Euratom research projects and training activities : nuclear fission and radiation protection. Volume II.
Date: 2006-03-08
Institutions: Directorate-General for Research and Innovation
Subjects: EU research policy, nuclear research, nuclear safety, radiation protection, radioactive waste, research project, research staff, vocational training, waste management

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EUR 21229

 
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Euratom Research Projects 
and Training Activities 

Nuclear fission and radiation protection

Volume II

2006

EURATOM

EUR 21229

DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR RESEARCH

2

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Contents

INTRODUCTION

PARTNERSHIP IN FP6 EURATOM

MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Geological disposal

FUNMIG

Partitioning and transmutation

EUROTRANS

RADIATION PROTECTION

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted exposures

ALPHA-RISK

GENE-RAD-RISK

RACE

SOUL

Medical exposures and natural sources of radiation

SENTINEL

Protection of the workplace

CONRAD

Cross-cutting issues

RAD UNITS

RECOIL

5

14

17

18

20

23

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

3

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD 
OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Innovative concepts

GCFR

RAPHAEL

Education and training

BNEN

ENETRAP

Safety of existing nuclear installations

CND

COVERS

GAIN

NURESIM

RADE

Cross-cutting issues

ENFTP

GLOSSARY

INDEX OF PROJECTS 

4

41

42

44

46

48

50

52

54

56

58

60

63

67

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Introduction
This brochure describes the second batch of research projects funded through the spe-

cific programme for 'Research and Training on Nuclear Energy (2002-2006)' under the

Sixth Euratom Framework Programme for Nuclear Research and Training Activities (FP6).

The projects described here all involve research activities in the general area of nuclear fis-

sion, including the management of nuclear waste, radiation protection and other activities

in the field of nuclear technologies and safety, such as innovative concepts, education and

training, and the safety of existing nuclear installations. Euratom activities on research and

development in nuclear fusion are not covered here.

One-third of the electricity consumed in the enlarged EU is generated by nuclear (fission) power.
However, over the next 50 years, world energy demand is set to increase rapidly: global energy use
will at least double, with electricity demand growing the fastest and new energy carriers, such as
hydrogen, entering the market. As an indigenous and dependable source of energy, nuclear power
can contribute to the EU's independence and security of future energy supply, with more advanced
reactor technology promising significant improvements in the efficiency and sustainability of nuclear
power production whilst, at the same time, ensuring even higher standards of safety and producing
less waste.

Moreover, in the context of increasing evidence of climate change and a consequent need to reduce
fossil fuel use, nuclear power is the only carbon-free technology currently available to advanced
societies that is able to provide base-load electricity supply 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

The benefits of modern nuclear energy systems are being increasingly recognised by the public and
politicians  alike.  In  October  2005,  a  group  of  MEPs  from  across  the  continent  and  the  political
spectrum signed a declaration underlining their shared conviction that nuclear energy should play
an increasing role in the global fight against climate change and remain a pillar of the EU's energy
and environmental policy. 

Addressing societal concerns, protecting the public

However, there are a number of important concerns that affect the future use of nuclear power in
Europe.  The  primary  issues  are  operational  reactor  safety  and  the  management  of  long-lived
radioactive waste. Protection of society and the environment is paramount in all decisions relating
to nuclear activities - including the use of radiation in medical applications. To ensure a continued
high level of safety for society, nuclear technology demands the use of state-of-the-art techniques
requiring a continual supply of highly trained and dedicated people. Research plays an essential role
in this process.

The European dimension to these issues is evident. The safety of nuclear reactors is an important
issue for all countries, whether or not they themselves operate nuclear power plants. All countries
produce radioactive wastes or, through the grid, import electricity from nuclear production in other
countries. All hospitals use radioactive substances in various diagnostic and treatment technologies;
research reactors operate in many countries; universities use radioactive isotopes in vital research
in chemistry, biology and engineering; and many industrial activities also use sources of ionising
radiation.

Most of the low hazard waste is already safely managed and disposed of by industrial scale processes.
In the case of the more hazardous waste, principally originating from nuclear power reactors, the
continuing R&D effort is making tremendous progress towards disposal in deep geological repositories.
Various host rocks have been evaluated and assessments made of the ability of such systems to
isolate  such  high-level  waste  from  the  surface  environment  for  the  required  timescales 

5

6

(10 000 years +). In addition, innovative techniques such as partitioning and transmutation could
reduce the long-term radiotoxicity of this waste, thereby minimising the timescale required for isolation.
However, in parallel to these important advances at the cutting edge of science, a less technocratic
approach is needed in order to involve the public in the decision-making process, especially regarding
the siting of disposal facilities and related waste governance issues. This ability to communicate
effectively with the general public is a common concern in all technical research projects in this field.
The Euratom programme even includes projects devoted entirely to these 'softer' societal issues such
as governance and participative decision-making (see COWAM project in Vol. I, and also the more
general 'Science and Society' programme under the European Community Framework Programme).

Ultimately, decisions related to management of radioactive waste and whether or not to use nuclear
power are political and societal ones to be taken at the national level. However, these critical decisions
should  be  based  on  knowledge,  not  taken  in  ignorance.  Research  can  and  must  supply  this
knowledge.

The Programme

The FP6 Euratom programme directly contributes to key policy objectives for the EU:

Protection of society and the environment - This fundamental principle is reinforced through EU
legislation under the founding treaties for both Euratom and the European Community and lies at
the heart of all EU policy-making.

Security of energy supply - Energy is the life-blood of modern society. The Commission's Green
paper “Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply”, published in 2000, highlighted
the EU's need to protect itself from risks of interruption to energy supplies. This is achievable by
using  a  diverse  portfolio  of  energy  sources  and  technologies,  developing  further  indigenous  and
renewable energy sources and by improving energy efficiency.

Climate change- The consequences of increased global temperatures driven by human activity, in
particular the emission of greenhouse gases due to the use of fossil fuels, is one of the greatest
environmental and economic challenges facing society. Nuclear power has an important role to play
and is one of the technologies that enables the EU to meet its obligations under the Kyoto protocol.

Sustainable economic growth - Economic development, protection of the environment and social
justice are the three elements of sustainable development. Energy, being at the root of all human
activities, plays a key role in these often-opposing considerations.

The knowledge-based society-The Lisbon Council of March 2000 set the EU an objective of becoming
the most competitive knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010. The achievement of this
objective is a top priority. The level of knowledge and expertise in nuclear science in Europe makes
it a recognised world leader in many aspects of nuclear technology and enables a competitive edge
for European enterprise.

Research on nuclear fission and radiation protection at a pan-European level carried out within this
and earlier Framework Programmes has encouraged significantly increased levels of co-operation
in Europe. This has resulted in substantial benefits to the EU as a whole by ensuring high levels of
nuclear safety and environmental protection. The identified priority thematic research areas are of
concern to all Member States and, by enabling a coordinated effort, the Framework Programme
ensures the development of a common European view on scientific issues, as well as the harmonisation
of standards across the Union and beyond.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

FP6 research activities

The  legislative  basis  of  the  FP6-Euratom
programme is described in the Decisions of
the  Council  of  the  European  Union
(2002/668/Euratom and 2002/837/Euratom)
[http://www.cordis.lu/fp6/find-doc-general.htm]
adopting  the  Sixth  Framework  Programme
(FP6)  of  the  European  Atomic  Energy
Community (Euratom) covering both fusion-
and fission-related activities.

The activities undertaken within FP6 cover
similar thematic priorities to those of the Fifth
Euratom  Framework  Programme  (FP5-
Euratom):  the  management  of  radioactive
waste,  radiation  protection,  and  other
activities in the field of nuclear technologies
and safety.

The research activities being undertaken in FP6 have been allocated a similar overall budget (allowing
for inflation) to FP5 but are focusing on a smaller number of (larger) projects. The new instruments
available under FP6 (see box) are being applied to reinforce further integration in this area of European
research.

7

The European Research Area (ERA) and Euratom

The 'Euratom experience' during previous Framework Programmes has been one
of consistent success in pursuing essential research and facilitating pan-European
collaborative  efforts  on  waste  management,  reactor  technology  and  safety  and
radiation  protection.  This  research  effort  is  helping  to  retain  and  improve
competences  and  know-how,  and  thereby  maintaining  the  competitiveness  of
European industry in these fields.

In the fission area, there is also close co-operation between the various research
players  as  a  result  of  bilateral  and  multilateral  agreements,  including  at  the
international level (for instance under the auspices of the OECD/NEA, IAEA or ISTC
and  STCU)*.  The  Euratom  Framework  Programme  is  making  full  use  of  these
opportunities as well as those offered through umbrella agreements on the peaceful
uses of nuclear technology concluded between Euratom and third countries.

In co-operation with the Member States, a number of activities have been undertaken
that are helping to build and implement the ERA. In particular, these include mapping
the capacity of research centres and other research players in Europe and identifying
the  topics  in  the  various  research  areas  that  need  more  coordination.  The  new
instruments in FP6 (Integrated Projects and Networks of Excellence) have made a
significant contribution to integrating the key players in this area and establishing
the ERA in nuclear fission science and technology. The full benefits of this continuing
strategy will become apparent during the next (seventh) Framework Programme.

* NEA (Nuclear Energy Agency) of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development);
IAEA (International  Atomic  Energy  Agency);  ISTC (International  Science  and  Technology  Centre); 
STCU (Science and Technology Centre in Ukraine).

FP6 instruments

Networks  of  Excellence  (NoE) aim  to  strengthen  and  develop  the  Community's
scientific and technological excellence by integrating, at European level, research
and  training  capacities  at  national  and  regional  level.  Each  NoE  will  advance
knowledge in a particular research area by assembling a critical mass of expertise
and organising activities targeted towards long-term, multi-disciplinary objectives.

Integrated  Projects  (IP) are  designed  either  to  give  increased  impetus  to  the
Community's  competitiveness  in  a  specific  research  area  or  to  address  a  major
societal issue by mobilising a critical mass of research and technological development
resources. Clear scientific and technological objectives will be identified and specific
results in terms of products, processes or services pursued.

Specific Targeted Research or Training Projects (STREP) aim to improve European
competitiveness and should have a sharp focus. A STREP could be a research project
designed to gain new knowledge to improve or develop new products, processes or
services. Alternatively, it could be a demonstration project designed to validate new
technologies with economic potential. 

Coordination  Actions  (CA)  promote  and  support  coordinated  initiatives  between
research and innovation operators to improve integration. They cover activities such
as  conference  organisation,  sharing  of  best  practice  and  the  establishment  of
information systems. 

Actions  to  promote  and  develop  human  resources  and  mobility  cover  a  variety  of
activities under the general umbrella of training, education and mobility, including
Training Fellowships (TF), Special Training Courses (STC), Grants for Co-operating
with third countries (GFTC) and Transnational Access to Large Infrastructures (TALI).

Specific Support Actions (SSA) complement the implementation of the Framework
Programme  and  may  be  used  to  prepare  for  future  EU  R&D  work,  including
monitoring and assessment activities.

Integrated Infrastructure Initiatives (III) combine in one single action several activities
to reinforce and develop research infrastructures to provide services at the European
level. This could include networking activities with a support activity.

8

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

€

During  FP5,  some  222  Euratom  projects
were funded with a total of  163 million
allocated from the EU budget. Most of these
projects have now been completed or are
in their final phase. Of particular interest are
the  thematic  networks  that  prepared  the
way for future closer collaboration in areas
of  radioactive  waste  management  and
innovative reactor systems. Final reports on
FP5-Euratom  projects  can  be  found  at
[http://www.cordis.lu/fp5-euratom/
src/lib_finalreports.htm].

The 20 FP6-Euratom projects listed below,
grouped  under  thematic  priorities,  are
described  in  greater  detail  later  in  the
brochure.  These  projects  include  the
second  batch  to  be  negotiated,  with
contracts  in  place  as  of  30  September
2005, resulting from the second fixed deadline call for project proposals. The first call was issued
on 17 December 2002 with a deadline of 8 May 2003 (see volume I of this brochure), whilst the
second call was issued on 14 November 2003 with a deadline of 14 April 2004. A third and final
call was published on 8 June 2005 with a deadline of 11 October 2005. The projects described also
include Specific Support Actions from the continuously open call (see below).

So far, a total of 40 projects have been contracted under FP6-Euratom representing a cumulative
European  Commission  funding  of 
130  million.  A  third  and  final  volume  of  this  brochure  will
document all the remaining FP6 projects.

€

9

The management of radioactive waste

The main research areas here are geological disposal of highly active and long-lived radioactive waste
and the minimising of the radiologically most hazardous component of this waste through partitioning
and transmutation (separation of the more dangerous isotopes and their conversion to less hazardous
ones). Support for European actinide science – the science of the heavy elements used and/ or
produced by nuclear reactions – is an important part of the programme that cuts across both the
above main areas.

The funded projects described are:

Geological disposal

• FUNMIG - This Integrated Project is looking to improve further the fundamental understanding of
radionuclide  migration  processes  in  the  geosphere  and  its  contribution  to  the  application  of
performance assessment of geological repositories for high-level radioactive waste.

Partitioning and transmutation

• EUROTRANS - This large Integrated Project brings together the European research effort in the
field of transmutation and, in particular, will initiate design work on accelerator driven systems.  

Radiation protection

A  major  focus  of  this  research  is  a  better  understanding  of  the  mechanisms  of  radiation
carcinogenesis and better quantification of the risks from exposure to radiation at low and protracted
doses - this has important implications for the use of ionising radiation in both medicine and industry
(including nuclear energy). It also has implications for populations living in regions with higher than
average levels of background (or natural) radiation. The area also covers protection of the environment
and radioecology, risk and emergency management, and protection in the workplace.

The funded projects described are:

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted doses

• ALPHA-RISK - This Specific Targeted Research Project will improve the quantification of risks

associated with multiple radiation exposures using specific organ dose calculations.

• GENE-RAD-RISK  -  Known  risk  factors  for  breast  cancer  include  genetic  susceptibility  and
exposure to ionising radiation. This Specific Targeted Research Project will look at multinational
studies to assess the joint roles of the risk factors.

• RACE - This Specific Targeted Research Project is examining the risk of cardiovascular disorders
in women as a result of radiation therapy for breast cancer and in combination with other risk
factors.

• SOUL  -  The  Mayak  and  Techa  River  cohorts  in  the  southern  Urals  are  major  sources  of
information on health risks associated with chronic exposure to radiation. This Integrated Project
will examine and quantify these risks.

10

Medical exposure

• SENTINEL - A Coordination Action dealing with radiation protection issues emerging from the
introduction of digital technology in many medical diagnostic techniques, including clinical
and physical image quality criteria.

Protection of the workplace

• CONRAD - A network on radiation dosimetry will be formed by this Coordination Action, which
will extend collaboration on the complex task of risk assessment due to multiple exposures to
various radiation fields.

Cross-cutting issues

• RAD UNITS - This Specific Support Action is assessing new medical diagnostic techniques
developed for Computed Tomography, in particular the interaction between patient dose and
image quality.

• RECOIL - A Specific Support Action laying the foundation for a set of internationally agreed

criteria to address radiological protection of the environment.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Other activities in the field of nuclear technologies and safety

These activities cover three main areas: 

1. research on innovative reactor concepts, for example very high temperature nuclear reactors,

including other applications for nuclear power such as hydrogen production; 

2. safety of existing nuclear installations, including plant-life management (providing a basis for the
extended  operation  of  existing  plants),  research  on  severe  accidents  and  decommissioning
activities,  though  activities  in  the  latter  have  been  much  reduced  compared  with  previous
programmes as a result of the high level of industrial maturity already achieved in this sector; 

3. important  cross-cutting  aspects  such  as  education  and  training  and  infrastructure  projects,

including the establishment of new courses and the harmonisation of relevant curricula.

The preservation and enhancement of a skills base for nuclear science and engineering in Europe
is  a  fundamental  prerequisite  for  effective  R&D,  the  competitiveness  of  the  sector  and  the
maintenance of high levels of nuclear safety and radiation protection. Education and training is
therefore a key element of the EU support in this sector. For example, by promoting exchange of
personnel between Member States and institutions, this activity spreads knowledge and best practice,
and helps build future research partnerships. It also allows scientists from all Member States to
access the best equipment and facilities.

The funded projects described are:

Innovative concepts

• GCFR - This Specific Targeted Research Project is exploring the particular advantages of high-

temperature gas-cooled fast reactors as economic, sustainable electricity generators.

11

• RAPHAEL - A major Integrated Project that
is  addressing  viability  and  performance
issues  of  the  Very  High  Temperature
Reactor  concept,  one  of  the  innovative
systems  being  considered  for  the  next
generation of nuclear power plants, which
(along with the gas-cooled fast reactor) has
the potential for other applications such as
hydrogen production.

Education and training

• BNEN  -  Building  on  the  experience  in
Belgium,  this  Specific  Support  Action  will
show how a European higher education area
for the nuclear sector can be achieved, and
how  resources  and  capabilities  can  be
integrated.

• ENETRAP  -  This  Coordination  Action  is
developing  a  common  European  radiation
protection  and  safety  culture  by  better
integrating  and  harmonising  national
education and training efforts.

Safety of existing nuclear installations

• CND - The purpose of this Coordination Action is to establish a network of organisations involved
in  decommissioning  activities  to  encourage  continuous  improvement  in  competencies  and
efficiency. 

• COVERS - This Coordination Action will cover all aspects of the safe and reliable operation of

nuclear power plants using Soviet designed VVER-440 and VVR-1000 reactors.

• GAIN - A Specific Support Action designed to identify the medium- to long- term inspection
needs of nuclear plants and to assess the research and technical work required to satisfy them.

• NURESIM - This Integrated Project is taking the initial steps towards a common European
Standard Software Platform for modelling, recording and recovering computer simulation data
for current and future reactor systems.

