Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on equality between women and men – 2007
Date: 2007-02-07
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: economic and social cohesion, equal treatment, gender equality, labour market, participation of women, position of women, report, women's rights

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 7.2.2007 
COM(2007)49 final 

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND 
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

on equality between women and men – 2007 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. 

2. 

2.1 

2.2 

3. 

3.1 

3.2 

3.3 

3.4 

4. 

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3 

Main developments ...................................................................................................... 3 

Policies and legislation................................................................................................. 3 

Gender gaps.................................................................................................................. 5 

Challenges and policy orientations .............................................................................. 6 

Eliminating gender gaps on the labour market ............................................................ 7 

Encouraging a better balance of private and family responsibilities 
between women and men ............................................................................................. 7 

Ensuring that policies on gender equality have the full support 
of cohesion and rural development policies................................................................. 8 

Ensuring effective implementation of the legislative framework ................................ 9 

Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 9 

ANNEX.................................................................................................................................... 10 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  Spring  European  Council  of  March  2003  asked  the  Commission  to  report  annually  on 
developments  towards  gender  equality  and  orientations  for  gender  mainstreaming  of  policy 
areas. This report is the fourth to comply with that request. 

2006 saw two major events with a bearing on gender equality in the EU: the adoption by the 
Commission of the Roadmap for equality between women and men for the period 2006-2010, 
and  the  adoption  by  the  European  Council  of  the  Pact  for  Gender  Equality.  These  two  key 
initiatives  testify  to  the  EU's  continued  commitment  to  achieving  genuine  equality  between 
women and men. 

The European Union, which has now been enlarged to 27 Member States, is about to celebrate 
the 50th anniversary of gender equality policy and the European Year of Equal Opportunities 
for  All.  Moreover,  equality  policy  is  at  the  centre  of  two  areas  of  concern:  growth  and 
employment, and demographic change. It will need the full support of the cohesion policy, the 
new programming period for which begins in 2007. 

2. 

MAIN DEVELOPMENTS 

2.1 

Policies and legislation 

With  the  adoption  of  the  Roadmap  for  equality  between  women  and  men1  on  1  March 
2006,  the  Commission  defined  its  priorities  and  its  framework  of  action  for  promoting 
equality  in  the  period  to  2010,  thus  continuing  its  task  of  promoting  gender  equality  and 
ensuring  that  all  its  policies  contribute  to  that  objective.  The  Roadmap  represents  the 
Commission's  commitment  to  continuing  and  intensifying  its  actions  in  this  area.  Detailed 
follow-up reports will be compiled annually. 

At the European Council of 23 and 24 March 2006, the Member States approved a European 
Pact  for  Gender  Equality2.  The  Pact  demonstrates  the  Member  States'  determination  to 
implement policies aimed at promoting the employment of women and guaranteeing a better 
balance between professional and private life in order to meet the challenges of demographic 
change.  In  this  context,  it  would  appear  essential  to  develop  childcare  services  in  order  to 
achieve the Barcelona objectives3. 

The  ageing  of  the  population,  combined  with  declining  birth  rates,  raises  considerable 
challenges  for  our  societies,  as  demonstrated  in  the  Communication  on  the  demographic 
future  of  Europe4,  which  was  adopted  by  the  Commission  on  12  October  2006.  It  is  clear 
that policies on gender equality will contribute significantly to meeting those challenges: on 
the one hand, by stimulating the employment of women, thus compensating for the forecast 
decline in the working population; and, on the other, by supporting the individual choices of 
women and men, including decisions on the number of children they wish to have. 

1 
2 
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4 

COM (2006) 92 final. 
Conclusions of the Presidency, 7775/1/06/Rev 1. 
Providing  childcare  services  for  33%  of  children  up  to  the  age  of  three  and  90%  of  children  aged 
between three and the compulsory schooling age by 2010. 
COM (2006) 571 final. 

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At  the  same  time,  the  Commission  launched  a  formal  consultation  among  the  social 
partners5  on  the  possible  thrust  of  Community  action  regarding  the  reconciliation  of 
professional,  private  and  family  life,  including  the  promotion  of  flexible  working 
arrangements,  the  development  of  crèche  and  care  services  and  the  possible  revision  of 
existing provisions regarding maternity leave and parental leave6. 

The  legislative  framework  for  gender  equality  improved  considerably  with  the  adoption  in 
June 2006 of a Directive7 which simplifies and updates existing Community legislation on the 
equal treatment of women and men as regards employment. The greater clarity of the legal 
texts should facilitate better application of the law, thus contributing to the objective of "better 
regulation". The Member States must ensure that the Directive is transposed in their national 
legislation  by  August  2008.  As  regards  transposition  of  the  Directive  of  2002  on  equal 
treatment8,  procedures  for  failure  to  fulfil  an  obligation  were  initiated  against  nine  Member 
States, four of which were still open as at the end of 2006. 

The  Regulation  creating  a  European  Institute  for  Gender  Equality  was  adopted  in 
December  20069.  The  Institute  is  required  to  provide  significant  technical  support  for  the 
development of policies on equality between women and men. 

2006  saw  the  adoption  of  the  new  regulation  of  the  Structural  Funds10  and  of  the 
Community strategic guidelines on cohesion11 for the period 2007-2013, which foresee both 
specific  measures  and  the  integration  of  the  gender  perspective  in  all  actions12.  Their 
implementation  will  primarily  be  the  task  of  the  Member  States,  in  the  form  of  National 
strategic reference frameworks and operational programmes. The remit of the European Rural 
Development Fund also includes the principle of equality between men and women13 in rural 
development  support  policy.  In  addition,  the  Community's  "PROGRESS"  programme14 
contains  a  section  dedicated  to  gender  equality  which  will  support  the  implementation  of 
Community  policy  on  equality  between  women  and  men  in  the  areas  of  employment  and 
social solidarity. 

Poverty often affects women, particularly the elderly and single-parent households. Moreover, 
health and social welfare systems are not always attuned to the different needs of women and 
men.  This  is  why  the  promotion  of  equality  between  women  and  men  is  among  the 
overarching objectives of the new framework for the open coordination of social protection 
and inclusion policies adopted by the European Council in March 200615. Its implementation 
should help to implement policies aimed at reducing the disparities between women and men 
in these fields. 

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SEC (2006) 1245. 
Directives 92/85/EEC and 96/34/EC. 
Directive 2006/54/EC. 
Directive 2002/73/EC. 
Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006. 
In particular, Regulations (EC) 1081/2006 and 1083/2006. 
Council Decision 2006/702/EC. 
Article 16 of Regulation (EC) 1083/2006. 
Article 8 of Regulation (EC) 1698/2005. 
Council  Decision  No.  1672/2006/EC  of 
24 October 2006. 
On the basis of Council Document 6801/06 of 27.02.2006. 

the  European  Parliament  and  of 

the  Council  of 

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As  regards  violence  and  human  trafficking,  in  a  Communication  of  August  2006,  the 
Commission put forward a strategy to measure crime (including human trafficking, violence 
against  women  and  domestic  violence)  and  criminal  justice16.  It  will  help  to  improve 
appreciably our understanding of these evils, the principal victims of which are women. 

