on crime trends and the operations of 
criminal justice systems (2001-02). The survey consists of a series of questions designed to 
collect data on the main components of the criminal justice system for 2001-02. The statistics 
do not take account of the differences between the legal definitions of offences in various 
countries, the different recording methods, etc. Consequently, the figures cannot be used for 
comparisons across countries.

The complete report with details of the methodology can be found at:

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Sources and methodology

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_cicp_survey_eighth.html

Part 2

Employment patterns

Employment

The data come from the EU labour force survey (see above), employment — LFS adjusted 
series for 2000 and 2006. The LFS adjusted series are based on the quarterly results of the EU 
labour force survey. Main breaks in the series are corrected and missing values estimated 
where necessary.

Activity and occupational patterns

The analysis is based on the EU labour force survey (see above).

Sectors of activity are classified into the 62 divisions of the classification NACE Rev. 1.1 at 
2-digit level. Data for Luxembourg relate to 2004, for Poland, data for NACE at 2-digit level 
are only available from 2004 onwards.

Note that in 2000 there were no data for NACE codes 96 and 97. In 2005, data were recorded 
for  these  sectors  only  in  Hungary,  Bulgaria  and  Romania.  These  data  are  combined  with 
NACE code 95, which also relates to activities of households.

Data on occupations are classified according to ISCO-88 (international standard classifica-
tion of occupations) at 3-digit level.

Where there is a break in the series, the annual growth rate for consecutive years for which 
there is no break is retained and the growth rates of years for which data are non-comparable 
are discharged.

For small countries the data in 2005 may not be fully comparable with those in 2000 due 
to small sample size. In those cases, the annual growth rates may be subject to a significant 
margin of error.

Self-employed

The analysis is based on the EU labour force survey (see above).

Non-market services — these are the activities almost exclusively undertaken by non-mar-
ket producers, i.e. NACE Rev. 1.1, section L (public administration and defence, compulsory 
social security), section M (education, section N, health and social work) and section Q (ex-
tra-territorial organisations and bodies). These activities, in which there are relatively few 
self-employed, and even fewer entrepreneurs, are excluded from most of the analysis in order 
to improve comparability between Member States.

For the analysis of women and men managing companies, two occupational categories were 
distinguished in the International standard classification of occupations1988 (ISCO-COM 
1988):

•

•

121 directors and chief executives

131 managers of small enterprises.

The LFS data for a number of countries are affected by breaks in the series. In these cases, to 
allow for these breaks and improve comparability between the two years being compared, 
the figures have been adjusted by including only the changes between years for which the 
data are comparable and excluding those where they are not.

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Sources and methodology

For small countries the data in 2005 may not be fully comparable with those in 2000 due 
to small sample size. In those cases, the annual growth rates may be subject to a significant 
margin of error.

Women and men in decision-making positions

Data come from the European database on women and men in decision-making, established 
by  the  European  Commission  Directorate-General  for  Employment,  Social  Affairs  and 
Equal Opportunities.

Women and men in science

Data on women and men employed as science and engineering professionals come from the 
EU labour force survey for 2005 (see above). Data relate to number of employed persons in 
ISCO 21: physical, mathematical and engineering science professionals and ISCO 22: life sci-
ence and health professionals.

Data on researchers come from Eurostat’s research and development statistics. R & D data 
are built up using the guidelines laid out in the proposed standard practice for surveys of 
research and experimental development — Frascati manual, OECD, 2003.

The  main  breakdown  of  R & D  statistics  is  by  four  institutional  sectors  of  performance. 
These four sectors of performance are the business enterprise sector, the government sector, 
the higher education sector and the private non-profit sector.

The business enterprise sector includes (Frascati manual): all firms, organisations and in-
stitutions whose primary activity is the market production of goods or services (other than 
higher education) for sale to the general public at an economically significant price.

The private non-profit institutes mainly serving them.

The government sector includes (Frascati manual): all departments, offices and other bod-
ies, which furnish but normally do not sell to the community those common services, other 
than higher education, which cannot otherwise be conveniently and economically provided 
and administer the state and the economic and social policy of the community. (Public en-
terprises are included in the business enterprise sector.)

Non-profit institutes controlled and mainly financed by government.

The higher education sector is composed of (Frascati manual): all universities, colleges of 
technology  and  other  institutes  of  post-secondary  education,  whatever  their  source  of  fi-
nance or legal status. It also includes all research institutes, experimental stations and clinics 
operating under the direct control of or administered by or associated with higher education 
establishments.

Data on academic staff by gender come from Research DG database on women in science. 
The following lists the academic staff grades to which reference is made:

A: the single highest grade/post at which research is normally conducted;

B: researchers working in positions not as senior as top position (A) but more senior than 
newly qualified PhD holders;

C: the first grade/post into which a newly qualified PhD (ISCED 6) graduate would normally 
be recruited;

D: either postgraduate students not yet holding a PhD (ISCED 6) degree who are engaged as 
researchers, or researchers working in posts that do not normally require a PhD.

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Sources and methodology

Data are not necessarily comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and 
definitions.

Fixed-term jobs

The analysis is based on the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above).

Employees with fixed-term contracts are those in temporary jobs where the duration is lim-
ited to a specified period. The data for both 2000 and 2005 relate to the second quarter of the 
year. It should be noted that a comparison of the same quarter of different years understates 
the size of temporary employment in seasonal work, which has a length shorter than one full 
year.

Conscripts in military or community service are not included in the results.

Data for employees with fixed-term contracts in 2000 are not available for France, Malta, 
Poland, Bulgaria and Croatia. For Malta and Poland, 2001 data are used and for France, 2003 
data. These data are included in the EU-25 totals for 2000. A full set of data for employees 
with fixed-term contracts in 2005, including in particular the reasons for working in such 
jobs, are not available for Spain and Austria. In both cases, the breakdown by reason for 2004 
is applied to the 2005 data for the total employed on fixed-term contracts.