• RADE - A Specific Support Action that is organising a workshop on reactor dosimetry results
obtained during FP5 on Soviet-designed VVER-type reactors and applying the techniques to
assess reactor pressure vessel safety more accurately.

Cross-cutting issues

• ENFTP - A Specific Support Action bringing together key players to develop a long-term strategic

road map for a sustainable and competitive nuclear fission energy option.

Smaller funding instruments - the continuously open call

Within  FP6  Euratom,  there  is  an  open  call  that  receives  proposals  on  a  continuous  basis  with
evaluations after every six-monthly cut-off date in April and October. The following instruments (see
box for more details) and areas are covered:

• Specific Support Actions: these projects are included in the present brochure under the appropriate

thematic areas.

• Actions to promote and develop human resources and mobility: these include funding for training
fellowships, special training courses and grants for co-operation with third countries to allow young
researchers  from  the  Newly  Independent  States  (NIS)  of  the  ex-Soviet  Union  to  work  in  EU
laboratories.  Actions  also  include  Transnational  Access  to  Large  Infrastructures  (TALI),  an
instrument that facilitates access by research workers to key infrastructure facilities. These actions
are not dealt with further in this brochure.

12

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Forward to FP7

The  European  Commission's  proposal  for  the  next  Framework  Programme
(FP7)  has  been  published  and  debated  by  the  other  European  Institutions.
Formal adoption is foreseen during the first quarter of 2006. FP7 will largely
maintain  continuity  with  current  FP6  instruments  with  the  emphasis  on
increased coordination with national programmes, and will work to simplify the
various administrative procedures to the greatest possible extent.

The objective of the FP7-Euratom programme in nuclear fission and radiation
protection  is  to  establish  a  sound  scientific  and  technical  basis  that  can
accelerate  practical  developments  for  the  safe  management  of  long-lived
radioactive  waste,  promote  safer,  more  resource-efficient  and  competitive
exploitation of nuclear energy, and ensure a robust and socially acceptable
system of protection of man and the environment against the effects of ionising
radiation. Research activities are proposed under five main headings, the first
three being thematic and the last two essentially cross-cutting.

Management of radioactive waste will involve implementation orientated R&D
for deep geological disposal of long-lived radioactive waste, and, as appropriate,
demonstration activities on technologies and safety to underpin  the development
of a common European view on the management and disposal of waste. It will
also encompass research on partitioning and transmutation and other concepts
that  have  the  potential  to  reduce  the  amount  and/or  hazard  of  the  waste  for
disposal.

Reactor systems research  will  help  to  ensure  the  continued  safe  operation  of
existing nuclear power reactors, including aspects such as lifetime extension, and
assess the potential and safety aspects of future reactor technologies, particularly
as  regards  resource  efficiency,  safety,  proliferation  resistance  and  waste
production.

Radiation protectionwill look principally at the risks from low dose and medical
uses of radiation in order to provide the scientific basis for a robust, equitable
and socially acceptable system of protection that will not unduly limit the use
of  radiation  in  medicine  and  industry.  Research  will  also  be  undertaken  to
mitigate the potential impact of acts of nuclear and radiological terrorism.

Support to infrastructures will target key European research facilities such as
material testing reactors, underground research laboratories, tissue banks and
radiobiology  facilities  that  are  needed  to  maintain  the  high  standards  of
technical ability in the European nuclear sector. This will include support for
the  design  and  construction  of  new  infrastructures  or  the  refurbishment  of
existing facilities, together with facilitating access by research workers.

Support for human resources and training will  ensure  the  retention  and
development  of  a  skills  base  covering  nuclear  competences,  thereby
guaranteeing  the  future  availability  of  suitably  qualified  researchers  and
engineers in the European nuclear sector.

13

Partnership in FP6 Euratom

14

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

15

1
R
E
T
P
A
H
C

MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

• Geological disposal

FUNMIG

• Partitioning and transmutation 

EUROTRANS

 
Fundamental Processes of Radionuclide
Migration: Deepening our Understanding of
Repositories

I

G
M
N
U
F

The  leading  option  for  the  disposal

of long-lived radioactive waste is in

deep  geological  repositories.  The

Integrated  Project  FUNMIG  deals  with  possible

mobility/migration  of  radionuclides  in  the  far

field,  i.e.  any  potential  movement  of  radionu-

clides  originating  in  the  waste  and  migrating

through  the  near  field  towards  the  biosphere.

FUNMIG  gathers  together  European  and  other

international  expertise  to  improve  the  basic  sci-

entific  understanding  of  relevant  processes  and

will bring this knowledge to assist the demonstra-

tion  of  disposal  safety,  provide  training  to  inter-

ested  stakeholders  worldwide  and  communicate

the outcome to all interested parties. 

18

Broadening know-how, assisting 
implementation

Depending  on  their  geographic  situation,  different
geological  environments  or  host-rocks  are  studied  in
different  countries  as  candidate  structures  for  deep
repositories for long-lived nuclear waste. In the European
Union, clay-rich, crystalline and salt host-rocks are under
investigation. These host-rock types show a wide spectrum
of  both  common,  but  also  very  different,  features  and
issues. For this reason, this unified European experimental
programme investigates both common basic processes
and those that are specific to the different types of host-
rock. For those Member States that have not yet defined
a specific host-rock type in their national programmes, the
project  presents  a  unique  opportunity  to  broaden  their
knowledge  base  of  generic  processes  and  become
involved  in  the  more  implementation-oriented  project
activities. This is a key contribution to the definition and
improvement  of  their  future  site-specific  investigation
programmes.

For  safety  and  performance  assessment,  the  complete
repository system is typically divided into three areas, the
near field (NF), the far field (FF) and the biosphere. For
deep geological repositories, the near field comprises the
waste, the immediate surrounding environment (including

One test gallery at the Grimsel Test Site, Switzerland
(Courtesy of ENRESA)

engineering barriers), and the part of the geosphere that
is  significantly  affected  by  the  repository.  The  present
project deals with the far field, i.e. the part of the host-
rock not significantly affected by the repository.

Filling data gaps, building trust 

The experimental programme includes the development
of  basic  data  that  are  currently  missing  and  qualitative
statements concerning the potential impact of a variety of
processes. A broad set of research activities will be carried
out covering detailed studies under controlled laboratory
conditions, underground laboratory studies, and analysis
of the hydrological and geochemical behaviour of relevant
natural systems. Investigation under controlled laboratory
conditions and underground laboratory studies will provide
process understanding and the quantitative data needed
for  the  performance  assessment  of  depositories.
Agreement  with  observations  under  natural  geological
conditions plays a key part in providing trust in these data
as regards overall safety.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Geological disposal

Adding to scientific knowledge and
development

Performance  assessment  relies  on  confidence  in
adequate  understanding  of  relevant  processes  and
keeping up with the continuously increasing expectation
level for the knowledge associated with on-going progress
in  science  and  technology.  This  project  will  assist
countries  with  advanced  investigation  programmes  to
ensure that relevant processes are adequately understood
and addressed. It will also provide the basis for continued
development  in  the  understanding  and  treatment  of
relevant  processes,  and  help  Member  States  and
applicant countries to achieve the required scientific and
technological implementation level. Main achievements
expected  from  FUNMIG  are  increased  trust  in  the
capability for safe nuclear deep-waste disposal in Europe
and harmonisation of competence levels throughout the
continent.

Partnership for safety and confidence

The  project  currently  has  70  partners  comprising
contractors and associated groups. Organisations with a
keen  interest  in  project  participation  can  enter  as  an
associated  group.  Through  this  open  process  for
extending the project partnership, the overall number is
expected to increase as the project progresses. Currently
(September  2005),  partners  come  from  17  European
countries, Korea and Canada, with representatives from
national  waste  management  organisations,  a  wide
spectrum  of  research  organisations,  universities,  small
and  medium-sized  enterprises  and  national  regulatory
bodies. The project thus involves both types of end-users,
namely those responsible for public safety interests, and
those with responsibility for disposal of the nuclear waste.
Training and the broad involvement of universities also
contributes  to  guaranteeing  an  adequate  competence
level  in  the  future.  The  large  number  of  countries
participating ensures both a high competence level within
the  project  and  the  necessary  improvement  of  the
situation  in  other  countries.  This  harmonisation  and
dissemination of knowledge will help ensure public safety
and public confidence in the disposal option. 

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Gunnar BUCKAU 
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe
Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung
P.O. Box 3640, DE-76021 Karlsruhe
www.funmig.com

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:
Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Michel RAYNAL 

Integrated Project
01/01/2005
48 months
€ 15 006 979
€ 8 000 000

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/61, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 61 78
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Asociación para el Desarrollo Industrial de los Recursos Naturales, ES
Agence Nationale pour la Gestion des Déchets Radioactifs, FR /
Association pour la Recherche et le Développement des Méthodes et
Processus Industriels, FR / Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières,
FR / Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique, FR / Centro de Investigaciones
Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, ES / Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas, ES / Chalmers University of Technology, SE /
Empresa Nacional de Residuos Radioactivos S.A., ES / Enviros Spain SL,
ES / Études-Recherches-Matériaux, FR / Forschungszentrum Rossendorf
e.V., DE / Geopoint AB, SE / Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktors-
icherheit mbH, DE / University of Helsinki, FI / Helsinki University of
Technology, FI / Institut für Interdisziplinäre Isotopenforschung, DE /
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, HU / Johannes Gutenberg Universität
Mainz, DE / Royal Institute of Technology, SE / Køpenhavns Universitet,
DK / Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, BE / Nationale Genossenschaft für die
Lagerung radioaktiver Abfälle, CH / National Institute for Laser, Plasma
and Radiation Physics, RO / Nationale Instelling voor Radioactief afval en
verrijkte splijtstoffen, BE / United Kingdom Nirex Limited, UK / Nuclear
Research Institute Rez plc, CZ / National Centre of Public Health, National
Research Institute for Radiobiology and Radio-hygiene, HU / Universidad
de Oviedo, ES / Posiva Oy, FI / Paul Scherrer Institut, CH / Slovak
Academy of Sciences, SK / Studiencentrum voor Kernenergie·Centre 
d'Étude Nucléaire, BE / Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, SE / Technische
Universität München, DE / Universidad de La Coruña, ES / Universität
Bern, CH / University of Cyprus, CY / Loughborough University, UK /
Victoria University of Manchester, UK / Universiteit Utrecht, NL /
Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya, ES / University of Potsdam, DE /
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, ES / Technical Research Centre of
Finland, FI / Wageningen University, NL / University Joseph Fourier of
Grenoble, FR / University of Le Mans, FR / University of Mulhouse, FR /
Alpine Institute of Environmental Dynamics, FR

19

S
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European Research Programme for 
the Transmutation of High Level Nuclear Waste 
in an Accelerator Driven System

The future of nuclear energy and its

acceptance by the public is heavily

dependent  on  a  viable  solution  for

20

the safe disposal of nuclear waste. The strategy of

partitioning and transmutation (P&T) of long-lived

radionuclide  could  provide  potential  benefits  by

simplifying  the  management  of  present  and

future high level radioactive waste by reducing its

radio-toxicity and its heat load. This could enable

a reduction in the volume required for high-level

wastes  in  repositories,  increasing  their  effective

capacity and reducing the number required.

European Transmutation
Demonstration

EUROTRANS focuses on the transmutation (the nuclear
conversion of long-lived and/or toxic elements, such as
plutonium  and  the  minor  actinides,  into  short-lived  or
stable elements) of radioactive waste and will initiate work
on a European Transmutation Demonstration (ETD) based
on the use of accelerator driven systems. It will carry out
a first advanced design of a 50-100 MWth experimental
facility  to  demonstrate  the  technical  feasibility  of
transmutation in an Accelerator Driven System (XT-ADS).
It will also produce a generic conceptual design (several
100 MWth) of a modular European Facility for Industrial
Transmutation  (EFIT).  Both  designs  will  bear  the  same
fundamental  system  characteristics  in  order  to  allow
scalability between XT-ADS and EFIT.

The design work for the EFIT will be limited to the definition
of  a  strategy  for  optimisation  of  EFIT  as  a  dedicated
transuranium element transmuter. A substantial amount of
targeted experimental and theoretical work in support of
these  design  activities  will  be  carried  out,  including  the
coupling of an accelerator, a spallation target and a sub-
critical blanket. Specific work is devoted to the development
of  key  accelerator  components,  dedicated  fuels,  heavy
liquid metal (HLM) technologies and basic nuclear data.
This  will  provide,  in  conjunction  with  other  projects,  a
consistent and complete feasibility assessment giving a cost
estimate for a future transmutation system and an essential
input  element  for  decision-makers  on  the  future
implementation of an ADS-based transmutation process.

Scheme of an Accelerator Driven 
Transmutation System (ADTS)
(© Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe FZK)

Design, fuel, technologies and 
accelerator

Work within the project will include developing a detailed
design of a linear proton accelerator driven, 50-100 MW
(thermal)  sub-critical  reactor  system  (XT-ADS)  with  a
windowless spallation target and a conceptual design of
several 100 MW industrial ADS for transmutation (EFIT).
To  assist  the  design  of  XT-ADS  and  EFIT,  a  range  of
validated experimental input from relevant experiments at
sufficient  power  (20-100  kW)  will  be  provided  in  an
international  collaboration  that  will  assess  subcriticality
monitoring,  dynamic  behaviour  and  will  validate  the
coupling  of  an  accelerator,  a  spallation  target  and  a
subcritical blanket. In parallel, a variety of uranium-free
reactor fuels will be developed with a view to testing them
as single dedicated fuel pins in the XT-ADS as well as a
possible candidate fuel for a full core loading in the EFIT.
Safety issues on the systems and the innovative fuels will
be  properly  taken  into  account.  The  further  project
domains will develop and assess structural materials and
HLM  (lead  and  lead-bismuth)  technologies  for
transmutation  systems,  where  the  HLM  is  both  the
spallation material and the core coolant. Finally, improved
nuclear data files will be evaluated and models developed
that  involve  sensitivity  and  uncertainty  analysis  and
validation of simulation tools.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Partitioning and transmutation

EUROTRANS has also reserved at least 5% of its budget
for  provision  of  education  and  training  activities  in  the
nuclear field to young researchers, which is an important
project activity.

The basis for a decision

The  strategic  outcome  of  the  EUROTRANS  project  will
provide a state-of-the-art, reliable basis for the assessment
of the technical feasibility of transmutation by ADS and a
first cost estimate of an ADS-based transmutation system.
It is also expected to provide important input elements to
the  appropriate  decision-making  authorities  to  decide
whether to embark on the detailed engineering design of
an  ADS  for  transmutation  (being  the  XT-ADS)  and  its
eventual construction after completion of this project.

Acceptable waste disposal

The nuclear power plants in EU Member States produce
about 35% of the total electrical power required today. The
serious  threat  that  global  warming  appears  to  pose  to
European society has further revived the interest in the role
of  nuclear  energy  in  the  energy  portfolio,  together  with
renewable sources. No matter what the future holds for
nuclear energy production, the option cannot be pursued
indefinitely unless the issue of spent fuel, nuclear waste
and  their  safe  and  permanent  disposal  has  been
satisfactorily  solved.  For  the  long-term  security  of
electricity  supply  and  the  sustainable  development  of
nuclear energy, research and development activities for the
management  of  radioactive  wastes  and  their  safe
implementation has to be guaranteed at a European level.
Successful  P&T  processes  for  long-lived  radiotoxic
elements can assist in the public and political acceptance
of nuclear waste disposal strategies.

Structure of Eurotrans

IP Coordinator

EC

DM0 Management
Project Office

DM1 Design
ETD Design

DM2 ECATS
Coupling
Experiments

DM3 AFTRA
Fuels

DM4 DEMETRA
HLM Technologies

DM5 NUDATRA
Nuclear Data

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Joachim U. KNEBEL 
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH
Head of the Programme Nuclear Safety Research 
Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1 
DE-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 
Tel: +49 7247 82 5510
Fax: +49 7247 82 5508 
ipeurotrans.knebel@nuklear.fzk.de
http://www.fzk.de/eurotrans/

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration: 

Integrated Project
01/04/2005
48 months
€ 42 926 414
€ 23 000 000

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Ved BHATNAGAR 

21

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/46, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 299 58 96 
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Advanced Accelerator Application SA, FR
Ansaldo Nucleare SpA, IT
British Nuclear Fuels plc, UK
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, FR
Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas Medioambientales y
Tecnologicas, ES
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, FR
Centro di Ricerca, Sviluppo e Studi Superiori in Sardegna, IT
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, ES
Empresarios Agrupados Internacional S.A., ES
Ente per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente, IT
Reseau Europeen pour l'Enseignement du Nucléaire, FR (represent-
ing 17 universities)
Framatome ANP SAS, FR
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, DE
Forschungszentrum Rossendorf e.V., DE
Gesellschaft fuer Schwerionenforschung m.b.H., DE
Ion Beam Applications S.A., BE
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, IT
Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, BG
Instituto Tecnológico e Nuclear, PT
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, BE
Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, EC
Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal Institute of Technology), SE
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
Ústav jaderného vyπzkumu Rμez¬, a.s. (Nuclear Research Institute Rez,
plc.), CZ
Oxford Technologies Ltd, UK
Paul Scherrer Institut, CH
Studiecentrum voor KernenergieoCentre d'Etude de l'énergie
Nucléaire, BE
Tractebel Engineering, a division of Suez Tractebel, S.A, BE
Framatome ANP GmbH, DE
National Nuclear Corporation Limited, UK

2
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RADIATION PROTECTION

• Quantification of risks associated with low and

protracted exposures
ALPHA-RISK
GENE-RAD-RISK
RACE
SOUL

• Medical exposures and natural sources of radiation 

SENTINEL

• Protection of the workplace

CONRAD

• Cross-cutting issues
RAD UNITS
RECOIL

 
K
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Risks Related to Internal 
and External Exposures

In  radiation  epidemiology,  much

work  has  been  carried  out  on  the

long-term  health  effects  related  to

external exposures. Yet population exposures are

generally complex, including both external radia-

tion  and  internal  exposure  due  to  ingestion  or

inhalation  of  radionuclides.  Today,  one  of  the

main  issues  in  radiation  protection  is  the  quan-

tification of long-term effects of exposure to dif-

ferent  radiation  types,  in  particular  alpha-emit-

ters, to which the general public is exposed when

inhaling  domestic  radon  decay  products  at  low

doses and also certain groups of workers exposed

to various radioisotopes of elements such as ura-

nium and plutonium.