Gender equality is also recognised as a factor in economic development in the framework of 
the  EU's  External  Affairs.  By  the  beginning  of  2007,  the  Commission  will  prepare  a 
Communication  on  the  integration  of  gender  equality  in  development  cooperation.  In 
addition, a five-year Action Plan designed to strengthen the role of women in Mediterranean 
societies  was  adopted  in  November  2006  as  part  of  the  Euromed  partnership.  This  Plan 
provides  a  framework  in  which  the  EU  and  Mediterranean  countries  can  cooperate  in 
strengthening the role of women in the social, political, economic and cultural spheres. 

2.2 

Gender gaps  

The employment of women, including older women, has continued to make solid advances in 
recent  years.  That  should  not  obscure  the  clearly  unfavourable  situation  of  women  on  the 
labour  market  in  relation  to  men.  Major  gaps  remain,  and  they  are  always  to  women's 
disadvantage.  Labour  market  segregation  and  inequalities  in  working  arrangements  are 
proving to be persistent, and this is reflected in a significant and stable gender pay gap. 

The female labour force continues to be the engine of employment growth in Europe. Since 
the launch of the Lisbon Strategy in 2000, six of the eight million jobs created in the EU have 
been  taken  by  women.  In  2005,  the  rate  of  female  employment  rose  for  the  twelfth 
consecutive year, to stand at 56.3%, i.e. 2.7 points above its 2000 level, compared with a 0.1 
point  rise  in  the  rate  of  male  employment.  If  this  favourable  trend  continues17,  the  Lisbon 
objective of 60% female employment by 2010 will be attained. Similarly, the rise in the rate 
of employment of women over the age of 55 has been significantly faster than that of men, 
and now stands at 33.7%, i.e. almost 7 points more than in 2000. 

Accordingly,  the  gap  in  employment  rates  between  women  and  men  was  reduced  to  15.0 
points in 2005, i.e. by 2.6 points over five years. It should be pointed out that the gap varies 
widely between age groups: it is only 5.9 points among young people (15-24 years of age), 
16.7 points for workers aged between 25 and 54, and no less than 18.1 points for those above 
55.  The  positive  trend  in  the  employment  of  women  is  also  reflected  in  the  proportionally 
faster decline in their unemployment rate, the gender gap having declined from 2.8 in 2000 
to 2.0 in 2005. 

Despite  this  positive  trend,  the  increased  difficulty  which  women  are  facing  in  reconciling 
their  professional  and  private  lives,  and  the  unequal  division  of  domestic  and  family 
responsibilities,  remain  very  marked.  It  is  striking  that  the  rate  of  employment  of  women 
between the ages of 20 and 49 falls by 15 points when they have a child, while that of men 
increases  by  six  points.  Moreover,  increasing  demands  for  labour  flexibility  are  having  a 
disproportionately  large  impact  on  women.  Almost  one-third  of  women  work  part-time 
(32.9% in 2006), compared with just 7.7% of men; 14.8% of female employees had a fixed-
term  contract,  i.e.  one  point  more  than  their  male  counterparts.  The  extent  to  which  use  is 

16 
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COM (2006) 437 final. 
According 
will continue to increase, 
http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/european_economy/2006/eesp106en.pdf  

in  2025,  at  which  point 

the  European  Commission, 

the  rate  of  female  employment 
it  will  stabilise.  See 

to  projections  by 

reaching  65% 

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made  of  flexible  arrangements  for  working  time  can  reflect  personal  preferences,  but  the 
marked  difference  between  the  sexes  underlines  the  imbalance  between  men  and  women  in 
the use of time. 

In  addition,  the  labour  market  remains  largely  partitioned.  Occupational  and  sectoral 
segregation  indices  by  sex  show  no  sign  of  a  significant  decline.  It  would  therefore  appear 
that the increase in female employment is being achieved mainly in sectors of activity and in 
professions which are already dominated by women. Nearly four women salary earners in ten 
work  in  the  civil  service,  education,  health  or  social  work,  and  nearly  half  are  clerical 
workers, sales persons, or unskilled or low-skilled workers. 

Moreover, there continues to be an imbalance between women and men in decision-making 
positions, both political and economic. Fewer than one-third of managers are women, and the 
management  boards  of  the  50  biggest  listed  European  companies  had  only  one  woman  for 
every  ten  men  in  2005.  In  national  Parliaments,  the  average  proportion  of  women  is  only 
24%. It is 33% in the European Parliament. 

Segregation  is  a  factor  in  education.  Although  women  now  represent  the  majority  of  new 
higher education graduates (59%), their fields of study remain strongly stereotyped. Teaching, 
the social sciences, the arts and health account for nearly half of all female graduates but less 
than  one-quarter  of  their  male  counterparts.  Conversely,  technical  studies  attract  only  one 
female graduate in ten, compared with four male graduates in ten. 

One of the consequences of the differences and inequalities which women face on the labour 
market is the persistent gender pay gap. Women earn an average of 15% less than men for 
every hour worked18. 

At the social level, women, especially elderly women and single mothers, are at greater risk 
of exclusion and poverty. The risk of poverty among women over the age of 65 is 20%, i.e. 5 
points more than for men, while that among single-parent households19 is 34%. In addition, 
long-term  unemployment  affects  4.5%  of  women,  i.e.  1  point  more  than  men.  Women  also 
constitute the majority of the economically inactive and are therefore particularly vulnerable 
to poverty. 

3. 

CHALLENGES AND POLICY ORIENTATIONS 

The Spring European Council of 2006 stressed that policies on gender equality are essential 
instruments for economic growth, prosperity and competitiveness. The European strategy for 
growth  and  employment  also  recognises  the  contribution  of  gender  equality  to  meeting  the 
Lisbon objectives. In order fully to exploit the potential of European workforce productivity, 
it  is  essential  to  promote  women's  long-term  participation  in  the  labour  market  and  to 
eliminate  the  disparities  between  men  and  women  right  across  the  board.  To  meet  these 
challenges,  equality  policies  will  need  the  active  support  of  cohesion  policy  and  effective 
implementation of legislation on equal treatment. The Commission will support the Member 
States' actions in a number of key areas where significant progress has yet to be achieved, in 
line with the priorities set out in the Roadmap for gender equality. 

18 
19 

Relative difference in average gross hourly remuneration between men and women. 
The vast majority of single parents being women. 

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3.1 

Eliminating gender gaps on the labour market 

Access  to  high-quality  paid  employment  is  the  guarantor  of  the  economic  independence  of 
both women and men. Nevertheless, some very major disparities persist between the sexes, in 
particular  regarding  arrangements  for  working  time  (part-time  work,  temporary  contracts) 
and sectors and professions. It is essential to analyse and tackle the factors underlying these 
disparities. 

