Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Equality between women and men — 2008
Date: 2008-01-23
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: activity report, gender equality

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 23.1.2008 
COM(2008) 10 final 

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND 
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Equality between women and men — 2008 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. 

2. 

2.1. 

2.2. 

3. 

3.1. 

3.2. 

3.3. 

3.4. 

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3 

Main developments ...................................................................................................... 3 

Gender gaps.................................................................................................................. 3 

Policy and legislative developments ............................................................................ 5 

Challenges and policy orientations .............................................................................. 6 

Quality jobs to foster equal economic independence................................................... 6 

Quality services making for reconciliation of work and private life ........................... 7 

Tackling stereotypes, support for individual choices................................................... 8 

Institutional mechanisms in support of political commitments and implementation of 
legislation ..................................................................................................................... 8 

4. 

Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 9 

ANNEX.................................................................................................................................... 10 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

Equality between women and men is one of the fundamental values of the European 
Union.  Through  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Community  and  Member  States,  the 
situation  of  men  and  women  in  Europe  has  been  genuinely  transformed  in  many 
fields. For example, female participation in employment has steadily increased, and 
women  today  have  a  higher  level  of  education  than  men.  Nevertheless,  major 
challenges remain. In particular, although there is no doubting progress in terms of 
quantity, efforts are still needed to boost the qualitative aspect of equality. This is the 
principal message highlighted in the report. 

The year 2007 saw the implementation of a large number of measures announced in 
the European Commission's Roadmap for Equality between Women and Men and the 
European Council's Pact for Gender Equality in 2006. All these measures converge 
towards  the  objective  of  achieving  effective  equality  between  women  and  men  by 
acting  on  both  quantity  and  quality  aspects.  The  Commission  has  also  made  a 
contribution  towards  creating  common  flexicurity  principles1,  so  as  to  promote  the 
creation of more and better jobs. 2007 was also marked by several celebrations and 
important events for gender equality policy: the 50th anniversary of European gender 
equality  policy;  the  European  Year  of  Equal  Opportunities  for  All;  the  tenth 
anniversary  of  the  signing  of  the  Amsterdam  Treaty,  the  basis  for  the  European 
Employment Strategy and for gender mainstreaming in Community policies. 

This  fifth  annual  report  on  equality  between  women  and  men,  produced  in 
collaboration  with  the  Member  States  at  the  request  of  the  European  Council  of 
Heads of State and Government, is the first to cover the enlarged European Union of 
27 Member States, the increased diversity of which is likely to raise new challenges 
for  equality  policies.  However,  enlargement  testifies  to  the  new  Member  States’ 
embracing  of  the  European  Union’s  fundamental  values  and  their  commitment  to 
pursuing  its  fundamental  tasks,  which  include  achieving  equality  between  women 
and men. 

2. 

MAIN DEVELOPMENTS 

2.1. 

Gender gaps 

“More  and  better  jobs”  is  a  strategic  objective  which  is  at  the  heart  of  the  Lisbon 
agenda for growth and jobs. Although over the last ten years progress has been made 
in female employment in terms of quantity, further efforts will be needed in order to 
improve the quality aspect. 

Female employment has been the main factor in the steady growth of employment in 
the  EU  in  recent  years.  Between  2000  and  2006  employment  in  EU-27  grew  by 
nearly 12 million, including more than 7.5 million women. The female employment 
rate went up each year, reaching 57.2% in 2006, 3.5 percentage points more than in 
2000, bringing the objective of 60% by 2010 within reach. During the same period 

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COM(2007) 359. 

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the male employment rate rose by less than one point. Among workers over the age 
of 55, the female employment rate also increased more than the male rate, reaching 
34.8%, a 7.4 point increase on 2000. At the same time the unemployment rate for 
women fell to 9%, its lowest level for ten years. 

This positive trend has resulted in a significant narrowing of the employment rate 
gap between women and men, which fell from 17.1 points in 2000 to 14.4 points in 
2006.  However,  the  very  fact  that  there  is  still  a  gap,  also  among  young  people 
(6 points  for  the  age  group  15-24)  raises  questions,  particularly  as  young  women 
have  better  success  rates  at  school  and  university.  Furthermore,  the  gap  seems  to 
grow wider with age, culminating at 17.8 points for the over-55s. 

Several  aspects  of  the  quality  of  women’s  work  remain  problematic.  Equality 
between  women  and  men  is  one  of  the  work  quality  dimensions  identified  by  the 
Commission2. The indicators for pay, labour market segregation and the number of 
women in decision-making jobs have not shown any significant increase for several 
years.  The  pay  gap  has  remained  steady  at  15%  since  2003,  and  has  narrowed  by 
only one point since 2000. Sectoral and occupational segregation by gender is not 
diminishing and is even increasing in certain countries, a sign that women who have 
recently  joined  the  labour  market  have  gone  into  sectors  and  occupations  already 
dominated by women. The presence of female managers in companies has stayed at 
33%, and the number of female politicians is rising only very slowly (only 23% of 
national MPs and 33% of MEPs are women). 

Furthermore, gaps between women and men may persist in all other aspects of work 
quality, e.g. reconciling professional and private life, working arrangements which 
do  not  fully  exploit  people’s  skills  and  in  the  field  of  health  and  safety  at  work. 
Evidence  of  this  is  the  sharp  fall  in  the  employment  rate  for  women  with  young 
children (-13.6 points on average), while the rate for men is rising. As a result, the 
employment rate for women with dependent children is only 62.4%, compared with 
91.4%  for  men,  a  difference  of  29  points.  More  than  three-quarters  of  part-time 
workers  are  women  (76.5%),  corresponding  to  one  woman  in  three,  as  against  less 
than  one  man  in  ten.  Temporary  employment  contracts  are  also  more  common  for 
women (15.1%, one point more than for men). 

In other words, it would appear that the substantial efforts made in connection with 
the European Strategy for Growth and Jobs with a view to creating more and better 
jobs for women have proved more successful in terms of quantity than quality. 

Gaps also remain on the social side which may reflect the gaps on the labour market. 
For  example,  long-term  unemployment  is  still  much  more  common  among  women 
(4.5%)  than  men  (3.5%).  Women’s  shorter,  slower  and  less  well-paid  careers  also 
have an impact on their risk of falling into poverty, especially for the over-65s (21%, 
or 5 points more than men). 

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COM(2001) 313. 

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2.2. 

Policy and legislative developments 

The  Roadmap  for  Equality  between  Women  and  Men3  has  given  new  impetus  to 
Community  policy  in  this  area.  The  Commission  follows  up  the  achievements  and 
forecasts for measures under the Roadmap in a detailed annual work programme4, 
in  which  it  is  noted  that  substantial  progress  has  been  made  in  terms  of  gender 
mainstreaming  in  EU  policies,  especially  in  the  fields  identified  as  priorities  in  the 
Roadmap. 

