Employment in the market economy in the European Union : an analysis based on the structural business statistics : 2004 edition.
Date: 2004-12-05
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: economic activity, economic sector, employment policy, employment statistics, employment structure, labour market, market economy

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Employment 
in the market 
economy in the
European Union
An analysis based on the

structural business statistics

4THEME 4

Industry, trade
and services

E U R O P E A N
C O M M I S S I O N

 
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Table of Contents

Employment in the market economy in the European Union
— an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

Introduction

Outline of the report

Scale of employment in the market economy

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Industry

Division of employment between industries

Division of employment within manufacturing

Division of value-added between manufacturing sectors

Value-added per person employed in industry (NACE C to F)

Labour productivity in industry

Labour productivity and investment

Market services

Employment in market services

Division of employment between market services (NACE G, H, I, K)

Division of value-added between services

Employment in services by detailed sector

Value-added in services by detailed sector

Value-added per person employed in market services

Labour productivity in market services

Labour productivity and investment

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

Industry

Division of employment between enterprises of different size

Labour productivity in enterprises of different size

Market services

Division of employment between enterprises of different size

Value-added per person employed in enterprises of different sizes

3

3
4

7

9

9
9

9

12

14

14

19

20
20

20

23

23

23

30

30

32

34

34
34

38

41
41

44

1

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

Industry

Average annual labour costs

Labour costs, value-added and unit labour costs

Unit labour costs and investment

Market services

Average annual labour costs

Labour costs, value-added and unit labour costs

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

Regional employment in the selected industries

Textiles and clothing

Basic metals

Machinery and equipment

Electrical machinery and equipment

Transport equipment

Regional wage variations

Textiles and clothing

Basic metals

Machinery and equipment

Electrical machinery and apparatus

Transport equipment

Methodological notes

Structural Business Statistics (SBS)

Division by sector of activity

Definitions

Abbreviations

Table of Contents

47

47
47

50

52

53
53

54

57

57
57

57

59

59

61

63
65

65

65

67

67

68

68

69

69

70

2

Employment in the market economy in the European Union
— an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

Introduction

The Structural Business Statistics (SBS) represent the
most complete source of data on businesses in the Euro-
pean Union. The SBS provide information about most as-
pects of enterprise activity and break this down by
detailed economic sector in each of the EU Member
States (see Box on this page). The purpose of this publi-
cation is to increase knowledge and understanding of
employment and business related issues across the Eu-
ropean Union, including at regional level. It sets out a
fairly complete and coherent picture on the scale of busi-
ness output and employment in different parts of the Un-
ion and the division of these between economic sectors of
activity. It also indicates the relative importance of differ-
ent sized enterprises, their productivity and costs of pro-
duction and the amount of investment undertaken. The
fact that the data on employment and business related
variables in the SBS (output, value-added and so on) are
compiled and classified on the same basis ensures that
analysis undertaken using them is internally consistent.

The focus of this report is on employment. The aim is
threefold. First, it is to present the data which are available
from the SBS and which are collected from enterprises on
an annual basis. Secondly, it is to examine how the num-
ber working in different parts of the business sector, in dif-
ferent industries and services, varies across the EU.
Thirdly, it is to analyse the relationship between employ-
ment and other key variables, such as, value-added, la-
bour costs and investment, in industry and services in
different EU Member States.

This both updates and extends the analysis contained in
the first report published in 2003. The main extension is to
cover the new Member States entering the EU in May
2004 as well as Bulgaria and Romania and to compare
the structure of employment in these countries with that in
the rest of the EU. Although there are a number of gaps in

Structural Business Statistics

The SBS are compiled from data collected by National
Statistical Offices from enterprises of all sizes. At present,
they cover all industries and services classified to NACE
Rev. 1 sectors C to K, though excluding sector J (financial
services). They, therefore, exclude public administration,
education, health and social services (NACE Rev. 1 sec-
tors L to N) as well as personal and community services
(NACE Rev. 1 sectors O to Q). In principle, according to
the regulations (EC, EURATOM N° 58/97 of 20 December
1996 concerning structural business statistics, OJ No L
14/1 of 17.1.97, p.1)), they can cover all sectors except
public administration (NACE Rev. 1 sector L), but so far
the effort has been concentrated on collecting data for the
enterprise sector, ie on market rather than non-market ac-
tivities (see Box below on the division of economic activity
by NACE sector).

Within the sectors covered, activities are disaggregated
to a NACE 4-digit level within industry, though data are
more complete at a NACE 3-digit level, and to a NACE
3-digit level in services. The variables contained in the
SBS include the number of enterprises, turnover, the
value of production, value-added, wages and salaries,
gross investment and hours worked as well as the num-
ber of persons employed and the number of employees.
They also include a number of ratios and calculated vari-
ables, such as the share of employment in particular in-
dustries in the total for manufacturing, investment per
worker, social charges as a share of personnel costs and
the growth of employment.

Data on the new basis are available for all EU15 Member
States except Greece from 1995, though are less com-
plete and of more questionable accuracy for the years
before 1999.

Data are also available for the new Member States, ex-
cept Malta, and for Bulgaria and Romania. These cover

3

Employment in the market economy in the European Union — an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

the same variables and the same NACE activities as for
the EU15 countries. The data available are in most cases
as complete as for old Member States with the exception
of Poland and Slovenia for which there are data on em-
ployees but not the total number employed. In addition,
the data for Hungary and Slovakia are incomplete in the
sense that they do not cover very small enterprises – or
not all of them (see Methodological notes). Data are
available for most of the other countries at the NACE
2-digit level for 1998 to 2001. They are more limited by
size of enterprise. Moreover, data by (NUTS 2) region are
not available for the Czech Republic.

the statistics for these countries at present, the data which
exist enable a good indication to be gained of the struc-
ture of business in most cases.

Outline of the report

The report begins by indicating the relative numbers em-
ployed in different Member States in the market economy,
which covers sectors of the economy where enterprises
predominate. The main sectors not covered are commu-
nal or non-market services (in particular, education,
health care, social services and public administration),
personal and community services (such as recreational
and cultural activities and hairdressing) and agriculture
(see Box on this page).

