European year of intercultural dialogue : statistical portrait of the European Union 2008.
Date: 2007-11-28
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, cultural pluralism, cultural policy, cultural promotion, cultural relations, public awareness campaign

ch00.qxp  06/11/2007  15:44  Page 2

ISSN 1830-7906

S t a t i s t i -
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c a l  

St at ist ical  book s

Statistical portrait  
of the European Union 2008
European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

Consumers in Europe
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ISBN 978-92-79-06600-9
ISSN 1830-7906
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Theme: General and regional statistics
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© European Communities, 2007
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ch00.qxp  06/11/2007  15:44  Page 1

STATISTICAL PORTRAIT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 2008 –
EUROPEAN YEAR OF INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE

This  Eurostat  brochure  celebrates  the
European  Year  of  Intercultural  Dialogue
2008  which  aims  to  promote  dialogue,
knowledge  and  skills  enabling  all  persons
living in Europe to deal with a more complex
society;  a  society  which  should  be  open  to
the world and respectful of cultural diversity,
while  being  based  on  a  set  of  common
values. The brochure presents statistical data
on areas which deal with various aspects of
multicultural  societies  that  are  likely  to
promote dialogue. The brochure is intended
to  give  an  idea  of  the  range  of  European
statistics available in this area, but in no way
is  it  a  comprehensive  picture  of  all  data
available  concerning  the  topic  in  question.
Data  are  provided  for  a  wide  range  of
statistical  areas,  usually  for  the  European
Union total (EU-27) and the Member States.
When  available, 
is  also
presented for the candidate countries, EFTA
countries, as well as other countries.

information 

Editor-in-chief

Gunter Schäfer

Editorial team

Marcin Baryn, Virginie Dohn, Matthias Fritz,

Diana Ivan, Ulrich Wieland

The  editor-in-chief  and  the  editorial  team

would  like  to  thank  all  those  who  were

involved 

in 

the  preparation  of 

this

publication. It has been published thanks to

the assistance and support of many Eurostat

staff members.

Production, desktop publishing

INFORMA  sàrl:  Giovanni  Albertone,  Simon

Allen,  Edward  Cook,  Séverine  Gautron,

Andrew Redpath

For more information:

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat

Eurostat,

Statistical Office of the European Communities,

Bâtiment Joseph Bech,

5 rue Alphonse Weicker

L-2721

Luxembourg

E-mail: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu

Data extracted on: 02.07.2007

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PREFACE

Democratic  societies  need  a  solid  basis  of  reliable  and  objective  data  to
function properly. On the one hand, decision-makers at the European Union
(EU)  level  and  in  the  Member  States,  be  they  governments  or  businesses,
need  statistical  data  to  make  informed  decisions.  On  the  other  hand,  the
public, researchers and media refer increasingly to statistics for an accurate
picture of society.

This  Eurostat  brochure  celebrates  the  European  Year  of  Intercultural  Dialogue  2008  which
aims to promote dialogue, knowledge and skills enabling all persons living in Europe to deal
with a more complex society; a society which should be open to the world and respectful of
cultural  diversity,  while  being  based  on  a  set  of  common  values.  The  brochure  presents
statistical  data  on  areas  which  deal  with  various  aspects  of  multicultural  societies  that  are
likely to promote dialogue. It is intended to give an idea of the range of European statistics
available  in  this  area,  but  in  no  way  is  it  a  comprehensive  picture  of  all  data  available
concerning the topic in question.

Eurostat is the Statistical Office of the European Communities situated in Luxembourg. Since
the early days of the Community, the need for reliable and comparable statistics was evident.
A first statistical service was established in 1952 to meet the statistical requirements of the
European  Coal  and  Steel  Community.  After  the  European  Economic  Community  and
Euratom  were  founded  in  1958,  the  statistical  services  of  the  three  Communities  were
combined  into  the  Statistical  Office  of  the  European  Communities,  which  became  later  a
Directorate-General  (DG)  of  the  European  Commission.  Its  role  is  to  supply  high-quality
statistical  information,  first  and  foremost  to  other  Directorates-General  and  European
institutions, in order to underpin the definition, implementation and analysis of Community
policies, but also to the general public.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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Eurostat does not work alone. The European statistical system (ESS) was built up gradually
with the objective of providing comparable statistics for the EU. The ESS comprises, besides
Eurostat, the statistical offices, ministries and agencies that collect official statistics in the EU
Member  States,  Iceland,  Liechtenstein,  Norway  and  Switzerland.  The  ESS  functions  as  a
network:  Eurostat’s  role  is  to  lead  the  way  in  the  harmonisation  of  statistics,  in  close
cooperation with the national statistical authorities. The ESS concentrates on European policy
areas, although harmonisation has extended to almost all statistical fields.

Thus, Eurostat gets most of its data from the national statistical authorities in the Member
States. It then processes, analyses and publishes this data at a European level, according to
common  statistical  concepts,  methods,  and  standards.  Eurostat  defines  methodologies
together with the Member States, consolidates the data collected in each country, ensures
that it is harmonised and as comparable as possible, and then creates European aggregates
for  the  EU  Member  States  and  the  euro  area.  It  then  publishes  most  of  this  data  and
accompanying  analyses  on  its  website  and  in  many  cases  also  in  the  form  of  paper
publications.

Eurostat’s website, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat, offers free-of-charge access to nearly all of
Eurostat’s data, as well as to methodological information, and statistical publications in PDF
format.

I hope this publication will encourage you to further explore the wealth of statistics available
on the EU, and to use Eurostat’s data for your information needs and daily work.

Hervé Carré
Director-General, Eurostat

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Multinational populations in the European Union

2. Patterns of education and research influencing intercultural dialogue

3. Patterns of work influencing intercultural dialogue

4. Economic factors influencing intercultural dialogue

5. Consumption of culture

6. Tourism and international transport

7. Information society trends influencing intercultural dialogue

8. Values and challenges to intercultural dialogue

Signs and abbreviations

7

15

31 

47

57

65

77

87

95

106

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Introduction

INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE
In order to live together, people need to be
able  to  communicate  and  understand  one
another’s  culture.  This  is  all  the  more
important  in  an  increasingly  globalised  and
interdependent  world,  where  encountering
cultural difference can scarcely be avoided.

Communication 
is  the  basis  for  any
multicultural  society  to  function  properly,
through tolerant and respectful dialogue, at
the  level  of  nations,  communities,  and
individuals.  Intercultural  dialogue  is  based
upon the recognition that different cultures
exist  within  the  world.  These  differences  of
opinion,  belief  and  values  exist  not  only
within  each  individual  culture  but  also
between  cultures.  Intercultural  dialogue
seeks to promote dialogue, encouraging the
sharing  of  ideas  and  exploring  different
thought-processes through which the world

is  perceived  and  understood. 
Indeed,
throughout  history,  people  have  exchanged
cultural experience, ideas, values and goods
through art, trade and migration.

Learning  the  art  of  dialogue  is  both  a
personal and social process. Developing skills
and  the  capacity  for  dialogue  implies  a
willingness to be open while retaining critical
judgement.  In  increasingly  diverse  societies,
it  becomes  all  the  more  important  that
people  understand  each  other  in  order  for
plural and dynamic communities to develop,
where people of different cultural identities
can  live  together  in  harmony  and  accord.
Some of the most important policies in this
area  therefore  seek  to  promote  inclusion,
integration and participation of all citizens in
order to further social cohesion, civil society
and  peace.  This  is  part  of  what  is  termed
‘active  citizenship’,  whereby  people  play  a

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more  active  role  in  their  local  society,
through  voting,  membership  of  local  clubs
and organisations, charity work, etc.

-

The  Commission  proposed  that  2008  be
designated  as  the  European  Year  of
Intercultural  Dialogue.  The  Year  has  been
designed  to  present  a  wide  variety  of
projects,  to  help  forge  closer  links  between
European  peoples  and 
their  cultures,
promoting  dialogue  and  developing  active
European citizenship. The Year will promote
initiatives  that  bring  together  different
communities  and  social  groups.  It  is  also
hoped that the Year will contribute indirectly
to  the  exchange  of  good  practices  and
the
initiatives 
experimental 
promotion of intercultural dialogue.

regarding 

Intercultural dialogue may be used as a tool
to help achieve several of the EU’s strategic
priorities, including:

-

-

-

respecting  and  promoting  cultural
diversity  in  Europe,  in  a  world  where
globalisation is often seen as a force that
promotes homogeneity;

establishing  active  European  citizenship
based on common values of the EU, such
as  a  commitment  to  solidarity,  social
justice and strengthening of cohesion;

reinvigorating  the  Lisbon  strategy,  by
promoting  culture  and  creativity  as
sources  of 
improve
innovation 
prosperity;

to 

allowing Europe to have a stronger voice
in  the  world  and  establish  effective
partnerships 
neighbouring
with 
countries,  with  the  aim  of  supporting
further  development  towards  stability
and democracy.

This publication brings together data from a
variety  of  sources  covering  migration
statistics,  education  and  labour  markets  –
statistics that describe how different cultures
mix  within  Europe.  It  presents  information
on  the  cultural  sector,  in  other  words,  the
output and consumption of media (including
the  information  society),  books,  theatre  or
films  –  which  have  the  potential  to  further
understanding of different cultures. Statistics
are  also  presented  on 
tourism  and
international  transport,  whereby  individuals
take-up the possibility to experience, at first
the
hand,  different  cultures.  Finally, 
publication closes with recourse to a number
of  surveys  from  alternative,  non-Eurostat
sources  that  present  information  on  the
opinions  of  Europeans  in  relation  to  areas
religion,
such  as  active 
discrimination, racism and xenophobia. Data
from opinion polls, such as those presented,
can often be more volatile and influenced by
recent  events  within  a  country;  therefore,
these  should  be  interpreted  with  special
care.

citizenship, 

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term 

the  most 

DEFINING CULTURE
‘culture’  can  have  several
The 
meanings.  Perhaps 
‘pure’
definition  is  to  view  culture  as  synonymous
with  the  term  ‘art’.  Culture  may  also  be
defined as covering a set of shared attitudes,
beliefs, customs, values and practices, which
may  be  assigned  to  a  particular  group  of
persons  who  are  often  defined  in  terms  of
their  political,  religious,  geographic,  ethnic,
or  other  characteristics.  The  Year  of
Intercultural  Dialogue  is  closely  focused  on
this  latter  definition,  as  it  aims  to  make
people  from  different  countries,  religions,
genders  and  age  groups  understand  other
cultures more clearly and to subsequently be
more tolerant of them.

Culture  in  the  sense  of  art  and  related
products  can  be  a  catalyst  for  intercultural
dialogue within Europe, as well as with the
rest  of  the  world  –  acting  through  the
distribution  of  films,  books  or  sound
recordings that allow people the opportunity
to  experience  the  culture  of  others.  In  this
respect, culture can be seen as a vehicle for
a  set  of  common  values 
(tolerance,
democracy,  diversity  and  pluralism)  and  a
specific  way  of  life.  Europe  is  more  than  a
single,  economic  market  and  culture
contributes  to  creativity,  better  education,
self-confidence,  social  inclusion  and  the
feeling  of  belonging  to  a  community.  As
such,  culture  performs  multiple  social  and
political functions.

The word culture is also frequently employed
in a more economic sense, as an adjective to
qualify a sector of activity: as in the cultural

industries,  or  cultural
sector,  cultural 
products. These concepts involve some form
of  creativity  in  their  production.  In  these
cases  it  is  often  difficult  to  delineate  the
boundaries  of  the  cultural  sector,  as  some
industries  use  culture  as  an  intermediate
consumption  in  their  production  process.
Beyond  drama,  dance,  film,  music  and
heritage,  there  is  no  commonly  agreed
definition  and,  for  example,  areas  such  as
architecture,  advertising,  sport,  fashion,  or
design may or may not be included.

Aside  from  defining  the  term  culture,
statisticians face problems as many statistical
tools, such as classifications, that are used at
a  European  and  national  level  were  not
developed with culture, or cultural dialogue,
in  mind.  For  this  reason,  it  is  often  very
difficult 
cultural
phenomenon  using  existing  economic,
product  or  occupational  classifications  –
which  may  be  too  broad  to  permit  the
cultural dimension to be assessed properly.

to  measure 

the 

During  the  1990s  policy  makers  became
aware of the lack of cultural statistics and in
1995  the  European  Council  adopted  a
resolution on the promotion of statistics on
culture  and  economic  growth.  As  a  result,
the  Leadership  Group  on  Cultural  Statistics
(LEG-Culture)  was  set  up  by  the  Statistical
Programme  Committee 
It
conducted  a  three  year  project  aimed  at:
determining  a  common  definition  of  the
cultural  sector;  suggesting  changes  in
statistical  classifications  to  take  account  of
culture;  reviewing  existing  data  collections;
and  producing  indicators  to  enable  an

in  1997. 

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assessment  of  employment,  financing  and
participation  in  the  cultural  field.  The  result
was  a  definition  of  culture  that  cross-
tabulates eight cultural and artistic domains
(artistic and monumental heritage, archives,
libraries,  books  and  press,  visual  arts,
architecture,  performing  arts,  audio  and
audiovisual/multimedia),  with  six  functions
dissemination,
production, 
(creation, 
marketing, preservation and training).

POLICY INITIATIVES 
IN RELATION TO CULTURE
Community  activities  in  relation  to  culture
were  officially  enshrined  in  Article  151  (ex-
128) of the Treaty establishing the European
Union (1), whereby the EU should ‘contribute
to  the  flowering  of  the  cultures  of  the
Member  States,  while  respecting  their
national  and  regional  diversity  and  at  the
same  time  bringing  the  common  cultural
heritage to the fore’.

and 

sectoral 

Initially  pilot 
EU-wide
programmes  were  put  in  place,  including
supporting  artistic  and  cultural  events,
encouraging  artistic  creation,  promoting
better  public  access  to  European  heritage,
and 
cultural
cooperation between professionals. These led
on  to  three  cultural  programmes  that  were
implemented between 1996 and 1999:

improving 

artistic 

and 

-

to
Kaléidoscope,  which 
encourage  artistic  and  cultural  creation
and  cooperation  with  a  European
dimension;

aimed 

(1) See: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/sources_info/
official_doc/article151_en.html.

- Ariane,  which  supported  the  field  of
books and reading, including translation;

-

Raphaël,  which  complemented  Member
States’  policies  in  the  area  of  cultural
heritage of European significance.

to 

These  were  followed  by  the  Culture  2000
initiative, a Community programme that was
established  for  seven  years  (2000-2006),
which  provided  grants 
cultural
cooperation  projects  in  all  artistic  and
cultural fields. In addition, a number of other
European programmes deal with culture, for
example,  by  supporting  cultural  industries,
research,  education  and
technological 
or
training, 
cooperation with non-member countries.

development, 

regional 

The  EU’s  culture  strategy  is  implemented
through  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  an
‘open  method  of  coordination’  (OMC).
Member States retain the main responsibility
in the field of culture, following the principle
of subsidiarity, while actions taken at an EU
level  should  take  cultural  aspects  into
account  in  other  EU  policies,  so  as  to
preserve cultural diversity and bring common
heritage  to  the  fore,  while  fostering
cooperation  with  non-member  countries.
This  method  also  allows  countries  to  assess
each  other’s  performance  and  share  best
practice (2).

(2) See: http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?
reference=MEMO/07/180.

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Culture 2000 was subsequently replaced by
a new programme – Culture 2007 (covering
the  period  2007-2013).  The  programme  is
open to the participation of non-audiovisual
cultural industries, in particular small cultural
enterprises.  Its  specific  objectives  are:  to
promote  the  trans-national  mobility  of
people  working  in  the  cultural  sector;  to
encourage  the  trans-national  circulation  of
works  and  cultural  and  artistic  products;
and,  to  encourage  intercultural  dialogue.  It
was  established  by  Decision  No  1855/
2006/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council (3).

On 10 May 2007 the European Commission
adopted  a  Communication  for  a  European
agenda for culture in a globalising world (4).
The agenda foresees three objectives:

-

-

-

to  promote  cultural  diversity  and
intercultural dialogue in Europe;

to  promote  culture  as  a  catalyst  for
creativity  and  innovation  in  the  context
of  the  Lisbon  strategy  for  jobs  and
growth;

to  ensure  that  culture  becomes  a  key
component in the EU’s external relations
so as to build bridges with other parts of
the world.

issue 

among 

Cultural diversity has for a long time been a
major 
international
organisations,  with  one  of  the  first  actions
being  the  European  Cultural  Convention
that was signed by members of the Council
of  Europe  in  Paris  in  1954 (5).  Among  the
purposes of this Convention was the desire
to:  develop  mutual  understanding  among
the  peoples  of  Europe  and  reciprocal
appreciation  of  their  cultural  diversity;
safeguard  European  culture;  promote
national  contributions  to  Europe’s  common
cultural heritage; encourage the study of the
languages,  history  and  civilisation  of  the
different parties to the Convention.

A  number  of  bodies  have  examined  this
issue in more recent years including the G8
(Okinawa,  2000),  the  Council  of  Europe
(declaration  on  cultural  diversity,  December
2000),  and  UNESCO  (Universal  Declaration
and  Action  Plan  on  Cultural  Diversity,
November 2001). Indeed, the EU’s work on
cultural  matters  is  often  carried  out  in
conjunction with the Council of Europe and
UNESCO. The UNESCO Universal Declaration
on  Cultural  Diversity  was  adopted
unanimously  by  the  185  Member  States
represented  at  the  31st session  of  the
General Conference in 2001 in the wake of
the  events  of  11  September  2001.  It
supports  the  view  that  respect  for  cultural

(3) See: Official Journal, n° L 372 of 27 December 2006.
(4) See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/
2007/com2007_0242en01.pdf.

(5) See: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/
QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=018&CM=1&CL=ENG.

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diversity  and  intercultural  dialogue  is  an
important  element  for  development  and
peace.  The  EU  has  also  signed  many
cooperation  agreements  with  non-member
countries  all  over  the  world.  By  doing  so,
culture  is  not  only  seen  as  an  important
element 
social
economic 
development,  but  also  plays  a  role  in
establishing democracy and stability.

and 

in 

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF CULTURE
AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO
COMPETITIVENESS
The  promotion  of  cultural  diversity  and
intercultural  dialogue  is  supported  by  the
notion that culture can be used as a catalyst
for  creativity  and  productivity  gains  within
the  framework  of  the  revised  Lisbon
strategy (6).  While  it  is  to  some  extent
possible  to  measure  the  contribution  of
in
scientific 
support  of  research  and  development,  to
sustainable  economic  growth,  it  is  not  so
easy  to  gauge  the  contribution  of  culture
and  creativity;  this  is  partly  because  culture
and  creativity  often  involve  more  intangible
aspects.

innovation,  or 

investment 

While much of the initial focus of the Lisbon
strategy was on productivity gains relating to
information 
communication
technologies  (ICT)  uptake  and  encouraging

and 

(6) See: http://ec.europa.eu/growthandjobs/
index_en.htm.

patterns 

consumption 

research  and  development,  there  has  in
recent  years  been  a  steady  growth  in
acknowledging that culture can also make a
significant contribution to economic growth,
jobs  and  social  cohesion.  Culture  provides
products  and  services  for  consumption,
namely books, films, or sound recordings as
well  as  architecture,  theatre,  concerts,
exhibitions,  etc.  With  rising  income  per
capita, 
have
increasingly  become  a  cultural  statement,
reinforced  by  more  leisure  time  and  a
changing  population  structure  with  an
increasing  proportion  of  healthy,  retired
persons.  However,  the  benefits  that  culture
brings  to  Europe’s  economy  stretch  well
beyond the consumption of cultural goods,
as  culture  is  indirectly  used  by  many  non-
cultural  economic  sectors  as  a  source  of
innovation  or  as  an  input  in  terms  of
content.  Creativity  is  a  complex  process  of
innovation  mixing  several  dimensions  such
as  technology,  science,  management,  and
culture. Besides others, cultural and creative
sectors are also considered to be crucial for
the  further  development  of  information
society technologies and services, while at a
more  local  level  culture  can  also  have  a
considerable  impact,  attracting  tourists,
providing  growth  and  employment,  as  well
as  offering 
for  social
regeneration and cohesion.

the  possibility 

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SOURCES AND COVERAGE OF DATA
The European statistical system (ESS) is ever-
changing  and  has  adapted  considerably  to
reflect  the  needs  of  policy  and  decision
makers. This has been particularly true in the
past decade when a wide range of indicators
has been developed to monitor and appraise
monetary  or  socio-economic  policies,  most
notably  in  the  form  of  euro-indicators,
principal  European  economic  indicators
(PEEIs),  structural  indicators  and  sustainable
development indicators.

The  data  presented  within  this  publication
has  been  selected  from  a  wide  range  of
information  available  within  Eurostat’s  free
dissemination database (http://ec.europa.eu/
eurostat), other Commission sources such as
the  Eurobarometer  surveys  released  by  the
Directorate-General Communication (7), and
some other sources; all sources are identified
under each table or graph.

Most  of  the  data  was  extracted  from
Eurostat’s dissemination database during the
first  week  of  July  2007.  Data  are  generally
available up until 2005 or 2006; longer time
series  will  generally  be  available  when
consulting Eurostat’s website. All tables and
graphs  based  on  data  that  comes  from
sources  other  than  Eurostat  have  their
source  mentioned  beneath  the  particular
table or graph in question.

The  publication  presents  (subject  to  data
availability)  information  for  the  EU  total 
(EU-27  or  EU-25)  and  the  Member  States.
is  also
When  available, 
presented for the candidate countries, EFTA

information 

(7) http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm

countries,  as  well  as  other  selected
countries.  The  EU-27  aggregate  is  provided
when information for all 27 Member States
is available or has been estimated.

Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated
when sufficient information is available – for
example,  data  relating  to  the  EU-27
aggregate  is  often  presented  for  periods
prior  to  the  accession  of  Bulgaria  and
Romania  in  2007  and  the  accession  of  ten
new  Member  States  in  2004,  as  if  all  27
Member  States  had  always  been  members
of the EU. A footnote is added when this is
not the case and the data for the EU refers
to a partial total that has been created from
an incomplete set of country information (no
data for certain Member States).

More  detailed  metadata  for  the  statistics
presented  in  this  brochure  can  be  found  in
the  dissemination  databases  on  Eurostat’s
website. 

The  publication  was  produced  during  the
late summer/autumn of 2007.

THE NEW EUROSTAT DATA CODE
A code (such as ‘tsier066’) has been inserted
as part of the source whenever Eurostat data
is  presented  in  this  publication.  This  code
allows  the  reader  to  easily  access  the  most
recent  data  on  the  Eurostat  website  (note
that  the  data  on  the  website  is  frequently
updated  and  may  also  be  more  detailed  or
have  a  different  measurement  unit).  For
more  details,  consult  the  link  entitled  ‘The
Eurostat  data  code’  on  the  Eurostat
homepage.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

13

ch00.qxp  06/11/2007  15:44  Page 14

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
An  italic  font is  used  in  tables  to  show
provisional data, estimates and forecasts (in
other words, data that are likely to change in
the future). The colon (:) is used in tables to
represent  data  that  is  not  available,  either
because  the  value  was  not  provided  by  the
national  statistical  authority  or  because  the
figures
confidential. 
value 
(charts/graphs),  missing 
is
footnoted when it is not available. A dash (-)
is  used  to  indicate  values  that  are  not
relevant or not applicable.

information 

In 

is 

Note  that  a  full  list  of  symbols  and
abbreviations  may  be  found  at  the  end  of
the publication.

All  statements  on  policies  within  this
publication  are  given  for 
information
purposes  only.  They  do  not  constitute  an
official  policy  position  of  the  European
Commission and are not legally binding. To
know  more  about  such  policies,  please
consult the European Commission’s website
at http://ec.europa.eu/comm.