The comparison of the 2000 data with those for 2005 takes account of the breaks in the LFS 
series for a number of countries between these two years, due either to the transition to a 
quarterly continuous survey, census revisions or changes in the methods for defining the 
sample surveyed. The 2000 data have therefore been adjusted for Germany, Greece, Italy and 
Austria to make them more comparable with the 2005 data (specifically by estimating the 
annual growth rates only between the years for which the data are comparable).

For small countries, data may not be fully reliable due to small sample size, and it may also 
affect comparability in time.

Jobless households

Data come from the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above).

The indicator ‘Population in jobless households’ refers to:

•

•

for children, as a share of persons aged 0-17 who are living in households where no 
one works

for adults, as a share of persons aged 18-59 who are living in households where no 
one works. Students aged 18 -24 who live in households composed solely of students 
of the same age class are not counted in either numerator or denominator.

No  data  at  the  household  level  are  available  for  Sweden.  For  Ireland,  household  data  are 
available  only  from  1999;  for  Cyprus,  Malta  and  Bulgaria  from  2000;  Poland  from  2001, 
Denmark and Croatia from 2002 and Finland from 2003.

Comparability  of  results  between  countries  and  between  successive  surveys  are  affected 
by breaks in the series resulting from the transition to continuous survey, census revisions 
and implementation of new concepts. Data on population living in jobless households are 
not directly comparable with those for earlier years in Belgium (from 1999), Poland (1999 
— quarter 1), Bulgaria (from 2001), Latvia and Lithuania (from 2002), Romania (from 2002), 
Luxembourg (from 2003), Hungary (from 2003) and Austria (from 2004).

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Sources and methodology

Working hours and working arrangements

Data  on  working  arrangements  come  from  the  ad  hoc  module  on  work  organisation  and 
working  time  arrangements  included  in  the  EU  labour  force  survey  carried  out  in  2004. 
For a detailed evaluation of the ad hoc module see the publication, Eurostat (2006): ‘Final 
report of the task force for evaluating the 2004 LFS ad hoc module on work organisation and 
working time arrangements’, available in electronic format at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.
eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-CC-06-008/EN/KS-CC-06-008-EN.PDF

Four different types of working arrangements are considered:

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Fixed or staggered hours: fixed start and end of a working day; staggered working 
hours, banded start/end.

Working time banking: working time banking with possibility only to take hours 
off; working time banking with possibility to take full days off (besides taking hours 
off).

Flexible working time arrangements: start and end of working day varying by indi-
vidual agreement; determines own working schedule (no formal boundaries).

Other: other.

Data on working time come from the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above).

The number of hours usually worked per week covers all hours including extra hours, either 
paid or unpaid, which the person normally works, but excludes the travelling time between 
home and workplace and the time taken for the main meal break (usually at lunchtime) as 
well as time spent at college or in other special training centres.

Average hour results are computed as the mean of individual replies.

The  concept  of  Saturday  or  Sunday  working  is  interpreted  strictly  on  the  basis  of  formal 
agreements  concluded  with  the  employer.  Employees  taking  office  work  home  and/or  oc-
casionally working at the workplace on Saturday or Sunday are not generally included under 
this heading.

The possible categories of this variable, namely ‘usually’, ‘sometimes’ and ‘never’, should be 
understood as follows: ‘usually’ may be interpreted as meaning two or more Saturdays (or 
Sundays) during a four-week reference period before the interview, ‘sometimes’ as one Sat-
urday (or Sunday) in this period and ‘never’ as no Saturday (or Sunday) during the four-week 
reference period preceding the interview.

Risk of poverty and income inequality

For EU-25 countries data come from the 2005 EU-SILC (see above) and refer to income data 
2004, except for UK (income year 2005) and for IE (moving income reference period 2004-
05). Data for Bulgaria and Croatia come from the national household budget survey (HBS) 
2004 (income data 2004), for Romania from the national HBS 2005 (income data 2005) and 
for Turkey from the national household income, consumption and expenditure (HICE) sur-
vey  2004,  income  data  2004.  EU  aggregates  are  Eurostat  estimates  and  are  obtained  as  a 
population size weighted average of national data.

The ‘at-risk-of poverty rate’ (after social transfers) broken down by age and gender is calcu-
lated as the percentage of persons in each age group and gender (over the total population 
in the same age and gender group) with an equivalised disposable income below the ‘at-risk-
of-poverty threshold’. The at-risk-of-poverty threshold is set at 60 % of the national median 
equivalised disposable income.

20

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Sources and methodology

The total disposable income of a household is calculated by summing up the personal income 
components of all household members plus income received at household level (net or gross 
and deducting transfers where appropriate). An individual’s equivalised disposable income 
is then obtained by dividing the total disposable household income by the equivalent size 
of the household, taking account of the size and composition of the household in order to 
make income levels more comparable between households. The implicit assumption is that 
income within the household is divided evenly between members. It is therefore not possible 
to measure an individual’s risk of poverty but only that of the household. This should be 
borne in mind when interpreting the comparisons between women and men in the text.

Note that the figures are those collected in 2005 and relate to income over the preceding year 
— i.e. 2004 for most participant countries.

S80/S20 income quintile share ratio: Ratio of the sum of equivalised disposable income re-
ceived by the 20 % of the country’s population with the highest equivalised disposable in-
come (top inter-quintile interval) to that received by the 20 % of the country’s population 
with the lowest equivalised disposable income (lowest inter-quintile interval).

Earnings

Data on earnings come from structure of earnings survey conducted in 2002, which collect-
ed EU-wide harmonised data on gross earnings, hours paid and annual days of paid holiday 
leave. For Germany, the SES was carried out for 2001.