24

Quantifying risks for external and 
internal low dose exposure

The  ALPHA-RISK  project  aims  to  improve  the
quantification of risks associated with multiple radiation
exposures, taking into account the contribution of different
radionuclides and external exposure using specific organ
dose  calculations.  It  brings  together  major  European
epidemiological  studies  that  have  evaluated  long-term
health  effects  of  internal  exposure  from  radionuclides
(radon,  uranium  and  plutonium).  A  comparison  of  risk
models and the derivation of indicators, such as lifelong
risk, will help the interpretation of results, whilst the 'organ
dose  approach'  will  enable  the  comparison  of  risk
estimates with those obtained from populations exposed
only to external sources.

An international interdisciplinary 
collaboration

ALPHA-RISK  takes  advantage  of  existing  successful
European  collaborations  in  epidemiology  in  order  to
strengthen  expertise  in  various  complementary  fields,
especially epidemiology, dosimetry and risk modelling. New
studies will be implemented in the field of occupational

Elements of the Alpha-Risk project
(Courtesy of IRSN)

exposure,  taking  into  account  accurate  individual
information on internal exposures. Large epidemiological
studies,  with  accurate  registration  of  individual  annual
exposures  from  different  populations  and  types  of
exposure,  will  be  considered.  Existing  studies  on  lung
cancer and indoor radon exposure present the opportunity
to  compare  these  risk  estimates  with  those  from  other
studies on mineworkers. This will support the calculation
of attributable risk for cumulated low protracted exposures
to alpha particles and tobacco. In addition, the planned
joint analysis of European, US, Canadian and Chinese data
will  allow  for  a  more  precise  estimation  of  the  radon-
associated risk among non-smokers.

Specific  studies  will  be  conducted  among  nuclear
workers  exposed  to  transuranium  nuclides  (mainly
uranium  and  plutonium),  for  whom  doses  will  be
reconstructed individually. The implementation of a joint
Anglo-French study will provide the basis for a long-term
follow-up of the health effects associated with cumulated
internal and external exposures. Experts in dosimetry will
enable the calculation of organ doses in the presence of
multiple exposures, and will support the reconstruction
of past internal exposure among nuclear workers. The
expression of the risk per unit organ dose will make it
possible  to  compare  results  with  those  from  other
populations exposed to external radiation.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

RADIATION PROTECTION

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted exposures

Comparing risk estimates for chronic
internal and external exposures 

ALPHA-RISK will promote the development of coherent
and  improved  methodological  approaches  for  risk
modelling. Excess risk coefficients per organ dose will
be  described  and  modelled  in  relation  to  time-
dependent variables. Different modelling approaches
can be compared and the completion of the collection
of smoking data among uranium miners will allow the
development of enhanced biologically based models in
parallel  with  classical  statistical  approaches.  Special
attention  will  be  given  to  uncertainties  and  errors  in
exposure  measurements,  dose  calculations  and  risk
estimates. The final objective is to derive lifelong risk
estimates that can be compared to estimates available
from other studies and other exposure conditions, and
applied to populations that differ from those involved
in ALPHA-RISK.

Improved knowledge and support for
radiation protection

ALPHA-RISK will contribute to a better knowledge of
long-term health risks following chronic low doses from
internal exposures. This is a topic of major controversy
in radiation protection. The results should be a useful
contribution to the revision of the recommendations by
the 
International  Commission  on  Radiological
Protection,  which  are  currently  being  prepared.  The
project  also  has  the  potential  to  help  resolve  major
public health concerns about the effects of low and/or
protracted  exposures.  The  inclusion  of  the  largest
European  studies  on  radon  exposure,  and 
the
combination  of  the  European,  North  American  and
Chinese studies on residential radon and lung cancer
will  allow  a  consensus  on  the  best  estimate  of  lung
cancer  risk  attributable  to  radon  for  a  variety  of
populations.  ALPHA-RISK  will  provide  collated
information  about 
that  can  be
communicated  to  the  general  public  and  used  to
support EU policies in the field of radiation protection
and public health.

low  dose  risks 

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Margot TIRMARCHE
Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire
Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie
BP 17
FR-92262 Fontenay aux Roses Cedex
Tel: +33 1 58 35 71 94
Fax: +33 1 46 57 03 86
margot.tirmarche@irsn.fr
http://www.alpha-risk.org

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Targeted Research Project
07/2005
36 months
€ 4 439 127
€ 2 199 755

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  George Neale KELLY

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/78, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 64 84
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Bundesamt fuer Strahlenschutz, DE
Statni Ustav Radiacni Ochrany, CZ
Cancer Research UK, UK
International Agency for Research on Cancer, FR
Westlakes Scientific Consulting Ltd, UK
Atomic Weapons Establishment plc, UK
Health Protection Agency, UK
Universitaet Salzburg, AU
Forschungs-zentrum fuer Umwelt und Gesundheit Gmbh, DE
Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu, NL
Istituto Superiore di Sanità, IT
Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin, DE
Centre d'Assurance de qualité des Applications Technologique dans
le domaine de la Santé, FR
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, UK
Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie Centre d'Etude de l'Energie
Nucléaire, BE
University of Ottawa, CA
RWE NUKEM Ltd, UK

25

K
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Radiation Exposures at an Early Age:
Impact of Genotype on Breast Cancer Risk – Genes
and Breast Cancer

Breast  cancer  is  the  most

common cancer and a lead-

ing  cause  of  cancer  deaths

among  women  worldwide.  Known  risk

factors for breast cancer include genetic

susceptibility  and  exposure  to  ionising

radiation.  The  GENE-RAD-RISK  project

focuses  on  the  conduct  of  multinational

studies of pre-menopausal breast cancer

risk  in  a  variety  of  populations.  These

cohorts  are  chosen  based  on  a  high

prevalence  of  radiation  exposure  and/or

high  prevalence  of  known  mutations  in

susceptibility genes.

Evaluating exposure and susceptibility

Image of a digital phantom for calculating radiation doses
received to the site of the breast cancer from radiotherapy,
Institut Gustave Roussy, (IGR), France 
(© Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France)

The aim of the project is to examine the joint roles of
low-dose radiation exposure and genetic susceptibility
in studying the cause of breast cancer in young women.
Because of the nature of the question being addressed,
the  current  project  is  based  on  a  multinational
collaboration  as  studies  in  single  countries  lack
sufficient  statistical  power.  The  consortium  brings
together a powerful team with a wide range of expertise.
The  Radiation  Group  of  the  International  Agency  for
Research on Cancer has considerable experience in the
coordination  of  multi-centre  international  studies  in
radiation epidemiology, while the leading investigators
for  each  of  the  cohorts  included  in  the  study  are  all
established  researchers 
field  of  cancer
epidemiology or genetics. 

the 

in 

Multinational studies 

The  project  involves  the  conduct  of  separate  but
complementary  multinational  studies  of  breast  cancer
within different populations. This includes patient groups
who survived a first cancer diagnosed before the age of
35  and  were  exposed  to  medical  radiation  and  other
groups with a known or suspected genetic predisposition
to breast cancer - such as BRCA1 and 2 mutation carriers.
The  radiation  dose  to  the  breast  from  therapeutic  and

diagnostic  exposures  will  be  estimated  and  statistical
methods developed to analyse the data collected in the
studies and to integrate and exploit the results. This will
allow derivation of risk estimates and consequences for
radiation protection.

The study findings will be published in scientific symposia
and  research  journals.  Specific  publications  will  be
prepared, 
towards  oncologists  and
radiotherapists, in order to inform them of the results and
assist them in implementing measures to reduce the risk
of radio-induced breast cancer.

targeted 

Identification of populations at 
a higher risk of cancer following 
irradiation

The project addresses specific issues of low-dose risks and
identification  of  genes  conferring  predisposition  to
radiation-induced  health  effects.  It  will  enhance  our
understanding of how ionising radiation influences the risk
of  breast  cancer  following  exposure  in  childhood,
adolescence  and  the  early  reproductive  years,  and  will
improve  our  understanding  of  mechanisms  of  cancer

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

26

RADIATION PROTECTION

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted exposures

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Elisabeth CARDIS 
International Agency for Research on Cancer
150, cours Albert Thomas
FR-69008 Lyon
Tel: +33 4 72 73 85 08
cardis@iarc.fr
http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/Units/RCA.php

Project Details
Project Type: 
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Targeted Research Project
01/06/2005
36 months
€ 2 037 500
€ 2 000 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  George Neale KELLY 
European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/78, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 64 84
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Centre François Baclesse, FR
Institut Gustave Roussy, FR
Istituto G. Gaslini, IT
Netherlands Cancer Institute, NL 
Lund University, SE
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, UK
Institute of Cancer Research, UK
University of Wales Swansea, UK
The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of
Cambridge, UK
University of Birmingham, UK
Centre René Huguenin, FR

27

induction  in  general,  particularly  in  relation  to  gene-
environment  interactions.  It  will  also  assist  in  the
identification  of  individuals  who,  because  of  a  genetic
alteration,  have  a  potentially  greater  risk  of  radiation-
induced cancer.

The  subjects  who  participate  in  the  project  will  not
benefit directly from the results of this study. However,
it  is  expected  that  breast  cancer  management  in
different  populations  (populations  with  high-dose
environmental  radiation  exposure  following  nuclear
accidents, patients treated for a first cancer and cohorts
of BRCA1/2 mutation carriers) may be improved by the
results.  Moreover,  the  results  will  help  to  predict
responses  to  radiotherapy  and  to  identify  high-risk
populations among patients for whom cancer therapy
needs to be tailored to take into account their inherent
susceptibility to radiation-induced cancer. 

Modified methodologies to reduce risk

Through the identification of susceptible groups, and
the  study  of  factors  that  may  modify  the  effects  of
radiation  exposure,  the  project  has  implications  for
assessing the adequacy and generalisation of current
national  and 
international  radiation  protection
guidelines  and  recommendations.  In  the  case  of
identifying susceptible groups, plans will be made with
appropriate experts for disseminating risk information
to  relevant  population  groups,  together  with  wider
publicity on the project outcomes.

If specific interactions are found, and a higher risk of
radiation-induced  breast  cancer  risk  is  observed  in
populations with particular polymorphisms, screening
or  counselling  can  be  adapted  and  breast  cancer
screening  protocols  (and  possibly  treatment)  can  be
modified. In particular, diagnostic radiation exposures
(mammography) for these populations may need to be
restricted  and  therapeutic  protocols,  in  the  case  of
malignancies, adapted. As such this will also contribute
to the debate about long-term risk of new radiotherapy
techniques, such as Conformational Radiotherapy and
Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy Treatment, as well as
to  the  evaluation  of  the  risk/benefit  assessment  of
radiation therapy versus novel targeted chemotherapy
agents.

Radiotherapy for Breast Cancer and
Subsequent Risk of Cardiovascular Events:
Calculating Cardiac Risk

E
C
A
R

Breast  cancer  is  the  most  common

cancer  amongst  women  throughout

the world with approximately 1 mil-

lion  cases  diagnosed  annually.  Survival  rates  for

women with breast cancer are constantly improv-

ing, making any late occurrence of adverse health

will  be  presented  at  international  congresses  and
published in peer-reviewed journals. As is customary
today, results will also be published on the websites of
the universities involved in the study. In addition, the
project will set up its own open-access website in order
to  facilitate  the  objective  of  making  results  quickly
available for clinicians and radiation physicists.

effects, such as cardiovascular disorders, that are

A better knowledge of the risk

related  to  the  therapy  itself  an  increasingly 

significant problem.

Understanding risk factors and
radiation response

to  study 

The  RACE  project  aims 
the  risk  of
cardiovascular  disorders  developing  in  women  with
breast  cancer.  It  is  well  established  that  ionising
radiation can induce cardio-vascular disorder, but little
has been done to quantify the effect. The aim of RACE
information  on  dose-response
is 
relationships,  and  the  interaction  of  factors  such  as
previous  cardiovascular  disorders,  tobacco  and  other
therapeutic modalities.

to  acquire 

Patient studies and accurate dose 
estimation

The project will collect information on approximately 60
000  Danish  and  Swedish  women  who  have  been
diagnosed  with  breast  cancer.  It  will  study  the
occurrence of cardiovascular disorders within this group
and determine the relationship with their administered
treatment. Then, using a subset of the group, the project
will  carefully  scrutinise  the  case  records  and  extract
information on factors that could influence the risk of
cardiovascular  disorders.  In  order  to  calculate  valid
results, RACE will focus on estimating the correct doses
received from the radiotherapy.

team 

includes  experts  on  radiation
The  RACE 
epidemiology  and  studies  aimed  at  quantifying  the
effects of ionising radiation, together with scientists and
doctors  with  appropriate  scientific  and  clinical
backgrounds  who  have  expertise  in  performing  the
necessary dose estimations. The results of the studies

Over the years, numerous studies have addressed the
possible  adverse  health  effects  of  breast  cancer
treatment on patients. Any detrimental effects become
increasingly important in light of the increased survival
rate of diagnosed individuals that has been achieved as
a consequence of intensified screening campaigns and
increasing use of adjuvant therapy - treatment such as
chemo- or hormone therapy, which is used to eliminate
cancer  cells  that  may  have  spread  from  the  original
cancer site.

The results from RACE will give patients and clinicians
the possibility to include factors such as dose, previous
disorders,  other  treatments  and  lifestyle  factors  into
their calculations when they estimate the cost-benefit
value  of  post-surgical  radiotherapy.  In  addition,  the
outcomes could have a bearing on exposure to ionising
radiation outside the medical field, although it is unlikely
that  exposures  of  this  magnitude  will  be  seen  in  the
workplace or the environment.

Better information for patients and 
clinician decisions

The findings emanating from the project will have only
a small influence on society at large, although the focus
- to prolong a healthy life for women struck by breast
cancer  and  (apparently)  cured  after  an  appropriate
course of radiotherapy for the disease - should have a
major impact on the individuals, their families and on
the  medical  teams  involved.  The  RACE  project  will
provide information that makes it easier for the clinician
to decide on the potential adverse late health effect of
additional  treatment,  taking  several  'lifestyle'  and
medical factors into consideration. The results will also
make it easier for the patients to weigh the benefits of
further  treatment  against  the  risk  of  a  possible
subsequent heart attack.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

28

RADIATION PROTECTION

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted exposures

There  will  be 
little  obvious  environmental  or
economical advantages to the European Union (EU).
The main effect will be seen in better overall survival
and patient care - which again will have an impact at
the local/individual level. The results should also be of
interest  to  industry  insofar  as  safer  radiotherapy
techniques  and 
treatment  regimes  are  being
developed  in  collaboration  with  radiotherapy  units
within the EU.

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Per HALL 
Karolinska Institutet
Nobels väg 12A
SE-171 77 Stockholm
per.hall@ki.se
www.meb.ki.se

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Targeted Research Project
01/08/2005
36 months
€ 1 442 398
€ 999 764

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  George Neale KELLY 
European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/78, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel:+32 2 29564 84
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Oxford University, UK
Aalborg Hospital, DK
Radcliffe Hospital, UK

29

Southern Urals Radiation Risk Research:
Quantifying Risk in the Urals

L
U
O
S

The Mayak Worker and Techa River

Cohorts  in  the  Southern  Urals  are

internationally recognised as being

emerging major sources of information on health

risks  associated  with  significant  exposure  to

radiation.  The  main  goal  of  the  Southern  Urals

Radiation  Risk  Research  (SOUL)  project  is  the

exploration  and  quantification  of  health  risks

due  to  chronic  exposures  to  plutonium,  stron-

tium and external radiation.

Techa river in Southern Ural

30

The late effects of prolonged radiation
exposure

Anticipated activities: improved 
measurement of dose and effects

Current radiation protection standards are based on risk
estimates extrapolated from high to low dose, low dose-
rate exposures and from acute to protracted exposures.
However,  studies  of  populations  exposed  as  a
consequence of past operations at the Mayak nuclear
plant may provide more direct information on the long-
term health effects of protracted radiation exposures.
The objective of the SOUL project is to quantify the risks
of late health effects associated with protracted low-dose
rate  exposure  to  plutonium,  strontium  and  external
gamma  radiation  for  nuclear  workers  at  Mayak  and
residents close to the Techa River in the Southern Urals.
SOUL's  findings  will  form  the  basis  for  reducing  the
uncertainty  about  health  effects 
from  protracted
exposures.

is  a  multidisciplinary  project 

involving
SOUL 
dosimetrists, operational health physicists, statisticians
and epidemiologists. The partners contribute detailed
experience  on  radiation  dosimetry  and  dose
reconstruction,  and  on  the  design  and  analysis  of
studies  of  health  risks.  The  research  is  being  fully
coordinated  with  the  parallel  initiative  between  the
Russian  Federation  and  the  United  States,  which  is
guided  by  the  Joint  Coordinating  Committee  for
Radiation Effects Research (JCCRER).

resonance 

The  research  activities  in  SOUL  include  improving  the
quality  of  dosimetric  data  for  members  of  the  Mayak
Worker and Techa River Cohorts. Key dosimetric elements
are  electron  paramagnetic 
(EPR)
measurements  of  tooth  enamel,  photon  spectra
measurements,  luminescence  measurements  of
absorbed  doses  in  bricks,  measurements  of  strontium
distribution  in  teeth,  fluorescence in situ hybridisation
(FISH) measurements of chromosome aberrations, and
modelling of internal doses to the foetuses and infants.
Relevant data sources on dosimetry, mortality and medical
follow-up for Mayak workers will be augmented, validated
and  pooled  to  improve  risk  assessment  for  cancer  and
non-cancer effects and current knowledge on the early
pathogenesis  of  plutonium-induced  lung  cancer.  The
cause of death registers for the Techa River Cohorts will
be extended and health effects will be analysed.