•  The causes of labour market segregation, which essentially originates in stereotype choices 

of education, training and careers, should be actively combated; 

•  Efforts  aimed  at  eliminating  obstacles  to  women's  access  to  decision-making  and 

managerial positions need to be intensified; 

•  The efforts which have been made to reduce the gender  pay  gap should be continued, in 
cooperation  with  all  concerned.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  low  level  of 
wages in professions and sectors which tend to be dominated by women and to the reasons 
which lead to reduced earnings in professions and sectors in which women become more 
prominent; 

•  The  development,  implementation  and  monitoring  of  flexicurity  policies20  should  take 
account  of  their  different  impacts  on  women  and  men  and  should  avoid  stressing  the 
"flexibility" aspect for women and the "security" aspect for men; 

•  Policies and measures aimed at increasing employment among specific target groups, such 
as the young, older workers, the long-term unemployed, ethnic minorities, migrant workers 
or the disabled, should take account of the particular circumstances of men and women in 
each of these groups and the specific obstacles with which they are confronted. 

3.2 

Encouraging  a  better  balance  of  private  and  family  responsibilities  between 
women and men 

Numerous  constraints  restrict  the  free  choice  of  individuals  to  reconcile  their  professional 
and  private  lives,  for  example,  the  lack  of  childcare  services,  financial  factors,  career 
setbacks,  the  risk  of  losing  one's  skills,  the  difficulties  of  returning  to  employment  and  the 
pressure  to  conform  to  stereotypes.  Arrangements  for  leave  should  be  reviewed  in  order  to 
contribute  to  a  better  distribution  of  private  and  family  responsibilities  between  men  and 
women, thereby enhancing children's quality of life and well-being. 

•  It is important to ensure that parental leave is targeted at both men and women and is, in 
particular, individual (non-transferable) and financially attractive, that it can be taken over 
several periods, and that its duration is not a barrier to returning to work; 

•  Given the EU's ageing population, it is crucial to continue the development of accessible 
and affordable care services for dependants. Consideration could also be given to creating 
"filial leave", encouraging both men and women to care for elderly parents; 

20 

Policies aimed both at making the labour market more flexible and at strengthening job security.  

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•  It  is  opportune  to  promote  paternity  leave  which  makes  it  possible  to  involve  fathers  in 

domestic and family responsibilities from the day their children are born; 

•  The fight against stereotypes should be intensified at all levels by all parties involved and 

should be aimed, in particular, at men and companies; 

•  It is important to maintain the employability of employees who take on parental leave by 
means of support measures during and after their leave. This includes measures to ensure 
that  employees  maintain  their  skills  and  have  access  to  training  and  a  guarantee  of 
continued career advancement; 

•  Companies,  particularly  SMEs,  should  be  given  help  in  making  it  easier  for  their 

employees to reconcile their professional, private and family lives. 

3.3 

Ensuring that policies on gender equality have the full support of cohesion and 
rural development policies 

2007  is  the  first  year  of  the  new  programming  period  for  cohesion  and  rural  development 
policies.  The  policies  have  been  redesigned  so  as  to  contribute  more  fully  to  the  Lisbon 
objectives  and  thus  promote  economic  growth,  productivity,  and  job  creation.  The  Funds' 
potential as a catalyst for policies on equality between women and men needs to be exploited 
to the full. 

•  Member  States  should  ensure  the  promotion  of  equality  between  women  and  men,  and 
integration of the gender aspect at each stage of the use of the Funds, particularly by means 
of partnerships with bodies responsible for promoting equality between women and men21; 

•  The programming documents of the Funds should promote and implement the twin-track 
approach  to  equality  policy  by  means  of  specific  measures  aimed  at  promoting  equality 
and by taking careful account of how other projects and the management of the Funds may 
affect men and women22; 

•  Funds  should  contribute  to  improving  access  to  employment,  increasing  women's 
participation  in  employment  and  career  advancement,  supporting  the  attainment  of  the 
objectives  on  childcare  and  other  care  structures  and  facilitating  access  to  them23.  Funds 
should also support female entrepreneurship, inter alia by means of services to businesses 
and access to finance24; 

•  Actions to disseminate and exchange good practices, and public awareness campaigns on 
gender  equality  should  be  promoted,  and  the  dialogue  between  stakeholders  should  be 
strengthened25. 

21 

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Articles 11 and 16 of Council Regulation (EC) 1083/2006 and Articles 6 and 8 of Council Regulation 
(EC) 1698/2005. 
Point 1 of the Community strategic guidelines. 
Point 1.3.1 of the Community strategic guidelines. 
Point 1.2.4 of the Community strategic guidelines. 
Point 1.3.1 of the Community strategic guidelines. 

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3.4 

Ensuring effective implementation of the legislative framework 

The 'acquis communautaire' relating to gender equality has made a significant contribution to 
the  progress  achieved  over  the  last  50  years  and  continues  to  be  developed  and  updated  in 
order to make it clearer and more effective. It is nevertheless important to guarantee effective 
implementation of the legislation which goes beyond mere transposition of the 'acquis'. It is 
the task of the national actors to actively support full implementation of this legislation. 

•  It is important to take measures aimed at increasing the capacities of those involved in the 
legal  system,  particularly  judges  and  lawyers,  in  terms  of  gender  equality,  in  order  that 
they  have  the  training  and  technical  assistance  necessary  to  deal  with  gender  equality 
issues in their work; 

•  The  Member  States  and 

the  social  partners  should  actively  support  effective 
implementation of the legislation on the equal treatment of women and men and create the 
conditions which facilitate its enforcement; 

•  Organisations  involved  in  the  promotion  of  equality  provided  for  in  Directive  2002/7326 
can play an active role in the implementation of legislation. They should be supported by 
guaranteeing them the necessary financial and human resources and by ensuring that they 
possess the competences listed in the Directive. 

4. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Building on this report and in line with the priorities set out in the Roadmap and the European 
Pact  for  equality  between  women  and  men,  the  European  Council  is  invited  to  urge  the 
Member  States  to  urgently  take  up  the  challenges  described  above,  in  cooperation  with  the 
various stakeholders. Particular emphasis will need to be placed on:  

•  taking all possible steps to eliminate the gender pay gap; 

•  strengthening gender mainstreaming in the implementation of employment policies; 

•  continuing  the  efforts  aimed  at  allowing  men  and  women  to  reconcile  their  professional, 
private  and  family  lives,  and  supporting  the  social  partners  in  implementing  measures  in 
that area; 

•  adopting  an  approach  to  issues  of  demographic  change  which  takes  account  of  and 

supports gender equality; 

•  making full use of the potential offered by the Cohesion and Rural Development Policy to 
support  the  promotion  of  equality  between  women  and  men  through  programmes 
cofinanced by the Funds; 

•  acting  promptly  to  transpose  Directives  2006/54/EC  on  the  equal  treatment  of  men  and 
women (recast) and 2004/113/EC on the equal treatment of women and men in the access 
to and supply of goods and services. 

