Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on Migration and development: opportunities and challenges
Date: 2007-12-12
Institutions: European Economic and Social Committee
Subjects: brain drain, economic development, globalisation, illegal migration, migration, migration policy, migratory movement, poverty

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Opinion of

the European Economic and Social Committee on ‘Migration and development:

opportunities and challenges’

(2008/C 120/18)

At its plenary session held on 16 February 2007, the European Economic and Social Committee decided to
draw up an opinion, under Rule 29(2) of its Rules of Procedure, on

Migration and development: opportunities and challenges.

The Section for External Relations, which was responsible for preparing the Committee's work on the
subject, adopted its opinion on 3 October 2007. The rapporteur was Mr Sukhdev Sharma.

At its 440th plenary session, held on 12 and 13 December 2007 (meeting of 12 December), the European
Economic and Social Committee adopted the following opinion by 125 votes in favour with 5 abstentions.

1. Executive Summary

Communication on ‘Circular migration and mobility partner-
ships between the European Union and third countries’ (2).

1.1
This own-initiative opinion outlines policy suggestions
on issues relevant to the highly interconnected fields of Migra-
tion and Development.

1.2
In focussing on practical examples, suggestions and
potential mutually beneficial cooperation arrangements, migra-
tion can be viewed as a ‘tool for development’. By introducing
specific measures, the Committee wishes to move the debate
from the policy level to the programming level.

1.3
A beneficial application of Migration and Development
policies is best achieved by means of better facilitating the role
of remittances (3.4-3.8) in order to increase recipients' income-
levels and possibly by means of regulating migratory flows to
benefit least developed countries or certain low-income sections
within developing countries (4.2). Concepts of Co-Development
have the potential to channel private remittances to infrastruc-
ture projects that benefit the general public (5.1-5.2). Other
forms of Co-Development engage with Diaspora organisations
to mobilise human resources and or monetary resources for
foreign direct investments, knowledge and technology transfers,
and social and cultural remittances (5.3-5.8). Migration and
Development policies can mitigate the negative affects of brain
drain by creating brain trust and by facilitating circular and
virtual migration patterns (6.2-6.6.4). Lastly,
the Committee
argues that Migration and Development policies can only be
relevant
successful, once they are mainstreamed into other
policy fields and policy coherence is ensured (7.1-7.3).

1.4
This Opinion complements the Committee's Opinion on
‘EU immigration and cooperation policy with countries of
origin to foster development’ by Rapporteur: Mr Pariza
Castaños (1). Additionally, it is supportive of the Commission's

(1) SOC/268 Immigration and cooperation for development dated 4 June

2007.

2. Migration and globalisation

2.1
The process of globalisation has led to the liberalised
movement of capital, goods, and services. The movement of
people, however, still remains globalisation's most restricted
branch.
In order to give less-developed economies a bigger
share of the economic growth driven by globalisation, more
attention should be given to the free movement of people. This
that migration is a
opinion follows the school of
chance for developing countries to participate more equally in
today's globalised economy. Migration has the potential
to
decrease inequality; however, migration must not be seen as a
substitute for traditional development aid.

thought

the World Bank projects that

2.2
Two considerations set the stage for creating a concept
that values migration as a link between globalisation and devel-
opment. Firstly, demographic trends
indicate that already
existing labour shortages in EU countries are expected to
increase in the near future, especially within the labour-intensive
service sectors. Secondly,
the
potential of well-managed migration could in the near future
yield significant monetary assistance in the form of remittances
to people of poor countries (3). Remittance flows within the
OECD countries, but also from OECD to developing countries
and
steadily
increasing (4). Thus, international migration can be an important
component in achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
Remittances as well as the concepts of co-development and
circular migration have significant developmental potential.
More importantly, their developmental potential
is fuelled by
the labour market needs of Western Europe.