The reference month is October for the majority of the countries, this being the month which 
is least affected by absences owing to annual leave or public holidays.

Data relate to enterprises with at least 10 employees in the areas of economic activity defined 
by sections C-K of NACE Rev.1.1.

In order to make the information for all employees comparable, annual gross earnings data 
of part-time employees as well as those who did not work during the whole year have been 
adjusted to the situation of a full-time employee working the whole year. Employees who 
worked less than 30 weeks have been excluded from the calculation of the average gross an-
nual earnings.

Employees are all persons who a have a direct employment contract with the enterprise or lo-
cal unit and receive remuneration, irrespective of the type of work performed or the number 
of hours worked.

Gross earnings cover remuneration in cash paid directly by the employer, before deductions 
of tax and social security contributions. Gross monthly earnings are restricted to gross earn-
ings which are paid in each pay period. Gross hourly earnings are defined as gross monthly 
earnings divided by the number of hours paid in the same month. Hours paid cover normal 
and overtime hours. Hours not worked but nevertheless paid are also counted as hours paid. 
Examples are annual holidays or sick leave.

For the analysis of average hourly earnings by level of education, the following categories 
were distinguished in ISCED 1997:

Low: ISCED 0 to ISCED 2 pre-primary, primary and lower secondary education.

Medium: ISCED 3 and ISCED 4 upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary educa-
tion.

High: ISCED 5 and ISCED 6 tertiary education.

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Sources and methodology

Education

The analysis of women and men with tertiary education is based on the 2005 EU labour force 
survey (see above).

Three levels of educational attainment are distinguished: low (basic) — ISCED levels 0, 1, 
2 and 3c short; medium (upper secondary) — ISCED levels 3c long and 4 and high (terti-
ary) — ISCED levels 5 and 6.

The sectors of economic activity refer to the following NACE Rev. 1 sections:

•

•

•

•

•

Industry + agriculture: A-F (agriculture, fishing, mining and quarrying, manufac-
turing, electricity, gas and water supply and construction).

Business and financial services: J=K (financial intermediation and real estate, rent-
ing and business activities).

Public administration: L+Q (public administration, defence and compulsory social 
security and extra-territorial organisations).

Education and health: M+N (education and health and social work).

Other services: G-I, O+P (wholesale and retail distribution, hotels and restaurants, 
transport and communication, other community, social and personal service activi-
ties and private households with employed persons).

The analysis of women and men in non-formal education (continuing training) is based on 
the LFS ad hoc module 2003 on lifelong learning.

The module breaks down continuing lifelong learning into three categories: formal educa-
tion, non-formal education and training and informal learning. The focus in this publication 
is on non-formal education, i.e. courses, seminars, conferences or private lessons or instruc-
tions outside the regular education system.

Information society

The analysis is based on the results of the 2006 Community survey on ICT usage in house-
holds and by individuals.

See above: methodology on information society — part 1.

Health status

Data on self-perceived health, weight indicator and smoking behaviour come from health 
interview  surveys  (HIS).  The  HIS  data  are  collected  in  different  years  depending  on  the 
country, going from 1996 to 2003. The figures for age group 25-64 are estimates obtained as 
population sized weighted averages of the age groups: 25-34, 35-44, 45-54 and 55-64.

See above: methodology on health — part 1.

Self-perceived health is the auto-evaluation of the general health status by respondents using 
the following scale: ‘very good’, ‘good’, ‘fair’, ‘bad’ and ‘very bad’. In the analysis the catego-
ries ‘very good’ and ‘good’ are aggregated as well as ‘very bad’ and ‘bad’.

Data for UK refer to England only.

Causes of death

Data on causes of death come from Eurostat’s database on health statistics.

See above: methodology on causes of death — part 1.

22

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Sources and methodology

Crime

Data on persons convicted in criminal courts and admitted to prison come from the eighth 
United Nations survey on crime trends and the operations of criminal justice systems (2001-
02). See above (methodology on crime —part 1).

Data on the female prison population come from the International Centre for Prison Studies, 
world prison brief (WPB) database.

For more information on WPB database:

http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps/worldbrief/world_brief_background.html

Data on the percentage of women among suspected offenders come from the European sour-
cebook of crime and criminal justice statistics.

http://www.europeansourcebook.org

Data for the UK refer only to England and Wales.

The following definitions have been used:

Total criminal offences — all offences defined as criminal by any law, including traffic of-
fences (mostly dangerous and drunk driving). Offences processed directly by the police, such 
as minor traffic offences and certain breaches of public order, are not included. In Belgium, 
Bulgaria,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Luxembourg  and  Slovenia,  traffic  offences  are  not 
included at all. In Cyprus, Greece, Malta and Portugal, all (i.e. even minor) traffic offences 
are included. In Portugal and Sweden, public order offences are included.

Robbery — stealing from a person with force or threat of force. Where possible, the figures 
include: muggings (bag-snatching), theft with violence, but exclude: pickpocketing, extor-
tion, blackmail.

Theft — depriving a person/organisation of property without force with the intent to keep 
it. Where possible, the figures include: burglary, theft of motor vehicles, theft of other items, 
theft of small value items but exclude: embezzlement (including theft by employees), receiv-
ing/handling of stolen goods.

Drug offences (total) — possession, cultivation, production, sale, supplying, transportation, 
importation, exportation and financing of drug operations.

Time use

Data come from the time use survey. See above: methodology on time use — part 1.

Part 3

Demographic aspects

Numbers of 65 and over, life expectancy

Data on the relative number of those of 65 and over and on life expectancy come from Euro-
stat’s demographic statistics, as described above (see methodology on demographic aspects 
— part 1).

Data for France on life expectancy refer only to metropolitan France.

Life expectancy at a certain age is defined as the mean number of years still to be lived by 
a person who has reached that age, if throughout the rest of their life the current mortality 
conditions apply.

