Enlargement workshop on alternative fuels in the EU energy system.
Date: 2006-11-10
Institutions: Institute for Energy and Transport
Subjects: alternative use of agricultural products, energy policy, motor fuel, motor vehicle, substitute fuel

BULGARIAN READINESS FOR 
BULGARIAN READINESS FOR 
ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION

1700 Sofia, Studentsky
1700 Sofia, 

Prof. Ivan 
Prof. 

Ivan Breshkov

Ph. D.
Breshkov Ph. D.
University of National and World Economy
University of National and World Economy
Transportation Economy Department
Transportation Economy Department
, Bulgaria
Hristo Botev””, Bulgaria
grad ““Hristo Botev
Phone/Fax: +359 2 962 37 95
Phone/Fax: +359 2 962 37 95
Mobile: +359 888 34 00 70
Mobile: +359 888 34 00 70
.acad.bgbg

@yahoo.com, , ivanbr

Studentsky grad 

ivanbr@@unwe

unwe.acad.

EE--mail: mail: breshkov

breshkov@yahoo.com

BULGARIAN READINESS FOR 
BULGARIAN READINESS FOR 
ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION

Prof. Margarita 
Prof. 

Nikolova
Margarita Nikolova

National Agricultural Advisory Service
National Agricultural Advisory Service

1618 Sofia,  ““Boris 
1618 Sofia,  

136, Bulgaria
Boris ІІІІІІ”” 136, Bulgaria

Phone: +359 2 917 60 68, Fax: +359 2 917 60 72
Phone: +359 2 917 60 68, Fax: +359 2 917 60 72

EE--mail: mail: mnikolova

mnikolova@@naasnaas.government.

.government.bgbg

Emission trends
Emission trends

Emmissions 

Statistical Yearbook 2003, NSI, p.39

n
e
g
o
r
t
i

N

s
e
d

i

x
o

e
n
a
h
t
e
M

n
o
N

i

e
d
x
o
n
o
M

e
n
a
h

n
o
b
r
a
C

n
o
b
r
a
e
C
m
Categories

t

%

s
u
o
r
t
i

N

i

e
d
x
O

e
d

i

x
o

i

d

a

i

n
o
m
m
A

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2
%

20
15
10
5
0
-5

 
Fuel consumption in 
Fuel consumption in 
Bulgaria
Bulgaria

Gross inland consumation

Natural gas

Oil

Biomass

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2

,

%

20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20

Statistical Yearbook 2001 p. 245 and 

Statistical Yearbook 2003, NSI, p.269

Fuels

 
Transport balance sheet of 
Transport balance sheet of 
fuels
fuels
Consumption of fuels in transport

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2
,

%

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20

Total

LPG

Diesel oil

Petrol

Kerosenes, jet fuels

 
Breakdown of transport fuel 
Breakdown of transport fuel 
consumption 2000
consumption 2000

Fuel structure in transport 2000

LPG

Petrol

Kerosenes - jet
fuel
Diesel oil

Source: Statistical Yearbook 2001, NSI, p. 247 and Statistical 
Yearbook 2003, NSI, p. 271

Breakdown of transport fuel 
Breakdown of transport fuel 
consumption 2002
consumption 2002

Fuel structure in transport 2002 

LPG

Petrol

Kerosenes - jet
fuel

Diesel oil

Source: Statistical Yearbook 2001, NSI, p. 247 and 
Statistical Yearbook 2003, NSI, p. 271

Share of transport in final 
Share of transport in final 
energy consumption
energy consumption

21,8%

24,1%

2000 – 100% 
Total

2002 – 100% 
Total

78,2%

75,9%

Difference +2,3%

procurement of 
Energy self--procurement of 
Energy self
Bulgaria
Bulgaria

56

55,5

55

54,5

54

53,5

53

52,5

52

56%

%
5
,
2
+
e
c
n
e
r
e
f
f
i

D

53,5%

2000
1

2002
2

 
Arable lands for potential 
Arable lands for potential 
biofuel crops 
biofuel crops 

Arable land

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2

,

%

60

40

20

0

-20

-40

Wheat

Maize

Sunflower

By crops

Statistical Yearbook 2001 p. 299 and Statistical Yearbook 2003, NSI, p.297

 
Yields from biofuel crops
Yields from biofuel crops

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2
,
%

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Wheat

Maize

Sunflower

By crops

 
Rapeseed
Rapeseed

84

40

Crop area

Total yield

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0
0
0
2

/
2
0
0
2

%

 
 
 
 
 
 
Transport vehicle fleet as of 
Transport vehicle fleet as of 
31.12.
31.12.

Means of transport by kind

0
0
0
2
/
2
0
0
2
,
%

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Lorries

Total

Busses
Special vehicles
Road tractors
Passenger cars

New registrations

Transport modes

 
Potential areas for biofuel 
Potential areas for biofuel 
crops
crops

Thousand hectares
6000

5796

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

Perennial 
plantation, 
total

Permanent 
grass lands

Area under 
crops

1250

213

2503
2503

3081
3081

Areas of
agriculture use

Potential land for
biofuels

Potential land for
sunflower

179

Map of sunflower oil plants

Map of sugar  plants

Map of wine cellars

Biodiesel production 
Biodiesel production 
potential of Bulgaria
potential of Bulgaria

Rapeseed Sunflower

Total biodiesel

Ml

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

2005          2006          2007         2008          2009     

2010

Bioethanol production 
Bioethanol production 
potential of Bulgaria
potential of Bulgaria

Wheat

Sugar beet

Total bioethanol

Ml

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

2005          2006          2007         2008          2009     

2010

Automotive natural gas in 
Automotive natural gas in 
Bulgaria
Bulgaria

Initial penetration stage ––
Initial penetration stage 
totally 3 filling stations for 
totally 3 filling stations for 
natural gas in Sofia, 
natural gas in Sofia, 
Bourgas
and Bourgas
Plovdiv and 
Plovdiv 

Problems
Problems

Emphasis on (nuclear) 
•• Emphasis on (nuclear) 
electricity generation
electricity generation
No legislation for promotion of 
•• No legislation for promotion of 
biofuel production 
biofuel production 
No tax reduction for biofuels 
•• No tax reduction for biofuels 
producers
producers
High level of excise duties
•• High level of excise duties
High prices of raw materials ––
•• High prices of raw materials 
wheat and sunflower
wheat and sunflower

THANKS FOR YOUR
THANKS FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
ATTENTION

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Case: Republic of Croatia   
JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Content

(cid:131) Progress made towards the implementation of the biofuels directive

(cid:131) Barriers and perspectives to the further penetration of other alternative 

fuels and related R&D activities

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Progress made towards the implementation of the biofuels directive

(cid:131) Changes of existing Energy Law (National Gazette 68/2001) to comply with the new EU 

directives (among others, with the Directive 2003/30/EU) – in process → introduced:

− Definition of biofuels for automotive purposes

− Production and transport of biofuels defined as energy activity

− Price of energy may include part for development of use of alternative fuels

− Types and sources of alternative fuels and terms of their use, including planning and building of 

plants and infrastructure, register of projects and other relevant questions will be defined with 

separate Act issued by the Minister.

− Subsidies for use of alternative fuels, energy efficiency and co-generation will be defined 

(besides this Law) with the Law on production, distribution and supply of heat energy, Law on 

the Fund for environmental protection and energy efficiency and Law on State subsidies.

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Barriers and perspectives to the further penetration of other alternative 

fuels and related R&D activities

− Biodiesel

− Compressed natural gas (CNG)

− R & D → BIOEN Program, TRANCRO Program

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

BIOEN Program

− National energy program of biomass and waste utilization for energy 

production

− Started in 1997 by the Croatian government

− BIOEN aim is to increase the use of environmentally-sound and cost 

competitive bioenergy on a sustainable basis and to provide a 

contribution to meeting future energy demands

− BIOEN vision is that by 2030 at least 15% of Croatian energy needs will 

be derived from biomass and waste

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

BIODIZEL National Project

(cid:131) Started in 2001. by the Croatian Government as part of the BIOEN program

(cid:131) Biodiesel production feasibility study completed, consortium consisting of:
− the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry

− Ministry of Environmental protection and Physical Planning

− Ministry of Economy

− Ministry of Finance

− Ministry of Science and Technology

− University of Zagreb 

− Energy Institute Hrvoje Pozar

(cid:131) Start of demonstration production 

(cid:131) Education and promotion ongoing

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Zagreb biodiesel project

(cid:131) Started in 2002 by Zagreb Municipality

(cid:131) City of Zagreb Environmental Protection Program – Local Agenda 21 (1999) 

(cid:131) Biodiesel production from waste oil and rapeseed for city busses

(cid:131) Croatian Chamber of Economy survey:

− 100 000 liters per year of waste oil from Zagreb restaurants/hotels readily available

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Pre-feasibility study - content

(cid:131) Review of experience with biodiesel, possibility of utilisation in Zagreb
(cid:131) Estimation of emission reduction (CO2, CO, SO2, particles) and health impact
(cid:131) Cost-benefit estimation

(cid:131)

Implementation measures needed – demonstration production and use

Pre-feasibility study - results

(cid:131) Potential estimation - two scenarios:

(cid:131)

realistic: 16 busses by 2010

(cid:131) optimistic: 60 busses by 2010

(cid:131) Emission reduction (all busses): 
(cid:131) CO2: -79%, CO: –35%, SO2: -100%, NOx: +9%
(cid:131) Preliminary cost-benefit analysis: profitable project!

(cid:131)

Implementation: education and promotion

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Feasibility Study

(cid:131) Detailed analysis of environmental and socio-economic impacts of biodiesel 

production and use in Zagreb city busses

(cid:131) Preparatory phase – beginning of 2005

(cid:131) Completion – end of 2005

(cid:131) Collaboration with Austrian experts:

− Consulting

− Verification

Zagreb biodiesel
project team

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

TRANCRO Program of energy efficiency in transport in Croatia

(cid:131) Established in June 2001

Project participants:

Jadranski naftovod
(Adriatic Pipeline)

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Project participants (cont.):

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Activities in 2002 - TRANCRO - Phase 1 

(cid:131) Database for permanent monitoring of mobility demand and energy (fuel) consumption 

in all transport sectors

(cid:131) Prognosis of future mobility demand (all modes) and future energy (fuel) consumption in 

transport sector in Republic of Croatia

(cid:131) Calculation of CO2 emission (“BAU scenario”)

Phase 1 – completed in 2002

Activities in 2003 - TRANCRO - Phase 2

(cid:131) Overview of technical development in transport sector: existing technologies 
(conventional fuels) in comparison with possible use of alternative fuels

(cid:131) Cost-effectiveness analysis of different measures of energy efficiency in transport

(cid:131) Desk-research analysis – results of EU programs

(cid:131) Target: to recognize most suitable measures taking into consideration costs and 

benefits of their implementation

(cid:131)

Impact of non-technical measures – EU

(cid:131) Analysis of alternative fuels projects in transport in Republic of Croatia

Phase 1 – completed in 2003

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Activities in 2003 - TRANCRO - Phase 3

(cid:131)

Inventory of measures of energy efficiency in transport in various stages of development 
/ implementation in Republic of Croatia

(cid:131) Potential pilot projects (including alternative fuels)

(cid:131) Cooperation with EU projects

(cid:131) Further activities on marketing and education

(cid:131)

Phase 3 – in progres

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

Education - workshops 

(cid:131)

Internet workshop – Technical, economical and legislative aspects of NGV business -
held by: ENGVA (European Natural Gas Vehicles Association) experts

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

CNG Program in Croatia – Zagreb municipality

Case: Republic of Croatia

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System 22nd – 23rd November 2004

• No leadership by  example. 
• No subsidies on conv ersions
• No new conv ersions of  public buses. 
• Reorganization of  Dept. of  INA (Croatian 
main petroleum company ) f ocused on LPG 
retail. Strong marketing campaign of  wider 
use of  LPG (f or automotiv e purposes also).
• According to existing Act on f illing 
stations issued in 1998, minimal saf ety  
distance f or gas installations is 15 meters 
(or 5 meters if  using f irewall).

• No leadership by  example. 
• No new conv ersions of  public buses.
• Liberalization of  petrol and diesel prices – (rapid increase 
in prices) boosting LPG but not CNG market.
• Act about necessary  conditions f or appliances and 
equipment f or gas v ehicles (issued in National Gazette).

• Strong marketing campaign of  
wider use f or LPG f or automotiv e 
purposes.

78

0,07

Case study: CROATIA
0,10

0,10

75

75

0,06

33

37

0,04

• Existing bus is out of  order. Public transport company  (owned by  
the Municipality  of  Zagreb (GPZ is owned by  the Zagreb municipality  
also) did not recognized natural gas as a transport f uel). No new bus 
conv ersions. All new buses are diesel buses.
• No leadership by  example. 
• No subsidies f or conv ersions. 
• Fav ourable CNG price compared to petrol or diesel. State control 
ov er petrol and diesel prices.

0,07

44

0,06

48

0,06

48

• Fav ourable CNG price compared 
to petrol or diesel. Although price 
of  CNG is ev en more competitiv e 
then bef ore due to liberalization of  
petrol and diesel prices, increase 
is on LPG and not CNG market.
• INA, main petroleum company  
established daughter (LPG) 
company . Ev en stronger 
marketing campaign on LPG f or 
automotiv e purposes.

• Strong marketing campaign on 
LPG for automotive purposes 
(TV commercials, WEB sites, 
audits etc. by Proplin).
• Import of diesel cars is 
increasing.
• New Act on technical 
inspection of vehicles – after 1st 
October 2003 all vehicles should 
pass Eco-testing (exhaust 
gases should be bellow 
prescribed limit depending on 
the type of vehicle), except CNG 
and LPG vehicles, to pass 
regular car inspection.
• Ministry of Environment started 
new project for use of biodiesel 
in public transport in the 
municipality of Zagreb.

• Strong LPG marketing 
campaign.
• LPG company finished project 
of small compact container type 
LPG filling station that should 
boost the number of LPG filling 
stations in Croatia (compared to 
existing 30)
• Start of Eco-testing postponed 
for 1 year.
• Proplin got approval from 
Ministry of Interior to reduce 
safety distance for LPG filling 
stations on petrol stations from 
15 meters to 7.5 meters which 
might help to introduce more 
widely LPG on filling stations.
• Zagreb public transport 
company become more involved 
in biodiesel project. 

0,10

0,09

0,08

0,07

0,06

0,05

0,04

0,03

0,02

0,01

0,00

• Start of  the project. 
New f illing station 
opened in December 
1994 on the premises 
of  GPZ (Zagreb Gas 
Distribution Company ) 
in the centre of  the 
town. 
• Fav ourable CNG 
price compared to the 
price of  petrol or 
diesel). State control 
ov er petrol and diesel 
prices.
• Taxi driv ers and 
driv ing schools 
conv erted also 
(besides GPZ 
v ehicles).

16

0,02

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Number of natural gas vehicles

Volume of gas sold (106 m3)

STRENGTHS:
- Favorable CNG price compared to petrol and diesel.
- Legal background for OEM import already in place.
- Large filling station already in the centre of Croatian capital and not far from international highway.
- Croatia is close to developed NGV markets like Italy.

OPPORTUNITIES:
- CNG and LPG vehicles are exempt from “Eco-testing”.
- Penalties according to level of pollution introduced – new Fund for Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency. 
Primary target of the Fund – to subsidize stabilization of landfills – possibility for biogas.

WEAKNESSES:
- Public transport companies failed to  recognize natural gas as a transport fuel.
- Government and municipality failed to recognize natural gas as a transport fuel.
- No leadership by example.
- No subsidies on conversions.
- Weak marketing activities compared to strong marketing on LPG.
- Only one service station providing conversions to natural gas.
- Only one filling station compared to around 60 LPG stations.

CHALLENGES:
- Strong LPG network in Croatia (around 60 filling stations, 18 000 vehicles, number of service stations).
- New compact container type LPG filling station introduced.
- Strong LPG market pushed by focused and dedicated LPG company (web sites, brochures, demonstrations, TV 
commercials etc.).
- Public transport companies love affair with diesel.
- New biodiesel project for public transport in Zagreb (although Zagreb Gas Distribution Company and Zagreb public 
transport company have the same owner – Municipality of Zagreb).
- Personal diesel cars increasing share in the Croatian market.

INTRODUCING 
ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
IN THE ENERGY SYSTEM 
OF CYPRUS

SOLON KASSINIS
MINISTRY OF COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TOURISM
ENERGY SERVICE

NETHERLANDS - NOVEMBER 2004

CONTENTS
CONTENTS

1. CYPRUS ENTERING EU

2. CYPRUS ENERGY PROFILE

3. CYPRUS ENERGY POLICY

4. CYPRUS TRANSPORT PROFILE

5. CONTRIBUTION OF TRANSPORT SECTOR IN THE 
GREEN HOUSE GASES EMISSIONS – FORECAST

6.

IMPLEMENTING BIOFUELS DIRECTIVE

7. ALTERANTIVE FUELS

8. CONCLUSIONS

1/05/04 Cyprus enters EU 

1972 signed the Association Agreement

1990 submitted its application for entry 
into the EU

Need for harmonization

Restructuring of the 
energy sector – major 
political decisions

Implementation of a 
National Strategic Plan 
for the limitation of 
GHG emissions

COUNTRY’’S ENERGY PROFILE
S ENERGY PROFILE
COUNTRY
Year 2003
Year 2003

Primary energy consumption: 

2800 ktoe

Final energy consumption: 

Solar energy contribution: 

2003 ktoe

91 ktoe

Cost of Imported energy as a percentage
of total domestic imports:

10 %

Final energy consumption per capita: 

2,74 Toe 

Consumption of electricity: 

3696 GWh

ENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Primary Energy Sources

Solid Fuels
5%

Solar 
Energy 
3%

Oil 
Products
92%

Transport
46%

Energy Demand

Agriculture
7%

Residential
19%

Commercial
11%

Industry
17%

SUPPLY & DISTRIBUTION OF OIL PRODUCTS
SUPPLY & DISTRIBUTION OF OIL PRODUCTS

I M P O R T S

Crude Oil

Refined Products

Joint imports

Import 
license

FUEL OIL 

Oil marketing companies
(EKO, ExxonMobil, Petrolina, 
Lukoil, Synergas, Intergas)

Electricity Authority

Petrol Stations
(245)

Bunkering 

Refinery 

Aviation

Large consumers

Retail

CYPRUS ENERGY POLICY
CYPRUS ENERGY POLICY

EU ENERGY POLICY 
OBJECTIVES

Security of supply

Improvement of 
competitiveness

Protection of the 
environment

CY ENERGY POLICY OBJECTIVES

Security stocks of petroleum products
Diversification of energy sources – LNG
Establishment of an Energy Centre

Liberalization of Oil sector
Liberalization of the Electricity market
Liberalization of the Gas market

Quality of oil products
Greenhouse-gas emission reduction activities
Promotion of renewable energy sources & 
rational use of energy
Promotion of biofuels

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENERGY CENTRE 
AT VASILIKOS SITE

PROMOTION OF RES IN CYPRUS
PROMOTION OF RES IN CYPRUS

Formulation  of a RES Action Plan (2002-2010)

Legislative framework for the promotion of RES 
and conservation of energy (RUE)

New Enhanced Grant Scheme for RES and RUE

Preparation of a White Paper for RES and RUE

ACTION PLAN 2002-2010

MAIN OBJECTIVES

Doubling the contribution of RES to Cyprus Energy Balance 
(4,5% today to 9% in 2010). 
Increasing the contribution of electricity consumption from 
RES from 0% to 6% in 2010.

The above objectives will be achieved through the:

Creation of the legislative framework for the promotion of 
RES and RUE in Cyprus
Provision of financial incentives for the promotion of RES 
and RUE in all economic sectors (40 million CY pounds ≈ 68 
million euros).

NEW LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK
NEW LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

Law N33(I)2003 for the Promotion of the use of RES and 
Energy Conservation investments (voted at 18.4.2003):

Provides the Legal Framework for the Preparation and 
Provides the Legal Framework for the Preparation and 
Implementation of  Programmers for the promotion of the use of 
Implementation of  Programmers for the promotion of the use of 
RES and RUE.
RES and RUE.

Envisages the imposition of a levy of 0,13 CYcent
Envisages the imposition of a levy of 0,13 
consumed by all categories of electricity 
eurocents/KWh) consumed by all categories of electricity 
eurocents/KWh)
consumers, the Proceeds of which will be utilized to financed 
consumers, the Proceeds of which will be utilized to financed 
activities aimed to promote the use of RES and RUE.
activities aimed to promote the use of RES and RUE.

CYcent/KWh

0.22 
/KWh (0.22 

Order by the Ministry of Interior simplifying the 
procedures for licensing of RES plants 
EAC agreement to purchase electricity generated from RES 
at 3,7 CYcents/KWh (6.17 eurocents/KWh) (except co-
generation)

THE NEW GRANT SCHEME (2004 – 2006)

1. Scope

The aim of the Scheme is to provide financial 
incentives in the form of Governmental Grants and/or 
subsidies for the materialization of investments in the 
field of energy conservation and promotion of the 
utilization of Renewable Energy Sources (RΕS)

2. Investment Categories

Investments covered are classified in the  following 
categories:

CATEGORY Α:  Energy Conservation
CATEGORY Β:  Renewable Energy Sources (RES)

THE NEW GRANT SCHEME (2004 – 2006)

Category A : Energy conservation

- Energy conservation in 

existing enterprises

with  a  30%  subsidy  of  eligible  costs 
(max. amount £50.000)

- Insulation of existing 

households

with  a  30%  subsidy  of  eligible  costs 
(max. amount £1.000)

- Co-generation (electricity–

heating/cooling)

with  a  30%  subsidy  of  eligible  costs 
(max. amount £100.000)

Category B: Renewable Energy Sources

Wind Systems (for electricity production)

-Large commercial systems

-Small systems of up to 30kw capacity

Solar Systems

-Installation and/or replacement of central of 
active systems for heating water

-Installation  and/or  replacement  of  active 
systems for heating water

- for the first five years: 5,4 CYcent/kwh
- for the next ten years: 2,8 – 5,4 CYcent/kwh

With  a  40%  subsidy  (max.  amount  £10.000) 
and 3,7 CYcent/kwh

with a 30% subsidy (max. amount  £10.000)

with a 40% subsidy (max. amount  £50.000)

-Domestic 
replacement

solar 

systems  new 

and/or 

with a 20% subsidy (max. amount  £100 or 200 
according to the type of the system)

-Installation 
and/or 
swimming pool water heating systems

replacement 

Biomass Utilisation

of 

with a 30% subsidy (max. amount  £10.000)

- 40% of eligible costs (max. amount £400.000) and 3,7 CY cent/KWh

Photovoltaic Systems

- Small  photovoltaic  systems  of  5kw 

capacity, connected to the grid

-For households and other entities and enterprises not engaged 
in  economic  activities  the  grant  is  set  55%  of  eligible  costs 
(max. amount £9.500) and 12 CYcent/kwh

- For enterprises the grant is 40% of eligible costs (max. amount

£7.000) and 12 CYcent/kwh

- Autonomous (not connected to the grid), 
of  up  to  5kw  capacity,  hybrid  or  stand 
alone systems 

-For households and other entities and enterprises not engaged 
in  economic  activities  the  grant  is  set  55%  of  eligible  costs 
(max. amount £9.500) 

- For enterprises the grant is 40% of eligible costs (max. amount

£7.000) 

Desalination with RES
- for small and medium size (SMS) enterprises the grant will be 30% in the form of regional aid plus de minimis 
aid.  In  any  case  the  total  amount  of  the  two  forms  of  aid  should not  exceed  40%  of  eligible  costs  (max.  amount 
£100.000) 

- for large enterprises the grant will be 20% in the form of regional aid plus de minimis aid. In any case the total 
amount of the two forms of aid should not exceed 40% of eligible costs (max. amount £100.000)

Hydroelectric Systems
- for small and medium size (SMS) enterprises the grant will be 30% in the form of regional aid plus de minimis 
aid.  In  any  case  the  total  amount  of  the  two  forms  of  aid  should not  exceed  40%  of  eligible  costs  (max.  amount 
£30.000) and 3,7 CYcent/kwh 

- for large enterprises the grant will be 20% in the form of regional aid plus de minimis aid. In any case the total 
amount  of  the  two  forms  of  aid  should  not  exceed  40%  of  eligible costs  (max.  amount  £30.000)  and  3,7 
CYcent/KWh

FUEL MARKET - 2003

FUEL

USE

CONSUMPTION
2003 (MT)

Leaded petrol (RON 98)

Unleaded petrol (RON 95 
& 98)

Diesel Low Sulphur

Diesel High Sulpur

Gasoil

For vehicles equipped with positive-
ignition engines

For vehicles equipped with compression-
ignition engines ((with sulphur content 
350 ppm from 1.5.04, 50ppm from 1.1.05 
and 10ppm from 1.1.09)

Internal combustion engines (industry, 
heating) (with sulphur content up to 
0,2% by mass from 1.5.04 and 0,1% by 
mass from 1.1.2008)

Agriculture gasoil

For agriculture purposes

kerosene

Heating

Light Fuel Oil (LFO)

Industry, heating, bunkering

Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)

Electricity generation

Jet Fuel

LPG 

Airtransport

Heating

105000

155000

62000

298000

159000

25000

30000

116000

1001000

322000

57000

%

4,5

6,7

2,6

12,8

6,9

1

1,3

5,0

43

13,8

2,4

LICENSED VEHICLES BY CATEGORY 
1990-2003

CATEGORY

1990

1995

2000

2001

2002

2003

178.602 219.749 267.589

280.869 287.622 302.501

SALOON 
(private, invalid, 
self-drive, taxis, 
learner’s)

Buses

2.308

2.670

2.949

3.083

2.997

3.275

Goods 
Conveyance 
Vehicles

Mechanised
Cycles

Tractors

Other

TOTAL

74.325 101.182 114.666

117.942 117.792 119.646

50.953

50.393

43.315

41.935

40.276

41.516

8.517

11.244

13.291

13.594

13.932

14.284

1.732

2.321

2.373

2.513

2.748

3.255

316.437 387.559 444.183

459.106 465.367 484.477

LICENSED VEHICLES BY FUEL TYPE
2001-2003

CATEGORY

2001
PETROL DIESEL

2002
PETROL DIESEL

2003

PETROL

DIESEL

SALOON (private, 
invalid, taxis, self-
drive, learner’s) 

247.164

32.905

254.431

33.191

268.875

33.626

Buses

151

2.852

146

2.831

147

3.128

Goods Conveyance 
Vehicles

7.884

110.058

6.642

111.158

6.067

113.579

Mechanized Cycles

41.985

0

40.276

0

41.516

0

Tractors

Other

TOTAL

139

193

13.455

139

13.793

138

14.146

2.320

182

2.566

187

3.068

297.516

161.590

301.816

163.539 316.930

167.547

459.106

465.367

484.477

Prices in Cyprus pounds at: 4/10/2004 
Prices in Cyprus pounds at: 4/10/2004 

PRICES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS  
PRICES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS  

Designation of petroleum products 
Designation of petroleum products 

Unit 
Unit 

Inclusive of 
Inclusive of 
duties + taxes 
duties + taxes 
(*) 
(*) 

Real prices 
Real prices 

Duties and 
Duties and 
taxes (*) 
taxes (*) 

 Net of 
 Net of 
duties and 
duties and 
taxes  
taxes  

Motor fuels  
Motor fuels  
Leaded premium petrol OR Lead substitute petrol 
Leaded premium petrol OR Lead substitute petrol 

Euro super 95 
Euro super 95 
Automotive gas oil  
Automotive gas oil  
LPG for heating  
LPG for heating  

Domestic heating fuel    
Domestic heating fuel    

Heating gas oil  
Heating gas oil  

Industrial fuels 
Industrial fuels 

1000 L 
1000 L 

1000 L 
1000 L 
1000 L 
1000 L 
1000 L 
1000 L 

0,00
0,00

471.83
471.83
446.63
446.63
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00

236,34
236,34
201.26
201.26
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00

235.49
235.49
245.37
245.37
0.00
0.00

1000 L 
1000 L 

437.67
437.67

200.09
200.09

237.58
237.58

Fuel oil sulphur     content <=1 %   
Fuel oil sulphur     content <=1 %   

Fuel oil sulphur     content > 1 % 
Fuel oil sulphur     content > 1 % 

Tonne 
Tonne 

Tonne 
Tonne 

 0.00
 0.00

165.29
165.29

0,00
0,00

8,77
8,77

 0.00
 0.00

156.52
156.52

1 
1 

2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 

5 
5 

6 
6 

7 
7 

Modification in duties and/or taxes  
Modification in duties and/or taxes  

Designation of petroleum products 
Designation of petroleum products 

VAT (%)
VAT (%)

Date of entry 
Date of entry 
into force 
into force 

Indirect taxes 
Indirect taxes 

Leaded premium petrol OR Lead substitute petrol
Leaded premium petrol OR Lead substitute petrol

15,0 
15,0 

1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 

Date of 
Date of 
entry into 
entry into 
force 
force 

2.1.2003
2.1.2003

2.1.2003
2.1.2003
2.10.2003
2.10.2003

2.10.2003
2.10.2003

199,80
199,80

174,80
174,80
143,00
143,00
0,00
0,00
143,00
143,00

15,0 
15,0 
15,0 
15,0 

1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 

15,0 
15,0 

1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 

15,0 
15,0 

1.1.2003 
1.1.2003 

8,77
8,77

1.5.2004
1.5.2004

1 
1 

2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 
6 

7 
7 

Euro super 95 
Euro super 95 
Automotive gas oil  
Automotive gas oil  
LPG 
LPG 
Heating gas oil  
Heating gas oil  
Fuel oil sulphur     content <=1 %   
Fuel oil sulphur     content <=1 %   

Fuel oil sulphur     content > 1 %   
Fuel oil sulphur     content > 1 %   

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
 
Average annual increase rate of the 
Average annual increase rate of the 
final energy demand 
final energy demand 

Agriculture 
Industry 

Domestic 

Tertiary 
Transport 

2000-2010 

2010-2020 

3.0% 
4.5% 

3.5% 

5.2% 
3.2% 

2.3% 
2.3% 

2.6% 

3.4% 
2.7% 

 
IMPACT ON GHG EMISSIONS 
IMPACT ON GHG EMISSIONS 
FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
FROM VARIOUS SOURCES

q
e
2
O
C

t
k

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Electricity

Transportation Agriculture

Tertiary Domestic

Industry

 
THE FUEL 
CHALLENGE

MEASURES THAT CAN BE 
TAKEN IN THE ROAD 
TRANSPORT SECTOR

Security of supply: 
100% of the transport 
market is dependant 
upon oil imports

Environment and 
climate change: Main 
gas CO2 responsible. 
Transport sector 
contributes 22% in the 
total GHG emissions

Conservation of fuels
Use of Alternative fuels
Use of public 
transportation
Vehicles maintenance
Use of small engine cars
Replace old age cars

USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
CYPRUS TARGETS VS EU DIRECTIVE TARGETS
CYPRUS TARGETS VS EU DIRECTIVE TARGETS

(cid:122) EU Directive targets:
(cid:122) 2% in 2005, 
(cid:122) 5,75% in 2010
(cid:122) CY realisable targets:
(cid:122) 0% in 2005 
(cid:122) 2% in 2010 

– Reasoning

(cid:122) Limited land area
(cid:122) Limited water resources
(cid:122) Heavy dependency on imported oil products

POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
FOR CYPRUS
FOR CYPRUS

(cid:122) Introduction of natural gas to Cyprus for electricity 

production in the year 2009 – possible use in vehicles 
as compressed natural gas (CNG)
(cid:122) Introducing biofuels in transport 
(cid:122) Use of Hydrogen

(cid:122) Necessary steps to be taken:
(cid:122) Critical mass of vehicles
(cid:122) Regulatory framework 
(cid:122) Fiscal or subsidy support
(cid:122) Technical infrastructure
(cid:122) Monitoring - safety

PRESENT/FUTURE ACTIONS TAKEN IN 
PRESENT/FUTURE ACTIONS TAKEN IN 
CYPRUS FOR PROMOTING BIOFUELS
CYPRUS FOR PROMOTING BIOFUELS

(cid:122) Relevant legislation to be ratified soon
(cid:122) Grant scheme (40% on capital expenditure 

with a max 750,000 euro)

(cid:122) Tax incentives (Under study to exempt 

biofuels from excise duties)

(cid:122) Project for assessing different energy plants 

under Cyprus conditions

SUGGESTIONS 
CONCLUSIONS –– SUGGESTIONS 
CONCLUSIONS 
ON ALTERNATIVE FUELS
ON ALTERNATIVE FUELS

(cid:122) Alternative fuels are considered useful and 
essential and should be integrated into each 
country’s energy system

(cid:122) EU directive targets for biofuels are 

considered unrealistic for some countries –
case of Cyprus

(cid:122) Targets should be set on each country’s 
characteristics, logistics, possibilities

Thank you for your patience
Thank you for your patience

31

Liquid biofuels in transport
Measures taken in Estonia

Ell-Mari Koppel
Ando Leppiman
Energy Department
Ministry of Economic Affairs and 
Communications

e
l
a
h
s
l
i

o

t
a
e
p

t
s
e
r
o
f

d
n
w

i

 
Primary energy balance in 2003

L i q u i d   f u e l s
1 3 , 8 %

O t h e r
0 , 0 %

G a s
1 2 , 8 %

F i r e w o o d  
a n d  
w o o d w a s t e
9 , 4 %

P e a t
1 , 1 %

C o a l   a n d  
c o k e
0 , 2 %

O i l   s h a l e
6 2 , 7 %

2003: TPES 218 PJ = 5.20 Mtoe

Potential of renewable energy sources 

For electicity and heat 

production:

• wood
• wind
• hydro
• landfill gas
• biomass
• solar energy

For transportation use:
• rape
• crops
• used cooking oil 
from restaurants

Energy exports from Estonia in 2003

• electricity: 2 TWh
• peat briquette: 101’000 tons
• shale oil: 165’000 tons
• wood briquette and pellets: 174’000 tons

Main directions in energy policy of the government

Self-sufficiency of generation capacities

• domestic electricity needs have to be covered in any time by producers 

located in Estonia.

Renovation of oil-shale power plants

•

first units of Narva Power Plants are finished, further renovation is 
dependent on the results of actual operation of these units.

Increase in use of renewables

Indicative objective 5,1% of power by 2010.

•
• Main emphasis on wind and biofuel-based CHP generation.
• Liquid fuels in transport with the EU indicative target 2% for the year

2006 and 5,75% for the year 2011.

Increase in use of CHP-s

•

Indicative objective 20% of power by 2020 (today 12-13%).

Energy Sector in Estonia: Electricity
• More  than 90% of power is produced in Narva Power 
Plants by using domestic oil-shale (economic, social, 
security of supply aspects).

• share of CHP: 13%
• Strong interconnections with neighbouring countries BUT 

no direct connections to old Member States.

• Small domestic and regional market (Estonian market 

around 5.6 TWh, Baltic Market 22 TWh).

• ~25 RES-E generators, with annual production volume 35 
GWh (2003, estimated): wind: 2.7 MW, hydro 4.1 MW, 
landfill gas 1.5 MW, black liquor 5 MW

Energy Sector in Estonia: Heat

• district heating is extensively used, 70% of 
total heat need in buildings is covered by 
district heating (estimate 2002)

• wood and wood residues are important 

source for local boilerhouses (natural gas –
40% , wood – 30%, fuel oils 25%) 

• local heating: wood covers almost 75% of 

total energy need

Energy Sector in Estonia: Transport
• all the consumed fuel is imported (receipted)

with annual consumption of 269 000 tonnes of 
diesel oil, 306 000 tonnes of gasoline and 6 300 
tonnes of LPG (not only in transport) in 2003
• renewable fuels are not consumed in transport 
according to the statistics. There are several 
private liquid biofuel factories producing 
biodiesel for own purposes 

Measures taken in Estonia

Following standards are made mandatory for 
market participants:
• Diesel. Requirements and test methods. EN 
590:2004
• Unleaded petrol. Requirements and test 
methods. EN 228:2004
•FAME for diesel engines. EN 14214:2004

Measures taken in Estonia

• Draft changes for the Excise Tax Law to 

stipulate the 0% excise tax for liquid biofuels 
• Application for permiting the state aid for 0%
excise tax. Application will be prepared by 
Ministries of Agriculture, Environment and
Economic Affairs and Communications  

Measures taken in Estonia

Accoring to the report sent by Estonia to the 

Commission notifying the Estonian situation in 
harmonising the  biofuels directive the indicative 
target set by EU for the year 2006 is not achievable as 
there are no Estonian large scale liquid biofuel 
producers

Therefore Estonia finds that by importing the liquid 
biofuels the  targets of the directive – security of
supply and new opportunities for sustainable rural 
development will not be achieved

Measures taken in Estonia

In close cooperation between ministries the support 
schemes for liquid biofuel producers and potential 
consumers are going to be worked out (current 
estimations show that production price of the liquid 
biofuels would be higher than the fuel price in retail 
market)

After such support schemes in place it is possible to set 

the national indicative targets for the future  

Thank you for your attention!

Experiences with alternative fuels 
Experiences with alternative fuels 
in Hungary
in Hungary

HIBBEY
MMáártarta HIBBEY
ria CSORBA
ViktViktóória CSORBA
AndrAndrááss HOLLHOLLÓÓ
TamTamááss MERMERÉÉTEITEI
zsef NAGY
JJóózsef NAGY

JRC – Enlargement Workshop on 
Alternative  Fuels

22-23. November 2004
Petten

Measures taken to promote the use of biofuels
Measures taken to promote the use of

biofuels -- 11

(cid:131) Hungary started production of biofuels in 1999 already

(cid:131) by then, 2 [experimental] biodiesel plants were built

(cid:131) they were operating in closed-circuit, as integrated             

producer - consumer systems

(cid:131) since that time biodiesel is completely tax-free in Hungary

(cid:131) however, due to low diesel prices and low diesel tax-rates 
for farmers, biodiesel was no economical option and the 
programme failed

Measures taken to promote the use of biofuels
Measures taken to promote the use of

biofuels -- 22

(cid:131) currently ethanol production capacity for 40 000 t/a ETBE 

is available

(cid:131) refinery development for the production of ETBE can be 

completed in 6-12 months

(cid:131) production capacity can be doubled in 3-4 years (100 000 

t/a), that is equal to 50 000 t/a bioethanol as fuel

(cid:131) stable tax and funds regulations will create a secure 

situation for investors

(cid:131) further progress is expected from blending maximum 5%
biodiesel in standard diesel, as according to European 
standards

(cid:131) the production of biodiesel from edible oil waste will be 

further examined

Measures taken to promote the use of biofuels
Measures taken to promote the use of

biofuels -- 33

(cid:131) national plan for the promotion of the use of biofuels for 

transport was approved by the Hungarian Government on 
Sept. 22th, 2004

(cid:131) aims (i)

establishing a commercial basis for the

biofuels market

(ii)

(iii)

continue to keep biofuels tax-free until 2010

promote blending of biofuels in standard fuels

National indicative target for 2005 -- 11
National indicative target for 2005 

(cid:131) according to national indicative target, 0.4-0.6% of all transport fuels 

will be covered by biofuels in 2005 in Hungary

(cid:131) since Hungary used no biofuel in 2003 it is a challenging but still 

realistic target to archive 0.4-0.6% in 2005

(cid:131) nevertheless, national indicative target will be less than the reference 

value defined by the directive (2.75%)

(cid:131) it is due to Hungary’s limited biofuel production potential, that we 

will probably not reach the reference value (reasons: only 2% of the 
total farm land in Hungary is used for rape plantation, in Germany it 
is 10%; poor national average crop of 1.8 t/ha, Europe 2-3 t/ha)

(cid:131) therefore we will enhance the production capacities on the long run

(cid:131) use of frying oil could play an important role in Hungary as well, but 
further research has to be done (pre-treatment of oil necessary)

NNational

ational indicative target for 2005

indicative target for 2005 -- 22

(cid:131) Hungary takes large efforts to increase the share of renewable 
energy sources in electricity production from 0.9% to 3.6% by 
2010

(cid:131) in order to reach this rate, biomass will have a paramount role

(cid:131) in Hungary biomass from organic waste, straw, corn-cobs, 

timber waste, energy crops is available for energy production

(cid:131) the aim is to plant fast growing crops and forests to increase 

the national amount of solid biomass

(cid:131) there are some experimental planting initiatives that are ready 
to invest in energy crop plantation and will use biomass for 
other purposes than transport

Technical aspects and national conditions identify 
Technical aspects and national conditions identify 
the most suitable biocomponents
the most suitable 

for MOL Group
biocomponents for MOL Group

Bioethanol for gasoline blending
• Fuel stability problems (water)
Increased vapour pressure
•
• Corrosion at transportation on 

pipes

• Blending only on terminals
• High Octane Number
• High risk of tax avoidance
• Easy to reach targets
• Lower CAPEX (blending, storage)
• EN 228: max. 5%

Bio-ETBE for gasoline blending
• Blending, producing at refinery
• No application difficulties
• ACEA supports bio-ETBE 
• High Octane Number
• No risk of tax avoidance
• Higher CAPEX (+producing)
=)
• Limitation of quantity (i-C4
• Targets can’t be fulfilled
• Environment related MTBE-concerns
• EN 228: max. 15%

Bioethanol for diesel blending
• Worst Cetane Number
• Worst lubricity
• Low flashpoint, safety issues
• ACEA does not support
• Use of special additive (cost)

Pure biodiesel
• Lower life cycle CO2 emissions
• Almost zero aromatics and sulphur
• Can be used in dedicated vehicles
• Standard is available
• Strong financial supervision is a must
• CAPEX at retail
• Targets may not be fulfilled

MOL option:
• bio-ETBE production 

and blending

• max. 5% biodiesel

blending

Biodiesel for diesel blending
• Blending standard-fuel only at 

refinery

• Supply and quality risks
• No quality risk with max 5% blends
• CAPEX for blending
• Tax avoidance risk may be limited

Barriers to the penetration of biofuels
Barriers to the penetration of 

in CEE
biofuels in CEE

(cid:131) The key element of the wide spread of biofuels is their blending to 

conventional fuels

(cid:131) There are own market for every blending components

(cid:131) Biofuels produced in Europe are used where the economic situation is the
most favourable (e.g. Germany, Sweden), different tax allowances and 
exemptions in different countries lead to market problems

(cid:131) Those countries which give worst market environment hardly reach their 

indicative targets

(cid:131) Some countries want to introduce obligatory biofuel limits, and want to 

support only domestic biofuels.