Four subprojects will specifically examine: 

• external dosimetry for the Mayak Worker Cohort

• internal dosimetry, dosimetry system and health effects

for the Mayak Worker Cohort

• dosimetry for the extended Techa River Cohorts

• health effects in the Techa River Cohorts.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

RADIATION PROTECTION

Quantification of risks associated with low and protracted exposures

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Peter JACOB 
GSF - ISS 
Ingolstädter Landstr.1
DE-85764 Neuherberg
Tel: +49 89 3187 4008
Jacob@gsf.de
Website under construction. 
Contact: N. Semioshkina semi@gsf.de

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Integrated Project
01/08/2005
48 months
€ 12 026 405
€ 6 800 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  George Neale KELLY 
European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/78, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 64 84
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Health Protection Agency, UK
Urals Research Centre for Radiation Medicine, RU
Southern Urals Biophysics Institute, RU
Karolinska Institutet, SE
Closed Corporation 'Company GEOSPETSECOLOGIA', RU
Istituto Superiore di Sanità, IT
Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, DE
Technische Universität München, DE
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, EL
Leiden University Medical Center, Division 5, NL
Westlakes Scientific Consulting, UK

31

New data on exposure and risk

The work on dosimetry in SOUL will produce improved
dose databases, Mayak Doses 2008 and Techa Doses
2008,  by  applying  the  most  up-to-date  experimental
methods of retrospective dosimetry. The Mayak Worker
Cohort will be investigated to improve current knowledge
on  exposure-related  mortality  and  morbidity  from
circulatory diseases (such as myocardial infarction and
stroke),  cancer  incidence  and  pathogenesis  of  lung
cancer. The study of circulatory diseases will also be a
focus for the Extended Techa River Cohort. Cancer and
cardiovascular  disorders  following  exposure  occurring
prenatally and/or early in life will be studied in the Techa
River Offspring Cohort.

The project on the Mayak Worker Cohort and the Techa River
Cohorts will provide a direct and highly relevant contribution
to  considerations  of  whether  current  standards  require
revision in light of possible late health effects. The results of
this research will facilitate the estimation of cancer and non-
cancer morbidity and mortality risks, provide new knowledge
on  radiation-associated  diseases,  formulate  scientifically
based guidelines on radiation-associated diseases, and help
national  and  international  commissions  in  the  continued
assessment of total health hazards due to radiation exposure. 

Better protection for society

The anticipated results should improve international radiation
protection standards for protracted exposures, which is the
most frequent form of occupational and population exposure
in society. It is hoped that radiation risk coefficients will be
obtained for the first time for cardiovascular and cerebro-
vascular  diseases  following  protracted  exposures  to  both
external radiation and plutonium over a wide dose range.
The work will improve radiation risk estimates (for example,
for a wider spectrum of health effects, giving more precise
doses,  biodosimetry  information,  etc.)  and  assist  the
development  of  new  regional,  national  and  international
standards of radiation safety and protection.

SOUL  is  expected  to  provide  significant  input  to  the
understanding of radiation risks. It will also support future
research on radiation risks in the Southern Urals.

L
E
N
I
T
N
E
S

Safety and Efficacy for New Techniques 
and Imaging Using New Equipment to Support
European Legislation: Supporting Digital Medicine

The  SENTINEL  project  deals  with

radiation  protection,  safety  and

related issues arising from the intro-

32

duction of digital technologies to replace film and

fluoroscopy  equipment  in  many  diagnostic  tech-

niques.  The  project  scope  covers  over  90%  of

patient examinations, 60% of the collective dose

from medical sources, and approximately 50% of

the  collective  dose  from  man-made  sources

received by a typical European citizen.

Expert approach to new safety 
challenges 

The main objectives of this coordination action relate to
new  digital  radiology  equipment  being  introduced  by
medical institutions in Europe. The project will establish
both clinical and physical image quality criteria, and the
link between the two, perform a series of dosimetry studies
and  develop  good  practice  guidelines  for  radiation
protection and training material. These actions will address
international  standardisation  issues,  evaluate  ethical
issues in radiation protection, and develop resources and
harmonised approaches to radiation protection training for
high dose procedures.

The  research  group  comprises  clinical  partners  and
medical  physicists  working  in  hospitals,  industry  and
universities, and government scientists. The consortium
has  close  links  to  industry  and  national/international
professional societies.

Dose data to bring consensus 
on standards 

Coordination activities will take place to refine quality
criteria  for  new  technologies.  Various  surveys  of
equipment  and  practice  will  be  undertaken  and
patient/staff  dose  data  will  be  collated.  A  series  of
consensus meetings, supported by literature reviews,
will be held to develop common perspectives on various
topics.  Optimisation  approaches  will  be  reviewed,
particularly 
to  screening  procedures.
Existing  acceptance,  status  and  consistency  test

in  relation 

Interventional Radiology Suite  
(Courtesy of Eliseo Vano, San Carlos University 
Hospital, Madrid, Spain) 

protocols will be critically reviewed and evaluated, and
the  consortium  will  contribute  to  standardisation
activities. Consensus on the use of the Digital Imaging
and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) header for
information on patient dosimetry and quality control will
be  addressed.  A  review  of  ethical  considerations  in
various  procedures  will  be  undertaken,  which  will
involve meetings with ethicists from major religions and
secular traditions. Training meetings will also be held
and training material written. 

Quality assessment for digital 
guidelines 

SENTINEL  will  develop  novel  approaches  to  image
quality  assessment  for  digital  technology,  which  will
lead to the development of international standards for
new imaging technologies and software covering a wide
range  of  medical-related  equipment.  The  project  will
work  to  obtain  a  shared  consensus  on  image  quality
and  dose  management  in  digital  radiology.  It  will
evaluate image-processing algorithms and produce a
consensus  document  on  referral  criteria  for  cardiac
procedures.

The research will establish reference dose levels for new
detectors  used  in  digital  radiology,  cardiology  and
interventional  radiology,  and  develop  image  quality
criteria  for  new  detectors  in  cardiology,  interventional
radiology and mammography applications. The group

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

RADIATION PROTECTION

Medical exposures and natural sources of radiation

test  protocols 

will derive a consensus on the acceptance, status and
consistency 
for  cardiology  and
interventional  radiology,  and  develop  approaches  to
undertaking national patient dose surveys. Guidelines
on minimising patient and staff doses in interventional
radiology will be produced and a workshop examining
the justification of relevant ethical issues and safety will
be organised. In addition, a number of focus meetings
on  ethical  issues  associated  with  reproductive  and
screening  digital  radiological 
techniques  will  be
organised  and  will 
include  public  participation.
SENTINEL will also identify any training requirements
that emerge from the research and publish appropriate
training materials.

Maximising patient benefit, 
minimising dose 

This  Coordination  Action  brings  together  a  series  of
research studies into medical digital imaging in all its
forms.  These  studies  concentrate  on  the  justification
and  optimisation  of  new  and  emerging  imaging
techniques, all associated with relatively high individual
doses or the application of radiology techniques to more
sensitive patient groups.

European  manufacturers  are  at  the  forefront  of
developing  new  imaging  technologies  in  radiology.
Standardisation issues are crucial to supporting these
new  developments.  Digital  radiology,  digital
fluoroscopy,  digital  mammography  and  nuclear
medicine  can  be  used  to  replace  many  surgical
techniques. Public awareness of and support for these
techniques  will  be  jeopardised  if  adverse  affects  of
radiation become a concern. The Coordination Action
intends 
improve  benefit/risk  ratios,  avoid
deterministic injuries, and improve clinical outcomes
- all benefiting patients.

to 

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Keith FAULKNER
Quality Assurance Reference Centre
Unit 9
Kingfisher Way, Silverlink Business Park
GB-NE28 9ND Wallsend
Tel: +44 191 219 7014
Fax: +44 191 219 7005
keith.faulkner@nhs.net
http://www.dimond3.org

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Coordination Action
01/02/2005
27 months
€ 714 400
€ 700 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution:
EC Project Officer:  Henning VON MARAVIC

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/81, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 52 73
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Nicosia General Hospital, CY
St James's Hospital, IE
Medicontrol, SK
Akademisches Lehrkrankenhaus der Universitat Mainz, DE
University Tartu, EE
S Maria Della Misericordia, IT
Institute of Occupational Safety, SI
Complutense University, ES
Ankara University, TR
UZ Gasthuisberg, BE
University of Pisa, IT
Innsbruck University Hospital, AT
National Centre of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection, BG
Division de la Radioprotection, Villa Louvigny, LU
Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, FI
NPHC- National Research Institute for Radiobiology and Radio-
hygiene, HU
Delft University of Technology, NL
Hairmyres Hospital, UK
Athens General Hospital, EL
Institute of Public Health, RO
Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, PL

33

D
A
R
N
O
C

Coordinated Network for Radiation Dosimetry:
Collaborating for Better Radiation Protection

Accurate calculation of the risk asso-

ciated with exposure of individuals to

radiation in the workplace is difficult,

34

even  for  exposure  to  a  single  type  of  radiation.  In

reality, people are exposed to a variety of different

radiation  fields,  each  with  its  own  characteristic

problems, making risk assessment a very complex

task. There are only a limited number of establish-

ments  involved  in  radiation  protection  research  in

European countries and the need for collaboration

is clear. The CONRAD project forms a coordinated

network  for  radiation  dosimetry  to  provide  the

framework  to  extend  collaboration  and  improve

working between these establishments.

Collaborate and protect 

CONRAD  has  identified  four  work  areas  to  coordinate
European  research  efforts  and  provide  guidance  for
radiation protection dosimetry. The feasibility for a future
sustainable network on radiation protection dosimetry will
be considered and the possibility of forming a European
'Network of Excellence'.

The organisational framework for the project is provided
by the European Radiation Dosimetry Group (EURADOS),
which  comprises  nearly  200  researchers  from  50
European institutions in 24 countries, and includes the
majority of radiation protection expertise in Europe. The
feasibility  study  for  this  project  will  use  the  extensive
experience  of  network  research  at 
the  Technical
Management  Institute  at  the  University  of  St  Gallen  in
Switzerland.

Improving accuracy and reducing
uncertainty 

The  quality  of  information  concerning  the  accuracy  of
results  from  computational  approaches  adopted  to
estimate dosimetry and instrument characteristics will be

Extremity dosimetry continues to present 
significant problems
(Courtesy by IRSN)

assessed  by  CONRAD.  The  measurement  of  internal
exposure to radiation is plagued by large uncertainties and
this will be reduced by coordinating work in areas such as
the modelling of radionuclide transport. Complex mixed
radiation fields in a workplace pose particular challenges
and dosimetry for these fields needs improvement. One
important complex field is that of high-altitude flight where
solar events distort the usual cosmic ray field. Finally, the
area of radiation protection dosimetry for medical staff will
be  investigated,  including  extremity  dosimetry,  dose
assessment when wearing protective clothing, and during
interventional radiology.

Benchmarking for better understanding
and guidance 

Uncertainty analysis for computational dosimetry applied to
external  and  internal  exposure  at  the  workplace  will  be
investigated using comparison exercises, and, for the first
time,  the  results  will  provide  guidance  on  how  to  treat
computational  uncertainties.  Calculations  with  voxel
phantoms (realistic models of the human body - a voxel is

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Helmut SCHUHMACHER 
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Dept. 6.5
Bundesallee 100
DE-38023 Braunschweig
Tel: +49 531 592 6500
Fax: +49 531 592 6505
Helmut.schuhmacher@ptb.de
http://www.ptb.de
http://www.eurados.org/conrad

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Coordination Action
01/01/2005
36 months
€ 300 000
€ 300 000 

Total Budget:
EC Contribution:
EC Project Officer:  Henning VON MARAVIC

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/81, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 52 73 
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Delft University of Technology, NL
European Radiation Dosimetry Group, NL
University of St Gallen, CH

35

RADIATION PROTECTION

Protection of the workplace

a  3-D  equivalent  of  a  pixel)  and  spectrum  unfolding
(routines that estimate the full radiation spectrum from a
limited  number  of  measurements)  will  be  studied  and
guidance  provided  for  these  techniques.  The  internal
dosimetry activities will assess uncertainties in internal
exposure,  research  biokinetic  models,  and  investigate
Monte  Carlo  applications  for  in  vivo assessment  of
intakes. The  results  will  provide  better  understanding,
guidance for practitioners and improved databases for
internal dosimetry.

A  report  will  be  published  on  benchmark  exercises
undertaken in complex radiation fields at workplaces
describing progress on new and improved techniques
in this area. A second report will describe the results
of a validation study of models assessing aircrew doses
due to solar particle events.

Via  comparison  exercises  and  evaluations,  a
comprehensive database will be compiled for medical
staff  concerning  extremity  dosimetry  capabilities,
dosimetry when protective clothing is worn, and the use
of  active  dosimeters.  A  detailed  report  on  the  way
forward for networking in this area will also be provided.
Finally, a dedicated work package will ensure timely and
extensive take-up of CONRAD's findings.

Better protection for workers and
employers 

CONRAD  will  provide  enhanced  radiation  protection
dosimetry  for  workers  in  areas  where  the  quality  of
dosimetry  calculation  could  be  improved.  All  areas
where workers are occupationally exposed to radiation,
from  the  nuclear  industry  to  mining  and  health,  will
benefit from this work.

Reliable  dosimetry  provides  reassurance  for  workers
that any radiation risks are being minimised. It provides
employers with the accurate data for legal protection
and evidence that they are applying the principles of
ALARA  (As  Low  As  Reasonably  Achievable)  for
radiation exposure. Improved dosimetry can also have
an economic impact by reducing the need for complex
procedures  where  adequate  protection  cannot  be
currently demonstrated.

S
T
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D
A
R

Radiation Units: Better, Safer CT Scans

Computed 

Tomography

(CT)  has  recently  under-

gone  a  revival  as  a  diag-

nostic  technique,  due  to  the  advent  of

new  imaging  systems  and  methodolo-

gies.  CT  is  a  relatively  'high-dose'  diag-

nostic  technique  and  the  interaction

between  patient  dose  and  optimisation

of  image  quality  is  a  critical  parameter

and the main focus of this project.

Optimised image quality and
patient dose

RAD UNITS aims to produce a report on three
important issues for CT, in particular, modern
CT procedures. These issues are the dose to the patient,
image  quality  and  the  interaction  between  these  two
factors. CT has undergone a technological revolution in
recent years with the advent of first single-spiral and then
multi-slice  spiral  systems,  which  have  an  intrinsically
higher patient irradiation than in conventional CT.

In  1999,  the  European  Commission  published  the
'European Guidelines on Quality Criteria for Computed
Tomography',  but  since  then  the  performances  of  CT
equipment  and  its  use  has  changed  dramatically.  This
project will assist in updating these guidelines.

Assessing interacting factors 

New  CT  technologies  (for  example,  multi-slice  spiral
systems)  are  associated  with  intrinsically  higher  patient
irradiation  than  conventional  CT.  More  significantly,  the
enormous power, speed and versatility of the new scanners
have  led  to  their  wider  use,  often  replacing  traditional
medical techniques. The increasing number and complexity
of CT studies is a matter of considerable concern for patients
and health authorities. Therefore, the regulatory authorities
are  taking  an  increased  interest  in  more  accurate  and
objective information on patient exposure.

Numerous interacting factors contribute to image quality in
CT, including the radiation dose used. There is a need for
a critical review of the available data in this field (dose and

ICRU CT Committee will seek to convert subjective measurements of image
quality into an objective analytical and quantitative assessment
(Courtesy of J. Boone)

image quality) to guide CT users, radiologists, technologists
and medical physicists involved with CT. An important part
of this project will deal with the compromise between patient
dose and image quality, implying objective and subjective
measures of image quality and the clinical information that
it contains. The different factors influencing image quality
will be systematically analysed. As a general rule, for any
application in radiological imaging, the dose to the patient
should be as low as possible. However, a compromise needs
to be made which should be based, on the one hand, on
objective, quantitative and reliable criteria on image quality
and  diagnostic  information  and,  on  the  other  hand,  on
accurate and reliable dosimetry. Another related issue for
CT is how to handle the enormous amounts of data derived
from the new techniques.

Reporting results for international
action 

The  project  will  produce  a  report  on  CT,  including  dose
determination, image quality and interaction between these
two factors, which will be prepared by the Catholic University
of Louvain (BE) and submitted to the European Commission
during  2007.  Most  parts  of  the  report  will  be  ready  and
available for consultation and discussion one year earlier and
this information will be widely disseminated, including via
the German National Research Centre for the Environment
and Health in Neuherberg near Munich.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

36

 
I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
André WAMBERSIE 
Université Catholique de Louvain 
Unité d'Imagerie Moléculaire et Radiothérapie Expérimentale 
(formerly: Unité de Radiobiologie et de Radioprotection) 
Avenue Hippocrate 54/69
BE-1200 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 764 54 68
Fax: +32 2 765 94 25
andre.wambersie@imre.ucl.ac.be

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Support Action
01/03/2005
30 months
€ 46 000
€ 46 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Henning VON MARAVIC 

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/81, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 52 73
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

37

RADIATION PROTECTION

Cross-cutting issues

Based on the EC report, an 'International Commission on
Radiation  Units'  report  will  be  published  by  Oxford
University Press; a subsequent publication in electronic
format is also planned. In addition, parts of the report will
be  published  in  the  open  literature  and  presented  at
international meetings where appropriate.