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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Sources and methodology

Disability-free life expectancy/healthy life years

Data on disability-free life expectancy come from Eurostat’s health statistics.

The healthy life years indicator measures the number of remaining years that a person of a 
specific age is still expected to live in a healthy condition. A healthy condition is defined as 
the absence of limitations in functioning/disability.

Health expectancies are calculated using the Sullivan method which combines information 
on  mortality  and  morbidity.  Information  on  mortality  is  taken  from  life  tables.  Informa-
tion on morbidity is based on prevalence measures, i.e. the age specific proportion of the 
population in healthy and unhealthy conditions. For the period 1995-2001, the European 
Community household panel was used for the most part, so referring to persons not limited 
in daily activities by any physical or mental health problem, illness or disability. From 2004 
onwards, the EU statistics on income and living conditions (EU-SILC) are used, in which an 
‘unhealthy’ condition is defined as the limitation in activities people usually do because of 
having health problems for at least the last six  months.

Data for France refer only to metropolitan France.

Household characteristics

Data on household composition come from the 2005 EU labour force survey (see above).

The following types of households are distinguished:

Living alone:

•

•

one adult without children,

one adult with at least: a son or daughter aged less than 15, or: another child aged less 
than 15; or: another child aged 15 to 24 (economically inactive).

Couple:

•

•

Other:

•

•

one couple without children,

one couple with at least: a son or daughter aged less than 15; or: another child aged 
less than 15; or: another child aged 15 to 24 (economically inactive).

two adults (not a couple) or more without children,

two adults (not a couple) or more with at least: a son or daughter aged less than 15; 
or: another child aged less than 15; or: another child aged 15 to 24 (economically 
inactive).

Poverty and relative income levels

Data  come  mainly  from  the  2005  EU-SILC  and  refer  to  income  received  in  2004  for  the 
majority of countries. See above: methodology on risk of poverty and income inequality — 
part 2.

Employment

Data on employment rates by age group, education level and number of hours worked come 
from the 2005 European labour force survey (see above).

In the analysis of employment rate by education level the following categories of ISCED 1997 
were distinguished in ISCED:

2

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Sources and methodology

Low: ISCED 1 and ISCED 2 primary and lower secondary education.

Medium: ISCED 3 and ISCED 4 upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary educa-
tion.

High: ISCED 5 and ISCED 6 tertiary education.

The analysis of usual hours worked per week is based only on hours worked in a person’s 
main job. Those working hours which vary from week to week are excluded.

Age of retirement

The effective age of retirement is estimated from the LFS data on employment status. It is 
calculated in each Member State as the age at which the proportion who are economically 
active (i.e. the activity rate) is 50 % of the proportion who are economically active at the age 
of 50. The implicit assumption is that they remain inactive from then on, which, of course, 
may not be the case for everyone in reality. The assumption is also that no one — or at least 
an insignificant number — retires before the age of 50 and that the activity rate at the age of 
50 in a given year is a reasonable indicator of the activity rate at that age of the cohort which 
is withdrawing from the labour force into retirement. The ‘economically active’ are defined 
as those in employment (working one hour a week or more) plus those who are not employed 
but available for work and actively seeking work. The age range of effective retirement is de-
fined as that spanning the age at which the activity rate is 80 % of the rate for those aged 50 
and the age at which it is 20 %.

The mean age of retirement is the result of a probabilistic model. This model first considers 
the probability of any individual to withdraw from the labour force at a certain age, then 
calculates the distribution of probabilities for all the age groups and finally calculates the 
expected value of the distribution. The probabilities of withdrawing from the labour force at 
each age are based on the relative changes of activity rates from one year to the next, calcu-
lated by age groups (for details of calculation, see the Eurostat website). The figures for this 
indicator are the same as the structural indicator ‘average age of exit from the labour force’ 
published on the Eurostat website:

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/por ta l/page?_pageid=1090,1& _dad=por ta l& _
schema=PORTAL

The official age of retirement is taken from Missoc (mutual information system on social 
protection) and relates to the position as at 1 January 2006. The official retirement age gen-
erally refers to the age at which women and men are eligible to draw a full old-age pension. 
In countries where women and men can officially retire over an age range, the mid-point 
is taken. In countries where the retirement age varies between sectors of activities or types 
of job, what seems to be the most common age is taken. In each case, the official age of re-
tirement shown here is intended to be indicative only and readers who wish to have more 
detailed information are referred to Missoc:

http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_protection/missoc_en.htm

Health

Data on self-perceived health, long-standing illness or health problem and smoking behav-
iour come from health interview surveys (HIS). The HIS data are collected in different years 
depending on the country, going from 1996 to 2003.

See above methodology on health — part 1 and part 2.

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Sources and methodology

Causes of death

Data on causes of death come from Eurostat’s database on health statistics.

See above: methodology on causes of death — part 1.

Time use

Data come from the time use survey. see above: methodology on time use — part 1.

Information society

The analysis is based on the results of the 2006 Community survey on ICT usage in house-
holds and by individuals.

See above: methodology on information society — part 1.