(cid:131) Distortion of market competition

(cid:131) Violation of the principles of the Treaty

(cid:131) Restriction of the free movement of goods

EU R/1000 l

bioetanol

biodiese l

800

600

400

200

0

H

CZ

SK

A*

PL

D

*Tax incentive in a special construction under
approval

Preferences of fuel producers and distributors
Preferences of fuel producers and distributors

(cid:131) During the fuel production high quality product has to be provided
(cid:131) Those components can be applied which are available in high enough 

quantity and good quality

(cid:131) Economics is a key element choosing among components having identical 

(cid:131)

technological parameters 
In case of biofuels
(cid:131) The switch-over to biocomponents should not lead to the deterioration of 

business result

(cid:131) Investment costs have to be refunded
(cid:131) A single product/blend should be used for every market (logistics)
(cid:131) Different national introduction of tax exemption leads to parallel 

production of fuels containing biofuels or free of biofuels (higher costs) 

(cid:131) Producers and distributors  will use biocomponents if a long term, stable 

and simpler legislation environment will be formed

(cid:131) Favourable, uniform legislation is suggested for taxation: 

(cid:131) Tax exemption in the size of 50% of EU minimum from EU-budget
(cid:131) National exemption maximum in the size of EU support

R&D activities atat MOLMOL
R&D activities
MOL Group is active and working with universities and research institutes 

on the following fields:

(cid:131) Production and blending of components as

(cid:131) ETBE, max. 15%
(cid:131) TAEE
(cid:131) bioethanol, max. 5%
(cid:131) FAME, max. 5%
(cid:131) FAEE
(cid:131) Vegetable oils

(cid:131) Vegetable oil processing possibilities in refineries

(cid:131) Use of biocomponents as heating fuels

(cid:131) LPG, CNG, hydrogen, fuel cell

(cid:131) Synthetic hydrocarbons from biomass

(cid:131) Analytical methods for the determination of biofuels from

conventional fuels

Test of Compressed 
Development and Field--Test of Compressed 
Development and Field
Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City--Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City

Background for natural gas: 

(cid:131) Natural gas is an environmentally „clean” alternative fuel, 
(cid:131) Significant reduction of regulated (CO, HC, NOx, PM) and non 
regulated (benzene, aldehyds, PAH) exhaust gas components, 

(cid:131) Conserve, crude oil products,
(cid:131) Diversify energy sources,
(cid:131) Lower cost fuel than mineral oil based ones, 
(cid:131) Decrease CO2-emission

Test of Compressed 
Development and Field--Test of Compressed 
Development and Field
Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City--Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City

Main steps of the project:
First phase: engine conversion (1996-1997)

- design of the engine (basic: 6 cylinder, Euro-2 Diesel engine)
- optimisation of ignition and λ-values
- final tests (13 Mode-Test, full load, thermal load)
- results: fulfilment of European emission limits for the year 2005 (Euro-5 level) 

Second phase: 

- Engine endurance test in laboratory ((500 hours) 1998
- Field test at city bus companies (1 year) 1998-1999)

Partners: The Netherlands:

- Woodward former Deltec Fuel Systems
- VSN-International
- Senter, Ministry of Housing and 

Environment

Hungary:

- Institute for Transport Sciences KTI 
- RÁBA (engine factory)
- IKARUS (bus factory)
- Research Institute for Automotive Industry (AUTÓKUT)

Outcome (2004):  38 CNG-fuelled city bus in Debrecen

32 CNG-fuelled city bus in Szeged

Test of Compressed 
Development and Field--Test of Compressed 
Development and Field
Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City--Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City

CNG

Carbon monoxide

Diesel

Interior noise

Hydro-carbons

27%

54%

21%

Exterior noise

10%

42%

Nitrogen oxides

Policyclic aromatics

Particulate matter

19%

4%

15%

Aldehydes

Comparison of environmental 
performance of CNG fuelled
vs. Diesel fuelled city bus 
engine

(cid:131) Main conclusions
(cid:131) The large scale introduction of CNG fuelled city buses is technically 

reliable, economically profitable. 

(cid:131) The replace of old diesel buses for CNG-one is an effective way to 

decrease the air polluting emissions and noise.

Test of Compressed 
Development and Field--Test of Compressed 
Development and Field
Natural Gas Fuelled City--Bus Engine
Bus Engine
Natural Gas Fuelled City

(cid:131) Main conclusions

(cid:131) The economic efficiency of operation by CNG basically depends on

the prices of fuels and fuel-tax policy. 

(cid:131) During the last years due to the increasing diesel fuel price and stable 

price of natural gas the use of CNG-fuelled buses is feasible.

(cid:131) The main barrier of the large scale use of  CNG for road vehicles is 

the high initial investment (high pressure tanks, fuel stations).

(cid:131) The necessary assistance of the state for introduction of CNG is

justified through a significant decrease in external costs.

(cid:131) No significant difference could be recognised between OEM and 

retrofitted version of the field-test buses regarding technical reliability 
and environmental advantages.

Main results of the bioethanol
Main results of the

/diesel fuel 
bioethanol/diesel fuel 

blend test on a city bus engine
blend test on a city bus engine

(cid:131) Bioethanol content of the investigated blends: 0, -5, -10, -15, -20 Vol. %
(cid:131) A special additive was used for the blends to ensure a stable emulsion, the 

original Cetane Number and lubrication effect

(cid:131) Test engine:  6 cylinder, heavy duty, serial production in Hungary for 

buses, fulfilling the Euro-2 emission level.

(cid:131) Conclusions: 

(cid:131)- No difficulty at start and operation of the engine 
(cid:131)- Change of parameters of engine:

at full load:

(cid:131)

(cid:131) Slight decrease of power by 2-5 %
(cid:131) Significant decrease of particle emission
(cid:131) Slight decrease of CO-emission
(cid:131) No change in NOx  and HC-emission 
at part load: 
(cid:131)Significant decrease of particle emission
(cid:131) Slight decrease of NOx -emission
(cid:131) Slight increase of CO and HC-emission 

(cid:131) Proposal: Field test with 5% bioethanol blend to decide on large scale use.

Motto:
Motto:

„The stone period did not come to the end 
because of lack of stone. The oil period 
will have the same future.”

Thank you for your kind attention.

LITHUANIA

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Research and development

Dr. Liudas Pranevicius
Dr. Giedrius Laukaitis
Dr. Vladimir Liubarskij
Vincas Andriuskevicius

November 22, 2004

1

Outline of the presentation

Areas of research

•

•

•

Hydrogen  storage:  (i)  fabrication  of  nanocrystalline thin  film 
materials, and (ii) plasma hydrogenation technique.

Hydrogen  separation  and  fuel  cells: PVD  technologies  application 
for SOFC and membrans for H separation.

Biofuel applications; research, manufacturing and innovation.

2

Research on HYDROGEN 
TECHNOLOGIES in LITHUANIA

The target:

Fabrication of high technology materials for 
hydrogen fuel cells and hydrogen storage 
materials

(cid:57) Alternative  energy is one of the  priorities  of  research  and 
development  in  Lithuania  and  is  supported  by  National 
Science  Foundation;

(cid:57) The  Projects  are coordinated  by  the  Lithuanian  Academy 

of Science;

3

Hydrogen storage, separation and 
conversion

Head organization –

Lithuanian Energy Institute 

Participants –

Kaunas University of Technology
Vilnius University
Vytautas Magnus University

International collaboration –

Sandia National Laboratories (USA) 
Oslo University (Norway)
Poitiers University (France)
Stockholm University (Sweden)

4

Surface Engineering Group at Lithuanian 
Energy Institute

Surface  Engineering  Group is  established  as  an  interdisciplinary  centre  on  the 

international level for alternative energy sources

The main priorities of the Surface Engineering Group :

1. Encouragement of wider exploitation of surface engineering technologies: 

• Centre provides opportunities for students seeking Masters degree and PhD 
students with access to high quality research projects under supervision of 
internationally recognized scientific advisers from abroad and Lithuania;
• University courses, seminars and practicals on the following subjects: Plasma 
Technologies, Surface Analysis Methods and Techniques and Physical Vapour 
Deposition Technologies for magistrate and doctoral students; 

2. Promotion of collaboration with industry through a variety of mechanisms.

5

Main elements of the research:
-- fabrication of thin film hydrogen  storage materials,
fabrication of thin film hydrogen  storage materials,
materials..
alanate materials
synthesis of alanate
-- synthesis of 

(cid:57) Fabrication  of  thin  film  materials  (Mg,  Al,  MgNi,  MgAl)  employing 

magnetron sputter deposition technique

Flux of Ar

+ + + +

Flux of Ni

Flux of Mg

Substrate

Scheme of co-deposition.

The scheme of experimental device.

6

Plasma hydrogenation

Flux of Al

Flux of Mg

H  + Ar  plasma

2

+

Ar

+

+

H

+

Mg-Al film

Substrate

H    plasma

2

H  ( H   )
+ + + + + +

2

Mg-Al  film

Substrate

The simultaneous incorporation of 
hydrogen during MgAl film deposition

Plasma Hydriding of MgAl film by high 
flux ion implantation

Distribution profile of implanted 
1 keV H+ hydrogen atoms in Al

1.

2.

3.

Non-equilibrium  process and  thermodynamic  barriers  typical  for 
(p,T) adsorption and synthesis kinetics are overpassed;
Incident  H  ions  with  energies  1keV  and  more  are  implanted  up  to 
10-20nm into  the  subsurface  region;  the  role  of  the  natural  oxide 
layers with the thickness equal to 2-5nm is diminished;
The  plasma  immersion  ion  implantation  technology operates  with 
ion  current  densities  up  to  1-3  A/cm2 in  the  pulse;  it  saturates  the 
implanted region with hydrogen in minutes.

7

H retention in implanted layer
MODEL

ε − 
δ − 

emission layer
altered layer

ε

δ

Implantation

Desorption

H2
+
Sputtering
+

+

+

0

x1

x 2

ww
=
i

i

e0

−

i

E
Δ
kT

+

IY
i
C

Bulk

−=

)
Nw
i

(
i

E

)

+

N

i

d
x
2
d
t

β+

I

i

i

A

)

d

)
(
N
i
d
t

x

8

Experimental dehydrogenation cell

GAS SUPPLY

HYDRIDING/
DEHYDRIDING
CELL

Ar  PLASMA
CHAMBER

UHV  SPECTROSCOPY

H2

Ar

O2

ANALYZER

PLASMA

PC

hν

VACUUM 
PUMPING
SYSTEM

UHV
PUMPING

Schematic presentation of the experimental apparatus used in the studies of
hydriding/dehydriding properties of Ti-doped MgAl thin films

9

In situ hydriding/dehydriding

Sample 
Power supply 

m
m
0
5
5

Gas inlet 

Hydriding

280 mm

Dehydriding

Gas outlet 

Chamber 
heating/cooling shirts

Gas collector 

Thermocouple 

Sample holder 

Thermoheater 

10

 
 
 
Hydrogen effusion temperature dependences

(a)

(b)

(c)

1st dehydridng; 

2nd dehydriding; 

3rd dehydridng, 

(a)

(c)

(d)

(b)

comparative analysis

.
u
.
b
r
a

,
y
t
i
s
n
e
t
n
i
n
o
i
s
u
f
f
e
n
e
g
o
r
d
y
H

8 0

7 5

7 0

6 5

6 0

5 5

5 0

4 5

4 0
8 0

7 5

7 0

6 5

6 0

5 5

5 0

4 5

4 0
8 0

7 5

7 0

6 5

6 0

5 5

5 0

4 5

80
4 0

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

300

350

400

450

500
T e m p e r a tu r e ,   K

550

11

 
 
 
 
 
 
SEM surface views of Ti-doped MgAl film

after the 1st dehydriding

after the 2nd dehydriding

after the 3rd dehydriding

Exposed to air

In-situ

12

doped 
AFM surface topography of Ti--doped 
AFM surface topography of Ti
films
MgAlMgAl films

1.5 um x 1.4 um
A=62.0 nm
Ra=9.4 nm; Rq=11.3 nm

1.2 um x 1.2 um
A=109.2 nm
Ra=6.1 nm; Rq=8.3 nm

- as-deposited

- after the 1st plasma hydriding

13

Work for the future

(cid:57) to 

fabricate 

films  by 
catalyzed Mg(AlH4)2
introduction  of  strictly  controlled  quantities  of 
titanium  catalysts  during  film  deposition  employing 
simultaneous  co-deposition  of  Mg,  Al  and  catalyst 
atoms;

(cid:57) to  study  the  hydriding/dehydriding properties  of  the 
catalyzed  Mg(AlH4)2
to 
understand  the  catalyst(s)  influencing  the  alanate
reactions.

in  an  attempt 

films 

14

Synthesis of new materials for new 
generation solid oxide fuel cells

The  goal  of  the  project  is  fabrication  of  efficient  active 
elements  and  electrodes  used  for  the  transformation  of 
chemical  energy  into  electrical.  Presently  used  fuel  cell 
active  elements  are  made  of  chemical  compounds 
(oxides)  with  thickness  around  40 μm and  operating 
temperature  800–1000 °C.  Project  aims  to  develop  new 
materials  enabling  to  decrease  the  thickness  of  active 
element  up 
the  working 
temperature below 600 °C. 

to  10 μm and 

lower 

to 

Project  partners: Kaunas University  of  Technology 
(Lithuania),  Vytautas
(Lithuania),  Vilnius University 
Magnus  University  (Lithuania),  Oslo University  (Norway) 
and Poitiers University (France).

15

Working principle of SOFC

16

Synthesis of new materials for new 
generation solid oxide fuel cells

a)

b)

a) SEM micrograph top view of pulsed magnetron sputtered YSZ film on NiO-
YSZ (70 wt.% of NiO) cermet substrate; b) Cross-section view of the sputtered 
YSZ film on NiO-YSZ (60 wt.% of NiO) cermet substrate after annealing in air 
at 1000°C for 1h; 

17

Biofuel

Organizations involved:

-Lithuanian University of Agriculture ;
-Ministry of Agriculture.

18

Main Subject of  Research

The application of used cooking oil and 

adipose for biodiesel production

Transformation of rape oil to bioethanol
Technical, economical and environmental 
parameters of the use of biodiesel and its 
mixture with mineral diesel

19

Biodiesel manufactory
Capacity: 10.000 t/year RME

20

Biofuel in laboratory and  field

21

Comparative fuel consumption rate  
on traction force

h
W
k
/
g
,
q

620

590

560

530

500

470

440

10

12.5

15

R, kN

17.5

20

M
30%
50%
100%

22

 
NOx emission vs fuel composition

%

,
x

O
N

120

110

100

90

M

25

50

75

RME

Fuel compound, %

23

 
 
Emission of solid particles vs fuel
composition

%

,
s
e
l
c
i
t
r
a
p
d
i
l
o
S

100
80

60
40

20
0

M

25

50

75

RME

Concentration of rape oil in fuel , %

24

 
 
CO emission vs fuel composition

,

%
O
C

100
98
96
94
92
90

M

25

50

75

RME

Concentration of rape oil in fuel , %

25

 
Problems of Biofuel Implement

The cost price and wholesale price of biofuel
production exceeds the price of mineral 
fuel;

Biofuel, as a new kind of fuel, is used 

cautiously  by consumers

Oil companies are unwilling to collaborate

26

Contact persons

Dr. Liudas Pranevicius

Lithuanian Energy Instute
Liudas.Pranevicius@ktu.lt
http://isag.lei.lt/~lab16

Dr. Giedrius Laukaitis

Kaunas Univerdity of Technology
gielauk@ktu.lt

Dr. Vladimir Liubarskyj

Lithuanian University of Agriculture
vliuba@mei.lt

Andriuskevicius Vincas

Ministry of Agriculture
vincas@zum.lt

27

Alternative Fuels in Malta

Robert Ghirlando

University of Malta

Workshop on Alternative Fuels in Transport

JRC Petten

22-23 November 2004

1

MALTA

Population:     400,000 

Area:  316 sq km

Population density:  1266 per sq km

Energy Sector

Regulated by Malta Resources Authority

All fuel imports by Enemalta Corporation, a State-
owned monopoly

Distribution of fuel by Enemalta and private operators

All petrol pumps privately owned

Full market liberalisation by end of 2005

Bunkering liberalised in 1995

No legal barriers to introduction of alternative fuels
3

Mtons
Gasoil
88215
Low Sulphur Diesel     82430
41010
Unleaded Petrol
Premium                        8770
18175
LRP
JetA1                            83530
Kerosene                      14480
Fuel Oil                      540225
Thin Fuel Oil               12820
Light Heating Oil          3130
Avgas                                95
LPG                               1722    
Total                     910100

Fuel Imports for 2002/2003 

4

Source: State of the Environment Report 2002

5

Source: State of the Environment Report 2002

6

Alternative Fuels

LPG

LNG/CNG

Electricity

Hydrogen

Biogas

Biodiesel

7

LPG

Malta imports 17200 metric tonnes of LPG p.a.

Distribution is mainly in bottles with some 
distributed in bulk; no network.

Mainly used for cooking and heating.

Enemalta sells LPG at a social price, i.e. at a loss, 
hence Enemalta has no incentive to increase sales.

8

LNG/CNG

No LNG is available in Malta.

Proposals have been made for shipping it in as LNG.

Feasibility study for Sicily-Malta Gas Pipeline
to be completed soon.

9

Gela/Delimara Sealine (preliminary route)

Malta Integrated Gas Project
Malta Integrated Gas Project

10

Electric Vehicles (EVs)

Government has pronounced itself in favour of EVs.

Government has issued favourable tax rates for EVs.

Government has  awarded a tender to buy 14 EVs.

A number of EVs (17) of Indian manufacture are 
already running on Maltese roads.

University research on electric vehicles:

- photovoltaic
- sophisticated motor control systems

11

Photovoltaic Car 
built by
Prof Edward
Mallia of the 
University 
of Malta 

12

Electric Car
being developed
by Dr Joseph Cilia 
at the University
of Malta.

13

The Riva Electric Car

14

Hydrogen

An MSc project at University explored potential for 
photovoltaic electrolytic production of hydrogen.

A 10kW PV installation at 7% efficiency and with 
5kWh/m2/day of insolation will produce 1kg of 
hydrogen/day.

Undergraduate projects in Faculty of Engineering
on running a 4-stroke single-cylinder engine with H2.

15

Photo 3. The hydrogen engine

16

17

Biogas

University student projects:

- small bioreactor in 1984
- engine run on mixture of CH4 & CO2 in 1989

Government Waste Management Agency Wasteserv 
Ltd is proposing a project that would include 
production of biogas.

Private company promoting it.
Potential raw material for production of biogas would 
be agricultural waste a year of which half would be 
pig slurry.

18

Biogas = Methane + Carbon Dioxide

Maximum Power obtained in kW

Petrol
100% CH4
80% CH4
75% CH4
70% CH4
60% CH4
50% CH4
40% CH4
30% CH4

14.7
9.89
6.65
5.98
4.98
3.71
2.99
1.96
1.87

By mass, remainder is CO2

Cassar, Francis X., The study of a four-cylinder SI engine fuelled with different 
compositions of Biogas, BMechEng  Dissertation, University of Malta, 1989.
19

Waste arising from households

Mixed waste Clean biowaste

Recyclables

Central registration, 
inspection and weighing

Refurbished 
Mechanical 
Treatment 
Plant

Rejects 

Dirty Biowaste to be 
digested until max 
capture rate of clean 
organic fraction is 
reached

Digestion Plant

Biogas

Aerobic Treatment and final 
Composting Process Modules

Material 
Recycling 
Facility

Recyclables

Rejects

Rejects

High Quality Compost /
Stabilised biowaste depending 
on characteristics of waste input

Landfill

Proposed setup for Treating Malta’s Municipal Waste

20

Biodiesel

Government not taxing this fuel.

Project to produce it from  sea algae.

Private company producing 
biodiesel from waste cooking oil.

21

Private Initiative on Biodiesel
Edible Oil Refining Company Ltd.
– Use collected waste oil and animal fats
– Began production of biodiesel in March 2002

• Restaurants, Hotels, and Catering Establishments

– Currently only collect 500 tons/year

• Estimated total of 6500-7000 tons should be recollectable
• Captive market – 3000 tons
• McDonalds is the largest donor – approx. 40% of waste oil

– Free collection service

• 9euro cents for every litre of waste oil returned
• Audit certificate stating amount of used oil collected 
• Must import large amounts of waste oil due to lack of local 

participation

• Sell biodiesel for 78 euro cents/litre

– Opposed to 81 euro cents/litre for fossil diesel

• Run majority of personal fleet on biodiesel

– Cars, trucks, heavy equipment, and boilers

22

BIO3POWER

INTEGRATION OF MARINE BIO-MASS 
OFF SMALL ISLANDS FOR

Bio-alcohol

Bio-diesel

Bio-hydrogen

STATIONARY ENGINES - Fuel cells / power plants

AUTOMOBILE ENGINES - using existent infrastructure

MARINE ECO-GENOMICS  

BIOCHEMISTRY  

ENGINEERING 

23

Grazzi
Thank you

24

JRC Enlargement Worksop on Alternative Fuels,Petten,November,2004

Alternative fuels in the transport sector 
in Poland

A.Kulczycki1 , M.Rogulska2 

1Central Petroleum Laboratory CLN
www.cln.pl
2EC Baltic Renewable Energy Centre
Institute for Building, Mechanization and Electrification of Agriculture
www.ecbrec.pl

GENERAL INFO

• Poland - country in Central Europe
• 312.680 km2 area; 38,7 mln people
• Forests - 28,1 % Poland, i.e. 8.8 mln ha. 
• Agricultural lands – ca. 60% of the Poland. 
• Growing consumption of transport fuels.

3,7%

0,4%

4,9%

Primary energy prod  
2001

14,8%

76,2%

hard coal

lignite

crude oil

natural gas

other

3,42%

3,08%

1,61%

0,12%

2,69%

29,41%

Area cover 2001

agricultural land
forests and wooded land
waters
rocks
transport
residential
wasteland

59,67%

POLICY PRIORITIES & RES

• Climate change

(cid:137) Kyoto Protocol ratified in 2002 : 6% emission reduction within 
2008-2012 comparing to 1990,
(cid:137) c.75 mln tonnes of CO2 surplus to be traded annually

•

Energy policy:

(cid:137) Renewable energy: 7,5% in 2010 and 14% in 2020 in primary
energy balance
(cid:137) Renewable electricity: 7,5% in electricity consumption in 2010
(cid:137)Energy efficiency improvement

• Agriculture policy:
(cid:137) Liquid biofuels?? 
(cid:137)2004 r. - bioethanol 1,6-2,4 % , RME-0,11% 
(cid:137)Solid biofuel market (green energy)

Alternative fuels on Polish market

(cid:137) LPG 

(cid:137)CNG 

(cid:137)Biofuels (biodiesel RME, bioethanol EtOh, ETBE)

(cid:137)BIOGAS 

(cid:137)Emulssion Diesel-water

Share of alternative fuels in
Polish market
– Conventional fuels market: 
– unleaded gasoline 4,5 mln t/year;
– ~ 10%  contains 5% EtOH, ~ 60% contains

ETBE 

– Diesel fuel 5 mln t/year
– LPG: 20% gasoline market / 10% market of 

engine fuels

– CNG: research program

Biofuels: 
unleaded gasoline containing EtOH > 5% - not 
exists yet;
Diesel fuel containing  FAME/RME 20, 30% 
research programes – city buses, non road 
application  
Emulsion diesel fuel - water: 
prepared research program; city buses, non road 
application 
Biogas: less then 1 %

Bioethanol

Production of bioethanol 

• Bioethanol is used

•

as biocomponent for 
gasoline from 1993
In 2002 – 1,5% 
bioethanol share in
gasoline market 
• 18 producers of
dehydrated
bioethanol

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Legal regulations
• The Act of 2 October 2003 on biocomponents used in liquid
fuels and biofuels  enter in force on 1 .01.2004  BUT IS NOT 
WORKING, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Economy
are working on new acts

• Regulation concerning minimal share of biocomponents
• Regulation concerning units nad laboratories testing quality of

biocomponents and biofuels

• Ministry of Finances has introduced tax exemptation for 

biocomponents and lower tax for LPG

• Biofuels are introduced in the Act on monitoring and quality

control of liquid fuels

• Ministry of Economy  did not introduced regulation on quality
requirements for biofuels and LPG nor methods of testing

STANDARISATION

Conventional fuels:
PN EN 228 unleaded gasoline (prepared edition 2004)
PN EN 590 Diesel fuel (prepared edition 2004)

LPG:
PN EN 589

FAME:
Prepared PN EN 14 214

Demo projects

• EPAL – first Polish agrorefinery was built  in 1995, 
financed by Polish Committee for Scientific 
Research (KBN) and coordinated by IBMER
• Wroclaw – tests of RME in buses, financed by KBN
• E25 (10% of bioethanol) was used in bus in Starogard 

town

• „Local & Innovative Biodiesel” – ALTENER project

(Austria,Greece,Poland, Lithuania, Slovakia) –
promotion of 100 % biodiesel in fleets

• CNG – from 1993 (Przemysl, 10 buses in several 

towns)

Bioethanol

Begining of 90-th ITN (Institute of Petroleum Technology)
lead gasoline with bioethanol (5%)-- financed by refinery 
industry and distilleries; implemented by refineries

1996 – 1998 ITN and CLN
unleaded gasoline and U95 containing 5% bioethanol –

financed by refinery industry; implemented by refineries

2000 - 2002 CLN
10% bioethanol + diesel fuel; city buses – financed by 

distilleries

FAME / RME

2000 – 2004 
CLN  + Technical University of Warsaw 
fuel containing 30% of RME; application: city buses – financed 

by Ministry of Science and  PKN ORLEN 

Technical University of Warsaw + CLN
fuel containing 20% of RME; application: buses and non road 
application  – financed by Ministry of Science and  Lotos
Group

ICSO and CLN and Technical University of Gliwice
Different fatty acids as raw material for biocomponents; financed 

by EUREKA Programme

Production capacity and
possibilities

• Trzebinia Refinery started production of

biodiesel in September 2004, 100 000 t/a 
• Bioethanol: ca.100 agricultural distilleries,
• ETBE ca.100 000 t/a PKN ORLEN 

Problems with biofuels

implementation

•Still unstable legal framework and taxation ;

•Risk associated with land competition (food, energy
or biomaterials) and uncertain pattern of  agricultural 
production;

•limited own financial resources, liquid biofuels not 
promoted in NDP/ERDF

•‘Bad’ image in society „not in my backyard – not in
my car”

Point of view of main biofuel 
actors

Agriculture sector: increase of biocomponents

production is possible 

Refinery industry & fuel distributors: OK, but we 

have to look at technical problems and economy   

Transportation sector & vehicle services: be 

carefull, we don`t agree to have a problems with 
engines resulting from biocomponents application   

Biofuel driving forces

•Unexploited bio-resources availability at lower than 
in EU-15 cost (land and labour);

•Possible surplus of agricultural production and 
opportunities for energy crops production in medium 
term

•Improving policy and legal framework driven by the 
EU regulations – directive 2003/30/EC

•Strong agriculture and agro-industry lobby

•Energy security awareness and visible inluence of
„barrel price”

FURTHER INFORMATION

• Andrzej Kulczycki PhD, CLN 

director  
ak6@cln.pl
www.cln.pl

• Dr Magdalena Rogulska, ECBREC deputy director

mrogul@ibmer.waw.pl
www.ecbrec.pl

A TENTATIVE SWOT ANALYSIS ON THE 
IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS IN 
ROMANIA

Monica PREDA, 
Romanian Agency for Energy Conservation
Eden MAMUT, 
“Ovidius” University of Constantza
Iosif TRIPSA, 
Romanian Association for the Promotion of Biofuels
Constantin ENACHIOIU, 
Romanian Ministry of Education & Research

OUTLINE

• ROMANIA - General Information
• Current status of the negotiations for accession to EU
• Past experience on alternative fuels in Romania
•
Strengths
• Weaknesses
• Opportunities
• Threats
• Optional Strategies
• Foreseen Policies
• Conclusions

ROMANIA – General Information I

• Population
• Territory Surface
• Gross Domestic Product 2003
• GDP per head
• Export 2003
• Growth rate 2003
•

Structure of the Economy

21.73 mil.
238,391 km2
143.418 bil. Euro
6,600 Euro
14.7 bil. Euro
4.9 %

• Industry
• Agriculture
• Commerce & Services

35 %
15 %
50 %

ROMANIA – General Information II

• Energy Sector

• Fuels

– Electricity
– Thermal
– Transportation

– Energy sector
– Industry
– Domestic
– Transportation

ROMANIA – General Information III

Productia de energie 
electrica
termica

1993
55476
110806

1994
55136
91833

1995
59267
101508

1996
61350
103986

1997
57149
100994

1998
53496
88121

1999
50713
74833

2000
51935
68474

2001
53866
66434

2002
54935
60068

Productia de energie 

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0

electrica

termica

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

ROMANIA – General Information IV

Unitate - Mtep
Consumul final de energie
Consumul final pe industrie
Consumul final pe transport
Consumul final pe gospodarii, servicii

1992
27.51
14.311
3.415
9.784

1993
28.019
15.832
3.104
9.083

1994
26.548
15.04
3.182
8.326

1995
30.211
15.893
3.001
11.317

1996
32.615
15.977
3.913
12.725

1997
29.479
13.923
3.917
11.639

1998
25.734
10.771
3.718
11.245

1999
24.626
11.665
2.944
10.017

2000
21.4203
8.468
3.6023
9.35

2001
21.6152
8.763
3.96
8.8922

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Consumul total final 

Consumul final in
transport

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Negotiations for Accession to EU

• Negotiation Chapters that have been Partially Closed
• Current status of the negotiations on the Remaining Chapters

27/30
3/30

» Competition
» Environment
» Justice & home affairs
• Obligations assumed in Energy Chapter
• Obligations assumed in Environment Chapter 

– Council Directive No 88/609/EEC on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants 
into  the  air  from  large  combustion  plants  (LCP);  Romania  requested  a  transition 
period of 5 years, until 2012

• Obligations assumed in Transport Chapter
• Obligations assumed on Alternative Fuels

Past Experience on AF I

• Methanol

• National Program initiated in 1980
• Byproduct in the Chemical Industry
• Mixtures for Diesel engines

• Ethanol

• National Program initiated in 1980
• Based on sweet sorghum & byproducts from food processing

• Natural Gas

• LPG

• National Program initiated in 1980
• Compressed up to 25 bar
• Public transport busses

• National Program initiated in 1978
• City cabs

Past Experience on AF II

• Hydrogen

• National Program initiated in 1976
• Production & storage
• Fuel cells
• National Program: MENER
• European Technology Platform for Fuel Cells
• Project HyWays

• Biogas

• In 1990 there were 25 000 biogas units

• Biomass

• Wood processing - sawdust
• Briquettes & pellets

Past Experience on AF III

• Rape Oil

• Climate & soil conditions
• Traditional cultivation in Romania
• Crude rape oil, blended for biodiesel
• World Bank Project for cultivation technologies & strategies
• National & EU projects for testing on engines

•

Sunflower Oil

• Climate & soil conditions
• Traditional cultivation in Romania

Strengths

• Agricultural Capacities & Experience

– The best climate & soil conditions for sweet sorghum cultivation in Europe
– 20 years experience in cultivation & processing of sorghum

• Processing Industry

• Oil processing industry
• Food & Chemical Processing Sector
• Sewage treatment
• Biotechnologies & bioprocessing

• Research Facilities & Expertise

• Specialized research institutes
• National Programs: MENER, BIOTECH
• Network of research centers

– Romanian Association for Promotion of Biofuels
– Romanian Alliance on Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Technologies

Weaknesses

• Lack of Investment Funds

• The upgrade of the Romanian society to EU standards require huge

investment funds

• Low economical performances
• Low involvement of the private & venture capitals

• Lack of Managerial & Marketing Culture

• Unfinished transition from a centralized economy to free market

economy

•

Situation of the Agriculture

• Fragmentation of farms
• Unstructured market

• Non-mature Energy Market

• Weak Actors with low experience 

Opportunities

• A significant National Market for AF

– Estimation of the Romanian market in 2005
– Perspectives

• A growing EU Market

– Estimation of the EU market in 2005
– Perspectives

• Available EU Funds for RTD

– Research
– Demonstration
– Kyoto Protocol

• The restructuring process of the Agriculture in Romania

– Competitive advantages of Romanian Agricultural Sector
– SAPARD

Threats 

• The Mentalities of the End-users

» Farmers
» Drivers

• Competition within EU

• Existence of major players that have invested in technology, have 
resources to enter in the market and have marketing experience

• Costs of Implementation & Production

• Production costs are higher than classical fuels
• Costs of marketing, distribution & service

Optional Strategies 

• Definition of a National Strategy for Agriculture & Process Industry

– National Strategy for Sustainable Development
– Accession to EU
– Sectorial strategies
Identification of Niches on the EU Market

•

– Active role in the European Technology Platforms

• Concentration of Available Resources & Expertise
– National RTD strategy
– National Technology Platforms

• Development of strategic alliances with major players on the market

» Austria
» EUBIA
» Instituto Motori di Napoli
» China

Foreseen Policies 

•

Subsidies for 

– Farmers
– Industry
– End-users
• Promotion & awareness

– Media
– Seminars $ workshops
– Internet portals

Support to NGOs

•
• Development of National Competence Centers for Consultancy & Assistance

Conclusions 

• ROMANIA has a significant potential for production of AF

• Bioethanol of sweet sorghum
• Biodiesel of rape oil & sunflower oil
• Biogas & biomass
• Hydrogen

– Oil reforming with CO2 sequestration
– Biotechnologies

• There is a good expertise in research, production & processing
• There is a significant national market
•

It might be a big chance for the future development of the Romanian 
Agriculture & Process Industry

Thank you for your attention!

Implementation of 
Implementation of 
directive in 
biofuels directive in 
biofuels
Slovakia
Slovakia

Jozef Mikulec, Peter Lauko
Jozef Mikulec, Peter 
, Martin Sliva
Cvengrošš, Martin Sliva
Cvengro

Lauko, J, Jáán n 

JRC Workshop on alternative fuels, 

November 22-23, Petten, NL

Fuel -- internal
Fuel

market
internal market

YY

2001
2001

2002
2002

2003
2003

2004
2004
forecast
forecast

Gasoline
Gasoline
ktoektoe

Diesel
Diesel
ktoektoe

655655

777777

792792

783783

854854

1042
1042

11056056

1073
1073

Average quality of fossil fuels on Slovakian market 2003:
Gasoline – sulphur 6,2 mg/kg, benzene 0,5% vol., aromatics 31,2% vol.
Diesel – cetane number 52, sulphur 341 mg/kg

Production and consumption 
Production and consumption 
biofuels
alternative and biofuels
alternative and 
2003
2002
2001
2003
2002
2001

YY

24,424,4

3,83,8

2,52,5

2004
2004
forecast
forecast
??

FAME 
FAME 
ktkt

Ethanol
Ethanol
ktkt

LPGLPG
ktkt

CNG mil. 
CNG mil. 
mm33/kt/kt

00

2525

00

2929

00

3232

11

3535

distribution
6 6 distribution
sites forfor busbus
sites
transport
transport

4/2,9
4/2,9

biofuels
Implementation of biofuels
Implementation of 
actual state
directive -- actual state
directive 

excise duties 
Act No 98/2004 Coll. on excise duties 
Act No 98/2004 Coll. on
mineral oils allows, that keeper of taxable 
fromfrom mineral oils allows, that keeper of taxable 
and bonded warehouse can to supply to the 
and bonded warehouse can to supply to the 
motor fuels also fuels, which are 
market with motor fuels also fuels, which are 
market with
produced as mixtures of hydrocarbon fuels 
produced as mixtures of hydrocarbon fuels 
. These are:
biocomponents. These are:
andand biocomponents
(cid:131)(cid:131) diesel + up to 5 % by volume FAME,
diesel + up to 5 % by volume FAME,
(cid:131)(cid:131) FAME + up to 5 % by volume diesel,
FAME + up to 5 % by volume diesel,
(cid:131)(cid:131) petrol + max. 15 % by volume ETBE (ethyl
petrol + max. 15 % by volume ETBE (ethyl--
tertc--butyl
tertc

butyl--ether

ether) ) 

Characteristic of 
Characteristic of 
production
production

(cid:131)(cid:131) Rapeseed oil is predominant feedstock, 
Rapeseed oil is predominant feedstock, 
recovered cooking oil start
recovered cooking oil start
(cid:131)(cid:131) Batch and continuous processes
Batch and continuous processes
(cid:131)(cid:131) 55--40 40 ktkt annual capacity

annual capacity( ( total

capacity
total capacity

80kt)
80kt)
(cid:131)(cid:131) Variation in purification step
Variation in purification step
(cid:131)(cid:131) Only very limited volume domestic 
Only very limited volume domestic 
ethanol for ETBE
ethanol for ETBE

biofuels
Implementation of biofuels
Implementation of 
barriers
directive -- barriers
directive

(cid:131)(cid:131) FAME have zero excise duty tax 

FAME have zero excise duty tax butbut supply 
supply 
price of FAME  ( strongly depends on price of 
price of FAME  ( strongly depends on price of 
rapeseed oil) is uncompetitive
rapeseed oil) is uncompetitive
(cid:131)(cid:131) Uncompetitive price of ethanol 
Uncompetitive price of ethanol 
(cid:131)(cid:131) Low production capacity of ethanol
Low production capacity of ethanol
(cid:131)(cid:131) Absence of medium term supporting scheme
Absence of medium term supporting scheme
(cid:131)(cid:131) Absence some qualitative technical standards
Absence some qualitative technical standards
ethanol))
((ethanol
(cid:131)(cid:131) Education and propagation
Education and propagation

biofuels
Implementation of biofuels
Implementation of 
perspectives
directive--perspectives
directive

Formulation of NNational
Formulation of 

ational PProgra
introducing of biofuels

rogrammme and following 

me and following „„step 

step ––
on the Slovak internal 
biofuels on the Slovak internal 

by by –– stepstep““ introducing of 
motor fuels demands:
market with motor fuels demands:
market with

(cid:131)(cid:131) mainly to find and agree mutual relations interested 
mainly to find and agree mutual relations interested 
(companies 
programmmeme (companies 
frame of progra
companies on the frame of 
companies on the
cultivator/breeder –– processor 
processor –– producer of 
producer of 
chain: „„cultivator/breeder 
chain: 
distributor ––
and fuels –– distributor 
biocomponents and fuels 
biocomponents
to determine conditions and 
) and to determine conditions and 
consumer/user““) and
consumer/user
programme,,
relating requirements to the realization of programme
relating requirements to the realization of 

biofuels
Implementation of biofuels
Implementation of 
directive--perspectives, 
directive

perspectives, cont

cont`d`d

(cid:131)(cid:131) biocomponents

biocomponents will be blended into motor fuels only 
will be blended into motor fuels only 
taxable and bonded warehouse, to ensure the taxes 
inin taxable and bonded warehouse, to ensure the taxes 
selling these 
and customs control of production and selling these 
and customs control of production and
commodities,
commodities,
(cid:131)(cid:131) the quantification of national indicative targets in 2005 
the quantification of national indicative targets in 2005 
2010 years will be conditioned by availability of 
–– 2010 years will be conditioned by availability of 
and investment preparedness of interested 
biofuels and investment preparedness of interested 
biofuels
in National
companies ((willwill defined
companies
2004),,
2004)
(cid:131)(cid:131) it is necessary positively to quantify financial claims 
it is necessary positively to quantify financial claims 
against the state, i.e. state budget demands on 
against the state, i.e. state budget demands on 
programme
realization of national programme
realization of national 

National Programme

end 
Programme upup end 

defined in 

perspective
Biofuels perspective
Biofuels

production and start with 
bioethanol production and start with 

(cid:131)(cid:131) An intensive R&D in 2

(cid:131)(cid:131) Starts with B5 diesel production (use FAME and late 
Starts with B5 diesel production (use FAME and late 
FAEE)
FAEE)
(cid:131)(cid:131) Higher concentration FAME for captive fleets
Higher concentration FAME for captive fleets
(cid:131)(cid:131) New investment to 
New investment to bioethanol
ETBE production, FAEE production
ETBE production, FAEE production
An intensive R&D in 2ndnd generation 
has large potential in waste wood, wastes from 
has large potential in waste wood, wastes from 
agricultural production
agricultural production
(cid:131)(cid:131) Pilot programs in production and application in 
Pilot programs in production and application in 
transport
transport
(cid:131)(cid:131) New legislative and economic rules
New legislative and economic rules
(cid:131)(cid:131) Generating of employment
Generating of employment

generation biofuels

Slovakia 
biofuels –– Slovakia 

R&D in Slovakia
Biofuels R&D in Slovakia
Biofuels

new processes, new 
products ( new processes, new 

(cid:131)(cid:131) R&D, application of FAME with complex 
R&D, application of FAME with complex 
utilization of by--products (
utilization of by
catalytic system, new type of esters with 
catalytic system, new type of esters with 
activity,
depressssantant activity,
depre
(cid:131)(cid:131) Ecological lubricants
Ecological lubricants
(cid:131)(cid:131) Legislative basis for support FAME production
Legislative basis for support FAME production
(cid:131)(cid:131) Development of simple analytical methods
Development of simple analytical methods
(cid:131)(cid:131) Fuel and/or fuel additive based on glycerol
Fuel and/or fuel additive based on glycerol

R&D in Slovakia, 
Biofuels R&D in Slovakia, 
Biofuels

cont``dd
cont

(cid:131)(cid:131) Macroeconomic aspects of utilisation of 
Macroeconomic aspects of utilisation of 
biogenic fuels. Economical analysis of 
biogenic fuels. Economical analysis of 
expenses, revenues, and of the 
expenses, revenues, and of the 
biofuels
economic result of production of biofuels
economic result of production of 
in selected economical units. 
in selected economical units. 
Comparison of expenses, yields and of 
Comparison of expenses, yields and of 
the economic results of production of 
the economic results of production of 
biofuels..
standard fuels with biofuels
standard fuels with 

Stefan Institute 
Jozef Stefan Institute 
Jozef

Energy Efficiency Centre
Energy Efficiency Centre

Traffic Energy Consumption in Slovenia

Dr. Fouad Al-Mansour
Jozef Stefan Institute, Energy Efficiency Centre

M.Sc. Andrej Hanžič
University v Maribor, Slovenija
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and 
Computer Science

Workshop on Alternative Fuels in Transport
22-23 November 2004

Petten, the Netherlands

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Presentation

• General information of Slovenia
• Energy consumption
• Energy consumption in Transport
• Regulation
• Possibility of production of biofuel in Slovenia
• Conclusion

2

General indicators for Slovenia (2002)

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Area
Population
Population density
Gross Domestic Product
Gross Domestic Product
Share  of  agriculture,  forestry
and fishing in GDP
Share of industry in GDP
Share of services in GDP

20,253 km2
1,99 mio inhab.
98 persons / km2
23.321 mio EURO
11. 690 EURO per capita
2.7%

31.3%
54.9%

3

Primary and Final Energy Consumption

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

]
a
/
J
P

[

n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

y
g
r
e
n
E

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

4

Primary energy

Final energy

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

 
 
Final Energy Consumption by Sectors

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

/

]
a
J
P

[
n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c
y
g
r
e
n
e
l
a
n
F

i

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Industry

Transport

Others

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

5

 
 
 
Final Energy Consumption by Sectors

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

1 9 9 0

O th e r s
3 2 %

In d u s tr y
4 4 %

Tr a n s p o r t
2 4 %

O th e r s
40%

2002

In d u stry
28%

6

Tr an sp o r t
32%

Fuel consumption in transport

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

• The fuel consumption in transport still increases since 
1991, but the high consumption between 1994 and 
1999 is a result of sales of fuels to consumers from 
neighbouring countries, because the prices of fuels in 
Slovenia in that time were essentially lower than in the 
neighbouring countries

7

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Final energy consumption in transport

]
e
o
t
M

[

t
r
o
p
s
n
a
r
t

n

i

y
g
r
e
n
e

l

a
n
i
f

f
o

n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C

1,8

1,6

1,4

1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0

8

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

 
 
 
 
 
 
JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Diesel price in €/1000 liters

June 2004

1300

1200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

VAT

Excise

NETO

Belgium
Denemark

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Austria
 Portugal
Luxembourg
 the Netherlands

United Kingdom
Finland
Sweden

Czech
Slovakia

Hungary

Poland

Slovenia

]
s
r
e
t
i
l

/

0
0
0
1
O
R
U
E

[
e
c
i
r
P

l
e
s
e
i
D

9

 
 
 
JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Gasoline price in €/1000 liters

June 2004

]
s
r
e
t
i
l
0
0
0
1
/
O
R
U
E

[
e
c
i
r
p
e
n

i
l

o
s
a
G

1300

1200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

VAT

Excise

NETO

Spain

France

Ireland

Belgium
Denemark

Germany

Greece

10

Italy

Austria
 the Netherlands
Luxembourg

 Portugal

United Kingdom
Finland
Sweden

Czech

Slovakia

Hungary

Poland

Slovenia

 
 
 
Fuel consumption in transport

Gasoline 

Diesel 

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

1,0

0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0

]
e
o
t
M

[

s
l
e
u
f

f
o

n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C

11

 
 
 
Scenario consumption of fuels in transport by the 
National energy program

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

]
a
/
J
P

[

n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

l
e
u
F

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1997

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Gasoline

Diesel

Biodiesel

12

 
 
JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Specific consumption of cars

]

m
k
0
0
1
/
l
[

s
r
a
c

f
o
n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

c
i
f
i
c
e
p
S

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

13

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

 
 
 
 
 
JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Energy Act

• National Energy Programme (NEP) defines the long-term 
development goals, orientation of energy supply, energy 
systems and mechanisms for stimulation of the use of 
RES.