developing

countries

between

even

are

(2) 16.5.2007 COM(2007) 248 final.
(3) World Bank 2006. Global Economic Prospect.
(4) According to the World Bank from 2001 to 2005 remittance flows
have doubled to a record of US Dollar 249 billion in 2005, of which
developing countries received 180 billion — four to five times the
amount of official development assistance (World Bank (2006): Inter-
national Migration Agenda and the World Bank — Managing Risks and
Enhancing Benefits). Oxfam estimates the yearly inflow of remittances
to developing countries to be USD 80 billion (International Develop-
ment Committee Inquiry on Migration and Development, Oxfam,
2003). The Global Commission on International Migration estimates
the total remittances received by developing countries at USD 93 billion
annually (Migration and Development, Policy Analysis and Research
Programme, 2003). In sum, remittances make up 2,2 % of the gross
domestic product of all developing countries (International Monetary
Fund 2005).

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2.3
This opinion underlines the need for a well-developed,
comprehensive and integrated approach to Migration and Devel-
opment policies, which has the potential to create a ‘win-win’
situation.

On a societal dimension, migration-affected areas show signs of
leave an
a distorted gender-ratio which most certainly will
imprint on the
for
socioeconomic
long-term development. These concerns must be considered
when planning and implementing international migration poli-
cies.

framework conditions

2.4
Such an approach recognises the imbalance of the posi-
tive and negative impact of migration on developing countries
and addresses the cost and benefit factors accordingly. While in
some countries migration eases the pressure from over-popula-
tion and unemployment, and the deliberate export of skilled
labour establishes overseas
future remittances,
foreign direct investments and knowledge transfers; for other
countries the permanent outflow of human resources severely
hampers development. Therefore, well managed migration
enhances the positive effects of migration while at the same
time mitigates its negative impact.

sources

for

the UK Department

2.5
leading
The Committee supports the assessments of
international development organisations such as the World
International Development,
for
Bank,
Oxfam and others which all highlight the developmental poten-
tial of international migration to achieve relief from poverty and
sustain economic development in source countries. Remittance
transfers lead to significant income increases for recipient house-
holds, and are a powerful driver for short-term poverty relief
and, if managed carefully, can even lead to long-term sustainable
development. The latter is supported by concepts of ‘co-develop-
ment’ such as Diaspora philanthropy, social remittances, knowl-
edge transfers, and transnational business networks.

The strength of well managed Migration and Develop-
2.6
ment policies should be their ability to protect vulnerable coun-
tries, (almost all of sub-Saharan Africa), from migration inflicted
development constraints. Developing countries that benefit least
from remittances and philanthropy often bear the highest costs
of migration: the loss of highly skilled and talented people.
Models of circular and virtual migration can address,
to a
certain extent, the shortfalls of unchecked emigration. Migration
and Development policies can address the needs and particulari-
ties of sectors particularly vulnerable to migration, such as the
educational or health care sector. Unless strong migration
regimes prevent the loss of skilled health care personnel
in
severely HIV/AIDS-affected areas, other development efforts will
not be sustainable. Bilateral and regional migration partnerships
between destination countries and countries of origin can play
an important role protecting these sectors which are crucial for
their development.

2.7
The Committee has taken note of the many ways and
means migration profoundly impacts on source and destination
countries. Some are only recognised years after migratory move-
ments have begun. An issue of increased concern is for the chil-
dren of migrants who remain in source countries and their
health and educational prospects in single-parent households.

in comparison to less well

2.8
The Committee highlights the existing socioeconomic
interdependence between the host and source country. Econom-
ically successful migrants in host countries tend to remit more.
Similarly, socially well-integrated migrants have a potentially
bigger impact on co-developing their country of origin through
philanthropy, social remittances and circular or virtual migra-
integrated migrants. Conse-
tion,
quently, host countries must consider concepts that prevent
brain waste:
integration in
these range from better social
general, to achieving an equalisation of wages and to improving
working conditions; including access to unions, or addressing
the often problematic legal status of migrants. This approach
maximises the migrants' input for the host society and addition-
ally increases their development potential.