26

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List of figures and tables

List of figures and tables

List of figures 

Age pyramid in the EU-25, 1990 and 2005 ....................................................................... 15
1 
Age pyramid in the EU-25, 2005 and 2050 ....................................................................... 16
2 
Difference in male and female births, 1990 and 2005 ..................................................... 17
3 
Infant mortality rates among boys and girls, 1990 and 2005 ......................................... 18
4 
Difference in average age at first marriage of men and women, 1990 and 2003 .......... 19
5 
Difference in average age of mother at birth of first child, 1990 and 2003 ................... 20
6 
Total fertility rate, 1990 and 2005....................................................................................... 21
7 
8  Women and men aged 18-24 living in parental home, 2005 .......................................... 22
Household characteristics of women aged 18-24 not living in parental home,  
9 
2005 ......................................................................................................................................... 23
10  Household characteristics of men aged 18–24 not living in parental home, 2005 ...... 23
11  Women and men aged 25-29 living in parental home, 2005 .......................................... 24
12  Household characteristics of women aged 25-29 not living in parental home,  

2005 ......................................................................................................................................... 25
13  Household characteristics of men aged 25-29 not living in parental home, 2005 ....... 25
14  Median age at which young women leave the parental home, 1995 and 2005 ............. 26
15  Median age at which young men leave the parental home, 1995 and 2005 .................. 26
16  Age range at which women leave the parental home, 2005 ............................................ 27
17  Age range at which men leave the parental home, 2005 ................................................. 27
18  Mean score of student performance in mathematical ability, 2003 .............................. 29
19  Mean score of student performance in reading literacy, 2003 ....................................... 30
20  Mean score of student performance in scientific literacy, 2003 ..................................... 30
21  Women as a share of those aged 17-19 completing upper and post-secondary 

education, 2004 ..................................................................................................................... 32

22  Women as a share of those aged 20-22 completing upper and post-secondary 

education, 2004 ..................................................................................................................... 32

23  Young people aged 18-21 with less than upper secondary education and not in 

education or training, 2005 ................................................................................................. 33

24  Young people aged 22-24 with less than upper secondary education and not in 

25 

education or training, 2005 ................................................................................................. 33
Enrolments of women and men in the first stage of tertiary education, 1997/98  
and 2003/04 ............................................................................................................................ 35

26  Enrolments of women and men in the second stage of tertiary education,  

1997/1998 and 2003/04 ......................................................................................................... 35

27  Graduations of women and men in the first stage of tertiary education by field of 

education in the EU-25, 1998 and 2004 ............................................................................. 36

28  Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in engineering, 

manufacturing and construction, 1998 and 2004 ............................................................ 37

29  Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in science,  

mathematics and computing, 1998 and 2004 ................................................................... 37

30  Graduations of women in the first stage of tertiary education in business and 

administration, 1998 and 2004 ........................................................................................... 38
Proportion of female teachers, 2004 .................................................................................. 39

31 
32  Women and men having used a computer on average once a day or almost every  

day in the last three months, 2006 .....................................................................................40

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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List of figures and tables

33  Women and men having used Internet on average once a day or almost every day  

in the last three months, 2006 .............................................................................................40
34  Distribution of young women aged 15-24 according to the body mass index, 2004 .. 43
35  Distribution of young men aged 15-24 according to the body mass index, 2004 ....... 43
36  Crude death rates of young women and men aged 15-24, by cause, 2005 ....................44
Proportion of young women and men aged 15-24 who smoke, 2004 ...........................46
37 
38  Use of cannabis among students aged 15-16, 2003 .......................................................... 47
39  How do young women and men aged 15-24 spend their time .......................................48
Juveniles convicted in criminal courts, 2002 .................................................................... 50
40 
41  Convicted juveniles admitted to prisons, 2002 ................................................................ 50
42  Employment rate of women and men aged 15-64, 2006 ................................................. 53
43  Changes in employment rate of women and men aged 15-64, 2000-06 .......................54
44  Women as a share of total employed aged 15-64, 2006 ...................................................54
45  Concentration of women and men in employment by NACE 2-digit sector in the  

EU-25, 2005 ............................................................................................................................ 55
Share of women and men in work employed in top 6 sectors, 2005 .............................. 57
46 
47  Women as a share of total employed in health and social work, 2005 .......................... 57
48  Change in share of women and men employed in top 6 sectors, 2000-2005 ............... 58
49  Concentration of women and men in employment by ISCO 3-digit occupation in  

50 

the EU-25, 2005 ..................................................................................................................... 59
Share of employment of women and men in top six occupations (ISCO 3-digit),  
2005 .........................................................................................................................................60
51  Women and men employed in computing occupations, 2006 ....................................... 61
52  Change in share of women and men employed in computing jobs, 2001-06 ............... 61
Share of women and men aged under 40 employed in computing jobs, 2006 ............. 62
53 
54  Division between sectors of activity of women and men employed in computing  

jobs in the EU-25, 2006 ........................................................................................................ 63
55  Women and men self-employed in industry and market services, 2005 ...................... 63
Percentage point difference in the proportion of men and women self-employed  
56 
with employees in industry and market services, 2000 and 2005 .................................64

57  Distribution of self-employed with employees by sector in the EU-25, 2000 and  

2005 .........................................................................................................................................64
58  Women and men self-employed with employees by sector in the EU-25, 2005 .......... 65
59  Women and men managing companies, 2005..................................................................66
60  Women as a share of members of parliament, 2006 ........................................................ 67
61  Women as a share of senior government ministers, 2006 ............................................... 68
62  Women as a share of junior government ministers, 2006 ............................................... 68
63  Women as a share of senior civil servants, 2006 .............................................................. 69
Share of women members of supreme courts, 2006 ........................................................ 70
64 
Share of men on central bank boards, 2006 ...................................................................... 71
65 
66  Women as a share of presidents or chairpersons of the largest 50 national  

enterprises, 2006 ................................................................................................................... 72

67  Women as a share of management board members of the largest 50 national 

enterprises, 2006 ................................................................................................................... 72

68  Women, aged 25-64, employed as physical, mathematical and engineering science 

professionals, 2005 ................................................................................................................ 73

69  Men, aged 25-64, employed as physical, mathematical and engineering science 

professionals, 2005 ................................................................................................................ 73
70  Women, aged 25-64, employed in life science and health professions, 2005 ............... 74
71  Men, aged 25-64, employed in life science and health professions, 2005 ..................... 74
72  Women as a share of researchers in business enterprises, 2004 ..................................... 75