The NACE sections of activty and the scope of the report

The NACE Rev.1 system classifies economic activity into 17 NACE 1-digit sections, two of which (mining and quarrying and
manufacturing) are divided into 16 sub-sections. The sections are comprised of 60 divisions (NACE 2-digit codes), each of
which is divided into a number of groups (NACE 3-digit codes) and classes (NACE 4-digit codes). The classification scheme
is as follows:
Sections (1-digit)
Sub-sections (2 letter)
Divisions (2-digit)
Groups (3-digit)
Classes (4-digit)

Codes A to Q
Codes CA and CB and DA to DN
Codes 01 to 99
Codes 01.1 to 93.0 (Divisions 95 to 99 are not further divided)
Codes 01.11 to 93.05

Scope of SBS – the market economy

The SBS cover the sections which make up the market economy:
Industry

C
D
E
F

Services

G
H
I
K

Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas and water supply
Construction

Wholesale and retail trade, sale and repair of motor vehicles
Hotels and restaurants
Transport and communications
Real estate, renting and business activities

Focus of the report

This report is concerned with the characteristics of these 8 NACE sections. It focuses in particular on the sectoral breakdown
within manufacturing and services.
Manufacturing

Manufacturing is broken down into 14 sub-sections and 23 (NACE 2-digit) divisions. Each of the latter is divided into a variable
number of groups (eg Division 29, Manufacture of machinery and equipment, is divided into 7 groups, such as, 29.4, the man-
ufacture of machine tools), which in turn are divided into a variable number of classes (eg 29.41, the manufacture of hand-held
machine tools).
Services

The services covered by the SBS are broken down into 17 (NACE 2-digit) divisions, each of which is split into groups (eg Divi-
sion 52, Retail trade, is divided into 7 groups, such as the retail sales of food, drink and tobacco in specialised stores, 52.2)
and classes (such as the retail sales of fruit and vegetables, 52.21).

4

Employment in the market economy in the European Union — an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

The first chapter focuses, first, on industry and, secondly,
on services. It examines the distribution of employment
and value-added between detailed activities in these two
broad sectors and the relationship between the two vari-
ables. It also present estimates of labour productivity, or
value-added per unit of labour input by taking account of
average hours worked by those employed in different
sectors. It then considers the relationship between labour
productivity and capital employed, as reflected in the fig-
ures for expenditure on investment. This enables some in-
dication to be gained of the effect of the plant and
equipment available for workers to use in the production
process on their productivity.

The second chapter examines the division of employment
between enterprises of different size across the market
economy sector and across different EU countries. It also
considers the way that value-added per person em-
ployed varies between different sized-firms.
In both
cases, industry and services are examined separately.

The third chapter reviews the data on labour costs con-
tained in the SBS and examines the relationship between
the cost of labour and its productivity in different sectors
and countries. It also presents estimates of labour cost
per unit of value-added in both industry and services ac-
tivities and relates these to investment (which enterprises

Comparison of employment according to the SBS and LFS

The data on employment compiled by the SBS are on a
different basis from those compiled by the Labour Force
Survey (LFS), reflecting the different methods of collect-
ing the basic information. The SBS data are collected
from enterprises, while LFS data are collected from a sur-
vey of private households. (Note that the LFS, therefore,
excludes people living in collective households, though
the number concerned who are of working age is very
small and the number of these in employment even
smaller.) Whereas the SBS data relate to the number em-
ployed in enterprises, the LFS data relate to the number
of residents in employment in the country concerned, ir-
respective of whether they work in the country or abroad.
Moreover, the SBS records the number of people em-
ployed in different enterprises, some of whom might be
counted twice if they have more than one job, while the
LFS counts each person in employment only once irre-
spective of how many jobs they have. The SBS, there-
fore, essentially counts jobs rather people in
employment, Nevertheless, the number of people with
more than one job in the EU according to the LFS is rela-
tively small – only around 3% of the total on average. Ac-
cordingly, the SBS figures for the numbers employed in
2001 in the NACE sections covered are relatively close to
those shown by the LFS for the same year.

In the EU15 as a whole, the total employed in the market
economy was around 4% less according to the SBS than
according to the LFS. (It should be noted that SBS data for
Greece is estimated in order to derive a total figure for the
EU15.) The difference, however, is reduced to under 1% if
Germany (where the SBS total is almost 15% less than the
LFS total,which is to small extent due to the SBS data for
services being for 2000 instead of 2001) is excluded (Ta-
ble 1). The SBS total remains less than the LFS total. This is
the reverse of what might be expected given that jobs
ought to exceed the number of people doing them.

On the other hand, the LFS counts anyone as being em-
ployed who works at least one hour in the reference
week. This may mean that it includes people as working
who might not be recorded in the SBS, which averages
the number employed in enterprises over the year.

There are larger differences for some countries. In the
new Member States, differences are in general much
bigger, mostly around 10% either way.

There are also differences in the division of employment
between industry (ie NACE sections C to F) and services
(NACE sections G, H, I and K). In industry, the SBS tends
to give a lower total for employment than the LFS while
the reverse is true for market service sectors. Differences
between the SBS and LFS are larger for certain sectors
across countries, in particular, Mining (C), Construction
(F) and Business services.

There are a number of possible reasons for these differ-
ences. Not only might they reflect the different basis of
data collection as described above, but they also might
arise from the different way that those employed are allo-
cated to sectors of activity. The SBS, does this on the ba-
sis of the enterprise in which people are employed and
allocates enterprises according to their main activity (ie in
this context whether the enterprise produces mainly man-
ufactures or services). (The enterprise in the SBS is the
basic statistical unit of account used for compiling data.
An enterprises is defined as ‘thesmallestcombinationof
legalunitsthatisanorganisationalunitproducinggoods
orservices,whichbenefitsfromacertaindegreeofauton-
omyindecision-making,especiallyfortheallocationofits
currentresources’.) The LFS data are compiled on an es-
tablishment, or local unit, basis and establishments are al-
located to sectors of activity according to the view of the
member of the household surveyed.