26 

Article  8a  of  Directive  2002/73/EC  of 
23 September 2002. 

the  European  Parliament  and  of 

the  Council  of 

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ANNEX 

This statistical annex provides an overview of the situation of women and men in the EU, its 
evolution over time and remaining gender gaps in different fields such as the labour market, 
education,  presence  in  decision  making  positions  and  social  inclusion.  Indicators  have  been 
chosen according to their relevance in covering aspects of the lives of women and men and 
the  availability  of  comparable  and  reliable  data.  These  indicators  were  already  presented  in 
the previous reports in order to facilitate the follow-up from one year to another. 

Employment rates 

Over the last few years, progress has been achieved towards the Lisbon target of reaching an 
employment rate for women of 60% by 2010. Female employment rate has risen from 53.6% 
in 2000 to 56.3% in 2005 whereas over the same period male employment rate has remained 
stable (from 71.2% to 71.3%). As a result, the gap between women's and men's employment 
rates  decreased  from  17.6  percentage  points  (p.p.)  in  2000  to  15  p.p.  in  2005.  At  national 
level, significant differences exist across the EU, with an employment rate gap below 10 p.p. 
in Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Baltic countries, Bulgaria and Slovenia but exceeding 20 
p.p.  in  Cyprus,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece  and  Malta.  The  gap  between  female  and  male 
employment rates remains much higher amongst older workers (55 to 64 years) at 18.1 p.p. in 
2005, down from 20 p.p. in 2000. This reduction was due to a strong rise in the employment 
rate of older female workers, from 26.9% in 2000 to 33.7% in 2005. 

Unemployment rates 

The positive evolution of female employment was reflected in unemployment figures, as the 
gap between women's and men's unemployment rates narrowed from 2.8 p.p. in 2000 to 2.0 
p.p.  in  2005.  This  decrease  occurred  notably  in  countries  where  the  gap  was  the  highest  in 
2000  (Spain,  Italy,  Cyprus,  Germany,  France  and  Poland).  Nevertheless  women  were  still 
more likely to be unemployed than men as the unemployment rate was 9.9% among women 
in 2005 whereas it was 7.9% among men. 

Part-time work 

Women's  participation  in  the  labour  market  is  still  largely  characterised  by  a  high  share  of 
part-time work. In 2006, the share of women employees working part-time was 32.9% in the 
EU  while  the  corresponding  figure  for  men  was  7.7%.  The  share  of  female  part-timers 
exceeded  30%  in  France,  Denmark  and  Luxembourg,  40%  in  Sweden,  Austria,  Belgium, 
United  Kingdom  and  Germany  and  even  reached  75%  in  the  Netherlands.  Conversely,  the 
share of part-timers among female workers was very low in Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, the 
Czech Republic and Latvia. 

Reconciliation of professional, private and family life 

Women's  participation  to  employment  is  affected  by  their  predominant  role  in  the  care  of 
children  and  other  dependant  persons,  such  as  elderly  or  disabled  persons.  The  difficulties 
faced by women in reconciling their professional and private life are evidenced by the strong 
impact of parenthood on employment  rates. Participation in  employment and the  amount of 
time worked by women between 20 and 49 years are closely linked to the number and age of 
their children, which is less the case for men. In 2005, the employment rate for women aged 
20-49 was 61.1% when they had children under 12, compared with 76% when they did not. 

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For men with children under 12, however, the employment rate was higher (91.5%) than for 
those without children (85.6%). 

Education and research 

In  most  Member  States,  more  women  than  men  reach  a  high  level  of  education.  However, 
once graduated, the presence of women clearly decreases at each step of the typical academic 
career. Indeed, women are more numerous and more successful than men at first degree level 
(59%  of  ISCED5a  graduates),  but  their  share  decreases  amongst  PhDs  (43%  of  ISCED6 
graduates), and reaches a minimum amongst full professors (15% of Grade A full professors). 
Moreover,  study  fields  continue  to  be  greatly  segmented  with  a  low  presence  of  women  in 
engineering or science and technology and a high one in health, education or the humanities. 

Segregation 

The choice of study fields certainly impacts on the gender segregation of the labour markets 
evidenced both for occupations and economic sectors. Estonia, Cyprus, Slovakia, Finland and 
Hungary  face  high  segregation  in  occupations  whilst  sectoral  segregation  is  the  highest  in 
Estonia,  Slovakia,  Lithuania,  Ireland,  Finland  and  Sweden.  In  consequence  of  segregated 
labour  markets  there  is  an  under-representation  of  women  in  sectors  crucial  for  economic 
development  and  usually  well  remunerated.  For  example,  only  29%  of  scientists  and 
engineers in the EU are women. 

Decision-making 

The  average  number  of  female  members  of  national  parliaments  (single/lower  houses)  was 
24% in 2006, just 1 p.p. above the 2004 level. This share exceeds 30% in Germany, Austria, 
Spain and Belgium and 40% in Finland, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. However, it 
was below 15% in Greece, France, Slovenia, Ireland and Romania and did not exceed 10% in 
Malta  and  Hungary.  Regarding  decision-making  in  the  economic  sphere,  women's  share 
among  managers  in  enterprises  and  administrations  was  32%  in  2005,  just  1  p.p.  above  the 
2000 level. This share exceeded 35% in Baltic countries and France while it was lower than 
15% in Malta and Cyprus. 

At risk of poverty rate for older people 

The consequence of the disadvantaged position of women on the labour market was visible in 
the gender gap in poverty risk, especially among older persons (aged 65 and over). The share 
of people being at risk of poverty  (having  an  income below the threshold set  at 60%  of  the 
national median income) is significantly higher for women than for men in the EU (20% vs. 
15%)  in  almost  all  Member  States.  The  gap  exceeds  10  p.p.  in  five  countries:  Romania, 
Bulgaria, Ireland, Slovenia and Estonia. 

Average age of women at first child 

The average age of women at child bearing is still increasing, reaching 28.3 years in 2004. It 
is  under  25  years  for  Bulgaria,  Romania  and  the  Baltic  countries  but  was  the  highest  in 
Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom. 

EN 

11 

   EN 

 
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Employment rates (women and men aged 15 - 64) in EU Member States- 2005

71.3

56.3

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  total 
employment 
rate in 2010

Lisbon target 
for women's 
employment 
rate in 2010

DK SE FI NL UK EE AT PT SI DE LT LV CY IE FR EU-
25

CZ BE LU BG RO ES HU SK PL EL IT MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.

Absolute gender gap in employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States - 2000 and 2005
 (Difference between men's and women's employment rates) 

Left bar: 2000     Right bar: 2005

15

17.6

FI

SE

EE

LT

DK

LV

BG

SI

FR

DE

UK

PT

HU

PL

RO

AT

NL

SK

BE

CZ

IE

LU

CY

ES

IT

EL MT

EU-
25

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.
NB:  A positive gap indicates higher employment rates for men in comparison with women, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.