The reconciliation of professional, private and family life is a key aspect of equality 
between women and men and one of the Roadmap’s priority action areas. It is also 
an essential factor in work quality. At the end of 2006 the Commission launched a 
formal  consultation  of  the  social  partners5  at  European  level  on  the  possible 
approach  of  Community  action  in  this  field  with  a  view  to  improving  or 
supplementing  the  existing  framework.  The  consultation  found  that  the  social 
partners agreed on the need to act, especially to encourage men to take more part in 
family life. Therefore, on 30 May 2007, the Commission launched the second phase6 
of the consultation, concerning the content of possible proposals in this field. These 
proposals  covered  improvements  to  the  legal  provisions  on  maternity  and  parental 
leave,  the  introduction  of  new  types  of  leave  (paternity  leave,  adoption  leave  and 
leave  to  care  for  dependent  family  members),  and  other  non-legislative  measures. 
After  analysing  the  replies  the  Commission  will  be  able,  if  appropriate,  to  table 
proposals  to  improve  the  present  legislative  framework,  taking  account  of  the 
opening of any negotiations between social partners and the results of the necessary 
impact analyses. 

The Commission has also given its support7 to the European Alliance for Families 
proposed  by  the  Spring  European  Council,  which  will  provide  a  platform  for 
exchanges  and  knowledge  concerning  pro-family  policies  and  best  practices  in  the 
Member States, with a view to meeting the challenge of demographic change. 

Legislation has always played a central role in progress towards equality for women 
and men. As regards equal treatment legislation, the infringement proceedings for 
failure  to  transpose  Directive  2002/738  have  been  wound  up,  except  in  one  case 
where  the  Directive  has  only  partially  been  transposed.  The  conformity  of  the 
national  implementing  measures  is  now  being  analysed.  The  first  stage  of  the 
procedure  under  Article  226  EC  was  launched  in  2007.  Verification  of  the 
conformity of national legislation will continue in 2008. 

Despite  some  progress,  substantial  gaps  remain  between  women  and  men  on  the 
the  objective  of  equal  economic 
labour  market,  constituting  obstacles 

to 

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COM(2006) 92. 
SEC(2007) 537. 
SEC(2006) 1245. 
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_dialogue/consultations_en.htm 
COM(2007) 244. 
Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 2002 amending 
Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and 
women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions. 

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independence.  In  particular,  in  a  Communication  adopted  on  18 July  20079,  the 
Commission  demonstrated  its  full  commitment  to  tackling  the  pay  gap  between 
women and  men. The idea is to improve the capacity to analyse the phenomenon, 
which remains complex and poorly understood, so as to develop targeted approaches 
and identify possible improvements to the existing legislative framework. Concerted 
action,  especially  in  the  context  of  the  new  cycle  of  the  European  Strategy  for 
Growth  and  Jobs  and  common  principles  of  flexicurity10,  will  also  be  necessary  in 
order to close the gaps which remain on the labour market. 

The establishing of the European Institute for Gender Equality has made progress 
with the active support of the Commission. The appointment of the members of the 
Management  Board11  has  provided  the  Institute  with  a  decision-making  body.  The 
Institute will be required to provide substantial technical support in relation to gender 
equality policies. 

3. 

CHALLENGES AND POLICY ORIENTATIONS 

Under the European Strategy for Growth and Jobs, improving the quality of work is 
of  particular  importance  both  for  the  well-being  of  workers  and  for  boosting 
productivity and employment. The cycle which has now ended was characterised by 
a steady increase in the female employment rate, but less progress was made on the 
quality  side.  Gender  gaps  remain  wide,  especially  differences 
in  working 
arrangements  between  women  and  men  (for  example  the  use  of  part-time 
employment  and  fixed-term  contracts,  or  lower-quality  jobs  with  less  pay), 
horizontal and vertical labour market segregation remains and is even increasing in 
certain countries, and the pay gap is not getting any narrower. 

More efforts need to be made to create more and better jobs, taking account of the 
importance  of  a  flexicurity  approach  and  bearing  in  mind  the  differing  impact  of 
employment  policies  on  women  and  men  during their lifetime. This  approach  must 
cover  both  the  intrinsic  quality  of  work  and  all  the  aspects  affecting  it,  such  as  the 
development  of  infrastructures  to  allow  everyone  to  enter  and  remain  in  the  labour 
market, or the possibility for individuals to achieve their professional ambitions and 
personal  choices  outside  all  the  stereotypes.  It  is  also  essential  to  create  the 
institutional tools needed to ensure good governance and effective implementation of 
political commitments. 

3.1. 

Quality jobs to foster equal economic independence 

The creation of more jobs must go hand in hand with an improvement in quality12. 
Quality jobs attract workers and allow them to fully exploit their productive potential 
and  contribute  to  improving  the  quality  of  life  in  society  as  a  whole.  Equality 
between women and men is an essential quality component of work. The idea is both 
to  eliminate  gaps  which  remain  in  the  labour  market  and  to  address  all  aspects  of 

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COM(2007) 424. 
COM(2007) 359. 
Decision of the Council of 30.05.2007 (2007/C 128/02) and of the Commission of 30.04.2007. 
An  issue  emphasised  at  the  informal  meeting  of  ministers  responsible  for  equality  issues  in  October 
2007 under the Portuguese Presidency of the Council. 

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quality  taking  account  of  gender,  also  in  connection  with  questions  of  health  and 
well-being at work. 

•  The efforts directed at eliminating gender gaps in employment must be continued 
and intensified as part of the new cycle of the European Strategy for Growth and 
Jobs,  so  as  to  significantly  narrow  the  gaps  in  terms  of  employment, 
unemployment and pay, as well as tackling labour market segregation. 

•  Support for the reconciliation of professional and private life should be stepped up 
and should aim to help both men and women, for example through innovative and 
flexible work and leave arrangements which help men and women responsible for 
dependent  persons  to  enter  and  remain  in  employment  and  encourage  fairer 
sharing  of  domestic  and  family  duties  in  line  with  the  principle  of  joint 
responsibility. 

•  Advanced training for workers should be ensured so as to provide them with the 
chance to develop and fully exploit their potential throughout their lifetime and in 
order  to  work  towards  balanced  representation  of  both  sexes  in  decision-making 
jobs. 

•  The approach to issues of health and well-being at work and quality of the work 
environment  should  take  account  of  the  specific  situations  and  problems  of 
women and men. 

•  It is necessary to ensure that the potential offered by the Structural Funds is fully 

exploited in order to support policies aimed at creating more and better jobs. 

3.2. 

Quality services making for reconciliation of work and private life 

The  possibility  of  reconciling  professional  life  and  private  life13  depends  both  on 
modern  work  organisation  (combining  flexibility  and  security,  taking  account  of 
gender) and on the availability of accessible and affordable quality services. Much 
attention  has  been  focused  on  improving  the  availability  and  accessibility  of  these 
services,  particularly  childcare  and  care  for  other  dependent  persons.  The  quality 
aspects  need  the  same  attention,  as  has  been  highlighted  by  the  Commission’s 
consultation on active inclusion14. 

•  Efforts  to  improve  the  availability  and  accessibility  of  childcare  services  in  line 
with the Barcelona objectives15 and care services for dependent persons should be 
continued  and  intensified,  paying  the  same  attention  to  the  quality  of  services, 
including the times they are available. 

•  The quality of services should be enhanced by providing continuing training and 

skills upgrading for employees and by fostering job enrichment. 

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15 

This  is  one  of  the  priority  subjects  identified  in  the  declaration  of  the  Trio  Presidency  on  gender 
equality  in  the  EU,  adopted  at  the  end  of  the  informal  meeting  of  ministers  responsible  for  equality 
issues in May 2007 under the German Presidency of the Council. 
COM(2007) 620. 
To cover 33% of children aged 0–3 years and 90% of children from the age of 3 up to school-age by 
2010. 