5

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6

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Employment in the market economy in the European Union — an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

1

Employment in the market economy, 2001

SBS employed as % of

Total LFS employed

Working-age population

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

RO

LT

BG

LV

FI

IT

DE

BE

FR

IE

EE

EU15 CY

PT

AT

ES

SE

NL

UK

DK

CZ

EL, HU, MT, PL, SI, SK: n.a.; LU: not included; DE: NACE G to K: 2000; DK: NACE G: 1999, H to K: 2000; IE: 2000; CY: excl. NACE K

Source: Eurostat, SBS and LFS

ultimately need to finance from the value-added remain-
ing after labour costs have been met).

The fourth chapter presents data showing, first, the loca-
tion of employment in selected industries across regions
in the EU and, secondly, the way that average wages vary
between regions within countries.

Slovenia) and incomplete data for another two (Hungary
and Slovakia), average figures in this report are calcu-
lated for the most part for EU15 instead of EU25. This also
provides a convenient basis for comparing the position in
the countries joining the Union with those which have
been members for longer. The latter generally have much
higher levels of GDP per head, which is conventionally
used as an indicator of economic development.

Scale of employment in the market economy

It should be noted at the outset that, because of a lack of
data for two of the new Member States (Malta and

In the EU15, the number employed in the market econ-
omy, or those activities covered by the SBS — NACE C to
K excluding J — represented 60% of the total employed in
the economy as a whole in 2001 (on the basis of EU

2

Employment and valued-added in the market economy, 2001

Left bar: employment; right bar: value-added

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Other services (H, I, K)

Distribution (G)

Other industry (C, E, F)

Manufacturing (D)

0
EU15 BE CZ DK DE EE ES FR IT

LV LT

LU HU MT NL AT PL PT

SI

SK

FI

SE UK BG RO

EL, IE, CY: n.a. ; DK: G 1999, H to K 1999; DE: G to K 2000 ; MT: NACE E 2000; PL, SI: employees only

Source: Eurostat, SBS

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

7

Employment in the market economy in the European Union — an analysis based on the Structural Business Statistics

Labour Force Survey statistics) (Graph 1). (It should be
noted, however, that this comparison tends to overstate
the number employed in the market economy to the ex-
tent that the SBS counts jobs whereas the LFS counts
people, who may have more than one job — see Box
page 5.) The proportion ranged from just over 50% in Fin-
land to over 70% in Spain. In the new Member States, the
figures range from under 50% in Lithuania, where agricul-
ture is important, to over 75% in the Czech Republic. In
Romania, where agriculture is even more important, the
number employed in the market economy amounted to
under 40% of the total in work according to the LFS.

Relating the number employed in the market economy to
working age population gives a comparative indication of
the relative number of jobs provided by these activities in
different countries. In the EU15 Member States taken to-
gether, the number employed in the market economy
amounted to just under 40% of working-age population
(taken as those aged 15 to 64) in 2001. In most new Mem-
ber States, the proportion was less than the EU15 aver-
age, the only exceptions being the Czech Republic
(50%), where the figure was higher than anywhere else in
the Union, and Cyprus.

In the EU15, industry (NACE C to F) accounted for 41% of
those employed in the market economy (NACE C to K —
excluding J) in 2001 and market services (NACE G to K —
excluding J) for 59% (Graph 2). Manufacturing alone rep-
resented 29% of the total and the distributive trades 24%.
The relative importance of the different sectors varied
substantially between countries, the share of services
ranging from around 70% in the UK and Spain to just over
50% in Germany, Finland, Italy and Portugal.

In many of the new Member States, industry accounted
for a larger share of employment in the market economy
than in any of the EU15 countries. This was the case in the
Czech Republic (54%), Hungary (57%) and Slovakia
(59%). It was also true in Bulgaria (52%) and Romania
(64%).

The share of market economy value-added generated by
industry (47%) in EU15 in 2001 was greater than for em-
ployment, implying higher value-added per person em-
ployed in industry than in services. While this was
systematically the case for all EU15 Member States, in the
new Member States, it was true only for the Czech Repub-
lic, Hungary and Slovakia.

8

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Industry

Division of employment between industries

Over 40 million people were employed in Industry in the
EU15 in 2001. Of these, some 28.4 million, or 70%,
worked in manufacturing, 29% of all those employed in
the market economy as a whole. Construction employed
10.4 million people, 11% of the total employed in the mar-
ket economy and mining 0.4 million under ½% of the total
(Table 2). Mining was more important in some of the new
Member States, accounting for around 1.5% of the total
working in the market economy in the Czech Republic,
Slovakia and Estonia. It was even more important in
Bulgaria (2.3%) and Romania(4.5%).

Stability of SBS data for industry, 2000 and 2001

The SBS survey has now been conducted for several
years and the coverage of the data collected has in-
creased significantly over the period. The accuracy of
the data seems also to have improved as data collection
methods have stabilised. A comparison of the data for
employment in industry for the years 2000 and 2001 con-
firms this. For industry as a whole, there was a difference
of only 0.2% in total employment in EU15 between the
two years according to the SBS. This is broadly in line
with other data sources (such as the national accounts)
which show little change in employment in industry over
this period (in practice, the national accounts shows a
small fall of 0.3%). The difference between data for the
two years was under 3% in all countries apart from Spain,
where there was a big rise in employment in construction
(15% as opposed to a rise of 6% shown by the national
accounts). Variations between the two years were
equally small
in manufacturing across countries but
larger in the much smaller mining sector where big job
losses have tended to occur (Table 3).

The number employed in construction accounted for
around 10% or more of all those working in the market
economy in all EU15 Member States, except Sweden
(9%) and the UK (8%). The proportion was as high as 17%
in Spain. By contrast, in all the new Member States, apart
from the Czech Republic and Cyprus, employment in
construction amounted to under 10% of the total in the
market economy.