EN 

12 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Annual growth of women's and men's employment, in EU-25, 1998-2005

Women

Men

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Source  : Eurostat, National accounts, annual averages. Gender breakdow n is derived from Labour Force Survey. 

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55 - 64) in EU Member States- 2005

51.8

33.7

Women

Men

Lisbon target 
for  55-64 
aged workers 
employment 
rate in 2010

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

SE EE DK FI UK LV PT LT DE IE FR NL EU-
25

RO CY CZ ES HU EL BG LU AT BE IT PL SI SK MT

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.

EN 

13 

   EN 

 
 
 
Absolute gender gap in unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 years and over) in EU 
Member States - 2000 and 2005
 (Difference between women's and men's unemployment rates) 

Left bar: 2000 (1)     Right bar: 2005

EE

UK

IE

BG RO

LV

SE

LT

HU

FI

AT

NL

DK

SI

DE

SK

BE

PT

2.8

2

EU-
25

FR

CY

LU MT

PL

CZ

IT

ES

EL

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 
Notes : A positive gap indicates higher unemployment rates for women in comparison with men, while the opposite is true for a negative gap.
SE : for 2005 : provisionnal value

Share of part-time workers in total employment, in EU Member States - 2006

Women

Men

32.9

7.7

i

s
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG SK HU CZ LV RO EL EE LT SI CY PL PT

FI MT ES IT

FR EU-
25

DK LU SE AT BE UK DE NL

Source:  Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), Spring results
IE : no data

EN 

14 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2005 (1)
(Difference between men's and wo men's average gro ss ho urly earnings as a percentage o f men's average gro ss ho urly earnings)

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

25

20

15

10

5

0

M T P T

B E

IT

SI

EL

P L HU

IE

FR ES RO LU

EU-
25

LT

SE B G DK

LV

A T NL

CZ

FI

UK DE

EE

SK

CY

Source:  Eurostat. Administrative data are used for LU, Labour Force Survey for FR and MT. Provisional results of EU-SILC (Statistics on 
Income and Living Conditions) are used for BE, EL, ES, IE, IT, AT, PT, and UK. All other sources are national surveys. SI: Provisional results.
Exception to the reference year : (1) 2004: BE, DK, EE, FI, IE, IT, PT
NB: EU25 estimates are population w eighted-averages of the latest available values.

Educational attainment (at least upper secondary school) of women and men aged 20 - 24, 
in EU Member States - 2005

women men

80.3

74.7

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

PL

SI

SK

LT

CZ

CY

IE

SE

EL

EE

AT

FI

BE

LV

FR

HU

DK

NL

UK

IT

BG RO

LU

DE

ES

PT MT

EU-
25

Source : Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.
NB:  IE : Provisional value. 
Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, 
which may imply lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY.

EN 

15 

   EN 

 
 
 
Members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States - Distribution by 
sex 2004 and 2006

Left bar: 2004        Right bar: 2006

women 

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

77

76

24

23

S E D K N L

F I

B E E S A T D E P T

EU-25

L U L T B G L V S K E E U K P L

I T C Y C Z E L

F R S I

I E R O H U M T

Source:  European Commission, Employment, Social affairs and Equal opportunities DG, Database on Women and Men in Decisionmaking
NB: The indicator has been developed within the framework of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers.
Data for 2004 are not available for BG and RO. 

Managers in EU Member States - Distribution by sex 2000 and 2005

Left bar: 2000      Right bar: 2005

women

men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

69

68

32

31

L V

L T

F R E E U K B G H U P T B E S I

P L

E S

EU-25

I T S K R O C Z

I E S E F I

A T D E E L N L

L U D K M T C Y

Source : Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS).
NB : Managers are persons classified in ISCO 12 and 13.
For MT and CY : data lack reliability due to small sample size
For IT : Change of data collection method. No data for RO in 2000

EN 

16 

   EN 

 
 
 
Relative share of women and men in a typical academic career for EU-25 - 2004

Women

Men

54

59

46

41

57

58

43

42

53

47

68

32

85

15

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

ISCED 5A
Students

ISCED 5A
Graduates

ISCED 6  Students

ISCED 6 
Graduates

Grade C

Grade B

Grade A

Source : Eurostat, UOE data collection for ISCED 5a and 6 students and graduates ; DG Research, WiS database for Grades A, B and C.
ISCED 5A: tertiary programmes to provide sufficient qualifications to enter into advanced research programmes & professions w ith high skills 
requirements. ISCED 6: Tertiary programmes w hich lead to an advanced research qualifications (PhD).
ISCED 6 students: Data unavailable for DE and SI
A Grade: the single highest grade/post at w hich research is normally conducted w ith the institutional or corporate system. B Grade: researchers 
w orking in positions not as senior as top position but more senior than the new ly qualified PhD holders. Grade C: The first grade/post into w hich a new ly 
qualified PhD (ISCED 6) graduate w ould normally be recruited w ithin the institutional or corporate system.
Grade C, B, A:Exception to the reference year:  CY, PT:2003; AT: 2002; FR:2001; NL:FTE, SI: Data estimated, FR: Grade C unavailable; Data unavailable
 for IE and LU.

Sex distribution of tertiary education graduates by field of study in EU-25, 2004 

Women

Men

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Education Science Health and w elfare

Humanities and
arts

Social sciences,
business and law

Agriculture and
veterinary

Science,
mathematics and
computing

Engineering,
manufacturing and
construction

Source  : Eurostat
Tertiary education graduates include all graduates of levels ISCED 5 and 6. 

EN 

17 

   EN 

 
 
 
35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

25

20

15

10

5

0

Gender segregation in occupations in EU Member States, in 2005

RO EL

IT MT PL PT UK AT BE NL FR LU DE ES DK LV

IE

LT SE

SI BG CZ HU FI

SK CY EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS -Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for w omen and 
men applied to each occupation; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of 
total employment (ISCO classification). 

Gender segregation in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2005

RO MT EL

LU NL FR IT

BE DE AT SI UK DK PL CZ BG HU ES PT CY LV SE FI

IE

LT SK EE

Source:  Eurostat - LFS - Gender segregation in sectors is calculated as the average national share of employment for w omen and men 
applied to each sector; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total 
employment (NACE classification). 

EN 

18 

   EN 

 
 
 
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Employment rates of women aged 20-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2005

Without children

With children

76

61.1

SI

LT

PT

NL

BE

FI

AT CY

FR LV

RO LU UK BG EU-
25

PL

EE

ES

EL

SK DE CZ

IT

HU MT

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data avaialble for DK, IE and SE. 

Employment rates of men aged 20-49, depending on whether they have children 
(under 12) - 2005

Without children

With children

91.5

85.6

LU EL

CY

PT

SI

NL CZ

IT

AT MT

ES

BE

FI

EE

FR UK

LT

LV

DE SK

PL

HU RO BG

EU-
25

Source  : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.
Notes : No data for DK, IE and SE. 