Within  this  publication,  the  euro  area
consists  of  Belgium,  Germany,  Ireland,
Greece,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,
the  Netherlands,  Austria,  Portugal,  Slovenia
and  Finland.  Cyprus  and  Malta  will  also
become members of the euro area in 2008;
however,  this  could  not  be  taken  into
account  at  the  time  of  writing  (September
2007).

14

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 15

1

1. Multinational populations 
in the European Union

The EU-27 had a population of around 495
million inhabitants at the start of 2007, with
a  broad  range  of  cultural,  social  and
linguistic diversity. The degree of interaction
between  different  cultural  groups  has
increased,  not  only  because  of  successive
enlargements  of  the  EU,  but  also  due  to
(among  others)  migration  (both  between
different  European  countries  and  between
different  continents),  tourism,  advances  in
communication technologies, and increased
levels  of  external  trade,  all  of  which  have
increased exposure to a more diverse range
of cultures, products and languages.

All Member States of the EU are affected by
the  flow  of  international  migration:  in  this
respect  they  have  agreed  to  develop  a
common  immigration  policy.  The  leaders  of
the  EU  set  out  at  the  October  1999
European  Council  in  Tampere  (Finland)  the

elements  for  a  common  EU  immigration
policy. This was confirmed in 2004 with the
adoption  of  the  Hague  programme (8),
which  sets  the  objectives  for  strengthening
freedom,  security  and  justice  in  the  EU  for
the  period  2005-2010.  The  European
Agency for the Management of Operational
Cooperation  at  the  External  Borders  of  the
Member  States  of  the  European  Union
(Frontex)  was  established  by  a  Council
Regulation  (EC)  No  2007/2004 (9) and  was
(EC)
amended  by  Regulation 
later 
No 863/2007 (10)
European
of 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council  in  2007,
establishing a mechanism for the creation of
rapid border intervention teams.

the 

(8) See: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/news/
information_dossiers/the_hague_priorities/index_en.htm.
(9) See: http://www.frontex.europa.eu/gfx/frontex/files/
frontex_regulation_en.pdf.
(10) See: http://www.frontex.europa.eu/gfx/frontex/files/
rabit_regulation-863-2007.pdf.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

15

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 16

1

Figure 1.1: Breakdown of population, nationals and foreigners, 2006 
(% of total population)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

)
1
(

7
2
-
U
E

O
R

)
2
(

G
B

K
S

T
L

U
H

)
2
(

L
P

I
F

I
S

Z
C

)
2
(

)
3
(

L
N

T
I

K
D

)
3
(

E
S

R
F

)
4
(

E
B

)
3
(

S
E

T
A

E
I

)
3
(

)
2
(

V
L

U
L

T
P

T
M

K
U

L
E

E
D

Y
C

E
E

S
I

O
N

H
C

)
3
(

I
L

Foreigners (5)
Nationals

(1) Average based on the available data shown in the graph for the Member States (with mixed reference periods).
(2) Eurostat estimates based on latest annual data available or on the last census.
(3) 2005.
(4) 2004, estimates.
(5) Foreigners: persons who are not citizens of their country of residence. Foreigners in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
include former Soviet citizens who had not applied for the citizenship of their country of residence at the time of
data collection.
Source: Eurostat (migr_st_popctz and cens_nsctz), Central Statistics Office Ireland
(http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1840)

In  2005  the  Commission  issued  a  Green
Paper  on  an  EU  approach  to  managing
economic migration. This consultation led to
the adoption in December 2005 of a policy
plan  on  legal  migration  which  lists  the
actions  and  legislative  initiatives  that  the
Commission intends to take, so as to pursue
the  consistent  development  of  the  EU  legal
migration policy.

Just less than 6 % of the EU’s population (11)
was  composed  of  foreigners  (non-nationals
originating  from  other  EU  countries  and
non-nationals  from  non-member  countries)
in 2006. The proportion ranged from a high
of  39.6 %  in  Luxembourg  and  upwards  of
10 %  in  Latvia,  Estonia,  Cyprus  and  Ireland
to  less  than  1 %  of  the  total  population  in
Slovakia,  Bulgaria  and  Romania.  Generally
the  majority  of  foreigners  that  have  settled
in most of the Member States are from other
(often neighbouring) European countries.

(11) Average based on the available data shown in the
graph above for the Member States (with mixed
reference periods).

16

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 17

Figure 1.2: Proportion of foreigners in the population, by gender, 2006 
(% of male/female population) (1)

1

40

30

20

10

0

U
L

)
3
(

E
E

)
2
(

7
2
-
U
E

V
L

E
I

T
A

S
E

E
D

)
4
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

E
S

L
E

E
B

Y
C

R
F

)
5
(

K
U

K
D

T
I

L
N

I
S

Z
C

)
3
(

I
F

T
P

U
H

T
L

K
S

O
R

)
3
(

L
P

)
6
(

)
6
(

G
B

T
M

H
C

O
N

)
3
(

I
L

)
3
(

S
I

Male

Female

(1) Foreigners: persons who are not citizens of their country of residence. Foreigners in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
include former Soviet citizens who had not applied for the citizenship of their country of residence at the time of
data collection.
(2) Average based on the available data shown in the graph for the Member States (with mixed reference periods).
(3) Latest data available are from the last census.
(4) 2004, estimates.
(5) 2005.
(6) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (migr_st_popctz and cens_nsctz), Central Statistics Office Ireland
(http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1840)

The  proportion  of 
the  EU’s  male
population (12) that  was  made  up  of  non-
nationals  (5.9 %)  in  2006  was  somewhat
higher than the corresponding share among
women  (5.3 %).  This  pattern  was  repeated
across the majority of the Member States for

(12) Average based on the available data shown in the
graph for the Member States (with mixed reference
periods).

which data are available, as there were only
three  Member  States  where  the  proportion
female
of  non-nationals  among 
population  was 
the
higher 
corresponding  share  among  men  (Cyprus,
Denmark and the United Kingdom).

than 

the 

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

17

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 18

1

Table 1.1: Foreigners from other EU Member States, 2006 
(continued on the following page)

0.6
0.3
0.2

Share in 
total 
population 
(%)
5.7
0.0
0.9
1.4
2.7
0.3
3.5
1.2
3.0
2.1
0.9
5.3
0.2
0.1
32.1
0.9
:
1.5
3.1
0.0
0.7
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.7
2.4
2.0

 Total
(1 000) 
587.9
3.9
93.9
74.1
2 256.8
4.0
147.5
136.1
1 326.1
1 250.1
538.9
36.9
5.5
2.0
141.3
92.3
:
238.9
257.0
15.4
67.8
6.0
2.7
15.0
38.9
216.4
1 173.9

(% share of foreigners from other Member States)
BG CZ DK DE
EL
IE
CY
ES
IT
FR
EE
BE
0.6
2.9
0.0
7.6 19.2 31.8
0.2
0.0
6.0
0.3
-
0.2 43.9
3.6
4.0
2.2
0.6
5.7
0.2
8.9
-
0.5
0.2
0.9
0.0
1.7
0.3
1.9
-
0.0
7.7
4.4
0.3
0.9
1.6
0.0
4.3
5.0
3.2
0.7
0.8
- 19.1
0.8
0.8
0.5 14.3
0.0
4.5 24.8
4.9
1.4
0.2
-
1.8
1.0
0.8
0.1
0.3
0.0
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.0
-
3.7
0.3
0.1
1.0
0.1
2.2
3.2
2.1
0.0
1.8
0.8
3.6
0.3
:
0.3
4.3 12.8
3.9
-
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.0
0.6
1.0 25.8
8.7
0.0
7.9
6.2
-
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.1
0.7 10.4
7.7
2.0
0.0
- 16.0
0.5 12.8
0.4
0.1
0.0
6.2
0.4
0.3
5.4
5.2
0.0
-
2.9
0.4
1.3
0.9
0.1
6.8
0.4
3.3
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.1
0.7 47.3
-
0.3
2.2
0.2
6.5
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.6
1.8
0.6
0.1
0.8
0.4
8.6 13.6
3.6
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.9
3.9
0.3
3.6
0.6
0.7
4.5
6.0 16.8
2.1
1.5
0.0
2.0 14.1 13.4
0.8
0.6
0.1
0.0
1.3
0.1
10.5
7.1
0.2
0.8
1.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2 11.4
1.2
0.3
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
0.0
7.7
6.2
7.1
2.7
1.7
0.8
0.1
1.1 24.5
0.9
10.9
0.0
5.0
2.2
1.0
1.0
0.3
3.1
0.1
0.4 40.6
2.6
0.5
0.1
4.2
4.1
0.2
4.8
1.4
4.3
0.1
0.7 51.2
5.2
1.3
0.0
5.5
0.3 21.5 12.3
0.8
0.2
0.0
1.3 17.5
0.8
3.6
0.0
8.6 29.5
1.5
0.3 26.2
0.0
0.3 11.6
0.2
3.1
1.4
0.1
6.6 15.2
1.5
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.9 21.0
2.6
1.2
3.9
0.1
3.3
4.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.1
0.8 10.9
3.7 29.0
0.8
0.1
2.8
2.9
1.9
1.0
0.8
7.2 39.8
0.5
0.9
0.5
1.7
0.0
2.2
2.5
1.8
2.1
1.1
9.7
0.3 15.2
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.9
7.5
8.5
5.2
1.2
0.3 31.5
8.5
1.4
0.6
1.0
1.0

BE (1)
BG (2)
CZ
DK
DE
EE (2)
IE
EL (2)
ES
FR (2)
IT
CY (2)
LV
LT
LU (2)
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL (2)
PT (1)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK (3)
(1) 2003.
(2) Latest data available are from the last census.
(3) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (migr_st_popctz and cens_nsctz), Central Statistics Office Ireland
(http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1840)

:

The table above shows details concerning the
origin of non-nationals exclusively from other
Member States. It shows, as one may expect,
that the geographical proximity of countries –
among others – can play an important role in
intra-Community  migratory
determining 
patterns.  For  example,  more  than  70 %  of
those EU citizens from another Member State
living  in  Hungary  originated  from  Romania,

over  50 %  of  those  in  the  Czech  Republic
from Slovakia, and slightly more than 40 % of
those in Sweden from Finland according to the
latest national data.

However, a number of other factors play an
important  role  in  determining  migratory
flows  including  socio-economic  factors,  a
job
shared 

language, 

increased 

18

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

         
             
            
             
           
             
           
             
      
             
            
             
         
             
         
             
      
             
      
             
         
             
           
             
            
             
            
             
         
           
           
             
         
             
         
             
           
             
           
             
            
             
            
             
           
             
           
             
         
             
      
             
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 19

1

Table 1.1: Foreigners from other EU Member States, 2006 
(continued from previous page)

(% share of foreigners from other Member States)

4.7
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.2

LV
0.0
0.3
0.1
1.5
0.4

LT
0.0
0.3
0.2
3.2
0.7
35.1 27.4
8.7
0.1
1.1
0.0
0.3
0.1
- 48.4
-
0.0
0.1
:
0.5
0.2
3.2
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.1
1.0
1.0
2.2

PL
AT
0.4
1.9
0.9 14.9
2.5 19.0
9.9
1.1
7.9 13.2
0.2
1.9
0.2 22.3
9.4
1.0
3.1
0.5
0.3
2.7 44.4
1.1 11.3
0.4
0.4
0.8
5.0
1.0 25.0
0.4
1.6
:
1.5

NL
0.0 16.4
0.4
0.1
1.3
0.0
7.4
0.0
5.2
0.0
0.6
0.0
1.4
0.0
1.9
0.0
2.7
0.0
2.0
0.0
1.4
0.1
0.6
0.0
1.0
0.1
3.2
0.1
2.6
0.0
0.7
0.0
:
-
-
0.0
2.2
0.0
2.3
2.4
0.0
0.9
7.1
0.0
2.2
0.0
2.0
2.8 11.0
0.0
1.3
0.0
2.2
0.0
2.4
0.0
3.9
0.5

LU HU MT
0.3
0.7
2.4
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.8
0.0
2.2
0.3
0.2
0.0
1.2
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.1
-
-
0.0
:
:
1.0
0.1
6.5
0.2
2.6
0.0
0.2
0.2
4.4
0.0
0.0
4.0
0.0 11.7
1.8
0.0
1.1
0.0
0.4
0.0

BE (1)
BG (2)
CZ
DK
DE
EE (2)
IE
EL (2)
ES
FR (2)
IT
CY (2)
LV
LT
LU (2)
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL (2)
PT (1)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK (3)
(1) 2003.
(2) Latest data available are from the last census.
(3) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (migr_st_popctz and cens_nsctz), Central Statistics Office Ireland
(http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1840)

RO
PT
0.7
4.4
5.0
0.1
2.8
0.1
2.1
0.9
3.3
5.3
0.0
0.0
0.6
2.7
0.2 16.2
5.5 29.3
0.9
0.8 55.2
4.8
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5 41.5
0.3
0.1 71.8
2.6
:
:
1.3
6.4
8.9
- 12.2
1.3
-
0.9
0.4
-
1.0
4.9
5.3
2.8
5.9 18.9
1.6
2.3
0.7
1.1
7.9
1.4
1.5
9.4
1.7

16.9
0.0
0.0
:
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.1
1.2
0.6
0.4

:
5.1
0.5
0.2
-
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.6
7.2

UK
SE
FI
SK
SI
4.5
0.7
0.5
0.1
0.0
2.1
0.5
0.3
0.3
2.2
0.1
2.4
0.4
0.2 52.6
2.8 15.0 17.4
0.4
0.1
4.3
0.7
0.9
1.0
0.6
3.4
0.0 23.0
0.0
1.4
0.6 39.7
0.3
2.9
0.0
1.6
0.5
0.2
0.0
9.7
1.2 18.8
0.6
0.3
0.0
6.0
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.8
0.5
4.3
1.1 32.2
0.6
0.1
0.0
4.4
3.7
3.7
0.3
0.0
3.8
3.9
4.2
0.2
0.2
3.1
0.8
0.5
0.1
0.0
1.6
0.6
0.4
3.9
0.1
:
:
:
:
:
1.3 17.4
0.9
0.7
0.1
2.9
1.1
0.5
5.2
2.6
2.8
0.3
2.3
0.2
4.4
2.0 23.4
0.8
0.0
0.0
5.3
1.2
0.1
0.4
0.1
5.7
1.2
0.5
9.4
-
3.3
0.5
0.5
0.1
-
7.1
- 21.1
0.3
0.1
6.8
-
0.3 40.2
0.2
-
2.2
0.8
2.1
0.0

opportunities,  or  an  already  established
migrant population from the same country.

Note that the figures shown refer to the stock
of foreigners in each Member State, and not
to  the  annual  flow  of  immigrants.  As  such,
these stocks are heavily influenced by historic
migratory  patterns  (for  example,  the  high

proportion of nationals who have moved back
and  forth  between  Ireland  and  the  United
Kingdom),  as  well  as  more  recent  migratory
patterns  (for  example,  the  relatively  high
proportion  of  citizens  from  Baltic  Member
States and Poland arriving in countries such as
Ireland and the United Kingdom since 2004).

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

19

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 20

1

Table 1.2: Breakdown of foreign population, 2006

Share (% of total foreign population)

Foreigners 
(1 000)
850.1
25.6
258.4
270.1
7 289.1
274.3
419.7
762.2
4 002.5
3 258.5
2 670.5
64.8
456.8
32.9
162.2
156.2
12.0
691.4
814.1
40.7
238.7
26.0
49.0
25.6
113.9
479.9
3 066.1

BE (2)
BG (3)
CZ
DK
DE
EE (3, 4)
IE
EL (3)
ES
FR (3)
IT
CY (3)
LV (4)
LT (4)
LU (3)
HU
MT (5)
NL
AT
PL (3)
PT (2)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK (5)

Share in 
total 
population 
(%)
8.2
0.3
2.5
5.0
8.8
19.6
10.1
7.0
9.1
5.6
4.5
9.4
19.9
1.0
36.9
1.5
3.0
4.2
9.8
0.1
2.3
0.1
2.4
0.5
2.1
5.3
5.2

Europe (1)
77.1
76.3
77.7
59.6
81.1
34.4
71.5
82.1
37.2
47.6
47.3
69.8
99.4
67.9
95.0
83.9
:
52.2
86.8
:
30.2
60.3
97.4
84.1
66.1
65.6
42.2

Africa
15.5
1.4
1.0
7.9
3.8
0.0
8.4
2.1
19.0
43.5
26.0
2.0
0.0
0.2
1.6
1.3
:
16.6
2.6
:
47.8
0.0
0.1
1.2
9.4
6.0
14.8

America
2.9
1.4
1.8
4.2
2.9
0.1
5.0
3.6
38.0
2.5
9.6
1.9
0.1
0.9
1.4
1.9
:
6.0
2.0
:
17.1
2.9
0.8
3.4
3.8
6.2
9.6

Others, 
stateless 
and 
unknown
0.3
0.3
0.2
1.4
0.8
65.4
0.6
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.1
0.1
26.2
0.3
0.3
:
14.0
1.9
:
0.1
11.5
0.1
0.3
1.2
1.5
7.0

Asia Oceania
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.0
3.3
1.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
:
0.6
0.2
:
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.5
3.9

4.1
20.5
19.2
26.4
11.3
0.1
11.2
10.9
5.6
6.3
17.0
24.7
0.3
4.8
1.6
12.5
:
10.6
6.5
:
4.5
25.2
1.5
10.8
19.0
20.1
22.5

(1) Europe is defined as: all EU and EFTA countries, the candidate countries, Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Holy See (Vatican City State), the Republic of Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, the Russian Federation,
San Marino, Serbia, Turkey and the Ukraine.
(2) 2003.
(3) Latest data available are from the last census.
(4) Foreigners in Estonia and Latvia include former Soviet citizens who settled in these countries prior to declarations
of independence and who had not applied for the citizenship of their country of residence at the time of data
collection; in the case of Estonia and Lithuania these persons are considered under unknown (undetermined)
citizenship and are accordingly not attributed to any of the continents; in the case of Latvia, these non-citizens of
Latvia are counted among foreigners from Europe.
(5) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (migr_st_popctz and cens_nsctz), Central Statistics Office Ireland
(http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1840)

20

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

       
            
         
            
       
            
       
            
    
            
       
          
       
          
       
            
    
            
    
            
    
            
         
            
       
          
         
            
       
          
       
            
         
            
       
            
       
            
         
            
       
            
         
            
         
            
         
            
       
            
       
            
    
            
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 21

Figure 1.3: Acquisition of citizenship, 2005 (‰ of total population)

1

10

8

6

4

2

0

V
L

Y
C

E
E

E
S

T
A

)
1
(

E
B

K
U

R
F

U
L

K
D

L
N

E
D

I
S

I
F

S
E

E
I

)
2
(

U
H

K
S

Z
C

)
1
(

)
1
(

)
2
(

T
L

L
P

O
R

T
I

L
E

T
P

)
3
(

)
3
(

G
B

T
M

H
C

O
N

R
T

K
M

)
2
(

)
4
(

S
I

R
H

(1) 2003.
(2) 2004.
(3) Not available.
(4) 2002.
Source: Eurostat (migr_acqctz)

The 
total  stock  of  non-nationals  on
1 January  2006  in  the  27  Member  States
was, according to Eurostat estimates, almost
28 million persons. The absolute number of
foreigners  in  a  Member  State  is  clearly
influenced by the size of each country, with
the  highest  number  of  foreigners  being
registered in Germany (almost 7.3 million in
2005),  followed  by  Spain  (just  over  4
million),  France  (3.3  million),  the  United
Kingdom (more than 3 million in 2005) and
Italy (2.7 million).

Historic  ties,  language  and  a  mix  of
geographical  proximity  and  socio-economic
factors are likely to play an important role in
determining  the  origin  of  foreigners  by
continent.  In  most  countries,  Europeans
made up the largest group of foreigners (on

the  basis  of  a  breakdown  by  continent);
accounting  for  an  absolute  majority  –  over
50 %  –  of  foreigners  in  19  of  the  25
for  which  data  are
Member  States 
presented.  Note  that 
in  Estonia  and
Lithuania  the  share  of  foreigners  with
unknown  citizenship  includes  former  Soviet
citizens who settled in these countries prior
to  declarations  of  independence  and  who
had  not  applied  for  the  citizenship  of  their
country  of  residence  at  the  time  of  data
collection;  in  the  case  of  Latvia,  these
persons  are  defined  as  ‘non-citizens  of
Latvia’  and  are  counted  among 
the
foreigners  from  Europe.  The  remaining
Member  States  where  Europeans  did  not
account  for  an  absolute  majority  of  the
foreign  population  are  Spain,  France,  Italy,
Portugal and the United Kingdom.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

21

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 22

1

Figure 1.4: Components of population growth, EU-27 (million)

3

2

1

0

1997 (1)

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Net migration

Natural increase

(1) 1997 includes only metropolitan France.
Source: Eurostat (demo_gind)

The  statistics  presented  in  this  section  refer
to  citizenship  of  individuals.  In  some  cases
migrants  may  be  attracted  to  becoming
citizens of their host country. The procedure
to  take  this  step  varies  from  one  Member
State  to  another,  although  often  migrants
will need to satisfy a number of conditions,
such as speaking the host country language,
residing in the host country for a minimum
number  of  years,  passing  a  citizenship  test,
or taking part in a citizenship ceremony.

The  integration  of  third  country  nationals
(INTI)  programme (13) provided  support
through to the end of 2006 for actions that
promoted  the  integration  of  people  who
were  not  citizens  of  the  EU.  The  general
objective  of  this  instrument  was  to  support

(13) See: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/funding/
2004_2007/inti/funding_inti_en.htm.

the efforts of Member States to enable third
country  nationals  to  fulfil  conditions  of
residence  and  to  facilitate  their  integration
into European societies. The programme was
targeted primarily at new arrivals from non-
member  countries  and  its  actions  were
complementary  with  specific  actions  to
increase  the  participation  of  migrants  in
employment  under  the  European  Social
Fund (ESF). INTI did not cover the integration
of  refugees  and  beneficiaries  of  subsidiary
protection,  as  these  actions  fall  under  the
European Refugee Fund (ERF). As of the start
of 2007, INTI was replaced by the European
fund  for  the  integration  of  third-country
nationals,  set  up  as  part  of  the  new
framework programme for the solidarity and
management of migration flows (see below
for more details).

22

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 23

Figure 1.5: Population change, 2006 (‰ of total population)

1

30

20

10

0

-10

)
1
(

S
E

Y
C

)
1
(

E
S

K
U

T
I

)
1
(

R
F

E
I

U
L

E
B

)
1
(

7
2
-
U
E

T
M

L
E

I
F

T
A

K
D

Z
C

i
S

T
P

L
N

K
S

L
P

U
H

E
D

E
E

O
R

G
B

T
L

V
L

S
I

R
T

I

O L
N

H
C

K
M

)
1
(

R
H

Net migration
Natural increase

(1) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (demo_gind)

has 

growth 

In  recent  years,  as  the  rate  of  natural
population  increase  (births  minus  deaths)
has  slowed,  due  to  declining  fertility  rates,
the  contribution  of  migration  to  overall
population 
increased
considerably. In some countries there will be
a significant further change in the structure
the  baby-boom (14)
of  population  as 
generation  reach  retirement.  Migratory
flows  cannot  easily  be  predicted,  as
migratory patterns can depend on a variety
of  economic  and  political  factors.  Conflicts
within  and  between  countries  may  lead  to
considerable  unexpected  movements  of
people  –  for  example,  the  peak  in  net
migration  into  the  EU-27  in  1999  can  be
attributed (at least in part) to the war in the
Balkans.