• National Energy Programme contains targets, orientation 
and strategy of energy use and supply and measures for 
reaching of targets.

• The National Assembly (Parliament) adopts the NEP on the 

proposal of the government.

14

The targets of the National Energy Programme 
(NEP)

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

•

Increasing the share of RES in primary energy balance to 
12% in 2010:
– increasing heat supply from RES from 22% in 2002 to 

25% in 2010,

– increasing electricity from RES from 32% in 2002 to 

33,6%  in 2010,

– achieving 2% share of biofuels for transport at the end of 

2005.

15

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Mechanisms and measures

• Regulation to decide the obligatory minimum share of bio 

fuel by years to 2010

• Discharge biofuel of excise and other taxes (in force from 

1.5.2004,  Excise law)

• Programme for stimulation of biofuel production and 

production of energy crops (rapeseed …)

16

Possibility of production of biofuel in Slovenia

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

• Slovenia is a country with insufficient agricultural food production to 

cover consumption. 

• There is not any production of bio diesel or other bio fuel oil in the 

country. 

• The potential of liquid biofuel production is limited to the rapeseed 

and used waste food oil in Slovenia. 

• All products of rapeseed and collected waste food oil in Slovenia is 

exported to Biofuel refinery in Austria near the border

• The production of landfill gas, sewage gas and biogas from 

agricultural wastes is used for heat and electricity production (CHP) . 

17

Possibility of production of biofuel in Slovenia (2)

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

• The data about the potential of land area available for rapeseed is 

estimated between 6000 and 7000 ha. There are some less 
favorable areas left idle in recent years 

• The Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Food decided the subsidies 
for the production of cereals, rapeseed and some other crops. 
• The subsidy for production of rapeseed is defined at 310 €/ha in 

2002 and 280 €/ha in 2003 and 2004. 

18

Conclusion

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

• Consumption of liquid fossil fuel (diesel) in transport 

sector increased in last years and will increase in the next 
years. 

• There is not any production of bio diesel or other bio fuel 

oil in the country.

• Some companies plan to produce bio fuels in the next 

years, but the possibility of large-scale production of bio 
fuels in Slovenia is unrealistic.

• The government subsidizes the production of rapeseed 

and discharges bio fuel of excise taxes.

19

JSIJSI -- EECEEC

Author's Address

Dr. Fouad Al-Mansour

Jozef stefan Institute – energy efficiency Centre
Phone: + 386 1 588 53 29
Fax:      + 386 1 561 23 35
E-mail: fouad.al-mansour@ijs.si

Andrej Hanzic

University v Maribor, Slovenija - Faculty of Electrical Engineering and 
Computer Science
Phone: +386 2  220 70 56
Fax:      +386 2 252 54 81
E-mail: andrej.hanzic@uni-mb.si
i

20

Current activities
Current

activities andand future

perspective
future perspective

of of 

TURKEY on BioBio--fuel
TURKEY on 

fuel R&DR&D

ŞŞeyma 
TUBITAK--MRC MRC Institute
TUBITAK

KARAHAN
eyma KARAHAN
Energy
Institute of of Energy

seymaseyma..karahan

karahan@mam.@mam.govgov..trtr

JRC-Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU 
Energy Systems ”
22-23th November 2004
Petten, The Netherlands

11/9/2006

1

Presentation outline
Presentation outline

1

2

3

Evaluation of Turkey’s status on biofuels

Introduction of TUBITAK-Marmara Research Center-
Institute of Energy and other Governmental and non
Governmental organizations related to bio-fuel activities

Future perspective of Turkey on biofuel R&D 

11/9/2006

2

POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL LAND OF  
POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL LAND OF  
TURKEY
TURKEY

1

TOTAL AGRICULTURAL  LAND

23 656 000 haha
23 656 000

IRRIGATABLE LAND

13 500 000 haha
13 500 000

TECHNICALLY AND 
ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE 
IRRIGATABLE LAND

8 500 000 haha
8 500 000

CURRENT  IRRIGATABLE  LAND
CURRENT  IRRIGATABLE  LAND

4 500 000 haha
4 500 000

11/9/2006

3

TOTAL OIL- SEEDS PLANTING AREA
SEEDS PLANTING AREA
TOTAL OIL-- SEEDS PLANTING AREA
TOTAL OIL
1.47 MILLION  HECTARS  ( 2003)
1.47 MILLION  HECTARS  ( 2003)

TOTAL  AMOUNT OF OIL- SEEDS PRODUCTION
SEEDS PRODUCTION
TOTAL  AMOUNT OF OIL-- SEEDS PRODUCTION
TOTAL  AMOUNT OF OIL

2.40 MILLION  TONS (2003)
2.40 MILLION  TONS (2003)

Nearly oiloil--seedseed production
Nearly

values
production values

- Cotton seed:               1 457 122 tons

- Sunflower:                      850 000 tons

- Soybean:                          75 000 tons

- Safflower:                                25 tons

- Rapeseed:                         1 500 tons

11/9/2006

4

THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET SOWN AREA
THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET SOWN AREA
THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET SOWN AREA
372 000 HECTARS (2002)
372 000 HECTARS (2002)

THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET  PRODUCTION
THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET  PRODUCTION
THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET  PRODUCTION
17  MILLION  TONNES (2002)
17  MILLION  TONNES (2002)

THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT SOWN AREA
THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT SOWN AREA
THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT SOWN AREA
9 MILLION  HECTARS  ( 2002)
9 MILLION  HECTARS  ( 2002)

THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT PRODUCTION
THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT PRODUCTION
THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT PRODUCTION
19 MILLION  TONNES (2002)
19 MILLION  TONNES (2002)

THE AMOUNT OF MAIZE SOWN AREA
THE AMOUNT OF MAIZE SOWN AREA

500 000 HECTARS (2002)

THE AMOUNT OF MAIZE  PRODUCTION
THE AMOUNT OF MAIZE  PRODUCTION

2  MILLION  TONNES (2002)

11/9/2006

5

POSSIBILITIES OF  PRODUCING 
ETHANOL  IN TURKISH SUGAR PLANTS

Name of the plant

Nominal capacity, liter/day

Erzurum

Eskişehir

Turhal

Malatya

TOTAL
TOTAL

40 000

65 000

45 000

40 000

190 000
190 000

Exisiting Alcohol Production Facilities in sugar plants correspond 35% of 
annual demand in the case of using 5% ethanol.

Considering the present capacity, blend of gasoline and ethanol with a ratio of 
1.6% can be used.

NOTE: The alcohol production technologies in the sugar plants should be 
rehabilitated.

11/9/2006

6

2

Some Governmental and non-
Governmental organisations related
to bio-fuel activities

Tubitak-Marmara Research Center 
Institute of Energy (TUBITAK-MRC-IE)
Electrical Power Resources and Development 
Administration (EIE)
The Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA)
The Union of Turkish Sugar Beet Farmers 
(Pankobirlik)
The Turkish Chamber of Agricultural Unions 
Alternative Fuel Technologies Ltd. Co. (AYT)
Hacettepe University
Ankara University 

11/9/2006

7

Background
Background

THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF TURKEY 
(TUBITAK) HAS BEEN FOUNDED IN ANKARA IN 1963 WITH THE AIM OF;
•DEVELOPING, 
•PROMOTING, 
•PLANNING AND COORDINATING THE R&D ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF 
POSITIVE SCIENCES, IN RESPECT OF THE PRIORITIES FOR TURKEY’S 
DEVELOPMENT. 

TUBITAK-MRC

TUBITAK OPERATES UNDER A SPECIAL FOUNDING ACT, PROVIDING IT 
FINANCIAL FLEXIBILITY AND PARTIAL ADMINISTRATIVE AUTONOMY, AND 
DIRECTLY REPORTS TO THE PRIME MINISTRY. 

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES OF 
TUBITAK ARE CONDUCTED THROUGH ITS  RESEARCH INSTITUTES.

MARMARA RESEARCH CENTRE IN GEBZE IS THE OLDEST AND LARGEST 
RESEARCH ORGANISATION UNDER TUBITAK. THE MAIN GOAL IS TO 
DEVELOP NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND PROVIDE KNOWLEDGE. 

11/9/2006

8

TUBITAK-MRC

Campus MARMARA  RESEARCH  CENTER FOUNDED IN 1972 OVER NEARLY 8 
Campus
SQ km. (2,000 ACRES) BEAUTIFUL PIECE OF  LAND ON THE NORTH 
SHORE OF IZMIT BAY, SETS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF CAMPUS TYPE  
RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT.

MRC’S LOCATION IN THE INDUSTRIAL HEART OF THE COUNTRY IS 
VERY APPROPRIATE CONSIDERING ITS MISSION OF CONTRIBUTING 
TO THE COMPETETIVENESS OF TURKISH INDUSTRY THROUGH 
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT.

NATIONAL METROLOGY INSTITUTE, THE NATIONAL ELECTRONICS 
AND CRYPTOLOGY INSTITUTE, RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR GENETIC 
ENGINEERING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY  AND TUBITAK-MRC 
TECHNOLOGY  FREE ZONE (TEKSEB) & TECHNOPARK  ARE ALSO 
LOCATED ON THE MARMARA RESEARCH CENTER CAMPUS.

11/9/2006

9

TUBITAK-MRC

PRESIDENT OF TUBITAK

MRC  BOARD OF DIRECTORS

PRESIDENT OF MRC

INFORMATION TECHN.R.I.

INSTITUTE OF ENERGY 

INSTITUTE OF MATERIALS

FOOD SCIENCE&TECHN.R.I.

EARTH &MARINE  SC. INS.

ENVIRON.. CHEM.TECH INS

VICE PRESIDENT

VICE PRESIDENT 

VICE PRESIDENT

CONSULTANTS  

TECHNOLOGY  FREE  ZONE

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

11/9/2006

10

TUBITAK-MRC
Institute of Energy - IE

Contacts
Contacts

Address
Address

Mission
Mission

Vision
Vision

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa TIRIS (Director)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fehmi AKGUN (Deputy Director) 

TUBITAK-MRC Institute of Energy, P.O.Box 21, Gebze 41470,
Kocaeli-TURKEY
Tel: +90 262 6412300 (ext.: 3900-3901)
Fax: +90 262 6412309-642 3554
http://www.mam.gov.tr/english/escae/index.html

“to be the pioneer & competent Research institute in the fields of energy in 
TURKEY”

“to contribute to Turkey’s global competitiveness and sustainable 
development targets:

• by developing new-advanced energy technologies and energy conservation 
measures.

11/9/2006

11

Organization chart

Institue of Energy - Organization Chart

Institute Director

Institute Director

Institute Board

Institute Board

Energy   Technologies
Strategic Business Unit

Energy   Technologies
Strategic Business Unit

Deputy Director

Deputy Director

Fuel Technologies

Fuel Technologies

Advanced Energy Technologies

Advanced Energy Technologies

Power Electronics

Power Electronics

Platform and Sensor Tecchnologies

Platform and Sensor Tecchnologies

Administrative Support

Administrative Support

TQM Representative
TQM Representative
ISO 9001 Representative
ISO 9001 Representative
Accreditation Representative
Accreditation Representative
Business Dev. & Marketing  Coordinator
Business Dev. & Marketing  Coordinator
Training Coordinator
Training Coordinator

11/9/2006

12

STAFF PROFILE
STAFF PROFILE

Current Staff Profile (%)

4,26 4,26 

23,40 

68,09 

Managers
Supports
Technicians
Engineers

Managers

Researchers
PhD.
Ms.
Bs.

Technicians

Support

Total

2

32
8
15
6

11

2

47

Main Characteristic of Staff Profile:

• Multidisciplinary (Chemists, Mechanics, Electronics, Physics, Environments, etc.) 
Deep expertise seniors & innovative juniors

11/9/2006

13

Working Groups

1. Fuel technologies
2. Fuel cell technologies 
2.  Hydrogen technologies
3.  Renewable energy technologies
4.  Combustion, gasification and gas cleaning technologies
5.  Energy storage technologies
6.  Vehicle technologies
7.  Power electronics technologies
8.  Power network technologies
9.  Control technologies for energy processes 
10. Energy conservation technologies

11/9/2006

14

Past & current 
Biomass related activities

EUROPEAN PROJECTS 

STATE PLANNING ORGANIZATION, 
TURKEY

INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS 

11/9/2006

15

Biomass Cogeneration Network, BIOCOGEN (5th FP): 

Biomass from Sweet Sorghum (State Planning Organization 

Project, Duration: 1995-1997):

Cleaning of Syngas from Waste or Biomass 

Gasification/Pyrolysis for Storage or Direct Use for Energy 
Production (Joint Reseach Centre Contract Project (JRC)
Petten Schedule Duration: January-March 2004):

Investigation of the Alternative Motor Fuels and fuel 
additives in Internal Combustion Engines (External Project):

11/9/2006

16

Biomass Cogeneration Network
BIOCOGEN 

Customer::
Customer

EU-Fifth Framework Programme

Objectives::
Objectives

-the achievement of the White Paper target of 6 Mtoe of biomass fuels being 
used in coffining plants by 2010 
-the identification of the best options in terms of recourse and technology to 
reach the cost targets of 1500 Euro/KWe and 0.05 Euro/KWh investment and 
electricity production cost; 
- the achievement of the strategic priority of 26 Mtoe in CHP installations by
2010 

The main objective of the Network is to provide technical and economic data 
and deal with the key issues in the implementation of biomass CHP in Europe
aiming to facilitate the aim of 26 Mtoe biomass CHP installations to be 
reached by 2010.

Schedule::
Schedule

2001-2003

11/9/2006

17

Biomass from Sweet Sorghum

Customer::
Customer

State Planning Organization

Objectives::
Objectives

The aim of this project is determination of Sweet Sorghum as 
for  domestic  heating.In 
an  alternative  energy  sources 
addition,  sorghum  and  Turkish  lignite briquetted together  for 
reduction in the emission from  coal combustion. 

Schedule::
Schedule

1995-1997

11/9/2006

18

Cleaning of Syngas from Waste or Biomass 
Gasification/Pyrolysis for Storage or Direct Use for 
Energy Production

Customer::
Customer

Joint Reseach Centre Contract Project (JRC)

Objectives::
Objectives

The  aim  of  the  study is  to  review  the  status  of  cleaning  of
syngases produced  directly  from  gasification  or pyrolysis
(including  fuels  produced  from  the  bio-oils  from pyrolysis)  or 
biogases produced from anaerobic digestion or composting. 

Schedule::
Schedule

January-March 2004. 

11/9/2006

19

Investigation of the Alternative Motor Fuels in 
Internal Combustion Engines

Customer::
Customer

Industrial organization

Objectives::
Objectives

The objective of the project is investigation of alternative motor 
Fuels and additives on internal combustion engine performance 
and emissions. 

Schedule::
Schedule

2002

11/9/2006

20

MILITARY PROJECTS
CEPA (Common European Priority Area) and 
Turkish MoD

CEPA RTP 16.08 DESIRE (DIESEL FUEL PROCESSING FOR FUEL CELLS)

CEPA RTP 16.11 MCFC 

HYDROGEN TEST SYSTEM

HYDROGEN VEHICLE

Other projects

CEPA RTP 16.01 
CEPA RTP 16.02
CEPA RTP 16.06
CEPA RTP 16.14 

11/9/2006

21

CEPA RTP 16.08 DESIRE

cope::
SScope

The feasibility studies on diesel fuel processing including technical and economical
evaluation, and manufacturing, testing and evaluation of a demonstrator 

Customer::
Customer

Ministry of Defence

Work Work 
Packages::
Packages

WP1: Evaluation of technical requirements
WP2: System study, choice of fuel cell type
WP3: Fuel processing
WP4: System pressure, air compressor, air quality, clean-up systems
WP5: Electrical power conditioning system 
WP6: Conceptual design of a full size system
WP7: Conceptual design of a demonstrator
WP 8: Technical and economical evaluation of the results 
WP20: Pre reformer and catalyst test
WP30: Integration of fuel processor at 25 kW scale
WP 40: Design of a diesel evaporator
WP 50: Design of reformer unit
WP 60: Design of CO removal unit
WP 70: Demonstration tests
WP 90 Evaluation of results 

Schedule::
Schedule

2002- 2004

11/9/2006

22

Hydrogen Test System

cope::
SScope

Customer::
Customer

Objectives::
Objectives

Hydrogen eliminator test chamber project

Turkish Navy

A test facility was established for hydrogen eliminators used at
submarines 

Schedule::
Schedule

2001

11/9/2006

23

Hydrogen ICE Vehicle

Scope:

Hydrogen ICE Vehicle Demonstration

Objectives:

Demonstration of Hydrogen fuel internal combustion vehicle

Components

• Solar Panels (3 kW)
• Electrolyser Unit
• H2 Storage
• H2 Vehicle

11/9/2006

24

OTHER SELECTED PROJECTS

NATURAL-HY (6th FP)

MOCAMI (5th FP) 

IRMATECH (5th FP) 

ELIT 1 & 2

FNSS
PEM-FC CONSORTIUM 

11/9/2006

25

NATURALHY(IP) -6 th FP (2004 – 2009) 

Preparing for the hydrogen economy by using the 
existing natural gas system as a catalyst

NaturalHy Project is one of the eighteen projects funded by EU at 
the first call of 6.1.2 Thematic Priority Area under Sixth Framework 
Programme. 

NATURALHY

The aim of NaturalHy is to test all the critical components of a
hydrogen system by adding hydrogen to natural gas in existing 
networks. 

IE (Institute  of  Energy)  and  IGDAS  (Istanbul  Gas  Distribution  Corp.) 
are the organizations participating to the project from Turkey.

The project duration is 5 years. IE will participate at the durability and 
integrity  tests  of  the  gas  distribution  network  with  its  background  on 
Hydrogen.

The project will provide IE to improve the current abilities on Hydrogen 
related  systems and 
the  relationships  with  other 
Gas/Hydrogen interested organizations.

improve 

to 

11/9/2006

26

IRMATECH

cope::
SScope

Integrated Research on Materıals, Clean and efficient enegy Technologies 
and processes to enhance MCFC in a sustaınable development.

Customer::
Customer

European Commission

Objectives::
Objectives

Reduce cost of MCFC, Improve the compactness of the MCFC, Increase the 
stack lifetime of the MCFC.

Work Work 
Packages::
Packages

MCFC stack porous components, MCFC stack metallic components, cell 
configuration review, Fuel cell process analysis.

Clients::
Clients

Ansaldo Fuell Cells (I), Fraunhofer Institute for Envinronment, Safety and
Energy Technology (D), Balcke-Dürr (D), Tubitak-MRC (TR), Centre National
de la Researche Scientifique (F), ENEA (I)

Schedule::
Schedule

2003 - 2006 ( 30 months)

11/9/2006

27

ELIT-1 & 2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle
projects

First version : ELIT-1

An  electric  machine  propels  the  wheels  of  ELIT-1  Series 
Hybrid Vehicle. In the urban drive mode of ELIT-1, the electric 
motor  is  supplied  by  only  batteries  resulting  a  noiseless  and 
zero  emission  drive.  In  addition,  dissipated  braking  energy  in 
the  conventional  vehicles  is  stored  in  the  batteries  by  the 
regenerative braking ability of the traction motor of ELIT-1. 
Hybrid  power  generation  unit  consisting  of  an 
internal 
combustion engine and generator removes the dependency to 
recharge stations and continuous operation of the vehicle has 
been realized. 

Second version : ELIT-2 

This is an on-going project.  An electric machine propels the wheels of ELİT-2 Paralel Hybrid 
Vehicle.
Third version : ELIT-3

This upcoming version will be an electric vehicle of ELİT-3, Hydrogen & Fuel cell
Hybrid Vehicle.

11/9/2006

28

FNSS 
Hybrid Electric Armoured
Personnel Carrier

The  objective  of  the  project  is  to  perform  a  feasibility  study  on 
hybrid  electric  power  system  architecture  for  FNSS  Defense 
Systems manufactured M113 armored personnel carrier.

In the project, a hybrid electric drive system for M113 is designed 
covering series/parallel configuration options. 

11/9/2006

29

PEM-FC CONSORTIUM PROJECT -First phase 
Development of Fuel Cell Technologies in 
Direction to the Production of Clean Energy

Customers::
Customers

Objectives::
Objectives

Packages::
WorkWork Packages

Turkish KOC Group companies : Tofaş, Ford Otosan, Arçelik, and  
TTGV(Turkey Technology Development Foundation) 

• To bring the knowledge of fuel cell technologies to Turkey
• Development of innovative products for transport and stationary 
applications, increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions
• Evaluation sodium borohydride potential in Turkey by developing 
Na2BH4 fuel cell systems

WP1: Construction of  1.5 kW PEM Fuel Cell System 
WP2: Development of PEM Fuel Cell System
WP3: System integration to end products
WP4: Development of  Na2BH4 Fuel Cell system
WP5: Prototype production and system integration

Schedule::
Schedule

October 2003 – May 2004

11/9/2006

30

Laboratory infrastructure

Hydrogen production (fuel processing) lab.
Process simulation, design & modeling lab.
PEM FC lab.
MC-FC lab. 
Electric vehicles lab.
Battery lab.
Accredited Fuel (solid&liquid) technologies lab.
Power electronics lab.

11/9/2006

31

Turkish Government has anounced new 
national R&D programs for 2005 on,
– Defence technologies 
– Space technologies 
for energy related systems.

Estimated budget : 250 M€

TUBITAK will coordinate these R&D programs
within the country

11/9/2006

32

Electrical Power Resources Survey
and Development Administration 
(EIE)

EIE is a governmental organisation under the Ministry of Energy and Natural 
Resources.  One of the main tasks of EIE is;

•to make research and demenstroation studies for indegeneous and renewable
energy reseources,

• HYDRO POWER  

• WIND POWER

• SOLAR ENERGY

• BIOENERGY (

2003)
BIOENERGY (AprilApril 2003)

BIODIESEL 
-- BIODIESEL 

BIOETHANOL
-- BIOETHANOL

BIOGAS
-- BIOGAS

BIOMASS GASIFICATION
-- BIOMASS GASIFICATION

11/9/2006

33

EIE   BIOENERGY  PROJECT

Scope;

To use indigeneous and alternative 

energy resources

Less dependence on import of fuel

To promote the development of the usage 

of indigeneous biofuels

To protect environment

To develop energy farming

To improve  social and economic  

structure of rural area 

11/9/2006

34

SUB-TASKS OF THE PROJECT

To develop  sample biofuel plant  projects 

To product biodiesel in a pilot plant scale

To prepare economical and technical feasibilities

To participate in standard and legislative studies

To introduce biofuels to present biofuel  

technology

11/9/2006

35

WHAT EIE HAS DONE ON 
BIODIESEL SO FAR

EIE Biodiesel 
Production Plant       
(150 litre/batch)

(October 2003)

Trial 
rapeseed and 
safflower  
planting

Lab studies

Co-operation with 
some Institute 

11/9/2006

36

Standartisation Studies

EIE has applied for Turkish Standartisation 
Institue in November 2003.  EN 14214 will be 
issued as a Turkish Biodiesel Standart.

Presentation Studies

Prepared a brochure on biodiesel

Built a stand for bio-diesel in Energy Park   

that  opened in October 2004. 

Participated in some semposiums,  

conferences and other activities

11/9/2006

37

Co-operation Studies of EIE

- The Ministry of Agriculture
-- The Ministry of Industry and Trade
- General  Diroctorate of Sugar Factories
-Union of Turkish Chambers of Agriculture (TZOB)
-Union of Turkish Sugar Beet Farmers (PANKOBIRLIK)

- Possibilities of producing oil-seeds for biodiesel

- Possibilities of contractual oil-seeds farming

- Developing a convenient  model for biofuel sector
(from planting of the seeds to consumption of the 
biofuels)

11/9/2006

38

EIE-Legislative Studies

EIE has been preparing a draft act for biofuels. 

Biofuels have been defined as;

- Refinery owners or distributors must add 2% biofuels 
into gasoline/motorine.

- Biodiesel that is produced from indigenous oil-seeds 
by Unions of Agriculture and used by farmers directly 
exempts from VAT.

- Biofuel producers must get a quality certificate issued 
by EIE and a production license issued by EMRA.

11/9/2006

39

The Union of Turkish Sugar Beet
Farmers (PANKOBIRLIK)

19 Sugar Beet Growers Cooperatives came together and took steps in order to
create an upper union. As a result, “PANKOBIRLIK” has been established on 31
March 1972.

PANKOBIRLIK has a vital role on supplying sugar beet to the sugar factories
which belong to the cooperatives as well as state owned plants. Pankobirlik has
the shares some of these Factories which are the most effective and productive.
Also, brand-new Çumra Sugar Factory, which is the most modern factory 
of Europe is founded by Konya Sugar Factory has been started up to produce
this campaign season. Pankobirlik can produce ethanol in this factory as far as 
legislative structure has been strenghtened. Pankobirlik has also decared that 
they will support of bio-fuels. 

11/9/2006

40

3

Future perspective of TURKEY on bio-fuel
R&D

11/9/2006

41

LEGISLATIVE  AND  INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK  FOR 
LEGISLATIVE  AND  INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK  FOR 

ENERGY AND BIOFUEL SECTORS IN TURKEY
ENERGY AND BIOFUEL SECTORS IN TURKEY

The Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA) was established for the 
liberalization of  the  electricity,  natural  gas  and  petroleum market  in 
Turkey.

The EMRA is responsible for;

• The establishment of a competitive, environment  friendly and 

transparent electricity, natural gas and petroleum market.

• being compatible to the provisions set in  EU directives.

• Making necessary arrangements to develop competition, 

forming inspection methods in the sectors, 

• Encouraging private investors, 

• Developing infrastructure and establishing an independent 

regulatory  body. 

11/9/2006

42

PETROLEUM  MARKET 
PETROLEUM 

MARKET  LAWLAW

The objective of this Law
• To regulate the guidance, surveillance and supervision activities in order 
to ensure the transparent, non-discriminatory and stable performance of 
market activities 

• Pertaining to the delivery of petroleum supplied from domestic and 
foreign resources to consumers, directly or after processing, in a reliable, 
cost-effective manner within a competitive environment.

In the law, it was stated that bio-ethanol and bio-diesel will be except of 
Specific Consumption Tax as far as produced from domestic agricultural 
raw metarials.

It is also allowed to be used max. 5% bio-diesel and bio-ethanol as  
blending fuels in Turkey according to the regulation acted by the 
Ministery of Environment and Foresty.

11/9/2006

43

•

In the studies of EMRA, a regulation  related to technical 
criterions which are carried out about Petroleum Marketing 
Licence Regulation and Petroleum  Marketing was completed.

In the regulation concerning technical criterions; 
bio-diesel is defined as liquid fuel. Although biodiesel has not 
obtained Turkish Standards yet, it is said to be accepted 
European Standards in the regulation.

• Bio-diesel which is produced or imported by attaining standards 
can be blended with liquid to use as fuel in vehicles or it can be
used purely.

• Studies of other legislations concerning Petroleum Marketing 

are still processing.

11/9/2006

44

- 5% AS LEGAL BIOFUEL UTILIZATION RATIO

- SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION TAX EXEMPTION ON 

INDIGINOUSLY  PRODUCED  BIOFUELS

- ADOPTION EFFORTS FOR EU DIRECTIVES

- CLIMATE

- LAND POTENTIAL

- LABOR

TURKEY IS A CONVENIENT COUNTRY FOR 
TURKEY IS A CONVENIENT COUNTRY FOR 
AGRICULTURE & BIOFUELS  PRODUCTION
AGRICULTURE & BIOFUELS  PRODUCTION

11/9/2006

45

The science  and  technology  policies  of  Turkey  for  the  2003-2023  period 
started with the Vision 2023 Project in the beginning of 2002. 

It is conducted under the co-ordination of TUBITAK. 

The objective of the project is;

• formulation of  new  national  science  and  technology  policies  and  setting 
priority areas. 

The priority of R&D funding and supports by technology areas are planned 
by Vision 2023 project in line with the European targets. 

One of the most important targets of Vision 2023 is; 

• to develop internal combustion engines,  which run with low-emission
fossil fuels, biofuels or hydrogen. 

Bio-fuels are the in the priority areas of TURKEY.

11/9/2006

46

Thank you for 
Thank you for 
your attention
your attention

Contacts::
Contacts

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa TIRIS (Director)

.gov.tr
mustafamustafa..tiristiris@@mammam.gov.tr

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fehmi AKGUN (Deputy Director) 
.gov.tr
fehmi..akgunakgun@@mammam.gov.tr

eyma KARAHAN (Researcher
ŞŞeyma KARAHAN (
Researcher))
.gov.tr
karahan@@mammam.gov.tr
seymaseyma..karahan

11/9/2006

47

Institute for Energy

Kari Törrönen
22 November  2004
JRC-Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy 
System, Petten, The Netherlands

http:// ie.jrc.cec.eu.int
email:jrc-ie-info@cec.eu.int
http:// www.jrc.cec.eu.int

22 Nov 2004           1

The JRC...today and tomorrow

… to provide customer-driven scientific and technical support for the 
conception, development, implementation and monitoring
of EU policies ….

The JRC functions as a centre 
of science and technology (S&T) 
reference for the EU 
independent of commercial 
and national interests...

22 Nov 2004           2

7 Institutes in 5 Member States

Structure of the JRC

IRMM - Geel Belgium
- Institute for Reference Materials and 
Measurements
Staff: ≅ 250

IE – Petten, The Netherlands
- Institute for Energy
Staff: ≅ 180

ITU - Karlsruhe Germany 
- Institute for Transuranium elements
Staff: ≅ 250

IPSC - IHCP - IES - Ispra Italy
- Institute for the Protection and the Security 
of the Citizen
- Institute for Health and Consumer Protection
- Institute for Environment and Sustainability 
Staff: ≅ 350, 250, 370

IPTS - Seville Spain
- Institute for Prospective Technological Studies
Staff: ≅ 100

Total staff: ~ 2200 people

22 Nov 2004           3

The Petten Site
Synergy in the Petten Dunes

Personnel:
200

Personnel: 
270

Personnel:
650

Personnel:
250 (Petten)
70 (Arnhem)

22 Nov 2004           4

Institute for Energy (IE)

The Institute provides scientific and technical support for 
the conception, development, implementation and 
monitoring of community policies related to energy.

Special emphasis is given on the security of energy 
supply and sustainable and safe energy production.

22 Nov 2004           5

Director

K. Törrönen

Assistant
to the Director

Advisor
Science Strategy

Safety, Environment 
and Security

Quality, Manager

M. Van Rij-Brizzi

R. Hurst

J. De Haas

A. Kuusisto

Management
Support

P. Lemaitre

- Personnel
- Finance
- Infrastructure

Clean Energies

HFR and Reactor
Applications

Nuclear Safety

M. Steen

R. May (acting)

H. Weisshäupl

- Waste & biomass
- Safety of energy 

systems
- Fuel Cells
- SETRIS 

- Suppl. Programme
- Fuel & Material

Irradiation
- New systems
- Materials ageing
- Medical Applications
- Neutron methods
Mechanical perf
characterisation

- Structural integrity
- Inspection

management
- Accident analysis
- PSA / risk

assessment
- Computational fluid

dynamics
- Advanced reactor 
concepts
- Data Management 
&    dissemination

Technical &
Scientific Support
for TACIS & PHARE

M. Bieth

- Design safety
- On-site assistance
- Regulators, Waste,
Decommissioning

- Dissemination

Scientific &
Technical 
Support

J.P. Hirvonen

- Programme office
- Informatics &  
Knowledge 
management
- Microstructural
analysis 
- Mechanical eng. 
Services

22 Nov 2004           6

IE-Key Facilities

High Flux Reactor

• Materials / fuel irradiation and testing
• Radio isotope irradiation (NRG)
• Boron neutron capture therapy
Plant SimulationTesting Laboratory

• Simulation of waste incineration conditions 

Non Destructive Evaluation Facilities 

• Similar to facilities in hospitals, but powerful enough to penetrate thick 
steel

Material and Component Performance Labs

• When is a crack safe?

Hydrogen Facilities

• Hydrogen storage -- High pressure cycling, & permeation 
• Fuel Cells -- 100 kW FC stack testing station

22 Nov 2004           7

IE Activities

Nuclear safety

• Making both existing and new designs

Clean & Sustainable Energy
• Hydrogen --large potential for future 

of nuclear power plants even safer

sustainable energy economy

In enlarged EU & CIS

• Can be produced from Biomass & Waste

• Can be stored

• Can be utilized via Fuel Cells

Energy Information Platform

Evaluation, comparison, prediction of different 
energy sources /demand

Fuel Cell System

Hydrogen Tanks

The High Flux Reactor

• Medical Applications

• Nuclear Safety

irradiations of materials/fuels allows

engineers to predict behaviour eg.ageing

22 Nov 2004           8

IE 
Support to the cleaner energies.

22 Nov 2004           9

Energy from Waste and Biomass

• Maximize energy efficiency - increase energy recovery from 
renewables and minimize adverse effects on environment
- plant energy efficiency
- plant process monitoring
- 850°C/2c report
- contribution to Community dioxins strategy

• Maintain PREWIN networking activities and contacts with 

the international organizations
- 75 member organizations
- 9 from new member states

22 Nov 2004           10

Testing of Alternative Fuel Tanks

Focus:

• Green paper “Towards a European Strategy for Security of Energy Supply” Reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions and reduce European Union’s energy dependency: introduce 
substitute  fuels at Community level (20% by year 2020).

• EP and Council Directive on the promotion of alternative fuels for road 

transportation : short-term: Biofuels, middle-term: Natural Gas, long -term: Hydrogen

Hydrogen 
Tanks

Fuel Cell System

22 Nov 2004           11

Fuel Cell System performance Testing 
and Standardization

Objectives:

• Development of harmonized testing procedures and methodologies applicable to fuel cells 

stacks and systems

• Providing direct comparisons of 
competing fuel cell technologies 
in terms of performance and 
operational characteristics

55 partners

Fuel Cell Testing Network FCTESTNET

22 Nov 2004           12

Energy Information Platform

SETRIS
SETRIS

To  collect,  compare,  and  evaluate  information  on  Energy  Technologies  and  needs  in 
collaboration with all relevant national partners.

Sustainable Energy strategy for the future.
This information will help the debate on a Sustainable Energy strategy for the future.

22 Nov 2004           13

The EC Reference
for
Safer and Cleaner Energy

HTR-TN

High Temperature Reactor Technology Network

EMIR

Networks

22 Nov 2004           14

ΣΣETRI

ETRIΣΣ

Stathis D. Peteves

DG JRC
Sustainable Energy Technologies Reference 
& Information System

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 1

EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
and main Energy Policy priorities 
and main Energy Policy priorities 

A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
knowledge based, sustained economic growth
knowledge based, sustained economic growth
knowledge based, sustained economic growth

(cid:172) Secure long term energy supply
( fuel-mix diversification, regional self-sufficiency, endogenous 
sources, import independence )

(cid:172)Reduce Green House Gas emissions, mitigate climate 
change, continue addressing air quality
( fossil fuel substitution, de-carbonisation )

(cid:172) Internal Market, Competitiveness
( increased competition, new opportunities, regional 
development )

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 2

EU25 Security of Energy Supply Concerns

Forecast of  imports share in EU25 energy
consumption

64%

55%

46%

48%

70%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 3

EU25 Security of Energy Supply Concerns
The role of the TRANSPORT Sector

(cid:70)(cid:70) The  transport  sector  is  practically  100% 
The  transport  sector  is  practically  100% 
dependent on oil, the energy source of greatest 
dependent on oil, the energy source of greatest 
concern from a security of supply viewpoint
concern from a security of supply viewpoint

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 4

EU25 Climate Change Concerns

EU25 CO2 emissions on present trends and 
measures (1990 = 100)

100

96

99

107

114

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 5

EU25 Climate Change Concerns
The role of the TRANSPORT Sector 

(cid:70) CO2  emissions  from  transport  are  expected  to 
keep  rising,  contrary  to  agreed  objectives  to  reduce 
them.  This  make  it  more  difficult  for  the  Union  to 
respond to the challenge of climate change and to meet 
its  commitments  under  the  Kyoto  Protocol.  Moreover, 
the  commitments  made  in  Kyoto  Protocol  must  be 
regarded as a first step

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 6

The Options……

3 key technological pathways to reduce oil dependence 
of transport & associated GHG emissions

(cid:170) Fuel Economy Improvement

(cid:170) Diversification – Aggressive Adoption of 
Biofuels & other Alternative Fuels

(cid:170) Migration to Fuel Cell systems running on 

Hydrogen

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 7

Commission in its November 2000 Green Paper
Commission in its November 2000 Green Paper
on the Security of Energy Supply:
on the Security of Energy Supply:

…introduces  the  objective  of  20%  substitution  by  alternative 
fuels in the road transport sector by the year 2020 with the dual 
reducing 
purpose  of 
greenhouse gas emissions.

improving  security  of  supply  and 

Commission identified  three main potential alternative ranges of 
fuels that could each be developed up to the level of 5% or more
of the total automotive fuel market by 2020:

– biofuels

– natural gas

– hydrogen

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 8

The BIOFUELS Case 

Advantages of biofuels as an alternative to oil

1)

2)

3)

Available today

Easy for consumers (no new fuelling system)

Combine advantages for CO2, security  of supply 
and rural development

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 9

EU25 THE POLICY 

•Two general EU targets:

(cid:170) 12% share of renewable energy in  energy 

consumption by 2010 
(from 6% today)

(cid:170) 20% share of alternative fuels substituting for petrol 

and diesel by 2020

(from <1% today)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 10

EU25 THE POLICY

Implemented through:
(cid:57) promotional legislation

(cid:131)
(cid:131)

Biofuels Directive (2003/30)
Fuel Taxation Directive (2003/96)

(cid:57)research

(cid:131)
(cid:131)
(cid:131)

large scale deployment (Biofuels Cities)
cheaper existing technologies
new technologies (lignocellulosic feedstocks)

(cid:57)(limited) financial support

(cid:131)
(cid:131)
(cid:131)

Intelligent energy for Europe
Energy crops credit
structural funds

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 11

THE FUTURE

1)  Legislation/targets

- most national reports under the biofuels directive  now 

received

- promote exchange between Member States
- what about targets after 2010?