Better medical diagnostics at 
reduced risk

The direct benefits of the efforts described in the present
project for patients in general are obvious: improving the
diagnostic power of the CT techniques while, at the same
time, reducing the radiation exposure levels experienced.

In addition, the documents and information produced by
the  project  will  trigger  increased  awareness  in  the
radiological  and  medical-physicists  community,  the
medical community in general and lastly, through them,
the general public. In particular, it is important that the
public becomes aware of the efforts being undertaken to
improve  the  efficacy  of  the  CT  procedures  and,
simultaneously, to reduce the radiation exposure so that
they can have confidence in the new techniques and be
able to make appropriate informed choices about their
own medical care.

The ICRU CT Committee will simplify the radiation dose
assessment for clinical CT scanners, and rely on simple
determinations of radiation output measurements combined
with relevant Monte Carlo derived CT dose coefficients.
(Courtesy of J. Boone)

L
I
O
C
E
R

Recommendations on Protection: Dissemination 
of International Radiation Results – Environmental
Radiation Protection

So far, radiological pro-

tection  recommenda-

tions  have  focused  on

protecting the human population. No

internationally agreed criteria or poli-

cies address radiological protection of

the environment, and it is difficult to

say  whether  non-human  species  are

adequately protected. Using and dis-

seminating  European 

research

results, the International Commission

on  Radiological  Protection  (ICRP)

aims to fill this conceptual gap.

38

Establishing protection 
for flora and fauna 

Although the human habitat has been fairly well protected
through  the  current  ICRP  system  of  protection  for  the
human  population,  there  are  now  other  demands  on
regulators in relation to the environment. These include
the protection of wildlife and habitats, the necessity for
environmental  impact  assessments,  and  the  need  to
harmonise industrial regulation (for example, chemicals
are often regulated based on their potential impact on both
the human population and wildlife).

However, there is a lack of relevant advice, assessment
procedures,  criteria  or  reference  data.  A  common
approach and scientific basis is needed to establish an
appropriate  relationship  between  exposure,  dose,  and
effect on fauna and flora. The ICRP is a non-governmental
non-profit expert organisation in radiological protection -
a leader in this area. Its recommendations are the basis
of worldwide and European legislation.

Animal and plant reference models 

In the case of human radiation protection, the exposure
- dose - effect approach has been based on the so-called
'reference man'. ICRP favours a parallel approach for the
protection of other species. This can be achieved by the
development of a small set of reference animals and plants

A common approach for the radiological protection 
of humans and non-human species
(© ICRP)

covering a number of organism types that are typical of
the major environments. This approach cannot provide a
general  assessment  of  the  effects  of  radiation  on  the
environment as a whole, but it could provide the basis for
judgments about the probability and severity of the likely
effects of radiation on different organisms.

Information  on  radiation  effects  could  be  set  out  in
logarithmic  bands  of  dose  rate  relative  to  natural
background  dose  rates  (derived  consideration  levels).
Additions of dose rate below background rates might be
of minor concern, but those that are much greater than
background  rates  would  be  of  increasingly  serious
concern. 

Calculated consideration levels

It  is  essential  to  base  the  protection  of  human  beings,
animals and plants on the same basic understanding of
the interaction of radiation and living tissues. It is also vital
to  develop  a  common  approach  to  the  protection  of
humanity and the environment whenever contamination
by  radionuclides  is  likely  to  occur.  In  such  an  overall
approach, the purpose of the RECOIL project will be to
develop the two related areas. Thus, RECOIL will permit
the ICRP to develop a set of reference animals, plants and

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

RADIATION PROTECTION

Cross-cutting issues

derived  consideration  levels  (DCLs)  via  funding  the
drafting,  review  and  dissemination  of  appropriate
reports. These reports will benefit greatly from the results
of  a  previous  European  Commission  Fifth  Framework
Programme  project  -  FASSET.  RECOIL  will  generate  a
biological description for each of about 12 types of animal
and plant, plus reference data for each. The data sets
should include: radionuclide concentrations giving rise to
background dose rates; dose models and the means of
calculating dose rates to the reference animal and plant
types; and information, set out logarithmically, about the
effects of radiation on that organism (i.e. the bands within
the DCLs).

Environmental management and 
protection 

The RECOIL project will raise a number of related issues,
such as radiation quality effects in different organisms;
different biological effects resulting from the irradiation
of various tissues and organs; and whether this reference
organism approach can be applied in practice. All these
issues  are  closely  related  to  another  current  EC
Framework Project (ERICA). Of particular interest will be
the  extent  to  which  new  requirements  for  nuclear
regulators  and  of  those  responsible  for  environmental
management generally can be met. Such issues will be
taken  into  account  in  full  in  the  development  of  the
working reports.

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Jack VALENTIN 
International Commission on Radiological Protection
SE-171 Stockholm
Tel: +46 8 729 727 5
www.icrp.org

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Support Action
01/03/2005
24 months
€ 53 000 
€ 53 000  

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Henning VON MARAVIC

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/81, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 52 73
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

39

3
R
E
T
P
A
H
C

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD 
OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

• Innovative concepts

GCFR
RAPHAEL

• Education and training

BNEN
ENETRAP

• Safety of existing nuclear installations

CND
COVERS
GAIN
NURESIM
RADE

• Cross-cutting issues

ENFTP

 
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor:
Fast Route to Sustainable Energy

R
F
C
G

42

Nuclear reactors with a high ener-

gy,  'fast  neutron'  flux  have  the

unique capability of providing sus-

tainable  energy  sources,  both  in  terms  of  the

highly efficient use of fissile fuel and a reduc-

tion  in  volume  and  radio-toxicity  of  nuclear

waste  produced.  The  Gas-Cooled  Fast  Reactor

(GCFR)  project  explores  the  particular  advan-

tages  of  a  high-temperature,  gas-cooled  fast

reactor  primarily  as  an  economic  electricity

generator,  with  good  sustainability  and  safety

characteristics, which also has the potential to

support hydrogen production. 

Innovation in fuel and materials 

This project's development of a viable concept is the first
step in an ambitious long-term R&D programme for GCFRs.
The ambitious goals pose challenges that require innovative
solutions and potential technological breakthroughs for the
fuel,  fuel-cycle  processes  and  safety  systems.  The
development of new materials with superior resistance in a
fast  neutron  environment  and  very  high  temperatures  is
required. 

The GCFR will take advantage of synergies with Very High
Temperature  Reactor  (VHTR)  work,  where  the
development of a high-performance helium turbine and
coupling  technologies  for  process  heat  applications  is
being undertaken. Close links to R&D materials for VHTR
will  be  maintained  via  Sixth  Framework  Programme
projects RAPHAEL and ExtreMAT.

Contribution to GIF 

GCFR is aligned to the Generation IV International Forum
(GIF)  R&D  Programme  on  gas-cooled  fast  reactors  and,
together with the JRC fuels R&D programme, constitutes
the  Euratom  contribution  to  GIF  in  this  area.  Key  areas
addressed  by  GCFR  include  research  on  direct  coolant
cycles using core coolant directly to power a gas turbine
and  comparison  with  an  indirect  cycle,  transmutation  of
radioactive isotopes in core conditions, the safety approach,
analysis and harmonisation with other reactor systems. The

(Courtesy of CEA)

conceptual design will feature risk minimisation including
passive safety measures, computer code benchmarking,
and innovative fuel and fuel-cycle processes.

The  GCFR  project  supports  research  work  by  PhD
students and post doctorates via direct participation of two
universities in the work programme and with three other
consortium partners. Participation in such an exciting area
of technology will attract and develop young engineers and
retain key nuclear skills.

Core designs, fuel and cycle options 

The  long-term  GIF  R&D  programme  aims  to  establish
preliminary  viability  by  2007,  confirm  this  viability  by
2012,  and  complete  a  conceptual  design  by  2019.
Moreover, an experimental GCFR of limited power, called
the  Experimental  Technology  Demonstration  Reactor
(ETDR),  could  be  built  around  2015  to  qualify  key
technologies.

The intention is to exploit the favourable characteristics,
attributable  in  part  to  the  gas  coolant,  to  have  a  self-
generating core (converting the natural uranium fuel in
the  core  to  fissile  material  -  the  fuel),  which  meets  the
sustainability  requirement  and  brings  advantages  for
proliferation  resistance  and  economics.  Compared  to

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Innovative concepts

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator: 
Colin MITCHELL 
National Nuclear Corporation Limited
Booths Park, Chelford Road 
GB-WA16 8QZ Knutsford
Colin.Mitchell@amecnnc.com
www.gcfr.org

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Targeted Research Project
01/03/2005
48 months
€ 3 603 375
€ 2 000 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Georges VAN GOETHEM

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/47, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 14 24
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, FR
Empresarios Agrupados Internacional S.A. ES
Framatome ANP SAS, FR
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, BE
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
Paul Scherrer Institut, CH
Delft University of Technology, NL
InterUniversities Consortium for Nuclear Technological Research,
University of Pisa, IT

43

earlier  GCFR  concepts, 
improved  safety
characteristics of the design will come from a reduced
performance requirement for the core.

the 

The  project  will  identify  promising  concepts  for
innovative refractory fuel with enhanced fission product
retention  and  the  potential  for  full  actinide  recycling,
possibly via an integrated on-site fuel-reprocessing unit.
The  key  milestones,  to  which  the  GCFR  project
contributes a European perspective, concern the safety
approach and pre-selection of GCFR design options, the
preliminary viability of GCFR with parallel activities for
ETDR,  and  establishing  its  mission  in  the  future
development of GCFR (2007). 

Sustainable energy security 

The top-level goals for GCFR are directed at the long-term
competitiveness of nuclear energy production, which is
safe, clean and does not contribute to greenhouse gas
emissions. As other forms of energy production become
scarce, then new sustainable energy supplies will become
essential for economic and societal stability. The goal for
GCFR  is  to  be  competitive  with  other  energy  forms  to
enable  its  early  introduction  as  a  commercially  viable
system. This also requires that societal expectations on
safety aspects and waste disposal are addressed.

The GCFR project offers the opportunity to collaborate in
the development of a sustainable energy resource whilst
taking  a  proportionate  share  of  the  cost.  Many  of  the
world's  nations,  both  industrialised  and  developing,
believe  that  a  greater  use  of  nuclear  energy  will  be
required if future energy security is to be achieved. 

(Courtesy of CEA)

Reactor for Process Heat, Hydrogen and
Electricity Generation: High-Temperature
Reactor - Small Size, Big Potential

L
E
A
H
P
A
R

In  the  context  of  worldwide  deple-

tion of fossil fuel resources and CO2
reduction  objectives,  Europe  must

invest in active R&D in order to assess the viabil-

ity  of  nuclear  fission  as  a  future  energy  option.

Continuing  the  work  initiated  by  several  smaller

EC-supported projects since 1998, the RAPHAEL

Integrated Project addresses the viability and per-

formance  issues  of  an  innovative  system  for  the

next  generation  of  power  plants,  the  Very  High

Temperature  Reactor  (VHTR),  which  can  supply

both  electricity  and  heat  for  industrial  applica-

tions.

High-temperature technology

RAPHAEL  is  focused  on  the  main  technology
developments  needed  for  VHTR  industrial  deployment,
supporting  the  results  already  obtained  in  the  Fifth
Framework Programme. It will explore the performance
of  the  individual  system  elements  in  challenging
conditions of temperatures up to 1000 °C, and integrate
the results so as to assess the viability
of the whole system.

44

Assessing component performance
and system applications

The  RAPHAEL  project's  research  will  explore  the
performance  of  fuel,  materials  and  components,  the
reactor  physics  models,  the  nuclear  safety  and  waste
disposal issues, and the overall system integration. This
will involve improving the qualification of computer tools
and models, exploring the limits of performances of the
fuel and the materials, analysing the behaviour of the fuel
in accident and final geological disposal conditions, and
for  system
developing 
components. It will also explore potential interfaces with
hydrogen  production  or  process  heat  exploitation,
describing an acceptable nuclear safety approach, and
integrating all the results in order to provide preliminary
feasibility  assessments  of  concepts  of  VHTR  plants,
coupled with hydrogen production processes. In addition,
education and training will be organised, and knowledge
management  and  external  communication  activities
undertaken.

technologies 

innovative 

New designs for new applications

RAPHAEL  will  produce  performance  data  for  fuel  and
materials  for  operation  at  up  to  1000 °C,  assessment 
of  the  operating  performances  of  high  temperature

Two concepts investigated within RAPHAEL: 
the block type and the pebble bed reactors
(Courtesy of PBMR (Pty) Ltd. and Framatome ANP)

The RAPHAEL consortium consists of
33 organisations involving most of the
leading  'HTR  community'  from  ten
European countries, including nuclear
engineering  firms,  companies  in  the
fuel  cycle,  utilities,  nuclear  research
organisations, universities, engineering
schools  and  a  project  management
professional.  In  addition,  a  partner
organisation from China is expected to
join.  Links  with  other  relevant  Sixth
Framework  Programme  projects
(HYTHEC,  GCFR,  ExtreMAT)  have
been established, and collaboration is
foreseen  with 
the  Generation  IV
International  Forum  and  other
international organisations.

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Innovative concepts

components,  data  for  the  qualification  of  computer
models  for  designing  and  licensing  the  system,  and
solutions  for  the  disposal  of  spent  fuel.  RAPHAEL's
integration team will work with colleagues in the HYTHEC
project  to  describe  the  interface  requirements  for  an
efficient energy transfer that will allow the VHTR to work
as an essential source for hydrogen production.

These  results  will  assist  the  development  of  a  VHTR
prototype in the longer term (~15 years) with a possible
commercial design that will be available approximately
20 years from now.

New generation reactors with wide
application

At  present,  nuclear  fission  is  used  only  for  generating
electricity, which accounts for approximately one-third of
the  primary  energy  used  in  the  world.  To  address  the
present and future situation with respect to fossil fuels
and greenhouse gas emissions, future nuclear systems
will need to satisfy much more ambitious goals than those
achieved  by  present  nuclear  plants.  The  VHTR
technology can enable the nuclear option to address the
whole  energy  spectrum  and  be  consistent  with  the
objectives  of  sustainability  and  safety  of  the  next
generation of power plants.

Because it produces energy at very high temperatures
using a smaller, very safe reactor, the VHTR system, which
will make use of technologies developed in RAPHAEL,
can  offer  a  wide  range  of  competitive  applications  for
conventional electricity producers (encompassing small
or medium-sized utilities) and all industrial heat users.
These  include  applications  for  CO2-free  hydrogen
production, for chemical processes (refinery, aluminium
production, etc.), and for lower temperature applications
such as desalination or district heating. The VHTR also
features inherent safety, waste minimisation solutions, fuel
flexibility and cost effectiveness - all key assets regarding
public  acceptance  of  nuclear  fission  and  its  positive
impact  on  the  economy,  the  environment,  and  the
security  of  energy  supply  in  Europe.  The  VHTR
development  will  give  opportunities  to  bring  high
performance  materials  and  components  to  the  market
that can provide spin-off and benefits to large sectors of
industry.

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Dominique HITTNER
Framatome-ANP SAS
Tour Areva
FR-92084 Paris La Défense Cedex
Tel: +33 1 47 96 04 72
Fax: +33 1 47 96 15 09
Dominique.Hittner@framatome-anp.com 
http://www.raphael-project.org

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Integrated Project
15/04/2005
48 months
€ 19 823 175
€ 9 000 000

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Sylvie CASALTA

45

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/49, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 27 19
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Ansaldo Nucleare, IT
Belgonucleaire, BE
Nexia Solutions Ltd, UK
Compagnie Générale des Matières Nucléaires, FR
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, FR
Delft University of Technology, NL
Association pour la Recherche et le Développement des Méthodes et
Processus Industriels, FR
Electricité de France, FR
Empresarios Agrupados International, ES
Framatome ANP GmbH, DE
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, DE
IKE der Universität Stuttgart, DE
Jeumont SA, FR
European Commission - Joint Research Centre, BE
Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor GmbH, DE
National Nuclear Corporation, UK
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc, CZ
Paul Scherer Institut, CH
S.G.L. Carbon GmbH, DE
Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie - Centre d'Etude de l'Energie
Nucléaire, BE
Serco Assurance, UK
Services Trading European Partners, FR
Société de Mécanique Magnétique, FR
Suez Tractebel (Tractebel Engineering Division), BE
UCAR snc - GrafTech Int. Ltd, FR
University of Pisa, IT
University of Applied Sciences Zittau/Goerlitz, DE
University of Manchester, UK
Von Karman Institute, BE
Vuje Trnava Inc, SK
Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, FR
Tsinghua University - Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology,
CN (under discussion)
Ente per le Nuove tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente, IT (under 
discussion)

N
E
N
B

Open Access to the Belgian Nuclear
Higher Education Network: a Belgian Model
for European Integration

In  2002,  in  the  context  of  the

unique Belgian federal and cul-

tural  structures,  five  Belgian

46

community  universities  and  the  Belgian

nuclear  research  centre  established  a  com-

mon  education  programme  in  nuclear  engi-

neering.  The  experience  accumulated  by  the

BNEN consortium can serve as a guideline for

the realisation of a European higher education

area. It can also be used to demonstrate to the

other EU-25 partner Member States how inte-

gration  of  resources  and  capabilities  can  be

managed in the European Research Area.

Evaluation and dissemination 

After setting up an appropriate evaluation methodology,
the  BNEN  consortium  will  perform  a  comprehensive
self-assessment that will then be evaluated by invited
stakeholders from the different countries of the enlarged
European Union.