The EU-27’s population grew by 2.1 million
in 2005 with net migration approximately six
times as high as the level of natural increase.
In  relative  terms,  for  each  1 000  persons  in
the  EU-27’s  population 
in  2005,  the
population  grew  by  0.6  persons  due  to
natural increase and by 3.6 persons because
of  net  migration.  In  several  Member  States
the number of deaths exceeded the number
of  births  in  2006,  resulting  in  a  natural
decrease of the population. In Hungary and
Germany this natural decrease was (at least
in  part)  compensated  for  by  an  increase  in
net migration. On the other hand, in Latvia,
Lithuania  and  Romania,  natural  population
decrease  was  compounded  by  migratory
flows,  with  a  higher  number  of  emigrants
than immigrants.

(14) A phenomenon associated with an increase in birth
rates witnessed in many countries during the 1950s
and 1960s.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

23

 
 
 
 
 
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 24

1

Figure 1.6: Immigration and emigration, 2006 (‰ of total population)

40

30

20

10

0

)
1
(

U
L

)
2
(

E
I

)
2
(

Y
C

)
2
(

S
E

)
2
(

T
A

E
S

K
D

)
2
(

I
S

)
1
(

K
U

)
3
(

E
B

)
2
(

E
D

Z
C

L
N

T
I

I
F

T
P

T
L

V
L

K
S

)
3
(

U
H

)
4
(

R
F

)
1
(

T
M

O
R

L
P

)
5
(

G
B

)
5
(

E
E

)
5
(

L
E

O
N

R
H

S
I

)
1
(

H
C

)
3
(

K
M

Immigrants

Emigrants

(1) 2005.
(2) Provisional.
(3) 2004.
(4) Excludes nationals and EU immigration from EU-15 Member States; emigration data, not available.
(5) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (demo_gind)

Immigrants  and  emigrants  are  defined  as
persons  arriving  or  leaving  a  country  for  a
period of more than one year. In contrast to
the  data  shown  earlier  in  this  section  that
focused  on  the  stock  of  persons  by
citizenship,  the  data  shown  here  relate  to
the flows of migrants each year. The highest
proportion of immigrants and emigrants was
recorded  in  Luxembourg  (2005)  where  for
every  1 000  persons  there  were  29.7
immigrants and 23.8 emigrants. The largest
differences  between  rates  of  immigration
and  emigration  were  registered  in  Ireland
and Spain.

the  EU  and 

The  EU’s  solidarity  and  management  of
migration  flows  framework  programme  for
the  period  2007-2013 (15)
is  designed  to
address  the  issue  of  sharing  responsibilities
between  Member  States  as  regards  the
introduction of integrated management of the
the
external  borders  of 
implementation  of  common  policies  on
asylum and immigration; it has replaced INTI.
It  consists  of  four  financial  instruments:  the
external  borders  fund  and  the  integration
fund  (both  applicable  from  1  January  2007)
and  the  return  fund  and  European  refugee
fund  (both  applicable  from  1  January  2008).
Just over 45 % of the overall budget for the
programme  for  the  period  2007  to  2013  is
devoted to the external borders fund, 20.5 %
to  integration,  17.4 %  to  the  refugee  fund,
and 16.8 % for the return fund.

(15) See: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/funding/
integration/funding_integration_en.htm.

24

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 25

Table 1.3: Immigration of non-nationals, 2005

Share (% of total immigrants)

1

Africa
21.0
:
0.8
3.8
4.4
:
:
:
17.7
64.4
17.8
1.2
0.2
0.3
4.6
1.6
:
9.5
4.3
:
33.6
1.1
0.2
1.6
10.8
10.0
13.1
0.2
0.4
1.6
12.0
5.4

Europe (1)
60.4
:
80.2
64.7
74.9
:
:
:
41.5
15.0
57.8
79.0
89.7
66.5
88.1
83.2
:
51.9
79.8
:
41.1
79.6
97.2
77.3
59.6
52.8
33.8
94.5
92.3
62.2
56.0
73.3

 Immigrants 
(1 000) 
68.8
:
58.6
30.0
579.3
:
67.2
:
682.7
140.1
392.8
21.9
1.2
2.1
12.3
22.2
:
63.4
101.5
9.4
16.8
3.7
13.3
7.7
12.7
51.3
407.4
1.5
2.1
179.0
31.4
99.1

BE (2)
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR (3, 4)
IT (2)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU (3)
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT (3)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR (3)
MK
TR
NO
CH
(1) Europe is defined as: all EU and EFTA countries, the candidate countries, Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Holy See (Vatican City State), the Republic of Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, the Russian Federation,
San Marino, Serbia, Turkey and the Ukraine.
(2) 2003.
(3) 2004.
(4) Excludes nationals and EU immigration from EU-15 Member States.
Source: Eurostat (migr_immiagec)

America
7.7
:
2.9
9.5
5.8
:
:
:
33.8
8.7
12.6
2.0
5.0
8.2
3.8
2.8
:
11.3
3.3
:
20.2
13.0
0.9
4.8
4.7
6.2
6.7
2.3
3.6
4.3
5.7
9.9

Oceania
0.4
:
0.2
1.5
0.4
:
:
:
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.3
:
1.3
0.3
:
0.0
0.9
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.6
8.4
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.7
0.7

Asia
10.2
:
15.8
20.2
14.1
:
:
:
6.9
11.4
11.7
16.8
4.7
10.9
2.6
12.1
:
18.8
10.3
:
5.0
5.5
1.4
15.9
23.7
28.8
37.9
2.4
3.2
29.6
25.0
10.8

Others, 
stateless 
and 
unknown 
0.3
:
0.0
0.4
0.3
:
:
:
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
13.9
0.9
0.0
:
7.2
2.1
:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.7
1.7
0.1
0.2
0.4
1.7
0.6
0.0

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

25

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 26

1

Table 1.4: Immigrants and emigrants, by gender, 2006 (1 000) (1)

                    Immigrants

                   Emigrants

BE (2)
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU (3)
HU (4)
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK (3)
HR
MK
IS
NO
CH (3)

Male
39.6
:
42.0
29.4
394.0
:
48.5
:
438.0
:
137.2
5.6
1.5
4.4
7.4
13.5
:
51.7
55.6
5.9
20.9
4.8
15.7
3.5
11.6
50.7
273.1
8.2
0.3
6.5
24.7
62.0

Female
42.3
:
26.2
27.4
268.0
:
38.4
:
375.8
:
160.5
9.8
1.3
3.4
6.1
10.8
:
49.5
45.3
4.9
17.9
3.0
4.5
2.1
10.8
45.0
223.3
6.8
0.2
3.3
21.1
56.3

Male
21.2
:
20.4
24.8
394.0
:
9.1
:
99.8
:
40.7
2.2
2.5
6.1
6.3
2.3
:
73.9
43.6
27.2
7.3
5.3
10.6
0.7
6.0
23.9
187.1
3.8
0.6
2.5
11.2
43.2

Female
20.7
:
13.1
22.0
245.0
:
7.8
:
85.7
:
34.5
4.8
2.8
6.5
4.5
1.5
:
58.6
29.9
19.7
5.4
8.9
3.3
1.0
6.1
21.0
141.3
3.9
0.5
2.1
10.8
38.9

(1) Data cover both nationals and non-nationals, except Romania: immigration covers only foreigners and emigration
only nationals.
(2) 2003.
(3) 2005.
(4) 2004.
Source: Eurostat (demo_gind)

Migrant flows in 2006 confirm that in most
Member  States  a  higher  number  of  men

than  women 
immigrate.

tend 

to  emigrate  and

26

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 27

Figure 1.7: Asylum applications, EU (1 000) (1)

1

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

5
8
9
1

6
8
9
1

7
8
9
1

8
8
9
1

9
8
9
1

0
9
9
1

1
9
9
1

2
9
9
1

3
9
9
1

4
9
9
1

5
9
9
1

6
9
9
1

7
9
9
1

8
9
9
1

9
9
9
1

0
0
0
2

1
0
0
2

2
0
0
2

3
0
0
2

4
0
0
2

5
0
0
2

6
0
0
2

(1) European Union (EU-12 up to 1994, EU-15 up to 2004, EU-25 up to 2006).
Source: Eurostat (migr_asyctz)

Asylum  is  a  form  of  protection  given  by  a
State on its territory based on internationally
recognised refugee rights. It is granted to a
person  who  is  unable  to  seek  protection  in
his/her  country  of  citizenship  and/or
residence  –  in  particular  for  fear  of  being
persecuted  for  reasons  of  race,  religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social
group or political opinion.

Central  to  refugee  and  asylum  issues  is  the
Geneva  Convention (16),  which 
has
addressed global refugee issues for over 50
years.  Its  purpose  is  to  define  who  is  a
refugee  and  to  lay  down  a  common
approach  to  be  taken  towards  refugees.
Respect  of  the  Convention  has  been  a
constant  theme  in  the  negotiations  for  a
Common  European  Asylum  System.  Within
this framework:

The aims and principles of a common asylum
policy  were  agreed  in  October  1999  at  the
European  Council  in  Tampere  (Finland).  In
the longer term, this policy should lead to a
common  asylum  procedure  and  a  uniform
status for those granted asylum that is valid
throughout the EU.

-

the  Dublin  Regulation  contains  rules
about the Member State responsible for
assessing an application for asylum; it is
an 
the
prevention of multiple demands;

instrument 

important 

for 

(16) Convention relating to the status of refugees,
adopted on 28 July 1951 by the United Nations
conference of plenipotentiaries on the status of
refugees and stateless persons convened under general
assembly resolution 429 (V) of 14 December 1950, see:
http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/refugees.htm.

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ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 28

1

Figure 1.8: Asylum applications, EU-27, 2005 (%) (1)

Asia
35.9%

Others, stateless 
and unknown
2.4%

Oceania
0.0%

Americas
3.9%

Africa
26.9%

Europe (2)
30.8%

(1) Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.
(2) Europe is defined as: all EU and EFTA countries, the candidate countries, Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Holy See (Vatican City State), the Republic of Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, the Russian Federation,
San Marino, Serbia, Turkey and the Ukraine.
Source: Eurostat (migr_asyctz)

-

-

the  Reception  Conditions  Directive
guarantees  minimum  standards  for  the
reception  of  asylum-seekers,  including
housing, education and health;

-

the  Qualification  Directive  contains  a
clear  set  of  criteria  for  qualifying  either
for  refugee  or  subsidiary  protection
status;  the  Directive  also  introduces  a
subsidiary
harmonised 
protection  in  the  EU  for  those  persons
who fall outside the scope of the Geneva
Convention  but  who  nevertheless  still
need  international  protection,  such  as
victims of general violence or civil war;

regime 

for 

the Asylum Procedures Directive ensures
that throughout the EU, all procedures at
first  instance  are  subject  to  the  same
minimum  standards  (for  example,  the
right  to  be 
invited  to  a  personal
interview,  or  basic  principles  and
guarantees relating to interpretation and
access to legal aid).

The European refugee fund (ERF) promotes a
balanced  approach  to  the  efforts  that  the
Member  States  make  in  receiving  asylum
seekers, refugees and displaced persons. The
ERF  also  supports  actions  to  promote  the
social and economic integration of refugees
and their return to their countries of origin,
if they so wish.

28

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ch01.qxp  08/11/2007  11:23  Page 29

Figure 1.9: Asylum decisions and rejections, 2006 
(% of total asylum decisions) (1)

1

100
75
50
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100

7
2
-
U
E

T
L

V
L

T
I

E
S

T
M

U
L

L
P

L
N

E
B

T
P

I
F

T
A

K
D

K
U

O
R

G
B

Z
C

U
H

E
I

R
F

E
D

S
E

Y
C

L
E

I
S

K
S

E
E

S
O I
N

Positive decisions
Rejections

(1) Provisional; the sum of positive decisions and rejections does not always equal 100 % as some decisions are not
definitive.
Source: Eurostat (migr_asydctzy)

In  2005  new  asylum  applications  to  the
EU-27  were  concentrated  among  persons
from 
three  different  continents:  Asia
(35.9 %),  Europe  (30.8 %)  and  Africa
(26.9 %).  The  total  number  of  applications
for  asylum  in  the  same  year  numbered
227 520.

Fresher  information  is  available  as  regards
the  proportion  of  asylum  decisions  that
resulted  in  positive  decisions  or  rejections.
Across  the  EU-27  almost  one  quarter
(23.2 %)  of  the  decisions  in  2006  were
positive, while 57.8 % of decisions ended in
rejections.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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2

2. Patterns of education and research
influencing intercultural dialogue

languages, 

Education has the potential to play a key role
in  promoting  intercultural  dialogue  on  a
number  of  levels,  for  example,  learning
foreign 
understanding
geographical, historical or political issues that
affect  another  country,  or  enjoying  works  of
art  and  literature  from  another  country.  In
multicultural  societies  school  children  can,
from  an  early  age,  be  exposed  to  other
persons  from  different  cultural  backgrounds
(different  nationalities,  regional  and  ethnic
backgrounds, etc.). Classes at school have the
potential  to  promote  cultural  diversity  in
relation  to  a  broad  range  of  issues,  such  as
languages,  religious  education,
learning 
history, 
active
geography, 
citizenship, art, or sport.

sociology, 

European citizens can also come into contact
with  other  European  cultures 
through
education  and  training  –  for  example,  by
taking part in cultural exchanges and learning
other  languages.  A  number  of  programmes
have  supported  cooperation  in  education,
training and cultural fields, including:

-

the  Socrates  programme  that  encouraged
the creation of thematic networks between
university departments in Europe; it also co-
financed  cooperation  between  European
schools  in  the  fields,  amongst  others,  of
language  teaching  and  of  intercultural
dialogue (subsequently integrated into the
Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP));

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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2

-

-

-

the  Leonardo  da  Vinci  programme
supported  cooperation  between  training
institutions,  including  universities  and
companies, in order to improve the quality
Europe
of 
(subsequently  integrated  into  the  Lifelong
Learning Programme (LLP));

vocational 

training 

in 

to 

the  Directorate-General
According 
Education  and  Training,  there  were  over  60
indigenous  regional  or  minority  languages
existing within the EU in 2005 (21) – on top of
the 23 official EU languages (as of 2007) - and
a  wide  range  of  non-indigenous  languages
from other countries.

the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme  (LLP)
2007-2013 that encompasses all European
programmes in the field of lifelong learning
(based  on  previous  programmes  for  the
period  2000-2006  such  as  Socrates,
Leonardo da Vinci, eLearning and the Jean
Monnet action (17));

the  TEMPUS  programme  2007-2013 (18),
which  covers  all  the  beneficiaries  of  the
TACIS (19) programme, the Western Balkans
beneficiaries  of  the  CARDS  programme,
the  Euro-
countries  of 
and 
Mediterranean  partnership  beneficiaries  of
the MEDA programme. TEMPUS focuses on
institution-based university cooperation;

the 

Article  22  of  the  European  Charter  of
Fundamental  Rights  states  that  ‘the  Union
respects  cultural,  religious  and  linguistic
diversity’.  The  EU  takes  actions  to  safeguard
and promote regional and minority languages
within Europe – for example, Basque, Catalan
or Galician in Spain. The definition of regional
or  minority  language  as  defined  by  the
European  Charter  for  Regional  or  Minority
Languages  (supervised  by  the  Council  of
Europe) and adopted by many of the Member
States, is that of ‘languages traditionally used
by  part  of  the  population  of  a  state  that  are
not dialects of official languages of the state,
languages  of  migrants  or  artificially  created
languages’.

- Erasmus  Mundus  is  a  higher  education
cooperation  programme  with  different
countries from all over the world (20): it aims
to  fund  higher  education  students  and
teaching  staff  mobility  activities  between
European universities and universities from
targeted non-member countries.

(17) Decision No 1720/2006/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2006
establishing an action programme in the field of
lifelong learning, see: http://ec.europa.eu/education/
programmes/llp/index_en.html.
(18) See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/
tempus/index_en.html.
(19) See: http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/
ceeca/tacis.
(20) See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/
mundus/index_en.html.

It  is  estimated  that  as  many  as  40  million
citizens  of  the  EU  regularly  use  a  regional  or
minority  indigenous  language  that  has  been
passed on from generation to generation (22).
The social, economic and political situation of
such  communities  may  however  vary
enormously.  For  example,  there  are  around
7 million  people  speaking  Catalan  in  Spain,
France and Alghero (Sardinia), whereas there
are  just  a  few  hundred  speaking  Saami,  a
family  of  languages  spoken  by  indigenous
peoples in northern Finland, Sweden, Norway

(21) See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/
languages/langmin/regmin_en.html.
(22) See: European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages
(EBLUL), http://www.eblul.org.

32

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  16:34  Page 33

Table 2.1: Mother tongue(s) spoken, 2005 (% of population) (1)

2

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR

State 
languages (2)
Dutch (56%) French (38%) German (0.4%)
90.0%
98.0%
97.0%
90.0%
82.0%
English (94%) Irish (11%)
99.0%
Spanish (89%) Catalan (9%) Galician (5%) Basque (1%)
93.0%
95.0%
98.0%
73.0%
88.0%
Luxembourgish (77%) French (6%) German (4%)
100.0%
Maltese (97%) English (2%)
96.0%
96.0%
98.0%
100.0%
95.0%
95.0%
88.0%
Finnish (94%) Swedish (5%)
95.0%
92.0%
98.0%
93.0%

Other 
languages 
(4)
3.0%
11.0%
0.7%
2.0%
8.0%
18.0%
0.2%
0.7%
2.0%
3.0%
1.0%
1.0%
27.0%
7.0%
0.8%
0.6%
-
3.0%
2.0%
1.0%
0.1%
0.7%
5.0%
2.0%
0.4%
2.0%
5.0%
0.8%
7.0%
(1) The question allows for multiple answers i.e. the respondents may name several languages as their mother tongue.
(2) This category includes official EU languages and other national languages (Catalan, Galician, Basque and
Luxembourgish), as well as Croatian and Turkish.
(3) This category includes official EU languages that are spoken in a country where they are not state languages.
(4) This category includes non-indigenous languages and regional/minority languages that do not have official status.
Source: Eurobarometer special 243 - Europeans and their languages (2005)

Other official 
EU languages 
(3)
5.0%
0.4%
2.0%
2.0%
3.0%
1.0%
2.0%
0.2%
1.0%
6.0%
5.0%
2.0%
1.0%
5.0%
14.0%
0.8%
0.6%
3.0%
3.0%
1.0%
0.6%
6.0%
1.0%
12.0%
0.8%
5.0%
3.0%
1.0%
0.5%

and Russia. Many of these communities have
links over considerable distances, such as the
Celtic  cultures  found  in  the  north-west  of
Portugal and Spain, Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland
and Scotland.

A Council Resolution on linguistic diversity (23)
acknowledges the important role that can be

(23) Council Resolution of 14 February 2002 on the
promotion of linguistic diversity and language learning
in the framework of the implementation of the
objectives of the European Year of Languages 2001,
see: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/
2002/c_050/c_05020020223en00010002.pdf.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

33

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 34

2

Figure 2.1: Languages spoken well enough to have a conversation
(excluding mother tongue), EU-25, 2005 (% of the population)

0

20

40

60

At least 1 language

At least 2 languages

At least 3 languages

None

Source: Eurobarometer special 243 - Europeans and their languages (2005)

Figure 2.2: Languages most commonly used, EU-25, 2005 
(% of the population)

0

20

40

60

English

German

French

Italian

Spanish

Polish

Russian

Source: Eurobarometer special 243 - Europeans and their languages (2005)

Mother tongue

Foreign language

played  by  languages  in  social,  economic  and
political integration, particularly in an enlarged
Europe.  The  Resolution  argues  that  the
learning  of 
languages  opens  doors  to
understanding different cultures and that the
knowledge,
EU 
preservation  and  dissemination  of  European

encourage 

should 

languages,  as  well  as  languages  of  third
countries with which it cooperates.

A European year of languages was organised
in 2001 by the EU and the Council of Europe.
language,
This  campaign  covered  sign 
national,  regional  and  minority  languages,

34

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 35

2

Figure 2.3: Main reasons for learning a new language, EU-25 (%)

0

20

40

60

To use on holiday abroad

To use at work (including business travel)
Personal satisfaction

To work in another country

To get a better job (in home country)

To understand people from other cultures

To know a language spoken around the world
To meet people from other countries

To be able to study in another country

Source: Eurobarometer special 243 - Europeans and their languages (2005)

2001
2005

Figure 2.4: Average number of foreign languages learned per pupil, 2005
(languages)

3

2

1

0

I

U F
L

L
N

E
E

E
B

K
D

E
S

Z
C

L
P

I

O S
R

K
S

T
A

G
B

V
L

Y
C

T
L

E
D

U
H

S
E

L
E

T

I

T
M

E

I

T
P

K
U

)
3
(

R
F

S

I

R
H

)
4
(

L
A

)
5
(

R
T

Lower secondary education (ISCED 2) (1) 

Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) (2)

(1) Lower secondary education (ISCED 2) generally continues the basic programmes of the primary level, although
teaching is typically subject-focused, often employing more specialised teachers who conduct classes in their field of
specialisation.
(2) Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) corresponds to the final stage of secondary education in most OECD
countries.
(3) ISCED 3, not available.
(4) 2003.
(5) 2004; ISCED 2, not available.
Source: Eurostat (educ_thfrlan)

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

35

 
 
 
ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 36

2

Figure 2.5: Proportion of pupils in secondary education learning foreign
languages, 2005 (%) (1)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

U
L

L
N

I
F

E
E

T
M

E
B

K
D

I

V S
L

E
S

T
I

T
A

T
L

O
R

Z
C

E
I

K
S

S
E

T
P

L
E

G
B

)
2
(

R
F

)
3
(

K
U

)
4
(

E
D

)
4
(

Y
C

)
4
(

U
H

)
4
(

L
P

)
5
(

S
I

)
5
(

R
H

No languages
1 language
2 languages
3 or more languages

(1) ISCED 2 and 3 combined.
(2) 2004.
(3) Only no languages available.
(4) Not available.
(5) 2003.
Source: Eurostat (educ_thfrlan)

languages of migrants, and also languages of
other  continents.  The  event  had  the  goal  of
creating  public  awareness  regarding  the
importance  of  learning  languages  regardless
of age. As a result, the date of 26 September
was  subsequently  chosen  to  ensure  that
language issues have a focal point every year.

encourage  Europeans  to  know  at  least  two
languages in addition to their mother tongue.
A  Eurobarometer  study (25) conducted  in
November  and  December  2005  shows  that
just  over  a  quarter  (28  %)  of  the  EU-25’s
population  could  hold  a  conversation  in  at
least two foreign languages.

(25) Eurobarometer special 243, Europeans and their
languages, see: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/
archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf.

In 2003, the European Commission presented
an action plan for the promotion of language
learning  and 
(2004-
2006) (24).  One  of  its  main  goals  was  to

linguistic  diversity 

(24) Communication from the Commission to the
Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and
Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,
promoting language learning and linguistic diversity: an
action plan 2004-2006, COM(2003) 449 final, see:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/official/keydoc/
actlang/act_lang_en.pdf.

36

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ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 37

The  same  Eurobarometer  study  shows  that
between  2001  and  2005  an  increasing
number of persons in the EU-25 were learning
languages for use on holidays or for personal
satisfaction.  In  addition,  there  were  more
persons learning foreign languages in order to
understand  people  from  other  cultures,  to
know a language spoken around the world, or
to meet people from other countries – all three
of which may be related to a desire to improve
intercultural  dialogue.  However,  there  was  a
reduction  in  the  proportion  of  persons
learning  a  foreign  language  so  they  could
work  in  another  country,  study  in  another
country, or use it at work.

The  EU  has  encouraged  language  learning
through its educational programmes (Socrates
and  ERASMUS)  and  vocational  training
programmes  (Leonardo  da  Vinci).  Education
activities  carried  out  under  the  Socrates
programme  were  designed  to  encourage
linguistic  exchanges  between  young  people
and  the  training  of  language  teachers.
Socrates also targeted adults, and encouraged
them to engage in lifelong learning, including
learning 
its  Lingua
languages  through 
element.  One  of  the  objectives  of  the
Leonardo da Vinci training programme was to
and
improve 
multilingual and multicultural communication
within 
the  working  environment.  The
ERASMUS  exchange  programme  enables
higher-education  students  to  study  in  a
foreign country.

occupational  mobility 

2

language  competences (26) was  outlined
within  a  Commission  communication.  The
purpose  of  the  survey  is  to  measure  overall
foreign 
in  each
language  competence 
Member State. Initially this will be done with
reference to receptive skills – reading, listening
and  writing  –  while  it  is  intended  to  include
speaking in subsequent rounds.