Division of employment within manufacturing

Some 62% of all those employed in manufacturing in the
EU15 in 2001 worked in basic manufacturing (textiles,
metals, furniture and so on — see Box on page 12). The
figure varied from over 80% in Luxembourg and Portugal
and over 70% in Spain to only around 50% in Germany
and Ireland (Table 4). In the new Member States, basic
manufacturing was in most cases more important for em-
ployment, accounting for over 70% of total manufacturing
in Estonia, as well as in Romania and Bulgaria, and over
80% in Cyprus, Latvia and Lithuania. (Graph 3)

textiles and clothing
Within basic manufacturing,
(DB+DC) accounted for less than 10% of total employ-
ment in manufacturing in most EU15 countries. The main
exceptions are Portugal, where they accounted for almost
a third, and Italy where the figure was almost 17%. In all
the new Member States, the proportion employed in tex-
tiles and clothing was over 10% and around 15% in most
cases, almost twice the EU15 average. In Bulgaria and
Romania, the proportion was around 30%, almost the
same as in Portugal.

The proportion of manufacturing employment in metals
and metal products (DJ) in the new Member States, by
contrast, was less than the EU15 average in all cases ex-
cept the Czech Republic and Slovakia. For the other ba-
sic manufacturing sectors, the employment shares were
more similar.

9

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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10

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Table 3 – Change in employment in industry, 2000-2001

Industry (NACE C to F)
2001

2000

Manufacturing (NACE D)
2001

2000

Construction (NACE F)
2001

2000

Thousand
EU15
BE
CZ
DK
DE
EE
ES
FR
IE
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

40140
987
1894
683
9925
170
4715
5770
:
6532
66
216
350
63
946
43
1468
903
:
1334
:
555
583
1068
5458

40071
959
1901
696
10139
170
4395
5707
:
6482
65
213
353
62
947
43
:
912
:
1325
:
549
577
1055
5649

BG
RO
Note: EL, PL, SI: SBS data not available. 
Source: Eurostat, SBS

826
2537

837
2593

2000/2001 
(%)
0.2
2.9
-0.4
-1.9
-2.1
0.3
7.3
1.1
:
0.8
1.7
1.5
-0.8
1.5
-0.1
-1
:
-1.0
:
0.6
:
1.0
1.1
1.3
-3.4

-1.4
-2.2

Mining, carrying (NACE C)

2001

2000

356
3
57
2
107
6
42
40
5
37
1
2
3
0
6
0
9
5
:
15
:
14
4
9
71

37
179

379
4
59
2
129
7
41
42
5
37
1
2
3
0
6
0
9
6
:
15
:
15
4
9
73

41
180

2000/2001 
(%)
-6.2
-3.4
-2.7
4.5
-16.7
-4.1
2.8
-4.3
0.0
-0.7
-3.1
18.4
-9.4
-8.0
-1.6
-1
2.1
-2.5
:
3.1
:
-10.6
1.6
-1.2
-2.2

-8.2
-0.8

28354
679
1391
479
7535
123
2656
4070
256
4833
37
154
246
34
756
31
929
629
:
910
:
421
436
799
3888

605
1802

28482
677
1378
488
7551
119
2595
4027
256
4821
36
154
245
34
756
32
915
629
:
938
:
411
436
792
4100

611
1835

2000/2001 
(%)
-0.5
0.2
1.0
-1.8
-0.2
2.8
2.4
1.1
0.0
0.2
1.8
0.6
0.7
-0.1
0.0
-1
1.5
0.0
:
-2.9
:
2.3
0.1
0.9
-5.2

-1.0
-1.8

2000/2001 
(%)
2.6
10.5
-4.0
-1.9
-8.2
-0.6
15.1
1.5
:
3.5
1.7
6.2
1.3
3.1
4.8
1
:
-3.4
:
10.5
:
-2.9
5.3
3.6
2.1

10385
278
376
184
1988
31
1953
1458
:
1529
27
43
69
27
117
8
496
235
:
382
:
74
126
237
1367

124
373

10119
251
392
188
2164
31
1696
1437
:
1478
26
40
68
26
112
8
:
243
:
346
:
77
120
229
1339

126
387

-1.7
-3.7

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

3

Employment in manufacturing by three broad sectors of activity, 2001

% of total manufacturing

100

Engineering
Chemicals, fuel
Basic manufacturing

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

CY

LV

LT

LU

PT

EE BG ES RO PL

BE

SI

NL

IT

DK SK

AT

FR UK MT EU15 CZ HU

FI

SE DE

EL, IE: n.a. ; PL, SI: employees only; AT, BG, EE, LT, LV, MT, SK: NACE DF excluded; EE, LT, LV: NACE DC excluded

Source: Eurostat, SBS

11

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Division of manufacturing into three broad sectors of activity

Manufacturing is divided here between three broad sec-
tors of activity for purposes of analysis and presentation,
‘Basic manufacturing’,
‘Chemicals and fuel’ and
‘Engineering’.

What are termed ‘Basic manufacturing’ are ultimately de-
fined as those not included in the other two categories.
They, therefore, consist of Food, drink and tobacco (NACE
sectors 15 and 16 — see Box in Introduction — which are
combined into NACE sector DA in the SBS), Clothing and
footwear (NACE 17 and 18, which are combined as NACE
sector DB, plus NACE 19 or DC), Wood and wood products
(NACE sector 20 or DD), Paper, printing and publishing
(NACE 21 and 22, which are combined into DE), Rubber
and plastic products (NACE 25 or DH), Other non-metallic
products (NACE 26 or DI), Basic metals and Metal prod-
ucts other than machinery (NACE 27 and 28 which are
combined into DJ), Recycling and Furniture and miscella-
neous products not included elsewhere (NACE 36 and 37

which are combined into NACE DN). The term ‘basic’ refers
broadly to the type of product manufactured rather than the
processes used to produce them, which can involve ad-
vanced technology and high levels of capital intensity of
production.

‘Chemicals and fuel’ cover Coke production, petroleum re-
fining and nuclear fuel (NACE 23 or DF) and Chemicals,
chemical products and pharmaceuticals (NACE 24 or DG).

‘Engineering’ consists of Machinery and equipment (NACE
29 or DK), Office machines and computers (NACE 30),
Electrical machinery and miscellaneous apparatus (NACE
television and communication equipment
31), Radio,
(NACE 32), Medical, precision and optical
instruments
(NACE 33), Motor vehicles and trailers (NACE 34), and
Other transport equipment (NACE 35). NACE 30, 31 and 32
are combined into NACE DL, while NACE 34 and 35 make
up NACE DM.