2)  We need more biomass for energy – where 

will it come from?
Biomass action plan:  waste? agriculture? forestry?  
imports?
where now with Mercosur?

3)    Standards

revision of fuel quality directive (Commission proposal 
by the end of 2005)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 12

THE FUTURE

-

-

-

Where next for the ACEA agreement on car fuel 
efficiency?

CO2 emissions trading in transport?

Will other alternative fuels start to have a real 
impact (hydrogen??)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 13

Which
one?

Thank you! 

Have a Successful Workshop

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 14

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

European Commission
Perspective on Alternative Fuels

(cid:122) Trends in Energy and Transport

(cid:122) EU activities on alternative fuels

(cid:122) Perspectives for alternative fuels

09/11/2006

Slide 1

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trend in Energy Import 

Energy Import Dependency in EU-25

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

EU-25
Baseline trends

Import dependency rises from 47% to 68% in 2000 - 2030

09/11/2006

Slide 2

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trends in Energy Consumption 

2500

2000

e
o
t
M

1500

1000

500

0

EU-25
Baseline trends

Coal

Oil

Natural Gas

Nuclear

Renewable

Total

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

• Oil remains main energy source
• Natural gas increases its share considerably
• Renewable energy sources remain at low level

09/11/2006

Slide 3

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trends in CO2 Emissions 

2

O
C

t

M

5000
4500

4000
3500
3000

2500
2000
1500
1000

500
0

EU-25
Baseline trends

Transport

Electricity

Industry

Households

Tertiary

Energy 

Total

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

• CO2 emissions increase after 2010
• Electricity production and transport remain main emitters

09/11/2006

Slide 4

 
European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Pollutant Emissions from Transport

NOx emissions

Buses

Trucks

Cars

120

100

80

60

40

20

0)
0
1
=
0
9
9
1
(
x 
e
d
n
I

0
1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

• Pollutant emissions have decreased and will continue falling
• Gradually tightening EURO emission standards successful

09/11/2006

Slide 5

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

EC Activities on Alternative Fuels

EC activities on alternative fuels are part of a policy aiming at:
(cid:190)Security of energy supply

(Energy Green Paper 11/2000)

(cid:190)Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
Energy efficiency and alternative fuels are complementary

(Transport White Paper 9/2001)

♦ Communication on alternative fuels (11/2001):

Biofuels, Natural gas, Hydrogen

♦ Contact Group Alternative Fuels (Report 12/2003):

Stakeholder expert group on technology and economics

♦ High Level Group Hydrogen (Report 5/2003):

Vision of a hydrogen economy

♦ European Technology Platform on hydrogen and fuel cells(1/2004):

Facilitator to research, development and deployment 

♦ Research Framework Programmes

R&D projects (e.g. CUTE hydrogen bus project)

09/11/2006

Slide 6

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Alternative Fuels
Market Development Scenario

%

25

20

15

10

5

0

Hydrogen

Natural Gas

Biofuels

8

2

6

2

2

23

5

10

8

14

2

5

7

2005

2010

2015

2020

09/11/2006

Slide 7

Alternative Fuels Contact Group 

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

♦ Objective

Technical and economic 
assessment of alternative motor 
fuels;

Priority on natural gas and 
hydrogen;

Biomass derived synthetic fuels and 
LPG included.  

♦ Members of expert group

Fuel suppliers, car manufacturers, 
consumers, research institutions, 
civil society  

09/11/2006

Slide 8

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Synthetic Fuels from Biomass 

♦ Security of energy supply

Expansion of the supply base for bio fuels

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Improved engine technology with higher efficiency

♦ Economic aspects

Optimisation of new production plants;

Introduction of renewable hydrogen from biomass in 
co-production with synthetic diesel

09/11/2006

Slide 9

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Natural Gas Fuel

♦ Security of energy supply

Diversification of the supply base;
10% transport market share covered by existing supply

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Future technology 15% lower than gasoline, diesel 

♦ Low pollutant emissions

Low emissions of NOx and particulates

♦ Economic aspects

Economic viability possible in mass market conditions

09/11/2006

Slide 10

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Hydrogen Fuel

♦ Security of energy supply

Universal energy carrier for all primary sources;
buffer storage for renewable energy sources.

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Fuel cell systems with high efficiency allow saving also 
with hydrogen from fossil sources.

Internal combustion enegines provide saving only with
renewable hydrogen.

♦ Economic aspects

Fuel cost economic in high efficiency fuel cell systems
(cost and efficiency twice that of diesel/gasoline vehicles).

09/11/2006

Slide 11

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Hydrogen Demonstration Project 
CUTE - Clean Urban Transport for Europe

(cid:132) A fleet of 27 hydrogen powered buses

(cid:132) Demonstration in 9 European cities 
(Porto, Madrid, Barcelona, London, 
Luxembourg, Hamburg, Stuttgart, 
Amsterdam and Stockholm)

(cid:132) Production, distribution and refueling

(cid:132) Exploring the potential of renewables 

as primary energy source

(cid:132) Co-operation with Iceland (ECTOS) 

and Australia (STEP)

09/11/2006

http://www.fuel-cell-bus-club.com/index.html

Slide 12

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Alternative Motor Fuels 
Demonstration Work Programme 2004
Third CALL FOR PROPOSALS (Call 2005.SM):

Aim: Establish 2 EUROPEAN PARTNERSHIPS

Biofuel-Cities
(cid:132) Energy efficient vehicle fleets using biofuels
(cid:132) Production, storage and distribution of biofuels
(cid:132) Assessment and monitoring
(cid:132) Communication and dissemination

Hydrogen for Transport
(cid:132) Innovative captive hydrogen fleets
(cid:132) Production, storage, distribution and fuelling of hydrogen
(cid:132) Link of transport and stationary sectors, biofuels and hydrogen pathways
(cid:132) Assessment and monitoring
(cid:132) Communication and dissemination

09/11/2006

Slide 13

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Perspectives of Alternative Fuels

Bio Fuels:

Domestic resource base; mature for the broad market.
(cid:206) economic incentives

Broadening of resource base with synthetic biofuels.
(cid:206) feedstock, logistics, pilot plants (BTL / H2)

Natural gas:

Diversification of resource base; potential for 
significant market share in the medium term.
(cid:206) supply infrastructure, vehicle choice,

economic incentives

Hydrogen:

Potential for main energy carrier in the long term.
(cid:206) broad research + focused technical development;
integrated (“lighthouse”) demonstration projects

09/11/2006

Slide 14

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Contribution of alternative Fuels

20% market share of alternative fuels provide

Security of energy supply

Substitution of 70 Megatonnes oil  per year,
(cid:206) Amount of total North Sea production in 2020

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Saving of 80 Megatonnes CO2 per year,
(cid:206) Amount of about 10% of total transport emissions

09/11/2006

Slide 15

Enlargement & Integration Workshop
Alternative Fuels

Production and Use of Biogas

David Baxter

(With input from Kyriakos Maniatis: EC-DG TREN
and IEA Bioenergy Task 37 members)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Contents of Presentation

• What is Biogas and where does it come from ?

• Outline of EU Policies & Targets Related to Renewable Energy

• EU Biogas Production Data and Targets for the Future

• A Selection of EU IEA-Member Country Data & Scope of Legislation

• Success Stories

• Useful Contact Details and References

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

What is Biogas and where does it come from ?

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas

• Biogas is the gas produced when organic materials decay in an 

oxygen-starved environment

• The composition of raw biogas from a landfill or digestion plant 

is typically 50-60% CH4 (methane), a Green House Gas 
more than 20 times more damaging to the environment 
than CO2

• After cleaning it can be easily burned in an engine to produce 

electricity and heat

• It can be “up-graded” to natural gas quality for use as a 

renewable alternative fuel (e.g. as a transport fuel)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas plant

Laihia plant in Finland: Co-digestion of animal waste,
malt waste and municipal solid waste

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas Production

Municipal

Agricultural

Industrial

P
r
e
t
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t

i

M
x
i
n
g

Digestion
Process

C
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
i
n
g

l

C
e
a
n
i
n
g
/

Biogas

Liquid

Solid

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Municipal

Agricultural

Industrial

P
r
e
t
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t

i

M
x
i
n
g

Digestion
Process

C
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
i
n
g

C
l
e
a
n
i
n
g
/

Biogas

Liquid

Solid

e.g. Hygenisation treatment
According to EU animal by-product
regulation (1774/2002)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Process: 

mesophyllic (37oC)
thermophyllic (70oC)
1 – 2 weeks

Duration:
Solids content < 10%

Methane production potential

l

a

i
r
e
t
a
m

t
u
p
n

i

3

m

/

4
H
C
3

m

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

C
o
w
s
u
r
r
y

l

P
g

i

l

s
u
r
r
y

i

P
g
m
a
n
u
r
e

F
o

l

t

a

t
i

o
n

l

s
u
d
g
e

t

S
o
m
a
c
h

c
o
n
t
e
n
t
p
g

i

i

F
s
h
w
a
s
t

e

l

B
e
a
c
h

l

c
a
y

S
e
w
a
g
e

l

s
u
d
g
e

c
o
n
c
.

S
e
w
a
g
e

l

s
u
d
g
e

H
o
u
s
e
h
o
d
w
a
s
t
e

l

P

r
o

t

i

e
n

i

D
s
t
i
l
l

e
r
s
w
a
s
t
e

f

a
t
s

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

l

S
u
d
g
e

f
r
o
m
e
d
b
e

i

l

S
o
y
a

o

i
l

c
a
n

t

e
e
n
w
a
s
t
e

K

i
t
c
h
e
n

a
n
d

F
o
o
d

f
l

a
v
o
u
r
i
n
g
w
a
s
t
e

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Electricity and heat production

Up-grading for transport or
pipeline injection

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Outline of EU Policies & Targets 
Related to Renewable Energy

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (1)

• RES White paper 1997:  increase share of RES from 
6% to 12% of gross consumption by 2010

• Action plan for Energy Efficiency target: to 
reduce energy intensity by 1 % point per year until 
2010 
• Comply with EU commitments under the 1997 Kyoto 
Protocol on reducing greenhouse gas emissions

• Johannesburg “coalition of the willing” to work to 
increase the use of RES using targets and timetables 

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (2)

• Directive 2001/77/EC of 27.09.01 on RES-e : to 
establish a framework to increase the share of green 
electricity from 14% to 22% of gross electricity 
consumption by 2010

• Directive 2003/30/EC of 08.05.2003 on the 
promotion of liquid and gaseous biofuels for 
transport: targets: 2% by 2005;  5.75% by 2010

• Directive 2004/8/EC on cogeneration of heat and 
power.

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (3)

• Waste Incineration (2000/76/EC)
Limits on emissions from thermal treatment of
Waste materials (effective 12/2005)

• Landfill (1999/31/EC)
Reduced landfilling of biodegradable component
of waste by 65% by 2016

• Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

(96/61/EC): special provision for RES

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Biogas

“There is no particular policy on biogas, it is a 
component of the general bioenergy "cocktail“
...so it is covered by all policies related to RES 
and bioenergy.”

Landfill gas is covered by the policies on waste 
management but its applications falls under 
the energy policies.

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Intelligent Energy Europe

Total budget 215 M€
Vertical key actions: to tackle non-technological barriers

SAVE

ALTENER

STEER

COOPENER

(cid:131) Multiplying 
success in 
buildings
(cid:131) Retrofitting of 
social houses
(cid:131) Innovative 
approaches in 
industry
(cid:131) Transforming 
the market: 
Energy Efficient 
Equipment and 
Products

(cid:131) RES-Electricity

(cid:131) RES-Heat

(cid:131) Small Scale RES 
Applications

(cid:131) Alternative fuels 
and vehicles

(cid:131) Alternative fuels 
and vehicles
(cid:131) Policy measures 
for and efficient 
use of energy in 
transport
(cid:131) Strengthening 
the knowledge of 
local management 
agencies in the 
transport field

(cid:131) Create an enabling 
policy and legislative 
environment for 
energy services in  
developing countries

(cid:131) Strengthen local 
energy expertise and 
build human capital 
in the developing 
countries

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

The RES Directives & Energy 
from Waste

Waste is a valuable resource!

Kaiserslautern, DE

• The Biodegradable fraction of MSW
is a RES.
(e.g. classified as 50% in the NL)
• Energy and fuels from waste are thus 
covered by the Directives.

• One of the main problems is how to 
determine the biodegradable fraction
of waste streams ?
• Need for Standards??

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Biogas Production Data and Targets for the Future

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sources of European Biogas Production

Source

Installations

Production Share

Landfill

450

Urban Sewage

1600-1700

Industrial Sewage

420

Agricultural Biogas

1600-1700

Methanisation of 
Municipal Waste

Co-digestion

65

55

38%

33%

24%

2%

2%

1%

Total

~ 4250

100%

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Source: EurObserver – Biogas Energy Barometer, August 2004

Crude Biogas Production (Units = ktoe)

Country

UK

Germany

France

Spain

Italy

Netherlands

Sweden

Portugal

Denmark

Austria

Belgium

Greece

Ireland

Finland

Luxemburg

Total

* estimated

2002

1076

659

302

168

155

149

147

76

62

59

56

42

28

18

2

2003*

1151

685

322

257

155

154

147

76

62

64

56

42

28

18

2

2999

3219

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Source: EurObserver – Biogas Energy Barometer, August 2004

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

)
e
o
t
M

(
n
o
i
t
c
u
d
o
r
P
s
s
o
r
G

0
2000

Trends in Growth of Biogas Production 

Actual Amount

EU Target

Solagro Study (30% annual
growth rate)
Trend with 25% growth rate

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

Year

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

 
 
A Selection of EU IEA-Member Country Data
& Scope of Legislation

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Netherlands

Output: 2002

Gross production – 149 ktoe (inclusive 14 ktoe flared) (data from NOVEM)

37 ktoe heat
304 GWh electricity ( = 27 ktoe)
38 million m3 injected into natural gas network

Legislation

• Manure Regulation (1977) – list of types of manure

- restricted allowance for co-digestion

• Amendment of 1977 Regulation (2004)

- digestate from co-digestion allowed to 

be used or sold for land improvement

• Target of 10% for renewable energy in 2010: 7% of electricity from renewable fuel

(13% electricity now consumed is green, but only 3.3% generated in NL –
expected that NL will purchase “green certificates” from outside EU) 

• Green electricity free from ECO-tax applied to fossil fuels
• Liberalisation of energy market from 01.07.2004

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Sweden

Output: 2003

Gross production – 147 ktoe (data from STEM)

120 GWh electricity ( = 10.3ktoe)
110 GWh (9.5 ktoe) vehicle fuel 
+ injection into natural gas network and combustion for heat

Policy/Legislation

• Targets: 7.4% renewable electricity (2003); 16.9% (2010)
• Biogas for heat production is not taxed 
• Green certificates for electricity production (from 2004): 27 €/MWh 

(market price for electricity ~ 20 €/MWh)

• Biogas for vehicles not taxed; natural gas is taxed – difference is equal to up-

grading cost of biogas to pipeline quality

• For EC Biofuels Directive, approximately 2/3 supplied by ethanol, 1/3 biogas 

(mainly for buses and local distribution); on target for 3% in 2005, but 
growth rate too low to meet 5.75% by 2010

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Austria

Output: 2003

Gross production – 64 ktoe (data from EurObserver)

8 ktoe heat
221 GWh electricity ( = 19 ktoe)

Legislation

• Eco-electricity law (BGB1 I 149/2002): defines conditions, inputs etc.
• Regulation (BGB1 II 508/2002): sets prices for eco-electricity from 

biogas plants for export to grid

Plants must be commissioned by 31.12.2004 and in operation by 

31.12.2006

Prices guaranteed for accepted plants for 13 years (~ 120 plants in 

operation; ~40 plants under construction

• Biogas carries ECO-label, but digestate disposal is a problem

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: UK

Output: 2002

Gross production – 1076 ktoe (data from DTI)

3076 GWh electricity ( = 265 ktoe)

+ heat and flare

Most electricity production from landfill (2679 GWh)  

Legislation

• The Renewables Obligation Order (SI 2002/914: 01.04.2002)

Covering biogas (landfill and sewage), wind, geothermal, hydro, biomass 
(including energy crops and co-firing), tidal, wave, PV, …

Target: to provide 10% of UK’s electricity from renewables by 2010 
(this means building 1.25 GW extra capacity/year !!)

Control: by “Renewable Obligation Certificates” (ROCs) which can be traded
Possible to “buy out” obligation at current price of £30.51 per MWh.

• No tax advantage for biogas over NG, but 25% investment support for biogas 

production/recovery plants

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Success Stories

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sweden

• 200 biogas plants
• Biogas produced from sewage 
water sludge (60%), landfills 
(30%) and plants for treatment 
of organic waste (10%)
• Total biogas production 

corresponds to 140 million 
m3/year natural gas (1,4 TWh)

• 0,2 TWh as transport fuel
• Total transport - 75 TWh/year 

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sweden

Cleaning
Cleaning
particles
•• particles
hydrogen sulphide
•• hydrogen sulphide
water
•• water

Up-Grading
carbon dioxide 
• Removing carbon dioxide 

~97 vol--% CH% CH44
~97 vol
increase calorific value
increase calorific value
equalise gas composition
equalise gas composition

Odorised
Odorised
Compressed to 200 bar
Compressed to 200 bar

Biogas in Stockholm: 
• Biogas production in 

sewage water treatment 
plants

• Transport by truck of 
upgraded gas to three 
filling stations

• 500 vehicles, mainly bi-

fuel vehicles

• 130 new city buses in 

2006, new filling station

• Enough fuel for 3000 
vehicles in 2003 ( 4,5 
Mm3/year)

• Back up with natural gas 

and biogas  

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

New in 2003

Sweden

Methane as alternative fuel
for transport

• 11 cities operate with biogas
• 3 cities have systems where both 

biogas and natural gas are available

• 9 cities operate with natural gas
• 20 upgrading plants
• 36 public filling stations
• 30 stations planned
• More than 4000 vehicles

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

(cid:122) 20 Large Biogas Plants

(cid:122) 57 Farm based Biogas Plants

Denmark

Volume of biomass processed 

(m3):

Large plants 2002 

Animal manure 

1.105.000

Organic waste 

375.000

Total

1.480.000

Farm-scale Plants

300.000

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Denmark

Gas Utilisation
• Boilers (heat)
• Internal combustion 
engines (electricity)

• CHP applications

• Gas turbines
• Fuel Cells

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Denmark

Solid Residue/Digestate:
• Substitute for chemical 
fertiliser - adds organic 
matter to the soil

• Nutrients are recycled to 

land

• Nitrogen uptake increased 

from 40 to >70%

• Phosphorous increased 
from ~30 to > 60 %

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

EU Biogas Network

BIOEXELL (Biogas Centre of Excellence)

Objectives:

1. Contribute to implementation of EU renewable energy strategy
2. Stimulate market for biogas & AD technologies in EU & CCs
3. Contribute to removal of non-technical barriers
4. Improve experience on dissemination and coordination at EU, 
international and regional levels to increase investor 
confidence and market penetration of biogas

Coordinator:  University of Southern Denmark

(Vagn Holmgaard; Tel: +45-655-02911
Email: vh@adm.sdu.dk
Web: www.sdu.dk 

Contract No.:
Duration:

4.1031/Z/01-045)
3 years (starting 01.01.2002)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

STATUS OF PROCESSES & 
APPLICATIONS

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

h
g
H

i

l

a

i
t
n
e
t
o
P

t
e
k
r
a
M

Strong 

Average

Weak

Technology Strength

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

RDF & Sludge

Co-combustion

Incineration

Pyrolysis

Anaerobic 
Digestion.

Co-Gasification

Biodiesel
Bioethanol
& other novel 
processes

 
Useful Contact Details and References

• CORDIS:

http://www.cordis.lu/rtd2002/

• EUROPA: 

http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/research/index_en.html
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/res/documents/country_profiles/2004_0547_sec_cou
ntry_profiles_en.pdf for “Country Profiles”)

• Energy research web site: 

http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/energy/index_en.html

• DG Energy and Transport web site:

http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/index_en.html

• Contact Point for Waste and Biomass Related Activities at JRC-

Institute for Energy: http://ie.jrc.cec.eu.int/

David.Baxter@jrc.nl - Tel/Fax: (+31) 22456-5227/5626

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Thank you

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sustainable Energy 
Technologies 
Reference and 
Information Systems

Biofuels for Transport and the EU 
Enlargement

B. Kavalov,
Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Oil imports

EU-25 oil import dependence

Breakdown of world oil reserves

Oil

Europe & Eurasia

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Total

Oil

Middle East

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2001

The EU – increasing oil imports from the Middle East

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

2

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Transport –
an energy dragon

EU energy use by sectors

EU transport energy use by fuels

Transport

Oil

The EU transport – the largest growth in energy use & 
fully dependent on oil products

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

3

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Climate changes

Climate changes = 
f (Global Warming) = 
f (Greenhouse gases) = 
f (Carbon Dioxide)

⇓

Kyoto protocol of the UNFCCC
and the EU:

-8% of CO2 emissions in 1990 
by 2008-2012

Shall we enjoy the better weather in Petten in the future!?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

4

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: The GHG 
situation in the EU

GHG and CO2 reduction
is lagging behind

Transport CO2 - ?

Little has been done so far, transport is the main problem

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

5

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Shares of transport 
in the EU energy use and GHG emissions

Energy use

GHG

Road transport – a major energy and 
environmental concern in the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

6

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Road transport 
in the EU – the bad guy

Road transport – the fastest
growing transport mode
in the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

7

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Transport in 
the CEEC

The CEEC experience the same transport & energy challenges like the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

8

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels for Europe

To secure and diversify the energy supply for transport and in
particular – for road transport in an environmentally-friendly way

• Green Paper COM (2000) 769 – energy
• White Paper COM (2001) 370 – transport
• Communication COM (2001) 547 – alternative fuels for transport

(biofuels, natural gas and hydrogen)

• Biofuel directive 2003/30/EC

2.00 % (road) transport biofuels by 2005
5.75 % (road) transport biofuels by 2010

• Energy taxation directive 2003/96/EC

Tax preferences for biofuels foreseen

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

9

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why biofuels

• Different production patterns from oil

Fuel supply

Product dependence

Product diversity

Dependence on suppliers

Oil

Diversity of suppliers

Biofuels

• CO2 neutral

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
0

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Which biofuels by 2010

Biodiesel (BD) – oil extraction
(rapeseed, sunflower)

Bioethanol (BE) & ETBE (ethyl-tertio-
butyl-ether, 47% EtOH) – fermentation 
(wheat, sugar beet, potato)

Fossil diesel

Fossil petrol

BD5, BD20

BE5, BE10, BE85, ETBE15

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
1

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuels today and tomorrow in EU-15

e
o
t
M

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2003

Planned 2004

Years

Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Total biofuels

Are the needed significant additional efforts feasible?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
2

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuels and the NMS & AC

“Creating an EU market for biofuels will also offer an opportunity for the 
Candidate Countries. On average they have more agricultural land and less 
diesel and gasoline consumption per capita than present EU Member States. 
Growing crops for biofuels will facilitate the absorption of the agricultural 
sector of the new Member States in the Common Agricultural Policy.”

COM (2001) 

547

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

NMS-10

EU-15

Biofuels

Population

Territory

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
3

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuel yields EU-15 and NMS-10 & 
AC-2

/

a
h
J
G

150

125

100

75

50

25

0

EU-15

NMS&AC current

NMS&AC optimum

Sunflower

Rapeseed

Wheat

Potato

Sugar beet

Large reserves to improve yields in NMS & AC
Larger bioethanol yield per hectare

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
4

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Land for biofuel production NMS-10 & 
AC-2

Current estimates

Optimum scenario

d
n
a
l
e
l
b
a
r
a
C
A
&
S
M
N

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Years

Large unexplored land reserves for biofuel production
in NMS & AC

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
5

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
 
Feasible biofuel potential of NMS-10 & 
AC-2

Biofuel fair shares in EU-27

EU-27 land area requirements

n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
u
f

7
2
-

U
E

3.0%

2.5%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

BD current

BD optimum

BE current

BE optimum

Fair shares

d
n
a
l

e
l
b
a
r
a

7
2
-
U
E

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

BD&BE upper scenario

BD&BE lower scenario

100%BE scenario

10% set-aside land

Significant unexplored biofuel reserves in NMS & AC
Larger bioethanol availability

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
6

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
 
Limitations in ethanol blending with 
petrol

l

o
r
t
e
p

n

i

d
n
e
l

b

l

o
n
a
h
t
e
o
B

i

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

All BF as BE,
volume

All BF as BE,
energy

5% BE blend

10% BE blend

7% BE blend as
ETBE

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Years

Bioethanol in diesel? – so far technical obstacles

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
7

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
Trends on the EU automotive fuel 
market – the biofuel mission is getting 
more difficult

Growing diesel demand &
declining petrol consumption

Growing diesel imports &
petrol exports

250

200

150

100

50

0
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

Petrol

Diesel

24

20

16

t

M

12

8

4

0
1990

Petrol
export

Diesel
import

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

t

M

,

e
s
u

l

e
u

f

e
v
i
t

o
m
o
t
u
A

More bioethanol → more petrol for export → security of supply?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
8

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
Conclusions

• Biofuels – bioethanol and biodiesel are a promising short-
to medium term (2010) alternative motor fuel for the EU

• The NMS & AC have larger unexplored reserves to produce
biofuels compared to the old 15 member states of the EU

• Fully exploring the biofuel potential of the NMS & AC will

require significant efforts on national level

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
9

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

How the feasible biofuel potential of the  
NMS & AC can be fully explored and 
what has been done so far?

… we expect to hear from you tomorrow!

Thanks for your attention!

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

2
0

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Advanced Biofuels for Transport

JRC-Enlargement Workshop on
“Alternative Fuels
in the EU Energy System”

Petten, 22 November 2004

Ewout P. Deurwaarder, M.Sc.                                   

Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN)
Business Unit Biomass: Fuels & Products Cluster

Advanced Biofuels for Transport

Contents

Why biofuels? – EU and Dutch Policy Goals

Conventional biofuels vs. Advanced biofuels

BioSyngas-derived fuels:

- RD&D/implementation trajectory

- Vision ECN

- Consumer prices and reduction options

Conclusions

Why Biofuels? – EU/Dutch Policy Goals

Why Biofuels?

Reduced GHG emissions

Security of supply

Limited Fossil Fuel resources

EU Policy Goals

2, 5.75 (and > 10?) % substitution Fossil Fuel for transport in 2005, 
2010 (and 2020?)

Dutch Policy Goals

5, 10% renewable energy in 2010, 2020; > 50% biomass-related

Conventional Biofuels

• Pure vegetable oil
• Biodiesel (oil seeds)
• Ethanol (sugar crops / grains)
• ETBE
•

(Upgraded) Biogas

Conventional Biofuels

Characteristics
• High crop (biomass) costs
• High energy inputs in production and conversion
• Relatively easy and cheap conversion processes
• Only part of the crop is used

Consequences
(Life cycle) CO2 emissions
•
• High amount of land necessary
• High costs
• Not much improvement possible

Opportunity: Advanced Biofuels

Biomass requirements
• High yield biomass production
• Low fertilizer/energy input
• Low costs

-> Woody biomass, e.g. willow

Process requirements
• Whole crop/tree usage
• High conversion efficiency
-> Advanced processes

Results in
•
•

Improved CO2 balance
Improved usage of land

Advanced Biofuels

Gasification based fuels
• Fischer-Tropsch diesel
• Methanol
• DiMethylEther
• Mixed alcohols
• Synthetic Natural Gas
• Hydrogen

Others
• Ethanol (woody biomass)
• HTU-diesel, Pyrolysis-diesel
• Biological hydrogen

Advanced processes:
• More complicated technology
• Not fully developed yet
• Higher investment costs

Gasification

Biomass

Productgas

Entrained Flow gasification

(1300 ºC, Oxygen)

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

NH3, H2S, HCl

Fluidized Bed gasification

(850 ºC, Oxygen/Air)

Indirect gasification

(900 ºC, Air)

H2, CO, CO2, H2O, (N2)

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

BioSyngas: multifunctional intermediate

Productgas

Gas Cleaning

BioSyngas

Synthesis

Biofuel

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

NH3, H2S, HCl

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

NH3

H2S,

HCl,

Tar

removal

removal

H2, CO

CO2, H2O

(CH4, C2H4)

Fischer-Tropsch diesel

Methanol

DiMethylEther

Mixed Alcohols

Synthetic Natural Gas

Hydrogen

Chemicals

Electricity, Heat

Especially the transport fuel market offers an enormous 
future substitution potential for BioSyngas !

BioSyngas: RD&D trajectory 

ECN Biomass

has produced the first ever Fischer-Tropsch liquid from biomass (2002)

has produced Synthetic Natural Gas from biomass (2003)

Main R&D issues

Biomass feeding to entrained flow gasifiers

Tar removal (new ECN OLGA technology)

Optimising gasification efficiency

RD&D-trajectory

Pilot-scale (several MWth)

Full scale demo-plant (> 2008)

ECN Vision on BioSyngas
production/use in The Netherlands

Large (> 1000 MWth) plants close to seaports using clean imported biomass               

High biomass-to-syngas yields (CO+H2) required for cost effective production

-> High temperature pressurised slagging entrained-flow gasification

Cutting 

1 mm cuttings 

Screw 
feeder 

Entrained flow 
gasification 
(slagging) 

biosyngas

Gas cleaning
& Conditioning

B-t-S yield 
[%LHV]

(+ net power)

81 (+3)

woody 
biomass 

Torrefaction 
(+ milling) 

torrified biomass

Pneumatic 
feeder 

straw-like crops 

Pyrolysis 

bioslurry 

Feeder 
& injector 

biosyngas
on spec.

Gas 
utilization 

73 (+2)

•  FT diesel 
•  MeOH / DME 
•  Hydrogen 
•  Electricity 
•  Chemicals

69 (+7)

 
And what about the costs ? 

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0

)
r
e
t
i
l
/
o
r
u
E

(

e
c

i
r
p

r
e
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
s
e
D

i

110 ct

94 ct

82 ct

82 ct

 V.A.T.

 Excise

 Fixed costs

 Production costs

69 ct

)
r
e
t
i
l
/
o
r
u
E

(

e
c

i
r
p

r
e
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
s
e
D

i

1,5

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0

 Production costs

 Fixed costs

 Excise

 CO2 tax

 V.A.T.

110 ct

107 ct

110 ct

125 c

t

82 ct

Fossil

Biomass

40%

70%

100%

Excise reduction percentage Fischer-Tropsch diesel

Fossil

Biomass

71

81

125

CO2 tax (Euro/tonne) on fossil fuel

At a projected Biomass cost of 4 €/GJ, we need:
- Permanent Oil price of 50 US$/bbl 
- Excise reduction with 70% 
- CO2 tax of 81 Euro/tonne on fossil diesel

OR

OR

 
 
 
 
 
 
Advanced biofuels for transport 

Conclusions

1. The short-term (2005, 2010): Conventional biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol)

2. Advanced biofuels reduce CO2-emissions and improve land usage.

3. The longer term (> 2010): Advanced (BioSyngas-derived) biofuels will 

become the most important biofuels.

4. RD&D is still necessary    

5. Costs of advanced biofuels will be lower than of conventional biofuels.

Oil price will determine if and how much governmental support is necessary.

Thank you for your attention !

Ewout P. Deurwaarder, M.Sc., ECN Biomass: Fuels & Products Cluster

Part of the work shown was funded by the Dutch Agency for Energy and the Environment (Novem)

JRC-Enlargement Workshop 
on
Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System

22-23 November 2004

The Joint Well-to-Wheels Study  

on

Alternative Fuels

V. Mahieu – JRC, Ispra

Slide 1

study on FUELS
Joint WtWWtW study on FUELS
Joint 

Objectives
Objectives

• Establish, in a transparent and objective manner, a consensual well-to-
wheels energy use and GHG emissions assessment of a wide range of 
automotive fuels and powertrains relevant to Europe in 2010 and beyond.

• Consider the viability of each fuel pathway and estimate the associated 
macro-economic costs.

• Have the outcome accepted as a reference by all relevant stakeholders.

KEY: 
KEY: 

(cid:137) Common set of performances for the virtual reference vehicle

(cid:137) Compliance with EURO III / EURO IV vehicles regulations 

Slide 2

Well to Tank Pathways
Well to Tank Pathways

Resource

Crude oil
Crude oil

CoalCoal

Natural gas
Natural gas

Land
Land

WoodWood

Sugar beet
Sugar beet

WheatWheat

Oil seeds
Oil seeds

WindWind

Fuels

Conventional gasoline/diesel
Conventional gasoline/diesel

SynFuels
SynFuels

CNGCNG

Hydrogen (compressed / liquid)
Hydrogen (compressed / liquid)

Methanol
Methanol

DMEDME

Ethanol
Ethanol

FAME
FAME

Slide 3

Pathways
Tank to Wheels Pathways
Tank to Wheels

Fuels

Conventional 
Conventional 
gasoline/diesel
gasoline/diesel

SynFuels
SynFuels

CNGCNG

Hydrogen (compressed / 
Hydrogen (compressed / 
liquid)
liquid)

Methanol
Methanol

DMEDME

Ethanol
Ethanol

FAME
FAME

Powertrains

Single vehicle platform: “VW Golf”

Conventional gasoline / CNG engine
Conventional gasoline / CNG engine

Direct gasoline / diesel injection
Direct gasoline / diesel injection

Hybrid gasoline / diesel / CNG
Hybrid gasoline / diesel / CNG

Hydrogen ICE
Hydrogen ICE

Fuel cell (+ reformer)
Fuel cell (+ reformer)

Hybrid fuel cell
Hybrid fuel cell

Slide 4

TANK
WELLWELL--TOTO--TANK

Slide 5

Compressed hydrogen pathways
Compressed hydrogen pathways
(excluding electricity)
(excluding electricity)

Coal (EU mix)

Production and
conditioning

NG (piped)

Production and
conditioning

EU mix typical

Gasification +
CO shift

Pipeline, 50 km
+ compression

Pipeline into EU
EU-mix
4000 km
7000 km

NG grid

Reforming (on-site)

Compression

Reforming (central)

Road or pipeline
50 km
+ compression

NG (remote)

Production and
conditioning

Liquefaction

Shipping (LNG)

Wood waste

Collection

Road, 50 km

Small scale gasif.
+ CO shift

Pipeline, 10 km
+ compression

Farmed wood

Growing
Harvesting

Road, 50 km
+ Shipping

Road, 50 km
+ Shipping

Large scale gasif.
CO shift

Pipeline, 50 km
+ compression

Slide 6

Pathways 
Pathways 
Decomposition
Decomposition

Each Fuel Pathway

is analyzed according to the 
following sample scheme

MJMJ non renewable primary input / MJMJ in the tank

GXCH: Compressed Hydrogen from piped or remote NG
CO2 eq

CO2

N2O

CH4

Total 
primary 
energy 
consumed
MJ/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

GPCH1a Piped NG,  7000 km, on-site reforming
NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

GPCH1b Piped NG,  4000 km, on-site reforming
NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

GMCH1 NG EU-mix, 1000 km, on-site reforming

NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

0.04
0.29
0.01
0.52
0.20
1.07

0.04
0.14
0.01
0.52
0.20
0.91

0.04
0.03
0.01
0.52
0.20
0.81

2.0
15.0
0.8
83.9
7.7
109.4

1.8
7.1
0.8
83.9
7.7
101.3

1.7
1.7
0.8
85.8
7.7
97.8

0.15
0.33
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.52

0.14
0.19
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.37

0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.22

0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.001

5.1
22.1
0.8
84.5
8.2
120.7

4.6
11.1
0.8
84.5
8.2
109.3

4.4
2.7
0.9
86.4
8.2
102.5

GHG(g) in CO2 eq. / MJMJ in the tank
GHG(g)

Slide 7

Hydrogen pathways
Hydrogen pathways

Summary
Summary

Hydrogen WTT pathways

Conditioning & distribution

Hydrogen WTT pathways 

Transformation near market

Conditioning & distribution

Transportation to market

Transformation near market

Transformation at source

Transportation to market

Production & conditioning at source

Transformation at source

Production & conditioning at source

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

300

250

200

150

100

50

J
M
/
J
M

/

J
M
q
e
2
O
C
g

0

CH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis on-site
LH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis central
CH2, NG 4000 km,ref central, pipeline
CH2, NG 4000 km, ref on-site
LH2, NG 4000 km, electrolysis central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier on-site
LH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, Coal EU-mix, gasifier
LH2, NG 4000 km, ref central
LH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, LNG, ref central
LH2, ref remote
LH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis central
CH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis on-site
LH2, NG 4000 km, electrolysis central
CH2, NG 4000 km,ref central, pipeline
LH2, NG 4000 km, ref central
LH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier on-site
CH2, NG 4000 km, ref on-site
LH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, Coal EU-mix, gasifier
LH2, ref remote

Diesel
CNG, 4000 km
Diesel
CNG, 4000 km

Electrolysis must be the “last resort”
unless an uncontroversial renewable energy source can be used

Slide 8

 
WTT Conclusions

(cid:57)(cid:57) LHLH22 is more energy and GHG intensive than CH
is more energy and GHG intensive than CH22

(cid:57)(cid:57) Central reforming requires somewhat less energy than on

Central reforming requires somewhat less energy than on--sitesite

(cid:57)(cid:57) Electrolysis is very energy

Electrolysis is very energy--intensive and can only be justified if 
intensive and can only be justified if 
genuinely renewable electricity is available
genuinely renewable electricity is available

Slide 9

WHEELS
TANK--TOTO--WHEELS
TANK

Gasoline, Diesel, Natural gas, Hydrogen
Gasoline, Diesel, Natural gas, Hydrogen
2010
2002 -- 2010
2002 

Slide 10

Advisor Freeware Model
Advisor Freeware Model

(cid:127) Vehicles simulations with ADVISOR Freeware
(cid:127) The entire vehicle + powertrain must be described

(cid:127) Data collection from manufacturers and others,    

helped by a data logger (sample below)

VEHICLE DEFINITION

Variable name

Type

Unit

ADVISOR name

First coefficient of rolling resistance
Second coefficient of rolling resistance
Coefficient of aerodynamic drag
Vehicle frontal area
Height of the vehicle center of gravity
Fraction of total vehicle mass
Distance between front and rear axle
Mass of the vehicle without components
Test mass including fluids, passengers and cargo
Cargo mass

Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar

--
s/m
--
m2
m
--
m
kg
kg
kg

veh_1st_rrc
veh_2nd_rrc
veh_CD
veh_FA
veh_cg_height
veh_front_wt_fraction
veh_wheelbase
veh_glider_mass
veh_mass
veh_cargo_mass

FUEL CONVERTER - CONVENTIONAL

Variable name

Type

Unit

ADVISOR name

Scalar
Engine size (cylinder displacement)
Vector
Vector of engine speed used to index other variables
Vector
Vector of engine torque used to index other variables
Matrix
Fuel use indexed by engine speed and torque
Matrix
Engine out CO indexed by engine speed and torque
Engine out HC indexed by engine speed and torque
Matrix
Engine out NOx indexed by engine speed and torque Matrix
Matrix
Engine out PM indexed by engine speed and torque
Scalar
Fuel density
Scalar
Lower heating value of the fuel
Scalar
Rotational inertia of the engine
Vector
Maximum torque output indexed by engine speed
Scalar
Fraction of waste heat that goes to exhaust
Scalar
Engine coolant thermostat set temperature
Scalar
Average heat capacity of engine
Scalar
Average heat capacity of hood and engine
Scalar
Surface area of hood and engine compartment

L
rad/s
N*m
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/L
J/g
kg*m2
N*m
--
C
J/kg/K
J/kg/K
m2

fc_disp
fc_map_spd
fc_map_trq
fc_fuel_map
fc_co_map
fc_hc_map
fc_nox_map
fc_pm_map
fc_fuel_den
fc_fuel_lhv
fc_inertia
fc_max_trq
fc_ex_pwr_frac
fc_tstat
fc_cp
fc_h_cp
fc_hood_area

FIAT
Multipla
0.01
0.00
0.36
2.60
0.50
0.60
2.67
900
unknown
200

FIAT
Multipla
1.9
73-605
0.0-144
14-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
749
42600
0.1
113-144
0.4
96
500
500
1.5

Slide 11

0.25

0.3

0.25

0.15

0.25

0.2

0.15

Main OUTPUTS:
On the European Cycle (ECE-EUDC), the results 
concern:
•• MJMJ/km/km necessary to perform the NEDC cycle

•• GHG(g/km)

GHG(g/km) in CO2 eq.emitted along the cycle

TankTank--toto--Wheels study
Wheels study
Performance & Emissions
Performance & Emissions

(cid:57)(cid:57) All technologies fulfil at least minimal customer performance cr

iteria
All technologies fulfil at least minimal customer performance criteria

Vehicle Range
(km)
(20 km ZEV Range)
600 km

650

Top Vehicle Speed
(Continuous)
(km/h)

180.0

Vehicle Gradeability
at 90 km/h for 20 minutes
(%)

6.0

Vehicle Acceleration,  
0-100 km/h
(sec) 
12.0

Vehicle Acceleration,  
0-50 km/h
(sec)

4.0

15.0

Vehicle Acceleration in 
Top Gear,  80-120 km/h
(sec)

4.5

Maximum Vehicle
Maximum Vehicle
Acceleration
Acceleration
(m/s2)
(m/s2)

30.0

Max Vehicle Gradeability
(%)

(cid:57)(cid:57) “Vehicle / Fuel” combinations  comply with emissions regulations
“Vehicle / Fuel” combinations  comply with emissions regulations

(cid:136)(cid:136) The 2002 vehicles comply with Euro III
The 2002 vehicles comply with Euro III
(cid:136)(cid:136) The 2010 vehicles comply with EU IV
The 2010 vehicles comply with EU IV

Slide 12

WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

Slide 13

Overall Results – GHG Emissions vs. Energy Use

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

)

m
k
/
q
e
2

O
C
g
(

G
H
G
W
T
W

0

0

Eu-mix coal

Natural gas 

Eu-mix elec

Crude oil 

Biomass 
(conventional)

Biomass (advanced)
Wind, Nuclear

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

WTW energy (MJ/ 100 km)

Gasoline
Diesel
CNG

Syndiesel ex NG
Syndiesel ex wood
DME ex NG
DME ex wood

EtOHex sugar beet
EtOH ex wheat
EtOH ex wood
FAME

Hyd ex NG, ICE
Hyd ex NG, FC
Hyd ex NG+ely, ICE

Hyd ex NG+ely, FC
Hyd ex coal
Hyd ex coal+ely, ICE
Hyd ex coal+ely, FC

Hyd ex bio, ICE
Hyd ex bio, FC
Hyd ex bio+ely, ICE
Hyd ex bio+ely, FC

Hyd ex wind+ely, ICE
Hyd ex wind+ely, FC
Hyd ex nuclear, ICE
Hyd ex nuclear, FC

Hyd ind(Ref+FC)
Hyd ex EU-mix elec (ely), ICE
Hyd ex EU-mix elec (ely), FC

Slide 14

 
 
 
 
General Observations: WTW

(cid:57) A Well-to-Wheels analysis is the essential basis to assess the impact 

of future fuel and powertrain options.