EN 

19 

   EN 

 
 
 
At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers1 for older people (women and men aged 65 years and over 
65),  in EU Member states, 2003

Women

Men

t
n
e
c
r
e
p

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

20

15

LU

NL

PL

SK

HU

LT

FR

LV

DK

DE

IT

SE

BG EU25 AT

FI

BE

EE

SI

RO UK

EL

PT

ES

IE

CY

Source:  Eurostat. SILC and national sources. 
NB:  1) At risk of poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the national 
median income. Income must be understood as equivalised disposable income (sum from all sources, adjusted for household size and composition). It should be 
noted that the risk-of-poverty indicator is computed using an income definition which does not yet include imputed rent of owner-occupiers. Gender breakdown is based 
on assumption of equal sharing of resources within household. It should be noted that the data is drawn from the reference European source (EU-SILC) where 
available, but that during the transition to data collection under the EU-SILC regulations, ex post harmonised national sources are still used for around half of the 
countries. In consequence, whilst every effort has been made, for this reason indicators cannot be considered to be fully comparable
EU aggregates are computed as population weighted averages of available national values. Data is presented for income reference year 2003. No data is available for 
CZ or MT for this reference year. NL and SK : provisional values. 

Average age of women at birth of first child - 2000 and 2004

2000

2004 (1)

28.3

27.7

30.0

27.5

e
g
A

25.0

22.5

20.0

BG

RO

LV

EE

LT

SK

PL

HU

CZ

AT

PT

CY

SI

FI

EL

IE

DK

FR

SE

LU

DE

NL

ES

UK

EU-
25

Source:  Eurostat, Demography statistics.
NB:  No data available for BE, IT and MT for both years. UK :Scotland and Northern Ireland not included
For DE, LU, UK and BG : birth order of current marriage : the comparability with other countries is limited.
Exceptions to the reference years:  
(1) DE, EE, EL and ES : 2003.

EN 

20 

   EN 

 
 
 
Employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2000 
53.6 
51.5 
56.9 
71.6 
58.1 
56.9 
41.7 
41.3 
55.2 
53.9 
39.6 
53.5 
53.8 
57.7 
50.1 
49.7 
33.1 
63.5 
59.6 
48.9 
60.5 
58.4 
51.5 
64.2 
70.9 
64.7 
46.3 
57.5 

2005 
56.3 
53.8 
56.3 
71.9 
59.6 
62.1 
46.1 
51.2 
57.6 
58.3 
45.3 
58.4 
59.3 
59.4 
53.7 
51 
33.7 
66.4 
62 
46.8 
61.7 
61.3 
50.9 
66.5 
70.4 
65.9 
51.7 
51.5 

2000 
71.2 
69.5 
73.2 
80.8 
72.9 
64.3 
71.5 
71.2 
69.2 
76.3 
68 
78.7 
61.5 
60.5 
75 
63.1 
75 
82.1 
77.3 
61.2 
76.5 
67.2 
62.2 
70.1 
75.1 
77.8 
54.7 
68.6 

2005 
71.3 
68.3 
73.3 
79.8 
71.2 
67 
74.2 
75.2 
68.8 
76.9 
69.9 
79.2 
67.6 
66.1 
73.3 
63.1 
73.8 
79.9 
75.4 
58.9 
73.4 
70.4 
64.6 
70.3 
74.4 
77.6 
60 
63.7 

2000 
17.6 
18 
16.3 
9.2 
14.8 
7.4 
29.8 
29.9 
14 
22.4 
28.4 
25.2 
7.7 
2.8 
24.9 
13.4 
41.9 
18.6 
17.7 
12.3 
16 
8.8 
10.7 
5.9 
4.2 
13.1 
8.4 
11.1 

2005 
15 
14.5 
17 
7.9 
11.6 
4.9 
28.1 
24 
11.2 
18.6 
24.6 
20.8 
8.3 
6.7 
19.6 
12.1 
40.1 
13.5 
13.4 
12.1 
11.7 
9.1 
13.7 
3.8 
4 
11.7 
8.3 
12.2 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55-64) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2000 
26.9 
16.6 
22.4 
46.6 
29 
39 
24.3 
20.2 
26.3 
27.2 
15.3 
32.1 
26.7 
32.6 
16.4 
13.3 
8.4 
26.1 
17.2 
21.4 
40.6 
13.8 
9.8 
40.4 
62.1 
41.7 
10.3 
43.8 

2005 
33.7 
22.1 
30.9 
53.5 
37.5 
53.7 
25.8 
27.4 
35.2 
37.3 
20.8 
31.5 
45.3 
41.7 
24.9 
26.7 
12.4 
35.2 
22.9 
19.7 
43.7 
18.5 
15.6 
52.7 
66.7 
48.1 
25.5 
33.1 

2000 
46.9 
36.4 
51.7 
64.1 
46.4 
55.9 
55.2 
54.9 
33.6 
63.2 
40.9 
67.3 
48.4 
50.6 
37.2 
33.2 
50.8 
50.2 
41.2 
36.7 
62.1 
32.3 
35.4 
42.9 
67.8 
60.1 
33.2 
56 

2005 
51.8 
41.7 
59.3 
65.6 
53.5 
59.3 
58.8 
59.7 
40.7 
65.7 
42.7 
70.8 
55.2 
59.1 
38.3 
40.6 
50.8 
56.9 
41.3 
35.9 
58.1 
43.1 
47.8 
52.8 
72 
66 
45.5 
46.7 

2000 
20 
19.8 
29.3 
17.5 
17.4 
16.9 
30.9 
34.7 
7.3 
36 
25.6 
35.2 
21.7 
18 
20.8 
19.9 
42.4 
24.1 
24 
15.3 
21.5 
18.5 
25.6 
2.5 
5.7 
18.4 
22.9 
12.2 

2005 
18.1 
19.6 
28.4 
12.1 
16 
5.6 
33 
32.3 
5.5 
28.4 
21.9 
39.3 
9.9 
17.4 
13.4 
13.9 
38.4 
21.7 
18.4 
16.2 
14.4 
24.6 
32.2 
0.1 
5.3 
17.9 
20 
13.6 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

EN 

21 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
 
Unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 and over) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005 

In this table, the gender gap is calculated as women's unemployment rate minus men's unemployment rate 

Women 

Men 

Gender gap 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2000 
10.2 
8.5 
10.3 
4.8 
8.7 
11.8 
17.2 
16 
10.9 
4.2 
13.6 
7.2 
12.9 
14.1 
3.1 
5.6 
7.4 
3.6 
4.3 
18.1 
4.9 
7 
18.6 
10.6 
5.3 
4.8 
16.2 
6.3 