The outcome of the evaluations will stimulate the debate
on the European higher education area and contribute
actively  to  the  development  of  a  more  harmonised
approach  for  education  in  nuclear  sciences  and
engineering  throughout  Europe.  It  will  bring  the
European  Higher  Education  Area  closer  to  realisation
and will help safeguard the necessary competence and
expertise for the continued safe use of nuclear energy
and radiation in industry and medicine in Europe.

Comprehensive internal and external
assessment 

The  consortium  will  prepare  a  comprehensive
compendium describing the background, the objectives
and  achievements  of  the  BNEN  scheme.  A  set  of
evaluation  criteria  and  corresponding  evaluation
methodologies  for  a  self-assessment  and  external
evaluation  of  the  BNEN  scheme  and  education
programme will then be developed, which will be used

(Courtesy of EC/JRC, IE)

to assess the scheme, taking account of the importance
of quality assessment. In addition, an extensive external
assessment of the BNEN scheme by stakeholders from
other  EU-25  nations  will  be  organised  along  with  a
conference  to  disseminate  and  share  the  outcome  of
both evaluations. The BNEN consortium will compile all
the information and results in one final report.

The NEPTUNO project also brings together the important
and active players in the field of nuclear education and
training in Europe, and the BNEN consortium will form a
strong  link  with  the  NEPTUNO  initiative.  The  link  is
secured by the fact that NEPTUNO experts will assess the
evaluation methodology defined by the BNEN consortium.
They  will  also  play  a  prominent  role  in  the  external
evaluation of the BNEN scheme and their opinion on the
BNEN Self Assessment Report will be of high value to the
BNEN consortium.

Best practice for European 
education

The BNEN compendium will illustrate the strengths of the
BNEN scheme and education programme. It will be widely
disseminated in order to inspire other parties to set up
high-quality  educational  programmes  that  fit  into  the
concept of an integrated European master's programme.
Nuclear  and  non-nuclear  experts  from  EU-25  Member
States  will  be  asked  to  react  and  comment  on  the
proposed  evaluation  methodology.  Therefore,  the  eval-

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Education and training

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Steven SIMONS
Belgian Nuclear Research Centre
Boeretang 200
BE-2400 Mol
Tel: +32 14 33 22 84
Steven.simons@sckcen.be
www.sckcen.be/BNEN 

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration: 

Specific Support Action
01/04/2005
18 months
€ 107 360
€ 99 971

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Georges VAN GOETHEM

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/47, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 14 24
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, BE
Université Catholique de Louvain, BE
Université de Liège, BE
Universiteit Gent, BE
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, BE 

47

uation scheme that will be used for the assessment of the
BNEN programme could become a commonly accepted
assessment  instrument  for  the  evaluation  of  other
education and training programmes.

The BNEN consortium will share the results of the self-
assessment  exercise  with 
the  different  nuclear
stakeholders, as well as the outcome and conclusions
of the external evaluation. The input of the stakeholders
is  important  to  keep  up  with  their  needs  and
expectations on education. Through the organisation
of a dissemination conference, a forum will be created,
which  is  able  to  launch  a  discussion  where  ideas,
comments and recommendations can be shared with
a  view  on  the  further  improvement  of  education  in
nuclear engineering in particular, and education and
training in general, on a pan-European basis.

Better nuclear education to protect
society 

Through sharing its experience, the BNEN consortium
will  help  to  safeguard  the  necessary  competence 
and expertise in Europe on nuclear safety and radiation
protection  at  the  highest  level.  By  striving  for  a 
more harmonised approach for education in nuclear 
engineering and nuclear sciences in Europe, the BNEN
project is contributing to the creation of the European
Research and Innovation Area.

The  involvement  of  stakeholders  from  the  enlarged
European  Union  will  help  the  BNEN  consortium  to
disseminate Community best practice and experience.
Therefore, this project is contributing to the integration
of the new Member States into the European Research
Area  and  thus  to  the  successful  enlargement  of  the
European Union. By providing an active role for female
experts,  the  BNEN  project  will  work  to  reinforce  the
status and role of women in science and research. The
BNEN consortium wants to transfer knowledge, create
opportunities for networking, encourage the mobility of
young scientists, and contribute to lifelong learning by
opening  European  expertise  to  public  and  expert
scrutiny.

P
A
R
T
E
N
E

European Network on Education 
and Training in Radiological Protection:
Harmonising Education

There  is  a  real  need  for  the

development  of  a  common

European  radiation  protec-

tion  and  safety  culture  and,  as  part  of

this,  the  mutual  recognition  of  radiation

protection courses and the acquired com-

petencies  of  radiation  protection  experts

(RPE)  and  officers  (RPO).  The  ENETRAP

project  aims  to  bring  together  different

ideas  and  approaches  on  education  and

training  (E&T)  in  radiological  protection

(RP)  in  order  to  better  integrate  and  har-

monise  national  E&T  activities  on  a

European level.

Insight into radiation protection issues requires not only theoretical basic
education but also permanent training and experimental exercises
(© SCK•CEN - IsRP)

48

Integration and harmonisation

Assessing capabilities and curricula

The main objectives of the ENETRAP project are:

• to  better  integrate  existing  E&T  activities  in  the  RP
infrastructure of the European countries in order to combat
the  decline  in  both  student  numbers  and  teaching
institutions

• to develop more harmonised approaches for E&T in RP

in Europe

• to better integrate the national resources and capacities

for E&T

• to provide the necessary competence and expertise for the
continued safe use of radiation in industry, medicine and
research. 

Any such infrastructure must ensure that provision is made
for  both  the  appropriate  initial  education  and  for  the
subsequent gaining and maintaining of specific expertise
and competencies (training) at all levels.

The  ENETRAP  partners  have  years  of  experience  with
established E&T programmes and play an important role in
the development of specific techniques, such as e-learning
or On-the-Job Training (OJT) related to RP.

The project will produce a state-of-the-art report on radiation
protection E&T activities in the enlarged European Union.
Assessment of training needs and capabilities within the EU
Member  States  and  the  Candidate  Countries,  and  an
evaluation  of  the  current  situation  with  regard  to  mutual
recognition  of  competencies  and  diplomas  are  the  key
criteria for developing a common radiation protection E&T
infrastructure in Europe. The required qualifications for key
professional functions in industry, medicine, research and
the public sector will be assessed, along with the training
available  to  support  those  qualifications,  including  OJT
programmes and e-learning opportunities. 

Past and current training programmes will be studied and
the current European Radiation Protection Course (ERPC)
will  be  revised.  Special  attention  will  be  given  to  the
compliance  of  European  and  international  E&T
requirements  in  RP  with  the  basic  safety  standards  for
protection  against  ionising  radiation,  established  and
promoted by the European Union and by the IAEA. A pilot
session of one or two revised modules of the ERPC will be
organised. In addition, an Erasmus Universities Consortium
for developing a European Masters in Radiation Protection

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Education and training

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Michèle COECK
Belgian Nuclear Research Centre
Boeretang 200
BE-2400 Mol
Tel: +32 14 33 28 89
mcoeck@sckcen.be
www.sckcen.be/enetrap

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration: 

Coordination Action
01/04/2005
24 months
€ 456 894
€ 400 000 

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Georges VAN GOETHEM

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/47, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295.14.24
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Institute for Nuclear Sciences and Technology, FR
Centre for Advanced Technological and Environmental Training, DE
German Federal Office for Radiation Protection, DE
Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy and
Environment, IT
Netherlands Research & Consultancy Group, NL
Research Centre for Energy, Environment and Technology, ES
Health Protection Agency, Radiation Protection Division, UK
Université Joseph Fourier, FR
North Highland College, University of the Highlands and Islands, UK

49

(EMRP) will be set up with a curriculum that has been
developed  using  information  from  qualified  courses
offered by ENETRAP partners.

Collaborative education network

In order to better integrate and harmonise national E&T
activities on a European level, ENETRAP will assemble
various ideas and approaches to deliver an operational
network of different institutes conducting or promoting
radiation  protection  E&T  activities.  Linking 
those
European  countries  with  established  and  active
programmes in E&T via a structured network will facilitate
the  integration  and  optimisation  of  existing  resources
within  Europe.  In  a  later  phase,  extension  to  other
Member States will be established in conjunction with
the  European  Training  and  Education  in  Radiation
Protection  (EUTERP)  platform.  The  network  aims  to
achieve close and sustainable collaboration between the
main E&T providers in Europe. Finally, a project proposal
for a European Masters in Radiation Protection (EMRP)
will be submitted to DG Education. 

Increased safety and competence

Occupational, public and environmental RP is a major
challenge  associated  with  the  application  of  ionising
radiation in industry, both nuclear and non-nuclear, as
well  as  areas  such  as  medical  use  and  research.  As
such, maintaining a high level of competency in this field
is crucial. A sustainable E&T infrastructure for RP is an
essential component to combat the perceived decline
in  expertise  and  to  ensure  the  continuation  of  a  high
level of RP knowledge. The development of a common
European  radiation  protection  and  safety  culture,  the
mutual recognition of radiation protection courses and
the acquired competencies of RPEs and RPOs will help
to  promote  the  mobility  of  workers  and  students
throughout Europe.

Coordination Network on Decommissioning 
of Nuclear Installations: Unifying 
Decommissioning Network

D
N
C

50

The  purpose  of  the  CND  proj-

ect  is  to  set  up,  develop  and

operate  a  network  between

organisations  from  the  EU  and  candidate

countries  involved  in  decommissioning

activities.  It  aims  to  encourage  continuous

improvement in the capability and effective-

ness  of  national  efforts  in  this  area,  which

should  lead  to  increased  competitiveness

and efficiency. The project will also cluster

and coordinate projects initiated under ear-

lier  Framework  Programmes  (FPs)  to  max-

imise their value.

Compiling best practice

The CND project brings together manufacturers, users,
universities,  research  centres,  regulators  and  research
infrastructures  from  the  EU  and  Candidate  Countries
involved in decommissioning to take part in an exchange
of scientific and technical information, and to facilitate the
coordination of activities and transfer of knowledge. CND
will make maximum use of tools developed in previous
FPs,  including  the  operational  website  of  the  Thematic
Network on Decommissioning; the Database on Technical
and Cost Aspects of Decommissioning; the EC website on
decommissioning; and the information library developed
for  the  Compendium  on  Decommissioning  and
Decontamination. The related software tools from these
projects will be integrated on a single platform to ensure
long-term continuity.

Challenging and optimising 
approaches to decommissioning

CND will identify generic problems in decommissioning
and develop proposals for their solution. It will also support
the establishment of consistent standards worldwide and
will create working groups to address specific issues of
general interest to participants who require in-depth and
focused analyses. CND will provide focused material in
order  to  challenge  and  optimise  decommissioning
strategies  on  a  global  basis,  along  with  appropriate

Colenco Power Engineering Ltd
(© Colenco Power Engineering Ltd)

solutions that can be communicated to decision-makers
based  on  scientific  data,  including  new  results  from
demonstration projects. The project will encourage and
support close co-operation, and will develop informal links
with  international  organisations  like  the  International
Atomic  Energy  Agency.  It  will  advise  the  EC  and  those
bodies  involved  in  decommissioning,  and  will  develop
initiatives  for  the  EC  and  CND  participants  on  specific
aspects of decommissioning.

Reports and on-line platforms

The tangible results of CND will include an integrated on-
line platform, providing a communication platform for CND
members  to  share  and  manage  information  associated
with CND, an information database for technical literature
covering  CND's  areas  of  interest,  an  integrated  on-line
platform for the Database on Technical and Cost Aspects
on Decommissioning, and a forum to enable public access
to CND information.

CND will compile a quality-assured, peer-reviewed final
report illustrating how the CND objectives were met, the
results achieved and the conclusions of its activities. This
study  will  cover  aspects  of  practical  decommissioning
activities  including:  strategies,  policies  and  funding,
project  management  and  planning,  and  cost  aspects;
materials management and characterisation techniques

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Safety of existing nuclear installations

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Lucien TEUNCKENS
Colenco Power Engineering Limited, Nuclear Technology Department,
Täfernstrasse 26
CH-5405 Baden-Dättwil
Tel: +41 56 483 15 40
Lucien.teunckens@colenco.ch
http://www.colenco.ch

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration: 

Coordination Action
01/01/2005
36 months
€ 827 802
€ 749 992

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Tom McMENAMIN 

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/58, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 02 77
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Nuclear Research Institute Rez, CZ
Energiewerke Nord GmbH, DE
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH, DE
Universität Hannover, DE
Empresa Nacional de Residuos Radiactivos s.a., ES
Societa Gestione Impianti Nuclear p.a., IT
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
AllDeco Ltd., SK
DECOM Slovakia spol. s.r.o., SK
RWE NUKEM Limited, UK

51

(including  recycle  and  reuse  of  materials);  site
characterisation,  remediation  and  reuse;  institutional,
legal  and  regulatory  aspects, 
licensing  and
decommissioning plans, and radiological protection and
industrial  safety;  environmental  and  socioeconomic
aspects (including public perception); dismantling and
decontamination  techniques,  dissemination  of  best
practice, experience and know-how, and evaluation of
training needs.

Spreading knowledge and sharing
solutions

and 

knowledge 

experience 

CND  will  assist  in  the  exchange  and  consolidation  of
in
European 
decommissioning.  The  project  will  contribute  to  the
development of the EU, creating close co-operation and
providing  support  to  the  integration  of  the  newly
associated  states  within  the  EU.  This  will  assist  the
nuclear industry and improve the efficiency of nuclear
power  production  and  its  public  acceptability.  In
particular,  it  will  help  to  provide  adequate  waste
management for decommissioning. The project will also
ensure the protection of workers in the nuclear industry
(especially  in  decommissioning)  by  improving  and
disseminating 
techniques  and
the  knowledge  of 
technologies in order to reduce dose commitments and
other  potential  hazards  during  decommissioning.  In
parallel, it will ensure the protection of the environment
through  the  dissemination  of  knowledge,  relating  to
operational,  surveillance  and  protection  techniques.
Finally,  the  network  provides  the  option  to  share  the
results  of  best  practice  solutions  that  have  been
developed  for  decommissioning  with  other  industrial
sectors  that  have  similar  issues,  for  example  the
recycling industry.

S
R
E
V
O
C

Coordination Action - VVER Safety Research:
Boosting Safety and Reliability of Reactors
in the New Member States

COVERS  is  a  Coordination

Action  project  designed  to

improve  the  professional

52

and  communication  environment  in  all

areas, covering aspects of safe and reli-

able  operation  of  nuclear  power  plants

using  Soviet-designed  VVER-440  and

VVR-1000  reactors.  The  characteristic

feature of this project is the large num-

ber  of  participating  organisations,

which, over the years, have accumulated

significant  individual  and  often  propri-

etary  knowledge  and  expertise  on  these

systems.

Combine knowledge, 
organise research structures 

A coordinated effort will be undertaken with the objective
to combine the individual accumulated knowledge of all
the parties involved in operating VVER type reactors. This
will provide a synergic effect in achieving quantitatively
and qualitatively superior results in areas covered by the
project. 

An important objective of the project is the development
of  a  viable  RTD  structure  for  issues  relating  to  VVER
performance and safety. This will include outlining tasks
that  are  shared  among  the  partners,  increasing  the
mobility of researchers, and improving the exploitation
and  dissemination  of  innovative  results.  The  COVERS
consortium is composed of 26 leading R&D, engineering
and technical support organisations that are involved with
the operation of VVER nuclear power plants both within
the EU and outside.

Forging links for safety 
and good practice  

organisations, universities, regulatory bodies and utilities.
The terms and conditions required to assure a high level
of nuclear safety for VVER reactors will be maintained and
improved in close collaboration with similar international
projects devoted to western-designed reactors, including
appropriate  nuclear  education  and  training.  Using  the
experience gained in the course of plant operation, 'good
practice' topics in areas such as nuclear safety and plant
life management will be assessed. 

Conditions  for  efficient  exchange  of  information  will  be
created and co-operative links for improved communication
between participating organisations established. As part of
this,  a  common  database  will  be  created  and  the
dissemination  channels  for  VVER  relevant  plant  data
coordinated to the benefit of all parties involved. Relevant
and  required  R&D  tasks  in  terms  of  both  analytical  and
experimental programmes will be identified and instigated.

Collaborative research, shared facilities 

A main task will be to strengthen links between all parties
involved in VVER safety research. These include research
and  technical  support  organisations,  industry  and
engineering  companies,  governmental  research

The COVERS project will build a viable R&D structure and
evaluate  its  impact  on  VVER  plant  safety  and  plant  life
management through the implementation of its results by
the organisations involved. The project will also develop

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Safety of existing nuclear installations

and deploy a fully functional platform for the project team
that can store and share information accumulated by the
partners within the project.

A  collaborative  R&D  programme  will  be  proposed
covering the areas of VVER operational safety, material
and equipment ageing. National programmes will be
mobilised  around  this  programme. The  final  results
obtained  on  critical  issues  such  as  the  Operational
Safety  and  Material  and  Equipment  Ageing  will  be
swiftly  disseminated  to  all  end-users.  A  significant
contribution  in  the  research  programme  will  be  to
justify  and  validate  feasibility  studies  for  plant  life
extension.  Discussions  on  the  results  will  be  held
involving end-users and the public.

The  project  will  also  identify  VVER  experimental
facilities in participant organisations and beyond and
formulate  recommendations  for  their  shared  use.
Finally, mobility schemes will be put in place to enable
university graduates and PhD students to move easily
between organisations and countries in order to gain
useful experience.

Enhanced safety to boost public
acceptance 

The COVERS project will contribute significantly to the
enhancement  of  operational  safety  and  reliability  in
VVER nuclear plants. This is a very important factor in
the  continued  public  acceptance  of  nuclear  energy.
Compared  with  fossil-fuel  burning  plants,  safe  and
reliable  nuclear  power  plants  are  an  environment-
friendly energy source. 