(cid:131) Both fuel production pathway and powertrain efficiency are key to 

assessing GHG emissions and energy use. 

(cid:131) A common methodology and data-set have been developed, providing a 

basis for the evaluation of pathways. Data can be updated as 
technologies evolve.

(cid:190) Results must further be evaluated in the context of volume potential, 

feasibility, practicality, costs of the fuels pathways investigated.

Slide 15

WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

“COST of CO2 Avoided”
“COST of CO2 Avoided”

Slide 16

The cost estimates in this study are based on the following assumptions:

Costs of CO2 Avoided

• In a business as usual scenario  - 5% of the conventional EU-25 fleet 
(marginal diesel and gasoline) will emit ca 37 Mt CO2eq/a in 2010 (280 M 
vehicles, fleet average consumption 137 g CO2/km, 16000 km/a average 
mileage, 140 Mt/a of gasoline and 60 Mt/a of diesel)

• The study gives a representation of the GHG savings vs. incremental costs 
if this portion of the EU transportation demand were hypothetically replaced 
by alternative fuels and powertrain technologies

• CO2 avoided costs are calculated from incremental capital and operating 
costs for fuel pathway and vehicle.

• Fuel production costs can reasonably be considered as proportional to 
volumes, however infrastructure costs critically depend on the scale 
envisaged.

Slide 17

TTW “Vehicles” Costs

o Customer acceptance criteria can be subdivided between:

The retail price (investment),

The running costs (fuel and maintenance).

o The selected methodology attempts to estimate the retail price increment to be 
expected for the various considered technologies. Maintenance costs are not 
considered.

o The retail price is obtained by subtracting the price impact of the original internal 
combustion engine and adding the impact of the new powertrain components.

o Specific price increment for special tanks (hydrogen or natural gas), or electric 
components (batteries, electric motors) is also added where relevant.

Slide 18

TTW “Vehicles” Costs

(MJ / km)

Over price Energy cons.

(g GHG / km)
GHG
196
183
164
166
166

Year
2002
2002
2002
2002
2002
2002

2010
2010
2010
2010

2010
2010

2010

2010

2010
2010
2010
2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

Fuel
Gasoline
Gasoline
DIESEL
NG
NG
DME

PISI
DISI
DICI
PISI

Technology Price
18,600 
18,890 
20,300 
20,553 
PISI bi Fuel 21,138 
21,800 

DICI

0.00
290 
1,700 
1,953 
2,538 
3,200 

PISI
DISI

Gasoline
19,280 
19,564 
Gasoline
Gasoline DiSI Hybrid 21,043 
Gasoline Hybrid F.C. 39,440 

0.00
284 
1,763 
20,160 

DIESEL DICI w/o DP 20,500 
DIESEL DICI ( DPF) 21,200 

Diesel

ybrid wo DP 22,153 

Diesel Hybrid DICI 22,853 

FAME

DICI ( DPF) 21,200 
BtL Diesel DICI ( DPF) 21,200 
BtL Diesel ybrid w/o DP 22,153 
Hybrid F.C. 30,050 

LH2

1,220 
1,920 

2,873 

3,573 

1,920 
1,920 
2,873 
10,770 

BtL DME DICI w/o DP 22,000 

2,720 

NG

PISI

21,233 

DME DICI w/o DP 22,000 

1,953 

2,720 

LH2

Hybrid F.C. 30,050 

10,770 

Methanol Hybrid F.C. 39,440 

20,160 

CNG

Hybrid PISI 22,196 

2,916 

2010 LH2

PISI

24,030 

4,750 

PISI

24,030 
2010 CH2 700b
2010 CH2 700b Hybrid PISI 24,821 
Hybrid PISI 24,821 
2010 LH2
28,863 
2010 CH2 700b
2010 LH2
28,863 
2010 CH2 700b Hybrid F.C. 30,050 
Hybrid F.C. 30,050 
2010 LH2

FC
FC

4,750 
5,541 
5,541 
9,583 
9,583 
10,770 
10,770 

2.55
2.38
2.12
2.73
2.73

2.16
2.14
1.86
1.85

2
2.08

1.64

1.71

3.06
3.98
3.18
1.97

3.17

2.29

2.64

1.8

2.38

1.75

3.6

2.83
2.51
3.04
1.59
2.02
1.14
1.8

(MJ / km)

(g GHG / km)
Energ. Spared GHG avoided

0.00
-                
-                

0.17 
0.43 
0.18 
0.18 

0.00
-            
-            
-            
-            

13 
32 
30 
30 

0.00
-                
-                
-                

0.02 
0.30 
0.31 

0.00
-               
-            
-            

2 
23 
24 

-                
-                

0.16 
0.08 

-            
-               

12 
5 

-                

0.52 

-            

39 

-                

0.45 

-            

33 

0.90 
1.82 
1.02 
0.19 

-                

-            
-          
-          
-          

95 
144 
158 
157 

1.01 

-          

150 

0.13 

0.48 

-            

26 

-            

10 

-                

0.36 

-            

58 

0.22 

-            

20 

-                

0.41 

-            

58 

1.44 

50 

0.67 
0.35 
0.88 
0.57 
0.14 
1.02 
0.36 

-                
-                
-                
-                

2 
17 
16 
71 
44 
81 
58 

-            

-            
-            
-            
-            

Engine technology Fuel

Price 
differential ( € )

ICEs conventional
DISI
PISI
DICI
DICI + DPF
DICI
PISI

PISI

Gasoline
CNG
Diesel
Diesel
DME
C-H2 700 bar
L-H2

ICEs Hybrid
Gasoline
DISI Hyb.
CNG
PISI Hyb.
DICI Hyb.
Diesel
DICI Hyb. + DPF Diesel
PISI Hyb.

PISI Hyb.
Fuel cells
FC

FC

FC Hyb.

FC Hyb.
Ref+FC Hyb.
Ref+FC Hyb.

C-H2 700 bar
L-H2

C-H2 700 bar
L-H2
C-H2 700 bar
L-H2
Gasoline
Methanol

284 
1,953 
1,220 
1,920 
2,720 
4,750 

4,750 

1,763 
2,916 
2,873 
3,573 
5,541 

5,541 

9,583 

9,583 

10,770 

10,770 
20,160 
20,160 

Slide 19

164
162
141
140

152
159

125

131

69
20
6
7

14

138

154

106

144

106

214

166
147
180
93
120
83
106

 
 
      
 
   
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
 
 
      
 
   
 
 
 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
 
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
 
 
 
                
 
   
 
   
                
            
 
   
                
               
 
   
                
 
   
                
            
 
   
 
   
 
 
 
 
             
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
        
        
        
TTW “Vehicles” Costs

ICEs

Hybrids

FCs

120%

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

DISI Gasoline

DICI DME
PISI CNG
PISI Hyb. L-H2
PISI Hyb. CNG
PISI L-H2
DICI Diesel
DICI Hyb. Diesel
DISI Hyb. Gasoline
DICI + DPF Diesel
PISI Hyb. C-H2 700 bar
PISI C-H2 700 bar
DICI Hyb. + DPF Diesel

FC L-H2
FC Hyb. L-H2
FC C-H2 700 bar
Ref+FC Hyb. Gasoline
Ref+FC Hyb. Methanol
FC Hyb. C-H2 700 bar

Slide 20

WTW Costs

Total GHG emissions for 5% demand in the reference 

i

The reference case is
gasoline + diesel
in the expected demand ratio 
in 2010

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

Cost (GEUR/a)

)
a
/
q
e
2

O
C

t

M

(

e
p
o
r
u
E
n

i

d
e
d

i

o
v
a
G
H
G

40

30

20

10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

CNG

Syndiesel ex NG

DME ex NG

Syndiesel ex wood

DME ex wood

EtOH ex sugar beet

EtOH ex wheat

EtOH ex wood

FAME

Hyd ex NG, ICE

Hyd ex NG, FC

Hyd ex NG+ely, ICE

Hyd ex NG+ely, FC

Hyd ex wood, ICE

Hyd ex wood, FC

Hyd ex coal+ely, FC

Hyd ex wind+ely, ICE

Hyd ex wind+ely, FC

Hyd ex nuclear+ely, ICE

Hyd ex nuclear+ely, FC

Hyd ind gasoline, Ref+FC

Hyd ind NG/MeOH, Ref+FC

Hyd ind wood/MeOH, Ref+FC

Hyd ex coal, ICE

Hyd ex coal, FC

Slide 21

 
 
 
 
 
100 %

W
T
W

,

80

i

d
e
d
o
v
a
G
H
G
%

60

40

20%

0%
100

% of Saved Greenhouse Gases 

H2+FC

Wood

Hydrogen/FC from 
wind & nuclear

FIG. 2

DME

Synth.
diesel

ethanol

Sugar
beet to
SSCF
ethanol
bioethanol

If we replace 5% of conventional
diesel/gasoline with alternative fuel,
“100% GHG avoided” corresponds to 37
Mtonnes CO2 equivalent saved per
year.

biodiesel

Sugar beet
pulp burnt

Hydrogen/FC 
from NG

Sugar beet
pulp to feed

update

CNG

Ethanol
from wheat,
no straw

On-board
gasoline
reformer+FC

DME from NG

1000

€ /tonne CO2 eq. avoided

10000

Slide 22

 
 
 
WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

Alternative Liquid Fuels
Alternative Liquid Fuels

Slide 23

Alternative Liquid Fuels

)

m
k
/

q
e
2

O
C
g
(

G
H
G
W
T
W

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Gasoline

Syndiesel: GTL

Conv. diesel

DME: NG

EtOH: wheat

Common basis: 2010
PISI or
DICI DPF (not for DME)

EtOH: sugar 
beet

RME

SME

EtOH: wood

DME: wood

Syndiesel: BTL

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

WTW energy (MJ / 100 km)

Slide 24

 
 
 
 
 
Alternative Liquid Fuels: Conventional Biofuels

Energy

GHG

SME: glycerine as animal feed

SME: glycerine as chemical

RME: glycerine as animal feed

RME: glycerine as chemical

2010
DICI+DPF

SME: glycerine as animal feed

SME: glycerine as chemical

RME: glycerine as animal feed

RME: glycerine as chemical

Conv. Diesel DICI+DPF

Conv. Diesel DICI+DPF

EtOH: W Wood

EtOH: F wood

EtOH: Wheat, no straw

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to heat

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to EtOH

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to fodder

TTW

WTT

2010
PISI

EtOH: W Wood

EtOH: F wood

EtOH: Wheat, no straw

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to heat

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to EtOH

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to fodder

2010
DICI+DPF

2010
PISI

Gasoline PISI

Gasoline PISI

0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

MJ / 100 km

0

50

100

150

200

g CO2eq /  km

Slide 25

Alternative Liquid Fuels: Syndiesel

Energy

GHG

DME: Farmed
wood

DME: Waste
wood

DME: Remote
synthesis

Syndiesel:
Farmed wood

Syndiesel: Waste
wood

Syndiesel:
Remote GTL

Conv. diesel
DICI+DPF

2010
DICI

TTW

WTT

2010
DICI+DPF

DME: Farmed
wood

DME: Waste
wood

DME: Remote
synthesis

Syndiesel:
Farmed wood

Syndiesel:
Waste wood

Syndiesel:
Remote GTL

Conv. diesel
DICI+DPF

2010
DICI

2010
DICI+DPF

0

100

200

300

400

500

0

50

100

150

200

250

MJ / 100 km

g CO2eq /  km

Slide 26

Alternative Liquid Fuels: key points (1)

(cid:137) A number of routes are available to produce alternative liquid fuels that 
can be used neat or in blends with conventional fuels in the existing 
infrastructure and vehicles

(cid:137) Conventionally produced bio-fuels such as ethanol and FAME provide 

some GHG benefits but are energy intensive compared to conventional 
crude oil-based fuels
(cid:131) The GHG balance of conventional biofuels is particularly uncertain 

because of N2O emissions

(cid:190) Potential volumes of ethanol and FAME are limited. The cost/benefit 

depends of the specific pathway, by-product usage and N2O emissions

Slide 27

Alternative Liquid Fuels: key points (2)

(cid:137) GTL processes enable high quality diesel fuel to be produced from 
natural gas. However, the WTW GHG emissions are higher than for 
conventional diesel fuel

(cid:190) Only limited GTL volumes can be expected to be available by 2010 and 

beyond

(cid:137) New processes are being developed to produce synthetic fuels from 
biomass (BTL) with lower overall GHG emissions, though still high 
energy use

(cid:190) BTL processes have the potential to save substantially more GHG 

emissions than current bio-fuel options at comparable cost
(cid:131) Issues such as land and biomass resources, material collection, plant size, 

efficiency and costs, may limit the application of these processes

Slide 28

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Where could the biomass come from?

Agricultural
Surplus land

Set
asides

Forestry 
residues

Agricultural
wastes

Sugar beet
+ Wheat grain
Or Oil seeds
Or  Wood

Wheat grain

Or Oil seeds
Or  Wood

Wood waste

Ethanol
Ethanol

+
Or FAME
Or  Syn diesel(*)
Or DME

Ethanol
FAME

Or

Or  Syn diesel
Or DME

Ethanol
Syn diesel

Or DME

Straw

Ethanol

Slide 29

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for conventional fuels substitution with biomass-derived fuels 

6000

5000

4000

a
/
J
P

3000

2000

1000

0

8360

WTT basis
EU-25

%  net renewable energy

91%

91%

61%

73%

Gasoline

Diesel

Max
ethanol

Max FAME
+ Syn
diesel

Max Syn
diesel

Max DME

Naphtha
DME

Syn diesel
FAME

EtOH cel.

EtOH conv
Diesel HD

Diesel PC

Gasoline

Slide 30

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for CO2 avoidance with biomass-derived fuels 

WTW basis
EU-25

d
e
d
o
v
a

i

a
/
q
e
2

O
C

t

M

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Max ethanol Max FAME +

Syn diesel

Max Syn
diesel

Max DME

Hydrogen
(ICE)

Hydrogen
(FC)

Hydrogen

Naphtha

DME

Syn diesel

FAME

EtOH cel.

EtOH conv

Slide 31

 
 
Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 ha of land 

Wood to DME

Wood to FT diesel 

Wood to C-H2, Ely (O/S), FC

Wood to C-H2 (O/S), FC

Wood to C-H2 (cen), ICE

Wood to C-H2 (cen), FC

Oilseeds to FAME

Wood to EtOH

Wheat to EtOH

Sugar beet to EtOH

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

Wood to elec, conv (vs Coal, state-of-the-art)

Wood to elec, IGCC (vs Coal, state-of-the-art)

Wood to elec, IGCC (vs NG CCGT)

Wood
 processing

Conventional 
biofuels

Electricity

0

5

10

15

20

25

t CO2 avoided / ha/a

Slide 32

Alternative use of primary energy  resources – Natural gas

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 MJ extracted gas 

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

C-H2,  central ref,
ICE

C-H2,  central ref,
FC

FT diesel

CNG (LNG)

Electricity (vs
Coal, state-of-the-
art)

-20

0

20

40

60

80

g CO2 avoided / MJ natural gas

Slide 33

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Wind

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 MJ wind electricity 

C-H2, Ely (cen), ICE

C-H2, Ely (cen), FC

Electricity (vs Coal,
state-of-the-art)

Electricity (vs NG,
CCGT)

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

g CO2 avoided / MJ wind electricity

Slide 34

General Conclusions

(cid:137) A shift to renewable/low fossil carbon routes may offers a significant 
GHG reduction potential but generally requires more energy. The 
specific pathway is critical

(cid:190) No single fuel pathway offers a short term route to high volumes of 

“low carbon” fuel.
(cid:131) Contributions from a number of technologies/routes will be needed.
(cid:131) A wider variety of fuels may be expected in the market
(cid:131) Blends with conventional fuels and niche applications should be 

considered if they can produce significant GHG reductions at reasonable 
cost

(cid:190) Transport applications may not maximize the GHG reduction potential 

of renewable energies

(cid:190) Optimum use of renewable energy sources such as biomass and 

wind requires consideration of the overall energy demand including 
stationary applications

Slide 35

Study Continuation
Study Continuation

d slightly 
In order to improve the study, a list of paths to be reviewed and slightly 
In order to improve the study, a list of paths to be reviewed an
dated, is currently considered:
upup--dated, is currently considered:

Fuels: : 
Fuels

pture 
LPG,  Oxygenates,  new processes for synthetic fuels,  carbon capture 
LPG,  Oxygenates,  new processes for synthetic fuels,  carbon ca
forest 
agricultural crops -- forest 
and storage, ,  BioBio--methane from waste 
and storage
residues, bio--mass via 
residues, bio

methane from waste -- agricultural crops 

pyrolysis
mass via pyrolysis

Powertrains: : 
Powertrains

Hybrids, NGV, LPG vehicles, Direct injection Gasoline vehicles
Hybrids, NGV, LPG vehicles, Direct injection Gasoline vehicles

Slide 36

Well-to-Wheels analysis 
of future automotive fuels and powertrains
in the European context

The study report is available on the WEB:
http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Download/eh

For questions / inquiries / requests / notes
to the consortium, 
please use the centralised mail address:
infoWTW@jrc.it

Slide 37

Natural Gas Vehicles
European Commission 
Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy
November 22nd / 23rd 2004

ing. Gert-Jan Rap
RAP Clean Air Products

Expert in Automotive Alternative Fuel Systems

© ENGVA, 2003

Abbreviations

NG
CH4
CNG
LNG
H2
NGV

= Natural Gas 
= Methane
= Compressed Natural Gas
= Liquefied Natural Gas
= Hydrogen
= Natural Gas Vehicle

ENGVA

= European Natural Gas Vehicle Association

SI
CI
ECU
OEM

= Spark Ignited
= Combustion Ignited
= Electronic Control Unit
= Original Equipment Manufacturer

© ENGVA, 2003

Agenda

What is ENGVA?

European NGV markets

Natural Gas Vehicle Technolgy

(cid:1)Light-Duty
(cid:1)Heavy-Duty

(cid:1)LNG
(cid:1)Hydrogen

© ENGVA, 2003

What is ENGVA ?

© ENGVA, 2003

ENGVA mission

Develop a sustainable and profitable market for
NGV’s throughout Europe

287 Members (Oct. 17th, 2004)

(cid:1)Natural Gas Industry
(cid:1)NGV Equipment Suppliers
(cid:1)OEM Industry
(cid:1)NGV Service Organisations
(cid:1)Research Institutes
(cid:1)Government Agencies
(cid:1)Cities / Municipalities
(cid:1)Universities
(cid:1)Etcetera, etcetera

© ENGVA, 2003

ENGVA activities

Market research
Organising seminars 
Political activities
Publications
Submit information to members
Gaseous Fuel Training Institute

(cid:1)Natural Gas
(cid:1)Biogas
(cid:1)Hydrogen

© ENGVA, 2003

European NGV markets

© ENGVA, 2003

EUROPEAN ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
POLICY 
% Fuel Replacement, Transport Sector,  15 EU Countries by 2020
[ ] = Optimistic

Year
2005
2010
2015
2020

Biofuel
2
6
[ 7 ]
[ 8 ]

CH4

H2

2
5
10

2
5

Total %
2
8
14
[ 23 ]

© ENGVA, 2003

Europe Total
~ 576.000 
NGVs
Refuelling
Stations     

1.785
Stations
Under 
Construction 
288

Sweden 
4.238

Germany 
19.600

UK
875

France 
7.200

Italy 
381.250

Switzerland 
1.044

Russia
40.500

Belarus 
5.500

Ukraine 
55.000

Czech 
390

N
G
V
s

i
n

E
U
R
O
P
E

Bulgaria 
1.425

Egypt 
54.374

© ENGVA, 2003

THE CRITICAL “NGV” STAKEHOLDERS 
(EACH ONE HAS A ROLE TO PLAY)

Gas & Oil 
Industry

Customers

Automobile 
Industry and 
OEMs

Government 
and City 
Authorities

Environmental 
Institutes

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY ITALY

NGV

381.250

NG
471

(cid:1) Italy focused first on 

commuters

(cid:1) Now NGVs serve all 
markets &customers

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY GERMANY

NGV

19.600

NG
500

(cid:1) First target market are 

commuters

(cid:1) Volume needed to support 
building of fuel infrastructure
(cid:1) Government reduced fuel tax 

till 2020

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY FRANCE

NGV

7.200

NG
105

(cid:1) Focus first on buses and 

garbage trucks

(cid:1) Private fuelling stations will be 

opened to public

(cid:1) Home refueling appliance can 

help achieve critical mass to 
support public fuelling

© ENGVA, 2003

SWEDEN & SWITZERLAND
LEAD IN BIOGAS NGVs

Sweden (2,500 NGVs on biogas; 27 CNG 
stations) uses sewage & agricultural waste 
for renewable NGV fuels…with little or no 
pipeline network!

Growing incentives are developing the market

Switzerland (1000+ NGVs; 45 CNG stations) 
integrate biogas from municipal waste into 
pipeline network. 

Natural gas taxed higher than petrol & diesel; biogas is untaxed

NGV

1.044

NG
45

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicle Technology

Light-Duty

(cid:1) Passenger cars
(cid:1) Light commercial vehicles

© ENGVA, 2003

History Natural Gas Vehicles

1940’s : High-pressure
bottles inside the car

1984: Low-pressure bags
carried on the roof 
(China)

© ENGVA, 2003

CNG system overview Light-Duty

Typical CNG System in a Natural Gas Vehicle

Fill receptacle
Storage tank(s)
Piping and fittings
High Pressure Regulator
Fuel-rail
CNG injectors
ECU

Source : : VolvoVolvo
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

CNG filling and storage

Storage in gaseous phase
Storage under high pressure : 
200 bar / 3000 psi
Storage in one or more 
cylinders

Source : : Barbotti
Source

Argentina
Barbotti, , Argentina

Source : : OpelOpel
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Engine technology Light-Duty

Gas engines operate mostly on the OTTO-principle (Spark-Ignited)

© ENGVA, 2003

Fuel systems Light-Duty

Mono-Fuel

(cid:1)CNG only (dedicated)

Bi-Fuel

(cid:1)CNG & Petrol

: Fiat Auto Spa
Source : Fiat Auto Spa
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel system Light-Duty

Advantages

(cid:1)Optimised engine possible
(cid:2)Higher power output
(cid:2)Lower fuel consumption
(cid:2)Better exhaust gas emissions
(cid:1)More available space for CNG tanks
(cid:1)Better access to incentive programs

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Higher system price
(cid:1)Restricted (total) range
(cid:1)Dependency on filling station 

availability

“Mono-Fuelplus ” possible

(cid:1)Maximum 15 liter petrol allowed

Nissan
Source : : Nissan
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Bi-Fuel system Light-Duty

Advantages

(cid:1)Low cost system (retrofit)
(cid:1)Not dependent of 

infrastructure

(cid:1)Higher (total) range due
to double fuel system

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Compromise on engine

technology

(cid:1)No optimal storage

solutions

: DCAG
Source : DCAG
Source

: Ford
Source : Ford
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Availability of vehicles Light-Duty

OEM Vehicles

(cid:1)Fully developed by, or in co-operation with

car-manufacturer

(cid:1)Fully serviceable in dealer network
(cid:1)Fully warranted by car-manufacturer

Retrofit Vehicles

(cid:1)Systems developed by system-supplier
(cid:1)Aftermarket conversion
(cid:1)Service and system-warranty via 

conversion workshop

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical Light-Duty applications

text

CNG passenger carscars
CNG passenger 

CNG Delivery
CNG 

vans
Delivery vans

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical CNG tank-mounting Light-Duty

80 liter type 1 tanks in passenger 
OneOne 80 liter type 1 tanks in passenger 
range CNG ca. 175 km
carcar; ; range CNG ca. 175 km

TwoTwo pieces
type 1 tanks
pieces type 1 tanks
of 70 liter eacheach, , mounted
of 70 liter 
range CNG ca. 200 km
range CNG ca. 200 km

in a van; 
mounted in a van; 

pieces type 3 tanks
type 3 tanks
under vehicle

TwoTwo pieces
mounted under
mounted
range ca. 275 km
range ca. 275 km

body; 
vehicle body; 

© ENGVA, 2003

Four generations of CNG equipment

1st generation

(cid:1)Carburator vehicles without catalytic convertor

2nd generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop carburator and TBI / SPI engines (Euro 1 / 2)

3rd generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop MPI engines (Euro 2 / 3)

4th generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop and lean-burn sequential engines (Euro 3 / 4)

TBI = Throttle Body Injection
SPI = Single Port Injection
MPI = Multi Port Injection

© ENGVA, 2003

1st Generation CNG system

For carburator engines without catalytic convertor

(cid:1)Venturi type mixer unit
(cid:1)Mechanical mixture-adjustment

© ENGVA, 2003

2nd Generation CNG system

For closed-loop carburator and TBI / SPI engines

(cid:1)Venturi type mixer unit
(cid:1)Closed-loop automatic mixture-adjustment (steppermotor) 

Lambda-Control

© ENGVA, 2003

3rd Generation CNG system

For closed-loop MPI engines (Euro 2/3)

(cid:1)Closed-loop multi-point gaseous injection system
(cid:1)Group-injection or continuous-injection
(cid:1)Stand-alone or master-slave strategy

Source : : VolvoVolvo
Source

Source : : NecamNecam
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

4th Generation CNG system

For closed-loop Sequential MPI engines (Euro 3/4) 
(cid:1)Closed-loop sequential multi-point gaseous injection system
(cid:1)Sequential-injection
(cid:1)Stand-alone or master-slave strategy

Source : : Teleflex
Source

TeleflexGFIGFI

© ENGVA, 2003

Comparison CNG to conventional fuels

Typ

Astra 1.6 CNG Astra 1.6 16V Astra DTI 16V

Drive concept
Price (€)
Output (hp)
Torque (Nm)
Maximum speed (km/h)
Kerb weight (kg)
Payload (kg)
No. of seats
Luggage compartment (l)
gasvolume (l)
max. range (gas operation)
Total range (km)
Energy consumption
CO2 emissions (g/km)

Monovalentplus

19.280 
97
140
177
1380
475
5
1435
110
390
570
4,6 kg
125
: OSV
Source : OSV
Source

Petrol

16.650 
100
150
183
1245
475
5
1500

732
7,1 l
170

Diesel

17.740 
100
230
183
1370
475
5
1500

881
5,9 l
159

© ENGVA, 2003

        
    
     
Natural Gas Vehicle Technology

Heavy-Duty
(cid:1) Trucks
(cid:1) Buses
(cid:1) Off-Road Vehicles

Cummins
Source : : Cummins
Source

: DCAG
Source : DCAG
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Engine technology Heavy-Duty

MAN MAN MonoMono--FuelFuel
Engine
Bus Bus Engine

Mono-Fuel Technology

(cid:1)Dedicated spark-ignited engine
(cid:1)Stoichiometric or lean-burn
(cid:1)OEM or retrofit

Dual-Fuel Technology

(cid:1)Reduction of Diesel fuel and 

replaced by Natural Gas

(cid:1)Combustion-ignited (ignition

by Diesel injection)

(cid:1)Lean-burn
(cid:1)OEM or retrofit

engine
Caterpillar DualDual--FuelFuel engine
Caterpillar
: CAP
Source : CAP
Source

: MAN
Source : MAN
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel Heavy-Duty technology

Dedicated Spark-Ignited engine

(cid:1)Base engine block : Diesel
(cid:1)Reduced compression ratio by

pistons or cylinderhead
(cid:1)Optimised intake manifold
including throttle body

(cid:1)Equipped with ignition system
(cid:1)Optimized coolant system
(cid:1)Central mixture building or
Multi-Point injection system
(cid:1)Optimized exhaust system with
optional catalytic convertor

: IVECO
Source : IVECO
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel Heavy-Duty (dis-)advantages

Advantages

(cid:1)Optimal power-output, emissions, driveability possible
(cid:1)Unmeasurable PM emissions
(cid:1)Secured use of CNG infrastructure

Disadvantages

(cid:1)High cost engine development
(cid:1)Unknown technology for Heavy-Duty service network
(cid:1)Restricted to CNG infrastructure

Ekobus
Source : : Ekobus
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Dual-Fuel Heavy-Duty engine technology

Diesel fuel is replaced by Natural Gas

(cid:1)Replacement up to 90% by CNG

CI (Combustion Ignited) engine

(cid:1)Ignition by pilot injection of Diesel fuel

Idle and high load full Diesel operation

© ENGVA, 2003

Dual-Fuel Heavy-Duty (dis-)advantages
Advantages

(cid:1)Low cost engine development
(cid:1)Less CNG storage required compared to Mono-fuel vehicle

(results in low vehicle weight)

(cid:1)Diesel mode as back-up
(cid:1)Driveability comparable to Diesel engines
(cid:1)Better resale value for base vehicle

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Compromise in Diesel versus CNG technology
(cid:1)Emission results not optimised (i.e. PM’s)
(cid:1)Fuel costs higher if Diesel mode is frequently used

Drive-cycle effects fuel-replacement percentage

(cid:1)Bus 
(cid:1)Truck 

: % Diesel replacement relatively low
: % Diesel replacement relatively high 

© ENGVA, 2003

Emissions Heavy-Duty Mono-Fuel engine

Heavy-Duty emission results compared to limits
(stoichiometric engine)

5,45

4

4

3

]
h
W
k
/
g
[
s
n
o
i
s
s
i
m
E

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

0,78

0,54

0,55

0,55

0,4

0,07

1,6

1,1

1,1

0,65

0,16

EURO 3 (2000)

EURO 4 (2005)

EURO 5 (2008)

EEV

Engine
HD CNG Engine
HD CNG 

: IVECO
Source : IVECO
Source

5

3,5

2

2

1,18

0,16

0,03

0,03

0,02

0,01

CO (Carbon
monoxide)

NMHC (non-methane
hydrocarbons)

CH4 (mass of
methane)

NOx (nitrogen oxides)

PT (particulates)

© ENGVA, 2003

 
Particular Matter on different fuels
(Heavy-Duty)

Heavy-Duty bus engines (ETC test)

0,12

0,10

0,08

0,06

0,04

0,02

0,00

]
h
W
k
/
g
[

r
e
t
t
a
M

e
t
a
l

u
c
i
t
r
a
P

LPG Stoich CNG Stoich CNG Lean

Diesel 

Diesel + DPF

Burn

: TNO
Source : TNO
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

 
 
Typical Heavy-Duty applications

text

CNG delivery
CNG 

truck, Mexico
delivery truck, Mexico

CNG garbage
CNG 

truck
garbage truck

CNG public bus, 
CNG public bus, 
China
China

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical NGV offroad applications

forklift
CNG forklift
CNG 

CNG iceice--resurfacing
CNG 

machines
resurfacing machines

carts
CNG gogo--carts
CNG 

© ENGVA, 2003

LNG : Liquefied Natural Gas

Cooled down below boiling point, so stored as liquid!

(cid:1)- 161 °C (atmospheric pressure)
(cid:1)Typical : approx. - 140 °C  (cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3) approx. 2 - 4 bar (30 – 60 psi) 
(cid:1)Stored in double wall, vacuum isolated, cryogenic tank
(cid:1)Higher energy content per tank volume

LNG tank at truck
LNG tank at truck

© ENGVA, 2003

Hydrogen vehicles

L-H2 (Liquid Hydrogen)
C-H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)
Fuel-Cell Technology

CC--HH22 FuelFuel--CellCell busbus

: MAN
Source : MAN
Source

CC--HH22 Fuelcell

Fuelcell passenger 

passenger carcar

DaimlerChrysler
Source : : DaimlerChrysler
Source

Source : BMW: BMW
Source

LL--HH22 SI passenger 

SI passenger carcar

© ENGVA, 2003

Regulations & Standards for NGV’s

R110 Regulation

(cid:1)For component approval (OEM & aftermarket)
(cid:1)For vehicle type-approval (OEM)

R115 Regulation

(cid:1)For vehicle approval (aftermarket)

ISO 15500 Standard

(cid:1)For component approval

NGV 3.1 (US)
METI (Japan)

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicles

For more detailed Natural Gas Vehicle

- market information
- vehicle information
- infrastructure information

please contact :

ENGVA European Gaseous Fuel Training Institute

www.engva.org
info@engva.nl

© ENGVA, 2003

VISIT THE ASSOCIATION 
WEBSITES!!!

www.iangv.org.nz

www.engva.org

www.ngvc.org

(for conference information)

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicles

Thank you for your attention

ing. Gert-Jan Rap

© ENGVA, 2003

© ENGVA, 2003

9/11/2006  10:14

1 /5

Family Name

1st Name

Organization

Title

Country

Address

Tel./Fax/E-mail

Breshkov 

Ivan

University of National and 

Associated Professor

BULGARIA

UNWE

T00359 2 962 37 95 (office)

WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE FUELS - 22/23 November 2004

World Economy, Transport 

Economics Department

Transport Economics 

 Fax:      +359 2 962 37 95

Dept,

Student’s Town “Christo 

ivabr@unwe.acad.bg 

Botev”

breshkov@yahoo.com

1100 Sofia / Bulgaria

Postal address: 42 

Aleko Konstantinov Str.,

1505 Sofia / Bulgaria

Nikolova

Margarita National Agricultural 

Professor

BULGARIA

National Agricultural 

Tel.: 00 359 2 9176067

Advisory Service

Executive Director

Advisory Service

      00 359 2 9176068

136, Tzar Boris III Blv.

fax:  00 359 2 9176072

1618 Sofia

Bulgaria

mnikolova@naas.government.bg

marginik@yahoo.dom

Thoma

Ioannis

Cyprus Institute of Energy

Energy Officer

CYPRUS

13-15 Andrea Araouzou 

str

1421, Nicosia

Cyprus

Kassinis

Solomos

Ministry of Commerce, Industry 

Chemical Engineer

CYPRUS

T. 00357 22409385
Fx 0035 722304759
mob ph 0035 799596804

ytt.cie@cytanet.com.cy

Tel 00 357 22409314

and Tourism

13-15 Andrea Araouzou 

Fx -

Samara Miliotou Meropi

Ministry of Agriculture, Natural 

Environment Officer

CYPRUS

str

1421, Nicosia

Cyprus
Environment Service

E-mail: 

tel: 00 357 22 303 857

Resources and Environment

Chemical Engineer

CY - 1411 Nicosia

fax: 00 357 22 774 945

Cyprus

E-mail: 

Adamides

Antonio

Department of Electrical and 

Mechanical Engineer

CYPRUS

Makarios B str. No. 8

mmmilioti@cytanet.com.cy
Tel 00 357

Mechanical services

CY - 1040 Nicosia 

aadamides@ems.mcw.gov.cy

Cyprus

Matic

Davor

Energy Institute

Senior  Researcher

CROATIA

Energy institute 

Tel.:003851-6326132

“Hrvoje Pozar”

Fax: 003851-6040599

Savska Cesta 163, p.p. 

dmatic@eihp.hr

141

10 001 Zagreb/Croatia

22-231104 adjusted List of participants - send CD

9/11/2006  10:14

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Koppel

Ell-Mari

Ministry of Economic Affairs and 

Deputy Head

ESTONIA

Harju 11, 

Tel.: 00 372 6256 482

Communications, Energy Department 

15072  TALLINN

Fax: 00372 6113573

Estonia

mari.koppel@mkm.ee

Leppiman

Ando

Ministry of Economic Affairs and 

 Executive Officer of 

ESTONIA

Harju 11, 

Tel.: 00372 6 256 481

Communications, Fuel and Energy 

the Fuel and Energy 

15072  TALLINN

Fax: 00372 6 313 051

Market Division,

Energy Department

Market Division 

Estonia

Ando.Leppiman@mkm.ee

Veski

Geir

Estonian Ministry of Agriculture

Legal Services 

ESTONIA

Lai Street 39/41

Tel.: 00 372 / 625 6516

Department

15056 Tallinn

Fax: 00 372 / 625 6200

Estonia

geir.veski@agri.ee

Hibbey

Márta

Ministry of Economy and Transport

Head of Department

Honvéd Utca 13 -15

Tel.: 00361 374 28 17

Holló

András

MOL - Hungarian Oil and Gas Plc.

Head of Analytical Dept. HUNGARY

HUNGARY

1055 Budapest

Fax: 00361 312 46 64 (10:48 AM 

Hungary

H-2443, 

)

Tel.: 0036 23 55 28 81

Százhalombatta,

Fax: 0036 23 55 11 09

P.O.Box 1.

ahollo@mol.hu

Merétei

Imre Tamás Institute for Transport 

Head of Section of 

HUNGARY

Thán K. u. 3-5., 

Fax: 0036-1-205 5897

Sciences Ltd. (KTI) 

Automotive 

H - 1119 Budapest

meretei@kti.hu

Nagy

József

Ministry of Agriculture and 

Rural Development

Engine and Exhaust  

Emission 

Technology
Government official 

Hungary

Kossuth tér, 11 

Tel.: 0036 1  301 45 08

1055 Budapest

Fax: 0036 1  301 47 49

HUNGARY

Hungary

jozsef.nagy@fvm.hu

Andriuškevičius Vincas 

Ministry of Agriculture 

Chief Specialist of the 

LITHUANIA

Gedimino av.19

Laukaitis

Giedrius

Kaunas University of Technology

Physics Department

Rural 

Development 

Department
Associated professor

LT-01103 Vilnius

Tel.: 00370 5 2 39 11 57 

Lithuania

VincasA@zum.lt

LITHUANIA

Studentu st. 50,

Tel.: 00370 37 300349

Physics Department

Fax: 00370 37 456472

51368 Kaunas

gielauk@ktu.lt

Lithuania

Liubarskyj 

Vladimir 

Lithuanian University of Agriculture  Head of the Department 

LITHUANIA

Instituto Str. 20, 

Tel.: 00370 37 549361

of

 Bioresources 

Raudondvaris

institutas@mei.lt 

LT-54132 Kaunas r.

Lithuania

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9/11/2006  10:14

3 /5

Pranevicius

Liudas, Dr.

Lithuanian Energy Institute

Materials Research and 

LITHUANIA

Breslaujos 3, 

Tel.: 00370 682 69086

Testing Laboratory

LT-44403, Kaunas

Fax: 00370 37 35 12 71

Liudas.Pranevicius@ktu.lt

Ghirlando

Robert

Institute of Energy Technology of 

Associate Professor

MALTA

Faculty of Engineering

robert.ghirlando@um.edu.mt

the University of Malta

University of Malta

Msida MSD06

Malta

Kulczycki

Andrzej 

Central Petroleum Laboratory

Dr.

POLAND

Al. Zwirki  i Wigury, 31

Fax: 004822-6595894

Naftowi

Director Centralnego

Laboratorium Naftowego

02091 Warsaw

Tel.: 004822-6596041

Poland

                   6689533

Rogulska

Magdalena

EC BREC/IBMER

System Analyst

POLAND

ul. Rakowiecka 32

(168705)

instytut@cln.pl
Tel.:0048 22 848 48 32

Centre of Excellence and

Competence in Renewable

Energy in Poland RECEPOL

02-532 Warsaw

Fax:0048 646 68 50

mrogul@ibmer.waw.pl

www.ecbrec.pl

Eden

Mamut

BSUN - Center for Advanced 

Prof. Dr. Eden MAMUT, 

ROMANIA

"Ovidius" University of 

Phone / Fax:  +40 41 614 983

Engineering Sciences

Director

Preda

Monica

Romanian Agency for Energy 
Conservation

Expert Junior
Inspector gr. III

ROMANIA

Cvengros

Jan

Department of Physical Chemistry, 

DrSc.