2005 
9.9 
9.5 
9.8 
5.3 
10.3 
7.1 
15.3 
12.2 
10.9 
4 
10.1 
6.5 
8.7 
8.3 
5.9 
7.4 
9 
5.1 
5.5 
19.1 
8.7 
7 
17.2 
8.6 
7.7 
4.3 
9.8 
7.6 

2000 
7.4 
5.6 
7.3 
3.9 
6 
13.8 
7.5 
7.9 
7.6 
4.3 
7.8 
3.2 
14.4 
18.6 
1.8 
7 
6.4 
2.2 
3.1 
14.4 
3.2 
6.5 
18.9 
9.1 
5.9 
5.8 
16.7 
7.2 

2005 
7.9 
7.6 
6.5 
4.4 
8.9 
8.8 
6.1 
7 
9 
4.6 
6.2 
4.3 
9.1 
8.2 
3.5 
7 
6.5 
4.4 
4.9 
16.6 
6.7 
6.1 
15.5 
8.2 
7.9 
5.1 
10.3 
8.3 

2000 
2.8 
2.9 
3 
0.9 
2.7 
-2 
9.7 
8.1 
3.3 
-0.1 
5.8 
4 
-1.5 
-4.5 
1.3 
-1.4 
1 
1.4 
1.2 
3.7 
1.7 
0.5 
-0.3 
1.5 
-0.6 
-1 
-0.5 
-0.9 

2005 
2 
1.9 
3.3 
0.9 
1.4 
-1.7 
9.2 
5.2 
1.9 
-0.6 
3.9 
2.2 
-0.4 
0.1 
2.4 
0.4 
2.5 
0.7 
0.6 
2.5 
2 
0.9 
1.7 
0.4 
-0.2 
-0.8 
-0.5 
-0.7 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages 

Share of part-time workers in total employment, in EU Member States - 2001 and 2006  

Women 

Men 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2001 
29.8 
36.8 
8.6 
31.6 
39.3 
10.4 
7.2 
17.3 
30.4 
31.3 
17.8 
12.9 
12.1 
10 
25.6 
5.1 
17.1 
71.3 
33.6 
12.6 
16.7 
7.4 
3.8 
16.7 
32.7 
44.3 
3.9 
19.1 

2006 
32.9 
42.6 
8.7 
35.9 
45.8 
11.6 
10.4 
23.5 
30.7 
: 
26.7 
12 
8.7 
11.8 
38.2 
5.7 
21.8 
74.7 
40.7 
13.5 
15.9 
11.8 
4.8 
18.2 
40.3 
42.6 
2.7 
10.2 

2001 
6.2 
5.2 
2.2 
10.2 
5.3 
4.7 
2.3 
2.8 
5.0 
6.5 
3.8 
5 
7.9 
7.6 
1.8 
2 
3.7 
20 
4.3 
8.2 
6.9 
5 
1.2 
7.6 
10.8 
9 
3.1 
14.7 

2006 
7.7 
7.9 
2.3 
12.8 
9.3 
4.6 
3 
4.5 
5.8 
: 
4.7 
4.6 
4.6 
6.5 
2.5 
2.8 
4.5 
23.2 
6.5 
7.1 
7.5 
7.8 
1.2 
9.2 
11.7 
10.6 
1.6 
9.3 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) - Spring results 

EN 

22 

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Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2005 (Difference between men’s 
and women’s average gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men’s average gross hourly earnings) 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2005 (1) 
15 
6 
19 
17 
22 
24 
9 
13 
12 
11 
7 
25 
17 
15 
14 
11 
4 
18 
18 
10 
5 
8 
24 
19 
16 
20 
16 
13 

Source: Eurostat. Administrative data are used for LU, Labour Force Survey for FR and MT. Provisional results of EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living 
Conditions) are used for BE, EL, ES, IE, IT, AT, PT, and UK. All other sources are national surveys. SI: Provisional results. 

Exception to the reference year: (1) 2004: BE, DK, EE, FI, IE, IT, PT 

NB: EU25 estimates are population weighted-averages of the latest available values. 

Educational  attainment  (at  least  upper  secondary  school)  of  women and men aged 20 - 24,  in  EU  Member 
States – 2005 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

Women 
80.3 
85.3 
91.1 
80.5 
72.5 
87.6 
88.5 
68.5 
85 
88.9 
78.1 
89.1 
85.2 
91.8 
75.8 
84.9 
57 
79.9 
87.3 
93.3 
57.5 
93.2 
92.6 
85.7 
88.7 
78.9 
77.1 
76.8 

Men 
74.7 
78.4 
91.3 
73.8 
70.4 
77.6 
79.7 
55.4 
80.1 
82.6 
69.2 
71.1 
74.7 
83.9 
66.6 
81.9 
50.5 
71.4 
84.6 
88.9 
40.8 
88 
91 
81 
86.4 
77.4 
75.9 
75.2 

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages. 

NB: IE: Provisional value. Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force 
Survey, which may imply lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY. 

EN 

23 

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Members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States - Distribution by sex 2004 and 
2006 

2004 

2006 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

Women 
23 
33 
15 
38 
32 
15 
13 
35 
13 
12 
12 
9 
17 
22 
24 
9 
9 
38 
36 
21 
20 
13 
17 
40 
48 
18 
: 
: 

Men 
77 
67 
85 
62 
68 
85 
87 
65 
87 
88 
88 
91 
83 
78 
76 
91 
91 
62 
64 
79 
80 
87 
83 
60 
52 
82 
: 
: 

Women 
24 
36 
16 
39 
33 
20 
13 
36 
13 
12 
17 
16 
21 
23 
24 
10 
9 
39 
33 
19 
25 
13 
21 
38 
48 
20 
21 
11 

Men 
76 
64 
84 
61 
67 
80 
87 
64 
87 
88 
83 
84 
79 
77 
76 
90 
91 
61 
67 
81 
75 
87 
79 
62 
52 
80 
79 
89 

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social affairs and Equal opportunities DG, Database on Women and Men in Decision making. NB: The indicator 
has been developed within the framework of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers. 

Data for 2004 are not available for BG and RO. 

Distribution of managers by sex in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005  

2000 

2005 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

Women 
30.6 
32.2 
24.1 
24.0 
27.1 
39.8 
25.1 
31.7 
35.0 
26.1 
17.3 
15.0 
37.3 
43.1 
27.1 
33.1 
17.7 
25.3 
30.3 
32.7 
31.3 
29.1 
30.8 
25.9 
30.1 
34.1 
30.0 
: 

Men 
69.4 
67.8 
75.9 
76.0 
72.9 
60.2 
74.9 
68.3 
65.0 
73.9 
82.7 
85.0 
62.7 
56.9 
72.9 
66.9 
82.3 
74.7 
69.7 
67.3 
68.7 
70.9 
69.2 
74.1 
69.9 
65.9 
70.0 
: 

Women 
32.2 
32.9 
30.3 
23.0 
26.3 
37.5 
25.8 
32.3 
38.0 
30.2 
31.9 
13.6 
44.3 
42.7 
23.8 
34.3 
14.5 
25.6 
27.0 
32.5 
34.2 
32.8 
31.2 
29.7 
29.8 
34.5 
34.3 
30.7 

Men 
67.8 
67.1 
69.7 
77.0 
73.7 
62.5 
74.2 
67.7 
62.0 
69.8 
68.1 
86.4 
55.7 
57.3 
76.2 
65.7 
85.5 
74.4 
73.0 
67.5 
65.8 
67.2 
68.8 
70.3 
70.2 
65.5 
65.7 
69.3 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), spring data 

NB: Managers are persons classified in ISCO 12 and 13. 