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•  The  quality  of  services  of  general  interest,  in  particular  transport  services  and 
employment  administration  or  services,  should  be  ensured.  Special  attention 
should be devoted to ensuring that the availability of these services is compatible 
with  full-time  working  schedules  of  men  and  women  with  responsibility  for 
dependent persons. 

•  It  should  be  ensured  that  the  potential  offered  by  the  Structural  Funds  is  fully 
exploited  in  order  to  support  the  improvement,  accessibility  and  quality  of 
services supporting better reconciliation between professional life and private life 
for everyone. 

3.3. 

Tackling stereotypes, support for individual choices 

Stereotyping  constitutes  a  barrier  to  individual  choice  for  both  men  and  women.  It 
helps  to  preserve  inequalities  by  influencing  the  choice  of  education,  training  or 
employment,  participation  in  domestic  and  family  duties,  and  representation  in 
decision-making jobs. It can also affect how an individual’s job is valued. Getting rid 
of  stereotypes  is  one  of  the  priorities  of  the  Roadmap  and  the  European  social 
partners’ framework of action on gender equality. 

•  Action  to  combat  gender-based  stereotypes  must  start  at  a  very  young  age  and 
should  promote  behaviour  models  which  value  individual  choices  of  education 
pathways  and  support  equality  between  men  and  women,  also  in  the  sharing  of 
domestic and family duties. 

•  It is necessary to remove cultural barriers in order to facilitate access for women 
and  men  to  non-traditional  occupations,  including  decision-making  jobs,  and  to 
fully support individual choices. 

•  Approaches  to  ongoing  training,  professional  development  and  vocational 
guidance  should  disregard  all  stereotypes.  Training  and  vocational  guidance 
professionals should be made more aware of this issue. 

•  The media as a whole must participate in efforts to tackle stereotypical images of 

women and men and must promote a realistic image of their abilities. 

3.4. 

Institutional  mechanisms 
implementation of legislation 

in 

support  of  political  commitments  and 

Clear  commitments  in  support  of  equality  between  women  and  men  have  been 
expressed  at  the  highest  political  level,  by  the  Commission,  the  European  Council 
and  the  European  social  partners.  The  Roadmap  attaches  great  importance  to  the 
good  governance  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  ensure  effective  means  of 
implementing these commitments. 

•  It is important to develop training and implementation tools which will allow all 
stakeholders  to  include  a  gender  perspective  in  their  respective  areas  of 
competence, also in assessing the specific impact of policies on women and men. 

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It  is  vital  to  ensure  the  effective  use  of  existing  tools,  such  as  the  manuals  for 
gender mainstreaming of employment policies produced by the Commission16. 

•  It is essential to develop the capacities of the main players and bodies working for 
gender equality, so that they have the skills, instruments and resources they need 
in order to implement their policies. 

•  The implementation and follow-up of policies must be ensured using quantity and 
quality indicators as well as gender-based statistics which are reliable, comparable 
and available when needed. 

4. 

CONCLUSIONS 

In  order  to  achieve  effective  equality  between  women  and  men  in  terms  of  both 
quantity and quality, the European Council is requested to urge the Member States to 
meet  the  challenges  described  above  in  collaboration  with  the  social  partners  and 
civil society. In the light of this report, special attention should be focused on: 

•  creating  more  and  better  jobs  for  women  in  the  new  cycle  of  the  European 

Strategy for Growth and Employment; 

•  including a gender perspective in all aspects of job quality; 

•  improving  both  the  supply  and  quality  of  services  helping  to  reconcile 

professional and private life for both men and women; 

•  tackling stereotypes in education, employment and the media and emphasising the 

role of men in promoting equality; 

•  developing tools to assess the impact of policies from the gender perspective. 

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http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/gender_equality/docs/2007/manual_gend_mainstr_en.pdf  

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ANNEX 

This statistical annex provides an overview of the situation of women and men in the EU, its 
evolution over time and remaining gender gaps in different fields such as the labour market, 
education,  presence  in  decision  making  positions  and  social  inclusion.  Indicators  have  been 
chosen according to their relevance in covering aspects of the lives of women and men and 
the  availability  of  comparable  and  reliable  data.  These  indicators  were  already  presented  in 
the previous reports in order to facilitate the follow-up from one year to another. 

Employment rates 

The European Strategy for Jobs and Growth set the target of reaching an employment rate for 
women  of  60%  by  2010.  In  the  past  years,  female  employment  has  witnessed  continuous 
growth, at a rate that was consistently higher for women than for men. The employment rate 
of women rose by almost 3 percentage points (p.p.) between 2001 and 2006, from 54.3% to 
57.2%, whereas over the same period the employment rate of men increased by only 0.7 p.p., 
from  70.9%  to  71.6%.  As  a  result,  the  gap  between  women's  and  men's  employment  rates 
decreased from 16.6 p.p. in 2001 to 14.4 p.p. in 2006. At national level, significant differences 
exist across the EU, as the employment rate of women in Malta (34.9%) was less than half 
that  reported  in  Denmark  (73.4%)  or  Sweden  (70.7%).  The  employment  rate  gap  between 
women and men ranged from less than 5 p.p. in Finland and Sweden to more than 25 p.p. in 
Greece and Malta. In general, the employment rate gap increases with age and is the highest 
amongst older workers (55 to 64 years). In 2006, it was on average 17.8, down from 19.5 p.p. 
in 2001 thanks to the strong increase of the employment rate of women above 55 years, from 
28.2% in 2001 to 34.8% in 2006. 

Unemployment rates 

A similar trends could be evidenced in the evolution of unemployment rates, that dropped by 
0.6 p.p. to 9.0% between 2001 and 2006 for women, whilst the decrease was limited to 0.1 
p.p. for men to 7.6%. As a result, the gap between women's and men's unemployment rates 
narrowed  from  1.9  p.p.  in  2001  to  1.4  p.p.  in  2006.  This  decrease  occurred  notably  in 
countries where the gap was the highest in 2001 (Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Germany, France and 
Poland).  

Part-time work 

Women's  participation  in  the  labour  market  is  still  largely  characterised  by  a  high  and 
increasing share of part-time work. In 2007, the share of women employees working part-time 
was  31.4%  in  the  EU-27  while  the  corresponding  figure  for  men  was  7.8%.  The  share  of 
female  part-timers  exceeded  30%  in  France,  Ireland,  Denmark  and  Luxembourg,  40%  in 
Sweden,  Austria,  Belgium,  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  and  even  reached  74.9%  in  the 
Netherlands.  Conversely,  the  share  of  part-timers  among  female  workers  was  very  low  in 
Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Latvia. 

Reconciliation of professional, private and family life 

Parenthood has a significant long-term effect on women's participation to the labour market. 
This reflects women's predominant role in the care of children, elderly or disabled persons. In 
2006, the employment rate for women aged 20-49 was 62.4% when they had children under 
12,  compared  with  76%  when  they  did  not,  a  negative  difference  of  13.6  p.p.  Interestingly, 

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men  with  children  under  12  had  a  significantly higher  employment  rate  than  those  without, 
91.4%  vs.  80.8%,  a  positive  difference  of  10.6  p.p.  Participation  in  employment  and  the 
amount of time worked by women between 20 and 49 years are closely linked to the number 
and age of their children, which is less the case for men.  