2.9
Similarly interconnected are concepts designed to confine
irregular migration. Irregular migration harms destination coun-
tries due to its links to illicit employment. It equally poses a
threat to the (irregular) migrants because they often are in a
weak position of a dangerously exploitive relationship facing
harsh working conditions with few health and safety standards.
Furthermore,
irregular migration harbours negative develop-
mental consequences: there is limited opportunity for integra-
tion in host countries and the high costs of such migration
diminish the prospects for remittances to source countries.
Nevertheless,
status of undocumented migrants
remains a human imperative, as well as an economic and social neces-
sity. Increasing the opportunities for regular migration enhances
its development potential, while at the same time reduces the
demand for criminal organisations involved with smuggling and
human trafficking. Legal migration therefore minimises exploita-
tion.

regularising the

for

2.10
The Committee recognises that South-South migration
is the most common form of international migration. Neigh-
bouring countries or the immediate region are the most chosen
international migrants (5). Moreover, when
destinations
that migration involves risk-taking and
considering the fact
requires financial resources, skills and networks,
it becomes
obvious that, especially for poor people, movement within
national borders is by far the most prevalent form of migra-
tion (6). Therefore, a comprehensive approach to Migration and
Development policy must also consider the potential impact of
regional and internal migration on poverty reduction and
economic development.

(5) Especially South Africa bears the extra burden of being an often seeked

immigration country to the whole region.

(6) See DFID report: ‘Moving out of poverty — making migration work

better for poor people’
(http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/migration-policy-paper-draft.pdf).

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2.11
The Committee urges Member States to apply the stan-
dards codified in the International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their
Families (1990).

3.4.1
Foreign currency savings accounts for migrants living
and working abroad should be made available by domestic
banking institutions in countries of origin.

3. Migration and poverty relief — facilitating remittances

3.1
The Committee recognises the development potential of
remittances between migrants and their families remaining in
their country of origin. Research suggests that
remittances
directly increase the income-level of its recipients thereby alle-
viating poverty.

3.2
However, an unspecified but significant share of remit-
tances — between one and two thirds — flows through
informal channels. This has negative consequences for migrant
and recipient, as well as for the host and source country. Due to
the lack of competition amongst financial service providers in
the informal sector, migrants and recipients have no choice but
to accept high transaction costs which in turn erodes the
income of migrants. For financially weak developing countries,
remittances offer a major source of foreign currency and,
if
channelled through official banking institutions, improve finan-
cial development by increasing aggregate levels of deposit and
credit intermediated by the local banking sector (7). Remittances
thereby generate a positive macroeconomic development. Host
countries generally connect security concerns with the informal
banking sector; money-laundering or the financing of terrorist
organisations both of which most often take place using
informal financial transaction methods.

3.3
There are many reasons why migrants often choose irre-
gular channels over official banking services for remittances. A
large number of migrants choose irregular transfer channels
because official service providers are too costly, too slow, and
too bureaucratic or simply not accessible. Migrants also display
a lack of trust in their home country's banking institutions or
fear exchange rate fluctuations. Poor recipients, especially those
living in remote, rural areas, have no physical access to banking
facilities. Many more cannot afford the fees required to maintain
a bank account. Remittance fees disproportionately impact on
low-income families who are sending regular but small amounts
of money. For undocumented migrants banking channels are
not accessible because they lack documentation which is a
prerequisite for opening bank accounts.

services

Banking

available

should be made

for
3.4.2
low-income families by offering affordable banking rates and
should also be provided to currently ‘unbanked’ communities.
The latter could be achieved by linking banking services to
more wide-spread service industries such as postal or retail
networks or existing credit unions. A decrease of remittance
fees, however, should not be off-set by unfavourable exchange-
rates, dictated to the benefit of the banking institution.