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List of figures and tables

73  Women as a share of researchers in the government sector, 2004 ................................. 75
74  Women as a share of researchers in higher education, 2004 .......................................... 76
75  Women in senior positions in academic institutions, 2004 ............................................ 76
76  Women in second level posts in academics institutions, 2004 ....................................... 77
77  Women in third level posts in academics institutions, 2004 .......................................... 77
78  Women in junior posts in academic institutions, 2004................................................... 77
Proportion of women and men employed on fixed-term contracts, 2005 .................... 78
79 
80  Change in share of women and men employees working in fixed-term jobs 

involuntarily, 2000-05 .......................................................................................................... 79

81  The proportion of women and men under 30 employed on fixed-term contracts,  

2005 .........................................................................................................................................80

82  Women and men employed in fixed-term jobs involuntarily by occupation in the  

EU-25, 2000 and 2005 .......................................................................................................... 81

83  Women and men employed involuntarily on fixed-term contracts by contract  

duration, 2005 ....................................................................................................................... 81
84  Proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living in jobless households, 2005 ........... 82
Proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living in one adult household, 2005 ........ 83
85 
86  Composition of jobless households in which women and men live, 2005 .................... 83
Percentage point change in the proportion of women and men aged 18-59 living  
87 
in jobless households, 1998-2005 ........................................................................................84
88  Women and men aged 25-54 in employment by number of hours worked, 2005.......84
Share of women and men employees working on Saturdays, 2005 ............................... 85
89 
Share of women and men employees working on Sundays, 2005 .................................. 86
90 
Share of women and men employees usually working both Saturdays and Sundays, 
91 
2005 ......................................................................................................................................... 87
Share of women and men self-employed usually working on Saturdays, 2005 ........... 88
92 
Share of women and men self-employed usually working on Sundays, 2005 .............. 88
93 
94  Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49, 2004 .......... 89
95  Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49 by  

economic activity in the EU, 2004 ......................................................................................90
96  Proportion of lone parents at risk of poverty, 2005 ......................................................... 91
Proportion of lone parents at risk of poverty, 2005 ......................................................... 92
97 
Income of top 20 % of recipients relative to bottom 20 %, those aged under 65,  
98 
2005 ......................................................................................................................................... 92
99  Pay gap between men and women, 2005 ........................................................................... 93
100  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by age group, 2002 ....................... 94
101  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men’s by length of service, 2002 ......... 95
102  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men’s by occupation in the EU-25,  

2002 ......................................................................................................................................... 96

103  Average hourly earnings of women employed as managers relative to that of their  

male counterparts, 2002 ...................................................................................................... 96
104  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men’s by education level, 2002............ 97
105  Difference in average hourly earnings of women and men with tertiary education  

from those of men with upper secondary education, 2002 ............................................ 98
106  Division of women aged 30-34 and 50-54 by educational attainment level, 2005 ......99
107  Division of men aged 30-34 and 50-54 by educational attainment level, 2005 ......... 100
108  Employment rates of women and men, aged 25-64, with tertiary education, 2005 .. 101
109  Employment rates of women and men, aged 25-64, with only basic schooling,  

2005 ....................................................................................................................................... 101

110  Women and men aged 25-64 with tertiary education in the EU-27 by sector of  

activity, 2005 ........................................................................................................................ 102

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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List of figures and tables

111  Participation of women and men aged 25-64 in employment in continuing  

training, 2003 ...................................................................................................................... 103

112  Participation of women and men with tertiary education in continuing training,  

2003 ....................................................................................................................................... 104

113  Women and men having used a computer on average every day or almost every  

day in the last three months, 2006 ................................................................................... 105

114  Women and men having used the Internet on average every day or almost every  

day in the last three months, 2006 ................................................................................... 105
115  Women and men aged 25-54 assessed to have high computer skills, 2006 ................ 106
116  Women and men aged 25-54 assessed to have high Internet skills, 2006 .................. 106
117  Self-perception of health of women and men aged 25-64, 2004 .................................. 107
118  Women and men aged 25-64, measured as being overweight, 2004 ........................... 108
119  Women and men aged 25-64 smoking cigarettes daily, 2004 ...................................... 109
120  Crude death rates of young women and men aged 25-64, by cause, 2005 ................. 110
121  Time spent by women and men, aged 25-44, on paid work and unpaid domestic  

work ...................................................................................................................................... 111
122  Time spent by women and men, aged 25-44, on leisure activities ............................... 112
123  Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Total criminal offences,  

2003 ....................................................................................................................................... 113
124  Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Theft, 2003 ............................... 114
125  Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Robbery, 2003.......................... 114
126  Percentage of females among suspected offenders — Drug offences, 2003 ................ 115
127  Adults convicted in criminal courts, 2002 ...................................................................... 115
128  Female prison population on a selected day in 2006 ..................................................... 116
129  Relative numbers of women and men aged 65 and over, 2005 ..................................... 119
130  Relative numbers of women and men aged over 75 and 85, 2005 ................................120
131  Difference in life expectancy of women and men at age 65, 1990 and 2005 ..............120
132  Difference in life expectancy of women and men at age 75, 1990 and 2005 .............. 121
133  Disability-free life expectancy of women and men at age 65, 2003 .............................122
134  Women and men aged 65-74 by type of household, 2005 ............................................. 123
135  Proportion of women and men aged 65-74 living with their children, 2005 ............. 123
136  Women and men aged 75 and over by type of household, 2005 ..................................124
137  Proportion of women and men aged over 75 living with their children, 2005 .......... 125
138  Proportion of women and men aged 65 and over at risk of poverty, 2005 .................126
Income of top 20 % of recipients relative to bottom 20 %, those aged over 65,  
139 
2005 ....................................................................................................................................... 127
140  Employment rate of women and men aged 55-59, 2005 ................................................ 129
141  Employment rate of women and men aged 60-64, 2005 ............................................... 130
142  Employment rate of women and men aged 65-69, 2005 ............................................... 131
143  Employment rate of women aged 55-59 by education level, 2005................................ 132
144  Employment rate of men aged 55-59 by education level, 2005 ..................................... 132
145  Employment rate of women aged 60-64 by education level, 2005 ............................... 133
146  Employment rate of men aged 60-64 by education level, 2005 ....................................134
147  Employed women and men aged 55-59 by groups of hours usually worked per  

week, 2005 ............................................................................................................................ 135