Education 

Women record a higher educational attainment than men in all Member States. On average, 
80.7% of young women (20-24) reached at least upper secondary school in the EU in 2006, 
against  only  74.8%  on  young  men.  Furthermore,  women  represent  as  much  as  59%  of 
university  graduates.  However,  study  fields  continue  to  be  greatly  segmented  with  a  low 
presence  of  women  in  engineering  or  science  and  technology  and  a  high  one  in  health, 
education or the humanities. 

Segregation 

The choice of study fields certainly impacts on the gender segregation of the labour markets 
evidenced  both  for  occupations  and  economic  sectors.  Estonia,  Cyprus,  Latvia,  Lithuania, 
Slovakia, and Finland face high segregation in occupations whilst sectoral segregation is the 
highest  in  Estonia,  Slovakia,  Lithuania,  Ireland,  Finland  and  Sweden.  In  consequence  of 
segregated  labour  markets  there  is  an  under-representation  of  women  in  sectors  crucial  for 
economic  development  and  usually  well  remunerated.  For  example,  only  29%  of  scientists 
and engineers in the EU are women. 

Decision-making 

The  average  number  of  women  member  of  national  parliaments  (single/lower  houses)  was 
23% in 2007, unchanged since 2004 level. This share exceeds 35% Belgium, Spain, Denmark 
and the Netherlands and 40% in Finland and Sweden. However, it was below 15% in Greece, 
Cyprus, France, Slovenia, Ireland, Romania and Hungary and did not exceed 10% in Malta. 
Regarding  decision-making  in  the  economic  sphere,  women's  share  among  managers  in 
enterprises  and  administrations  was  32.6%  in  2006,  up  from  30.1%  in  2001.  This  share 
exceeded 35% in Hungary, France, Latvia and Lithuania, but was lower than 20% in Malta 
and Cyprus. 

At risk of poverty rate for older people 

The disadvantaged position of women on the labour market has consequences on the higher 
exposure  risk  of  women  to  poverty.  This  was  particularly  true  for  persons  above  65  years, 
amongst which the share of people living in households at risk of poverty (having an income 
below  the  threshold  set  at  60%  of  the  national  median  income)  was  significantly  higher  for 
women than for men in the EU-25 in 2005 (21% vs. 16%). This was a pattern in almost all 
Member  States.  The  gap  exceeds  10  p.p.  in  six  countries:  Bulgaria,  Estonia,  Latvia, 
Lithuanian, Slovenia and Finland. 

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Employment rates (women and men aged 15 - 64) in EU Member States- 2006

71.6

57.2

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  total 
employment 
rate in 2010

Lisbon target 
for women's 
employment 
rate in 2010

DK SE NL FI UK EE AT LV DE PT SI LT CY IE FR

CZ LU BG BE ES RO SK HU PL EL IT MT

EU-
27

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. EU-27, DE and FR : Provisional value 

Absolute gender gap in employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States - 2001 and 2006
 (Difference between men's and women's employment rates) 

Left bar: 2001     Right bar: 2006

16.6

14.4

FI

SE

LT

EE

DK

LV

BG

SI

DE

FR

UK

RO

PT

HU

PL

NL

AT

BE EU27 SK

CZ

LU

IE

CY

ES

IT

EL MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. EU-27, DE and FR : Provisional value
NB:  A positive gap indicates higher employment rates for men in comparison with women, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

EN 

12 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Annual growth of women's and men's employment, in EU-27, 1998-2006

Women

Men

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Source  : Eurostat, National accounts, annual averages. Gender breakdow n is derived from Labour Force Survey. 

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55 - 64) in EU Member States- 2006

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  55-64 
aged workers 
employment 
rate in 2010

52.6

34.8

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

-0.5

-1

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

SE EE DK FI UK LV LT PT DE IE NL CY FR

EU 
27

RO CZ BG ES LU HU EL AT BE IT SI PL SK MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. EU-27, DE and FR : provisionnal value

EN 

13 

   EN 

 
 
Absolute gender gap in unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 years and over) in EU 
Member States - 2001 and 2006
 (Difference between women's and men's unemployment rates) 

Left bar: 2001      Right bar: 2006

RO

LV

UK

EE

IE

LT

DE

SE

HU

FI

BG

NL

AT

DK EU27 FR

CY

BE

PL

SI

MT

SK

PT

LU

CZ

IT

ES

EL

1.9

1.4

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
Notes : A positive gap indicates higher unemployment rates for women in comparison with men, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.
DE and FR : for 2006 : provisionnal value

Share of part-time workers in total employment, in EU Member States - 2007

Women

Men

31.4

7.8

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG SK

HU

CZ

LV

LT

RO CY

EL

EE

SI

PL

PT

FI

ES MT

IT

FR EU27

IE

DK

LU

SE

AT

BE

UK

DE

NL

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), Spring results
 DE : Provisional result. EE : for men, unreliable or uncertain data.  

EN 

14 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Percentage of employees with temporary contracts (women and men aged 15 - 64) in EU Member 
States- 2006 

Women

Men

14.9

13.9

RO EE LT

IE SK LV HU MT BG UK LU AT DK CZ BE EL FR DE

EU 
27

IT NL CY SE SI

FI

PT PL ES

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. EU-27, DE and FR : Provisional value

Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2006 (1)
(Difference between men's and wo men's average gro ss ho urly earnings as a percentage o f men's average gro ss ho urly earnings)

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

MT BE

SI

IE

IT

PT RO EL

FR HU PL ES

LU BG

EU-
27

LT

LV SE CZ DK NL AT

FI UK DE SK CY EE

Source:  Eurostat. Administrative data are used for LU, Labour Force Survey for FR and MT. Provisional results of EU-SILC (Statistics on 
Income and Living Conditions) are used for BE, IE, EL, ES, IT, AT, PT, and UK. All other sources are national surveys. EU27, BE, IE, EL, ES, FR, 
CY and SI: Provisional results.
Exception to the reference year : (1) 2005: DK, DE, EE, IT, LT, NL, PT and UK
NB: EU27 estimates are population w eighted-averages of the latest available values. CZ: calculations based on the median earnings.

EN 

15 

   EN 

 
 
  
Life-long learning - Percentage of the population aged 25-64 participating in education and training 
over the four weeks prior to the survey, 2006

women

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

10.4

8.8

SE DK UK FI

SI NL AT ES EU27 LV IE LU EE FR CY BE DE LT

IT CZ MT PL SK HU PT EL BG RO

Source: Eurostat, Labour force Survey
NB: BE, LT, LV, PT and UK : Provisional value. EE and LT : values for men : Unreliable or uncertain data. Exceptions to the reference year : SE : 2005

Educational attainment (at least upper secondary school) of women and men aged 20 - 24, 
in EU Member States - 2006

women men

80.7

74.8

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

PL

CZ

SK

SI

LT

CY

EE

IE

SE

FI

AT

EL

LV

BE

HU

FR

DK

BG EU27 UK

NL

IT

RO

LU

DE

ES

PT MT

Source : Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.
NB:  BG, CY, EL, FI, IT, MT, RO :  Provisional value. 
Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, 
which may imply lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY.