Results  obtained  from  the  project  will  be  used  for
educational purposes at university level with graduate,
post-graduate  and  PhD  students,  whilst 
the
participation of utility company representatives, in both
the advisory and end-user groups, will guarantee the
prompt  implementation  of  lessons  learned  in  the
project. 

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Ivo VÁS∏A 
Nuclear Research Institute R∏ez¬, plc 
CZ-250 68 R∏ez¬
Tel: +420 266 173 558
vas@nri.cz
http://covers.grs.de

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Coordination Action
01/04/2005
36 months
€ 2 398 577 
€ 1 099 990 

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Panagiotis MANOLATOS

European Commission 
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/53, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 15 89
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Nuclear Safety & Technology Centre s.r.o., CZ
Fortum Nuclear Services Ltd, FI
Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI
KFKI Atomic Energy Research Institute, HU
Institute for Electric Power Research, HU
Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit mbH, DE
Forschungszentrum Rossendorf, DE
Centre for Nuclear Safety, SK
Institute of Energy, BG
Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, BG
Technical University Sofia, BG
VUJE, a.s., SK
Slovak Technical University, SK
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, BE
Tecnatom s.a., ES
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
Czech Technical University in Prague, CZ
Lappeenranta University of Technology, FI
Russian Research Centre, Kurchatov Institute, RU
Electrogorsk Research and Engineering Centre, RU
Risk Engineering AD, BG
NPP Operational Support Institute, UA
State Sc. and Tech. Centre for Nuclear and Rad. Safety, UA
Institutt for energiteknikk, OECD Halden Reactor Project, NO
Experimental and Design Organisation GIDROPRESS, RU

53

Gap Analysis for Long-Term Inspection Needs
of Nuclear Plant: Inspection Tools Methods
and Strategies for the Future

I

N
A
G

54

The  GAIN  project 

is  a

Specific Support Action with

the  aim  of  identifying  the

medium  to  long-term  inspection  needs  of

nuclear  plant  and  assessing  where  these

needs can be met from recent and/or cur-

rent  research  and  technological  develop-

ment  work.  A  gap  analysis  will  be  per-

formed to help direct future European col-

laborative research work in this area.

New technologies and new 
strategies

Inspection  by  non-destructive  testing  (NDT)  and
continuous  monitoring  plays  an  important  role  in
assuring the continued safe and economic operation of
nuclear  plant  in  Europe.  The  inspection  methods
themselves, including the underlying technology, and
the  way  in  which  they  are  applied  via  inspection
strategies are continuing to evolve for various reasons.
These include change of inspection needs as plant ages,
the  emergence  of  new  inspection  technologies  and
strategies,  and  the  new  challenges  associated  with
decommissioning  nuclear  plant  and  the  storage  of
radioactive waste.

Development  of  new  inspection  technologies  and
strategies  is  undertaken  through  a  wide  variety  of
fragmented  routes  including  in-house,  single-party
international
contract,  national  programmes  and 
collaborative development programmes. This approach
can  lead  to  duplication  of  effort,  inefficient  use  of
resources and lack of awareness of results. The object
of the GAIN project is to overcome these problems by
matching future inspection needs to existing research
and  development  results,  and  then  identifying  where
work is required to fill gaps in our knowledge.

Identifying needs and assessing wishes

As well as identifying the required inspection methods, tools
and strategies for the future, GAIN will also assess training
needs  and  sources,  and  large  infrastructure  needs.  This
'wish  list'  will  be  compiled  by  using  questionnaires  and

(Courtesy by EC/JRC, IE)

organising meetings and workshops with both nuclear
utilities  and  regulators.  Participants  will  also  include
organisations with responsibilities in decommissioning
nuclear  facilities  and  waste  storage.  To  support  this
activity,  a  review  of  recent  and  current  research  and
technological development (including training resources
and  unique  research  facilities)  relevant  to  nuclear
inspection  needs  will  be  undertaken.  These  two
components will then be brought together for analysis.

Identifying  any  apparent  gaps  between  recent  and
current research work and the wish list of both utilities
and  regulators  will  help  pinpoint  where  effort  and
resources  could  be  best  directed  in  future  EU  RTD
activities and other collaborative work. The results will
be presented to the public through a final report.

Future research for improved 
inspections

The outcome of the GAIN project will be the correlation
of  recent  and  current  research  and  development  with
future inspection needs, and the identification of gaps
which  can  be  filled  by  future  R&D  work.  This  will  be
described  in  a  final  report  that  will  cover  the  work
performed and present the consolidated wish list in full.
The report will also present a review of recent, current
in  major  research
and  planned 

investments 

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Safety of existing nuclear installations

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
B. W. O. SHEPHERD 
Mitsui Babcock Energy Limited
Technology and Engineering
Porterfield Road
GB-PA4 8DJ Renfrew
Tel: +44 141 885 3977
bshepherd@mitsuibabcock.com
http://www.mitsuibabcock.com

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Support Action
01/09/2004
24 months
€ 341 180
€ 245 400

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Panagiotis MANOLATOS

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/53, BE - 1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 295 15 89
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, BE
Nuclear Research Institute Rez, CZ

55

infrastructure  and  other  related  capital  projects  from
across Europe. The analysis will highlight the extent to
which items on the wish list are already covered by the
identified investment plans. From this analysis, priority
topics  will  be  listed  for  consideration  in  appropriate
future  EC  Shared  Cost  Actions,  as  well  as  those  that
could  be  funded  by  cost  sharing  between  interested
parties without requiring support from EC funding.

Ensuring safety, reducing risk 

Inspection of nuclear plant by non-destructive testing
and  continuous  monitoring  processes  plays  an
important  role  in  assuring  the  safe  and  economic
operation of nuclear power plants. Inspection will also
have an increasingly important input in ensuring the
safety and security of waste storage facilities, and in
decommissioning  activities.  In  these  later  activities,
remote  surveys  and  assessment  of  integrity  will  be
required in areas never designed for inspection, thus
offering new challenges to inspection research.

The  GAIN  Specific  Support  Action  will  have  a  major
impact on ensuring that future inspection needs can
be met by providing, as far as is currently practicable,
a broad awareness of relevant inspection technology
and knowledge, which has been or is being developed,
and by identifying gaps which can be bridged by future
collaborative or jointly funded development work. This
is  essential  to  ensure  continuing  and  increasing
protection for the public. The project will include an
inquiry  into  the  future  need  to  reduce  radiation
exposure  of  workers  and  how  this  can  be  achieved
using more sophisticated methods and a better design
of  the  inspection  programme.  These  methods  may
include risk-informed in-service inspection strategies
to  focus  inspection  activities  where  they  are  most
needed,  and 
inventive  manipulator  or
deployment arrangements that reduce the time spent
by  workers  close  to  the  radioactive  component  or
components.

through 

M
I
S
E
R
U
N

European Platform for Nuclear 
Reactor Simulations

The 

Integrated 

Project,

'European Platform for Nuclear

Reactor  Simulations'  (NURE-

56

SIM),  will  provide  the  initial  step  towards  a

common  European  Standard  Software

Platform for modelling, recording and recov-

ering  computer  simulation  data  for  current

and future nuclear reactor systems.

New modelling tools for all

The  objective  of  NURESIM  is  to  initiate  the
development of the next generation of experimentally
validated, 'best-estimate' tools for modelling thermal-
hydraulics,  core  physics  and  multi-physics
phenomena  in  nuclear  reactors  currently  in
operation,  and  for  designing  future  reactors.  The
NURESIM partners contribute a wide spectrum of
expertise,  including  the  integration  of  advanced
physical models in a shared and open software platform,
promotion  and  incorporation  of  the  latest  advances  in
reactor and core physics, thermal-hydraulics and coupled
(multi-) physics modelling, use of advanced deterministic
and statistical sensitivity, uncertainty analyses for verification
and benchmarking of software, and training, dissemination,
best practice and quality assurance activities. The improved
prediction capabilities, standardisation and robustness of
the NURESIM European Platform will address current and
future  needs  of  industry,  reactor  safety  organisations,
academia, government and private institutions.

Code development and integration into
SALOME

NURESIM  comprises  five  sub-projects  covering  Core
Physics,  Thermal-Hydraulics,  Multi-Physics,  Sensitivity
and  Uncertainty  Analysis,  and  Integration.  The  Core
Physics work will develop and validate advanced Monte
Carlo  and  deterministic  methods  for  computing  the
distribution of neutrons in a reactor's core and shielding.
Thermal-Hydraulics  research  will  solve  important
outstanding issues in the simulation of pressurised thermal
shock, including direct contact condensation scenarios.
The activities within Multi-Physics hope to increase the
modelling  resolution  at  the  level  of  a  reactor  core.

The NURESIM Software Platform

Innovative  activities  within  Sensitivity  and  Uncertainty
Analysis will develop a new theoretical and computational
framework, in which the strengths of the deterministic and
statistical methods are combined to eliminate most of their
respective limitations. Finally, the Integration activities will
provide  assistance  to  the  NURESIM  participants  to
integrate  modules,  codes  and  deliverables  into  the
SALOME  platform,  and  provide  specific  training  on  the
SALOME platform, including specialised workshops.

Reduced redundancy, more precise
calculation

NURESIM  will  decrease  the  redundancy  among  the
modules  provided  by  the  different  participants,  and
develop  new,  standard  modules  to  be  shared  by  all
NURESIM  partners  within  SALOME.  This  convergence
towards  a  limited  and  consistent  set  of  solvers,  code
modules  and  data  libraries,  presenting  significant
improvements  over  the  present  state-of-the-art,  would
serve  as  standardised  common  reference  solvers,
modules  and  libraries.  This  reference  software  will  be
benchmarked against selected standard problems and will
permit more precise computations (for example, choosing
a detailed computational mesh only when and where a
local 'computational zoom' is necessary).

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Safety of existing nuclear installations

NURESIM is expected to have 
a long-term strategic impact on:

• the development of new numerical solution algorithms
for  enhancing  the  accuracy  and  efficiency  of  the
numerical simulation of physical phenomena in reactor
physics,  core-  and  system-level  thermal-hydraulics,
including  the  quantification  and  reduction  of
computational  uncertainties  by  incorporation  of
selected experimental data

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Dan Gabriel CACUCI 
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique 
Direction de l'Energie Nucléaire
Centre de Saclay, Bâtiment 121
FR-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette CEDEX
Tel: +33 1 69 08 11 87
Fax: +33 1 69 08 57 95
cacuci@aquilon.cea.fr
http://www.nuresim.com

• integration  of  newly  developed,  beyond  the  current
state-of-the-art  simulation  software  modules  into  a
common standardised European software platform

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Integrated Project
01/02/2005
36 months
€ 7 630 500
€ 4 500 000

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution:
EC Project Officer:  Michel HUGON

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/52, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 57 19
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Electricité de France, FR
Forschungszentrum Rossendorf, DE
Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit, DE
Universität Karlsruhe, DE
Paul Scherrer Institut, CH
ASCOMP GmbH, CH
Delft University of Technology, NL
Kungl Tekniska Högskolan, SE
Università di Pisa, IT
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ES
Université Catholique de Louvain La Neuve, BE
Josef Stefan Institute, SI
VTT Industrial Systems, FI
Lappeenranta University of Technology, FI
Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, BG
Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc, CZ
Atomic Energy Research Institute, HU

57

• training and dissemination of new knowledge.

Competitive advantage, stimulating
collaboration

level,  are  expected 

These innovation-related activities, together with their
benefit, attained through integration and standardisation
at  a  European 
to  enhance
significantly  the  competitiveness  of  the  European
Research  Area  in  nuclear  reactor  simulations.  The
standardised  codes  and  models  developed  within
NURESIM are expected to provide a strong competitive
advantage for the European industry, becoming a key
value-added  component  for  global  optimisation  of
computational tools for the coming decades. NURESIM
will  contribute  to  public  acceptability  of  the  safe
exploitation of nuclear power by substantially enhancing
the prediction capability of key simulation tools for the
design and safe operation of nuclear power plants.

NURESIM will also assist in bridging activities between
Central, Eastern and Western European countries, the
tools within the NURESIM Platform being standardised
for  both  Western  and  Eastern  reactor 
types.
Furthermore, the project will contribute to structuring
the  European  Research  Area  in  this  sector  as  its
activities  are  performed  co-operatively  among  the
partner  research  laboratories,  institutes  and  leading
universities. This large European team provides a critical
mass of competencies and skills which could otherwise
not be provided by a single country. The involvement of
many European stakeholders will help the dissemination
and  industrial  application  of  the  simulation  tools
developed within NURESIM.

Use of RPV Dosimetry Benchmark Results for
Determining Radiation Embrittlement Damage:
Workshop Discusses New Results for VVER Reactors

E
D
A
R

New 

reactor  dosimetry

results  that  are  important

for  the  justification  of  the

safe  operation  and  the  prolongation  of

the  lifetime  of  nuclear  power  plants

operating  with  Soviet-designed  VVER-

type reactors, which were obtained dur-

ing  the  REDOS,  RETROSPEC,  TACIS

and  COBRA  projects,  will  be  presented

and discussed in the RADE project.

New results, new methods

The RADE project is largely concerned with the
preparation  and  execution  of  a  major
international  workshop  on  reactor  dosimetry.
The main objective is to disseminate the new
reactor  dosimetry  results  obtained  by  a
number of European Commission projects in
the  Fifth  Euratom  Framework  Programme.
These include the VVER reactor benchmark data from the
REDOS  project,  the  experiments  with  reactor  pressure
vessel  (RPV)  surveillance  specimens  carried  out  at  the
Balakovo and Kola nuclear power plants within the COBRA
and  TACIS  projects,  and  the  possible  use  of  niobium-
induced activity for retrospective neutron fluence analyses
evaluated by the RETROSPEC project.

The long-term objectives of the workshop are to transmit
and preserve knowledge by involving professionals and
young  researchers,  and  stimulating  enhanced
application  of  the  results  to  derive  more  precise
determination of the irradiation embrittlement ageing of
VVER structural materials. The workshop will review the
state-of-the-art in the reactor pressure vessel dosimetry
field, and it will emphasise trends in future development
of  neutron 
fluence  calculation  methods  and
measurement techniques.

Benchmark conclusions, wide 
participation

58

The links between the partners of the RADE workshop

conclusions from benchmarking, which was performed in
VVER-1000 and VVER-440 reactor pressure vessel mock-
ups. This will cover plant lifetime assessment, comparative
studies and uncertainty analyses of the benchmarks and
ex-vessel  measurements  in  reactor  dosimetry,  and
application of the benchmarks to training and licensing.

The  RADE  workshop  will  be  of  interest  to  utilities,
regulatory  bodies  and  research  organisations.
Participation by the younger generation of researchers will
be stimulated through travel grants and the opportunity
to  make  short  presentations.  Proceedings  and  a
conclusive summary will be produced after the workshop,
and  RADE's  conclusions  will  be  exchanged  with
PERFECT and COVERS project partners, and other groups
of experts involved in plant life management. 

Lifetime predictions, development of
knowledge 

The workshop will contribute to many Euratom programme
objectives by: 

Speakers will be invited from all countries involved in the
above projects in order to find an optimal combination of
expertise  covering  the  application  of  results  and

• training experts to apply the VVER dosimetry benchmark
results  and  associated  calculation  methods  in
embrittlement assessment of reactor pressure vessels 

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Safety of existing nuclear installations

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Krassimira ILIEVA
Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy of the Bulgarian
Academy of Science Tzarigradsko shossee 72
BG-1784 SOFIA
Tel: + 359 2 71 44 506
Fax: + 359 2 97 43 955
krilieva@inrne.bas.bg
www.inrne.bas.bg/RADE_2006/RADE_2006.pdf

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Support Action
01/07/2005
12 months
€ 87 000
€ 84 000

Total Budget: 
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Panagiotis MANOLATOS

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/53, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 15 89
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Tecnatom s.a., ES
Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc, CZ

59

• providing effective tools to the utilities and national
licensing authorities for estimating more accurately
the  present  and  future  safety  of  reactor  pressure
vessels 

• advancing  neutron  fluence  calculation  methods  and
assessment of different sources of uncertainties in order
to increase the precision and reliability of the prediction
of RPV lifetime

• enhancing the collaboration between reactor dosimetry
experts  as  a  base  for  preserving  and  developing
knowledge. 

The project activities are focused on the enhancement
of nuclear power plant safety and should stimulate the
updating of standards and guidelines.

Securing future specialists and safe
energy 

The workshop is a tool for involving young specialists in
reactor  dosimetry  knowledge  and  skills,  and  for
motivating  their  future  participation  in  this  area.  The
attendees invited to the workshop will come from R&D
organisations, utilities and nuclear safety authorities of
the countries operating nuclear power plants with VVER-
type  reactors.  These  include  Bulgaria,  the  Czech
Republic,  Finland,  Hungary,  Slovakia,  Russia  and
Ukraine. In addition, the participation in this project of
representatives from Spain, Germany, the Netherlands
-  countries  that  do  not  operate  VVERs  -  will  promote
technical  collaboration  between  the  EU  and  Eastern
Europe, enabling a greater exchange of ideas and local
expertise.  The  workshop  will  serve  to  enhance  the
integrity  of  reactor  pressure  vessels  used  in  VVERs,
thereby decreasing the potential environmental impact
of plant operation. The dissemination and preservation
of knowledge derived from the project will contribute to
the Union's competitiveness and help preserve the EU
security of energy supply. 

P
T
F
N
E

Towards a European Nuclear Fission
Technology Platform

In addition to establishing European

research  areas,  the  Euratom  pro-

Integrating technology and 
strengthening expertise  

gramme  strives  to  optimise  the  use

of  human  resources  and  experimental  facilities

involved  in  nuclear  energy  research  in  Europe.