148  Employed women and men aged 60-64 by groups of hours usually worked per  

week, 2005 ............................................................................................................................ 136
149  Effective age of retirement of women and men, 2005 .................................................... 137
150  Official and effective age of retirement of women, 2005 ............................................... 138
151  Official and effective age of retirement of men, 2005 .................................................... 138
152  Effective age range of retirement of women, 2005 ......................................................... 139

20

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List of figures and tables

153  Effective age range of retirement of men, 2005 .............................................................. 139
154  Self-perceived health status of women and men aged 65-74, 2004 .............................. 141
155  Self-perceived health status of women and men aged 75-84, 2004.............................. 142
156  Women and men aged 65-74 having long-standing illness or health problems,  

2004 ....................................................................................................................................... 143
157  Women and men aged 65-74 smoking cigarettes, 2004 ................................................ 144
158  How do women and men aged 65 and over spend their time ...................................... 146
159  Women and men aged 55-74 having used a computer on average once a day or  

almost every day in the last three months, 2006 ............................................................ 148

160  Women and men aged 55-74 having used the Internet on average once a day or  

almost every day in the last three months, 2006 ............................................................ 149
161  Women and men aged 55-74 assessed to have high computer skills, 2006 ................ 149

List of tables

A.1  Age pyramid, 1990, 2005, 2025 and 2050 ........................................................................ 153
A.2  Live female and male births, 1990 and 2005 ...................................................................154
A.3  Population structure by age group, 1990 and 2005 ........................................................154
Infant mortality rates, 1990 and 2005 .............................................................................. 155
A.4 
A.5  Mortality rates by age group, 2005 ................................................................................... 155
A.6  Average age at first marriage of women and men, 1990 and 2003 ............................... 155
A.7  Average age of mother at birth of first child, 1990-2003 ............................................... 155
A.8  Fertility rates, 1990 and 2005 ............................................................................................ 156
A.9  Young people living with their parents, 2005 ................................................................. 156
A.10  Household status of young women not living in the parental home, 2005 ................ 156
A.11  Household status of young men not living in the parental home, 2005 ..................... 157
A.12  Median age of young people leaving home, 1995 and 2005 .......................................... 157
A.13  Age range at which the population has left the parental household, 2005 ................. 157
A.14  Relative student performance in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy,  

2003 ....................................................................................................................................... 158

A.15  Percentage of students with low performance in reading, mathematical and  

scientific literacy, 2003 ....................................................................................................... 158

A.16  Graduations in upper and post-secondary non tertiary education (ISCED 3+4)  

of women and men, 2004 ................................................................................................... 159
A.17  Early school leavers, 2005 .................................................................................................. 159
A.18  Enrolments (1997/98 and 2003/04) and graduations (1998 and 2004) of women  

and men in the first stage of tertiary education (ISCED 5) .......................................... 160

A.19  Enrolments (1997/98 and 2003/04) and graduations (1998 and 2004) of women  

and men in the second stage of tertiary education (ISCED 6) ..................................... 160

A.20  Graduations of women and men in the first stage of tertiary education (ISCED 5)  

by field, 1998 and 2004 ....................................................................................................... 161
A.21  Proportion of female teachers in different levels of education, 2004 .......................... 163
A.22  Proportion of young women and men aged 16-24 who used a computer and the 
Internet on average once a day or at least once a week in the last three months,  
2006 ....................................................................................................................................... 163

A.23  Internet activities of young women and men aged 16-24 in the last three months, 

2006 ....................................................................................................................................... 164

A.24  Proportion of young women and men aged 16-24 and level of basic computer  

skills, 2006............................................................................................................................ 165

A.25  Distribution of young women and men aged 15-24 according to the body mass  

index (BMI), 2004 ............................................................................................................... 165
A.26  Crude death rates by causes of young women and men aged 15-24, 2005 ................. 166

  Women and men in Europe 2007

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List of figures and tables

A.27  Young women and men aged 15-24 and smoking, 2004 ............................................... 167
A.28  Use of cannabis among students aged 15-16, 2003 ........................................................ 167
A.29  Time use of women and men aged 15-24, period 1998-2004 ....................................... 168
A.30  Participation of young people in crime, 2002 ................................................................. 169
A.31  Employment rate of women and men aged 15-64, 2000 and 2006 .............................. 169
A.32  Women as a share of total employed aged 15-64, 2000 and 2006 ................................ 169
A.33  Distribution of employment in the main NACE 2-digit sectors, 2000 and 2005 ...... 170
A.34  The largest sectors employing women and men, 2005 .................................................. 172
A.35  Distribution of employment in the main ISCO 3-digit occupations, 2005 ................ 173
A.36  Employment in computing activities by sex, 2001 and 2006........................................ 174
A.37  Employment in computing activities by sex and age, 2006 .......................................... 174
A.38  Employment in computing activities by sex and sector of activity in the EU-25 ...... 175
A.39  Women and men self-employed in industry and market services, 2005 .................... 175
A.40  Distribution of employees and self-employed with employees by sector, 2000 and 