SLOVAKIA

Constantza

Mobile :        +40 745 05 44 03

124 Mamaia Av., 

Email:   emamut@univ-ovidius.ro   

900527 Constantza / 

            caes@univ-ovidius.ro       

i

R
Nicolae Balcescu nr. 16
sector 1, 
RO - 010052 Bucuresti 
37
Romania
Radlinského 9, 

Tel.: 0040 21 314 5929
Fax: 0040 21 312 31 97
preda@arceonline.ro

Tel.: 00421/2/59 325 531

Faculty of Chemical and Food 

Research Leader

812 37 Bratislava

Fax: 00421/2/52926 032

Technology, 

Slovak University of Technology

Slovakia

jan.cvengros@stuba.sk

Lauko

Peter

Ministry of Economy of 

Main Counsellor of 

SLOVAKIA

Mierová 19

Lauko@economy.gov.sk

Slovak Republic

Energy

Policy Department

82715 Bratislava 212

Slovakia

Mikulec

Jozef

Slovnaft VURUP, a.s., (Research 

Dr,

SLOVAKIA

Vlčie Hrdlo,

 Fax: 00421 2 45 246 276

Institute 

Managing director

 824 12 Bratislava, 

jozef.mikulec@vurup.sk

of Petroleum & Hydrocarbon Gases)

Slovakia

Sliva

Martin

Ministry of Economy of 

Counsellor of Division of 

SLOVAKIA

Mierová 19

00421 2 4854 1915  

Slovak Republic

Production 

and Network sectors

82715 Bratislava 212

Sliva@economy.gov.sk

Slovakia

22-231104 adjusted List of participants - send CD

9/11/2006  10:14

4 /5

Al-Mansour 

Fouad

Energy Efficiency Center - 

researcher

SLOVENIA

Jamova 39, 

Tel.: 00386 1 5885 329

Jozef Stefan Institute

1000 Ljubljana

Fax: 00386 1 5612 335

Slovenia

fouad.al-mansour@ijs.si

Hanžič

Andrej

Univerza v Mariboru

technical director 

SLOVENIA

Smetanova ulica 17

Tel.: 00386.22207056

Fakulteta za elektrotehniko

Racunalnistvo in informatiko

2000 Maribor

fax: 00386.22525481

Slovenia

andrej.hanzic@uni-mb.si

Caliskan

Mustafa

Electrical Power Resources 

Survey and Development        

Mechanical engineer
EIE - Coordinator  for the 
Biofuels Project 

TURKEY

eiei Genel Mudurlugu

Tel.: 0090 312 295 52 70

Eskisehir Yolu 7. KM

Fax:0090 312 295 50 05

Ankara 06520

mcaliskan@eie.gov.tr

Karahan

 Şeyma 

Tubitak Marmara Research Center

Researcher

TURKEY

P.O. Box 21

Tel.: 0090 262 641 23 00

41470 Gebze Kocaeli

                            /3905

Turkey

Fax: 0090 262 6423545

seyma.karahan@posta.mam.gov.t

r

22-231104 adjusted List of participants - send CD

9/11/2006  10:14

5 /5

Rap

Gert-Jan

ENGVA

Expert 

(speaker)

THE 

Weth. J. Tieckenstraat 

rab-cleanairproducts@wanadoo.nl

NETHERLANDS

33

Deurwaarder

Ewout

ECN

6986 BA Angerlo

The Netherlands
Intrapost

deurwaarder@ecn.nl

THE 

NETHERLANDS

Mahieu

Vincent

EC - DG JRC IES

Energy Expert

ITALY

Intrapost

vincent.mahieu@jrc.it

(speaker)

Söldner

Franz-

Xavier

EC - DG TREN

Energy Expert

BELGIUM

Intrapost

(speaker)

THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS
THE 

NETHERLANDS

Baxter

David

Georgakaki

Aliki

Kavalov

Boyan

Moretto

Pietro

Peteves

Stathis

Starr

Steen

Fred

Marc

JRC IE

JRC IE

JRC IE

JRC IE

JRC IE

JRC IE

JRC IE

Tzimas

Vangelis

JRC IE

22-231104 adjusted List of participants - send CD

T. 0032 22961188

Fx 0032 22964710 

Franz-

Xaver Soeldner@cec eu int

david.baxter@jrc.nl

aliki.georgakaki@jrc.nl

boyan.kavalov@jrc.nl

pietro.moretto@jrc.nl

estathios.peteves@cec.eu.int

frederick.starr@jrc.nl

marc.steen@jrc.nl

evangelos.tzimas@jrc.nl

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 
DIRECTORATE GENERAL JRC 
JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE 
Institute for Energy 
Clean Energies Unit 

JRC-Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels 
 in the EU Energy System 

22nd  - 23rd November 2004 

DG-JRC/Institute for Energy, Petten (NL), Bldg. 312-Conference Room 

Agenda 

Monday 22nd November 2004 

11.45-12.15: Delegate Check In 

Lunch Arrangements: Buffet Lunch Provided 12.15-13.00  

13.00: Meeting Starts 

13.00-13.15:  Welcome: K. Törrönen – JRC/IE - Director  

13.15-13.30:  Scope of  the Workshop: S. Peteves -  JRC/IE  

13. 30-14.00: The Alternative Fuels Contact Group Report: F. Söldner  – DG TREN/D4  

14.00-14.30:  Production and use of biogas: D. Baxter – DG JRC/IE 

14.30-15.00:  Biofuels for transport and the enlargement of the EU: B. Kavalov – DG 

JRC/IE 

15.00-15.15: Advanced biofuels for transport: E. Deurwaarder -  ECN 

15.15 - 15.45: Coffee Break and Discussion 

15.45-16.15: Findings of the JRC/EUCAR/CONCAWE Well-to-Wheels study on 

alternative fuels: V. Mahieu - DG JRC-IES   

16.15-16.45: The European natural gas market and the state of the art of  natural gas 

vehicles: G-J.  Rap - European Natural Gas Vehicle Association  

16.45-17.15: Discussion 

Administrative Matters: 17.15-17.30 

Bus from JRC Petten to Marijke Hotel in Bergen: ca. 17.30  

Dinner in De Ware Jacob Restaurant in Bergen: 19.30 – 22.00  

PO Box 2, 1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands 
Switchboard +31 224 565656 - Direct +31 224 565149 - Fax +31 224 565630 
e-mail :evangelos.tzimas@jrc.nl 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- 2 - 

Tuesday 23rd November 2004  

Bus from Hotel Marijke in Bergen to the JRC: 8.10 

09.00: Meeting Starts  

Short Presentations by Delegates  

9.00-9.15  

Cyprus 

9.15-9.30  

Estonia 

9.30-9.45  

Hungary 

9.45-10.00   Lithuania 

10.00-10.15   Malta 

10.15-10.30   Poland 

10.30-10.45   Slovakia 

10.45-11.00  Slovenia 

11.00 - 11.30 Coffee Break and  Discussion  

11.30-11.45   Bulgaria 

11.45-12.00   Romania 

12.00-12.15   Turkey 

12.15-12.30  Croatia 

12.30-12.45  Discussion 

12.45-14.00 Buffet Lunch 

General Discussion 14.00-15.00 

Possible topics would include: 

•  EU Directive on biofuels: Current State of Affairs 
•  Recognising Barriers 
•  Potential Technological Breakthroughs 
•  Fuel Options for the Future 

Coffee will be available during General Discussion 

Return to Schiphol or to Hotel Marijke:  Departure from the JRC at 15.15 (Arrival 
at Airport approx. at 16.30) 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Institute for Energy

Kari Törrönen
22 November  2004
JRC-Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy 
System, Petten, The Netherlands

http:// ie.jrc.cec.eu.int
email:jrc-ie-info@cec.eu.int
http:// www.jrc.cec.eu.int

22 Nov 2004           1

The JRC...today and tomorrow

… to provide customer-driven scientific and technical support for the 
conception, development, implementation and monitoring
of EU policies ….

The JRC functions as a centre 
of science and technology (S&T) 
reference for the EU 
independent of commercial 
and national interests...

22 Nov 2004           2

7 Institutes in 5 Member States

Structure of the JRC

IRMM - Geel Belgium
- Institute for Reference Materials and 
Measurements
Staff: ≅ 250

IE – Petten, The Netherlands
- Institute for Energy
Staff: ≅ 180

ITU - Karlsruhe Germany 
- Institute for Transuranium elements
Staff: ≅ 250

IPSC - IHCP - IES - Ispra Italy
- Institute for the Protection and the Security 
of the Citizen
- Institute for Health and Consumer Protection
- Institute for Environment and Sustainability 
Staff: ≅ 350, 250, 370

IPTS - Seville Spain
- Institute for Prospective Technological Studies
Staff: ≅ 100

Total staff: ~ 2200 people

22 Nov 2004           3

The Petten Site
Synergy in the Petten Dunes

Personnel:
200

Personnel: 
270

Personnel:
650

Personnel:
250 (Petten)
70 (Arnhem)

22 Nov 2004           4

Institute for Energy (IE)

The Institute provides scientific and technical support for 
the conception, development, implementation and 
monitoring of community policies related to energy.

Special emphasis is given on the security of energy 
supply and sustainable and safe energy production.

22 Nov 2004           5

Director

K. Törrönen

Assistant
to the Director

Advisor
Science Strategy

Safety, Environment 
and Security

Quality, Manager

M. Van Rij-Brizzi

R. Hurst

J. De Haas

A. Kuusisto

Management
Support

P. Lemaitre

- Personnel
- Finance
- Infrastructure

Clean Energies

HFR and Reactor
Applications

Nuclear Safety

M. Steen

R. May (acting)

H. Weisshäupl

- Waste & biomass
- Safety of energy 

systems
- Fuel Cells
- SETRIS 

- Suppl. Programme
- Fuel & Material

Irradiation
- New systems
- Materials ageing
- Medical Applications
- Neutron methods
Mechanical perf
characterisation

- Structural integrity
- Inspection

management
- Accident analysis
- PSA / risk

assessment
- Computational fluid

dynamics
- Advanced reactor 
concepts
- Data Management 
&    dissemination

Technical &
Scientific Support
for TACIS & PHARE

M. Bieth

- Design safety
- On-site assistance
- Regulators, Waste,
Decommissioning

- Dissemination

Scientific &
Technical 
Support

J.P. Hirvonen

- Programme office
- Informatics &  
Knowledge 
management
- Microstructural
analysis 
- Mechanical eng. 
Services

22 Nov 2004           6

IE-Key Facilities

High Flux Reactor

• Materials / fuel irradiation and testing
• Radio isotope irradiation (NRG)
• Boron neutron capture therapy
Plant SimulationTesting Laboratory

• Simulation of waste incineration conditions 

Non Destructive Evaluation Facilities 

• Similar to facilities in hospitals, but powerful enough to penetrate thick 
steel

Material and Component Performance Labs

• When is a crack safe?

Hydrogen Facilities

• Hydrogen storage -- High pressure cycling, & permeation 
• Fuel Cells -- 100 kW FC stack testing station

22 Nov 2004           7

IE Activities

Nuclear safety

• Making both existing and new designs

Clean & Sustainable Energy
• Hydrogen --large potential for future 

of nuclear power plants even safer

sustainable energy economy

In enlarged EU & CIS

• Can be produced from Biomass & Waste

• Can be stored

• Can be utilized via Fuel Cells

Energy Information Platform

Evaluation, comparison, prediction of different 
energy sources /demand

Fuel Cell System

Hydrogen Tanks

The High Flux Reactor

• Medical Applications

• Nuclear Safety

irradiations of materials/fuels allows

engineers to predict behaviour eg.ageing

22 Nov 2004           8

IE 
Support to the cleaner energies.

22 Nov 2004           9

Energy from Waste and Biomass

• Maximize energy efficiency - increase energy recovery from 
renewables and minimize adverse effects on environment
- plant energy efficiency
- plant process monitoring
- 850°C/2c report
- contribution to Community dioxins strategy

• Maintain PREWIN networking activities and contacts with 

the international organizations
- 75 member organizations
- 9 from new member states

22 Nov 2004           10

Testing of Alternative Fuel Tanks

Focus:

• Green paper “Towards a European Strategy for Security of Energy Supply” Reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions and reduce European Union’s energy dependency: introduce 
substitute  fuels at Community level (20% by year 2020).

• EP and Council Directive on the promotion of alternative fuels for road 

transportation : short-term: Biofuels, middle-term: Natural Gas, long -term: Hydrogen

Hydrogen 
Tanks

Fuel Cell System

22 Nov 2004           11

Fuel Cell System performance Testing 
and Standardization

Objectives:

• Development of harmonized testing procedures and methodologies applicable to fuel cells 

stacks and systems

• Providing direct comparisons of 
competing fuel cell technologies 
in terms of performance and 
operational characteristics

55 partners

Fuel Cell Testing Network FCTESTNET

22 Nov 2004           12

Energy Information Platform

SETRIS
SETRIS

To  collect,  compare,  and  evaluate  information  on  Energy  Technologies  and  needs  in 
collaboration with all relevant national partners.

Sustainable Energy strategy for the future.
This information will help the debate on a Sustainable Energy strategy for the future.

22 Nov 2004           13

The EC Reference
for
Safer and Cleaner Energy

HTR-TN

High Temperature Reactor Technology Network

EMIR

Networks

22 Nov 2004           14

ΣΣETRI

ETRIΣΣ

Stathis D. Peteves

DG JRC
Sustainable Energy Technologies Reference 
& Information System

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 1

EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
and main Energy Policy priorities 
and main Energy Policy priorities 

A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
A less energy intensive, environmentally responsible, 
knowledge based, sustained economic growth
knowledge based, sustained economic growth
knowledge based, sustained economic growth

(cid:172) Secure long term energy supply
( fuel-mix diversification, regional self-sufficiency, endogenous 
sources, import independence )

(cid:172)Reduce Green House Gas emissions, mitigate climate 
change, continue addressing air quality
( fossil fuel substitution, de-carbonisation )

(cid:172) Internal Market, Competitiveness
( increased competition, new opportunities, regional 
development )

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 2

EU25 Security of Energy Supply Concerns

Forecast of  imports share in EU25 energy
consumption

64%

55%

46%

48%

70%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 3

EU25 Security of Energy Supply Concerns
The role of the TRANSPORT Sector

(cid:70)(cid:70) The  transport  sector  is  practically  100% 
The  transport  sector  is  practically  100% 
dependent on oil, the energy source of greatest 
dependent on oil, the energy source of greatest 
concern from a security of supply viewpoint
concern from a security of supply viewpoint

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 4

EU25 Climate Change Concerns

EU25 CO2 emissions on present trends and 
measures (1990 = 100)

100

96

99

107

114

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 5

EU25 Climate Change Concerns
The role of the TRANSPORT Sector 

(cid:70) CO2  emissions  from  transport  are  expected  to 
keep  rising,  contrary  to  agreed  objectives  to  reduce 
them.  This  make  it  more  difficult  for  the  Union  to 
respond to the challenge of climate change and to meet 
its  commitments  under  the  Kyoto  Protocol.  Moreover, 
the  commitments  made  in  Kyoto  Protocol  must  be 
regarded as a first step

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 6

The Options……

3 key technological pathways to reduce oil dependence 
of transport & associated GHG emissions

(cid:170) Fuel Economy Improvement

(cid:170) Diversification – Aggressive Adoption of 
Biofuels & other Alternative Fuels

(cid:170) Migration to Fuel Cell systems running on 

Hydrogen

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 7

Commission in its November 2000 Green Paper
Commission in its November 2000 Green Paper
on the Security of Energy Supply:
on the Security of Energy Supply:

…introduces  the  objective  of  20%  substitution  by  alternative 
fuels in the road transport sector by the year 2020 with the dual 
reducing 
purpose  of 
greenhouse gas emissions.

improving  security  of  supply  and 

Commission identified  three main potential alternative ranges of 
fuels that could each be developed up to the level of 5% or more
of the total automotive fuel market by 2020:

– biofuels

– natural gas

– hydrogen

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 8

The BIOFUELS Case 

Advantages of biofuels as an alternative to oil

1)

2)

3)

Available today

Easy for consumers (no new fuelling system)

Combine advantages for CO2, security  of supply 
and rural development

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 9

EU25 THE POLICY 

•Two general EU targets:

(cid:170) 12% share of renewable energy in  energy 

consumption by 2010 
(from 6% today)

(cid:170) 20% share of alternative fuels substituting for petrol 

and diesel by 2020

(from <1% today)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 10

EU25 THE POLICY

Implemented through:
(cid:57) promotional legislation

(cid:131)
(cid:131)

Biofuels Directive (2003/30)
Fuel Taxation Directive (2003/96)

(cid:57)research

(cid:131)
(cid:131)
(cid:131)

large scale deployment (Biofuels Cities)
cheaper existing technologies
new technologies (lignocellulosic feedstocks)

(cid:57)(limited) financial support

(cid:131)
(cid:131)
(cid:131)

Intelligent energy for Europe
Energy crops credit
structural funds

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 11

THE FUTURE

1)  Legislation/targets

- most national reports under the biofuels directive  now 

received

- promote exchange between Member States
- what about targets after 2010?

2)  We need more biomass for energy – where 

will it come from?
Biomass action plan:  waste? agriculture? forestry?  
imports?
where now with Mercosur?

3)    Standards

revision of fuel quality directive (Commission proposal 
by the end of 2005)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 12

THE FUTURE

-

-

-

Where next for the ACEA agreement on car fuel 
efficiency?

CO2 emissions trading in transport?

Will other alternative fuels start to have a real 
impact (hydrogen??)

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 13

Which
one?

Thank you! 

Have a Successful Workshop

Alternative Fuels  Enlargement Workshop, November 2004,  # 14

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

European Commission
Perspective on Alternative Fuels

(cid:122) Trends in Energy and Transport

(cid:122) EU activities on alternative fuels

(cid:122) Perspectives for alternative fuels

09/11/2006

Slide 1

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trend in Energy Import 

Energy Import Dependency in EU-25

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

EU-25
Baseline trends

Import dependency rises from 47% to 68% in 2000 - 2030

09/11/2006

Slide 2

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trends in Energy Consumption 

2500

2000

e
o
t
M

1500

1000

500

0

EU-25
Baseline trends

Coal

Oil

Natural Gas

Nuclear

Renewable

Total

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

• Oil remains main energy source
• Natural gas increases its share considerably
• Renewable energy sources remain at low level

09/11/2006

Slide 3

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Trends in CO2 Emissions 

2

O
C

t

M

5000
4500

4000
3500
3000

2500
2000
1500
1000

500
0

EU-25
Baseline trends

Transport

Electricity

Industry

Households

Tertiary

Energy 

Total

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

• CO2 emissions increase after 2010
• Electricity production and transport remain main emitters

09/11/2006

Slide 4

 
European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Pollutant Emissions from Transport

NOx emissions

Buses

Trucks

Cars

120

100

80

60

40

20

0)
0
1
=
0
9
9
1
(
x 
e
d
n
I

0
1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

• Pollutant emissions have decreased and will continue falling
• Gradually tightening EURO emission standards successful

09/11/2006

Slide 5

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

EC Activities on Alternative Fuels

EC activities on alternative fuels are part of a policy aiming at:
(cid:190)Security of energy supply

(Energy Green Paper 11/2000)

(cid:190)Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
Energy efficiency and alternative fuels are complementary

(Transport White Paper 9/2001)

♦ Communication on alternative fuels (11/2001):

Biofuels, Natural gas, Hydrogen

♦ Contact Group Alternative Fuels (Report 12/2003):

Stakeholder expert group on technology and economics

♦ High Level Group Hydrogen (Report 5/2003):

Vision of a hydrogen economy

♦ European Technology Platform on hydrogen and fuel cells(1/2004):

Facilitator to research, development and deployment 

♦ Research Framework Programmes

R&D projects (e.g. CUTE hydrogen bus project)

09/11/2006

Slide 6

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Alternative Fuels
Market Development Scenario

%

25

20

15

10

5

0

Hydrogen

Natural Gas

Biofuels

8

2

6

2

2

23

5

10

8

14

2

5

7

2005

2010

2015

2020

09/11/2006

Slide 7

Alternative Fuels Contact Group 

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

♦ Objective

Technical and economic 
assessment of alternative motor 
fuels;

Priority on natural gas and 
hydrogen;

Biomass derived synthetic fuels and 
LPG included.  

♦ Members of expert group

Fuel suppliers, car manufacturers, 
consumers, research institutions, 
civil society  

09/11/2006

Slide 8

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Synthetic Fuels from Biomass 

♦ Security of energy supply

Expansion of the supply base for bio fuels

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Improved engine technology with higher efficiency

♦ Economic aspects

Optimisation of new production plants;

Introduction of renewable hydrogen from biomass in 
co-production with synthetic diesel

09/11/2006

Slide 9

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Natural Gas Fuel

♦ Security of energy supply

Diversification of the supply base;
10% transport market share covered by existing supply

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Future technology 15% lower than gasoline, diesel 

♦ Low pollutant emissions

Low emissions of NOx and particulates

♦ Economic aspects

Economic viability possible in mass market conditions

09/11/2006

Slide 10

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Hydrogen Fuel

♦ Security of energy supply

Universal energy carrier for all primary sources;
buffer storage for renewable energy sources.

♦ Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Fuel cell systems with high efficiency allow saving also 
with hydrogen from fossil sources.

Internal combustion enegines provide saving only with
renewable hydrogen.

♦ Economic aspects

Fuel cost economic in high efficiency fuel cell systems
(cost and efficiency twice that of diesel/gasoline vehicles).

09/11/2006

Slide 11

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Hydrogen Demonstration Project 
CUTE - Clean Urban Transport for Europe

(cid:132) A fleet of 27 hydrogen powered buses

(cid:132) Demonstration in 9 European cities 
(Porto, Madrid, Barcelona, London, 
Luxembourg, Hamburg, Stuttgart, 
Amsterdam and Stockholm)

(cid:132) Production, distribution and refueling

(cid:132) Exploring the potential of renewables 

as primary energy source

(cid:132) Co-operation with Iceland (ECTOS) 

and Australia (STEP)

09/11/2006

http://www.fuel-cell-bus-club.com/index.html

Slide 12

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Alternative Motor Fuels 
Demonstration Work Programme 2004
Third CALL FOR PROPOSALS (Call 2005.SM):

Aim: Establish 2 EUROPEAN PARTNERSHIPS

Biofuel-Cities
(cid:132) Energy efficient vehicle fleets using biofuels
(cid:132) Production, storage and distribution of biofuels
(cid:132) Assessment and monitoring
(cid:132) Communication and dissemination

Hydrogen for Transport
(cid:132) Innovative captive hydrogen fleets
(cid:132) Production, storage, distribution and fuelling of hydrogen
(cid:132) Link of transport and stationary sectors, biofuels and hydrogen pathways
(cid:132) Assessment and monitoring
(cid:132) Communication and dissemination

09/11/2006

Slide 13

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Perspectives of Alternative Fuels

Bio Fuels:

Domestic resource base; mature for the broad market.
(cid:206) economic incentives

Broadening of resource base with synthetic biofuels.
(cid:206) feedstock, logistics, pilot plants (BTL / H2)

Natural gas:

Diversification of resource base; potential for 
significant market share in the medium term.
(cid:206) supply infrastructure, vehicle choice,

economic incentives

Hydrogen:

Potential for main energy carrier in the long term.
(cid:206) broad research + focused technical development;
integrated (“lighthouse”) demonstration projects

09/11/2006

Slide 14

European Commission, Directorate-General Energy and Transport

Contribution of alternative Fuels

20% market share of alternative fuels provide

Security of energy supply

Substitution of 70 Megatonnes oil  per year,
(cid:206) Amount of total North Sea production in 2020

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Saving of 80 Megatonnes CO2 per year,
(cid:206) Amount of about 10% of total transport emissions

09/11/2006

Slide 15

Enlargement & Integration Workshop
Alternative Fuels

Production and Use of Biogas

David Baxter

(With input from Kyriakos Maniatis: EC-DG TREN
and IEA Bioenergy Task 37 members)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Contents of Presentation

• What is Biogas and where does it come from ?

• Outline of EU Policies & Targets Related to Renewable Energy

• EU Biogas Production Data and Targets for the Future

• A Selection of EU IEA-Member Country Data & Scope of Legislation

• Success Stories

• Useful Contact Details and References

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

What is Biogas and where does it come from ?

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas

• Biogas is the gas produced when organic materials decay in an 

oxygen-starved environment

• The composition of raw biogas from a landfill or digestion plant 

is typically 50-60% CH4 (methane), a Green House Gas 
more than 20 times more damaging to the environment 
than CO2

• After cleaning it can be easily burned in an engine to produce 

electricity and heat

• It can be “up-graded” to natural gas quality for use as a 

renewable alternative fuel (e.g. as a transport fuel)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas plant

Laihia plant in Finland: Co-digestion of animal waste,
malt waste and municipal solid waste

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Biogas Production

Municipal

Agricultural

Industrial

P
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Process

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/

Biogas

Liquid

Solid

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Municipal

Agricultural

Industrial

P
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Process

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C
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a
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g
/

Biogas

Liquid

Solid

e.g. Hygenisation treatment
According to EU animal by-product
regulation (1774/2002)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Process: 

mesophyllic (37oC)
thermophyllic (70oC)
1 – 2 weeks

Duration:
Solids content < 10%

Methane production potential

l

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CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

l

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f
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w
a
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t
e

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Electricity and heat production

Up-grading for transport or
pipeline injection

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Outline of EU Policies & Targets 
Related to Renewable Energy

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (1)

• RES White paper 1997:  increase share of RES from 
6% to 12% of gross consumption by 2010

• Action plan for Energy Efficiency target: to 
reduce energy intensity by 1 % point per year until 
2010 
• Comply with EU commitments under the 1997 Kyoto 
Protocol on reducing greenhouse gas emissions

• Johannesburg “coalition of the willing” to work to 
increase the use of RES using targets and timetables 

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (2)

• Directive 2001/77/EC of 27.09.01 on RES-e : to 
establish a framework to increase the share of green 
electricity from 14% to 22% of gross electricity 
consumption by 2010

• Directive 2003/30/EC of 08.05.2003 on the 
promotion of liquid and gaseous biofuels for 
transport: targets: 2% by 2005;  5.75% by 2010

• Directive 2004/8/EC on cogeneration of heat and 
power.

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Energy (3)

• Waste Incineration (2000/76/EC)
Limits on emissions from thermal treatment of
Waste materials (effective 12/2005)

• Landfill (1999/31/EC)
Reduced landfilling of biodegradable component
of waste by 65% by 2016

• Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

(96/61/EC): special provision for RES

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Policies and Targets: Biogas

“There is no particular policy on biogas, it is a 
component of the general bioenergy "cocktail“
...so it is covered by all policies related to RES 
and bioenergy.”

Landfill gas is covered by the policies on waste 
management but its applications falls under 
the energy policies.

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Intelligent Energy Europe

Total budget 215 M€
Vertical key actions: to tackle non-technological barriers

SAVE

ALTENER

STEER

COOPENER

(cid:131) Multiplying 
success in 
buildings
(cid:131) Retrofitting of 
social houses
(cid:131) Innovative 
approaches in 
industry
(cid:131) Transforming 
the market: 
Energy Efficient 
Equipment and 
Products

(cid:131) RES-Electricity

(cid:131) RES-Heat

(cid:131) Small Scale RES 
Applications

(cid:131) Alternative fuels 
and vehicles

(cid:131) Alternative fuels 
and vehicles
(cid:131) Policy measures 
for and efficient 
use of energy in 
transport
(cid:131) Strengthening 
the knowledge of 
local management 
agencies in the 
transport field

(cid:131) Create an enabling 
policy and legislative 
environment for 
energy services in  
developing countries

(cid:131) Strengthen local 
energy expertise and 
build human capital 
in the developing 
countries

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

The RES Directives & Energy 
from Waste

Waste is a valuable resource!

Kaiserslautern, DE

• The Biodegradable fraction of MSW
is a RES.
(e.g. classified as 50% in the NL)
• Energy and fuels from waste are thus 
covered by the Directives.

• One of the main problems is how to 
determine the biodegradable fraction
of waste streams ?
• Need for Standards??

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

EU Biogas Production Data and Targets for the Future

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sources of European Biogas Production

Source

Installations

Production Share

Landfill

450

Urban Sewage

1600-1700

Industrial Sewage

420

Agricultural Biogas

1600-1700

Methanisation of 
Municipal Waste

Co-digestion

65

55

38%

33%

24%

2%

2%

1%

Total

~ 4250

100%

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Source: EurObserver – Biogas Energy Barometer, August 2004

Crude Biogas Production (Units = ktoe)

Country

UK

Germany

France

Spain

Italy

Netherlands

Sweden

Portugal

Denmark

Austria

Belgium

Greece

Ireland

Finland

Luxemburg

Total

* estimated

2002

1076

659

302

168

155

149

147

76

62

59

56

42

28

18

2

2003*

1151

685

322

257

155

154

147

76

62

64

56

42

28

18

2

2999

3219

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Source: EurObserver – Biogas Energy Barometer, August 2004

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

)
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M

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P
s
s
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G

0
2000

Trends in Growth of Biogas Production 

Actual Amount

EU Target

Solagro Study (30% annual
growth rate)
Trend with 25% growth rate

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

Year

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

 
 
A Selection of EU IEA-Member Country Data
& Scope of Legislation

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Netherlands

Output: 2002

Gross production – 149 ktoe (inclusive 14 ktoe flared) (data from NOVEM)

37 ktoe heat
304 GWh electricity ( = 27 ktoe)
38 million m3 injected into natural gas network

Legislation

• Manure Regulation (1977) – list of types of manure

- restricted allowance for co-digestion

• Amendment of 1977 Regulation (2004)

- digestate from co-digestion allowed to 

be used or sold for land improvement

• Target of 10% for renewable energy in 2010: 7% of electricity from renewable fuel

(13% electricity now consumed is green, but only 3.3% generated in NL –
expected that NL will purchase “green certificates” from outside EU) 

• Green electricity free from ECO-tax applied to fossil fuels
• Liberalisation of energy market from 01.07.2004

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Sweden

Output: 2003

Gross production – 147 ktoe (data from STEM)

120 GWh electricity ( = 10.3ktoe)
110 GWh (9.5 ktoe) vehicle fuel 
+ injection into natural gas network and combustion for heat

Policy/Legislation

• Targets: 7.4% renewable electricity (2003); 16.9% (2010)
• Biogas for heat production is not taxed 
• Green certificates for electricity production (from 2004): 27 €/MWh 

(market price for electricity ~ 20 €/MWh)

• Biogas for vehicles not taxed; natural gas is taxed – difference is equal to up-

grading cost of biogas to pipeline quality

• For EC Biofuels Directive, approximately 2/3 supplied by ethanol, 1/3 biogas 

(mainly for buses and local distribution); on target for 3% in 2005, but 
growth rate too low to meet 5.75% by 2010

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: Austria

Output: 2003

Gross production – 64 ktoe (data from EurObserver)

8 ktoe heat
221 GWh electricity ( = 19 ktoe)

Legislation

• Eco-electricity law (BGB1 I 149/2002): defines conditions, inputs etc.
• Regulation (BGB1 II 508/2002): sets prices for eco-electricity from 

biogas plants for export to grid

Plants must be commissioned by 31.12.2004 and in operation by 

31.12.2006

Prices guaranteed for accepted plants for 13 years (~ 120 plants in 

operation; ~40 plants under construction

• Biogas carries ECO-label, but digestate disposal is a problem

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Individual Country Positions: UK

Output: 2002

Gross production – 1076 ktoe (data from DTI)

3076 GWh electricity ( = 265 ktoe)

+ heat and flare

Most electricity production from landfill (2679 GWh)  

Legislation

• The Renewables Obligation Order (SI 2002/914: 01.04.2002)

Covering biogas (landfill and sewage), wind, geothermal, hydro, biomass 
(including energy crops and co-firing), tidal, wave, PV, …

Target: to provide 10% of UK’s electricity from renewables by 2010 
(this means building 1.25 GW extra capacity/year !!)

Control: by “Renewable Obligation Certificates” (ROCs) which can be traded
Possible to “buy out” obligation at current price of £30.51 per MWh.

• No tax advantage for biogas over NG, but 25% investment support for biogas 

production/recovery plants

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Success Stories

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sweden

• 200 biogas plants
• Biogas produced from sewage 
water sludge (60%), landfills 
(30%) and plants for treatment 
of organic waste (10%)
• Total biogas production 

corresponds to 140 million 
m3/year natural gas (1,4 TWh)

• 0,2 TWh as transport fuel
• Total transport - 75 TWh/year 

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sweden

Cleaning
Cleaning
particles
•• particles
hydrogen sulphide
•• hydrogen sulphide
water
•• water

Up-Grading
carbon dioxide 
• Removing carbon dioxide 

~97 vol--% CH% CH44
~97 vol
increase calorific value
increase calorific value
equalise gas composition
equalise gas composition

Odorised
Odorised
Compressed to 200 bar
Compressed to 200 bar

Biogas in Stockholm: 
• Biogas production in 

sewage water treatment 
plants

• Transport by truck of 
upgraded gas to three 
filling stations

• 500 vehicles, mainly bi-

fuel vehicles

• 130 new city buses in 

2006, new filling station

• Enough fuel for 3000 
vehicles in 2003 ( 4,5 
Mm3/year)

• Back up with natural gas 

and biogas  

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

New in 2003

Sweden

Methane as alternative fuel
for transport

• 11 cities operate with biogas
• 3 cities have systems where both 

biogas and natural gas are available

• 9 cities operate with natural gas
• 20 upgrading plants
• 36 public filling stations
• 30 stations planned
• More than 4000 vehicles

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

(cid:122) 20 Large Biogas Plants

(cid:122) 57 Farm based Biogas Plants

Denmark

Volume of biomass processed 

(m3):

Large plants 2002 

Animal manure 

1.105.000

Organic waste 

375.000

Total

1.480.000

Farm-scale Plants

300.000

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Denmark

Gas Utilisation
• Boilers (heat)
• Internal combustion 
engines (electricity)

• CHP applications

• Gas turbines
• Fuel Cells

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Denmark

Solid Residue/Digestate:
• Substitute for chemical 
fertiliser - adds organic 
matter to the soil

• Nutrients are recycled to 

land

• Nitrogen uptake increased 

from 40 to >70%

• Phosphorous increased 
from ~30 to > 60 %

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

EU Biogas Network

BIOEXELL (Biogas Centre of Excellence)

Objectives:

1. Contribute to implementation of EU renewable energy strategy
2. Stimulate market for biogas & AD technologies in EU & CCs
3. Contribute to removal of non-technical barriers
4. Improve experience on dissemination and coordination at EU, 
international and regional levels to increase investor 
confidence and market penetration of biogas

Coordinator:  University of Southern Denmark

(Vagn Holmgaard; Tel: +45-655-02911
Email: vh@adm.sdu.dk
Web: www.sdu.dk 

Contract No.:
Duration:

4.1031/Z/01-045)
3 years (starting 01.01.2002)

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

STATUS OF PROCESSES & 
APPLICATIONS

w
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Strong 

Average

Weak

Technology Strength

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Slide Courtesy of K.Maniatis: EC-DG TREN

RDF & Sludge

Co-combustion

Incineration

Pyrolysis

Anaerobic 
Digestion.

Co-Gasification

Biodiesel
Bioethanol
& other novel 
processes

 
Useful Contact Details and References

• CORDIS:

http://www.cordis.lu/rtd2002/

• EUROPA: 

http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/research/index_en.html
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/res/documents/country_profiles/2004_0547_sec_cou
ntry_profiles_en.pdf for “Country Profiles”)

• Energy research web site: 

http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/energy/index_en.html

• DG Energy and Transport web site:

http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/index_en.html

• Contact Point for Waste and Biomass Related Activities at JRC-

Institute for Energy: http://ie.jrc.cec.eu.int/

David.Baxter@jrc.nl - Tel/Fax: (+31) 22456-5227/5626

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Thank you

CC Alternative Fuels Workshop: Petten November 22 & 23, 2004

Sustainable Energy 
Technologies 
Reference and 
Information Systems

Biofuels for Transport and the EU 
Enlargement

B. Kavalov,
Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Oil imports

EU-25 oil import dependence

Breakdown of world oil reserves

Oil

Europe & Eurasia

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Total

Oil

Middle East

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2001

The EU – increasing oil imports from the Middle East

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

2

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Transport –
an energy dragon

EU energy use by sectors

EU transport energy use by fuels

Transport

Oil

The EU transport – the largest growth in energy use & 
fully dependent on oil products

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

3

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Climate changes

Climate changes = 
f (Global Warming) = 
f (Greenhouse gases) = 
f (Carbon Dioxide)

⇓

Kyoto protocol of the UNFCCC
and the EU:

-8% of CO2 emissions in 1990 
by 2008-2012

Shall we enjoy the better weather in Petten in the future!?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

4

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: The GHG 
situation in the EU

GHG and CO2 reduction
is lagging behind

Transport CO2 - ?

Little has been done so far, transport is the main problem

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

5

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Shares of transport 
in the EU energy use and GHG emissions

Energy use

GHG

Road transport – a major energy and 
environmental concern in the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

6

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Road transport 
in the EU – the bad guy

Road transport – the fastest
growing transport mode
in the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

7

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels: Transport in 
the CEEC

The CEEC experience the same transport & energy challenges like the EU

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

8

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why alternative fuels for Europe

To secure and diversify the energy supply for transport and in
particular – for road transport in an environmentally-friendly way

• Green Paper COM (2000) 769 – energy
• White Paper COM (2001) 370 – transport
• Communication COM (2001) 547 – alternative fuels for transport

(biofuels, natural gas and hydrogen)

• Biofuel directive 2003/30/EC

2.00 % (road) transport biofuels by 2005
5.75 % (road) transport biofuels by 2010

• Energy taxation directive 2003/96/EC

Tax preferences for biofuels foreseen

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

9

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Why biofuels

• Different production patterns from oil

Fuel supply

Product dependence

Product diversity

Dependence on suppliers

Oil

Diversity of suppliers

Biofuels

• CO2 neutral

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
0

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Which biofuels by 2010

Biodiesel (BD) – oil extraction
(rapeseed, sunflower)

Bioethanol (BE) & ETBE (ethyl-tertio-
butyl-ether, 47% EtOH) – fermentation 
(wheat, sugar beet, potato)

Fossil diesel

Fossil petrol

BD5, BD20

BE5, BE10, BE85, ETBE15

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
1

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuels today and tomorrow in EU-15

e
o
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M

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2003

Planned 2004

Years

Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Total biofuels

Are the needed significant additional efforts feasible?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
2

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuels and the NMS & AC

“Creating an EU market for biofuels will also offer an opportunity for the 
Candidate Countries. On average they have more agricultural land and less 
diesel and gasoline consumption per capita than present EU Member States. 
Growing crops for biofuels will facilitate the absorption of the agricultural 
sector of the new Member States in the Common Agricultural Policy.”

COM (2001) 

547

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

NMS-10

EU-15

Biofuels

Population

Territory

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
3

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Biofuel yields EU-15 and NMS-10 & 
AC-2

/

a
h
J
G

150

125

100

75

50

25

0

EU-15

NMS&AC current

NMS&AC optimum

Sunflower

Rapeseed

Wheat

Potato

Sugar beet

Large reserves to improve yields in NMS & AC
Larger bioethanol yield per hectare

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
4

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Land for biofuel production NMS-10 & 
AC-2

Current estimates

Optimum scenario

d
n
a
l
e
l
b
a
r
a
C
A
&
S
M
N

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Years

Large unexplored land reserves for biofuel production
in NMS & AC

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
5

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
 
Feasible biofuel potential of NMS-10 & 
AC-2

Biofuel fair shares in EU-27

EU-27 land area requirements

n
o

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p
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
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f

7
2
-

U
E

3.0%

2.5%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

BD current

BD optimum

BE current

BE optimum

Fair shares

d
n
a
l

e
l
b
a
r
a

7
2
-
U
E

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

BD&BE upper scenario

BD&BE lower scenario

100%BE scenario

10% set-aside land

Significant unexplored biofuel reserves in NMS & AC
Larger bioethanol availability

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
6

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
 
Limitations in ethanol blending with 
petrol

l

o
r
t
e
p

n

i

d
n
e
l

b

l

o
n
a
h
t
e
o
B

i

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

All BF as BE,
volume

All BF as BE,
energy

5% BE blend

10% BE blend

7% BE blend as
ETBE

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Years

Bioethanol in diesel? – so far technical obstacles

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
7

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
Trends on the EU automotive fuel 
market – the biofuel mission is getting 
more difficult

Growing diesel demand &
declining petrol consumption

Growing diesel imports &
petrol exports

250

200

150

100

50

0
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

Petrol

Diesel

24

20

16

t

M

12

8

4

0
1990

Petrol
export

Diesel
import

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

t

M

,

e
s
u

l

e
u

f

e
v
i
t

o
m
o
t
u
A

More bioethanol → more petrol for export → security of supply?

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
8

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

 
 
 
Conclusions

• Biofuels – bioethanol and biodiesel are a promising short-
to medium term (2010) alternative motor fuel for the EU

• The NMS & AC have larger unexplored reserves to produce
biofuels compared to the old 15 member states of the EU

• Fully exploring the biofuel potential of the NMS & AC will

require significant efforts on national level

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

1
9

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

How the feasible biofuel potential of the  
NMS & AC can be fully explored and 
what has been done so far?

… we expect to hear from you tomorrow!

Thanks for your attention!

JRC – IE Petten on 22.11.2004

2
0

JRC-IE Enlargement Workshop on Alternative Fuels,
Petten, 22 November 2004

Advanced Biofuels for Transport

JRC-Enlargement Workshop on
“Alternative Fuels
in the EU Energy System”

Petten, 22 November 2004

Ewout P. Deurwaarder, M.Sc.                                   

Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN)
Business Unit Biomass: Fuels & Products Cluster

Advanced Biofuels for Transport

Contents

Why biofuels? – EU and Dutch Policy Goals

Conventional biofuels vs. Advanced biofuels

BioSyngas-derived fuels:

- RD&D/implementation trajectory

- Vision ECN

- Consumer prices and reduction options

Conclusions

Why Biofuels? – EU/Dutch Policy Goals

Why Biofuels?

Reduced GHG emissions

Security of supply

Limited Fossil Fuel resources

EU Policy Goals

2, 5.75 (and > 10?) % substitution Fossil Fuel for transport in 2005, 
2010 (and 2020?)

Dutch Policy Goals

5, 10% renewable energy in 2010, 2020; > 50% biomass-related

Conventional Biofuels

• Pure vegetable oil
• Biodiesel (oil seeds)
• Ethanol (sugar crops / grains)
• ETBE
•

(Upgraded) Biogas

Conventional Biofuels

Characteristics
• High crop (biomass) costs
• High energy inputs in production and conversion
• Relatively easy and cheap conversion processes
• Only part of the crop is used

Consequences
(Life cycle) CO2 emissions
•
• High amount of land necessary
• High costs
• Not much improvement possible

Opportunity: Advanced Biofuels

Biomass requirements
• High yield biomass production
• Low fertilizer/energy input
• Low costs

-> Woody biomass, e.g. willow

Process requirements
• Whole crop/tree usage
• High conversion efficiency
-> Advanced processes

Results in
•
•

Improved CO2 balance
Improved usage of land

Advanced Biofuels

Gasification based fuels
• Fischer-Tropsch diesel
• Methanol
• DiMethylEther
• Mixed alcohols
• Synthetic Natural Gas
• Hydrogen

Others
• Ethanol (woody biomass)
• HTU-diesel, Pyrolysis-diesel
• Biological hydrogen

Advanced processes:
• More complicated technology
• Not fully developed yet
• Higher investment costs

Gasification

Biomass

Productgas

Entrained Flow gasification

(1300 ºC, Oxygen)

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

NH3, H2S, HCl

Fluidized Bed gasification

(850 ºC, Oxygen/Air)

Indirect gasification

(900 ºC, Air)

H2, CO, CO2, H2O, (N2)

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

BioSyngas: multifunctional intermediate

Productgas

Gas Cleaning

BioSyngas

Synthesis

Biofuel

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

NH3, H2S, HCl

H2, CO, CO2, H2O

CH4, C2H4, Tars,

NH3, H2S, HCl

NH3

H2S,

HCl,

Tar

removal

removal

H2, CO

CO2, H2O

(CH4, C2H4)

Fischer-Tropsch diesel

Methanol

DiMethylEther

Mixed Alcohols

Synthetic Natural Gas

Hydrogen

Chemicals

Electricity, Heat

Especially the transport fuel market offers an enormous 
future substitution potential for BioSyngas !