In the EU15 countries, engineering industries employed,
on average, 9 million people in 2001, 32% of total manu-
facturing employment. In Germany and Sweden, the pro-
portion was over 40%. In the new Member States, the
proportion of manufacturing employment in engineering
was similar to the EU15 average in the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Malta and Slovakia, but only around 15% in the
three Baltic States, lower than in the EU15 apart from
Portugal.

to the high level of foreign ownership of manufacturing in
Ireland.

In Germany, Finland, the Czech Republic, Romania and
Slovenia over 40% of the value-added generated in the
market economy was produced by manufacturing sector
and in Hungary, 50% (but note the exclusion of small
firms which are particularly important in services from the
SBS data — see Methodological note).

Division of value-added between

manufacturing sectors

The division of value-added between manufacturing sec-
tors differs from that of employment. In the EU15 Member
States taken together, manufacturing accounted for
some 33% of the overall value-added generated by the
market economy in 2001, some 4 percentage points more
than its share of employment (Table 2). By contrast, in the
new Member States, apart from the Czech Republic, Hun-
gary and Malta, manufacturing accounted for a smaller
share of value-added than employment. Construction, on
the other hand, was responsible for a lower share of
value-added than employment in both EU15 countries
and the new Member States (under 9% as against 11% in
EU15). According to the SBS data, value-added in manu-
facturing in Ireland is unusually high. This may be related

The share of value-added in the market economy gener-
ated by construction was especially large in Spain and
Cyprus, as it was for employment. By contrast, the share
was only around 5% in Hungary and Slovakia and only 2%
in Malta, but in the former two in particular, small firms,
a r e
w h i c h
under-represented.

c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

i m p o r t a n t

a r e

i n

Mining, including oil extraction, accounted for 4% of mar-
ket economy value-added in Denmark and Poland and
only slightly less in the UK as well as Bulgaria, but for un-
der 1% in the majority of Member States.

Within manufacturing, basic manufacturing, in general,
accounted for smaller share of value-added as a whole
than of employment, while engineering accounted for
more in most cases — but not in all. Chemicals and fuel
were in all countries responsible for a much larger share
of value-added than employment (Graph 3 and 4).

12

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S

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

13

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

4

Value-added in manufacturing by three broad sectors of activity, 2001

% of total manufacturing

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Engineering
Chemicals, fuel
Basic manufacturing

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

CY

LV

LU

EE

LT

PT

BG BE

ES

NL

RO

SI

IE

IT

DK

SK

UK

AC

AT

HU

FR EU25 EU15 SE

CZ

PL

MT

FI

DE

EL: n.a. ; IE: 2000

Source: Eurostat, SBS

Value-added per person employed

in industry (NACE C to F)

Value-added per person employed in industry is consid-
erably higher in the EU15 than in the new Member States.
In 2001, Cyprus and Malta were the only new Member
States in which the level was comparable to that in any of
the EU15 countries (though only Portugal had a level as
low as in these two countries) (Table 5).

Labour productivity in industry

The number employed, however, gives only a partial
measure of the amount of labour used in the produc-
tion process. Account needs also to be taken of the av-
erage time which those employed work. The SBS
contains data on the average number of hours worked
per year by employees, which in combination with the
data on the number employed can be used to calcu-
late overall labour inputs. This, in turn, can be used to
estimate value-added per hour worked, or labour pro-
ductivity.

It should be noted in this regard, however, that because
working time data in the SBS relate to employees rather
than total persons employed, some assumption needs to
be made about the hours worked by the self-employed to
obtain a complete picture. In order to simplify the analy-
sis, the assumption is that the self-employed on average
work the same hours as employees. In practice, LFS data

suggest that the self-employed tend to work longer hours.
To this extent, the estimates presented here may over-
state labour productivity, but only to a small degree given
the relatively small numbers of self-employed, especially
in manufacturing.

As a first stage in this estimation process, SBS data on
annual hours worked are compared with two other sur-
veys: the Labour Cost Survey (LCS) and the Labour
Force Survey (LFS) as a check on the accuracy of the
data. The LCS should give similar results since like the
SBS it relates to employees and is based on data col-
lected from enterprises (though data relate to local
units rather than enterprises). However, it excludes
those employing less than 10 people which may affect
the results. The LFS, on the contrary, collects data
from households and covers both employees and
self-employed as well as unpaid family workers. More-
over, it contains data for hours worked per week rather
than per year, so an estimate needs to be made of the
weeks worked per year to obtain comparable figures.
This is done by comparing LFS weekly data with LCS
annual data at an aggregate level to obtain an implicit
figure for annual weeks of work. The LFS data are, then
used to give an indication of the difference between
the average working time of employees and of all per-
sons in employment.

The SBS generally shows a slightly larger figure for aver-
age hours worked than the LCS. The main exceptions are
Sweden and Lithuania, where the figures are much
smaller  (Table 6).

14

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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6

e
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T

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

16

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

5

Value-added per person employed and per hour worked in manufacturing, 2001

EUR (thousand)

VA per person employed (left axis)

VA per hour worked (right axis)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

132

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG RO LT

EE SK LV CZ HU PT CY MT ES FR

IT

UK AT DK SE DE NL

LU

FI

BE

IE

EL, PL, SI: n.a.

Source: Eurostat, SBS, LCS

The SBS for a majority of countries also reports a slightly
larger number of hours worked than the estimates de-
rived from the LFS. The main exceptions are Belgium,
Malta and Sweden, while for France and Cyprus, the SBS
figures are much higher than the LFS estimates. Differ-
ences between the LFS and LCS are relatively small,
partly because of the method of estimation. The LFS data
the difference between average hours
indicate that
worked by employees and all those in employment is also
relatively small — 1–3% in most cases. The resulting esti-
mates of total labour inputs in industry (ie the number em-
ployed multiplied by average hours worked) have the
effect of widening the extent of variation in labour produc-

tivity between countries. In countries such as Belgium,
therefore, where value-added per person employed is
relatively high, average working time is relatively low,
while the reverse is the case in Spain and Portugal, where
value-added per person employed is comparatively low.
In most cases, average hours worked in the new Member
States are longer than in the EU15, which tends to widen
the productivity gap between the two groups of countries.