2005 ....................................................................................................................................... 176
A.41  Women and men self-employed with employees by sector, 2000 and 2005 ............... 178
A.42  Proportion of women and men employed as heads of businesses, 2000-2005 .......... 180
A.43  Heads of businesses. Share of men as a ratio of share of women, 2000 and 2005 ..... 180
A.44  Women and men in decision-making positions, 2006 .................................................. 181
A.45  Scientists and engineers aged 25-64 as a % of total employed, 2005 ........................... 184
A.46  Number of female researchers by sector as a % of total, 2004 ...................................... 184
A.47  Female academic staff as a % of total by grade, 2004..................................................... 184
A.48  Involuntarily fixed-term contracts of employment and Total fixed-term  

contracts, 2000 and 2005 ................................................................................................... 185

A.49  Proportion of women and men under 30 employed on fixed-term contracts,  

2005 ....................................................................................................................................... 185

A.50  Women and men employed involuntarily in fixed-term jobs by occupation in  

the EU-25, 2000 and 2005 .................................................................................................. 186

A.51  Distribution of employment on involuntarily fixed-term contracts by duration  

of contract, 2005 .................................................................................................................. 186
A.52  Proportion of women and men, aged 18-59, living in jobless households, 2005 ....... 187
A.53  Proportion of women and men, aged 18-59, living in one adult households, 2005 .. 187
A.54  Proportion of women and men, aged 18-59, living in different types of jobless 

households, 2005 ................................................................................................................. 188

A.55  Change in the proportion of women and men, aged 18-59, living in jobless 

households, 1998-2005 ....................................................................................................... 188
A.56  Division of hours worked by women and men aged 25-54, 2005 ................................ 189
A.57  Share of employees working on Saturdays and Sundays, 2005 .................................... 189
A.58  Share of self-employed working on Saturdays and Sundays, 2005 ..............................190
A.59  Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49, 2004 ........ 191
A.60  Working time arrangements of women and men employees aged 25-49 by  

household circumstances, 2004 ........................................................................................ 192

A.61  Flexible working time arrangements and working time banking of women and  

men employees aged 25-49 by sector, 2004 ..................................................................... 194
A.62  Proportion of people living alone with a dependent child at risk of poverty, 2005 .. 195
A.63  Proportion of women and men at risk of poverty, 2005 ................................................ 195
A.64  Inequality of income distribution..................................................................................... 195
A.65  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by age, 2002 ................................ 196
A.66  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by length of service, 2002 ......... 196
A.67  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by occupation, 2002 .................. 196
A.68  Average hourly earnings of women relative to men by education level, 2002 ............ 196

22

Women and men in Europe 2007 

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List of figures and tables

A.69  Education attainment level of women and men by age group, 2005 ........................... 197
A.70  Employment rates of women and men, aged 25-64, by educational attainment  

level, 2005 ............................................................................................................................. 198

A.71  Employment of women and men, aged 25-64 with tertiary education, by sector  

of activity, 2005 ................................................................................................................... 198

A.72  Women and men aged 25-64 and in employment participating in non-formal 

training, 2003 ...................................................................................................................... 199

A.73  Proportion of women and men, aged 25-54, who used a computer on average  

once a day or at least once a week in the last three months, 2006 ...............................200

A.74  Percentage of women and men, aged 25-54, who used the Internet on average  

once a day or at least once a week in the last three months, 2006 ...............................200

A.75  Proportion of women and men aged 25-54 by level of computer and Internet  

skills, 2006............................................................................................................................200
A.76  Self perceived health of women and men aged 25-64, 2004 ......................................... 201
A.77  Distribution of women and men aged 25-64 according to the body mass index  

(BMI), 2004 .......................................................................................................................... 201
A.78  Proportion of women and men aged 25-64 smoking, 2004 ......................................... 201
A.79  Proportion women and men aged 25-64 smoking 20 or more cigarettes a day,  

2004 .......................................................................................................................................202
A.80  Crude death rates by causes of women and men aged 25-64, 2005 .............................202
A.81  Time use of women and men aged 25-44, period 1998-2004 .......................................203
A.82  Participation of adults in crime ........................................................................................204
A.83  Relative number of women and men aged 65 and over, 2005 ......................................205
A.84  Life expectancy of women and men at age 65, 75 and 85, 1990 and 2005 ..................205
A.85  Disability-free life expectancy at age 65, 2003 ................................................................205
A.86  Women and men aged 65-74 and over 75 by type of household, 2005........................206
A.87  Proportion of women and men aged 65-74 and over 75 living in the same  

household with their children, 2005 ................................................................................206
A.88  Proportion of women and men aged 65 and over at risk of poverty, 2005 .................207
A.89  Inequality of income distribution.....................................................................................207
A.90  Employment rate of women and men aged 55-64, 55-59, 60-64, 65-69, 2005 ...........207
A.91  Employment rate of women and men aged 55-59, 60-64, 65-69 by education  

level, 2005 .............................................................................................................................208

A.92  Women and men aged 50-54, 55-59, 60-64 and 65-69 in employment by hours 

worked, 2005 ........................................................................................................................209
A.93  Official, effective and mean age of retirement, 2005 ...................................................... 210
A.94  Self perceived health of women and men aged 65-74, 75-84, and 85+, 2004 ............. 210
A.95  Women and men aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85+ having long-standing illness or  

health problem, 2004 .......................................................................................................... 211

A.96  Proportion of women and men aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85+ smoking cigarettes,  

2004 ....................................................................................................................................... 211
A.97  Crude death rates by causes of women and men aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85+, 2005 .. 212
A.98  Time use of women and men aged over 65, period 1998-2004 .................................... 216
A.99  Proportion of women and men aged 55-74 who used a computer and the Internet  

on average once a day or at least once a week in the last three months, 2006............ 217

A.100 Proportion of women and men aged 55-74 and level of basic computer skills,  

2006 ....................................................................................................................................... 217

  Women and men in Europe 2007

2

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European Commission

The life of women and men in Europe – A statistical portrait

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 — 243 pp. — 21 x 29.7 cm

ISBN 978-92-79-07069-3

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 30

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