BioSyngas: RD&D trajectory 

ECN Biomass

has produced the first ever Fischer-Tropsch liquid from biomass (2002)

has produced Synthetic Natural Gas from biomass (2003)

Main R&D issues

Biomass feeding to entrained flow gasifiers

Tar removal (new ECN OLGA technology)

Optimising gasification efficiency

RD&D-trajectory

Pilot-scale (several MWth)

Full scale demo-plant (> 2008)

ECN Vision on BioSyngas
production/use in The Netherlands

Large (> 1000 MWth) plants close to seaports using clean imported biomass               

High biomass-to-syngas yields (CO+H2) required for cost effective production

-> High temperature pressurised slagging entrained-flow gasification

Cutting 

1 mm cuttings 

Screw 
feeder 

Entrained flow 
gasification 
(slagging) 

biosyngas

Gas cleaning
& Conditioning

B-t-S yield 
[%LHV]

(+ net power)

81 (+3)

woody 
biomass 

Torrefaction 
(+ milling) 

torrified biomass

Pneumatic 
feeder 

straw-like crops 

Pyrolysis 

bioslurry 

Feeder 
& injector 

biosyngas
on spec.

Gas 
utilization 

73 (+2)

•  FT diesel 
•  MeOH / DME 
•  Hydrogen 
•  Electricity 
•  Chemicals

69 (+7)

 
And what about the costs ? 

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0

)
r
e
t
i
l
/
o
r
u
E

(

e
c

i
r
p

r
e
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
s
e
D

i

110 ct

94 ct

82 ct

82 ct

 V.A.T.

 Excise

 Fixed costs

 Production costs

69 ct

)
r
e
t
i
l
/
o
r
u
E

(

e
c

i
r
p

r
e
m
u
s
n
o
c

l

e
s
e
D

i

1,5

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0

 Production costs

 Fixed costs

 Excise

 CO2 tax

 V.A.T.

110 ct

107 ct

110 ct

125 c

t

82 ct

Fossil

Biomass

40%

70%

100%

Excise reduction percentage Fischer-Tropsch diesel

Fossil

Biomass

71

81

125

CO2 tax (Euro/tonne) on fossil fuel

At a projected Biomass cost of 4 €/GJ, we need:
- Permanent Oil price of 50 US$/bbl 
- Excise reduction with 70% 
- CO2 tax of 81 Euro/tonne on fossil diesel

OR

OR

 
 
 
 
 
 
Advanced biofuels for transport 

Conclusions

1. The short-term (2005, 2010): Conventional biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol)

2. Advanced biofuels reduce CO2-emissions and improve land usage.

3. The longer term (> 2010): Advanced (BioSyngas-derived) biofuels will 

become the most important biofuels.

4. RD&D is still necessary    

5. Costs of advanced biofuels will be lower than of conventional biofuels.

Oil price will determine if and how much governmental support is necessary.

Thank you for your attention !

Ewout P. Deurwaarder, M.Sc., ECN Biomass: Fuels & Products Cluster

Part of the work shown was funded by the Dutch Agency for Energy and the Environment (Novem)

JRC-Enlargement Workshop 
on
Alternative Fuels in the EU Energy System

22-23 November 2004

The Joint Well-to-Wheels Study  

on

Alternative Fuels

V. Mahieu – JRC, Ispra

Slide 1

study on FUELS
Joint WtWWtW study on FUELS
Joint 

Objectives
Objectives

• Establish, in a transparent and objective manner, a consensual well-to-
wheels energy use and GHG emissions assessment of a wide range of 
automotive fuels and powertrains relevant to Europe in 2010 and beyond.

• Consider the viability of each fuel pathway and estimate the associated 
macro-economic costs.

• Have the outcome accepted as a reference by all relevant stakeholders.

KEY: 
KEY: 

(cid:137) Common set of performances for the virtual reference vehicle

(cid:137) Compliance with EURO III / EURO IV vehicles regulations 

Slide 2

Well to Tank Pathways
Well to Tank Pathways

Resource

Crude oil
Crude oil

CoalCoal

Natural gas
Natural gas

Land
Land

WoodWood

Sugar beet
Sugar beet

WheatWheat

Oil seeds
Oil seeds

WindWind

Fuels

Conventional gasoline/diesel
Conventional gasoline/diesel

SynFuels
SynFuels

CNGCNG

Hydrogen (compressed / liquid)
Hydrogen (compressed / liquid)

Methanol
Methanol

DMEDME

Ethanol
Ethanol

FAME
FAME

Slide 3

Pathways
Tank to Wheels Pathways
Tank to Wheels

Fuels

Conventional 
Conventional 
gasoline/diesel
gasoline/diesel

SynFuels
SynFuels

CNGCNG

Hydrogen (compressed / 
Hydrogen (compressed / 
liquid)
liquid)

Methanol
Methanol

DMEDME

Ethanol
Ethanol

FAME
FAME

Powertrains

Single vehicle platform: “VW Golf”

Conventional gasoline / CNG engine
Conventional gasoline / CNG engine

Direct gasoline / diesel injection
Direct gasoline / diesel injection

Hybrid gasoline / diesel / CNG
Hybrid gasoline / diesel / CNG

Hydrogen ICE
Hydrogen ICE

Fuel cell (+ reformer)
Fuel cell (+ reformer)

Hybrid fuel cell
Hybrid fuel cell

Slide 4

TANK
WELLWELL--TOTO--TANK

Slide 5

Compressed hydrogen pathways
Compressed hydrogen pathways
(excluding electricity)
(excluding electricity)

Coal (EU mix)

Production and
conditioning

NG (piped)

Production and
conditioning

EU mix typical

Gasification +
CO shift

Pipeline, 50 km
+ compression

Pipeline into EU
EU-mix
4000 km
7000 km

NG grid

Reforming (on-site)

Compression

Reforming (central)

Road or pipeline
50 km
+ compression

NG (remote)

Production and
conditioning

Liquefaction

Shipping (LNG)

Wood waste

Collection

Road, 50 km

Small scale gasif.
+ CO shift

Pipeline, 10 km
+ compression

Farmed wood

Growing
Harvesting

Road, 50 km
+ Shipping

Road, 50 km
+ Shipping

Large scale gasif.
CO shift

Pipeline, 50 km
+ compression

Slide 6

Pathways 
Pathways 
Decomposition
Decomposition

Each Fuel Pathway

is analyzed according to the 
following sample scheme

MJMJ non renewable primary input / MJMJ in the tank

GXCH: Compressed Hydrogen from piped or remote NG
CO2 eq

CO2

N2O

CH4

Total 
primary 
energy 
consumed
MJ/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

g/MJ

GPCH1a Piped NG,  7000 km, on-site reforming
NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

GPCH1b Piped NG,  4000 km, on-site reforming
NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

GMCH1 NG EU-mix, 1000 km, on-site reforming

NG Extraction & Processing
NG Transport
NG Distribution
On-site reforming
On-site delivery
Total chain

0.04
0.29
0.01
0.52
0.20
1.07

0.04
0.14
0.01
0.52
0.20
0.91

0.04
0.03
0.01
0.52
0.20
0.81

2.0
15.0
0.8
83.9
7.7
109.4

1.8
7.1
0.8
83.9
7.7
101.3

1.7
1.7
0.8
85.8
7.7
97.8

0.15
0.33
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.52

0.14
0.19
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.37

0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.22

0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.001

5.1
22.1
0.8
84.5
8.2
120.7

4.6
11.1
0.8
84.5
8.2
109.3

4.4
2.7
0.9
86.4
8.2
102.5

GHG(g) in CO2 eq. / MJMJ in the tank
GHG(g)

Slide 7

Hydrogen pathways
Hydrogen pathways

Summary
Summary

Hydrogen WTT pathways

Conditioning & distribution

Hydrogen WTT pathways 

Transformation near market

Conditioning & distribution

Transportation to market

Transformation near market

Transformation at source

Transportation to market

Production & conditioning at source

Transformation at source

Production & conditioning at source

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

300

250

200

150

100

50

J
M
/
J
M

/

J
M
q
e
2
O
C
g

0

CH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis on-site
LH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis central
CH2, NG 4000 km,ref central, pipeline
CH2, NG 4000 km, ref on-site
LH2, NG 4000 km, electrolysis central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier on-site
LH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, Coal EU-mix, gasifier
LH2, NG 4000 km, ref central
LH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, LNG, ref central
LH2, ref remote
LH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis central
CH2, EU-mix elec, electrolysis on-site
LH2, NG 4000 km, electrolysis central
CH2, NG 4000 km,ref central, pipeline
LH2, NG 4000 km, ref central
LH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier on-site
CH2, NG 4000 km, ref on-site
LH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, farmed wood, gasifier central
CH2, LNG, ref central
CH2, Coal EU-mix, gasifier
LH2, ref remote

Diesel
CNG, 4000 km
Diesel
CNG, 4000 km

Electrolysis must be the “last resort”
unless an uncontroversial renewable energy source can be used

Slide 8

 
WTT Conclusions

(cid:57)(cid:57) LHLH22 is more energy and GHG intensive than CH
is more energy and GHG intensive than CH22

(cid:57)(cid:57) Central reforming requires somewhat less energy than on

Central reforming requires somewhat less energy than on--sitesite

(cid:57)(cid:57) Electrolysis is very energy

Electrolysis is very energy--intensive and can only be justified if 
intensive and can only be justified if 
genuinely renewable electricity is available
genuinely renewable electricity is available

Slide 9

WHEELS
TANK--TOTO--WHEELS
TANK

Gasoline, Diesel, Natural gas, Hydrogen
Gasoline, Diesel, Natural gas, Hydrogen
2010
2002 -- 2010
2002 

Slide 10

Advisor Freeware Model
Advisor Freeware Model

(cid:127) Vehicles simulations with ADVISOR Freeware
(cid:127) The entire vehicle + powertrain must be described

(cid:127) Data collection from manufacturers and others,    

helped by a data logger (sample below)

VEHICLE DEFINITION

Variable name

Type

Unit

ADVISOR name

First coefficient of rolling resistance
Second coefficient of rolling resistance
Coefficient of aerodynamic drag
Vehicle frontal area
Height of the vehicle center of gravity
Fraction of total vehicle mass
Distance between front and rear axle
Mass of the vehicle without components
Test mass including fluids, passengers and cargo
Cargo mass

Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar
Scalar

--
s/m
--
m2
m
--
m
kg
kg
kg

veh_1st_rrc
veh_2nd_rrc
veh_CD
veh_FA
veh_cg_height
veh_front_wt_fraction
veh_wheelbase
veh_glider_mass
veh_mass
veh_cargo_mass

FUEL CONVERTER - CONVENTIONAL

Variable name

Type

Unit

ADVISOR name

Scalar
Engine size (cylinder displacement)
Vector
Vector of engine speed used to index other variables
Vector
Vector of engine torque used to index other variables
Matrix
Fuel use indexed by engine speed and torque
Matrix
Engine out CO indexed by engine speed and torque
Engine out HC indexed by engine speed and torque
Matrix
Engine out NOx indexed by engine speed and torque Matrix
Matrix
Engine out PM indexed by engine speed and torque
Scalar
Fuel density
Scalar
Lower heating value of the fuel
Scalar
Rotational inertia of the engine
Vector
Maximum torque output indexed by engine speed
Scalar
Fraction of waste heat that goes to exhaust
Scalar
Engine coolant thermostat set temperature
Scalar
Average heat capacity of engine
Scalar
Average heat capacity of hood and engine
Scalar
Surface area of hood and engine compartment

L
rad/s
N*m
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/L
J/g
kg*m2
N*m
--
C
J/kg/K
J/kg/K
m2

fc_disp
fc_map_spd
fc_map_trq
fc_fuel_map
fc_co_map
fc_hc_map
fc_nox_map
fc_pm_map
fc_fuel_den
fc_fuel_lhv
fc_inertia
fc_max_trq
fc_ex_pwr_frac
fc_tstat
fc_cp
fc_h_cp
fc_hood_area

FIAT
Multipla
0.01
0.00
0.36
2.60
0.50
0.60
2.67
900
unknown
200

FIAT
Multipla
1.9
73-605
0.0-144
14-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
749
42600
0.1
113-144
0.4
96
500
500
1.5

Slide 11

0.25

0.3

0.25

0.15

0.25

0.2

0.15

Main OUTPUTS:
On the European Cycle (ECE-EUDC), the results 
concern:
•• MJMJ/km/km necessary to perform the NEDC cycle

•• GHG(g/km)

GHG(g/km) in CO2 eq.emitted along the cycle

TankTank--toto--Wheels study
Wheels study
Performance & Emissions
Performance & Emissions

(cid:57)(cid:57) All technologies fulfil at least minimal customer performance cr

iteria
All technologies fulfil at least minimal customer performance criteria

Vehicle Range
(km)
(20 km ZEV Range)
600 km

650

Top Vehicle Speed
(Continuous)
(km/h)

180.0

Vehicle Gradeability
at 90 km/h for 20 minutes
(%)

6.0

Vehicle Acceleration,  
0-100 km/h
(sec) 
12.0

Vehicle Acceleration,  
0-50 km/h
(sec)

4.0

15.0

Vehicle Acceleration in 
Top Gear,  80-120 km/h
(sec)

4.5

Maximum Vehicle
Maximum Vehicle
Acceleration
Acceleration
(m/s2)
(m/s2)

30.0

Max Vehicle Gradeability
(%)

(cid:57)(cid:57) “Vehicle / Fuel” combinations  comply with emissions regulations
“Vehicle / Fuel” combinations  comply with emissions regulations

(cid:136)(cid:136) The 2002 vehicles comply with Euro III
The 2002 vehicles comply with Euro III
(cid:136)(cid:136) The 2010 vehicles comply with EU IV
The 2010 vehicles comply with EU IV

Slide 12

WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

Slide 13

Overall Results – GHG Emissions vs. Energy Use

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

)

m
k
/
q
e
2

O
C
g
(

G
H
G
W
T
W

0

0

Eu-mix coal

Natural gas 

Eu-mix elec

Crude oil 

Biomass 
(conventional)

Biomass (advanced)
Wind, Nuclear

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

WTW energy (MJ/ 100 km)

Gasoline
Diesel
CNG

Syndiesel ex NG
Syndiesel ex wood
DME ex NG
DME ex wood

EtOHex sugar beet
EtOH ex wheat
EtOH ex wood
FAME

Hyd ex NG, ICE
Hyd ex NG, FC
Hyd ex NG+ely, ICE

Hyd ex NG+ely, FC
Hyd ex coal
Hyd ex coal+ely, ICE
Hyd ex coal+ely, FC

Hyd ex bio, ICE
Hyd ex bio, FC
Hyd ex bio+ely, ICE
Hyd ex bio+ely, FC

Hyd ex wind+ely, ICE
Hyd ex wind+ely, FC
Hyd ex nuclear, ICE
Hyd ex nuclear, FC

Hyd ind(Ref+FC)
Hyd ex EU-mix elec (ely), ICE
Hyd ex EU-mix elec (ely), FC

Slide 14

 
 
 
 
General Observations: WTW

(cid:57) A Well-to-Wheels analysis is the essential basis to assess the impact 

of future fuel and powertrain options.

(cid:131) Both fuel production pathway and powertrain efficiency are key to 

assessing GHG emissions and energy use. 

(cid:131) A common methodology and data-set have been developed, providing a 

basis for the evaluation of pathways. Data can be updated as 
technologies evolve.

(cid:190) Results must further be evaluated in the context of volume potential, 

feasibility, practicality, costs of the fuels pathways investigated.

Slide 15

WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

“COST of CO2 Avoided”
“COST of CO2 Avoided”

Slide 16

The cost estimates in this study are based on the following assumptions:

Costs of CO2 Avoided

• In a business as usual scenario  - 5% of the conventional EU-25 fleet 
(marginal diesel and gasoline) will emit ca 37 Mt CO2eq/a in 2010 (280 M 
vehicles, fleet average consumption 137 g CO2/km, 16000 km/a average 
mileage, 140 Mt/a of gasoline and 60 Mt/a of diesel)

• The study gives a representation of the GHG savings vs. incremental costs 
if this portion of the EU transportation demand were hypothetically replaced 
by alternative fuels and powertrain technologies

• CO2 avoided costs are calculated from incremental capital and operating 
costs for fuel pathway and vehicle.

• Fuel production costs can reasonably be considered as proportional to 
volumes, however infrastructure costs critically depend on the scale 
envisaged.

Slide 17

TTW “Vehicles” Costs

o Customer acceptance criteria can be subdivided between:

The retail price (investment),

The running costs (fuel and maintenance).

o The selected methodology attempts to estimate the retail price increment to be 
expected for the various considered technologies. Maintenance costs are not 
considered.

o The retail price is obtained by subtracting the price impact of the original internal 
combustion engine and adding the impact of the new powertrain components.

o Specific price increment for special tanks (hydrogen or natural gas), or electric 
components (batteries, electric motors) is also added where relevant.

Slide 18

TTW “Vehicles” Costs

(MJ / km)

Over price Energy cons.

(g GHG / km)
GHG
196
183
164
166
166

Year
2002
2002
2002
2002
2002
2002

2010
2010
2010
2010

2010
2010

2010

2010

2010
2010
2010
2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

Fuel
Gasoline
Gasoline
DIESEL
NG
NG
DME

PISI
DISI
DICI
PISI

Technology Price
18,600 
18,890 
20,300 
20,553 
PISI bi Fuel 21,138 
21,800 

DICI

0.00
290 
1,700 
1,953 
2,538 
3,200 

PISI
DISI

Gasoline
19,280 
19,564 
Gasoline
Gasoline DiSI Hybrid 21,043 
Gasoline Hybrid F.C. 39,440 

0.00
284 
1,763 
20,160 

DIESEL DICI w/o DP 20,500 
DIESEL DICI ( DPF) 21,200 

Diesel

ybrid wo DP 22,153 

Diesel Hybrid DICI 22,853 

FAME

DICI ( DPF) 21,200 
BtL Diesel DICI ( DPF) 21,200 
BtL Diesel ybrid w/o DP 22,153 
Hybrid F.C. 30,050 

LH2

1,220 
1,920 

2,873 

3,573 

1,920 
1,920 
2,873 
10,770 

BtL DME DICI w/o DP 22,000 

2,720 

NG

PISI

21,233 

DME DICI w/o DP 22,000 

1,953 

2,720 

LH2

Hybrid F.C. 30,050 

10,770 

Methanol Hybrid F.C. 39,440 

20,160 

CNG

Hybrid PISI 22,196 

2,916 

2010 LH2

PISI

24,030 

4,750 

PISI

24,030 
2010 CH2 700b
2010 CH2 700b Hybrid PISI 24,821 
Hybrid PISI 24,821 
2010 LH2
28,863 
2010 CH2 700b
2010 LH2
28,863 
2010 CH2 700b Hybrid F.C. 30,050 
Hybrid F.C. 30,050 
2010 LH2

FC
FC

4,750 
5,541 
5,541 
9,583 
9,583 
10,770 
10,770 

2.55
2.38
2.12
2.73
2.73

2.16
2.14
1.86
1.85

2
2.08

1.64

1.71

3.06
3.98
3.18
1.97

3.17

2.29

2.64

1.8

2.38

1.75

3.6

2.83
2.51
3.04
1.59
2.02
1.14
1.8

(MJ / km)

(g GHG / km)
Energ. Spared GHG avoided

0.00
-                
-                

0.17 
0.43 
0.18 
0.18 

0.00
-            
-            
-            
-            

13 
32 
30 
30 

0.00
-                
-                
-                

0.02 
0.30 
0.31 

0.00
-               
-            
-            

2 
23 
24 

-                
-                

0.16 
0.08 

-            
-               

12 
5 

-                

0.52 

-            

39 

-                

0.45 

-            

33 

0.90 
1.82 
1.02 
0.19 

-                

-            
-          
-          
-          

95 
144 
158 
157 

1.01 

-          

150 

0.13 

0.48 

-            

26 

-            

10 

-                

0.36 

-            

58 

0.22 

-            

20 

-                

0.41 

-            

58 

1.44 

50 

0.67 
0.35 
0.88 
0.57 
0.14 
1.02 
0.36 

-                
-                
-                
-                

2 
17 
16 
71 
44 
81 
58 

-            

-            
-            
-            
-            

Engine technology Fuel

Price 
differential ( € )

ICEs conventional
DISI
PISI
DICI
DICI + DPF
DICI
PISI

PISI

Gasoline
CNG
Diesel
Diesel
DME
C-H2 700 bar
L-H2

ICEs Hybrid
Gasoline
DISI Hyb.
CNG
PISI Hyb.
DICI Hyb.
Diesel
DICI Hyb. + DPF Diesel
PISI Hyb.

PISI Hyb.
Fuel cells
FC

FC

FC Hyb.

FC Hyb.
Ref+FC Hyb.
Ref+FC Hyb.

C-H2 700 bar
L-H2

C-H2 700 bar
L-H2
C-H2 700 bar
L-H2
Gasoline
Methanol

284 
1,953 
1,220 
1,920 
2,720 
4,750 

4,750 

1,763 
2,916 
2,873 
3,573 
5,541 

5,541 

9,583 

9,583 

10,770 

10,770 
20,160 
20,160 

Slide 19

164
162
141
140

152
159

125

131

69
20
6
7

14

138

154

106

144

106

214

166
147
180
93
120
83
106

 
 
      
 
   
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
 
 
      
 
   
 
 
 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
 
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
   
                
 
 
 
 
                
 
   
 
   
                
            
 
   
                
               
 
   
                
 
   
                
            
 
   
 
   
 
 
 
 
             
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
          
        
        
        
        
TTW “Vehicles” Costs

ICEs

Hybrids

FCs

120%

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

DISI Gasoline

DICI DME
PISI CNG
PISI Hyb. L-H2
PISI Hyb. CNG
PISI L-H2
DICI Diesel
DICI Hyb. Diesel
DISI Hyb. Gasoline
DICI + DPF Diesel
PISI Hyb. C-H2 700 bar
PISI C-H2 700 bar
DICI Hyb. + DPF Diesel

FC L-H2
FC Hyb. L-H2
FC C-H2 700 bar
Ref+FC Hyb. Gasoline
Ref+FC Hyb. Methanol
FC Hyb. C-H2 700 bar

Slide 20

WTW Costs

Total GHG emissions for 5% demand in the reference 

i

The reference case is
gasoline + diesel
in the expected demand ratio 
in 2010

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

Cost (GEUR/a)

)
a
/
q
e
2

O
C

t

M

(

e
p
o
r
u
E
n

i

d
e
d

i

o
v
a
G
H
G

40

30

20

10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

CNG

Syndiesel ex NG

DME ex NG

Syndiesel ex wood

DME ex wood

EtOH ex sugar beet

EtOH ex wheat

EtOH ex wood

FAME

Hyd ex NG, ICE

Hyd ex NG, FC

Hyd ex NG+ely, ICE

Hyd ex NG+ely, FC

Hyd ex wood, ICE

Hyd ex wood, FC

Hyd ex coal+ely, FC

Hyd ex wind+ely, ICE

Hyd ex wind+ely, FC

Hyd ex nuclear+ely, ICE

Hyd ex nuclear+ely, FC

Hyd ind gasoline, Ref+FC

Hyd ind NG/MeOH, Ref+FC

Hyd ind wood/MeOH, Ref+FC

Hyd ex coal, ICE

Hyd ex coal, FC

Slide 21

 
 
 
 
 
100 %

W
T
W

,

80

i

d
e
d
o
v
a
G
H
G
%

60

40

20%

0%
100

% of Saved Greenhouse Gases 

H2+FC

Wood

Hydrogen/FC from 
wind & nuclear

FIG. 2

DME

Synth.
diesel

ethanol

Sugar
beet to
SSCF
ethanol
bioethanol

If we replace 5% of conventional
diesel/gasoline with alternative fuel,
“100% GHG avoided” corresponds to 37
Mtonnes CO2 equivalent saved per
year.

biodiesel

Sugar beet
pulp burnt

Hydrogen/FC 
from NG

Sugar beet
pulp to feed

update

CNG

Ethanol
from wheat,
no straw

On-board
gasoline
reformer+FC

DME from NG

1000

€ /tonne CO2 eq. avoided

10000

Slide 22

 
 
 
WHEELS
WELLWELL--TOTO--WHEELS

Alternative Liquid Fuels
Alternative Liquid Fuels

Slide 23

Alternative Liquid Fuels

)

m
k
/

q
e
2

O
C
g
(

G
H
G
W
T
W

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Gasoline

Syndiesel: GTL

Conv. diesel

DME: NG

EtOH: wheat

Common basis: 2010
PISI or
DICI DPF (not for DME)

EtOH: sugar 
beet

RME

SME

EtOH: wood

DME: wood

Syndiesel: BTL

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

WTW energy (MJ / 100 km)

Slide 24

 
 
 
 
 
Alternative Liquid Fuels: Conventional Biofuels

Energy

GHG

SME: glycerine as animal feed

SME: glycerine as chemical

RME: glycerine as animal feed

RME: glycerine as chemical

2010
DICI+DPF

SME: glycerine as animal feed

SME: glycerine as chemical

RME: glycerine as animal feed

RME: glycerine as chemical

Conv. Diesel DICI+DPF

Conv. Diesel DICI+DPF

EtOH: W Wood

EtOH: F wood

EtOH: Wheat, no straw

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to heat

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to EtOH

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to fodder

TTW

WTT

2010
PISI

EtOH: W Wood

EtOH: F wood

EtOH: Wheat, no straw

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to heat

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to EtOH

EtOH: Sugar beet, pulp to fodder

2010
DICI+DPF

2010
PISI

Gasoline PISI

Gasoline PISI

0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

MJ / 100 km

0

50

100

150

200

g CO2eq /  km

Slide 25

Alternative Liquid Fuels: Syndiesel

Energy

GHG

DME: Farmed
wood

DME: Waste
wood

DME: Remote
synthesis

Syndiesel:
Farmed wood

Syndiesel: Waste
wood

Syndiesel:
Remote GTL

Conv. diesel
DICI+DPF

2010
DICI

TTW

WTT

2010
DICI+DPF

DME: Farmed
wood

DME: Waste
wood

DME: Remote
synthesis

Syndiesel:
Farmed wood

Syndiesel:
Waste wood

Syndiesel:
Remote GTL

Conv. diesel
DICI+DPF

2010
DICI

2010
DICI+DPF

0

100

200

300

400

500

0

50

100

150

200

250

MJ / 100 km

g CO2eq /  km

Slide 26

Alternative Liquid Fuels: key points (1)

(cid:137) A number of routes are available to produce alternative liquid fuels that 
can be used neat or in blends with conventional fuels in the existing 
infrastructure and vehicles

(cid:137) Conventionally produced bio-fuels such as ethanol and FAME provide 

some GHG benefits but are energy intensive compared to conventional 
crude oil-based fuels
(cid:131) The GHG balance of conventional biofuels is particularly uncertain 

because of N2O emissions

(cid:190) Potential volumes of ethanol and FAME are limited. The cost/benefit 

depends of the specific pathway, by-product usage and N2O emissions

Slide 27

Alternative Liquid Fuels: key points (2)

(cid:137) GTL processes enable high quality diesel fuel to be produced from 
natural gas. However, the WTW GHG emissions are higher than for 
conventional diesel fuel

(cid:190) Only limited GTL volumes can be expected to be available by 2010 and 

beyond

(cid:137) New processes are being developed to produce synthetic fuels from 
biomass (BTL) with lower overall GHG emissions, though still high 
energy use

(cid:190) BTL processes have the potential to save substantially more GHG 

emissions than current bio-fuel options at comparable cost
(cid:131) Issues such as land and biomass resources, material collection, plant size, 

efficiency and costs, may limit the application of these processes

Slide 28

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Where could the biomass come from?

Agricultural
Surplus land

Set
asides

Forestry 
residues

Agricultural
wastes

Sugar beet
+ Wheat grain
Or Oil seeds
Or  Wood

Wheat grain

Or Oil seeds
Or  Wood

Wood waste

Ethanol
Ethanol

+
Or FAME
Or  Syn diesel(*)
Or DME

Ethanol
FAME

Or

Or  Syn diesel
Or DME

Ethanol
Syn diesel

Or DME

Straw

Ethanol

Slide 29

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for conventional fuels substitution with biomass-derived fuels 

6000

5000

4000

a
/
J
P

3000

2000

1000

0

8360

WTT basis
EU-25

%  net renewable energy

91%

91%

61%

73%

Gasoline

Diesel

Max
ethanol

Max FAME
+ Syn
diesel

Max Syn
diesel

Max DME

Naphtha
DME

Syn diesel
FAME

EtOH cel.

EtOH conv
Diesel HD

Diesel PC

Gasoline

Slide 30

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for CO2 avoidance with biomass-derived fuels 

WTW basis
EU-25

d
e
d
o
v
a

i

a
/
q
e
2

O
C

t

M

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Max ethanol Max FAME +

Syn diesel

Max Syn
diesel

Max DME

Hydrogen
(ICE)

Hydrogen
(FC)

Hydrogen

Naphtha

DME

Syn diesel

FAME

EtOH cel.

EtOH conv

Slide 31

 
 
Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Biomass

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 ha of land 

Wood to DME

Wood to FT diesel 

Wood to C-H2, Ely (O/S), FC

Wood to C-H2 (O/S), FC

Wood to C-H2 (cen), ICE

Wood to C-H2 (cen), FC

Oilseeds to FAME

Wood to EtOH

Wheat to EtOH

Sugar beet to EtOH

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

Wood to elec, conv (vs Coal, state-of-the-art)

Wood to elec, IGCC (vs Coal, state-of-the-art)

Wood to elec, IGCC (vs NG CCGT)

Wood
 processing

Conventional 
biofuels

Electricity

0

5

10

15

20

25

t CO2 avoided / ha/a

Slide 32

Alternative use of primary energy  resources – Natural gas

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 MJ extracted gas 

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

C-H2,  central ref,
ICE

C-H2,  central ref,
FC

FT diesel

CNG (LNG)

Electricity (vs
Coal, state-of-the-
art)

-20

0

20

40

60

80

g CO2 avoided / MJ natural gas

Slide 33

Alternative use of primary energy  resources - Wind

Potential for CO2 avoidance from 1 MJ wind electricity 

C-H2, Ely (cen), ICE

C-H2, Ely (cen), FC

Electricity (vs Coal,
state-of-the-art)

Electricity (vs NG,
CCGT)

Reference case:
2010 ICE with
Conventional fuel

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

g CO2 avoided / MJ wind electricity

Slide 34

General Conclusions

(cid:137) A shift to renewable/low fossil carbon routes may offers a significant 
GHG reduction potential but generally requires more energy. The 
specific pathway is critical

(cid:190) No single fuel pathway offers a short term route to high volumes of 

“low carbon” fuel.
(cid:131) Contributions from a number of technologies/routes will be needed.
(cid:131) A wider variety of fuels may be expected in the market
(cid:131) Blends with conventional fuels and niche applications should be 

considered if they can produce significant GHG reductions at reasonable 
cost

(cid:190) Transport applications may not maximize the GHG reduction potential 

of renewable energies

(cid:190) Optimum use of renewable energy sources such as biomass and 

wind requires consideration of the overall energy demand including 
stationary applications

Slide 35

Study Continuation
Study Continuation

d slightly 
In order to improve the study, a list of paths to be reviewed and slightly 
In order to improve the study, a list of paths to be reviewed an
dated, is currently considered:
upup--dated, is currently considered:

Fuels: : 
Fuels

pture 
LPG,  Oxygenates,  new processes for synthetic fuels,  carbon capture 
LPG,  Oxygenates,  new processes for synthetic fuels,  carbon ca
forest 
agricultural crops -- forest 
and storage, ,  BioBio--methane from waste 
and storage
residues, bio--mass via 
residues, bio

methane from waste -- agricultural crops 

pyrolysis
mass via pyrolysis

Powertrains: : 
Powertrains

Hybrids, NGV, LPG vehicles, Direct injection Gasoline vehicles
Hybrids, NGV, LPG vehicles, Direct injection Gasoline vehicles

Slide 36

Well-to-Wheels analysis 
of future automotive fuels and powertrains
in the European context

The study report is available on the WEB:
http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Download/eh

For questions / inquiries / requests / notes
to the consortium, 
please use the centralised mail address:
infoWTW@jrc.it

Slide 37

Natural Gas Vehicles
European Commission 
Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy
November 22nd / 23rd 2004

ing. Gert-Jan Rap
RAP Clean Air Products

Expert in Automotive Alternative Fuel Systems

© ENGVA, 2003

Abbreviations

NG
CH4
CNG
LNG
H2
NGV

= Natural Gas 
= Methane
= Compressed Natural Gas
= Liquefied Natural Gas
= Hydrogen
= Natural Gas Vehicle

ENGVA

= European Natural Gas Vehicle Association

SI
CI
ECU
OEM

= Spark Ignited
= Combustion Ignited
= Electronic Control Unit
= Original Equipment Manufacturer

© ENGVA, 2003

Agenda

What is ENGVA?

European NGV markets

Natural Gas Vehicle Technolgy

(cid:1)Light-Duty
(cid:1)Heavy-Duty

(cid:1)LNG
(cid:1)Hydrogen

© ENGVA, 2003

What is ENGVA ?

© ENGVA, 2003

ENGVA mission

Develop a sustainable and profitable market for
NGV’s throughout Europe

287 Members (Oct. 17th, 2004)

(cid:1)Natural Gas Industry
(cid:1)NGV Equipment Suppliers
(cid:1)OEM Industry
(cid:1)NGV Service Organisations
(cid:1)Research Institutes
(cid:1)Government Agencies
(cid:1)Cities / Municipalities
(cid:1)Universities
(cid:1)Etcetera, etcetera

© ENGVA, 2003

ENGVA activities

Market research
Organising seminars 
Political activities
Publications
Submit information to members
Gaseous Fuel Training Institute

(cid:1)Natural Gas
(cid:1)Biogas
(cid:1)Hydrogen

© ENGVA, 2003

European NGV markets

© ENGVA, 2003

EUROPEAN ALTERNATIVE FUELS 
POLICY 
% Fuel Replacement, Transport Sector,  15 EU Countries by 2020
[ ] = Optimistic

Year
2005
2010
2015
2020

Biofuel
2
6
[ 7 ]
[ 8 ]

CH4

H2

2
5
10

2
5

Total %
2
8
14
[ 23 ]

© ENGVA, 2003

Europe Total
~ 576.000 
NGVs
Refuelling
Stations     

1.785
Stations
Under 
Construction 
288

Sweden 
4.238

Germany 
19.600

UK
875

France 
7.200

Italy 
381.250

Switzerland 
1.044

Russia
40.500

Belarus 
5.500

Ukraine 
55.000

Czech 
390

N
G
V
s

i
n

E
U
R
O
P
E

Bulgaria 
1.425

Egypt 
54.374

© ENGVA, 2003

THE CRITICAL “NGV” STAKEHOLDERS 
(EACH ONE HAS A ROLE TO PLAY)

Gas & Oil 
Industry

Customers

Automobile 
Industry and 
OEMs

Government 
and City 
Authorities

Environmental 
Institutes

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY ITALY

NGV

381.250

NG
471

(cid:1) Italy focused first on 

commuters

(cid:1) Now NGVs serve all 
markets &customers

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY GERMANY

NGV

19.600

NG
500

(cid:1) First target market are 

commuters

(cid:1) Volume needed to support 
building of fuel infrastructure
(cid:1) Government reduced fuel tax 

till 2020

© ENGVA, 2003

STRATEGY FRANCE

NGV

7.200

NG
105

(cid:1) Focus first on buses and 

garbage trucks

(cid:1) Private fuelling stations will be 

opened to public

(cid:1) Home refueling appliance can 

help achieve critical mass to 
support public fuelling

© ENGVA, 2003

SWEDEN & SWITZERLAND
LEAD IN BIOGAS NGVs

Sweden (2,500 NGVs on biogas; 27 CNG 
stations) uses sewage & agricultural waste 
for renewable NGV fuels…with little or no 
pipeline network!

Growing incentives are developing the market

Switzerland (1000+ NGVs; 45 CNG stations) 
integrate biogas from municipal waste into 
pipeline network. 

Natural gas taxed higher than petrol & diesel; biogas is untaxed

NGV

1.044

NG
45

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicle Technology

Light-Duty

(cid:1) Passenger cars
(cid:1) Light commercial vehicles

© ENGVA, 2003

History Natural Gas Vehicles

1940’s : High-pressure
bottles inside the car

1984: Low-pressure bags
carried on the roof 
(China)

© ENGVA, 2003

CNG system overview Light-Duty

Typical CNG System in a Natural Gas Vehicle

Fill receptacle
Storage tank(s)
Piping and fittings
High Pressure Regulator
Fuel-rail
CNG injectors
ECU

Source : : VolvoVolvo
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

CNG filling and storage

Storage in gaseous phase
Storage under high pressure : 
200 bar / 3000 psi
Storage in one or more 
cylinders

Source : : Barbotti
Source

Argentina
Barbotti, , Argentina

Source : : OpelOpel
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Engine technology Light-Duty

Gas engines operate mostly on the OTTO-principle (Spark-Ignited)

© ENGVA, 2003

Fuel systems Light-Duty

Mono-Fuel

(cid:1)CNG only (dedicated)

Bi-Fuel

(cid:1)CNG & Petrol

: Fiat Auto Spa
Source : Fiat Auto Spa
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel system Light-Duty

Advantages

(cid:1)Optimised engine possible
(cid:2)Higher power output
(cid:2)Lower fuel consumption
(cid:2)Better exhaust gas emissions
(cid:1)More available space for CNG tanks
(cid:1)Better access to incentive programs

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Higher system price
(cid:1)Restricted (total) range
(cid:1)Dependency on filling station 

availability

“Mono-Fuelplus ” possible

(cid:1)Maximum 15 liter petrol allowed

Nissan
Source : : Nissan
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Bi-Fuel system Light-Duty

Advantages

(cid:1)Low cost system (retrofit)
(cid:1)Not dependent of 

infrastructure

(cid:1)Higher (total) range due
to double fuel system

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Compromise on engine

technology

(cid:1)No optimal storage

solutions

: DCAG
Source : DCAG
Source

: Ford
Source : Ford
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Availability of vehicles Light-Duty

OEM Vehicles

(cid:1)Fully developed by, or in co-operation with

car-manufacturer

(cid:1)Fully serviceable in dealer network
(cid:1)Fully warranted by car-manufacturer

Retrofit Vehicles

(cid:1)Systems developed by system-supplier
(cid:1)Aftermarket conversion
(cid:1)Service and system-warranty via 

conversion workshop

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical Light-Duty applications

text

CNG passenger carscars
CNG passenger 

CNG Delivery
CNG 

vans
Delivery vans

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical CNG tank-mounting Light-Duty

80 liter type 1 tanks in passenger 
OneOne 80 liter type 1 tanks in passenger 
range CNG ca. 175 km
carcar; ; range CNG ca. 175 km

TwoTwo pieces
type 1 tanks
pieces type 1 tanks
of 70 liter eacheach, , mounted
of 70 liter 
range CNG ca. 200 km
range CNG ca. 200 km

in a van; 
mounted in a van; 

pieces type 3 tanks
type 3 tanks
under vehicle

TwoTwo pieces
mounted under
mounted
range ca. 275 km
range ca. 275 km

body; 
vehicle body; 

© ENGVA, 2003

Four generations of CNG equipment

1st generation

(cid:1)Carburator vehicles without catalytic convertor

2nd generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop carburator and TBI / SPI engines (Euro 1 / 2)

3rd generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop MPI engines (Euro 2 / 3)

4th generation

(cid:1)Closed-loop and lean-burn sequential engines (Euro 3 / 4)

TBI = Throttle Body Injection
SPI = Single Port Injection
MPI = Multi Port Injection

© ENGVA, 2003

1st Generation CNG system

For carburator engines without catalytic convertor

(cid:1)Venturi type mixer unit
(cid:1)Mechanical mixture-adjustment

© ENGVA, 2003

2nd Generation CNG system

For closed-loop carburator and TBI / SPI engines

(cid:1)Venturi type mixer unit
(cid:1)Closed-loop automatic mixture-adjustment (steppermotor) 

Lambda-Control

© ENGVA, 2003

3rd Generation CNG system

For closed-loop MPI engines (Euro 2/3)

(cid:1)Closed-loop multi-point gaseous injection system
(cid:1)Group-injection or continuous-injection
(cid:1)Stand-alone or master-slave strategy

Source : : VolvoVolvo
Source

Source : : NecamNecam
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

4th Generation CNG system

For closed-loop Sequential MPI engines (Euro 3/4) 
(cid:1)Closed-loop sequential multi-point gaseous injection system
(cid:1)Sequential-injection
(cid:1)Stand-alone or master-slave strategy

Source : : Teleflex
Source

TeleflexGFIGFI

© ENGVA, 2003

Comparison CNG to conventional fuels

Typ

Astra 1.6 CNG Astra 1.6 16V Astra DTI 16V

Drive concept
Price (€)
Output (hp)
Torque (Nm)
Maximum speed (km/h)
Kerb weight (kg)
Payload (kg)
No. of seats
Luggage compartment (l)
gasvolume (l)
max. range (gas operation)
Total range (km)
Energy consumption
CO2 emissions (g/km)

Monovalentplus

19.280 
97
140
177
1380
475
5
1435
110
390
570
4,6 kg
125
: OSV
Source : OSV
Source

Petrol

16.650 
100
150
183
1245
475
5
1500

732
7,1 l
170

Diesel

17.740 
100
230
183
1370
475
5
1500

881
5,9 l
159

© ENGVA, 2003

        
    
     
Natural Gas Vehicle Technology

Heavy-Duty
(cid:1) Trucks
(cid:1) Buses
(cid:1) Off-Road Vehicles

Cummins
Source : : Cummins
Source

: DCAG
Source : DCAG
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Engine technology Heavy-Duty

MAN MAN MonoMono--FuelFuel
Engine
Bus Bus Engine

Mono-Fuel Technology

(cid:1)Dedicated spark-ignited engine
(cid:1)Stoichiometric or lean-burn
(cid:1)OEM or retrofit

Dual-Fuel Technology

(cid:1)Reduction of Diesel fuel and 

replaced by Natural Gas

(cid:1)Combustion-ignited (ignition

by Diesel injection)

(cid:1)Lean-burn
(cid:1)OEM or retrofit

engine
Caterpillar DualDual--FuelFuel engine
Caterpillar
: CAP
Source : CAP
Source

: MAN
Source : MAN
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel Heavy-Duty technology

Dedicated Spark-Ignited engine

(cid:1)Base engine block : Diesel
(cid:1)Reduced compression ratio by

pistons or cylinderhead
(cid:1)Optimised intake manifold
including throttle body

(cid:1)Equipped with ignition system
(cid:1)Optimized coolant system
(cid:1)Central mixture building or
Multi-Point injection system
(cid:1)Optimized exhaust system with
optional catalytic convertor

: IVECO
Source : IVECO
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Mono-Fuel Heavy-Duty (dis-)advantages

Advantages

(cid:1)Optimal power-output, emissions, driveability possible
(cid:1)Unmeasurable PM emissions
(cid:1)Secured use of CNG infrastructure

Disadvantages

(cid:1)High cost engine development
(cid:1)Unknown technology for Heavy-Duty service network
(cid:1)Restricted to CNG infrastructure

Ekobus
Source : : Ekobus
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

Dual-Fuel Heavy-Duty engine technology

Diesel fuel is replaced by Natural Gas

(cid:1)Replacement up to 90% by CNG

CI (Combustion Ignited) engine

(cid:1)Ignition by pilot injection of Diesel fuel

Idle and high load full Diesel operation

© ENGVA, 2003

Dual-Fuel Heavy-Duty (dis-)advantages
Advantages

(cid:1)Low cost engine development
(cid:1)Less CNG storage required compared to Mono-fuel vehicle

(results in low vehicle weight)

(cid:1)Diesel mode as back-up
(cid:1)Driveability comparable to Diesel engines
(cid:1)Better resale value for base vehicle

Disadvantages

(cid:1)Compromise in Diesel versus CNG technology
(cid:1)Emission results not optimised (i.e. PM’s)
(cid:1)Fuel costs higher if Diesel mode is frequently used

Drive-cycle effects fuel-replacement percentage

(cid:1)Bus 
(cid:1)Truck 

: % Diesel replacement relatively low
: % Diesel replacement relatively high 

© ENGVA, 2003

Emissions Heavy-Duty Mono-Fuel engine

Heavy-Duty emission results compared to limits
(stoichiometric engine)

5,45

4

4

3

]
h
W
k
/
g
[
s
n
o
i
s
s
i
m
E

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

0,78

0,54

0,55

0,55

0,4

0,07

1,6

1,1

1,1

0,65

0,16

EURO 3 (2000)

EURO 4 (2005)

EURO 5 (2008)

EEV

Engine
HD CNG Engine
HD CNG 

: IVECO
Source : IVECO
Source

5

3,5

2

2

1,18

0,16

0,03

0,03

0,02

0,01

CO (Carbon
monoxide)

NMHC (non-methane
hydrocarbons)

CH4 (mass of
methane)

NOx (nitrogen oxides)

PT (particulates)

© ENGVA, 2003

 
Particular Matter on different fuels
(Heavy-Duty)

Heavy-Duty bus engines (ETC test)

0,12

0,10

0,08

0,06

0,04

0,02

0,00

]
h
W
k
/
g
[

r
e
t
t
a
M

e
t
a
l

u
c
i
t
r
a
P

LPG Stoich CNG Stoich CNG Lean

Diesel 

Diesel + DPF

Burn

: TNO
Source : TNO
Source

© ENGVA, 2003

 
 
Typical Heavy-Duty applications

text

CNG delivery
CNG 

truck, Mexico
delivery truck, Mexico

CNG garbage
CNG 

truck
garbage truck

CNG public bus, 
CNG public bus, 
China
China

© ENGVA, 2003

Typical NGV offroad applications

forklift
CNG forklift
CNG 

CNG iceice--resurfacing
CNG 

machines
resurfacing machines

carts
CNG gogo--carts
CNG 

© ENGVA, 2003

LNG : Liquefied Natural Gas

Cooled down below boiling point, so stored as liquid!