EN 

16 

   EN 

 
 
Members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States - Distribution by 
sex 2004 and 2007 (1)

Left bar: 2004        Right bar: 2007

women 

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

77

77

23

23

S E F I

N L D K E S B E A T D E P T

L U L T

EU27

B G E E P L U K

L V S K

I T C Z E L C Y F R S I

I E R O H U M T

Source:  European Commission, Employment, Social affairs and Equal opportunities DG, Database on Women and Men in Decisionmaking
NB: (1) Data for 2007 have been collected in June 2007. The indicator has been developed within the framework of the follow-up of the 
Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers.Data for 2004 are not available for BG and RO. EU aggregate : for 2004, the value 
is for EU-25 and not EU-27. 

Managers in EU Member States - Distribution by sex 2001 and 2006

Left bar: 2001      Right bar: 2006

women

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

67

33

30

L T

L V F R H U P L U K S I

E E P T

I T

EU-27

E S S E B E R O B G I E F I

C Z A T S K D E N L

E L

L U D K M T C Y

Source : Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS).
NB : Managers are persons classified in ISCO 12 and 13.
For MT and CY : data lack reliability due to small sample size
For IT : Change of data collection method. No data for RO in 2001. EU aggregate for 2001 is the value for EU-25 and not EU-27.

EN 

17 

   EN 

 
 
 
Sex distribution of tertiary education graduates by field of study in EU-27, 2005 

Women

Men

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

Education Science Health and w elfare Humanities and

arts

Social sciences,
business and law

Agriculture and
veterinary

Science,
mathematics and
computing

Engineering,
manufacturing and
construction

Source  : Eurostat
Tertiary education graduates include all graduates of levels ISCED 5 and 6. 

Gender segregation in occupations in EU Member States, in 2006

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

EL RO IT MT PL NL UK AT BE LU DE PT FR IE

SI SE ES DK CZ BG HU FI CY LV LT SK EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS, Spring data.  Exception to the reference year : LU :2005 (annual average). FR : Provisional value. Gender segregation in 
occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for w omen and men applied to each occupation; differences are added 
up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (ISCO classification).

EN 

18 

   EN 

 
 
 
Gender segregation in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2006

25

20

15

10

5

0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

RO MT EL

LU NL FR IT

BE DE AT SI UK DK PL CZ BG HU ES PT CY LV SE FI

IE

LT SK EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS, Spring data.  FR : Provisional value - Gender segregation in sectors is calculated as the average national share of 
employment for w omen and men applied to each sector; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance 
expressed as a proportion of total employment (NACE classification). 

Employment rates of women aged 20-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2006

Without children

With children

76.0

62.4

SI

LT

PT

NL

CY

FI

BE

AT

LV

EE RO FR

LU UK

DE EU-
27

BG PL

ES

EL

IT

SK CZ

HU MT

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data avaialble for DK, IE and SE. 

EN 

19 

   EN 

 
 
 
Employment rates of men aged 20-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2006

Without children

With children

91.4

80.8

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

EL

LU CY

SI

NL

PT MT CZ

IT

ES

AT

FI

EE

BE DE EU-
27

LV

FR UK

LT

SK

PL

HU RO BG

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data for DK, IE and SE. 

At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers1 for older people (women and men aged 65 years and 
over), in EU Member states, 2005 

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

21

16

LU

NL CZ  HU

PL

SK

SE MT

AT

DK DE

FR EU25 RO BE

LT

BG

FI

IT

EE

LV

SI

PT

UK

EL

ES

IE

CY

Source:  Eurostat. SILC and national sources. 
NB:  1) At risk of poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the national 
median income. Income must be understood as equivalised disposable income (sum from all sources, adjusted for household size and composition). It should be 
noted that the risk-of-poverty indicator is computed using an income definition which does not yet include imputed rent of owner-occupiers. Comparisons between 
genders are based on the assumption of equal sharing of resources within households. 
Source: EU-25: SILC(2005)  Income data 2004. BG: National HBS 2004, income data 2004 and RO National HBS 2005, income data 2005. Exception to the income 
reference period UK: income year 2005 and  IE: moving income reference period (2004-2005).  EU aggregates are Eurostat estimates and computed as population 
weighted averages of national values.  

EN 

20 

   EN 

 
 
 
Employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States – 2001 and 2006 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg  
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2001 
54.3 
51.0 
46.8 
56.9 
72.0 
58.7 
57.4 
54.9 
41.5 
43.1 
56.0 
41.1 
57.2 
55.7 
56.2 
50.9 
49.8 
32.1 
65.2 
60.7 
47.7 
61.3 
57.1 
58.8 
51.8 
65.4 
72.3 
65.0 

2006 
57.2 
54.0 
54.6 
56.8 
73.4 
62.2 
65.3 
59.3 
47.4 
53.2 
57.7 
46.3 
60.3 
62.4 
61.0 
54.6 
51.1 
34.9 
67.7 
63.5 
48.2 
62.0 
53.0 
61.8 
51.9 
67.3 
70.7 
65.8 

2001 
70.9 
68.8 
52.7 
73.2 
80.2 
72.8 
65.0 
76.6 
71.4 
72.5 
69.7 
68.5 
79.3 
61.9 
58.9 
75.0 
62.9 
76.2 
82.8 
76.4 
59.2 
77.0 
67.8 
68.6 
62.0 
70.8 
75.7 
78.0 

2006 
71.6 
67.9 
62.8 
73.7 
81.2 
72.8 
71.0 
77.7 
74.6 
76.1 
68.5 
70.5 
79.4 
70.4 
66.3 
72.6 
63.8 
74.5 
80.9 
76.9 
60.9 
73.9 
64.6 
71.1 
67.0 
71.4 
75.5 
77.3 

2001 
16.6 
17.8 
5.9 
16.3 
8.2 
14.1 
7.6 
21.7 
29.9 
29.4 
13.7 
27.4 
22.1 
6.2 
2.7 
24.1 
13.1 
44.1 
17.6 
15.7 
11.5 
15.7 
10.7 
9.8 
10.2 
5.4 
3.4 
13.0 

2006 
14.4 
13.9 
8.2 
16.9 
7.8 
10.6 
5.7 
18.4 
27.2 
22.9 
10.8 
24.2 
19.1 
8.0 
5.3 
18.0 
12.7 
39.6 
13.2 
13.4 
12.7 
11.9 
11.6 
9.3 
15.1 
4.1 
4.8 
11.5 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 
Provisional value: EU-27, DE and FR.  

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55-64) in EU Member States – 2001 and 2006 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2001 
28.2 
15.5 
14.7 
23.1 
49.7 
29.4 
42.1 
28.7 
22.9 
21.7 
27.8 
16.2 
32.2 
30.0 
31.1 
15.2 
14.9 
10.2 
28.0 
18.4 
20.4 
40.3 
42.9 
15.8 
9.8 
45.0 
64.0 
43.0 

2006 
34.8 
23.2 
31.1 
32.1 
54.3 
40.6 
59.2 
39.1 
26.6 
28.7 
35.2 
21.9 
36.6 
48.7 
45.1 
27.8 
27.1 
11.2 
37.2 
26.3 
19.0 
42.8 
34.5 
21.0 
18.9 
54.3 
66.9 
49.1 

2001 
47.7 
35.1 
34.2 
52.6 
65.5 
46.5 
56.7 
64.6 
55.3 
57.7 
36.2 
40.4 
66.9 
46.2 
49.2 
35.9 
34.1 
50.4 
51.1 
40.1 
35.6 
61.6 
54.3 
35.9 
37.7 
46.6 
69.4 
61.7 

2006 
52.6 
40.9 
49.5 
59.5 
67.1 
56.4 
57.5 
67.0 
59.2 
60.4 
40.1 
43.7 
71.6 
59.5 
55.7 
38.7 
41.4 
50.4 
58.0 
45.3 
38.4 
58.2 
50.0 
44.5 
49.8 
54.8 
72.3 
66.0 

2001 
19.5 
19.6 
19.5 
29.5 
15.8 
17.1 
14.6 
35.9 
32.4 
36.0 
8.4 
24.2 
34.7 
16.2 
18.1 
20.7 
19.2 
40.2 
23.1 
21.7 
15.2 
21.3 
11.4 
20.1 
27.9 
1.6 
5.4 
18.7 

2006 
17.8 
17.7 
18.4 
27.4 
12.8 
15.8 
-1.7 
27.9 
32.6 
31.7 
4.9 
21.8 
35.0 
10.8 
10.6 
10.9 
14.3 
39.2 
20.8 
19.0 
19.4 
15.4 
15.5 
23.5 
30.9 
0.5 
5.4 
16.9 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 
Provisional value: EU-27, DE and FR.  