remittance

Competition amongst

3.4.3
service providers
must be strengthened to lower transfer costs. NGOs and public
authorities in host countries can encourage competition by
disseminating information on the comparative prices of service
providers. An exemplary measure is the webpage www.sendmo-
neyhome.org. Additionally,
literacy of
migrants is a key activity civil society should facilitate, in coop-
eration with financial institutions.

increasing the financial

and

security.

enhance

3.4.4
Upgrading the banking technology in source countries
could significantly reduce transaction costs, increase processing
Satellite-based
transaction
speed
information technology in remote areas to support an enhanced
management and wire transfer system would further increase
efficiency. The introduction of debit cards or mobile telephony
add-on services is an innovative solution to extend outreach. All
these capacity-building measures require investments that could
be spurred by official development assistance or through public-
private partnerships.

The stringent identification requirements are a deter-
3.4.5
rent
to undocumented migrants wishing to open a bank
account. Banks should develop ideas about improving access to
banking services for undocumented migrants. Member States
should consider reasonable changes to the regulatory environ-
ment set for the banking sector, to enable this process.

3.4
The Committee encourages Member States, the Commis-
sion, Parliament and Council to consider the following initiatives
as a tool to foster development.

(7) Consequently, banks are able to raise cheaper and longer-term finan-
cing from international capital markets by securitising future remit-
tances.

Lowering the costs of remittances is a necessary first step
3.5
to enhancing their developmental impact. Facilitating the flow is
a second step. Destination countries should therefore build
remittance partnerships with source countries that receive large
volumes of remittances. These partnerships could appropriately
for poor people to
facilitate measures
banking institutions, strengthen the ability of financial service
providers to facilitate remittance flows, and to create incentives
for using formal transfer channels.

to improve access

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3.6
The Committee urges banking institutions operating
from within the European Union to develop bank service poli-
cies with a strong corporate social responsibility focus that
realises the banks' central role in addressing the needs of
migrants and migrant families.

3.7
The Committee strongly encourages partnerships that
pilot initiatives to foster the developmental use of remittances
by lowering costs and increasing access. Two exemplary models
are outlined below:

3.7.1
The mobile operator trade body GSM Association and
the payment processing firm MasterCard have set up a system
that will allow migrants to put cash onto their mobile phone,
and order it to be sent to a mobile phone number abroad,
where the recipient receives a text message saying that money
has arrived.

The UK-based Lloyds TSB bank in collaboration with
3.7.2
the Indian ICICI bank allows non-resident
Indians to make
remittances free of cost to India as long as a minimum balance
in their ICICI account is being maintained.

Especially in times of conflict and crisis or after natural
3.8
disasters, remittances have proven to be an effective and fast
mechanism to address the needs of refugees and victims in
countries of origin. Humanitarian aid organisations and first
responders should consider providing access to remittances as
part of their post-conflict/post-disaster aid packages.

4. Migration and closing the inequality gap — regulating
regular migratory flows for the benefit of underdevel-
oped regions

4.1
Despite their potential to induce real-time poverty-relief
impact of remittances as
for its recipients, the developmental
private transactions is limited, since the benefit of receiving
remittances from abroad is generally not
In
contrast, people who are able to bear the initial costs of migra-
tion are those from lower middle-income households. Addition-
ally, remittances primarily flow to large emigration countries
with deliberate human capital export policies. Less than one
third goes to the very least developed countries. The continuous
inflow of remittances is highly dependent on a continuous
outflow of migrants and therefore vulnerable to changes of
immigration policies or the economic growth in host countries.

the poor.

for

Restrictions to legally accepting migrants in destination coun-
tries will consequently negatively impact the flow of remittances
to source countries. Destination countries can furthermore
effectively determine the direction of remittance flows by giving
‘preferential
immigration status’ to specific immigrant groups
from certain countries or regions of origin. This ensures that
pre-existing migrant networks do not lead to regional bias in a
country, nor do they lead to further increases in inequality levels
in source countries. Thus, the host country proactively assists
the least developed regions in source countries and helps to
reduce thereby the inequality gap. Yet another step to ensure
that
remittances reach the least developed is by targeting
members of these low-income households and facilitating their
migration process.