For  the  period  2007-2013,  the  Lifelong
Learning  Programme 
(LLP)  has  been
established  as  the  successor  to  the  Socrates,
eLearning
Leonardo 
programmes. It has been designed to support
projects  and  activities  that  foster  exchange,
cooperation and mobility between education
and training systems within the EU.

da  Vinci 

and 

The  LLP  is  a  structure  built  on  four  pillars,
which address teaching and learning needs of
individuals,  as  well  as  the  institutions  and
organisations providing education, within the
following specific areas:

-

-

-

-

the  Comenius  programme  for  pre-school
and  school  education  up  to  the  end  of
upper secondary education;

the  ERASMUS  programme  for  higher
education;

the  Leonardo  da  Vinci  programme  for
vocational education and training;

the  Grundtvig  programme  for  adult
education.

In  order  to  have  a  sound  basis  for  following
the evolution of language learning across the
EU, a framework for the European survey on

(26) COM(2007) 184 final of 13 April 2007; see:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/
com184_en.pdf.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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2

Table 2.2: Proportion of pupils in secondary education learning specific
foreign languages, 2005 (%) (1)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR (2)
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR (2)
IS
AL (3)

English
68.7
71.8
77.6
98.9
94.6
93.0
-
97.1
97.6
96.5
87.6
94.2
96.0
87.8
63.7
62.8
94.0
:
98.8
81.2
78.5
93.4
93.7
71.6
99.4
100.0
-
87.9
66.1
88.1
63.2

French
52.1
12.6
5.5
14.8
24.4
3.6
66.3
38.0
36.1
-
35.9
65.8
1.6
4.8
99.2
3.1
36.2
:
13.3
5.6
60.8
85.6
4.7
4.1
12.0
18.3
32.2
1.6
0.8
9.4
21.6

German
14.2
25.1
34.8
83.7
-
29.6
21.6
21.7
2.1
18.4
5.5
2.2
23.9
26.3
99.2
45.9
7.3
:
-
46.2
1.4
11.1
45.4
44.6
24.1
27.3
12.3
39.0
3.8
19.0
-

Spanish
2.2
3.3
1.5
8.3
3.8
0.2
7.6
-
-
41.6
3.7
3.1
0.2
0.1
1.8
0.6
2.3
:
2.3
0.4
1.0
0.8
1.6
0.9
3.6
29.8
6.7
0.3
-
8.4
-

Russian
-
26.8
1.3
0.1
2.0
59.6
0.0
-
-
0.3
-
0.6
45.7
54.9
-
0.4
0.0
:
0.8
7.0
:
2.3
0.1
3.8
2.6
0.1
:
0.1
-
0.2
0.2

(1) ISCED 2 and 3 combined.
(2) 2004.
(3) 2003.
Source: Eurostat (educ_ilang)

Erasmus  Mundus (27)
is  a  programme  that
promotes the EU as a centre of excellence in
learning  around  the  world,  by  supporting
inter-university EU masters courses, as well as
providing  EU-funded  scholarships  for  third
country  nationals  participating  in  these

(27) See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/
mundus/index_en.html.

European  postgraduate  programmes,  or  for
in  non-member
EU  nationals  studying 
countries.  It  aims  to  enhance  quality  in
European  higher  education  and  to  promote
intercultural 
through
cooperation  with  third  countries.  Erasmus
Mundus also offers a framework for valuable

understanding 

38

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 39

2

Table 2.3: Proportion of tertiary education students studying abroad in
another EU-27, EEA or candidate country (% of students) (1)

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

1998
2.0
:
1.9
1.0
2.6
1.6
2.3
11.7
13.8
1.0
1.3
1.4
:
1.0
1.5
71.8
1.8
:
1.5
4.0
0.9
2.3
1.5
1.9
2.6
2.9
2.7
0.7

1999
2.2
2.5
2.6
1.2
2.8
1.9
2.4
11.1
14.1
1.1
1.9
1.8
32.7
1.2
1.5
71.4
1.8
8.3
2.2
4.2
0.9
2.6
1.7
1.7
3.0
3.3
2.7
0.7

2000
2.1
2.4
3.2
1.3
2.7
1.8
2.5
9.4
12.4
1.1
1.8
1.7
46.5
1.3
1.8
74.5
1.7
8.2
1.9
3.8
0.9
2.3
1.5
2.2
3.0
3.2
2.7
0.6

2001
2.1
2.4
4.3
1.5
2.6
1.9
3.2
8.0
10.9
1.2
1.9
1.7
44.4
1.4
2.0
68.6
1.8
6.9
1.8
3.8
0.9
2.3
2.0
1.8
5.5
3.0
2.7
0.6

2002
2.1
2.4
6.0
1.6
2.6
1.9
3.0
7.4
8.6
1.1
1.9
1.6
52.2
1.3
2.1
66.0
1.7
12.4
1.7
4.7
1.0
2.3
2.1
1.7
6.4
3.0
2.4
0.5

2003
2.2
2.6
7.4
1.8
2.7
1.9
3.2
7.5
7.9
1.2
1.9
1.6
53.6
1.7
2.3
66.7
1.7
5.9
1.8
4.7
1.1
2.5
2.2
2.4
7.9
3.0
2.3
0.5

2004
2.2
2.6
8.6
1.8
2.5
1.9
3.5
8.5
7.3
1.2
2.0
1.6
54.8
1.6
2.3
:
1.5
8.4
1.8
5.3
1.2
2.7
2.4
2.1
8.2
2.9
2.2
0.6

2005
2.2
2.6
8.7
1.8
2.3
2.2
3.6
8.8
5.9
1.1
2.0
1.5
56.5
1.6
2.5
:
1.5
7.9
1.2
4.4
1.3
3.0
2.3
2.0
8.6
2.6
2.2
0.4

(1) Tertiary students as defined by ISCED 5-6.
Source: Eurostat (educ_thmob)

exchange and dialogue between cultures. It is
seen  as  a  useful  means  to  respond  to  the
challenges  European  higher  education  faces
today, in particular the need to stimulate the
process  of  the  convergence  of  degree
structures  and  to  enhance  the  attractiveness
of European higher education worldwide.

The four LLP pillars are complemented by the
Jean Monnet programme (28), which supports
institutions  and  activities  in  the  field  of
European  integration,  for  example,  the
College  of  Europe  in  Bruges,  the  European
in  Florence,  or  the
University 
European Institute of Public Administration in
Maastricht.

Institute 

(28) See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/
ajm/index_en.html.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

39

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 40

2

Figure 2.6: Foreign students in tertiary education, EU-27, 2004 
(% of total foreign students) (1)

South America
3.5%

Oceania
0.3%

Unknown
4.0%

North America
4.4%

Other Europe
8.3%

Africa
17.4%

(1) Tertiary students as defined by ISCED 5-6.
Source: Eurostat (educ_enrl8)

EU-27
33.2%

Asia
28.8%

Figure 2.7: Proportion of tertiary education students studying abroad,
2005 (%) (1)

80
75
70
65
60
55

25
20
15
10
5
0

7
2
-
U
E

U
L

T
A

E
B

E
D

K
U

E
S

K
D

Y
C

Z
C

L
N

G
B

R
F

T
M

U
H

)
2
(

E

I

L
E

I
F

)
2
(

T
P

V
L

T

I

I

S

S
E

K
S

O
R

T
L

L
P

E
E

I
L

S
O I
N

K
M

R
H

R
T

Students studying in another EU-27, EEA or Candidate country (% of students)

Inflow of students from EU-27, EEA and Candidate countries (% of students in host country)

(1) Tertiary students as defined by ISCED 5-6.
(2) Inflow of students, 2004.
Source: Eurostat (educ_thmob)

Of  the  1.15  million  foreign  students  in  the
EU-27’s  tertiary  education  sector  in  2004,
around  one  third  (33.2 %)  were  from  other
Member  States,  while  Asian  and  African

students  formed  the  next  largest  groups  of
foreign students studying in the EU – together
accounting for 46.2 % of the total number of
foreign students.

40

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 41

Table 2.4: Students in tertiary education who are non-citizens, by field 
of education, 2004 (% of total non-citizens in tertiary education) (1)

2

Human-
ities & 
arts
12.8
11.5
11.2
15.2
21.4
:
:
:
7.1
:
18.5
4.2
2.0
10.2
:
13.8
14.5
13.0
23.4
21.2
7.8
13.1
17.5
13.5
16.5
16.1
14.1
:
7.2
6.5
53.0
12.7
17.5
16.3
13.7
26.0
7.4

Teacher 
training
4.6
BE
6.9
BG
4.1
CZ
4.0
DK
4.4
DE
:
EE
:
IE
:
EL
2.1
ES
:
FR
1.9
IT
0.8
CY
25.2
LV (2)
17.9
LT
:
LU
8.9
HU
3.4
MT
5.6
NL
5.2
AT
8.5
PL
6.1
PT
2.4
RO (2)
6.0
SI
6.0
SK
2.5
FI
7.3
SE
4.8
UK
:
HR
13.7
MK
7.9
TR
8.2
IS
0.0
LI (2)
7.6
NO
4.1
CH
3.5
AL
2.7
JP
2.7
US (2)
(1) Tertiary students as defined by ISCED 5-6.
(2) 2003.
Source: Eurostat (educ_enrl6)

Social 
science, 
business 
& law
23.0
21.3
33.6
30.4
26.7
:
:
:
17.5
:
30.3
41.8
57.8
22.1
:
21.7
57.2
45.3
36.6
37.0
41.6
29.8
33.0
18.2
25.1
27.6
36.4
:
18.3
40.7
13.5
52.0
28.3
34.4
12.6
33.7
29.5

Science, 
maths & 
comput.
9.4
2.9
11.2
13.0
16.1
:
:
:
5.6
:
6.3
8.4
3.3
1.8
:
6.9
2.5
9.6
11.9
2.1
9.9
1.6
9.4
6.7
11.2
12.9
14.5
:
2.6
8.6
11.5
9.8
16.6
14.6
3.7
1.3
19.5

Engin., 
manuf. & 
constr.
9.2
16.4
14.3
16.9
17.9
:
:
:
8.0
:
14.4
1.1
2.1
20.3
:
13.1
4.1
10.0
12.1
6.9
19.4
7.9
15.1
13.3
29.6
19.7
13.1
:
9.8
15.0
4.9
25.4
6.9
15.2
7.7
13.1
17.5

Agricul-
ture & 
veter-
inary
6.7
2.3
2.3
2.2
1.1
:
:
:
1.4
:
1.8
0.1
0.0
0.1
:
10.9
0.0
1.2
1.5
0.7
1.6
1.2
1.8
10.3
1.9
0.8
0.8
:
1.3
2.5
1.6
0.0
1.9
0.8
22.4
2.3
0.8

Health & 
welfare Services
2.8
2.9
1.5
0.7
1.1
:
:
:
2.0
:
1.4
36.6
2.9
1.1
:
2.1
0.0
2.6
0.9
2.6
5.5
0.9
4.2
5.9
3.2
1.5
0.9
:
3.9
4.4
1.8
0.0
3.2
6.4
1.2
2.2
0.8

30.6
34.1
21.9
17.7
5.6
:
:
:
8.9
:
24.7
0.2
6.6
26.6
:
22.6
18.3
12.6
8.2
21.1
8.0
41.5
13.1
26.0
10.1
13.8
13.8
:
43.1
14.3
5.5
0.0
15.5
6.9
35.2
3.5
5.4

Un-
known 
or not 
specified
0.8
1.7
0.0
0.0
5.6
:
:
:
47.3
:
0.8
6.7
0.0
0.0
:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.7
:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.5
1.3
0.0
15.2
16.3

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

41

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 42

2

Table 2.5: Participation of foreign students in tertiary education 
(% of all students in tertiary education) (1)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
NO
CH
JP
US

1998
:
3.3
2.0
6.0
8.2
1.5
4.8
:
:
:
1.2
:
1.8
0.4
30.5
2.6
:
:
11.0
0.5
:
3.9
0.8
:
1.7
:
10.8
:
2.4
4.5
:
:
:

1999
:
3.1
2.0
6.5
8.5
1.6
:
:
:
:
1.3
17.2
2.3
0.4
:
3.2
5.2
2.9
11.4
0.4
:
3.3
0.8
:
1.9
7.3
11.2
:
2.5
4.8
:
:
:

2000
:
3.1
2.3
6.8
9.1
1.6
4.6
:
1.4
:
1.4
19.4
6.6
0.4
:
3.2
5.6
2.9
12.4
0.4
3.0
2.8
0.9
1.2
2.1
7.4
11.0
1.7
4.2
4.6
:
1.5
3.6

2001
10.6
3.3
3.0
6.6
9.6
:
4.9
:
:
:
1.6
20.7
7.7
0.5
:
3.4
4.6
3.3
11.6
0.4
3.7
2.2
0.9
1.2
2.3
7.4
10.9
1.5
4.1
4.7
:
1.6
3.5

2002
11.0
3.5
3.4
7.4
10.1
0.8
5.2
:
:
:
1.5
22.0
3.0
0.5
:
3.3
4.8
3.7
12.2
0.4
4.0
1.8
1.0
1.1
2.4
7.5
10.1
1.4
4.1
4.8
17.2
1.9
3.7

2003
11.2
3.5
4.4
9.0
10.7
1.7
5.6
:
:
:
1.9
28.9
2.0
0.4
:
3.1
4.6
3.9
13.5
0.4
:
1.5
1.0
1.0
2.5
7.8
11.2
1.3
4.4
5.2
17.7
2.2
3.5

2004
9.6
3.6
4.7
7.9
11.2
:
:
2.4
2.3
:
2.1
32.0
:
0.4
:
3.1
5.6
3.9
14.1
0.4
4.1
:
1.1
1.0
2.6
8.5
16.2
0.8
3.3
5.8
18.2
2.9
:

(1) All foreign students, including those from other Member States and those from non-member countries; tertiary
students as defined by ISCED 5-6.
Source: Eurostat (hrst_fl_tefor)

Some  2.2  %  of  all  students  from  within  the
EU-27 travelled to study in another EU-27, EEA
or candidate country in 2005. There were wide
disparities, particularly for the smaller Member
States,  such  as  Luxembourg  and  Cyprus,
where  more  than  half  of  all  tertiary  students
studied abroad. These high figures can (at least
in part) be explained by a shortfall in the supply

of tertiary education places in the host country
–  coupled  with  a  high  propensity  to  speak
foreign languages that opens up the possibility
of  studying  in  several  other  countries.  These
figures  could  be  contrasted  with  those
recorded in the United Kingdom, where as few
as  0.4 %  of  all  students  studied  in  another
EU-27,  EEA  or  candidate  country.  It  is

42

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 43

Table 2.6: ERASMUS student mobility, outgoing students (number)

2

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
LI
NO

4 101
:
:
1 730
13 070
:
1 584
1 601
10 841
12 505
8 907
:
:
:
61
:
:
4 132
2 384

4 233
:
:
1 795
13 785
:
1 564
1 431
12 468
14 821
9 271
:
:
:
66
:
:
4 190
2 442

1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
4 971
882
4 725
1 682
23 848
511
1 567
2 714
22 891
22 501
16 389
133
681
1 910
146
2 658
149
4 623
3 971
9 974
4 312
3 261
879
1 165
3 851
2 530
7 131
2 852
194
30
1 412

4 521
605
2 533
1 752
16 626
274
1 707
1 974
17 403
18 149
13 950
72
209
823
104
1 736
129
4 244
3 024
4 323
2 825
1 964
364
578
3 291
2 633
8 475
:
147
17
970
Source: ‘ERASMUS celebrates 20 years breaking records of participation’,
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/07/580

4 427
398
2 001
1 750
15 872
255
1 648
1 868
17 158
17 161
13 253
:
182
624
126
2 001
92
4 162
3 024
3 691
2 569
1 899
227
505
3 286
2 726
9 020
:
134
18
1 007

4 620
612
3 002
1 845
18 482
304
1 627
2 115
18 258
19 365
15 225
91
232
1 002
119
1 830
72
4 241
3 325
5 419
3 172
2 701
422
653
3 402
2 656
7 973
:
163
7
1 010

4 789
751
3 589
1 686
20 688
305
1 705
2 385
20 034
20 981
16 829
64
308
1 194
138
2 058
119
4 388
3 721
6 276
3 782
3 005
546
682
3 951
2 667
7 539
:
221
19
1 156

4 446
:
879
1 751
14 693
:
1 504
1 765
14 381
16 351
10 875
35
:
:
82
856
:
4 332
2 711
1 426
2 179
1 250
:
59
3 441
3 321
9 994
:
147
2
1 101

4 404
134
1 249
1 764
15 715
183
1 689
1 910
16 297
16 824
12 421
42
166
361
87
1 627
:
4 418
2 952
2 813
2 472
1 699
170
380
3 486
3 087
10 056
:
138
3
1 107

4 833
779
4 178
1 793
22 427
444
1 572
2 491
20 819
21 561
16 440
93
607
1 473
116
2 316
130
4 743
3 809
8 390
3 845
2 962
742
979
3 932
2 698
7 214
1 142
199
26
1 279

1 834
:
:
:
3 052
3 264
10 582
:
113
3
1 071

1 674
:
:
:
2 538
2 915
10 537
:
117
0
1 165

important  to  note  that  the  data  presented  in
Figure  2.7  only  concern  the  movement  of
students  between  EU-27,  EEA  and  candidate
countries and not, for example, students going
to the United States to further their studies.

The  most  popular  courses  for  foreign
students  to  follow  in  2004  included  social
sciences,  business  and  law  related  studies,
followed by the fields of health and welfare;
humanities 
engineering,
manufacturing  and  construction;  and

arts; 

and 

science, mathematics and computing.

Aside from the rather special cases of Cyprus
and Luxembourg, the highest proportion of
students  from  European  countries  flowing
into  other  countries  tertiary  education
systems  was  recorded 
in  Switzerland,
Austria, Germany and Belgium in 2005.

However,  extending  this  analysis  to  cover
also foreign students from other continents
(see Table 2.5), the United Kingdom became

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

43

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2

Figure 2.8: ERASMUS student and teacher mobility, Europe (1 000) (1)

200

150

100

50

0

8
8
/
7
8
9
1

9
8
/
8
8
9
1

0
9
/
9
8
9
1

1
9
/
0
9
9
1

2
9
/
1
9
9
1

3
9
/
2
9
9
1

4
9
/
3
9
9
1

5
9
/
4
9
9
1

6
9
/
5
9
9
1

7
9
/
6
9
9
1

8
9
/
7
9
9
1

9
9
/
8
9
9
1

0
0
/
9
9
9
1

1
0
/
0
0
0
2

2
0
/
1
0
0
2

3
0
/
2
0
0
2

4
0
/
3
0
0
2

5
0
/
4
0
0
2

6
0
/
5
0
0
2

(1) EU-27, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Turkey.
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/erasmus/stat_en.html

Students
Teachers

the  most  popular  destination  for  foreign
students  –  based  on  data  for  2004  –  with
foreign  students  accounting  for  16.2  %  of
all students.

The EU promotes cultural exchange as a way
of  raising  cultural  awareness.  Under  the
ERASMUS  programme 
some  150 055
outgoing tertiary students participated during
the  2005/2006  academic  year  in  exchange
programmes.  This  marked  a  32  %  overall
increase in the number of exchange students
when  compared  with  the  number  of  tertiary
students 
ERASMUS
programmes  in  2001/2002  – the  first  year
when a full set of data are available for all 27
Member  States.  This  increase  in  ERASMUS
students  equated  to  an  additional  35 000
students,  or  an  average  gain  of  7.0 %  per
annum over the period considered.

participating 

in 

ERASMUS  is  not  only  concerned  with
encouraging  students  to  participate  in
exchange  programmes;  it  also  promotes
mobility  among  academic  staff  from  higher
education 
initiative
institutions.  This 
encourages  not  only  teaching  periods
abroad  (1  week  to  6  months),  but  also
participation  in  the  development  of  study
programmes,  or  the  creation  of  thematic
networks.  All  these  ERASMUS  higher
education  activities  aim  to  develop  a
European  dimension  within  a  university’s
academic  programme.  Financial  support  is
provided  to  universities  as  an  incentive  to
add a European perspective to their courses.
During  the  academic  year  2005/2006  there
were  more  than  20  000  university  teachers
who participated in ERASMUS.

44

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ch02.qxp  08/11/2007  11:21  Page 45

Table 2.7: Top 20 most popular universities sending and receiving
ERASMUS students, 2004/05 (number)

Top 20 Home institution
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Madrid (Spain)
Bologna (Italy)
Valencia (Spain)
Valencia (Spain)
Praha (Czech Republic)
Granada (Spain)
Roma (Italy)
Wien (Austria)
Barcelona (Spain)
Zaragoza (Spain)
Barcelona (Spain)
Madrid (Spain)
Barcelona (Spain)
Berlin (Germany)
Firenze (Italy)
Madrid (Spain)
Warszaw (Poland)
Padova (Italy)
Maastricht (Netherlands)
Valladolid (Spain)

Top 20 Host institution
Granada (Spain)
1
Madrid (Spain)
2
Valencia (Spain)
3
Bologna (Italy)
4
Valencia (Spain)
5
Barcelona (Spain)
6
Sevilla (Spain)
7
Barcelona (Spain)
8
Salamanca (Spain)
9
Firenze (Italy)
10
Roma (Italy)
11
Alicante (Spain)
12
Madrid (Spain)
13
Zaragoza (Spain)
14
Berlin (Germany)
15
Lund (Sweden)
16
Barcelona (Spain)
17
Wien (Austria)
18
Valladolid (Spain)
19
Berlin (Germany)
20

Institution name
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Università di Bologna
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Universitat de València
Univerzita Karlova V Praze
Universidad de Granada
Università degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza’
Universität Wien
Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona
Universidad de Zaragoza
Universitat de Barcelona
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Universitat Politècnica de Cataluña
Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin
Università degli Studi di Firenze
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Uniwersytet Warszawski
Universita’ degli Studi di Padova
Universiteit Maastricht
Universidad de Valladolid

Institution name
Universidad de Granada
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Universitat de València
Università di Bologna
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Universitat de Barcelona
Universidad de Sevilla
Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona
Universidad de Salamanca
Università degli Studi di Firenze
Università degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza’
Universidad de Alicante
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Universidad de Zaragoza
Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin
Lunds Universitet
Universitat Politècnica de Cataluña
Universität Wien
Universidad de Valladolid
Freie Universität Berlin

Source: ‘Frequently Asked Questions: ERASMUS programme, facts and figures’,
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/06/467

2

Outgoing
1 343
1 253
1 004
970
951
950
937
848
830
808
774
714
709
692
690
673
654
653
641
640

Incoming
1 620
1 484
1 413
1 284
1 257
1 255
1 180
1 142
1 108
871
871
860
838
828
827
794
707
693
669
660

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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3

3. Patterns of work influencing 
intercultural dialogue

labour 

This section can be divided into two distinct
areas.  The 
force
first  covers 
characteristics:  looking  at  the  profile  of  the
labour  force  in  terms  of  the  proportion  of
persons  who  are  working,  out  of  work
(unemployed),  or  inactive  (retired,  choosing
not to work), broken down for nationals and
non-nationals. The second part looks at two
sectors  of  the  economy  which  are  thought
to be key drivers of competitiveness, namely,
human resources in science and technology
and cultural employment.