EN 

21 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 and over) in EU Member States – 2001 and 2006 
In this table, the gender gap is calculated as women's unemployment rate minus men's unemployment rate 
Gender gap 

Women 

Men 

EU-27 
Belgium  
Bulgaria  
Czech Republic  
Denmark  
Germany  
Estonia  
Ireland  
Greece  
Spain  
France  
Italy  
Cyprus  
Latvia  
Lithuania  
Luxembourg  
Hungary  
Malta  
Netherlands  
Austria  
Poland  
Portugal  
Romania  
Slovenia  
Slovakia  
Finland  
Sweden  
United Kingdom  

2001 
9.6 
6.9 
18.9 
9.6 
4.8 
7.8 
13.1 
3.5 
15.9 
15.0 
10.5 
13.0 
5.7 
11.5 
14.1 
2.2 
4.9 
8.1 
2.5 
4.1 
20.0 
4.9 
6.0 
6.0 
18.6 
10.8 
4.4 
4.1 

2006 
9.0 
9.3 
9.3 
8.8 
4.5 
10.1 
5.6 
4.1 
13.6 
11.6 
9.9 
8.8 
5.4 
6.2 
5.4 
6.2 
7.8 
8.9 
5.0 
5.2 
14.9 
9.0 
6.1 
7.2 
14.7 
8.1 
7.3 
4.9 

2001 
7.7 
5.6 
20.9 
6.7 
3.6 
7.8 
11.8 
3.8 
6.9 
7.3 
7.0 
7.4 
2.6 
14.6 
19.5 
1.6 
6.3 
6.7 
1.8 
3.9 
17.0 
2.9 
7.0 
5.4 
20.1 
9.9 
5.0 
5.2 

2006 
7.6 
7.4 
8.6 
5.8 
3.3 
10.3 
6.2 
4.6 
5.6 
6.3 
8.4 
5.4 
3.9 
7.4 
5.8 
3.5 
7.2 
6.5 
4.1 
4.3 
13.0 
6.5 
8.2 
4.9 
12.3 
7.4 
6.9 
5.7 

2001 
1.9 
1.3 
-2.0 
2.9 
1.2 
0 
1.3 
-0.3 
9.0 
7.7 
3.5 
5.6 
3.1 
-3.1 
-5.4 
0.6 
-1.4 
1.4 
0.7 
0.2 
3.0 
2.0 
-1.0 
0.6 
-1.5 
0.9 
-0.6 
-1.1 

2006 
1.4 
1.9 
0.7 
3.0 
1.2 
-0.2 
-0.6 
-0.5 
8.0 
5.3 
1.5 
3.4 
1.5 
-1.2 
-0.4 
2.7 
0.6 
2.4 
0.9 
0.9 
1.9 
2.5 
-2.1 
2.3 
2.4 
0.7 
0.4 
-0.8 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 
Provisional value: EU-27, DE and FR.  

Share of part-time workers in total employment, in EU Member States - 2002 and 2007 

Women 

Men 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2002 
28.5 
37.7 
3.7 
8.3 
31.4 
39.5 
9.6 
30.7 
8.0 
17.1 
: 
16.7 
11.3 
11.2 
11.0 
26.4 
5.1 
18.9 
72.8 
: 
13.4 
16.5 
12.8 
8.3 
2.7 
17.1 
32.9 
43.9 

2007 
31.4 
41.9 
2.3 
8.7 
36.5 
46.2 
11.6 
32.7 
10.5 
23.0 
31.0 
26.6 
10.4 
9.2 
10.3 
39.7 
5.7 
25.3 
74.9 
41.5 
12.4 
16.9 
10.3 
12.1 
4.7 
18.7 
40.3 
42.5 

2002 
6.6 
5.9 
2.4 
2.1 
11.0 
5.8 
3.9 
6.5 
2.3 
2.6 
: 
3.7 
4.0 
7.3 
8.6 
1.8 
2.3 
4.3 
21.5 
: 
8.3 
7.2 
10.2 
5.2 
1.2 
8.0 
11.2 
9.6 

2007 
7.8 
7.5 
1.5 
2.3 
13.6 
9.5 
4.3 
7.1 
2.8 
4.3 
5.6 
4.9 
4.2 
5.4 
6.5 
2.2 
2.7 
4.1 
23.7 
7.4 
6.8 
8.2 
9.0 
8.2 
1.1 
8.9 
11.7 
10.8 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) - Spring results 

EN 

22 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Share of employees with temporary contracts (women and men aged 15 - 64) in EU Member States- 2001 and 
2006 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2001 
13.3 
12.0 
5.9 
8.9 
10.7 
12.7 
1.8 
6.2 
15.7 
34.7 
16.2 
11.9 
14.8 
5.0 
4.2 
6.4 
6.8 
6.4 
17.4 
8.7 
10.9 
22.5 
2.8 
14.0 
4.7 
19.9 
17.6 
7.5 

2006 
14.9 
10.9 
6.1 
10.1 
10.0 
14.1 
2.2 
3.9 
13.0 
36.7 
14.0 
15.8 
19.0 
5.4 
2.7 
6.6 
6.0 
6.0 
18.0 
8.9 
26.0 
21.7 
1.6 
19.3 
5.2 
20.0 
19.1 
6.4 

2001 
11.7 
6.3 
6.6 
7.2 
7.7 
12.2 
3.3 
4.4 
11.6 
30.6 
13.2 
8.3 
7.1 
8.5 
7.6 
5.2 
8.1 
2.8 
11.9 
7.2 
12.4 
18.4 
3.2 
12.1 
5.1 
12.9 
12.9 
6.0 

2006 
13.9 
6.9 
6.3 
7.5 
8.0 
14.7 
3.3 
2.9 
9.1 
32.0 
13.0 
11.2 
7.9 
8.8 
6.4 
5.7 
7.4 
2.7 
15.4 
9.1 
28.5 
19.5 
2.0 
15.5 
5.0 
12.6 
15.4 
5.1 

2001 
1.6 
5.7 
-0.7 
1.7 
3.0 
0.5 
-1.5 
1.8 
4.1 
4.1 
3.0 
3.6 
7.7 
-3.5 
-3.4 
1.2 
-1.3 
3.6 
5.5 
1.5 
-1.5 
4.1 
-0.4 
1.9 
-0.4 
7.0 
4.7 
1.5 