Value-added per hour of labour input in manufacturing
was highest in Ireland in 2001. It was also relatively high in
Belgium, Finland and Luxembourg. On the other hand, it
was much lower in the new Member States, Cyprus apart,

6

Value-added per hour worked in mining, manufacturing and construction, 2001

EUR (thousand)

Mining

Manufacturing

Construction

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

222

895

378

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG RO LT

EE SK LV CZ HU PT CY MT ES FR

IT

UK AT DK SE DE NL

LU

FI

BE

IE

EL, PL, SI, IE construction sector: n.a.

Source: Eurostat, SBS and LCS

17

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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18

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

7

Value-added per hour worked in the three broad manufacturing activities, 2001

Basic manufacturing

Chemicals, fuel

Engineering

EUR 

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

285

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG RO LT

LV

EE

SK CZ HU CY PT MT ES SE

FR

IT

UK NL DK AT DE BE

FI

IE

EL, LU, PL, SI: n.a. ;  IE, AT, BG, EE, LT, LV, MT, SK: Chemicals only. IE: NACE DN excl. ; EE, LT, LV: NACE DC excl.

Source: Eurostat, SBS, LCS

than in the rest of the EU15 (Graph 5). The extent of the dif-
ference in labour productivity across the enlarged Union
is, therefore, substantial, ranging from over 30 euros in a
number of the EU15 countries and close to 50 euros in
Belgium to only 4 euros in Lithuania. In Bulgaria and Ro-
mania, it was around half of this (Graph 6 and Table 7).
These differences, however, overstate the true difference
to the extent that they take no account of differences in
price level between countries, which are considerable
(prices for equivalent goods and services in the new
Member States tend to be less than half of those in the
EU15). Ideally, therefore, the comparisons ought to allow
for this, though no official estimates of purchasing power
parities are available for manufacturing to enable it to be
done. But even if such an adjustment were made, the gap
would remain very wide (as indicated by the purchasing
power parity figures for GDP as a whole).

Within manufacturing, productivity was high in Chemicals
and fuel and, in most cases, relatively low in basic manu-
facturing (Graph 7).

Labour productivity and investment

The data on investment in the SBS can be used to give
an indication of the capital used in the production pro-
cess in different sectors of activity, even if it measures
the ‘flow’ of expenditure in the year rather than the ac-
cumulated stock of plant, equipment and buildings
(see Box on this page). Relating investment to the esti-

Investment per hour worked in industry

The investment figures analysed in the text relate to ex-
penditure in gross terms (ie before deducting any sales
or making any adjustments for value) on ‘tangible’
goods, which cover purchases of machinery and equip-
ment and of land and buildings as well as the construc-
tion and alterations of the latter. In all Member States,
purchases of machinery and equipment represent the
bulk of investment (around 85% of the total on average),
while the construction and alteration of buildings ac-
counts for most of the remainder. The figures, it should
be noted, cover only physical investment and not less
tangible investment such as in R&D or work force skills.

The figures for investment are divided by the estimates of
total hours worked to obtain a figure for capital expendi-
ture per unit of labour input which can be compared with
value-added per hour worked, or labour productivity. Al-
though, investment per hour worked relates only to ex-
penditure in a particular year and does not necessarily
reflect the total amount of capital (buildings as well as
machinery and equipment) available for use in the pro-
duction process, it may be indicative of this, to the extent
that capital-intensive industries (ie those which use a
large amount of capital relative to labour in production)
tend to invest relatively large amounts each year.

19

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

8

)

R
U
E

(

r
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o
h

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p

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d
d
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e
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a
V

l

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Correlation between investment per hour and value-
added per hour in manufacturing sectors of the EU, 
2001

mates of total hours worked gives a measure of capital
per unit of labour input.

Tobacco (16)

Coke, petrol refining (23)

y = 4.1x + 12.1
R2 = 0.54

Radio, TV, commun. equip. (32)

Recycling (37)

Clothing (16)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Investment per hour (EUR)

EU covers all existing and new Member States except EL, LU, PL and SI

Source: Eurostat, SBS and LCS

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

The variation in investment between industries is broadly
in line with the variation in labour productivity. This sug-
gests that a significant part of the variation in labour pro-
ductivity between industries may be related to the use of
capital in production.

In the enlarged EU (excluding Greece, Luxembourg,
Poland and Slovenia for which data are not available),
the industry with the highest level of investment per
hour worked (coke and petrol refining NACE 23) also
had the highest level of productivity (Graph 8).Con-
versely, the clothing industry (NACE 18) had both a
low level of capital per hour worked and a low level of
productivity.

Value-added per hour worked
and investment per hour worked

There is likely, in principle, to be a positive relationship
between value-added per hour worked and investment
per hour worked as between sectors of activity. The
greater the amount of capital used in production relative
to a given amount of labour, the higher, other things be-
ing equal, value-added will tend to be. The income avail-
able to compensate capital will also tend to be larger as
value-added per hour worked increases — as it needs to
be to justify the investment involved.

The relationship between investment and value-added
for NACE 2-digit industries is shown in Graph 8. This indi-
cates that although there is a pronounced tendency for
the two to vary together, a few industries diverge from the
average relationship (shown by the OLS regression line).
This is the case for Tobacco, where, value-added per
hour worked is higher than would be expected given in-
vestment, which may be because of other factors push-
ing up value-added. For Recycling and Radio, TV and
communication equipment, value-added per hour
worked is lower than would be expected given invest-
ment, which may be due to the low productivity of those
employed or an untypical high level of investment in
2001.

Market services

Employment in market services

Some 23% of EU15 working-age population in 2001 were
employed in market services. The figure was over 30% in
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the UK. In the new
Member States, the proportion was in most cases lower. It
was below 20% in all of these countries except in Cyprus,
the Czech Republic and Estonia. In Bulgaria, the figure
was less than 15% of working-age population and in Ro-
mania, under 10% (Graph 9 and Table 8). (It was only
around 10% in Hungary and Slovakia as well, but in both
cases, very small firms which are large employers in
services, are under-represented.)