The  principle  of  free  movement  of  people
dates  back  to  the  Treaty  of  Rome.  This
principle  was  initially  introduced  to  open
Europe’s labour markets to migrant workers
and their families. This right was extended to
cover  all  categories  of  citizens  and  has
subsequently  resulted  in  the  lifting  of  most
internal  border  controls,  such  that  it  is

generally possible to move as freely around
Europe as it is within a single Member State.
Citizens  who  are  in  paid  employment  are
subject  to  the  same  legislation  and  can
benefit  from  the  same  advantages  as
national  employees.  The  free  movement  of
workers  within  the  EU  applies  to  cross-
border  workers  too,  in  other  words,  those
persons who work in one EU country but live
in  another.  Note  that  following  the  recent
enlargements  of  May  2004  and  January
2007,  there  is  a  transitional  period  of  a
maximum  of  seven  years  during  which
Community  law  relating  to  free  movement
of  workers  does  not  necessarily  apply  fully
across the enlarged EU.

Often,  migrant  workers  are  concentrated
within  a  few  sectors  of  the  economy  –
typically  these  have  been  areas  where  the
national population are less inclined to work

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3

Figure 3.1: Employment by nationality, 2006 (% of total employment) (1)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

7
2
-
U
E

K
S

L
P

)
2
(

G
B

I
S

T
L

U
H

Z
C

I

V F
L

T
M

K
D

T
P

L
N

E
S

)
3
(

R
F

K
U

L
E

E
B

)
3
(

T
A

S
E

Y
C

E
E

U
L

)
4
(

)
4
(

)
4
(

E
D

E
I

T
I

O
R

O
N

)
5
(

S
I

)
5
(

H
C

From countries outside the EU-25
From other EU-25 countries
Nationals

(1) Labour Force Survey is based on the resident population; cross-border workers are taken into account in their
country of residence.
(2) Nationals account for 99.8 % of total employment; no information on breakdown of remainder.
(3) Provisional.
(4) Not available.
(5) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (cens_nactz)

–  for  example,  agriculture,  construction  or
unskilled  jobs  in  the  services  sector  such  as
retail, hotels and catering or public transport
systems. This pattern is slowly changing, as
witnessed  in  countries  like  Ireland  or
Luxembourg,  where  a  more  extensive
recruitment  of  highly-qualified  migrant
workers  has  played  an  important  role  in
economic development.

Furthermore,  there  are  sometimes  large
flows of labour between countries on a daily
basis  across  borders,  with  approximately
1.5 %  of  EU-25  citizens  working  in  a
different  Member  State  from  the  country
they live in (29).

(29) See: http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/
workersmobility_2006/index.cfm?id_page_category=FF.

Non-nationals  account  for  a  significant
proportion  of  total  employment  in  the
EU-27,  with  their  share  rising  to  5.9  %  in
2006. Luxembourg stands out, as 44.7 % of
those employed and resident in this country
in  2006  were  non-nationals.  Non-nationals
also  accounted 
relatively  high
for  a 
proportion  of  those  employed  in  Estonia,
Cyprus,  Spain,  Austria  and  Germany  –
between 16.9 % and 8.4 % of the total.

There are considerable differences in the age
structures  of  national  and  non-national
populations in the EU. These differences are
particularly  pronounced  with  respect  to
adults,  with  non-national  populations
having a high proportion of relatively young
adults  aged  less  than  45,  whereas  national
populations  tend  to  display  a  considerably

48

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 3.2: Employment by nationality and gender, EU-27, 2006 (1 000) (1)

3

100 000

75 000

50 000

25 000

0

Male

Female

From countries outside the EU-25
From other EU-25 countries
Nationals

(1) Labour Force Survey is based on the resident population; cross-border workers are taken into account in their
country of residence.
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_egan)

Figure 3.3: Employment by nationality and age, EU-27, 2006 (1 000) (1)

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000

0

15-24 years old 25-34 years old 35-44 years old 45-54 years old 55-64 years old

From countries outside the EU-25
From other EU-25 countries
Nationals

(1) Labour Force Survey is based on the resident population; cross-border workers are taken into account in their
country of residence.
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_egan)

higher proportion of older persons aged 65
and over. In the short-term, immigrants may
rejuvenate  labour  markets;  however,  it  is
important to note that this could be a one-

off  effect  as  once  people  have  immigrated
they also grow older, while future migratory
flows,  including  the  return  of  migrants  to
their home country, are difficult to predict.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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3

Figure 3.4: Employment rates by nationality, EU (%) (1)

75

50

25

0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Male: nationals
Male: from other EU countries
Male: from countries outside the EU

Female: nationals
Female: from other EU countries
Female: from countries outside the EU

(1) Labour Force Survey is based on the resident population; cross-border workers are taken into account in their
country of residence; European Union (EU-15 up to 2004, EU-25 up to 2006).
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_ergan)

Figure 3.5: Unemployment rates by nationality, EU (%) (1)

25

20

15

10

5

0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Male: nationals
Male: from other EU countries
Male: from countries outside the EU

Female: nationals
Female: from other EU countries
Female: from countries outside the EU

(1) European Union (EU-15 up to 2004, EU-25 up to 2006).
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_urgan)

EU-27 employment rates among those aged
between  15  and  24  were  higher  among
those  persons  from  other  EU-25  countries
(47.6 %)  than  they  were  among  nationals
(36.1 %) in 2006. This pattern was repeated
for those aged between 55 and 64, while for

all  interceding  years  (ages  25  to  54),
employment  rates  were  highest  among
nationals.  The  only  age  category  for  which
nationals  from  outside  the  EU-25  reported
the highest employment rate was in relation
to those aged 65 or more.

50

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ch03.qxp  06/11/2007  16:27  Page 51

Table 3.1: Unemployment rates by nationality and gender, 2006 (%)

3

        Nationals
Male
7.5
6.6
8.6
5.8
3.2
9.3
5.3
:
5.7
5.9
7.9
:
3.5
7.5
5.9
2.3
7.2
6.5
3.3
3.6
13.0
6.4
:
4.9
12.3
7.2
6.5
5.5
2.5
3.1
2.7

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS (1)
NO
CH (1)
(1) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (urgan)

Female
8.8
8.5
9.3
8.8
4.4
9.3
4.4
:
13.6
11.0
9.4
:
5.4
6.0
5.4
4.0
7.8
9.0
4.2
4.6
14.9
8.8
:
7.2
14.7
7.8
7.0
4.6
2.5
3.2
3.7

       From other 
      EU-25 countries
Male
8.6
9.5
:
:
:
12.3
:
:
:
7.8
6.3
:
6.5
:
:
3.9
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
7.7
6.0
:
:
4.8

Female
9.8
14.0
:
10.7
:
12.1
:
:
:
12.0
9.6
:
8.1
:
:
7.8
:
:
:
7.7
:
:
:
:
:
:
7.8
6.4
:
:
6.4

       From countries 
      outside the EU-25

Male
15.2
30.7
:
5.4
:
23.4
:
:
4.2
9.5
21.7
:
6.5
:
:
19.3
:
:
13.2
12.9
:
9.5
:
:
:
18.9
21.6
9.1
:
:
16.7

Female
17.5
36.3
:
9.8
:
22.2
:
:
13.7
15.3
27.4
:
4.0
:
:
23.1
:
:
12.1
12.9
:
13.8
:
:
:
31.8
18.1
10.5
:
:
12.3

EU  citizens  who  are  unemployed  have  the
right  to  live  in  another  EU  country  for  a
‘reasonable period of time’ in order to look for
a  job;  most  Member  States  operate  a  six-
their  definition  of
month  period  as 
‘reasonable’.

Non-nationals  tended  to  have  higher
unemployment  rates  than  nationals  in  the
majority  of  the  Member  States.  Overall
unemployment  rates  for  the  EU-25  ranged
from 7.5 % for male nationals up to 17.5 %
for  females  coming  from  countries  outside

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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3

Figure 3.6: Inactivity rates by nationality, EU (%) (1)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Male: nationals
Male: from other EU countries
Male: from countries outside the EU

Female: nationals
Female: from other EU countries
Female: from countries outside the EU

(1) European Union (EU-15 up to 2004, EU-25 up to 2006); inactivity rates defined as proportion of persons inactive
in total population aged 15-64.
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_pganws)

the EU. In the last couple of years for which
data are available there has been a marked
reduction  in  unemployment  rates  among
males from countries outside of the EU.

Note that these labour force statistics do not
take account of undeclared work or possible
illegal migration.

jobs  or 

It appears that non-nationals are more prone
to  experience  temporary 
job
insecurity,  which  may,  to  some  degree,
explain  higher  inactivity  rates,  in  particular
among  women  from  countries  outside  of
the EU. The problems faced by non-nationals
represent  a  challenge  for  social  and  labour
market  policies  in  Europe  and  have  direct
consequences for intercultural dialogue.

52

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ch03.qxp  06/11/2007  16:27  Page 53

3

Table 3.2: Inactive persons by nationality and gender, 2006 (1 000)

        Nationals

Male
34 838
839
807
793
275
4 520
91
254
723
2 661
4 598
4 801
37
181
329
25
1 036
27
824
480
3 890
707
2 192
179
453
393
529
3 194
10
279
241

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
IS (1)
NO
CH (1)
(1) 2005.
Source: Eurostat (lfsa_igan)

Female
56 784
1 243
1 050
1 360
379
7 037
123
507
1 525
5 462
6 552
9 112
82
271
423
41
1 541
82
1 467
795
5 732
1 104
3 272
228
757
451
635
5 553
15
359
487

       From other 
      EU-25 countries
Male
486
56
:
3
4
150
:
3
5
47
85
6
3
:
:
11
:
:
13
12
:
:
:
:
:
2
15
63
:
:
38

Female
946
84
:
4
4
309
:
6
15
89
134
46
7
:
:
20
:
:
26
29
:
:
:
:
:
3
18
137
:
5
76

       From countries 
      outside the EU-25

Male
1 303
33
:
3
8
451
15
15
17
152
196
104
2
:
:
1
3
:
42
46
6
13
:
:
:
4
25
160
:
8
38

Female
3 025
69
:
5
24
936
22
36
73
409
411
371
4
:
:
3
8
2
88
94
12
27
:
1
:
9
42
369
:
18
84

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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3

Figure 3.7: Human resources in science and technology (HRST), 2006 
(% of population aged 25-64)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

K
D

E
S

I
F

L
N

E
E

E
D

E
B

K
U

Y
C

R
F

I
S

T
A

)
1
(

U
L

S
E

)
2
(

T
L

)
1
(

E
I

)
2
(

V
L

Z
C

K
S

L
E

U
H

)
2
(

G
B

L
P

T
M

T
P

O
R

)
3
(

T
I

R
H

O
N

)
1
(

S
I

)
1
(

H
C

Nationals

Foreigners

(1) 2005.
(2) Foreigners, not available.
(3) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (hrst_st_nnat)

Figure 3.8: Cultural employment, 2005 (% of total employment)

5

4

3

2

1

0

7
2
-
U
E

L
N

E
S

I
F

E
E

K
U

K
D

E
D

V
L

T
L

E

I

T
A

I

S

T
M

Y
C

L
E

E
B

S
E

U
H

T

I

R
F

Z
C

K
S

U
L

G
B

L
P

T
P

O
R

S

I

H
C

O
N

R
H

Source: Eurostat (LFS)

The  second  part  of  this  section  presents
information on labour input within two key
economic  sectors  which  are  thought  to  be
key  drivers  of  competitiveness,  namely,
human resources in science and technology
and cultural employment.

As noted earlier in this section, a number of
Member  States  are  actively  encouraging
highly  qualified 
their
in  an  attempt  to  redress
workforces 
particular  skills’  shortages.  In  10  out  of  the
23  Member  States  for  which  data  are

foreigners 

into 

54

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch03.qxp  06/11/2007  16:28  Page 55

Table 3.3: Employment profile of cultural workforce, 2005 (1)

3

Employed 
(1 000) 
4 940.3
88.4
53.4
93.7
82.4
1 003.9
19.2
47.9
92.4
389.8
487.9
464.4
7.8
27.5
36.3
3.5
79.8
3.4
305.8
88.6
231.3
69.8
97.8
22.2
40.3
79.3
153.5
870.0
30.0
6.0
48.0
188.5

 Male
(%)
53.8
59.8
50.5
54.2
55.2
55.9
34.4
50.5
58.2
55.9
53.1
60.0
56.5
37.1
35.0
62.2
46.1
68.3
56.6
53.7
42.9
58.3
46.1
46.0
55.3
47.4
52.6
52.5
45.9
50.6
54.9
54.5
(1) Low education: ISCED levels 0-2; high education: ISCED levels 5-6.
Source: Eurostat (LFS)

Low 
education 
(%)
10.5
12.7
2.7
1.7
15.6
10.0
3.6
12.7
8.3
16.6
13.2
15.6
6.5
4.1
1.8
5.9
3.3
46.3
18.2
7.9
1.6
40.6
3.7
1.7
0.8
13.8
9.0
5.2
1.3
25.3
9.8
7.4

Female  
(%) 
46.2
40.2
49.5
45.8
44.8
44.1
65.6
49.5
41.8
44.1
46.9
40.0
43.5
62.9
65.0
37.8
53.9
31.7
43.4
46.3
57.1
41.7
53.9
54.0
44.7
52.6
47.4
47.5
54.1
49.4
45.1
45.5

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
IS
NO
CH

High  
education  
(%) 
47.7
62.5
56.3
36.9
50.1
47.8
64.0
50.0
40.5
59.9
53.5
37.4
55.3
43.0
61.1
51.5
50.7
26.0
45.2
36.2
50.5
27.9
45.5
51.2
35.7
44.8
41.4
47.7
45.0
53.7
45.7
39.1

Aged 
15-24 
(%)
10.2
5.4
8.9
8.0
15.4
9.0
13.9
12.8
7.9
10.1
7.0
7.4
9.7
20.2
7.6
6.7
5.8
18.0
18.2
11.8
6.0
8.9
7.1
7.7
7.9
11.2
9.4
14.1
8.6
18.3
16.7
10.2

Aged 
25-49 
(%)
67.1
73.2
68.8
65.6
55.0
66.3
47.4
67.4
75.1
77.2
73.6
72.2
70.9
54.2
66.1
74.2
67.7
53.6
55.6
67.2
68.3
72.9
76.9
69.3
69.5
62.9
57.6
61.7
69.2
54.1
60.3
59.0

Aged 
50+ 
(%)
22.7
21.4
22.3
26.5
29.6
24.7
38.7
19.8
17.0
12.7
19.4
20.4
19.4
25.6
26.4
19.1
26.5
28.4
26.2
21.1
25.7
18.2
16.0
23.0
22.6
25.9
33.0
24.2
22.2
27.6
23.1
30.7

available,  the  proportion  of  foreign  human
resources  in  science  and  technology  was
higher  than  the  corresponding  proportion
among nationals.

In  2005,  the  EU-27’s  cultural  sector
employed 4.9 million people, some 2.4 % of
the total workforce. Persons working within
the  cultural  field  are  generally  better

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

55

         
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
        
       
       
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
               
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
               
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
               
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
               
        
        
           
             
        
        
           
           
        
        
           
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3

educated than those employed in the whole
economy:  nearly  48  %  of  cultural  workers
had  a  tertiary  level  of  education,  compared
with 26 % of the total workforce; this ratio
rose  to  60  %  or  more  in  Belgium,  Estonia,
Lithuania and Spain.

There  is  considerable  interest  in  cultural
employment,  as  this  area  has  experienced
employment  growth,  while  many  cultural
sectors provide the content that has been the
basis of new technologies that have generated

productivity  gains  across  the  European
economy  in  recent  years.  Generally  speaking,
these  trends  have  been  based  around  the
increasing  digitalisation  of  cultural  products,
resulting  in  a  higher  demand  for  content
producers, as well as professionals to work in
the  areas  of  telecommunications,  Internet,
multimedia,  e-commerce,  software  and
security.  These  technological  developments
have  enlarged  the  choice  of  media  available,
while increasing the chances that persons from
different cultures interact with each other.

56

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4

4. Economic factors influencing 
intercultural dialogue

This chapter covers several economic factors
which  influence  intercultural  dialogue.  The
cultural  sector  of  the  economy  creates
cultural  products  and  services,  such  as
books, newspapers, digital media or musical
instruments,  which  all  form  an  important
basis for the consumption of culture within
and  between  countries.  Culture  plays  an
important  social  role  as  a  communication
tool  between  different  countries  and
regions; this role has increased considerably
with the diffusion of digital information.

Content produced by the cultural industries
of the EU has the potential to influence the
rest  of  the  world  by  shaping  opinions  and
presenting  ideas,  concepts,  images  and
sounds  in  a  way  that  may  challenge
conventional  understanding.  In  a  similar
vein,  cultural  goods  and  services  that
originate from other parts of the world can

also  enlighten  or  challenge  Europeans.  In
this  light,  culture  can  be  seen  as  a  tool  for
promoting diversity. However, many cultural
products  rely  on  the  spoken  word  with
language having the potential to be a barrier
to market entry, for example, the challenges
faced by European book and film producers
trying to extend the reach of their products
through translations and subtitles.

Today, the ‘economisation’ of culture on the
one  hand,  and  the  ‘culturalisation’  of  the
economy  on  the  other  hand  are  two
divergent trends shaping the cultural sector.
Many  modern  cultural  products  are  short-
lived,  with  a  high  ratio  of  failures  to
successes.  The  market  for  modern  culture
can  be  volatile,  depending  on  fashion
trends,  with  some  sectors  being  ‘hit-driven’
(for example, music and cinema).

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

57

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4

the 

have 

trend  may 

Culture is increasingly seen as an area where
economic  gains  can  be  made,  as  witnessed
by  the  growing  importance  of  media
conglomerates  and 
technology-related
enterprises.  Media  ownership  across  the
world is becoming increasingly consolidated.
This 
significant
consequences  not  only  on  the  content  of
news  reporting  and  editorial  comment,  but
also 
type  of  programming  and
advertising  that  is  offered  to  consumers.
Most  democracies  have  some  form  of
media
pertaining 
legislation 
consolidation:  while  some  countries  stress
fair  competition,  others  regulate  against
foreign  control  (including  foreign  direct
investment) with the aim of ensuring media
diversity,  preventing  monopolistic  control,
and  limiting  the  degree  of  cross-media
ownership.

to 

A  more  recent  trend  has  seen  a  shift  by
media  companies  into  multimedia  services
and  telecommunications,  made  possible  by
the  recent  innovations  in  this  field.  On  the
other hand, maybe as a counter-reaction to
this  trend  for  globalised  culture  there  has
been  an  increase  in  localised  media,  in  the
shape  of  more  local  television  and  radio
stations.

the  cornerstone  of 

The Television without Frontiers Directive (30)
is 
the  European
Community’s  regulatory  framework  in  the
audiovisual  field.  The  directive  (adopted  in
1989  and  revised  in  1997)  aims  to  ensure
the free movement of broadcasting services
within  the  internal  market  and  to  preserve
certain public interest objectives, such as:

-

-

-

-

cultural diversity;

the right of reply;

consumer protection;

the protection of minors.

is  also 

intended 

to  promote 

It 
the
distribution  and  production  of  European
audiovisual  programmes,  for  example,  by
ensuring  that  they  are  given  a  popular
position within programming schedules.

On 24 May 2007 a political agreement was
reached  on  the  new  Audiovisual  Media
Services  Directive.  Both  the  European
Parliament and Council agreed on the main
aims  of  the  Commission  proposal  to
modernise 
the
audiovisual  services  industry.  The  directive
should enter into force by the end of 2007
and  will  offer  a  comprehensive 
legal
framework that covers all audiovisual media
services,  as  well  as  rules  on  television
advertising.

rules  governing 

the 

(30) See: http://ec.europa.eu/avpolicy/reg/tvwf/
index_en.htm.

58

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch04.qxp  08/11/2007  11:26  Page 59

Figure 4.1: Turnover and value added of cultural activities, EU-27, 2004
(EUR million) (1)

4

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000

0

Publishing of
books (22.11)

Publishing of
newspapers
(22.12)

Publishing of
journals and
periodicals
(22.13)

Publishing of
sound
recordings
(22.14)

Manufacture of
musical
instruments
(36.3)

Turnover

Value added

(1) Manufacture of musical instruments: rounded estimates based on non-confidential data; NACE Rev. 1.1 codes are
provided in parenthesis for each activity.
Source: Eurostat (sbs_na)

In  2004,  there  were  over  790 000  people
employed in nearly 70 000 enterprises active
in the EU-27’s cultural sectors involved in the
publishing of books, newspapers, periodicals
and sound recordings and the manufacture
of  musical  instruments  (note  that  printing
and  other  publishing  activities  are  not
considered  as  part  of  the  cultural  field).
these  sectors  had  sales  of
Together 
EUR 124 400  million 
that  generated
EUR 45 900  million  of  value  added,  and
for  2.9 %  of
therefore 
manufacturing value added (compared with
just  2.2 %  of  manufacturing  employment
and 2.0 % of its turnover).

accounted 

There is a lack of harmonised statistics at the
European  level  concerning  the  traditional
arts  (such  as  the  visual  arts,  dance,  drama,
opera,  museums,  etc.).  Indeed,  these  areas
tend  to  be  viewed  from  a  non-economic
perspective,  whereby  ‘works  of  art’  are
judged  on  their  ability  to  give  pleasure,  or
offer an historical, educational, philosophical
or political dimension. As a result, it is often
difficult  to  collect  statistics  in  relation  to
these  intangible  aspects.  In  many  cases  the
individuals producing these types of culture
operate  within  a  non-profit  making
framework, and often use is made of public
subsidies to fund (at least part) of their work.
Nevertheless,  the  arts  are  recognised  as  a
tool  for  local  development  initiatives,  and
positive  externalities  are  often  associated
with cultural projects. Indeed, the arts often
account  for  a  significant  part  of  the  public
budget in many cities and regions.

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59

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4

Table 4.1: Production of selected cultural products, EU-27, 2006 (1)

Prodcom 
code
22.11.10.00 Books; brochures; leaflets and pamphlets in single 

Label

Value 
(EUR million)
2 337.0

Volume 
(1 000 units)
c

sheets published; or printed and published  (2)

22.11.21.70 Other printed books, brochures, leaflets 
and similar printed matter

22.11.21.80 Children's picture; drawing or colouring books 
published; or printed and published

18 891.6

4 247 162.3

551.6

244 764.3

22.11.22.00 Books, brochures, leaflets and the like; electronic

416.8

-

22.11.31.00 Dictionaries and encyclopaedias; 

and serial instalments thereof published; 
or printed and published
22.11.41.00 Maps, hydrographic or similar charts, 

in book-form

36.30.11.10 Acoustic new upright pianos 
(including automatic pianos)

36.30.11.30 Acoustic grand pianos 

(including automatic pianos)

36.30.12.50 Acoustic guitars
36.30.13.10 Keyboard pipe organs, harmoniums 

and similar keyboard instruments 
with free metal reeds

36.30.13.30 Non-electronic accordions, concertinas, 
bandonions and foot-blown accordions

1 179.5

145 094.7

163.5

56 279.2

65.5

106.5

31.1
37.7

14.5

4.9

260.5
c

38.6

36.6

g
n

i

h
s
i
l

b
u
P

s
t
n
e
m
u
r
t
s
n

i

l
a
c
i
s
u
M

36.30.14.10 Brass-wind instruments
36.30.15.33 Digital-pianos
36.30.16.30 Percussion musical instruments
36.30.17.50 Musical instrument strings

41.4
52.2
1 235.8
3 855.8
(1) Prodcom is a system for the collection and dissemination of statistics on the production of manufactured goods;
excluding miscellaneous categories and services; c: confidential; -: not applicable.
(2) Excluding Austria and Slovenia.
Source: Eurostat (http://fd.comext.eurostat.cec.eu.int/xtweb/)

31.3
22.7
45.9
28.3

A higher level of trade can result in a wider
range of goods and services being imported
and exported and thus may open the eyes of
consumers  to  other  cultures.  International
rules governing trade in goods and services
intellectual  property  have  major
and 
implications for the EU’s cultural sector, and

the EU ensures that the Community and its
Member  States  maintain  the  possibility  to
preserve and develop their capacity to define
and implement their cultural and audiovisual
policies  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  their
cultural diversity.