CY, MT: data lack reliability due to the small sample size. IT: change in data collection method. 

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Gender segregation in occupations and in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2001 and 2005 

Gender segregation in occupations 

Gender segregation in economic sectors 

Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2001 
26.1 
29.2 
28.1 
27 
32.4 
21.5 
24.9 
26.6 
26.7 
21.9 
29.5 
29.7 
28.4 
26.8 
28.3 
17.2 
25 
27.2 
25.6 
26.3 
26.8 
31.2 
29.6 
28 
26.8 
27.0 
: 

2005 
26.2 
28.4 
26.9 
26.5 
30.8 
22.5 
26.6 
26.3 
27.2 
23.9 
30.6 
27.1 
27.4 
26.4 
28.4 
24.3 
26.2 
26 
25.5 
25.9 
27.6 
29.5 
28.9 
27.4 
25.9 
27.8 
22.3 

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) – Spring data  

2001 
18.1 
18.9 
19 
18.2 
24.4 
15.4 
19.3 
17.4 
20.7 
15.2 
17.5 
21 
20.8 
19.6 
19.3 
15.2 
18.1 
20.3 
13.9 
21.2 
17.4 
22.8 
21.9 
21.2 
18.8 
17.5 
13.8 

2005 
18.1 
19.1 
18.7 
18.2 
23.7 
15.9 
20.4 
17.6 
22.4 
17.9 
20.9 
21 
22.4 
17.4 
19.8 
15.2 
17.5 
18.3 
19 
20.5 
18.3 
22.4 
22.2 
21.6 
18.5 
19.2 
15.0 

Gender segregation in sectors is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each sector; differences are added up to 
produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (NACE classification). 

Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each occupation; differences are 
added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (ISCO classification). 

Employment rates of women and men (aged 25-49), depending on whether they have children (under 12) – 
2005 

Without children 

With children 

Difference 

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Czech Republic 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

Women 
76 
76.2 
86.5 
78.9 
87.8 
58.7 
66.5 
77.3 
64.7 
73.9 
80.9 
83.9 
76.6 
78.9 
36.9 
81.5 
83.2 
71.5 
77.3 
82.7 
79.6 
79.4 
83.2 
75.1 
70.4 

Men 
85.6 
87.2 
90.5 
82.3 
82.8 
85.4 
89.7 
84.7 
90.6 
90.4 
83 
87 
93.7 
82.7 
88.9 
88.1 
88.8 
80.4 
90.6 
87.1 
85.4 
78.8 
87.2 
77.1 
83.1 

Women 
61.1 
70.1 
54.4 
55.7 
59.4 
55.9 
56.5 
66.9 
53.4 
67.6 
65.1 
77.3 
63.7 
48.5 
28 
71.3 
68.4 
60.5 
76.6 
84.5 
55.7 
70 
63.3 
61.4 
64.6 

Men 
91.5 
92.4 
94 
89.2 
91.4 
96.1 
93 
91.4 
93.8 
96.1 
90.2 
90.4 
97.2 
86.2 
93.1 
94.1 
93.7 
87.2 
94.5 
94.3 
87.7 
91.8 
91.2 
81.5 
86.2 

Women 
-14.9 
-6.1 
-32.1 
-23.2 
-28.4 
-2.8 
-10 
-10.4 
-11.3 
-6.3 
-15.8 
-6.6 
-12.9 
-30.4 
-8.9 
-10.2 
-14.8 
-11 
-0.7 
1.8 
-23.9 
-9.4 
-19.9 
-13.7 
-5.8 

Men 
5.9 
5.2 
3.5 
6.9 
8.6 
10.7 
3.3 
6.7 
3.2 
5.7 
7.2 
3.4 
3.5 
3.5 
4.2 
6 
4.9 
6.8 
3.9 
7.2 
2.3 
13 
4 
4.4 
3.1 

Source : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages. 

Notes: No data for DK, IE and SE. 

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At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers for older people (women and men aged 65 years and over) in EU 
Member States – 2003  

EU (25 countries) 
Belgium 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Women 
20 
21 
18 
18 
22 
30 
32 
17 
45 
18 
55 
17 
15 
6 
12 
7 
20 
7 
30 
23 
11 
20 
18 
27 

Men 
15 
20 
16 
10 
7 
26 
27 
14 
34 
13 
48 
7 
5 
6 
6 
6 
13 
4 
29 
11 
11 
11 
9 
21 

Source: Eurostat. SILC and national sources. 

NB: 1) At risk of poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the 
national  median  income.  Income  must  be  understood  as  equivalised  disposable  income  (sum  from  all  sources,  adjusted  for  household  size  and  composition). 
Gender breakdown is based on assumption of equal sharing of resources within household. It should be noted that the data is drawn from the reference European 
source (EU-SILC) where available, but that during the transition to data collection under the EU-SILC regulations, ex post harmonised national sources are still 
used for around half of the countries. In consequence, whilst every effort has been made, for this reason indicators cannot be considered to be fully comparable 
EU aggregates are computed as population weighted averages of available national values. Data is presented for income reference year 2003. No data is available 
for CZ or MT for this reference year. NL and SK : provisional values. 

Average age of women at birth of first child - 2000 and 2004 

EU (25 countries) 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Ireland 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 
Bulgaria 
Romania 

2000 
27.7 
25.0 
27.7 
28.2 
24.0 
28.0 
29.1 
27.9 
27.6 
26.2 
24.4 
23.9 
28.4 
25.1 
28.6 
26.4 
24.5 
26.5 
26.5 
24.2 
27.4 
27.9 
29.1 
23.5 
23.6 

2004 
28.3 
26.3 
28.4 
28.8 
24.8 
28.0 
29.2 
28.4 
28.0 
27.2 
24.7 
24.8 
28.7 
26.3 
28.9 
27.0 
25.5 
27.1 
27.5 
25.3 
27.8 
28.6 
29.7 
24.4 
24.5 

Source: Eurostat, Demography statistics. 

NB: No data available for BE, IT and MT for both years. UK: Scotland and Northern Ireland not included 
For DE, LU, UK and BG: birth order of current marriage: the comparability with other countries is limited. 
Exceptions to the reference years:  
(1) DE, EE, EL and ES: 2003. 

EN 

26 

   EN