The  Specific  Support  Action  ENFTP  brings

together  key  stakeholders  to  establish  a  'think-

tank' that will develop a long-term strategic road

map for ensuring a sustainable, safe and econom-

ically  competitive  nuclear  fission  energy  option:

an  option  that  will  be  available  for  the  future

European energy portfolio.

The  road  map  that  is  proposed  will  address  the
implementation of a long-term strategic plan to strengthen the
existing  European  science  base  and  expertise  by  optimal
integration of research teams and facilities, optimising the use
of  existing  research  infrastructures  and  creating  new
infrastructures where needed. It will look at possibilities for
integrating  scientific  and  technological  advancements
dedicated  to  current  nuclear  reactors,  as  well  as  future
(Generation III+ and IV) reactor systems. The expert team will
also establish an evaluation process for ranking and selecting
the  contributions  of  potential  participants  in  terms  of  the
importance of their respective contributions towards insuring
sustainable development of the nuclear fission energy option.

Think-tank to recommend road map 

Two main tasks for the ENFTP 'think-tank', which will be
coordinated  by  the  French  nuclear  agency  CEA,  are
envisaged. The group will analyse the overall situation for
the nuclear research sector that is expected to exist after
the Sixth Framework Programme's (FP6) European nuclear
fission RTD Programmes have been successfully completed.
The main scientific, technological and social challenges that
remain for nuclear fission technology will be identified, in
particular in the context of the long-term goal of sustainable
development.

Strategic research agenda 
implementation

A successful conclusion to the ENFTP action will provide
the foundations for developing a Strategic Research Agenda,
coordinated at the European level, for ensuring that nuclear
fission energy can be generated in a manner that meets the
various criteria for sustainable development. It will also give
elements for steering the implementation of the Strategic
Research Agenda through coherently structured actions on
different time-scales.

60

this 

analysis, 

a
From 
recommendation  will  be  made
on 
the  best  organisational
instrument, together with a cor-
responding road map, that can
provide an integrated strategy to
ensure 
fission  nuclear
energy will remain an essential
component  of  the  energy  mix
needed for sustainable develop-
ment  of  both  society  and  the
economy,  in  Europe  and  the
wider world.

that 

Sustainable Nuclear Fission Technology Platform

LWR
(current & Gen-3)
Competitiveness
and Safety
Optimisation

VHTR
Process Heat,
Electricity & H2

Materials & Fuel Development

Reactor Design & Safety

Training and R&D infrastrucutres

Fuel Cycle and Waste Processes

System Integration
(Economy, non proliferation...)

Fast Neutron Systems 
& Closed Fuel Cycle
Critical Reactors
ADS

Geological Disposal
Technologies, design
safety assessment

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Components of a Nuclear Fission Technology Platform

OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES AND SAFETY

Cross-cutting issues

I N F O R M A T I O N

Coordinator:
Dan Gabriel CACUCI
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique
Centre de Saclay, Bât. 121
FR-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette CEDEX
Tel: +33 1 69 08 11 87
Fax: +33 1 69 08 57 95
cacuci@aquilon.cea.fr

Project Details
Project Type:
Project Start Date:
Duration:

Specific Support Action
01/01/2005
6 months
€ 268 000
€ 200 000

Total Budget:
EC Contribution: 
EC Project Officer:  Michel HUGON 

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research
J.4 - Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection
CDMA 1/52, BE-1049 Brussels
Tel: +32 2 296 57 19
Fax: +32 2 295 49 91

Partners
Electricité de France, FR
AREVA, FR 
ANDRA, FR
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, BE
Technical Research Centre, FI 
Atomic Energy Research Institute, HU 
Nuclear Research Institute Rez, CZ
Paul Scherrer Institut, CH
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ES 
Forschungszentrum Rossendorf, DE
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, DE
Vattenfall, SE
Belgian Nuclear Research Centre, BE
Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, NL
British Nuclear Fuels plc, UK
Kernkraftwerk Leibstadt, CH
FORATOM/ENS, INT

61

The project will provide expert advice and recommend-
ations  for  strengthening  the  European  science  base,
integrating research teams and RTD tools, optimising
the use of existing research infrastructures, and building
new  infrastructures  as  needed  for  establishing  a
European Research Area in nuclear fission technologies.
It  will  also  create  mechanisms  for  supporting  trans-
European  synergy,  emphasising,  in  particular,  the
creation  of  a  coordinated  training  and  educational
system 
for  maintaining  and  enhancing  nuclear
engineering  competence  in  Europe.  The  action  will
integrate scientific and technological advancements to
prepare  for  a  future  European  Technology  Platform
dedicated 
reactor
technologies.  In  addition,  it  will  coordinate  RTD  in
support  of  geological  waste  disposal  technologies.
Finally  ENFTP  will  disseminate  the  results  of  all  its
activities to appropriate policy-making bodies to ensure
a common European vision.

to  specific  Generation-IV 

Sustaining development

The participants in the ENFTP 'think-tank' come from
all  of  the  major  stakeholder  groups,  including  the
research  community  (both  public  and  private),  the
nuclear industry (including reactor construction, fuel
cycle and waste disposal sectors), electricity utilities (as
the  end-users  of  nuclear  power  plants)  and  public
authorities, both in their roles of regulators and policy-
makers and as promoters of technology development.
that  public  awareness  and
This  will  ensure 
understanding of nuclear technologies and challenges
keep pace with technological developments.

The final report on ENFTP activities will be delivered to
the Commission as input for preparing the activities and
budgets  for  nuclear  fission  activities  within  the  next
Research Framework Programme (FP7). Furthermore,
the  ENFTP  participants  may  chose  to  distribute  the
report to politicians and decision-makers in their own
countries to help build the consensus towards ensuring
that nuclear fission energy and technology retains its
proper role in the energy mix needed for sustainable
development in Europe.

Glossary

The texts in this glossary are reproduced with
the courtesy of the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA - http://www.iaea.org/index.html)

Ageing
General  process  in  which  characteristics  of  a
structure,  system  or  component  gradually
change with time or use.

Although the term ageing is defined in a neutral
sense  –  the  changes  involved  in  ageing  may
have no effect on protection or safety, or could
even  have  a  beneficial  effect  –  it  is  most
commonly used with a connotation of changes
that are (or could be) detrimental to protection
or  safety,  i.e.  as  a  synonym  of  ageing
degradation.

Non-physical ageing
The  process  of  becoming  out-of-date  (i.e.
obsolete) owing to the evolution of knowledge
and technology and the associated changes in
codes and standards.

• Examples  of  non-physical  ageing  include
unavailability of qualified spare parts for old
equipment, incompatibility between old and
new equipment, and outdated procedures
or documentation (e.g. which do not comply
with current regulations).

• Strictly, this is not always ageing as defined
above,  because  it  is  sometimes  not  due  to
changes  in  the  structure,  system  or
component itself. Nevertheless, the effects on
protection and safety, and the solutions that
need to be adopted, are often very similar to
those for physical ageing; the management of
non-physical  ageing  is  therefore  often
addressed within the same programme as that
for the management of physical ageing.

• The term technological obsolescence is also

used.

Physical ageing
Ageing of structures, systems and components
due  to  physical,  chemical  and/  or  biological
processes.

• Examples of physical ageing include wear,
heat or radiation damage, and corrosion.

• The term material ageing is also used.

Accident management 
The taking of a set of actions during the evolution
of a beyond design basis accident

• to prevent the escalation of the event into a

severe accident;

• to  mitigate  the  consequences  of  a  severe

accident; and

• to achieve a long term safe stable state.

Decommissioning 
1. Administrative and technical actions taken to
allow the removal of some or all of the regulatory
controls from a facility (except for a repository
which is closed and not decommissioned). 

• The use of the term decommissioning implies
that  no  further  use  of  the  facility  (or  part
thereof) for its existing purpose is foreseen. 

• The actions will need to be such as to ensure
the long term protection of the public and
the  environment,  and  typically  include
reducing the levels of residual radionuclides
in the materials and the site of the facility so
that  the  materials  can  be  safely  recycled,
reused or disposed of as exempt waste or
as  radioactive  waste,  and  the  site  can  be
released  for  unrestricted  use  or  otherwise
reused. Decommissioning typically includes
dismantling the facility (or part thereof), but
in the Agency’s usage this need not be the
case. 
for  example,  be
decommissioned  without  dismantling  and
the existing structures subsequently put to
another use (after decontamination). 

It  could, 

• For a repository, the corresponding term is

closure. 

2. All  steps  leading  to  the  release  of  a  nuclear
facility, other than a disposal facility, from regu-
latory  control.  These  steps  include  the
processes of decontamination and dismantling. 

63

64

Disposal

1. Emplacement  of  waste  in  an  appropriate
facility without the intention of retrieval.

• Some  countries  use  the  term  disposal to
include  discharges  of  effluents  to  the
environment. In many cases, the only element
of  this  definition  that  is  important  is  the
distinction between disposal (with no intent to
retrieve) and storage (with intent to retrieve).
In such cases, a definition is not necessary;
the distinction can be made in the form of a
footnote at the first use of the term disposal
or storage (e.g. “The use of the term disposal
indicates that there is no intention to retrieve
the waste. If retrieval of the waste at any time
in the future is intended, the term storage is
used.”).

• In  some  States,  the  term  disposal  is  used
administratively in such a way as to include,
for  example,  incineration  of  waste  or  the
transfer  of  waste  between  operators.  In
Agency publications, disposal should only be
used in accordance with the more restrictive
definition  given  above. The  term  disposal
implies that retrieval is not intended; it does
not mean that retrieval is not possible.

Dose
1. A  measure  of  the  energy  deposited  by

radiation in a target.

2. Absorbed dose, committed equivalent dose,
committed  effective  dose,  effective  dose,
equivalent dose or organ dose, as indicated
by the context.

Committed dose

Committed  equivalent  dose  or  committed
effective dose.

Engineered barrier system 
The designed, or engineered, components of a
repository, including waste packages and other
engineered barriers.  

Exposure
1. The  act  or  condition  of  being  subject  to

irradiation.

External exposure: Exposure due to a source
outside the body.

Contrasted with internal exposure.

Internal exposure: Exposure due to a source
within the body.

• Contrasted with storage.

Contrasted with external exposure.

Direct disposal: Disposal of spent fuel as waste.

Geological  disposal: Disposal  in  a  geological
repository.

Near surface disposal: Disposal, with or without
engineered  barriers,  in  a  near  surface
repository.

Sub-seabed disposal: Disposal in a geological
repository in the rock underlying the ocean floor.

2. The emplacement of spent fuel or radioactive
waste  in  an  appropriate  facility  without  the
intention of retrieval.

3. The  act  or  process  of  getting  rid  of  waste,

without the intention of retrieval.

The  terms  deep  sea  disposal  and  seabed
disposal do not strictly satisfy definition (1) or
(2),  but  are  consistent  with  the  everyday
meaning of disposal and are used as such.

Deep sea disposal: Disposal of waste packaged
in containers on the deep ocean floor.

Natural  exposure: Exposure  due  to  natural
sources.

Natural exposure is often excluded exposure,
but  in  some  cases  may  be  occupational
exposure or public exposure.

2. The sum of the electrical charges of all of the
ions of one sign produced in air by X rays or
gamma radiation when all electrons liberated
by  photons  in  a  suitably  small  element  of
volume  of  air  are  completely  stopped  in  air,
divided by the mass of the air in the volume
element.

Unit: C/kg (in the past, the roentgen (R) was
used).

Fission product 
A radionuclide produced by nuclear fission. 

Used in contexts where the radiation emitted by
the radionuclide is the potential hazard. 

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Geological repository 

A facility for disposal of radioactive waste located
underground (usually several hundred metres
or  more  below  the  surface)  in  a  geological
formation  to  provide  long  term  isolation  of
radionuclides from the biosphere. 

High-level waste (HLW)
The  radioactive  liquid  containing  most  of  the
fission products and actinides present in spent
fuel  –  which  forms  the  residue  from  the  first
solvent extraction cycle in reprocessing – and
some  of  the  associated  waste  streams;  this
material following solidification; spent fuel (if it
is  declared  a  waste);  or  any  other  waste  with
similar radiological characteristics. 

Typical  characteristics  of  high  level  waste  are
thermal power above about 2 kW/m3 and long-
lived  radionuclide  concentrations  exceeding
limitations for short lived waste. 

Ionising radiation – including 
α, ß, γ, etc. 
For  the  purposes  of  radiation  protection, 
radiation capable of producing ion pairs in bio-
logical material(s).

Ionising  radiation  can  be  divided  into  low  LET
radiation and high LET radiation (as a guide to its
relative biological effectiveness), or into strongly
penetrating  radiation  and  weakly  penetrating
radiation (as an indication of its ability to penetrate
shielding or the human body).  

Minimisation, waste
The  process  of  reducing  the  amount  and
activity of radioactive waste to a level as low as
reasonably achievable, at all stages from the
design  of  a  facility  or  activity  to  decommis-
sioning, by reducing waste generation and by
means  such  as  recycling  and  reuse,  and
treatment,  with  due  consideration 
for
secondary as well as primary waste.

Nuclear fuel cycle
All operations associated with the production of
nuclear energy, including:

• mining and milling, processing and enrich-

ment of uranium or thorium

• manufacture of nuclear fuel

• operation of nuclear reactors (including re-

search reactors)

• reprocessing of nuclear fuel

• any  related  research  and  development

activities

• all  related  waste  management  activities

(including decommissioning).

Nuclear safety
The  achievement  of  proper  operating
conditions, prevention of accidents or mitigation
of  accident  consequences,  resulting  in
protection  of  workers,  the  public  and  the
environment from undue radiation hazards.

Partitioning 
Separation,  usually  by  chemical  methods,  of
minor actinides from the reprocessing stream,
for  the  purpose  of  appropriate  further
processing, storage and/or disposal.  

Performance assessment 
An assessment of the performance of a system
or subsystem and its implications for protection
and safety at a planned or an authorized facility.
This differs from safety assessment in that it can
be  applied  to  parts  of  a  facility,  and  does  not
necessarily require assessment of radiological
impacts.

Radiation protection  

The  protection  of  people  from  the  effects  of
exposure to ionising radiation, and the means for
achieving this. ICRP and others use the term ra-
diological protection, which is synonymous. 

The  accepted  understanding  of  the  term
radiation protection is restricted to protection of
humans. Suggestions to extend the definition to
include the protection of non-human species or
the environment are controversial.   

65

66

however  (as  in  (2)  above),  spent  fuel  is
commonly used to refer to fuel which has been
used as fuel but will no longer be used, whether
or not it could be (which might more accurately
be termed ‘disused fuel’). 

Storage
The holding of spent fuel or of radioactive waste
in a facility that provides for its containment, with
the intention of retrieval.

Transmutation  
The  conversion  of  one  element  into  another.
Transmutation  is  under  study  as  a  means  of
converting  longer  lived  radionuclides  into
shorter lived or stable radionuclides. The term
actinide burning is used in some countries.  

Underground Research
Laboratory
Tests conducted within a geological environment
that is essentially equivalent to the environment
of a potential repository. A special underground
laboratory, called an underground research labo-
ratory (URL), may be built for in situ testing or
tests may be carried out in an actual repository
excavation.  Only  in  such  a  facility  can  the  full
range of repository environment properties and
waste  repository  system  interactions  be
measured.   

Vitrified waste 
The  vitreous  product  that  results  from
incorporating waste into a glass matrix.  

Waste, radioactive
For legal and regulatory purposes, waste that
contains or is contaminated with, radionuclides
at  concentrations  or  activities  greater  than
the
clearance 
regulatory body.

levels  as  established  by 

Radioactivity  
The phenomenon whereby atoms undergo spon-
taneous  random  disintegration,  usually  accom-
panied by the emission of radiation.   

A  nucleus  (of  an  atom)  that  possesses
properties  of  spontaneous  disintegration
(radioactivity). Nuclei are distinguished by their
mass and atomic number.

Repository
A nuclear facility where waste is emplaced for
disposal.

• geological  repository:  A  facility  for
located
radioactive  waste  disposal 
underground  (usually  several  hundred
metres  or  more  below  the  surface)  in  a
stable geological formation to provide long
term  isolation  of  radionuclides  from  the
biosphere.

• near  surface  repository:  A  facility  for
radioactive  waste  disposal  located  at  or
within  a  few  tens  of  metres  of  the  Earth’s
surface.

Reprocessing
A process or operation, the purpose of which is
to extract radioactive isotopes from spent fuel for
further use.

Severe accident
Accident conditions more severe than a design
basis  accident  and  involving  significant  core
degradation.

Spent nuclear fuel  
1. Nuclear fuel removed from a reactor following
irradiation,  which  is  no  longer  usable  in  its
present  form  because  of  depletion  of  fissile
material,  buildup  of  poison  or  radiation
damage. 

2. Nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in and
permanently  removed  from  a  reactor  core.

The  adjective  ‘spent’  suggests  that  spent  fuel
cannot be used as fuel in its present form (as,
for  example,  in  spent  source).  In  practice,

Euratom Research Projects and Training Activities. Nuclear Fission and Radiation Protection (Vol. II)

Index of projects

ALPHA-RISK

24 

BNEN

CND

CONRAD

COVERS

ENETRAP

ENFTP

EUROTRANS

FUNMIG

GAIN

GCFR

GENE-RAD-RISK

NURESIM

RACE

RAD UNITS

RADE

RAPHAEL

RECOIL

SENTINEL

SOUL

46

50

34

52

48

60

20

18

54

42

26

56

28

36

58

44

38

32

30

67

European Commission

EUR 21229 – Euratom Research Projects and Training activities

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2006 – 67 pp. – 21.0 x 29.7 cm

ISBN 92-79-00064-0

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