60

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4

Table 4.2: Exports and imports of selected cultural goods, EU-27 (1)

EXPORTS (EUR million)
Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals
Digital versatile discs (DVDs)
Musical instruments
Works of art, collectors pieces and antiques
EXPORTS (% of total exports)
Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals
Digital versatile discs (DVDs)
Musical instruments
Works of art, collectors pieces and antiques
IMPORTS (EUR million)
Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals
Digital versatile discs (DVDs)
Musical instruments
Works of art, collectors pieces and antiques
IMPORTS (% of total imports)
Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals
Digital versatile discs (DVDs)
Musical instruments
Works of art, collectors pieces and antiques

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

3 619
:
524
4 096

0.41
:
0.06
0.46

1 794
:
804
3 026

0.18
:
0.08
0.31

3 494
134
522
4 251

0.39
0.02
0.06
0.48

1 770
98
775
3 068

0.19
0.01
0.08
0.33

3 298
190
491
3 875

0.38
0.02
0.06
0.45

1 598
124
766
2 201

0.17
0.01
0.08
0.24

3 460
221
482
4 182

0.36
0.02
0.05
0.44

1 707
148
826
2 521

0.17
0.01
0.08
0.25

3 480
257
476
4 275

0.33
0.02
0.05
0.41

1 793
130
836
2 568

0.15
0.01
0.07
0.22

3 551
319
484
4 723

0.31
0.03
0.04
0.41

1 960
147
929
3 041

0.15
0.01
0.07
0.23

(1) Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals (CN codes: 4901 and 4902); digital versatile discs (DVDs) (CN code:
85243920); musical instruments (CN code: 92); works of art, collectors pieces and antiques (CN code: 97).
Source: Eurostat (http://fd.comext.eurostat.cec.eu.int/xtweb/)

Among  the  selection  of  cultural  goods
presented  in  the  table  above,  the  level  of
external  trade 
in  books,  newspapers,
journals and periodicals and in works of art,
collectors  pieces  and  antiques  was  of
considerably  higher  value  for  both  exports
and  imports  than  trade  in  DVDs  or  musical
instruments.  Together,  the  four  product
groupings  detailed  above  accounted  for
0.78  %  of  the  EU-27’s  exports  of  goods  in
2006 and for 0.45 % of its imports.

The  information  presented  in  the  table
overleaf  concerns  exports  and  imports  with
the  rest  of  the  world,  while  data  for  each
Member  State  includes  trade  flows  with
other Member States, as well as trade flows
with non-member countries. These statistics
reveal 
country-product
specialisations that may reflect a number of
factors: for example, production facilities for
producing  DVDs  in  the  Netherlands  and
Austria,  the  popularity  of  English  as  an
international language, or the concentration
of  antique  dealers  and  auction  houses  in
London.

various 

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4

Table 4.3: Exports and imports of selected cultural goods, 2006 
(EUR million) (1)

           Exports

          Imports

Books, 
news-
papers, 
journals 
and 
periodicals
504.1
4.2
209.3
161.8
2 173.9
26.8
190.0
54.0
737.5
1 006.8
666.0
5.2
10.3
32.2
23.4
43.1
8.2
564.8
125.3
280.8
31.9
11.1
88.9
104.4
163.5
140.5
2 629.7

Works of 
Works of 
art, 
art, 
collectors 
collectors 
pieces and 
pieces and 
antiques
antiques
82.1
69.1
0.5
0.5
62.6
13.2
46.6
37.9
276.7
275.5
0.5
3.0
19.5
13.6
9.2
36.4
383.1
53.5
341.2
896.9
80.6
132.8
0.9
0.1
0.5
0.7
0.2
0.4
12.4
1.5
1.8
3.8
0.5
0.1
167.6
85.1
98.0
321.1
4.2
20.8
54.0
4.4
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.1
17.0
23.7
30.5
35.2
1 873.0
3 149.4
(1) Books, newspapers, journals and periodicals (CN codes: 4901 and 4902); digital versatile discs (DVDs) (CN code:
85243920); musical instruments (CN code: 92); works of art, collectors pieces and antiques (CN code: 97).
Source: Eurostat (http://fd.comext.eurostat.cec.eu.int/xtweb/)

Books, 
news-
papers, 
journals 
and 
periodicals
690.2
16.6
221.5
174.7
852.8
11.1
334.1
101.0
369.5
1 093.4
406.7
47.8
27.2
13.7
67.7
102.2
11.7
440.0
585.5
122.6
157.4
36.5
35.8
50.2
121.1
242.7
1 539.2

Digital 
versatile 
discs 
(DVDs)
64.3
3.5
31.3
91.3
702.8
1.5
8.2
2.0
16.4
147.4
17.0
0.2
0.5
2.3
34.8
2.9
0.0
444.9
513.6
153.1
3.2
1.3
1.7
8.5
2.1
81.6
215.6

Digital 
versatile 
discs 
(DVDs)
154.1
1.4
14.3
60.0
343.8
2.3
84.4
8.8
54.3
183.3
110.4
4.2
2.0
1.9
27.1
6.4
1.8
98.5
125.9
60.9
11.5
3.1
3.1
19.3
36.8
100.6
368.1

Musical 
instru-
ments
214.7
1.2
48.0
14.1
386.3
2.9
2.6
1.1
31.9
141.9
140.7
0.0
0.8
0.2
0.0
7.2
0.1
132.7
41.9
12.8
2.3
12.0
2.1
2.3
1.7
25.5
67.2

Musical 
instru-
ments
187.3
1.5
16.3
39.1
330.3
4.8
19.6
14.9
86.3
192.1
140.8
2.5
2.9
2.6
3.7
9.0
0.9
131.7
41.0
21.5
12.6
6.4
6.3
4.4
20.6
51.0
273.9

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Foreign direct investment (FDI) by its nature
has an influence on intercultural dialogue, as
any such investment leads to an exchange of
business  ideas  between  cultures.  An  often

cited  example  is  that  of  a  Japanese-owned
motor  vehicles  plant  situated  in  one  of  the
Member States, which is run (at least in part)
under Japanese management principles.

62

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Figure 4.2: Market integration - foreign direct investment (FDI) intensity,
2005 (% of GDP) (1)

4

320

315

15

10

5

0

7
2
-
U
E

U
L

L
N

E
E

E
B

K
U

G
B

K
D

T
M

E
S

Y
C

Z
C

R
F

U
H

O
R

T
A

S
E

V
L

I

K S
S

L
P

I
F

T
I

E
D

T
L

T
P

E
I

)
2
(

L
E

P
J

S
U

R
H

R
T

)
3
(

S
I

)
4
(

O
N

(1) Average value of inward and outward FDI flows expressed in relation to GDP; EU-27 data refers to extra flows
only.
(2) 2001.
(3) 2003.
(4) 2002.
Source: Eurostat (tsier066)

Figure 4.3: Direct investment stocks, 2005 (%)

Direct investment stocks in the EU-27 

Direct investment stocks of EU-27
countries abroad (1)

Rest of the world
14.9%

Canada
1.4%

Japan
1.6%

US
14.0%

Rest of the world
21.3%

Japan
1.3%

Canada
1.6%

US
13.7%

EU-27
68.1%

EU-27
62.2%

(1) Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.
Source: Eurostat (tec00051 and tec00052)

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

63

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch04.qxp  08/11/2007  11:26  Page 64

4

Figure 4.4: Official development assistance, 2006 
(% of gross national income) (1)

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00

E
S

U
L

L
N

K
D

E
I

K
U

E
B

T
A

I

R F
F

E
D

S
E

T
P

T
I

L
E

Z
C

5
1
-
U
E

)
2
(

U
H

K
S

L
P

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

)
3
(

G
B

E
E

Y
C

V
L

T
L

T
M

O
R

)
3
(

I
S

O
N

H
C

S
I

R
T

(1) Preliminary results.
(2) 2005.
(3) Not available.
Source: OECD

FDI  intensity  is  likely  to  be  higher  among
smaller countries, as one foreign implant can
make  a  sizeable  contribution  to  the  output
of  the  national  economy.  Foreign-owned
enterprises  tend  to  be  considerably  larger
than average and frequently operate within
industrial  activities  (although  in  the  case  of
Luxembourg  the  figures  are  skewed  by  the
importance of the financial sector).

provided  on  the  grounds  of  humanitarian
assistance  following  natural  disasters  (such
as the Tsunami) or used to eradicate poverty
and  disease  (such  as  famine  or  HIV-AIDS).
ODA  is  also  employed  as  a  tool  to  help
strengthen  links  between  countries  and
regions on a range of other bilateral issues,
such  as  promoting  democracy,  the  rule  of
law and good governance.

As  can  be  seen,  fellow  Member  States
provide the most important contributions to
FDI  stocks  within  the  EU,  with  American
companies  also  contributing  14  %  of  total
FDI within the EU-27 in 2005.

Official development assistance (ODA) plays
a role in promoting intercultural dialogue, as
an  expression  of  solidarity  with  the  poorer
regions of the world. This assistance may be

ODA  among  the  EU-15  Member  States
averaged 0.43 % of gross national income in
2006 (preliminary results); the highest share
being recorded in Sweden (1.03 %). The EU
has  committed  to  a  target  of  reaching  an
ODA  threshold  of  0.7  %  of  gross  national
income  by  2015  which  is  the  deadline  for
the  achievement  of  the  United  Nations’
Millennium Development Goals.

64

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:55  Page 65

The  consumption  of  culture  may  help
individuals to learn about local, national and
foreign  environments  and  characteristics,
such that opinions are formed.

Cultural  goods  and  services  have  the
potential  to  inform  and  entertain,  by  doing
so  they  can  contribute  to  the  development
of a variety of personal and societal aspects
such  as  education,  the  exchange  of  ideas,
creativity and building a collective identity.

Cultural  goods  include,  among  others,
books and magazines, multimedia products,
software, films and videos, sound recordings
and  musical  instruments.  Cultural  services
comprise,  for  example,  the  promotion  of
performances and cultural events, as well as
cultural information and preservation in the
form  of  libraries,  documentation  centres,
galleries and museums.

5

5. Consumption of culture

and 

learn 

improve 

Demand  for  a  diverse  range  of  cultural
products  is  indicative  of  consumers  seeking
their  own
to 
understanding.  While  the  magnitude  of
expenditure  on  cultural  products  and
services  can  be  a  useful  starting  point  for
gauging the extent to which people support
such  creative  activity,  the  trend  towards
increasing  consumerism  may  also  threaten
some cultural customs and values. The divide
between  culture  and  consumerism  has
become  increasingly  blurred.  For  example,
some regional habits have (to some degree)
been  replaced  by  global  consumption
patterns  (wearing  a  particular  brand  of
clothing, or listening to the latest top-selling
pop group).

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

65

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:55  Page 66

5

Figure 5.1: Expenditure on recreation and culture, 2007 
(% of overall consumption expenditure) (1)

16

12

8

4

0

K
U

E
B

E
S

T
A

K
D

L
N

I
F

E
I

E
D

Z
C

R
F

T
M

I
S

U
H

K
S

U
L

E
E

S
E

T
I

V
L

Y
C

L
P

T
L

G
B

L
E

T
P

O
R

(1) Data pertain to the start of the year; recreation and culture (COICOP 09).
Source: Eurostat (prc_hicp_inw)

The  three  main  categories  of  household
consumption expenditure are housing, food
and  transport.  The  COICOP  classification
features a heading for recreation and culture
expenditure. Within the Member States, the
share  of  cultural  expenditure  in  total
household expenditure varied at the start of
2007 from just under 5 % in Romania and
Portugal to more than 12 % in Sweden and
Belgium,  peaking  at  15.3  %  in  the  United
Kingdom.

Cultural  and 
recreational  expenditure
reflects  not  only  discrepancies  in  cultural
practices, but also relative price differences.
The  effects  of  price  differences  can  be
limited  by  expressing  the  data  on  mean
household  expenditure 
terms  of
purchasing power standards (as done here).
The  differences  that  remain  after  this

in 

adjustment can be largely related to factors
such  as  household  equipment 
rates
(numbers  of  computers  or  DVD  machines),
attendance  rates  at  theatres,  cinemas  and
concert  halls,  as  well  as  the  propensity  of
individuals  to  read  books,  newspapers  and
magazines,  or  to  go  on  package  holidays
(which  are  included  under  the  heading  for
recreation and culture).

the 

confirms 

Data on household expenditures can also be
analysed  according  to  the  socio-economic
situation  of  households.  In  particular  this
information 
commonly
perceived  view  that  cultural  consumption  is
influenced  by  income.  In  some  countries,
cultural  consumption  grows  regularly  with
an  increase  in  income,  while  in  others,  a
strong  jump  is  observed  among  those
households with the highest income.

66

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:55  Page 67

Table 5.1: Expenditure on recreation and culture, 2007 
(% of overall consumption expenditure) (1)

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
TR
IS
NO

09 09.11 09.12 09.13 09.14 09.15
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0

0.5
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.4
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.4
1.2

0.5
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.6
1.1
0.1
0.4
0.6

0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.1
0.3

0.5
0.6
0.7
0.4
1.0
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.6
1.2
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.2
0.5
0.8

10.3
12.6
5.3
10.7
11.6
11.1
7.6
11.3
5.3
7.2
9.8
7.2
6.8
7.2
6.1
8.5
9.0
9.7
11.5
11.8
6.6
4.7
4.5
9.4
8.5
11.4
12.4
15.3
3.2
13.2
14.3

09.2
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.0
0.4
0.8

09.3 09.41 09.42 09.51 09.52
0.9
1.6
0.8
2.0
0.5
1.0
0.8
1.9
1.1
2.7
1.1
1.8
0.4
1.2
1.0
2.3
0.7
1.5
0.7
0.9
0.9
1.6
1.1
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.7
1.1
1.0
1.3
1.6
0.5
2.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
2.0
0.5
1.2
0.4
0.9
0.7
1.8
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.9
1.0
1.7
0.7
2.2
0.2
0.3
0.7
2.7
1.1
2.3

0.6
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.3
1.1
0.8

2.1
2.7
0.4
2.2
2.6
2.0
1.8
1.7
0.7
1.2
2.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.0
1.8
1.2
1.0
2.4
2.6
0.3
0.8
0.3
2.1
1.2
2.3
2.5
3.7
0.3
1.8
2.5

1.0
0.8
0.2
1.1
0.6
0.8
0.7
1.3
0.2
0.7
1.2
1.4
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.3
1.5
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.6
1.0
1.6
1.0
0.4
2.1
1.3

5

09.53 
and 
09.54
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.2

(1) Data pertain to the start of the year; recreation and culture (COICOP 09); equipment for the reception, recording
and reproduction of sound and pictures (09.11); photographic and cinematographic equipment and optical
instruments (09.12); information processing equipment (09.13); recording media (09.14); repair of audio-visual,
photographic and information processing equipment (09.15); other major durables for recreation and culture (09.2);
other recreational items and equipment, gardens and pets (09.3); recreational and sporting services (09.41); cultural
services (09.42); books (09.51); newspapers and periodicals (09.52); miscellaneous printed matter; stationery and
drawing materials (09.53 and 09.54).
Source: Eurostat (prc_hicp_inw)

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

67

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:56  Page 68

5

Map 5.1

Average number of cinema attendances,
1999-2003
(per inhabitant and year)

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

< 1.5

>= 1.5  -  < 3

>= 3  -  < 4.5

>= 4.5

not available

Source: Urban Audit
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat - GISCO, 10/2007

0

600km

Guadeloupe (FR)

Martinique (FR)

!(

!(

0

25

0

20

Guyane (FR)

Réunion (FR)
!(

!(

0

100

0

20

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!(

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!(

0

100

0

20

Canarias (ES)

Malta

!(

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0

100

0

10

Iceland

0 100

!(

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Attendance at cultural venues – often urban
and fee-paying, especially in the case of the
performing  arts  –  on  the  whole  involves  a
relatively small proportion of the population.
The cultural activities that are attended most
often  include  visiting  the  cinema  and
historical monuments.

Among  the  EU  cities  for  which  data  is
available,  the  highest  average  number  of
cinema  attendances  per  inhabitant  was
recorded 
Luxembourg,  with  16.5
attendances per inhabitant on average, while
the lowest averages were recorded in several
cities  across  Bulgaria  and  Romania.

in 

68

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:56  Page 69

Map 5.2

Average number of museum visits,
1999-2003
(per inhabitant and year)

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

< 0.5

>= 0.5  -  < 1.5

>= 1.5  -  < 2.5

>= 2.5

not available

Source: Urban Audit
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat - GISCO, 10/2007

0

600km

5

Guadeloupe (FR)

Martinique (FR)

!(

!(

0

25

0

20

Guyane (FR)

Réunion (FR)
!(

!(

0

100

0

20

Açores (PT)

!(

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!(

0

100

0

20

Canarias (ES)

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!(

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0 100

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Iceland

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!(

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Concerning the average number of museum
visits per inhabitant, the highest average was
registered  in  Weimer  (Germany),  at  20.6  %,
while Gravesham (United Kingdom) and Zory
(Poland) had the lowest rates. Note that these
figures  will  depend  upon  the  supply  of
cinema screens and museums, while the data

may also be influenced by persons visiting the
site from another region or country. It is also
necessary to note that all of the maps in this
chapter  are  based  on  data  which  relates  to
national  definitions  concerning  what  is  a
museum,  a  theatre,  etc.;  as  such,  the
comparability of data is not fully guaranteed.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

69

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:56  Page 70

5

Map 5.3

Average number of theatre attendances,
1999-2003
(per inhabitant and year)

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

< 0.4

>= 0.4  -  < 0.8

>= 0.8  -  < 1.2

>= 1.2

not available

Source: Urban Audit
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat - GISCO, 10/2007

0

600km

Guadeloupe (FR)

Martinique (FR)

!(

!(

0

25

0

20

Guyane (FR)

Réunion (FR)
!(

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0

100

0

20

Açores (PT)

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100

0

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In Liège (Belgium) the average person went
to  the  theatre  as  many  as  seven  times  per
year, while in most other cities with available
data the average rate was about once a year.

Turning to the reading habits of Europeans,
as  measured  by  the  average  number  of
books  and  other  media  loaned  from  public
libraries, there were highs recorded in three
cities in Finland, where an average of at least
22.5  loans  were  made  per  inhabitant  per

70

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:56  Page 71

Map 5.4

Average number of books and other media
loaned from public libraries, 1999-2003
(per inhabitant and year)

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

< 3.5

>= 3.5  -  < 5.5

>= 5.5  -  < 7.5

>= 7.5

not available

Source: Urban Audit
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat - GISCO, 10/2007

0

600km

5

Guadeloupe (FR)

Martinique (FR)

!(

!(

0

25

0

20

Guyane (FR)

Réunion (FR)
!(

!(

0

100

0

20

Açores (PT)

!(

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!(

0

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!(

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year.  At  the  other  end  of  the  spectrum,
Bologna  and  Ancona  (both  Italy),  Málaga
and  Sevilla  (both  Spain)  reported  that  the
average inhabitant loaned only 0.3 books or
other  media.  As  with  the  information  on

cinemas and museums, these statistics need
to be considered in relation to the supply of
local facilities, as well as trends observed in
book purchases.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

71

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  14:26  Page 72

5

Map 5.5

Average number of public libraries,
1999-2003
(per 100 000 inhabitants)

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

< 3.5

>= 3.5  -  < 6

>= 6  -  < 10

>= 10

not available / not relevant

Source: Urban Audit
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
Cartography: Eurostat - GISCO, 10/2007

0

600km

Guadeloupe (FR)

Martinique (FR)

!(

!(

0

25

0

20

Guyane (FR)

Réunion (FR)
!(

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Indeed,  the  distribution  of  public  libraries
was  not  evenly  spread  across  the  range  of
cities  covered  by  the  Urban  Audit.  During
the  period  1999  to  2003,  the  highest

concentration  of  public  libraries  was  found
in the Portuguese cities of Lisboa, Coimbra,
Oporto and Funchal, as well as Luxembourg,
and Nyiregyhaza and Pecs (both Hungary).

72

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:57  Page 73

Figure 5.2: Newspaper circulation, 2006 
(daily circulation per 100 adult population)

5

80

60

40

20

0

K
D

E
S

I
F

T
A

K
U

L
N

L
E

Z
C

U
L

T
M

E
D

E
I

E
E

S
E

T
L

V
L

T
I

I
S

R
F

E
B

L
P

U
H

Y
C

T
P

K
S

O
R

G
B

Source: World Press Trends (http://www.wan-press.org)

Free dailies
Paid for dailies

National  and  foreign  newspapers  have  the
potential  to  influence  intercultural  dialogue
in  the  way  that  they  inform  people  about
other  cultures  as  well  as  shaping  their
beliefs.

most newspapers have a particular editorial
perspective and the way in which they report
the news – in particular political events – can
differ  considerably  from  one  newspaper  to
another.

Freedom of the press is an important human
right. An independent and diverse press can
act crucially in providing alternative points of
view,  and  investigative  journalism  has  the
potential to uncover stories that may change
the  way  in  which  individuals  view  others,
society  or  authority.  On  the  other  hand,

In recent years, newspaper circulation has in
many countries declined in terms of physical
copies. This may, at least in part, be a result
of  more  people  consulting  on-line  versions
of  newspapers,  or  other  mediums  for
hearing and seeing the news.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

73

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:57  Page 74

5

Figure 5.3: Paid for dailies, 2006 (titles per million adult population)

40

30

20

10

0

Y
C

I

U F
L

T
M

E
S

V
L

E
E

Z
C

G
B

L
E

T
L

K
D

E
D

I
S

S
E

O
R

E
B

U
H

E
I

T
A

K
S

L
N

K
U

T
I

T
P

R
F

L
P

Source: World Press Trends (http://www.wan-press.org)

in  Germany 

Most countries in the EU have a wide range
of  newspapers  and  magazines  on  sale.  The
number of different paid for daily newspaper
(370),
titles  was  highest 
followed  by  Spain  (140)  and  the  United
Kingdom (104). When adjusting the figures,
and expressing the number of paid for daily
newspapers  in  relation  to  total  population,
the Member States with the highest ‘choice’
of  newspapers  tended  to  be  the  smaller
countries,  with  Cyprus  and  Luxembourg  at
the head of the ranking (33.7 and 16.0 titles
per million adult population). As regards the
circulation  of  newspapers,  the  Nordic
countries had the highest figures in relative
terms  (in  other  words,  on  the  basis  of  a
comparison  of  circulation  figures  per  100

inhabitants).  In  Denmark,  in  particular,  and
also  Sweden,  the  relatively  high  circulation
figures  were  due  (at  least  in  part)  to  the
circulation of free dailies.

Compared with the general evolution of the
all-items  harmonised  index  of  consumer
prices  (the  inflation  rate),  the  price  of
selected cultural products in the EU followed
a quite different pattern. While the price of
individual  cultural  products 
fluctuated
considerably,  the  overall  price  of  all
recreation  and  culture  items  remained
virtually  unchanged  over 
the  period
observed  (increasing  on  average  by  0.4  %
per annum).