2006 
1.0 
4.0 
-0.2 
2.6 
2.0 
-0.6 
-1.1 
1.0 
3.9 
4.7 
1.0 
4.6 
11.1 
-3.4 
-3.7 
0.9 
-1.4 
3.3 
2.6 
-0.2 
-2.5 
2.2 
-0.4 
3.8 
0.2 
7.4 
3.7 
1.3 

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. EU-27, DE and FR : Provisional value 

Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2006 (Difference between men’s 
and women’s average gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men’s average gross hourly earnings) 

EU (27 countries) 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2006 (1) 
15 
7 
14 
18 
18 
22 
25 
9 
10 
13 
11 
9 
24 
16 
15 
14 
11 
3 
18 
20 
12 
9 
10 
8 
22 
20 
16 
20 

Source: Eurostat. Administrative data are used for LU, Labour Force Survey for FR and MT. Provisional results of EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living 
Conditions) are used for BE, IE, EL, ES, IT, AT, PT, and UK. All other sources are national surveys. EU27, BE, IE, EL, ES, FR, CY and SI: Provisional results. 
Exception to the reference year: (1) 2005: DK, DE, EE, IT, LT, NL, PT and UK 
NB: EU27 estimates are population weighted-averages of the latest available values. CZ: calculations based on the median earnings. 

EN 

23 

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Life-long learning - Percentage of the population aged 25-64 participating in education and training over the 
four weeks prior to the survey, 2006 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women 
10.4 
7.6 
1.3 
5.9 
33.8 
7.3 
8.6 
8.9 
1.8 
11.5 
7.8 
6.5 
7.8 
9.3 
6.6 
8.7 
4.4 
5.6 
15.9 
14.0 
5.1 
4.0 
1.3 
16.3 
4.6 
27.0 
36.5 
31.2 

Men 
8.8 
7.4 
1.3 
5.4 
24.6 
7.8 
4.2 
6.1 
2.0 
9.3 
7.2 
5.7 
6.5 
4.1 
2.9 
7.6 
3.1 
5.5 
15.3 
12.2 
4.3 
3.7 
1.3 
13.8 
4.0 
19.3 
27.9 
22.0 

Source: Eurostat, Labour force Survey. NB: BE, LT, LV, PT and UK : Provisional value. EE and LT : values for men : Unreliable or uncertain data. Exception to 
the reference year: SE: 2005 

Educational  attainment  (at  least  upper  secondary  school)  of  women and men aged 20 - 24,  in  EU  Member 
States – 2006 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Men 
74.8 
79.1 
80.0 
91.1 
73.4 
69.8 
74.1 
81.8 
75.5 
54.6 
80.0 
71.7 
76.1 
75.9 
85.3 
64.0 
81.2 
48.1 
69.9 
84.9 
89.6 
40.8 
76.6 
87.7 
91.2 
82.3 
84.5 
77.3 
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
NB: BG, CY, EL, FI, IT, MT, RO: Provisional value. Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered 
by the EU Labour Force Survey, which may imply lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY. 

Women 
80.7 
85.6 
81.1 
92.4 
81.5 
73.5 
89.8 
89.1 
86.6 
69.0 
84.3 
79.4 
90.7 
86.2 
91.2 
74.5 
84.7 
52.8 
79.6 
86.7 
93.8 
58.6 
77.8 
91.4 
91.7 
87.0 
88.6 
80.3 

EN 

24 

   EN 

 
 
 
Members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States - Distribution by sex 2004 and 
2007 (1) 

2004 

2007 

EU 27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women 
23 
33 
: 
15 
38 
32 
15 
12 
13 
35 
13 
12 
9 
17 
22 
24 
9 
9 
38 
36 
21 
20 
: 
13 
17 
40 
48 
18 

Men 
77 
67 
: 
85 
62 
68 
85 
88 
87 
65 
87 
88 
91 
83 
78 
76 
91 
91 
62 
64 
79 
80 
: 
87 
83 
60 
52 
82 

Women 
23 
35 
22 
15 
37 
31 
22 
13 
14 
37 
13 
17 
14 
19 
24 
25 
11 
9 
39 
32 
20 
26 
11 
13 
19 
42 
48 
20 

Men 
77 
65 
78 
85 
63 
69 
78 
87 
86 
63 
87 
83 
86 
81 
76 
75 
89 
91 
61 
68 
80 
74 
89 
87 
81 
58 
52 
80 

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social affairs and Equal opportunities DG, Database on Women and Men in Decision making. NB: (1) Data for 
2007 have been collected in June 2007. The indicator has been developed within the framework of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU 
Council of Ministers. Data for 2004 are not available for BG and RO. EU aggregate : for 2004, the value is for EU-25 and not EU-27. 

Distribution of managers by sex in EU Member States – 2001 and 2006 

2001 

2006 

Women 
30.1 
33.3 
32.4 
26.5 
20.8 
27.0 
34.2 
27.3 
24.7 
32.3 
35.6 
17.8 
19.4 
37.7 
46.7 
30.5 
35.2 
15.8 
26.0 
30.3 
32.1 
30.8 
- 
31.8 
31.2 
27.7 
30.3 
31.0 

EU-27 (1) 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Men 
69.9 
66.7 
67.6 
73.5 
79.2 
73.0 
65.8 
72.7 
75.3 
67.7 
64.4 
82.2 
80.6 
62.3 
53.3 
69.5 
64.8 
84.2 
74.0 
69.7 
67.9 
69.2 
- 
68.2 
68.8 
72.3 
69.7 
69.0 
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS). (1) EU aggregate for 2001 is the value for EU-25 and not EU-27. 
NB: Managers are persons classified in ISCO 12 and 13. 
For MT and CY: data lack reliability due to small sample size 
For IT: Change of data collection method. No data for RO in 2001.  

Women 
32.6 
31.3 
30.5 
29.2 
24.3 
27.4 
33.4 
30.2 
26.8 
31.8 
38.5 
32.9 
16.1 
40.6 
40.7 
25.9 
37.1 
18.6 
27.0 
28.7 
35.2 
33.1 
31.1 
33.4 
27.7 
29.5 
31.8 
34.8 

Men 
67.4 
68.7 
69.5 
70.8 
75.7 
72.6 
66.6 
69.8 
73.2 
68.2 
61.5 
67.1 
83.9 
59.4 
59.3 
74.1 
62.9 
81.4 
73.0 
71.3 
64.8 
66.9 
68.9 
66.6 
72.3 
70.5 
68.2 
65.2 

EN 

25 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Gender segregation in occupations and in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2001 and 2006 

Gender segregation in 
occupations 

Gender segregation in 
economic sectors 

Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

2001 
26.1 
27.0 
29.2 
28.1 
27.0 
32.4 
26.7 
21.5 
24.9 
26.6 
21.9 
29.5 
29.7 
28.4 
26.8 
28.3 
17.2 
25.0 
27.2 
25.6 
26.3 
11.8 
26.8 
31.2 
29.6 
28.0 
26.8 

2006 
26.1 
28.7 
28.1 
27.8 
26.5 
31.6 
26.8 
22.4 
27.1 
26.6 
23.7 
29.3 
29.4 
29.4 
26.4 
28.8 
24.7 
25.6 
25.9 
25.5 
26.5 
22.8 
26.8 
29.9 
29.0 
26.8 
25.6 

2001 
18.1 
17.5 
18.9 
19.0 
18.2 
24.4 
20.7 
15.4 
19.3 
17.4 
15.2 
17.5 
21.0 
20.8 
19.6 
19.3 
15.2 
18.1 
20.3 
13.9 
21.2 
13.8 
17.4 
22.8 
21.9 
21.2 
18.8 

2006 
18.3 
19.6 
19.1 
19.4 
18.2 
24.3 
22.7 
15.9 
20.4 
18.1 
17.8 
19.6 
23.8 
23.1 
18.3 
19.9 
16.5 
18.0 
19.3 
19.4 
20.4 
15.5 
17.8 
22.8 
22.7 
21.6 
18.6 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) – Spring data. FR : Provisional value. Exception to the reference year for occupations: LU: 2005 (annual average) 
Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each occupation; differences are 
added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (ISCO classification). Gender segregation in sectors is 
calculated  as  the  average  national  share  of  employment  for  women  and  men  applied  to  each  sector;  differences  are  added  up  to  produce  the  total  amount  of 
gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (NACE classification). 