5. Migration and (co)-development

Co-development describes activities by migrants that
5.1
compliment, not substitute, development. These activities are
characterised by needs-based programming, sustainability and
the ability to connect Diaspora groups to communities in
source countries. One form of co-development that reaches all
income levels of the recipient community are remittance-based
investments in infrastructure for education and basic health
services. The Committee therefore supports the embedding of
remittances in co-development.

is

the matching

An exemplary

5.1.1
fund
initiative
programme. Every remittance that migrants channel towards
communal development purposes in their country of origin is
matched by an equal amount by each of the institutional part-
ners of the programme (8). Ideally these partners are develop-
ment aid organisations that bring management expertise and
experienced personnel into the programme in cooperation with
local government
to achieve sustainability. These matching
funds programmes should be made widely public and easily
accessible through information platforms that also promote the
use of official banking channels for remittances. Once successful
‘matching funds programs’ are identified, additional ‘matching’
partners from the private sector ought to be included. Especially
companies that employ a significant portion of migrants as well
as financial services providers that facilitate remittance transfers
should be encouraged to participate and to exercise their share
of corporate social responsibility. These public-private partner-
ships benefit all participants: the developmental impact increases
larger collective remittances and companies and
because of
banks build trust
the
Committee is aware that cooperation between countries of origin and
the players: not only
take account of all
host

customers. However,

countries must

towards

their

To leverage its poverty-relief

impact and close the
4.2
inequality gap at the same time, destination countries must not
only better manage and facilitate remittance flows as indicated
above, but also better manage the preceding migration flows.

(8) An example is the immigrant community in the United States from the
State of Zacatecas, Mexico. Under the ‘Three for One’ programme, each
dollar sent by migrants' associations is matched by a dollar from the
federal Mexican government and another from the State of Zacatecas.
In any case, for such initiatives to be successful, immigrants must be
socially well-integrated in the host communities in order to be able to
organise themselves.

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governments and official authorities, but also the social partners and
civil society organisations. In this way, the development of anti-corrup-
tion practices and charters would prevent
the growth of practices
siphoning off the amounts transferred.

5.4
The challenge is therefore to build capacity in Diaspora
organisations that originate in least developed countries and
target development for the lowest income sections.

Other forms of co-development focus on steering remit-

5.2
tances to entrepreneurial or investment-related activities.

The process of capacity-building must take into account
5.5
the fact that Diaspora communities are in most of the cases
informally and loosely organised;
they have country-specific
structures and operate along idiosyncratic dynamics of interac-
tion with their country of origin.

5.2.1
Incentives that source countries can offer in order to
increase overall remittance flows for co-development, range
from income tax exemptions for migrants when investing in
local businesses to exemptions from import duties for business
investments.

The Committee encourages banking institutions and
5.2.2
development agencies to test pilot programs that link remit-
tances and micro-finance institutions in developing countries.

Banking institutions

5.2.3
in source and host countries
should be encouraged to develop remittance partnerships to
facilitate the cross-selling of complementary financial services,
e.g. offering small business credits or housing credits, along
with remittance services.

5.2.4
To support and increase these activities development
agencies and civil society organisations should inform migrant
communities in host countries about investment possibilities,
provide business
link
migrants to capital-needy entrepreneurs in countries of origin.
Migrant entrepreneurs in host countries and entrepreneurs in
source countries should be linked in strategic business and
development networks.

training and facilitate networks

that

Some of

5.3
the measures mentioned above require the
cooperation of Diaspora organisations in host countries. The
network of ties between Diaspora and source country is mainly
the result of individuals or groups acting on their own initiative.
These networks are a major source of foreign direct investments,
knowledge and technology transfers, philanthropy and social as
well as cultural remittances. They may even play a role in peace
the least developed
and reconstruction processes. However,
countries lack the capacity to track migrants abroad and build
Diaspora networks to tap these resources for development
(remittances, investments, skills, knowledge).