74

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:57  Page 75

Figure 5.4: Harmonised indices of consumer prices for selected 
cultural products, EU (2005=100) (1)

5

190

160

130

100

70

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Photographic and cinematographic equipment and optical instruments
Recording media
Recreation and culture
Cultural services
Books
Newspapers and periodicals

(1) European Union, EU-15 up to 2004, EU-25 up to 2006; 1996-1998, estimates; recreation and culture 
(COICOP 09); photographic and cinematographic equipment and optical instruments (09.12); recording media
(09.14); cultural services (09.42); books (09.51); newspapers and periodicals (09.52).
Source: Eurostat (prc_hicp_aind)

The  price  of  newspapers  and  periodicals,
cultural services and books all increased at a
faster  pace  than  the  average  inflation  rate
during the period 1996 to 2006, with prices
rising  by  between  2.1  %  and  2.7  %  per
annum  on  average  compared  with  an
average inflation rate of 1.9 %. In contrast,
the price of recording media and the price of

and 

photographic 
cinematographic
equipment  and  optical  instruments  fell  (by
an average of 1.5 % and 6.9 % per annum).
As  such,  products  with  a  high  technology
component  have  tended  to  see  their  prices
fall  rapidly,  while  services  or  products  that
have a considerable amount of labour input
have tended to see their prices rise.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

75

ch05.qxp  08/11/2007  10:57  Page 76

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 77

6

6. Tourism and international transport

Many Europeans decide to go on holiday to
foreign  locations  in  order  to  experience
different  cultures,  immersing  themselves  in
the  language,  diversity,  cuisine  and  way  of
living of the country they are visiting.

Culture  can  act  as  a  catalyst  for  attracting
tourists.  As  part  of  the  European  initiative
encouraging  cultural  tourism,  the  European
city of culture project was launched in 1985.
The cultural capital of Europe is a title that is
given  to  one  or  more  EU  cities  each  year,
with  the  aim  of  bringing  the  people  of
Europe  closer  together.  According  to  the
world heritage list released by the UNESCO
(United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and
Cultural  Organisation) (31),  324  out  of  the
851  properties  considered  as  having
outstanding universal values were located in
the EU-27 as October 2006.

(31) See: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list.

The  EU  supports  the  building  of  cultural
facilities as part of its regional development
policy.  The  European  regional  development
fund  (ERDF)  supports  projects  concerned
with building cultural facilities or renovating
historic buildings or cultural sites with a view
to  their  conversion  into  museums,  libraries,
concert  halls,  multimedia  centres  or  tourist
attractions.

Tourist  expenditures  can  inject  substantial
demand  for  goods  and  services  into  an
economy. Some of these goods and services
are likely to be for cultural products, such as
those associated with gift shops in museums
and historic buildings (reproductions, books,
audio-guides).

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

77

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 78

6

Figure 6.1: Tourist expenditure by destination of the trip, EU, 2006 (%) (1)

Central and South 
America
6.0%
Other European 
countries
6.1%

Asia
7.4%

North America
8.5%

EFTA
2.0%

Oceania and 
unknown
3.8%

EU-25
57.0%

Africa
9.2%

(1) Average based on available data: Belgium, Ireland, France, Latvia, the Netherlands, Slovakia and the United
Kingdom, 2006; the Czech Republic, Greece, Spain, Luxembourg and Hungary, 2005; remaining Member States, not
available or partial information available; data refer to all holidays, outbound, of one or more nights.
Source: Eurostat (tour_dem_extotw)

The  two  concepts  are  however  inter-related,
as culture may stimulate tourism, for example,
through  people  visiting  another  country  so
they can visit an art exhibition, see a piece of
theatre, or watch a particular rock group.

The data on tourism that is presented in this
chapter  provides  an  overview  of  tourist
expenditures,  arrivals  and  nights  spent  by
non-residents, as well as information on the
frequency  of  trips.  Note  however  that  the
statistics  presented  cover  all  holidays,
including  for  instance  all-inclusive  package
holidays where some holidaymakers may not
have much contact with the local population
or culture.

Clearly  geographical  proximity  plays  an
important role in decision making for holiday
destinations. Nevertheless, the growth of air

travel  has  changed  the  pattern  of  tourist
destinations  considerably.  As  may  be
expected,  more  than  half  (57.0  %)  of  the
tourist  expenditure  made  by  EU (32) citizens
in  2006  was  destined  for  EU-25  countries,
while  9.2  %  of  expenditure  was  made  in
Africa and 8.5 % in North America.

Accommodation statistics exist for the number
of  nights  spent  by  non-residents  in  the  EU.
Subject to data availability, there were almost
900  million  nights  spent  by  non-nationals  in
the  EU-25  in  2005.  Combining  statistics  on
the  number  of  tourist  arrivals  and  nights
spent,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  that  the
average  tourist  visiting  an  EU  Member  State
from abroad spent approximately four nights
during each trip in a hotel or other collective
accommodation establishment.

(32) Average based on available data: Belgium, Ireland,
France, Latvia, the Netherlands, Slovakia and the United
Kingdom, 2006; the Czech Republic, Greece, Spain,
Luxembourg and Hungary, 2005.

78

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 79

Table 6.1: Nights spent by non-residents, 2006 (1 000)
Other collective 
accommodation 
establishments
238 366
5 406
169
3 055
4 606
10 127
248
2 818
660
72 588
36 314
46 193
83
127
63
1 116
1 652
116
10 067
12 903
2 644
1 515
73
931
1 147
665
5 339
25 191
14 705
15
347
40
3 026
12 838

EU-25 (1)
BE
BG
CZ
DK (1)
DE
EE
IE
EL (1)
ES
FR
IT (1)
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU (1)
MT
NL (1)
AT
PL
PT (1)
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR (1)
MK (2)
IS
LI
NO
CH (3)
(1) 2005.
(2) 2002.
(3) 2001.
Source: Eurostat (tour_occ_ninr)

Hotels 
and similar 
establishments
657 220
10 633
11 776
17 035
4 787
42 821
2 772
18 834
40 075
151 763
69 551
102 098
13 227
1 745
1 451
1 284
9 127
6 977
15 143
57 114
7 911
23 873
3 169
3 401
3 911
4 339
5 604
63 023
18 415
249
1 341
115
4 896
19 273

6

Total 
nights 
spent
895 586
16 039
11 945
20 090
9 393
52 948
3 020
21 652
40 735
224 351
105 865
148 291
13 310
1 872
1 514
2 400
10 779
7 093
25 210
70 017
10 555
25 388
3 242
4 332
5 058
5 004
10 943
88 214
33 120
264
1 688
155
7 922
32 111

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

79

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 80

6

Figure 6.2: Breakdown of trips abroad, EU, 2006 (1)

Central and South 
America
2.4%
North America
2.9%

Oceania and 
unknown
0.8%

Asia
3.1%
EFTA
3.9%

Africa
5.4%

Other European 
countries
9.0%

EU-25
72.4%

(1) Average based on available data: Belgium, Germany, Ireland, France, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Austria, Slovakia, Finland and the United Kingdom (provisional), 2006; Denmark, Greece, Spain, Italy
and Hungary, 2005; remaining Member States, not available or partial information available; data refer to all
holidays, outbound, of one or more nights.
Source: Eurostat (tour_dem_ttw)

There  has  been  a  notable  shift  in  holiday
patterns  driven  by,  among  others,  the
growth  of  affordable  air  travel  to  a  wider
variety of destinations, more flexible working
patterns, higher levels of disposable income,
as  well  as  increased  interest  in  different
cultures  (as  Europeans  are  increasingly
exposed  to  more  news,  arts  and  current
affairs from different regions).

A large majority (72.4 %) of the tourist trips
made  abroad  by  EU  citizens  were  to  other
Member  States,  with  other  European
countries  accounting  for  the  next  most
common destinations (9.0 %).

While  the  southern  Member  States  are
generally  those  that  receive  the  highest
number  of  tourists,  the  larger  and  more
northern  Member  States  tend  to  be  those
who send the most tourists abroad. Factors
such as climatic conditions are likely to play
a  considerable  role  in  explaining  why
the
holidaymakers 
Netherlands,  and  the  United  Kingdom
contributed a significant share of EU tourists
abroad, especially in relation to France, Italy
and  Spain.  Relative  to  the  size  of  their
populations,  the  small  countries  of  Cyprus,
Luxembourg, Slovakia and Slovenia reported
a high proportion of tourist departures.

from  Germany, 

80

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 81

Table 6.2: Number of tourist departures abroad (1 000) (1)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
NO

2003
2 872
:
1 193
1 521
25 680
140
2 626
408
1 829
2 600
3 546
422
:
:
240
:
:
3 398
2 054
1 220
381
:
603
1 708
508
:
15 720
1 040

2004
2 995
:
1 278
1 787
25 550
99
:
:
1 170
2 695
3 513
488
:
275
229
1 126
:
3 414
1 981
1 289
491
:
622
1 669
503
:
16 200
1 092

2005
3 204
:
1 326
1 700
33 547
143
:
:
1 653
2 754
3 494
516
115
577
233
1 166
:
3 470
1 222
1 460
508
:
613
1 612
581
:
15 265
1 168

(1) Data refer to holidays of four nights or more.
Source: Eurostat (tour_dem_toage)

6

2006
2 991
177
1 141
:
35 301
165
:
:
:
:
:
533
129
578
190
:
:
3 348
693
1 853
:
376
662
1 914
648
:
:
:

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

81

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 82

6

Table 6.3: Nights spent by tourists abroad (1 000) (1)

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
NO

2003
64 366
:
44 098
32 893
803 637
1 717
28 632
6 390
30 382
125 555
88 314
5 539
4 325
:
6 810
:
:
130 778
52 668
50 480
9 217
:
10 372
17 395
15 905
:
438 100
:
29 619

2004
65 754
:
36 152
29 157
808 251
1 136
30 805
9 743
34 820
140 702
92 245
5 769
3 725
8 891
6 998
11 614
:
138 329
49 690
38 933
11 913
:
9 985
18 732
20 418
:
443 000
2 689
32 377

2005
71 695
:
38 286
34 840
662 403
1 796
34 142
13 538
61 504
148 500
102 285
6 425
4 285
12 836
7 207
25 275
:
135 150
46 943
46 323
11 438
:
10 352
20 473
19 520
:
:
:
32 401

2006
66 354
3 338
35 679
:
734 098
1 707
36 888
:
:
139 415
:
6 882
5 326
9 044
6 829
:
:
133 061
53 390
50 111
:
7 389
11 517
21 084
19 141
:
:
:
:

(1) Data refer to holidays of four nights or more.
Source: Eurostat (tour_dem_tnls)

82

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 83

Figure 6.3: Top 15 airports in Europe, total passengers onboard, 2006 
(1 000)

6

80 000

60 000

40 000

20 000

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Source: Eurostat (avia_tf_aca)

The information presented in relation to air
passenger  transport  refers  to  the  15  most
used  airports  within  the  EU,  in  terms  of
numbers  of  passengers  onboard.  Note  that
these  statistics  on  passenger  transport  not
only  reflect  activities  linked  to  tourism,  but
all transport services covering any movement
of passengers using the given network, and
as  such  they  include  business  travel  too  –
although  it  is  of  course  possible  that
business travellers also participate in cultural
activities while abroad.

recorded 

Those  countries  that  tended  to  record
relatively  high  numbers  of  persons  going
abroad for holidays also featured within the
ranking of Europe’s top airports in terms of
passenger  volumes.  The  most  used  airports
were  London  Heathrow  (United  Kingdom)
some  67.7  million
which 
passengers  onboard  in  2006,  Paris  Charles
de  Gaulle  (France)  with  56.4  million  and
Frankfurt  Rhein-Main  (Germany)  with  53.1
million.  Note  that  these  airports  are  often
located near to large cities with considerable
catchment  areas  for  departures,  while  they
also  attract  weekend  and  short  break
tourists, as well as business travellers.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

83

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch06.qxp  06/11/2007  16:57  Page 84

6

Table 6.4: Transport of passengers

EU-27
BE (1)
BG (1)
CZ
DK
DE (1)
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV (1)
LT (1)
LU
HU
MT (1)
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI (1)
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH (2)

Air, 2005 
(million passengers)
714
18
5
11
22
146
1
24
31
144
108
88
7
2
1
2
8
3
46
20
7
20
4
1
2
12
23
204
3
54
3
-
19
29

Rail, 2003
(million passenger-km)
367 219
8 675
2 598
6 580
5 921
72 879
193
1 582
1 668
20 328
74 359
49 254
-
811
283
253
10 165
-
14 097
8 668
18 430
3 693
8 501
695
2 228
3 352
8 657
43 349
1 169
5 237
-
-
2 620
11 712

Maritime, 2005 
(million passengers)
386.62
0.89
0.02
-
47.92
29.26
6.89
3.28
86.07
22.41
25.80
78.75
0.19
0.22
0.19
-
-
0.22
2.12
-
1.65
0.66
:
0.03
-
17.11
32.62
30.21
:
:
0.42
-
6.66
-

(1) Maritime, 2006.
(2) Rail, 2002.
Source: Eurostat (eba16656, eba18704 and mar_pa_aa) / DG TREN

Unsurprisingly,  the  largest  concentration  of
maritime  transport,  in  terms  of  passengers,

was  closely  related  to  the  location  of  main
sea ports within the EU-27.

84

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch06.qxp  08/11/2007  16:36  Page 85

Map 6.1

Maritime transport of passengers,
by NUTS 2 regions, 2003

(cid:11)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:12)

(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:22)(cid:24)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:22)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:24)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)

(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)
(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)
(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)

(cid:19)

(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)

6

(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:24)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)

(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)

(cid:19) (cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

85

ch06.qxp  08/11/2007  16:36  Page 86

6

Map 6.2

Air transport of passengers,
by NUTS 2 regions, 2003

(cid:11)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:12)

(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:31)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:33)(cid:32)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)

(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:40)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:50)
(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)
(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:26)

(cid:19)

(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:80)

(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:24)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:42)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:53)(cid:112)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:53)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:36)(cid:111)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:55)(cid:12)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:21)(cid:19)

(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:12)

(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:68)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

(cid:19)

(cid:20)(cid:19)

(cid:44)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)

(cid:19) (cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:19)

The  use  of  air  transport  has,  as  stated,
substantially  increased  in  recent  years  as  a

result of the deregulation of European skies
and the rapid growth of low-cost air carriers.

86

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch07.qxp  06/11/2007  17:01  Page 87

7

7. Information society trends 
influencing intercultural dialogue

in 

to 

spaces 

information 

information 

economic  benefits,
In 
addition 
developments 
and
communication technology (ICT) and related
services  (such  as  e-mail  and  mobile  phone
messages, 
and
communication  platforms  available  through
Internet, foreign TV programmes via satellite
or cable, multimedia content on multilingual
DVDs) have opened up possibilities for much
greater  intercultural  information  exchange
and  dialogue.  For  content  producers,  such
technological innovations have enlarged and
improved the reach, speed, volume, format,
delivery  and  timeliness  of  information
dissemination. 
these
developments  offer  a  broader  range  of
choice  and  opportunities  beyond  national
and  regional  boundaries,  including  the
frequency, 
of
communication.

consumers, 

location 

form 

and 

For 

These  ICT  developments  can  strengthen
cultural  diversity,  social 
inclusion  and
linguistic  skills,  and  reinforce  freedoms,
creativity,  learning  and  job  opportunities.
Mindful  of  these  possibilities,  the  European
Commission  has  launched  a  number  of
initiatives 
in  this  area.  The  e-content
programme (33) has  been  developed  to
encourage,  as  one  of  its  priorities,  the
creation  and  use  of  multilingual  digital
content.  Enterprises  in  this  field  are  thus
given support to adopt strategies taking full
account of cultural and linguistic aspects. At
a  research  level,  activities  developed  under
society
the  user-friendly 
‘language
programme 
technologies’,  such  as  the  development  of
machine 
translation  and  multilingual
research tools.

information 
with 

deal 

(33) See: http://cordis.europa.eu/econtent.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

87

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7

Table 7.1: Internet activities of individuals in the last 3 months, 2006 
(% of all individuals) (1) 

Training 
and 
education
19
15
7
18
20
36
8
13
9
8
:
11
13
13
27
21
13
:
23
13
4
7
6
22
8
27
7
33
6
15
7

Sending/
receiving e-
mails
42
54
19
37
74
60
49
45
17
37
34
29
25
41
32
65
37
:
76
53
27
29
16
42
42
67
74
53
18
77
72

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
IS
NO
(1) Population covered: individuals aged 16-74.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_ac_i)

Playing
/downl. 
games & 
music
18
20
12
12
26
18
28
11
11
23
9
11
17
24
24
26
22
:
42
15
16
16
11
21
18
33
34
24
13
34
37

Using 
serv. 
related to 
travel & 
accom-
modation
25
30
4
22
45
41
20
37
12
16
15
15
16
18
12
48
20
:
43
26
11
13
4
24
21
53
45
47
2
61
51

Reading
/downl. 
online 
news-
papers & 
news 
magazines
18
16
11
19
46
19
50
8
14
:
9
13
20
27
30
29
25
:
36
26
16
16
7
24
25
46
41
23
7
67
65

Other 
communi-
cation 
uses
17
19
14
13
17
26
21
6
3
20
17
9
11
22
16
35
21
:
30
13
18
15
7
16
20
22
25
13
9
44
34

Tele-
phoning 
over the 
Internet, 
video-
conf.
7
8
7
9
13
10
14
6
2
6
5
3
5
14
11
16
8
:
10
7
8
6
2
4
7
14
9
7
6
18
13

Listening 
to Web 
radios & 
watching 
Web TV
11
11
11
6
27
12
17
9
5
:
10
5
9
17
17
22
12
:
28
7
10
11
4
15
8
20
28
15
5
43
34

88

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ch07.qxp  06/11/2007  17:01  Page 89

Table 7.2: Individuals’ level of Internet skills, 2006 
(% of all individuals) (1)

7

Have posted 
messages 
(chat rooms, 
newsgroups, 
online discussion 
forum)
18
18
20
14
31
26
45
8
9
18
9
21
9
20
22
31
22
:
22
21
23
11
9
21
17
26
20
17
6
35
30

Sent an email 
with attached 
files
43
52
21
41
76
55
55
44
22
36
44
34
24
38
34
63
39
:
73
50
30
33
17
44
47
62
69
52
23
74
73

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
IS
NO
(1) Population covered: individuals aged 16-74.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_sk_iskl_i)

Have used 
peer-to-peer 
file sharing for 
exchanging 
movies, music, 
etc.
11
9
6
4
16
8
22
7
5
16
:
10
9
9
13
18
11
:
19
8
13
9
7
16
9
15
20
10
4
23
24

Have used the 
Internet to make 
phone calls
9
9
11
10
21
11
29
6
4
5
5
9
6
14
16
18
10
:
13
11
12
8
4
8
9
17
11
8
7
27
21

Have created a 
Web page
9
7
3
7
20
9
20
5
4
6
12
7
6
5
5
14
7
:
16
11
8
5
3
10
9
17
15
10
4
28
19

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7

As  Internet  networks  and  content  improve
and  hardware,  software,  rental  and  telecom-
munications  prices  are  driven  down,  the
frequency of use of the Internet and the size
of the Internet user population are increasing
steadily. It is likely that as people become more
accustomed to using the Internet they develop
a  range  of  skills  that  enable  them  to  benefit
more  from  its  use  and  to  interact  more  with
other people and organisations.

Within the EU in 2006, a high proportion of
individuals  aged  16-74  years  communicate
by e-mail (almost three quarters in Denmark,
the Netherlands and Sweden), gather news
on-line  (almost  half  of  the  population
in  Denmark,  Estonia  and
considered 
Finland), or use the Internet for training and
education (almost one third in Germany and
the  United  Kingdom).  Posting  messages  on
the Internet is a rather new activity but has
gained considerable importance in a number
of  countries  (as  high  as  45  %  in  Estonia).
These Internet activities such as participation
in newsgroups and online discussion forums
can  be  viewed  as  strengthening  cultural
dialogue  through  the  sharing  of  ideas,
opinions,  articles  and  knowledge  between
different countries and regions.

Internet  purchasing  provides  a  level  of
convenience,  choice  (in  terms  of  the  range
of  goods  and  services  available)  and  cross-
price  comparison  that  generally  surpasses
that  available  on  most  high  streets.  A
number  of  people,  however,  have  concerns
about  security  and  trust  (for  example,
providing  personal  and  credit  card  details

online,  viruses  and  unsolicited  e-mails,  as
well  as  worries  over  consumer  rights).
Furthermore,  some  people  prefer  to  see  or
handle a product before purchasing it.

For  business,  the  Internet  has  provided  a
platform  for  new  and  supplementary
business models that extend their reach and
allow access to new markets. The challenge
for  many  enterprises  remains  in  identifying
ways  to  create  profitable  growth  through
these  new  models.  One  aspect  of  Internet
business that has led to growth is the lack of
physical boundaries, such that new business
partners  can  be  found  and  new  products
and  services  can  be  advertised  and  sold  to
cross-border  customers.  Communication
between  businesses  and  customers  has
become  a  two-way  process,  with  feedback
from  customers,  online  surveys  and  online
product  ratings.  This  dialogue  between
businesses  and 
is  often
transparent,  highlighting  areas  for  product
or  service  improvement  as  well  as  regional
and sometimes cultural preferences.

customers 

in  every 

A  growing  and  significant  proportion  of
individuals are already using the Internet for
purchases;  around  one 
ten
individuals  between  the  ages  of  16  and  74
years in the EU-27 used the Internet in 2006
to  purchase  films/music,  books,  magazines
and  learning  materials,  travel  and  holiday
accommodation. In addition to these goods,
around one in every twelve individuals in the
EU-27  booked  tickets  for  events  over  the
Internet  (8  %)  in  2006,  while  6  %  bought
software (including computer games).

90

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7

Table 7.3: Internet purchases by individuals, 2006 (% of all individuals)

Ordered films/
music
9
4
1
2
16
18
1
9
1
2
6
2
1
1
1
16
1
:
11
8
3
2
1
3
2
8
14
24
1
16
22

Ordered books/
magazines/
e-learning 
material
10
5
1
4
17
26
2
9
2
3
6
2
3
1
2
25
3
:
16
15
5
3
1
4
4
10
15
17
1
19
23

EU-27
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
MK
IS
NO

(1) Including video games.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ec_ibuy)

Ordered 
computer 
software (1)
6
3
0
2
15
17
1
6
1
2
3
2
1
1
1
11
1
:
9
5
2
1
0
4
2
5
4
13
0
15
16

Ordered 
travel and 
holiday 
accommodation
11
7
0
3
26
21
1
18
1
9
8
3
2
1
1
21
2
:
21
7
1
2
0
3
3
12
18
23
1
39
40

Ordered 
tickets 
for events
8
6
0
4
24
16
2
11
0
5
5
2
0
1
1
19
2

15
7
1
1
0
2
2
9
10
16
0
19
30

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7

Figure 7.1: Telecommunication services: international outgoing calls, 2005
(average number of minutes per inhabitant)

800

700

600

500

400
300

200

100

0

U
L

Y
C

E
I

E
B

K
D

E
S

T
P

L
E

E
D

I
S

R
F

E
E

T
M

K
S

U
H

Z
C

I
F

T
L

L
P

O
R

)
1
(

S
E

)
2
(

G
B

)
2
(

T
I

)
2
(

V
L

)
2
(

L
N

)
2
(

T
A

)
2
(

K
U

H
C

S
O I
N

R
H

)
1
(

R
T

(1) 2004.
(2) Not available.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_tc_cal and tps00001)

through 

Cultural dialogue implies that people can live
together  well 
the  mutual
enrichment  of  understanding  one  another’s
culture.  This  emphasises  the  need  for
different  cultures  to  be  included  in  and
benefit  from  communication,  rather  than
the 
for
communication.  With  increasing  migration
within  the  EU  and  to  the  EU  from  non-
member countries, cultural dialogue has an
important  role  to  play  in  integration,
understanding and social bonding.

opportunities 

general 

The  annual  telecommunication 
inquiry
provides information on the average number
of  minutes  spent  on  international  outgoing
calls.  This  indicator  reflects,  in  part,  the
relative size of each country, the relative size
of  non-national  populations,  as  well  as  the
price  and  availability  of  communications

services.  Among  the  Member  States  for
which data are available, the relatively small
countries  of  Luxembourg  and  Cyprus
recorded by far the highest average number
of  minutes  spent  on  international  outgoing
calls in 2005.