(cid:1)- 161 °C (atmospheric pressure)
(cid:1)Typical : approx. - 140 °C  (cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3) approx. 2 - 4 bar (30 – 60 psi) 
(cid:1)Stored in double wall, vacuum isolated, cryogenic tank
(cid:1)Higher energy content per tank volume

LNG tank at truck
LNG tank at truck

© ENGVA, 2003

Hydrogen vehicles

L-H2 (Liquid Hydrogen)
C-H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)
Fuel-Cell Technology

CC--HH22 FuelFuel--CellCell busbus

: MAN
Source : MAN
Source

CC--HH22 Fuelcell

Fuelcell passenger 

passenger carcar

DaimlerChrysler
Source : : DaimlerChrysler
Source

Source : BMW: BMW
Source

LL--HH22 SI passenger 

SI passenger carcar

© ENGVA, 2003

Regulations & Standards for NGV’s

R110 Regulation

(cid:1)For component approval (OEM & aftermarket)
(cid:1)For vehicle type-approval (OEM)

R115 Regulation

(cid:1)For vehicle approval (aftermarket)

ISO 15500 Standard

(cid:1)For component approval

NGV 3.1 (US)
METI (Japan)

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicles

For more detailed Natural Gas Vehicle

- market information
- vehicle information
- infrastructure information

please contact :

ENGVA European Gaseous Fuel Training Institute

www.engva.org
info@engva.nl

© ENGVA, 2003

VISIT THE ASSOCIATION 
WEBSITES!!!

www.iangv.org.nz

www.engva.org

www.ngvc.org

(for conference information)

© ENGVA, 2003

Natural Gas Vehicles

Thank you for your attention

ing. Gert-Jan Rap

© ENGVA, 2003

© ENGVA, 2003

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 
DIRECTORATE GENERAL JRC 
JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE 
Institute for Energy 
n
Clean E ergies Unit 

SETRIS 

Integration Workshop on Alternative Fuels 

 in the EU Energy System 

Petten, 22-23 November 2004 

Summary Report 

E. Tzimas and S.D. Peteves 

DG – JRC, Institute for Energy 

Report EUR 21510 EN 

The views expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not 
necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission. 

Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible 
for the use, which may be made of the information contained in this document. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mission of the Institute for Energy 

The  Institute  provides  scientific  and  technical  support  for  the  conception,  development, 
implementation and monitoring of community policies related to energy.  
Special emphasis is given to the security of energy supply and sustainable and safe energy 
production. 

European Commission 
Directorate General Joint Research Centre (DG JRC) 

Contact: 
E. Tzimas 
+31-224-565149 
S.D. Peteves  +31-224-565245 

http://www.jrc.cec.eu.int/

Legal Notice 

Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is 
responsible for the use, which might be made of the following information. 

The use of trademarks in this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the 
European Commission. 

The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not 
necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission. 

A great deal of additional information of the European Union is available on the Internet. It 
can be accessed through the Europa server (www://europa.eu.int) 

© European Communities, 2005 

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. 

2

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sustainable Energy Technologies 

Reference and Information System 

(SETRIS) 

The  objective  of  SETRIS  is  to  collect,  harmonise  and  validate  information  on  sustainable 
energy  technologies  and  perform  related  techno-economic  assessments  to  establish,  in 
collaboration  with  all  relevant  national  partners,  scientific  and  technical  reference 
information  required  for  the  debate  on  a  sustainable  energy  strategy  in  an  enlarged  EU, 
and in the context of global sustainable development. 

3

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table of Contents 

1. 
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 4 
2.  Participation........................................................................................................ 5 
3.  The policies of the European Union on alternative fuels ................................... 6 
4.  The current status of the production and use of biofuels in the New Member 

States and Candidate Countries .......................................................................... 8 
5.  The implementation of the biofuels Directive in the New Member States ........ 9 
5.1  Measures to promote the use of biofuels ................................................ 9 
5.2  Barriers to implement the Directive ..................................................... 10 
5.3  Proposed measures................................................................................ 11 
6.  The readiness of Candidate Countries to comply with the biofuels Directive . 12 
7.  The prospects of natural gas as an alternative transport fuel in the New 

Member States and Candidate Countries.......................................................... 13 
8.  Other alternative fuels ...................................................................................... 13 
9.  Conclusions and recommendations for follow-up actions ............................... 14 
Table 1: Participants’ prioritization of hurdles to the use of biofuels in the transport 
sector........................................................................................................... 16 

Table 2: Participants’ prioritization of hurdles to the use of natural gas in the 

transport sector............................................................................................ 17 

1.  Introduction 

An  Integration  Workshop  on  alternative  fuels  in  the  EU  energy  system  was 
organised by the Institute for Energy (IE) of the DG Joint Research Centre (JRC) of 
the European Commission and was held on November 22-23 at its Petten site in the 
Netherlands.  The  aim  of  the  Workshop  was  to:  (a)  provide  information  on  the 
related Commission actions and policies, (b) assess key technological developments 
and describe the state of the art of alternative fuel technologies, and, (c) identify the 
techno-economic barriers associated with the introduction of alternative fuels in the 
EU energy system and more specifically, in its new Member States and Candidate 
Countries.  The Workshop attracted a specialised audience of delegates from most 
of the New Member States and the Candidate Countries, who are directly involved 
with  the  preparation,  development,  implementation  and  monitoring  of  policies 
relevant  to  alternative  fuels,  as  well  as  with  related  applied  research  and 
development.  

The  Workshop  facilitated  the  exchange  of  experiences  and  views  among  the 
participants on the optimal approaches that could lead to the successful introduction 
of alternative fuels in the energy system of each country. To this end, short informal 
presentations  were  solicited  from  each  participating  country  about  the  prospective 
introduction of alternative fuels in their national energy system. These presentations 
were coupled by longer presentations made by experts on the following topics: 

(cid:190)  The European Commission perspective on alternative fuels 
(cid:190)  A well-to-wheels assessment of alternative fuels 
(cid:190)  The  European  biomass  potential,  the  prospects  for  biogas,  and  a  review  of 

advanced production methods for biofuels.  

(cid:190)  An assessment of the European natural gas market, and a description of the 

state-of-the-art of natural gas vehicle technology. 

4

 
 
This  report  summarises  the  main  points  made  by  the  participants,  the  outcome  of 
the  discussions  and  some  thoughts  on  future  actions  that  may  be  implemented  by 
the  JRC  in  support  of  initiatives  taken  by  the  New  Member  States  and  Candidate 
Countries concerning alternative fuels. 

The agenda of the Workshop, the list of participants and all presentations, together 
with  this  summary,  are  included  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Workshop,  prepared  in 
electronic  format  (CD-ROM).  The  CD-ROM  also  includes  a  limited  number  of 
supporting  documents,  namely:  (i)  the  Alternative  Fuels  Contact  Group  report1, 
and, (ii) a JRC techno-economic assessment report on the introduction of alternative 
fuels in the European transport sector2. 

2.  Participation 

Thirty-one  participants  from  twelve  countries  (eight  out  of  the  ten  New  Member 
States, all three Candidate Countries and Croatia) attended the workshop. Apologies 
were received from participants from the Czech Republic and Latvia, who were not 
able to attend. Eleven of the participants were ministry employees (coming from the 
ministries  of  commerce,  economy,  and  agriculture);  fourteen  of  the  participants 
were  associated  with  universities,  national  energy  centres  and  research  institutes; 
and  six  participants  came  from  other  sectors,  such  as  governmental  agencies, 
regulatory  authorities  and 
industry.  The  well-balanced 
the  petrochemical 
composition  of  the  delegates,  comprising  both  policy  makers  and  researchers, 
permitted  a  holistic  assessment  of  the  challenges  to  the  introduction  of  alternative 
fuels  in  the  European  energy  system,  mostly  in  the  transport  sector.  The  growing 
interest of both the government and research communities in alternative fuels stems 
from the pressing need for an in-depth as well as for a broad view on the issue. This 
is not only due to the requirement for compliance with the EU legislation (i.e. the 
biofuels  Directive),  but  also  driven  by  genuine  concerns  about  the  security  of 
energy supply at large.    

Delegates from each of the participating countries gave brief informal presentations 
discussing the progress made towards the implementation of the biofuels Directive; 
describing the barriers and perspectives concerning the further penetration of other 
alternative fuels in their own country; and presenting related research, development 
and demonstration activities. In addition, a number of invited speakers attended and 
contributed  to  the  Workshop,  coming  from  the  European  Commission  (DG 
TREN/D, DG JRC/IE and DG JRC/IES), the Dutch Energy Centre (ECN) and the 
European Natural Gas Vehicle Association (ENGVA).  

1    Market  Developments  of  Alternative  Fuels,  Report  of  the  Alternative  Fuels  Contact  Group, 
December 2003. 
2    E.  Tzimas,  A.  Soria  and  S.D.  Peteves,  The  Introduction  of  Alternative  Fuels  in  the  European 
Transport  Sector:  Techno-economic  Barriers  and  Perspectives,  European  Commission,  DG-JRC, 
EUR 21173 EN, May 2004. 

5

 
 
                                                 
 
3.  The policies of the European Union on alternative fuels 

The  activities  of  the  European  Commission  on  alternative  fuels  are  elements  of  a 
policy  framework  that  aims  to  secure  energy  supply  (see  the  Green  Paper  on  the 
security  of  energy  supply3)  and  reduce  greenhouse  gas  emissions  (see  the  White 
Paper on a common transport policy4).  The concept of introducing alternative fuels 
in  the  EU  energy  system,  starting  from  the  sector  pressing  the  most  for  fuel 
diversification and emission reductions, i.e. the transport sector, was put forward in 
a  Communication  from  the  Commission5  that  was  presented  in  November  2001. 
Three  types  of  alternative  fuels  were  identified  that  have  the  potential  of 
substituting at least 5% of conventional fuels each, in the road transport sector by 
2020, namely biofuels, natural gas and hydrogen.  

It  has  been  recognised,  however,  that  a  number  of  technological  and  socio-
economic barriers may impede the successful introduction of alternative fuels in the 
European  energy  market.  Technological  barriers  can  be  alleviated  with  targeted 
research,  development  and  demonstration  (RD&D).  Economic  hurdles  can  be 
overcome with measures such as fiscal incentives for reducing the costs to the end-
user, thus making an alternative fuel attractive. In addition, the reluctance of society 
to  accept  changes  in  well-established  and  proven  practices  should  also  be 
considered.  A  radical  change  in  the  transport  sector  can  be  accepted  only  when 
public  concerns  are  addressed  including  those  of  adequate  and  affordable  fuel 
supply; safety of vehicles and installations; availability, performance, maintenance 
and reliability of vehicles that can use the given fuel, and a sufficient infrastructure 
to support the refuelling of these vehicles.  

Biofuels (biodiesel and bioethanol) are considered to be the most mature among the 
identified alternative fuels, so that they can be introduced without major difficulties 
in  the  energy  system.  Their  use  does  not  require  significant  changes  in  the  fuel 
distribution infrastructure or in the established technology for vehicles and engines, 
especially when blended with conventional fuels. Biomass resources are, generally, 
available for the production of biofuels in most member states and the cultivation of 
energy crops and other biomass feedstock could enhance growth and development 
in rural areas. A Directive6 has already been adopted aiming to promote the use of 
biofuels  or  other  renewable  fuels  and  replace  diesel  and  petrol  for  transport 
purposes in each Member State. The Directive establishes national indicative targets 
for  the  proportion  of  biofuels  placed  in  the  markets  of  the  Member  States.  These 
reference  values  are  2%  in  2005,  calculated  on  the  basis  of  energy  content  of  all 
petrol and diesel used for transport purposes during that year, and 5.75% in 2010. 
Member States have to report to the Commission on the measures taken to promote 
the  use  of  biofuels,  the  national  resources  allocated  to  the  production  of  biomass, 
the sales of biofuels, as well as national indicative targets. Finally, the Commission 

3  Green  Paper:  Towards  a  European  Strategy  for  the  security  of  energy  supply,  COM  (2000)  769 
final 
4 White Paper: European Transport policy for 2010: Time to decide, COM (2001) 370 final 
5 Communication on alternative fuels for road transportation and on a set of measures to promote the 
use of biofuels, accompanied by a Proposal for a Directive on the promotion of the use of biofuels 
for transportation, COM (2001) 547 final 
6 Directive 2003/30/EC on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport 

6

                                                 
 
will  report  to  the  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the  progress  made  in  the  use  of 
biofuels within the EU every two years.  

Natural gas has a potential for a considerable market share in the medium term. The 
use of natural gas in the transport sector can improve the security of energy supply 
by diversifying the supply base, can assist in the reduction of emissions of carbon 
dioxide compared to conventional fossil fuels, and may improve air quality. Natural 
gas  is  currently  utilised  as  a  transport  fuel  to  a  very  limited  extent.  The  use  of 
natural  gas  relies  upon  specific,  yet  proven,  engine,  fuel  distribution  and  storage, 
and dispenser technologies. Thus, a successful extensive penetration of natural gas 
in  the  transport  sector  requires  an  effective  implementation  strategy  (for  example, 
the deployment of a refuelling infrastructure and the development of a large number 
of  vehicle  types  to  offer  the  consumer  a  choice)  and  to  a  lesser  extent,  the 
overcoming  of  a  number  of  technological  issues  (such  as  those  related  with  on-
board fuel storage).  

Finally,  hydrogen  is  considered  as  the  fuel  for  the  long-term.  It  can  improve  the 
security  of  energy  supply,  being  a  universal  energy  carrier  that  can  be  produced 
from  all  primary  sources.  The  use  of  hydrogen  will  reduce  the  emissions  of 
pollutants  in  urban  areas,  thus  improving  local  air  quality.  In  addition,  when 
hydrogen is produced from carbon-free sources such as renewables, or decarbonised 
fossil  fuels,  it  will  reduce  the  emissions  of  greenhouse  gases.  The  introduction  of 
hydrogen is, however, hindered by a number of key techno-economic obstacles. The 
issues  of  hydrogen  production,  distribution  and  storage  are  pressing.  A  proper 
strategy  for  the  selection  of  R&D  priorities  to  respond  to  these  questions  is 
necessary before extensive sets of measures to promote a broad market introduction 
can be considered.   

To identify  the techno-economic barriers for the further penetration of  natural gas 
and  hydrogen  in  the  transport  sector,  the  Commission  has  set  up  an  Alternative 
Fuels Contact Group, an expert group comprising fuel suppliers, car manufacturers, 
consumers  and  research  organisations,  seeking  their  opinion.  The  Contact  Group 
delivered its report to the Commission in December 2003. This report is included in 
the Workshop proceedings.  

Furthermore,  to  promote  the  use  of  hydrogen,  the  Commission  also  set  up  a  high 
level group for hydrogen that proposed a European vision for a hydrogen economy 
in  May  20037.  To  this  end,  the  European  Hydrogen  and  Fuel  Cells  Technology 
Platform8  was  set  up  as  a  facilitator  to  research,  development  and  deployment 
activities relating to hydrogen. In parallel, a growing number of research activities 
relating to hydrogen have been co-funded by the European Union in the context of 
its  6th  multi-annual 
research,  development  and  demonstration  framework 
programme. 

7  Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells: A Vision of our Future, Final Report of the High Level Group, 
European Commission, EUR 20719 EN, 2003. 
8 For more information consult: http://www.hfpeurope.org/ 

7

 
                                                 
 
4.  The current status of the production and use of biofuels in the 

New Member States and Candidate Countries 

Most New Member States and Candidate Countries have recognised the important 
role that biofuels can play in the road transport sector, substituting for conventional 
fossil  fuels,  such  as  petrol  and  diesel.  However,  only  three  out  of  the  eight  New 
Member States participating to the Workshop have direct experience in producing 
and using biofuels in transport applications.  

•   Poland introduced bioethanol in the transport sector, blended with conventional 
petrol,  in  the  early  90’s.  In  2002,  bioethanol  had  a  1.5%  share  in  the  petrol 
market, which was supplied by 18 producers. The bioethanol production capacity 
is supplemented by approximately 100 small agricultural bioethanol distilleries. 
With regards to biodiesel, a refinery became operational in 2004 with a capacity 
of producing 100,000 t annually. 

•  In Hungary, the production of biofuels started in 1999 with the operation of two 
experimental  biodiesel  plants.  This  initiative  was,  however,  unsuccessful  since 
the  farming  sector  had  access  to  conventional  diesel  fuel  at  a  lower  cost.  The 
current  bioethanol  production  capacity  in  Hungary  is  approx.  40,000  t/a  of 
ETBE,  with  the  possibility  to  increase  to  100,000  t/a  within  3-4  years.  This 
amount of ETBE is equivalent to 50,000 t/a of bioethanol. Although Hungary did 
not  use  any  biofuels  in  the  transport  sector  in  2003,  it  is  expected  that  the 
penetration of biofuels could reach 0.4-0.6% in 2005. 

•   In Slovakia, the use of biodiesel in 2001 was 24,400 t but decreased to 2,500 t in 
2003.  The  biodiesel  production  capacity  in  place  is  approx.  80,000  t/a.  The 
production of bioethanol is very limited, and is used for the synthesis of ETBE. 

 The  rest  of  the  New  Member  States  participating  to  the  Workshop  have  no 
experience  in  producing  and  using  biofuels  on  a  large  scale9.  This  highlights  the 
lack of experience and public awareness on biofuels, and more importantly, the lack 
of production capacity at large. 

Among the Candidate Countries, Bulgaria and Croatia have no experience with the 
large-scale production and use biofuels. Romania and Bulgaria however have a long 
experience  in  producing  bioethanol  for  food  purposes.  Turkey  also  produces  and 
uses  bioethanol.  The  production  capacity  of  bioethanol  in  Turkey  is  approx. 
190,000  litres  daily  (equivalent  to  approx.  150  t  daily  or  55500  t/a),  mainly  from 
sugar crops. This is equivalent to blending all the petrol in the Turkish market with 
bioethanol up to 1.6%, or alternatively to mixing a third of petrol in the market with 
5% biofuels.   

9 It was mentioned during the workshop that there are a number of private biodiesel plants in Estonia 
for own use.  

8

 
                                                 
 
5.  The implementation of the biofuels Directive in the New Member 

States 

5.1 Measures to promote the use of biofuels  

The  Workshop  revealed  the  strong  support  of  all  countries  participating  in  the 
Workshop  to  the  increasing  use  of  renewable  energy  sources  (RES),  including 
biomass, in their national energy systems. In most countries, legislation is in place, 
while in others it is in a final preparation stage.  The legislative measures include 
fiscal incentives, in the form of government funds and subsidies, simplify licensing 
procedures,  provide  tax  reductions  to  consumers,  or  guarantee  minimum  energy 
prices  for  producers.  In  a  number  of  countries,  the  legislation  addresses  explicitly 
the promotion of the use of biomass for non-transport applications, i.e. to produce 
heat (e.g. in Slovenia), power (e.g. in Cyprus and Slovenia), or combined heat and 
power  (e.g.  in  Estonia).  For  example,  biomass-to-electricity  conversion  plants  in 
Cyprus  are  eligible  for  financial  support  during  their  construction  that  is 
proportional to their capital costs (up to a ceiling value). In addition, the producer 
can  receive  additional  financial  support  that  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
renewable electricity generated.  

Furthermore,  all  New  Member  States  have  adopted,  or  are  about  to  ratify,  the 
necessary  measures  dedicated  to  the  promotion  of  the  use  of  biofuels  in  the 
transport sector. These measures complement the ones described above that aim to 
increase further the penetration of RES, including biomass, in their national energy 
systems. Such measures include: 

•   The  formulation  and  implementation  of  national  action  plans.  These  plans  set 
long  term  development  goals  and  a  basis  for  a  viable  commercial  biofuels 
market. They aim at establishing and maintaining tax reductions for a long time 
to  create  a  stable  fiscal  basis  to  attract  investments  for  the  development  of  the 
necessary  production  infrastructure,  offering  to  the  consumers  an  alternative 
competitive  fuel.  They  also  identify  additional  supporting  mechanisms  and 
means to reach the set targets. 

•   The formulation and implementation of the necessary legislative and regulation 
framework, e.g. define fuel quality requirements, identify blending mixtures and 
set minimum blending requirements. 

•   The  application  of  support  schemes  (e.g.  grants  and  subsidies)  to  provide 
financial incentives to enhance biomass cultivation and to facilitate investment, 
mainly  to  build  up  and  boost  production  capacity  via  improved  production 
routes,  thus  reducing  costs  and  increasing  the  competitiveness  of  biofuels 
compared to traditional fuels. Fiscal measures adopted include subsidies for the 
production  of  energy  crops  (e.g.  in  Slovenia)  and  grants  on  capital  expenses  to 
develop the necessary infrastructure (e.g. in Cyprus). 

•   Introduction  of  tax  incentives  (such  as  reduction  or  abolition  of  excise  tax)  to 
make  the  price  of  biofuels  competitive  to  conventional  fossil  fuels.  Currently 
biofuels  are  free  from  excise  tax  in  a  number  of  countries  (Estonia,  Malta, 
Poland,  Slovakia  and  Slovenia),  while  this  measure  is  under  consideration  in 

9

 
Cyprus  and  Hungary.  However,  participants  indicated  that  in  some  countries 
even excise tax-free biofuels are more expensive than conventional fuels.  

•   Promotion of research on a number of key issues including: biomass cultivation 
to  increase  production  yields,  biofuels  production  technology  to  reduce 
production cost, fuel and vehicle technology with emphasis on biofuels blends. 

•  Demonstration projects for the cultivation of energy crops, biofuel refineries, and 

the use of biofuels in captive fleets. 

5.2 Barriers to implement the Directive 

All participating Member States expressed the opinion that it will be very difficult 
to  introduce  biofuels  for  transport  at  the  levels  and  timeframes  indicated  in  the 
Directive.  A  number  of  major  barriers  were  identified  during  the  Workshop.  It 
became  evident,  however,  that  each  country  has  its  own  specific  difficulties  in 
implementing  the  Directive  due  to  national  characteristics  (e.g.  climate,  potential 
biomass resources, existing legislation, finances, public attitude to change, etc.). An 
effort was made to group the obstacles to the introduction of biofuels in ‘headline 
issues’.    These  ‘headline  issues’  are  summarised  below  and  are  itemised  in  more 
detail in Table 1. 

•   Regulatory  barriers  (lack  of  legislation,  unclear  or  ineffective  legislation, 

absence of technical standards). 

•   Limited  availability  of  national  biomass  resources  due  to  the  type  of  terrain, 
enforced  by  the  competition  with  other  land  and  biomass  uses  (e.g.  for  food  or 
heat  and  power);  and  climate  conditions  (and  in  the  case  of  the  Mediterranean 
countries water shortage) that do not favour high yields of energy crops. 

•   Lack of production capacity10 coupled with lack of capital to build the necessary 

infrastructure. 

•  Unfavourable  economics  /  uncompetitive  cost  of  biofuels.  This  cost  however, 
comprises a number of cost components, some of which are linked to the issues 
described  above,  like  the  cost  of  biomass  feedstock  and  the  cost  of  developing 
the necessary production infrastructure, coupled with limited financial resources. 
Other  cost  elements  include  the  cost  of  production  itself  and  the  cost  of 
distribution. 

•   Limited  public  acceptance,  stemming  from  concerns  about  fuel  compatibility 
with existing vehicles, and a general lack of information concerning biofuels. 

•  Reluctance of various groups to adopt biofuels, including the refinery sector that 
raises  technical  and  economic  concerns;  and  the  automotive  sector  that  is 
concerned about fuel compatibility with existing engines. 

10 The example of Slovenia was mentioned in the Workshop.  Slovenia exports biomass feedstock to 
Austria  for  the  production  of  biodiesel,  given  the  lack  of  expertise  and  production  facilities  in  the 
country. 

10

 
                                                 
 
It  must  be  noted  once  again  that  these  issues  are  not  generic  and  relevant  to  all 
countries to the same extent. 

For  four  of  the  participating  Member  States  (Cyprus,  Hungary,  Malta  and 
Slovenia),  the  most  important  barrier  is  that  of  the  very  limited  domestic  biomass 
resources.  Climatic  conditions,  limited  land  availability,  often  in  competition  for 
growth  of  food  products,  result  in  poor  yields  and  low  biomass  production.  This 
problem  is  intensified  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  due  to  limited  water 
resources.  

For  two  participating  Member  States  (Estonia  and  Lithuania)  the  most  important 
barrier  is  that  of  unfavourable  economics,  arising  mostly  from  the  lack  of 
production  capacity  and  the  limited  financial  resources  available  to  build  the 
necessary  infrastructure.  In  most  countries  the  cost  of  production  itself  is  higher 
than that of the sales price of conventional fossil fuels. 

Finally,  two  other  participating  Member  States  (Poland  and  Slovakia)  identified 
regulatory/legislative  barriers  in  their  countries  as  being  the  most  important.  This 
includes the lack of legislation for fiscal support mechanisms and standards, or the 
presence  of  an  unclear  and  unstable  legal  and  financial  support  framework.  
However,  for some participants,  the lack of regulations has not been considered a 
problem.  

In addition, as stated above, only few countries have been producing biofuels, and 
thus have some production and distribution infrastructure, however not adequate to 
meet the targets indicated in the Directive.  

In conclusion, it was the opinion of the participants that each country has to propose 
national  indicative  targets,  which  will  be  significantly  less  than  suggested  in  the 
Directive. For example, it was stated that the penetration of biofuels in Cyprus will 
not exceed 2% in 2010; Estonia could achieve 2% in 2006 and 5.75% in 2011; and 
Hungary could reach 0.4-0.6% in 2005. 

5.3 Proposed measures 

A number of measures were proposed during the Workshop to remove the barriers 
associated with the introduction of biofuels in the transport sector: 

(cid:190)  Development  of  a  simple  and  stable  legislative  and  regulatory  framework 
(including  rules  for  tax  exemption  and  other  financial  support  and  setting 
minimum shares of biofuels penetration) to stimulate the production of biomass 
and biofuels and create a secure environment for investors and consumers. 

(cid:190)  Harmonisation  of  the  tax  situation  across  the  EU,  to  remove  distortion  in  the 

market. 

(cid:190)  Blending  of  biofuels  with  conventional  fuels  taking  into  consideration  the 
possible  need  for  product  harmonisation  (e.g.  same  degree  of  blending)  to 
facilitate  the  creation  of  a  pan-European  biofuels  market  and  to  avoid 
technological incompatibilities thus alleviating consumer concerns.  

11

 
 
(cid:190)  Identification of the real biofuels production potential, taking into consideration 
land  competition for  the  cultivation  of food crops or biomass for other energy 
applications such as heat and power. 

(cid:190)  Research  activities  aiming  to  increase  domestic  biomass  production,  e.g.  by 
assessing  the  suitability  for  fast  growing  plants  in  each  country,  or  promoting 
the cultivation of rape seed and other energy crops. Research on lignocellulosic 
feedstock, and exploitation of ‘unconventional’ biomass resources, such as used 
cooking  oil  (e.g.  in  Estonia,  Hungary,  Malta  and  Slovenia),  agricultural  and 
other organic waste. Most countries indicated that they aim to be self-sufficient 
in biomass production and biofuels generation capacity, to improve the security 
of energy supply and create opportunities for national rural development. This 
protectionism however, may distort market competition. 

(cid:190)  Education of the public on the benefit of biofuels.  

(cid:190)  Demonstration  programmes  and  training  to  build  experience  in  producing  and 

using biofuels. 

6.  The readiness of Candidate Countries to comply with the 

biofuels Directive 

Candidate  Countries  do  not  have  to  comply  with  the  biofuels  Directive.  The 
alignment of their national legislation with EU legislation is however, necessary for 
their  accession  to  the  EU.  According  to  the  participants  of  the  Workshop,  these 
countries  have  not  yet  put  in  place  neither  the  necessary  legislation  for  the 
promotion  of  biofuels  nor  have  established  tax  incentives  to  create  a  favourable 
biofuels  market.  Although  there  is  a  significant  biomass  potential  (which  may 
increase in the future), production costs are high, making biofuels non-competitive 
with  conventional  fossil  fuels.  Among  the  candidate  countries,  Romania,  Bulgaria 
and  Turkey  have  a  long  experience  in  producing  bioethanol  and  have  established 
related research programmes. Main obstacles to the production and use of biofuels 
in  Romania,  as  identified  in  the  Workshop,  include  the  lack  of  investment  funds 
coupled with the reluctance of the private sector to invest in biofuels, the situation 
of  the  agricultural  sector  (fragmentation  of  farms,  an  unstructured  agricultural 
market, lack of subsidies for farmers), the reluctance of the refinery industry and the 
end-users  to  adopt  biofuels,  and  the  lack  of  public  awareness.  Turkey  has  also  a 
large potential for biomass, having a large set-aside land area that could be suitable 
for  energy  crops,  as  well  as  a  large  production  capacity,  relying  however  on  old 
plants. Croatia has changed the existing energy law towards the implementation of 
the  biofuels  Directive,  has  established  a  national  biomass  energy  program  for 
energy production and is involved in a number of related research and development 
programmes. 

12

 
 
 
7.  The prospects of natural gas as an alternative transport fuel in 

the New Member States and Candidate Countries 

The use of natural gas in the transport sector was also addressed in the Workshop. 
The  topic  received  however,  less  attention  than  biofuels.  It  became  apparent  from 
the discussion that the participants see natural gas as a ‘future’ fuel, which will not 
have  implications  in  their  national  transport  systems  in  the  short  term.  The 
reluctance  of  national  authorities  to  take  proactive  actions  relating  to  the  use  of 
natural  gas  has  contributed  to  the  lack  of  legislative  activity  from  the  policy 
community.  On  the  other  hand  the  research  community  has  been  very  active  with 
R&D  programmes,  paving  the  road  to  a  future  introduction  of  natural  gas  in  the 
transport  sector,  by  overcoming  technological  barriers  and  building  expertise, 
mostly  relating  to  vehicles  and  engines  and  to  a  lesser  extent  on  refuelling 
infrastructure.  Furthermore,  many  countries  have  run  related  demonstration 
programmes:  A  number  of  compressed  natural  gas  buses  operate  in  a  number  of 
cities across the New Member States and Candidate Countries (e.g. 70 buses in two 
cities in Hungary and 10 buses in Poland in several towns, and, three filling stations 
operating in Bulgaria and a filling station in Croatia serving captive fleets). 

Cyprus,  Malta  and  Slovenia  have  no  access  to  natural  gas.  In  these  countries  the 
driving force for introducing natural gas is the power generation sector rather than 
the transport sector. These countries have, however, plans to introduce natural gas 
in  the  near-to-medium  term:  Cyprus  plans  to  introduce  natural  gas  in  2009  and 
Malta is considering proposals to build an LNG terminal or a pipeline from Italy in 
the coming years. 

Although  the  rest  of  the  countries  participating  to  the  Workshop  have  access  to 
natural gas, they identified the lack of distribution infrastructure as the major barrier 
to  the  use  of  natural  gas  as  a  transport  fuel.  All  barriers,  as  identified  by  the 
participants to the Workshop, are itemised per country in Table 2. 

It was recognised that a possible introduction of natural gas in the transport sector 
comprises  a  number  of  steps,  including  the  establishment  of  a  legislative  and 
regulatory  framework,  the  deployment  of  a  critical  mass  of  vehicles,  and  the 
availability  of  fiscal  support  and  subsidies  to  create  an  attractive  market.  An 
effective fuel pricing policy addressing the issue of taxation was recognised as the 
key for the successful use of natural gas in transport. 

A few countries also addressed the option of biogas for vehicles. Biogas is used in 
Slovenia for the co-generation of heat and power, and in Romania, where approx. 
25000  units  are  operational.  The  potential  in  Poland  was  determined  as  small.  A 
project relating to this is being considered in Malta.  

8.  Other alternative fuels 

Other alternative fuels were discussed during the Workshop, due to their potential 
in  penetrating  the  energy  system  of  different  countries  in  such  volumes  that  can 
achieve a significant reduction to the use of traditional fossil fuels. 

LPG is  widely used in a number of  countries.  Malta  consumes  17,200  t/a,  mainly 
for  cooking  and  heating.  In  Poland  this  fuel  has  taken  a  large  fraction  of  the 

13

 
 
transport  market  (a  10%  share  was  mentioned)  and  receives  a  preferential  tax 
treatment. In Slovakia, the consumption of LPG is on the rise during the last years, 
having  displaced  biodiesel.  Estonia  uses  6,300  t/a  of  LPG  for  transport  and  other 
uses. The use of LPG in the transport sector in Bulgaria experienced a 50% increase 
since 2000, while, in Romania the LPG programme started in the late 70’s and now 
is one of the primary fuels for captive fleets, namely taxis. 

Malta has embarked on a programme to promote electric vehicles. To this end, the 
Maltese  government  has  issued  favourable  tax  rates  for  electric  vehicles  and  has 
acquired a number of them for own use. 

Hydrogen was mentioned during the workshop only in the context of research with 
an impact to the long-term and by a limited number of participants.  

9.  Conclusions and recommendations for follow-up actions 

The workshop highlighted the difficulties experienced by the New Member States 
and  Candidate  Countries  in  introducing  alternative  fuels  in  their  energy  systems. 
The  use  of  biofuels,  promoted  by  the  EU  Directive,  is  hampered  by  a  number  of 
issues including lack of biomass resources, lack of production capacity, insufficient 
legislation and regulation, reluctance of key sectors (refineries and the automotive 
industry) to support the use of biofuels, and hesitation of the consumers to use the 
new type of fuel. The exact problems are however unique for each country, due to 
their  characteristics  (e.g.  climatic  conditions,  land  use  and  biomass  resources, 
legislation  in  place,  etc.)  requiring  the  conception  and  implementation  of  a 
distinctive strategy for each country in order to achieve the effective introduction of 
biofuels. Because of the level of problems each country is facing in the introduction 
of  biofuels,  the  participants  to  the  Workshop  recognised  that  the  New  Member 
States  will  not  be  able  to  meet  the  indicative  targets  set  by  the  Directive  and 
proposed alternative targets that suit their individual characteristics and capacities. 
To this end, information on Commission actions and policies were given during the 
Workshop,  recent  technological  developments  on  the  production  of  advanced 
biofuels  and  the  use  of  biogas  were  presented,  and  related  R&D  activities  in  the 
participating countries were described. The Workshop also facilitated the exchange 
of  opinions  and  experiences  between  the  participants  pointing  out  a  number  of 
possible  measures  that  could  assist  the  (further)  penetration  of  biofuels  in  their 
countries’ energy systems. In addition to biofuels, the potential of the use of natural 
gas  in  the  transport  sector  was  also  discussed.  A  number  of  interesting  R&D 
programmes were described and the major barriers for its use in each country were 
identified.  

Two follow-up actions were proposed to the JRC by the participants, at the end of 
the Workshop: (i) the organisation of another Workshop at the end of 2005, where 
new technological developments and the state of progress with the implementation 
of the biofuels Directive would be reviewed, and, (ii) the setting up of a Network to 
facilitate  the  exchange  of  ideas  towards  the  implementation  of  the  biofuels 
Directive. The JRC is evaluating these proposals and will inform the participants of 
the Workshop on its decision by April 2005. 

14

 
 
15

 
 
Table 1: Participants’ prioritization of hurdles to the use of biofuels in the transport sector 

Lack of 
Production
Capacity 

Distribution 
Infrastructure
Barriers 

Other Barriers 
And Comments 

Regulatory- 
Legislative 
Barriers 

Land or 
Climate 
Induced 
Unavailability 
Of Biomass 
1 

3 
0 

1 
1 

1 

3 

1 

1 
0 
0 

1 

0 

2 
2 

3 
2 
0 

1 

4 

Country 

Cyprus 
Estonia 
Hungary 
Lithuania

Malta 
Poland 
Slovakia 

Slovenia 
Bulgaria 

Romania 

0 

2 
3 
2 

5 

2. Water resources 
1. Economics 

1.  Costs 
2.  Resistance of consumers 
Economics 
Economics 
Regulatory  barriers:  Strict  excise  duty  law  handicaps  the 
production of methyl esters. 
Distribution  barriers:  Limited  possibility  of  mixed  fuels 
production (custom regulations) 

2.Water resources 
3.  Lack of dissemination of information and knowledge 
1.  Lack  of  investment  funds  for  the  development  of  the 
sector of production and distribution of biofuels or of a 
system of incentives to encourage this business 

Turkey 
Croatia 
‘1’ denotes the most important barrier, etc. ‘0’ denotes that this barrier is not applicable to the specific country 

2 
2 

2 
1 

0 

0 

2.  Restructure of the agricultural sector 
1. Organization of farmers 
2. Lack of proper education 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 2: Participants’ prioritization of hurdles to the use of natural gas in the transport sector 

Regulatory- 
Legislative 
Barriers 

Absence of 
 natural gas 
supply 
1 

Distribution 
Infrastructure 
Barriers 

Country 

Cyprus 
Estonia 
Hungary 
Lithuania
Malta 
Poland 
Slovakia 
Slovenia 
Bulgaria 
Romania 
Turkey 

0 

2 
0 

3 
0 

0 

1 

0 
1 

2 
0 

1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 (a future barrier) 
1 
1 
1 (Lack of access  
for a large part of the 
population) 
1 

Other Barriers 
And Comments 

1. Timing > 2010 
2. Economics 

High investment costs 

2.  Lack  of  promotion  of  natural  gas  as  a  transport 
fuel 

2. Competition from LNG 
Croatia 
‘1’ denotes the most important barrier, etc. ‘0’ denotes that this barrier is not applicable to the specific country 

17