5.6
Identifying adequate Diaspora groups and enhancing
their ability to contribute to the development of source coun-
tries can result in the creation of brain trust. This is achieved by
human capital programs that enlist migrants (or their offspring)
for public or private sector development programs. These
programs tap into language skills as well as cultural competen-
cies and make recently acquired professional skills, expertise,
and contacts available to developing countries.

5.6.1
A necessary step to initiate capacity-building efforts for
Diaspora organisations and least developed source countries is
the process of identifying and mapping these organisations and
networks. The Committee
recommends building
voluntary registers of skilled migrants from brain drain affected
countries residing in host countries and of migrant businesses
from small and medium size developing countries, currently
operating within host countries.

therefore

Once identified, Diaspora organisations

5.6.2
should be
enabled to link with countries of origin and contribute to devel-
opment. Destination countries and international development
organisations should offer platforms and forums, travel stipends,
fellowships, and business meetings to facilitate this process.

5.7
The existence of Diaspora communities does not guar-
antee an automatic positive development impact on the source
country. The political and socioeconomic conditions and poli-
cies of the developing country play an equally important, if not
predetermining role. However, migrant organisations should in
general be more involved with development issues. Therefore
development organisations are asked to approach migrant orga-
nisations to discuss useful cooperation.

5.8
The Committee supports the creation of a specific Migra-
tion and Development Fund to enable the abovementioned
development activities.

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6. Migration and mitigating the affects of brain drain —
creating brain trust plus facilitating circular and virtual
migration

6.1
The voluntary outflow of human capital often generates
economically beneficial consequences for source countries. Inter-
national migration eases the pressure from over-population and
unemployment
for many source countries. Some countries
successfully export labour deliberately in order to build overseas
pools for remittances, foreign direct investments and knowledge
transfers. However, the permanent outflow of human resources,
especially the highly skilled and talented, hampers development
in the least developed countries which possess neither the
economical nor the institutional capacity to build replacements.

6.2
The Committee therefore urges all actors to, firstly, take
all necessary steps to mitigate the effects of brain drain and
secondly, develop plans to prevent
further depreciation of
in vulnerable economies and sectors. The
human capital
Commission has already highlighted in its recent communica-
tion that mitigating the effects of brain drain involves concepts
of circular and virtual migration (9). Ethical codes of conduct,
higher incomes and compensation funds are ways to prevent
skilled professionals from leaving. Furthermore, well-tailored
outsourcing from OECD countries to developing countries can
decrease the migratory pressure in these specific countries.
However, similar considerations which are being discussed to
prevent brain waste in developed destinations countries should
be applied to workers employed in out-sourced industries in
developing countries.

6.3
Facilitating circular and virtual migration builds upon the
abovementioned capacities of Diaspora groups and their ability
to connect with their country of origin — the creation of brain
trust. Skilled migrants who have acquired tertiary education or
professional training in destination countries can be an asset to
source countries if they are enabled to transfer their skills and
services.

6.4
Creating brain trust is a complementary concept to brain
drain because the net-loss in source countries ideally feeds into
the migration-based brain trust
in destination countries. But
more importantly, brain trust potentially mitigates some of the
detrimental effects of brain drain in source countries. Individual
migrants can offer their skills or organisational capacities to
their country of origin either on a temporary basis — temporary
return — or on a virtual basis by means of web-based applica-
tions and online platforms.