Division of employment between

market services (NACE G, H, I, K)

Around 10% of working-age population in the EU15 coun-
tries in 2001 was employed in the distributive trades
(NACE G). This was also the case in Cyprus, the Czech
Republic and Estonia. Accordingly, in most of these 18
countries, the distributive trade accounted for some 40%
or more of all employment in market services, making it
the biggest sector of employment in all Member States
except for Luxembourg and the Netherlands, in both of
which business services (NACE K) were about the same
size (Table 8).

20

 
 
 
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Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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21

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

9

Employment in market services and industry, 2001

% of working-age population

Industry (C, D, E, F)

Market services (G, H, I, K)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

PL

HU

SK

RO LT

BG LV

FI

IT

DE

BE

FR

EE EU15 SI

CY

PT

AT

ES

SE

NL

UK

DK

CZ

LU

EL, IE,  MT: n.a. ; DK: NACE G: 1999, NACE H-K: 2000; DE: services: 2000; CY: NACE K excl.; PL, SI: employees only

Source: Eurostat, SBS and LFS

Table 9 – Change in employment in market services, 2000-2001

Total market services 
(G, H, I, K)

2001

57004
1499
1640
:
:
186
6747
8257
:
7490
110
280
350
116
719
68
3559
1312
:
1479
:
387
633
1549
12687

2000 2000/2001 
(%)
2.1
1.0
2.0
:
:
1.5
2.8
2.9
:
4.5
1.3
0.5
3.6
:
2.4
23.3
3.3
1.9
:
3.6
:
6.6
-0.8
3.5
1.4

55805
1483
1607
567
10113
183
6566
8021
532
7171
109
278
338
:
702
55
3444
1287
:
1427
:
363
638
1497
12506

Thousand
EU15
BE
CZ
DK
DE
EE
ES
FR
IE
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK

BG
RO
Note: EL, PL, SI: SBS data not available. 
Source: Eurostat, SBS and LFS

772
1449

742
1241

4.1
16.7

Distributive trades (G)

Hotels and restaurants (H)

Transport, communications (I)

Business services (K)

2001

23343
599
730
:
:
88
2828
3110
:
3219
54
140
188
38
298
27
1380
561
:
750
:
160
242
545
5001

356
782

2000 2000/2001 
(%)
1.3
1.7
1.6
:
:
1.5
1.3
1.8
:
2.8
0.5
-0.6
6.0
5.8
4.4
2.5
1.1
1.2
:
-0.6
:
9.4
1.4
0.6
1.9

23033
589
719
:
4408
86
2791
3054
215
3130
54
141
177
36
285
26
1365
554
:
755
:
147
238
541
4908

346
944

2.8
-17.2

2001

6944
158
163
:
:
13
1074
796
:
905
33
17
24
13
58
15
325
212
:
239
:
20
53
109
1792

83
80

2000 2000/2001 
(%)
2.2
-0.4
-3.6
:
:
9.1
2.6
3.3
:
5.4
0.9
-0.9
8.1
1.4
-1.3
-10.3
7.3
-0.1
:
10.9
:
28.4
-2.3
2.4
0.2

6794
158
169
94
1062
12
1046
771
111
859
33
17
22
12
59
17
303
212
:
216
:
16
54
107
1789

77
84

7.9
-5.1

2001

8755
275
341
:
:
43
929
1554
:
1193
22
70
88
22
216
14
491
247
:
178
:
116
158
299
1621

222
374

2000 2000/2001 
(%)
1.3
-1.9
2.2
:
:
-5.1
2.2
1.6
:
1.4
4.3
2.7
-0.2
:
-1.4
17.7
1.9
0.4
:
1.7
:
-1.8
-1.3
-0.8
3.0

8646
280
334
179
1536
45
910
1529
77
1177
21
69
88
:
219
12
482
246
:
175
:
119
160
301
1573

218
:

1.8
:

2001

17963
467
406
:
:
42
1916
2796
:
2173
:
52
50
43
147
12
1363
293
:
313
:
90
180
596
4273

111
213

2000 2000/2001 
(%)
3.6
2.5
5.2
:
:
6.5
5.3
4.9
:
8.4
:
1.1
-0.6
:
5.9
:
5.4
6.2
:
10.7
:
9.3
-2.7
8.8
0.9

17332
456
386
294
3107
39
1819
2667
129
2005
:
51
50
:
139
:
1294
276
:
282
:
82
185
548
4237

100
213

10.7
0.0

22

These two countries apart, business services was the
second largest sector of employment in all EU15 coun-
tries. In all of the new Member States, except for the
Czech Republic and Estonia, on the other hand, trans-
port and communications employed more people,
probably reflecting the less developed nature of busi-
ness services.

Hotels and restaurants were a particularly important
source of employment in Cyprus (30% of total market
services), Malta (22%) and Ireland (21%), though in
each case, apart from Cyprus, the number employed
was relatively small in relation to working-age popula-
tion.

Division of value-added between services

Business services and transport and communication
sectors accounted for a larger share of value-added
than employment in most countries. In particular, the
specific features of the real estate and renting sector
which generates significant value-added with a lim-
ited work force tends to distort the overall distribution
among market service sectors. The sector has been
therefore excluded from business services (business
total market service
services represent 32% of
value-added after adjustment against 38% before).
The reverse was true for distributive trades and more
particularly for hotels and restaurants, where the
value-added generated was relatively small.

Stability of SBS data in market services

A comparison of the SBS data for employment between
the two years 2000 and 2001, as in the case of industry,
provides a test of the consistency of the statistics. In the
case of market services, however, the number employed
increased by around 2% in the EU15 between these two
years according to the SBS. National accounts data
show much the same increase, so reinforcing confi-
dence in the statistics. Taken together, employment in
market services grew in all countries between the two
years, except in Finland where employment fell by under
1% (Table 9).

Growth in employment was particularly high in business
services. This is in line with other data sources (the LFS in
particular) which indicate that these services have been
a major source of job growth for the past decade or more.