One  of  the  structural 
indicators  that
reform  presents
measures  economic 
information  on  the  significant  differences
that  remain  between  Member  States  with
respect to the average cost of a ten minute
telephone call. This variation was widest for
international  calls  to  the  United  States,
where it was significantly cheaper to call for
ten minutes from Germany (EUR 0.46) than
from Finland (EUR 4.90) or Latvia (EUR 5.94)
in  2006.  Variations  were  narrower  for
national calls and local calls in turn.

92

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ch07.qxp  06/11/2007  17:01  Page 93

Table 7.4: Price of telecommunications (10-minute call), 2006 (EUR)

7

EU-25
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
JP
US

Source: Teligen

Local calls
0.36
0.57
:
0.56
0.37
0.39
0.23
0.49
0.31
0.19
0.36
0.22
0.22
0.36
0.39
0.31
0.40
0.25
0.33
0.49
0.50
0.37
:
0.26
0.60
0.24
0.29
0.44
0.25
0.07

National calls
0.74
0.57
:
0.56
0.37
0.49
0.23
0.82
0.74
0.85
0.89
1.15
0.22
1.03
0.79
:
1.04
:
0.49
0.59
1.00
0.65
:
0.26
1.29
0.94
0.29
0.44
1.02
1.03

International calls to US
1.79
1.98
:
2.02
2.38
0.46
2.13
1.91
3.49
1.53
2.32
2.12
0.66
5.94
4.07
1.37
2.88
1.64
0.85
1.90
1.23
3.11
:
1.40
1.23
4.90
1.18
2.23
4.34
-

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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8

8. Values and challenges to 
intercultural dialogue

In  a  broad  sense,  intercultural  dialogue  can
be  a  means  by  which  citizens  can  learn  to
live together peacefully and constructively in
a multicultural world, developing a sense of
community and belonging.

Intercultural  dialogue  can  contribute  to  a
number  of  important  goals  in  the  EU,  such
as:  respecting  and  promoting  cultural
diversity;  safeguarding  and  fostering  ideals
and principles founded upon the respect for
human  rights,  democracy  and  the  rule  of
law;  solidarity,  social  justice  and  reinforced
cohesion. The EU places importance on both
preserving cultural heritage and multicultural
dialogue.  These  areas  face  new  challenges,
among which are the needs to: 

-

ensure that cultural diversity is enhanced
not  threatened  by  global  trade  and  the
communications revolution;

-

-

-

-

promote  social  cohesion,  especially  in
the  face  of  tensions  between  different
societal groups;
better  connect  EU  citizens  with  the
democratic  institutions  that  work  for
them;
support  access  to  and  the  nurturing  of
cultural heritage, and;
breakdown  stereotypes, 
discrimination and violence.

intolerance,

The  tables  and  graphs  presented  in  this
section  are  largely  based  on  the  results  of
opinion polls undertaken by the Directorate-
General  Communication  of  the  European
Commission  under  the  framework  of
Eurobarometer  surveys.  Such  opinion  polls
can be particularly volatile over time and are
often influenced by recent political or other
events within a country; therefore they have
to be interpreted with special care.

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8

Figure 8.1: Key societal values, EU-27, 2007 (%) (1)

0

25

50

75

100

Respect for nature and the environment

Peace

Social equality and solidarity

Freedom of opinion

Tolerance and openness to others

Respect for history and its lessons

Progress and innovation

Cultural diversity

Entrepreneurship

(1) Respondents were asked: among the following values, what are the three in your opinion, that we should
preserve and reinforce the most in our current society?
Source: Eurobarometer special 278 - European cultural values (2007)

Intercultural  dialogue  is  based  on  an  open
and  respectful  exchange  of  views  between
to
individuals  and  groups  belonging 
different  cultures 
leading  to  a  more
profound  understanding  of  the  other's
global  perception.  To  have  this  dialogue,
individuals  must  have  an  interest  to  learn
about  other  cultures.  When  questioned
about  their  key  societal  values,  Europeans
name  peace  and  respect  for  nature  as  the
most  important  issues.  Social  equality  and
solidarity,  freedom  of  opinion,  and  a
tolerance  and  openness  to  others  follow,
with no difference in their importance (34).

Participation  in  society  is  often  viewed  as  a
fundamental  element  of  social  cohesion,
strengthening the respect, appreciation and

(34) Respondents had to choose three out of a list of
nine key societal values, which should be preserved and
reinforced within society.

worth  of  others.  Despite  legal  protection
against  discrimination  (more  details  below),
perceptions  of  under-representation  of
minority  groups  in  various  parts  of  society
(such as women, those over 50, or those of
a  different  ethnic  origin)  suggest  that  there
remains  much  to  be  done  to  enable  and
empower  people  so  that  participation  is
spread widely across the whole of society.

The  Europe 
for  citizens  programme
(2007-2013) (35) provides  instruments  to
promote  active  citizenship.  It  aims  to  put
citizens  at  the  centre  of  the  process  and
offers  them  opportunities  to  fully  assume
their  responsibility,  improve  participation,
and  develop  their  ideas  in  a  European
context which goes beyond national visions.

(35) See: http://ec.europa.eu/citizenship/index_en.html.

96

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ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 97

Figure 8.2: Voter turnout (% of total eligible electorate)

8

100

75

50

25

0

5
2
-
U
E

T
M

E
B

Y
C

U
L

K
D

T
A

T
I

E
S

L
N

E
D

L
E

S
E

U
H

V
L

I

K F
S

T
P

E
I

I

K S
U

R
F

O
R

Z
C

E
E

G
B

T
L

L
P

EU parliamentary elections (1)

National parliamentary elections (2)

(1) Last election in 2004, except for Bulgaria, 2007, and Romania, first election foreseen on 25 November 2007.
(2) Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Portugal and the United Kingdom, 2005; Greece, Spain, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Romania and Slovenia, 2004; Belgium, Estonia, Malta, the Netherlands and Finland, 2003; the Czech
Republic, Ireland, France, Latvia, Hungary, Austria, Slovakia and Sweden, 2002; Italy and Cyprus, 2001.
Source: European Parliament and International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

This is reflected in four different actions:

- Active  citizens  for  Europe  –  involves
citizens  directly,  either  through  activities
linked  to  town-twinning  or  through
other kinds of citizens' projects;

civil 

Europe-wide 

- Active civil society for Europe – targeted
society

to 
organisations;
Together  for  Europe  –  supports  high
visibility  events,  studies  and  information
tools,  addressing  the  widest  possible
audience across frontiers;

-

respect 

Another  way  that  participation  is  measured
to  governance  and
is  with 
participation  in  the  democratic  process.
Some  Member  States 
legal
obligations on the electorate to vote. Across
the EU-25 as a whole less than half (45.7 %)
in  EU
those  eligible  voted 
of  all 
parliamentary elections in 2004, which was
considerably less than the average (69.9 %)
for the latest national elections.

impose 

- Active  European 

remembrance  –
supports  the  preservation  of  the  main
sites  and  archives  associated  with  the
victims of Nazism and Stalinism.

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8

Figure 8.3: Perceived views regarding representation and participation 
in society, EU-25, 2006 (%)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Women in management

Disabled people in the workplace

People aged over 50 in companies

Female MPs

MPs of a different ethnic origin

EU does not need more

EU needs more

Do not know

Source: Eurobarometer special 263 - Discrimination in the European Union (2006)

The framework programme on Fundamental
Rights and Justice (36) looks to promote the
development of a European society based on
is  respectful  of
EU  citizenship  which 
fundamental  rights,  fighting  anti-semitism,
racism  and  xenophobia  and  strengthening
civil society. In legal terms, equality implies a
lack of discrimination based on belonging to
a group identified by race, ethnicity, religion,
class  or  gender. 
this  way,  non-
In 
discrimination  is  a  fundamental  right  that
allows the exercise of all other rights and is
particularly important for minority, ethnic or
indigenous groups.

minimum  level  of  legal  protection  from
discrimination. These directives are designed
to  prevent  people  in  the  EU  from  being
discriminated  against  on  the  grounds  of
religion, belief, race, disability, age or sexual
orientation, primarily within the workplace.

The EU Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)
is based in Vienna (37). Its objectives include
providing assistance and expertise relating to
fundamental  rights  and  to  support  relevant
institutions 
the
Community  and  its  Member  States  when
implementing Community law in this area.

authorities  of 

and 

The  Racial  Equality  Directive  (2000/43/EC)
and  the  Employment  Framework  Directive
(2000/78/EC)  define  a  set  of  principles  that
offer  everyone  in  the  EU  a  common

(36) See: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/funding/intro/
funding_rights_en.htm.

The European year of equal opportunities for
all was in 2007 (38), seeking to make people
more  aware  of  their  rights  to  equal

(37) See: http://fra.europa.eu/fra/index.php?lang=EN.
(38) See: http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/eyeq/
index.cfm.

98

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ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 99

Figure 8.4: Perception of discrimination, EU-25, 2006 (%)

-100

-75

-50

-25

0

25

50

75

100

8

Ethnic origin

Disability

Sexual orientation

Age

Religion or beliefs

Gender

Source: Eurobarometer special 263 - Discrimination in the European Union (2006)

Rare

Widespread

treatment and to a life free of discrimination
–  irrespective  of  sex,  racial  or  ethnic  origin,
religion  or  belief,  disability,  age  and  sexual
orientation.  It  aimed  to  promote  equal
opportunities  for  all,  while  launching  a
debate on the benefits of diversity both for
European societies and individuals.

A  Eurobarometer  poll  from  July  2006,
suggests  that  a  large  majority  of  the  EU's
population  has  the  view  that  more  women
are needed in management positions (77 %)
and  as  parliamentary  members  (72 %).  A
large majority also think that disabled people
(74  %)  and  people  over  50  years  of  age
(72 %)  are  under-represented 
the
workplace and would be in agreement if this
situation  changed.  Some  48 %  of  those
surveyed believed that the EU does not need

in 

from 

more  MPs 
ethnic
backgrounds,  compared  with  44 %  who
thought that the EU did need more.

different 

A small majority (53 %) of people across the
EU-25  also  thought  there  was  widespread
discrimination  on  the  grounds  of  disability.
Those  perceiving  widespread  discrimination
on the grounds of sexual orientation (50 %)
also  outweighed  those  that  perceived  such
incidences to be rare (41 %). Although more
people  across 
the  EU-25  perceived
incidences of discrimination on the grounds
of age, religion or gender as rare compared
with  those  that  considered  it  widespread,
there remained a considerable proportion of
respondents  who  thought  these  types  of
discrimination  were  widespread  (at  least
40 %).

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8

Figure 8.5: Perception of widespread discrimination on the grounds of
religion or beliefs, 2006 (%)

100

75

50

25

0

5
2
-
U
E

R
F

K
D

T
I

E
B

L
N

K
U

E
S

I
S

Y
C

T
M

T
A

L
E

T
P

E
D

U
L

S
E

L
P

E
I

I

O F
R

U
H

G
B

T
L

E
E

K
S

Z
C

V
L

Source: Eurobarometer special 263 - Discrimination in the European Union (2006)

Despite  widespread 
legal  protection,
discrimination  may  hinder  the  social  and
economic  achievement  of  many  groups  and
individuals.  A  Eurobarometer  survey  on
discrimination in the EU, suggests that 44 %
of  the  EU-25  population  believed  there  was
widespread discrimination on the grounds of
religion and belief when surveyed in 2006. In
some  Member  States,  this  perception  of
discrimination was much higher; a little over
six  out  of  every  ten  people  in  France,
Denmark,  Italy  and  Belgium  perceived  there
to  be  widespread  discrimination  on  the
grounds of religion or beliefs. The survey was
not  explicit  about  which  religions  were
deemed  to  be  discriminated  against.  In
contrast, less than 15 % of those surveyed in
the Baltic Member States, the Czech Republic
and Slovakia perceived discrimination on the
grounds of religion or beliefs.

There 
remains  a  high  perception  of
discrimination,  however,  on  the  grounds  of
ethnic  origin  across  the  EU-27  as  a  whole
(64 %). In some Member States, more than
three  quarters  of  those  surveyed  perceived
there to be discrimination on the grounds of
ethnic origin in 2006; the rates were highest
the  Netherlands,  France,
in  Sweden, 
Denmark, Belgium and Italy. In many of the
Member States with the highest perceptions
of  discrimination,  there  were  much  larger
migrant  populations  or  populations  from
different ethic origins, when compared with
those  Member  States  that  reported  lower
perceptions  of  discrimination.  Whether
these higher rates regarding the perception
of  discrimination 
to  a  higher
proportion  of  ethnic  minority  respondents,
or  whether  they  relate  to  replies  from  the
indigenous population (perceiving positive or
negative discrimination in favour of minority

relate 

100

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 101

Figure 8.6: Perception of widespread discrimination on the grounds of
ethnic origin, 2006 (%)

8

100

75

50

25

0

5
2
-
U
E

E
S

L
N

R
F

K
D

E
B

T
I

L
E

S
E

I

Y F
C

T
M

K
U

U
H

T
P

E
I

T
A

I
S

Z
C

K
S

E
D

U
L

G
B

O
R

E
E

L
P

V
L

T
L

Source: Eurobarometer special 263 - Discrimination in the European Union (2006)

groups), they do point to the importance of
intercultural dialogue as a process to diffuse
of
lower 
and 
tension 
discrimination.

incidences 

for  more 

A special Eurobarometer study on European
Social  Reality (39)
that  was  carried  out
between  November  and  December  2006
provides  information  on  the  views  of
Europeans  as  regards  immigration  (see
Chapter  1 
information  on
population  and  migration).  The  majority
(54 %)  of  persons  surveyed  felt  that
immigrants enriched the cultural life of their
country,  while  30 %  of 
respondents
disagreed with this statement. However, the
presence of people from other ethnic groups
was  a  cause  of  insecurity  for  42 %  of  the
EU-25's  population;  while  an  almost  equal

(39) Eurobarometer special 273, European Social Reality,
see: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/
ebs_273_en.pdf.

proportion (41 %) of respondents disagreed
with this statement.

At  a  socio-demographic  level,  the  most
positive  attitudes  to  immigration  were
recorded  among 
those  persons  who
remained in education until at least 20 years
of age. Indeed, the age at which people left
full-time education had the highest variation
in  attitudes  among  the  socio-demographic
characteristics that were studied.

There  were  also  considerable  differences  in
attitudes  to  immigration  according  to  the
age  of 
respondents.  By  occupation,
managers,  students  and  the  self-employed
had the most positive views of immigration.
Those  living  in  large  towns  and  cities
reported  a  higher  proportion  of  positive
views  of  immigration  when  compared  with
those living in rural areas or villages.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

101

ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 102

8

Figure 8.7: Types of cross-national contact, EU-27, 2007 (%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Eating foreign cuisine

Travelled abroad at least 3 times in last 3 years

Have friends from other European countries

Family/relative in another European country

Often watch TV/movies in foreign languages

Friends from non European countries

Family/relative in non European country

Communicate abroad via Internet/e-mail

Job involves contact with other countries

Read newspapers in foreign languages

Enjoy reading foreign books

None

Don't know

Source: Eurobarometer special 278 - European cultural values (2007)

Otherwise,  those  persons  from  the  left  of
the political spectrum, those with a positive
outlook  regarding  general  economic  and
employment prospects, those with a positive
outlook concerning their own situation (job
situation,  household  finances  and  life  in
general), those who did not feel threatened
by  the  risk  of  falling  into  poverty,  those
confident  concerning  pensions,  and  those
who did not rate immigration as one of the
top three issues of concern, all had relatively
positive views as regards immigration.

A  Eurobarometer  poll  on  cultural  values  in
the  EU-27  in  2007  was  commissioned  to
study how Europeans conceive of the idea of
culture  and  its  importance  to  them,  while
measuring  their  participation  in  various
cultural and artistic activities, and the extent
to  which  Europeans  have  cross-cultural
contacts and interest in other cultures.

Respondents  to  the  survey  were  asked  for
the extent of their cross-cultural contact. The
most common form of cross-cultural contact
was  through  food,  in  other  words  enjoying
foreign  cuisines  (either  at  home  or  at  a
restaurant)  –  which  applied  to  45 %  of
respondents.

102

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Figure 8.8: Interest in the arts and culture, EU-27, 2007 
(% who are very interested or fairly interested)

8

100

75

50

25

0

In own country

In other European countries

In the rest of the world

Source: Eurobarometer special 278 - European cultural values (2007)

The  next  most  common  forms  of  cross-
cultural  contact  were  travelling  abroad  at
least  three  times  in  the  last  three  years  (for
business  or  pleasure)  and  having  friends
from foreign countries – which both applied
to  27 %  of  those  questioned;  the  same
proportion  (27 %)  replied  that  none  of  the
cross-cultural  forms  of  contact  applied  to
them.

in  the  EU-27 

The same survey shows that the majority of
persons 
in  2007  were
interested in the arts and culture – whether
or not this was in their own country, another
European country or the rest of the world.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

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ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 104

8

Figure 8.9: Interest in meeting people from other European countries, 
EU-27, 2007 (%)

100

75

50

25

0

Very
interested

Fairly 
interested

Not very
interested

Not at all
interested

Don't 
know

Source: Eurobarometer special 278 - European cultural values (2007)

One  measure  of  the  potential  for  cultural
exchange is the proportion of the population
who  express  an  interest  in  meeting  people
from  other  European  countries.  This  also
formed part of the questionnaire carried out
within  the  framework  of  Eurobarometer  in
2007  concerning  European  cultural  values.
The majority (63 %) of those questioned said
they  were  attracted  by  the  possibility  of
meeting  people  from  another  European
country, compared with 35 % that were not.

to 

The Eurostat Urban Audit database presents
further  information  on  perspectives  in
relation 
issues.  The
intercultural 
information presented for 31 different cities
shows that most respondents were generally
happy  with  the  quality  of  their  cultural
services, cinemas and public Internet access.
There  were  generally  fewer  people  who
thought that foreigners were well integrated
within their city.

104

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ch08.qxp  06/11/2007  17:22  Page 105

Table 8.1: Cultural and intercultural perceptions across selected 
European cities, 2004 (synthetic index, 0-100) (1)
Satisfied 
with 
cinemas
96
85
88
96
91
79
90
94
88
91
87
90
86
93
85
91
86
86
90
91
89
92
93
88
93
89
97
97
92
89
90

Antwerpen (BE)
Bruxelles / Brussel (BE)
Liège (BE)
København (DK)
Berlin (DE)
Dortmund (DE)
Leipzig (DE)
München (DE)
Dublin (IE)
Athina (EL)
Irakleio (EL)
Barcelona (ES)
Madrid (ES)
Málaga (ES)
Marseille (FR)
Paris (FR)
Rennes (FR)
Napoli (IT)
Roma (IT)
Torino (IT)
Luxembourg (LU)
Amsterdam (NL)
Rotterdam (NL)
Wien (AT)
Braga (PT)
Lisboa (PT)
Helsinki (FI)
Stockholm (SE)
Glasgow (UK)
London (UK)
Manchester (UK)

Satisfied 
with public 
Internet access
79
78
84
85
79
75
75
69
86
76
77
75
74
70
79
79
80
60
74
69
69
86
87
79
71
53
85
68
86
89
82

Satisfied
 with cultural 
facilities
92
90
81
96
91
90
93
94
87
77
55
84
73
52
78
95
85
76
83
89
89
94
95
94
53
71
96
97
93
89
91

8

Foreigners 
here are well 
integrated
29
46
57
30
36
39
54
53
40
46
70
39
28
67
51
47
72
61
54
39
67
35
31
41
57
40
50
10
64
60
69

(1) The higher/lower the index, the higher/lower the overall proportion of persons who are/are not satisfied or in
agreement.
Source: Eurostat (urb_percep)

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

105

ch09 - abbreviations.qxp  06/11/2007  17:29  Page 106

SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS

EU-15
EU-25

Geographical aggregates
European Union
EU
European  Union  of  12  Member  States  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  Ireland,
EU-12
Greece,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands,  Portugal  and  the
United Kingdom)
European Union of 15 Member States (EU-12 and Austria, Finland and Sweden)
European Union of 25 Member States (EU-15 and the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia)
European Union of 27 Member States (EU-25 and Bulgaria and Romania)

EU-27
Euro area Belgium,  Germany,  Ireland,  Greece,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  the
Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia and Finland; Cyprus and Malta will also
become members of the euro area in 2008; however, this could not be taken into
account at the time of writing (September 2007).

Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated when sufficient information is available – for
example,  data  relating  to  the  EU-27  aggregate  is  often  presented  for  periods  prior  to  the
accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 and the accession of ten new Member States in
2004, as if all 27 Member States had always been members of the EU. A footnote is added
when  this  is  not  the  case  and  the  data  for  the  EU  refers  to  a  partial  total  that  has  been
created from an incomplete set of country information (no data for certain Member States).

Countries
BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU

Belgium
Bulgaria
the Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary

106

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ch09 - abbreviations.qxp  06/11/2007  17:29  Page 107

MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

Malta
the Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
the United Kingdom

HR
MK (40)
TR
IS
LI
NO
CH
AL
JP
US

Croatia
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Turkey
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
Albania
Japan
United States

Abbreviations
CN
COICOP
DAC
DVD
EBLUL
EC
EEA
EFTA
EMU
ERF
ERDF
ESF
ESS

Combined nomenclature (classification)
Classification of individual consumption according to purpose (classification)
Development Assistance Committee
Digital versatile disc or digital video disc
European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages
European Community
European Economic Area (EU-27, IS, LI and NO)
European Free Trade Association (CH, IS, LI and NO)
Economic and Monetary Union
European Refugee Fund
European Regional Development Fund
European Social Fund
European Statistical System

(40) The code MK is provisional and does not prejudge in any way the definitive nomenclature for this country,
which will be agreed following the conclusion of negotiations currently taking place on this subject at the United
Nations.

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

107

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EU
FDI
FRA
GDP
HRST
ICT
INTI
ISCED
LEG-Culture
LLP
MEPs
MPs
NACE

European Union
Foreign direct investment
EU Agency for Fundamental Rights
Gross domestic product
Human resources in science and technology
Information and communication technologies
Integration of third country nationals (programme)
International standard classification of education
Leadership Group on Cultural Statistics
Lifelong Learning Programme
Members of the European Parliament
Members of Parliament (national)
Statistical  classification  of  economic  activities  in  the  European  Communities
(Nomenclature générale des activités économiques dans les Communautés 
européennes)
Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
NUTS
Official Development Assistance
ODA
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD
PEEIs
Principal European Economic Indicators
PRODCOM Products of the European Community (classification)
SPC
TENs
TV
UNESCO

Statistical Programme Committee
Trans-European Networks
Television
United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Units
%
‰
EUR
Passenger-km Passenger-kilometre (sum of kilometres travelled by all passengers)
PPS

Percent
Per thousand
Euro

Purchasing Power Standard

Symbols
0
c
:

-
Italic

less than half the final digit shown
confidential
used in tables to represent data that is not available, either because the value was
not provided by the national statistical authority or because the value is confidential
used in tables to indicate values that are not relevant or not applicable
values that are presented in tables in italic typeface are estimates, provisional
data or forecasts (and therefore may be subject to change)

108

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European Commission

Statistical portrait of the European Union 2008 – European Year of Intercultural Dialogue

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

(cid:50)(cid:48)(cid:48)(cid:55)(cid:32)(cid:208)(cid:32)(cid:49)(cid:48)(cid:56)(cid:32)(cid:112)(cid:112)(cid:46)(cid:32)(cid:208)(cid:32)(cid:49)(cid:52)(cid:46)(cid:56)(cid:32)(cid:120)(cid:32)(cid:50)(cid:49)(cid:32)(cid:99)(cid:109)

ISBN 978-92-79-06600-9
ISSN 1830-7906

ch00.qxp  06/11/2007  15:44  Page 2