6.4.1
Visa regimes should be tuned accordingly in order to
allow for professionals to more easily ‘commute’ between host
and source country.
International development organisations
should consider schemes for development that virtually transfer
services and knowledge of highly skilled migrants, such as cardi-
ologists in destinations countries using the internet to analyse
medical records from the source country, geologists providing
access to state-of-the-art laboratories in host countries, or finan-
for micro finance
cial
programmes. Offering multiple-entry visas is a mechanism to
facilitate circular migration.

assessing business plans

analysts

6.4.2
Another powerful incentive for return and or circular
migration is the portability of pensions' benefits and social
security benefits of migrants from host to source country.

6.4.3
Developing countries need to be made aware of the
existing possibilities of co-development and furthermore be
encouraged and enabled to build network links with their
Diaspora communities abroad.

6.4.4
These concepts of course require the successful integra-
tion of migrants into the host society. Destination countries
(migrants working in jobs
must reduce existing brain waste,
below their originally acquired education and training), by better
assessing their skills and consequently recognising degrees and
certificates from source countries. This increases their contribu-
tion to the host society and their developmental
impact on
source countries.

Regulating emigration must be a maxim in regards to
6.5
particular sectors such as education and health care. Protecting
these particular vulnerable sectors from brain drain requires
measures that address the push and pull factors of migration.

The Committee urges that developed countries must
6.5.1
not recruit human capital
from these vulnerable developing
countries. The British government has implemented an exemp-
lary code of conduct on ethical recruitment, which binds public
and private medical institutions to not hire new personnel in
developing countries facing a human resource crisis in the
health care sector.

Similarly,

6.5.2
labour immigration policies of destination
countries can be adjusted to keep the flow of highly skilled
people from at-risk developing countries to a minimum.

(9) Communication from the Commission on Circular migration and
mobility partnerships between the European Union and third coun-
tries.

6.6
Depending on the resources available to at-risk and parti-
cularly vulnerable developing countries, several options are
available to counter the impact of brain drain.

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7. Mainstreaming Migration and Development policies and

ensuring policy coherence

The Committee acknowledges, as initially mentioned,
7.1
that South-South migration as well as regional migration has a
significantly larger migratory dimension than international
migration between developing and developed countries. More
attention should therefore be devoted to regional approaches of
Migration and Development as already undertaken by the
African Union.

7.2
The Committee wishes to highlight the need to main-
stream ‘migration and development policies’ into the migration
and integration policies of host countries and into national
developing strategies of source countries as well as poverty
reduction strategies of international development organisations.

7.3
The Committee notes that policy coherence is highly
beneficial to the anticipated outcome of migration and develop-
ment policies. Trade and security policies should not undermine
the pro-development efforts of migration and development poli-
cies. Equally importantly, the Committee is urging its Member
States to aim at policy coherence, by not arguing for different
policies at the national and at the European Union level.

The President

of the European Economic and Social Committee

Dimitris DIMITRIADIS

6.6.1
One option is to build a human capital surplus which
opens the possibility to pursue an export-oriented (human)
development strategy. These training efforts could be financed
taxes for highly skilled professionals who chose to
by exit
migrate. These taxes might be levied on the emigrant or the
destination country.

Repayment agreements (compensation funds) between
6.6.2
migrant and source country prior to departure can discourage
permanent migration and the source country is being reim-
bursed for
education and training initially
provided (10).

costs of

the

6.6.3
affected source countries.

The creation of brain trust

for severely brain drain-

Highly skilled professionals who come to acquire
6.6.4
further
training or pursue specialisation in non-developing
countries can be granted provisions of re-entry by host coun-
tries or easily accessible short-stay visas. These mechanisms of
circular migration can encourage return migration to source
countries.

Brussels, 12 December 2007.

(10) For further details on possible compensation funds between migrant
and source countries please refer to the EESC Exploratory Opinion
‘Health and Migrations’ (rapporteur Mr Sharma and co-rapporteur
Ms Cser) (OJ C 256, 27.10.2007).