Employment rates of women and men (aged 25-49), depending on whether they have children (under 12) – 
2006 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
United Kingdom 

Without children 
Men 
80.8 
81.7 
76.6 
87.1 
80.6 
86.9 
82.5 
84.3 
76.6 
80.7 
87.8 
80.9 
78.9 
90.3 
79.1 
88.6 
87.9 
87.7 
71.5 
82.7 
76.9 
82.7 
79.5 
79.5 
84.1 

Women 
76.0 
75.5 
74.7 
83.2 
80.3 
82.7 
64.1 
75.5 
73.7 
66.7 
82.1 
82.1 
81.5 
80.2 
76.1 
68.7 
83.8 
83.6 
69.9 
77.3 
70.7 
77.1 
79.0 
78.9 
82.9 

With children 

Difference 

Women 
62.4 
69.3 
61.5 
53.4 
62.7 
66.7 
57.0 
58.8 
65.9 
54.6 
70.8 
68.4 
77.2 
65.0 
49.8 
32.6 
72.7 
68.5 
60.8 
76.4 
66.3 
84.8 
54.2 
70.6 
63.1 

Men 
91.4 
92.2 
81.2 
93.9 
91.4 
92.4 
96.8 
93.2 
91.1 
93.8 
95.7 
91.2 
89.7 
95.7 
86.1 
94.0 
94.5 
92.9 
88.0 
94.2 
85.4 
95.3 
88.2 
92.7 
91.0 

Women 
-13.6 
-6.2 
-13.2 
-29.8 
-17.6 
-16.0 
-7.0 
-16.7 
-7.7 
-12.1 
-11.3 
-13.7 
-4.3 
-15.3 
-26.3 
-36.1 
-11.2 
-15.1 
-9.2 
-0.9 
-4.3 
7.8 
-24.8 
-8.3 
-19.8 

Men 
10.6 
10.5 
4.7 
6.8 
10.8 
5.5 
14.3 
8.8 
14.4 
13.1 
7.8 
10.3 
10.7 
5.5 
7.0 
5.3 
6.6 
5.3 
16.5 
11.5 
8.6 
12.6 
8.7 
13.2 
6.8 

Source : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages. 
Notes: No data for DK, IE and SE. 

EN 

26 

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At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers for older people (women and men aged 65 years and over) in EU 
Member States – 2004 

Men 
16 
20 
5 
2 
17 
12 
10 
30 
25 
26 
15 
19 
47 
12 
6 
9 
4 
16 
5 
10 
5 
28 
12 
11 
3 
11 
6 
24 

EU-27 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women 
21 
22 
23 
7 
18 
18 
26 
36 
30 
32 
18 
25 
53 
26 
22 
5 
8 
17 
6 
17 
9 
28 
21 
26 
10 
23 
14 
29 
Source: Eurostat. SILC and national sources.  
NB: 1) At risk of poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the 
national median income. Income must be understood as equivalised disposable income (sum from all sources, adjusted for household size and composition). It 
should  be  noted  that  the  risk-of-poverty  indicator  is  computed  using  an  income  definition  which  does  not  yet  include  imputed  rent  of  owner-occupiers. 
Comparisons between genders are based on the assumption of equal sharing of resources within households. Source: EU-25 : SILC(2005) Income data 2004. 
BG: National HBS 2004, income data 2004 and RO National HBS 2005, income data 2005. Exception to the income reference period : UK: income year 2005 
and IE: moving income reference period (2004-2005). EU aggregates are computed as population weighted averages of national values.  

Indicators for the candidate countries in 2006 

Activity rate (15-64) (1) 
Employment rate (15-
64) (2) 
Employment rate (of 
people aged 20-49) 
with/without children <12 
Employment rate of older 
workers (55-64) (3) 
Unemployment rate (2) 
Unemployment on 
population 15-24 (4) 
Share of part-time 
workers 
Share of employees 
with temporary 
contracts 
Educational attainment 
(upper secondary 
school, 20-24) (5) 
Life long learning (5) 
Share of members of 
national parliaments (6) 
Share among managers 

Women 
26.1 

Turkey 
Men 
74.4 

Gap  Women 
56.9 
48.3 

Croatia 
Men 
68.9 

Gap  Women 
43.2 
12.0 

FYROM 
Men 
64.9 

23.9 

68.1 

44.2 

49.4 

62.0 

12.6 

30.7 

48.3 

Gap 
21.7 

17.6 

22.3/40
.8 

88/76.4 

- 

16.7 

44.1 

27.4 

8.4 

3.9 

17.8 

8.4 

8 

4.4 

0 

4.1 

65.8/68
.9 

25.7 

12.7 

9.8 

86/73.6 

- 

: 

: 

: 

44.4 

9.8 

10.9 

18.7 

-2.9 

1.1 

17 

37.2 

20.2 

36 

35.3 

21.1 

19 

-1.9 

0.9 

-13.4 

11.7 

7.5 

-4.2 

13.1 

13.3 

0.2 

12.6 

13.1 

0.5 

51.7 

38.9 

12.8 

94.9 

92.8 

2.4 

3 

7.8 

1.6 

97 

92.2 

0.8 

- 

- 

2.1 

22 

2.0 

78 

25.6 

74.4 

2.1 

0.1 

- 

- 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

27.5 

72.5 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

- 

: 

Source: LFS 2006. For FYROM: other sources indicated below.  
The gender gap is always calculated as the value for men minus the value for women.  
(1) For FYROM, the reference year is 2004 and the source is Labour Force Survey 2005, Basic – Republic of Macedonia, State Statistical Office. It should be 
noted that the activity rate is calculated among all persons older than 15 (and not 15-64).  
(2) For FYROM, the source is the FYROM 2007 Progress report (SEC(2007)1432).  
(3) For FYROM, the reference year is 2004 and the source is DG EMPL's estimate based on Labour Force Survey 2005, Basic – Republic of Macedonia, State 
Statistical Office.  
(4) For FYROM, the reference year is 2004 and the source is Labour Force Survey 2005, Basic – Republic of Macedonia, State Statistical Office.  
(5) Exception to the reference year: Croatia: 2005 
(6)  Source:  European  Commission,  Employment,  Social  affairs  and  Equal  opportunities  DG,  Database  on  Women  and  Men  in  Decision  making,  except  for 
FYROM where the source is the FYROM 2007 Progress report (SEC(2007)1432).  

EN 

27 

   EN