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Employment in services by detailed sector

At the NACE division level (2-digit code), over 20% of
those employed in market services in 2001 worked in
retailing (NACE 52) in most EU countries. The propor-
tion was in general relatively large in the new Member
States where other services tend to be less developed
(Table 10). In Latvia and Lithuania, therefore, as well
as Romania and Bulgaria, the figure was close to 30%.
In the majority of countries, retailing accounted for
over half of those employed in the distributive trades.
The share employed in wholesaling, however, varied
significantly between countries — from over 20% in
Slovakia to 10% in the UK — reflecting differences in
distribution arrangements and, in some degree, in the
average size of retailers (large retailers tending to pur-
chase goods directly from manufacturers rather than
through wholesalers).

It was largest

The division of employment between sectors within
business services also varies, in this case partly re-
flecting the level of development of the sector. Com-
puter and related activities accounted for 4% of
overall employment in market services in the EU15 in
2001, but for 8% in Sweden and 6% in Finland, while in
Spain the share was only 2% and in Portugal 1%. The
share was similarly small in most of the new Member
States.
in the Czech Republic and
Slovakia (3%) but still below the EU average (Table
11). Accounting, consultancy and legal services were
responsible for 7–8% of total employment in market
service in the three Benelux countries, Sweden and
the UK, but for only 1–2% in Lithuania, Latvia and
Slovakia as well as in Bulgaria and Romania. Some
9–10% of market service employment was in agencies
specialising in labour recruitment and the provision of
personnel in each of the three Benelux countries, but
very little at all in the new Member States as well as in
Sweden and Ireland. (It should be noted that workers
employed through such agencies are classified to this
sector in the SBS rather than to the sector in which they
actually work.)

Value-added in services by detailed sector

The division of value-added between detailed sectors
within market services follows a similar pattern to that of
employment, with the main exception that real estate and
for a much larger share of
rental activities account

23

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

O
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24

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

1

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Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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26

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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27

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

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29

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annual hours worked per year by those
employed in market services, 2000

Since SBS data on the number of hours worked are miss-
ing for market services, data from the Labour Cost Sur-
vey has been used instead. These relate to 2000. The
alternative is to use the Labour Force Survey but the LCS
has the advantage of giving annual figures and should
be more consistent with the SBS in that it is also enter-
prise based.

The LCS shows a smaller number of hours worked per
year than the LFS in most countries for all market service
sectors (Table 15). Differences between the two sources
were greatest in Finland, and Denmark. Differences are
in general relatively large in the distributive trades and
hotels and restaurants.

Labour productivity in market services

Labour productivity in market services, as in industry,
can be measured by value-added per hour worked. As in
industry, this is affected by the amount of capital used in
the process of producing services as well as by the pro-
ductivity of the workers employed per se. In services,
such as real estate or leasing machinery and equipment,
which involve a large amount of capital, the value-added
generated per hour of labour input tends to be higher
than elsewhere, precisely because of the relatively high
cost of capital (the servicing of borrowing and the return
required on investment, in particular). This is also the
case, though to a lesser extent, in transport and commu-
nications and in air and water transport. It is less the case
in business services, where the skills of the people em-
ployed (as reflected in educational attainment levels)
tend to be more important than the scale of capital in-
puts, or in the distributive trades or hotels and restau-
rants, where the main item of capital is the premises
used. Because of the higher skills, value-added per hour
worked tends to be higher in business services than in
distribution or hotels and restaurants and this additional
value-added goes towards covering the higher wages
and salaries associated with the higher skill level.

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

value-added than of employment,
in many Member
States in 2001, over twice the share (Tables 12 and 13).
Excluding these activities, business services (NACE K)
for a similar or slightly smaller share of
account
value-added than of employment in most countries.

Value-added per person

employed in market services

Value-added per person employed in market services in
the EU15 in 2001 was 9% lower than the average for the
market economy as a whole (Table 14). The only Member
States where service value-added was higher than in the
rest of the economy were Estonia (9% higher) and Malta
(8%),
this was also the case in Romania (19%).
Value-added per person employed in Hotels and restau-
rants was under 50% of the level for the market economy
as a whole in the EU15 as well as in most new Member
States. Conversely, it was higher than the market econ-
omy average in Transport and communications.

The pattern of variation in value-added per person
employed between sectors of activity was similar in
the new Member States to that in the EU15, with the
highest levels in most cases in Rental activities (NACE
71) and Post and telecommunications (NACE 64).

Labour productivity in market services

As for industry, productivity can be estimated by cal-
culating value-added per hour worked rather than per
person employed. The data source used for hours
worked is the LCS, which gives averages for the year
2000, except for Belgium where there are no LCS data.

Because of the greater importance of part-time work-
ing in services than in industry, average hours worked
in market services, according to the LCS, were in gen-
eral lower, on average, than in industry. (Table 16).

Average hours worked in total market services in 2000
in the EU15 ranged from 1783 a year in Greece to only
1246 a year in France. In the new Member States, as in
industry, average working time was in most cases lon-
ger than in the EU15, partly because of less part-time
working, with hours worked being well above the EU15
average in all countries.

30

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S

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

10

Value-added per hour worked in market services and manufacturing, 2001

Total market services (G,H,I,K)

Manufacturing (D)

EUR

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG RO LT

CZ

SK

EE

LV

HU

PT

CY

ES

IT

BE

AT

IE

NL

UK

SE

DE DK

LU

FI

EL, EU15, FR, MT, PL, SI: n.a ; CY: excluding business services

Source: Eurostat, SBS,  LCS and LFS

In most Member States, average hours worked per
year were shortest in hotels and restaurants and lon-
gest in transport and communications. Labour pro-
ductivity was lower in market services than in
manufacturing in 2001 in all Member States, except
Portugal, Latvia and Slovakia, where it was similar and
Estonia, where it was higher. Productivity was particu-
larly low in market services relative to manufacturing
(over 30% lower) in Spain, Italy, Belgium and Ireland
Ireland (though in Ireland, productivity in manufactur-
ing was unusually high, as noted above)(Graph 10
and Table 17).

Within market services, productivity was highest in
real estate (NACE 70) and rental activities (NACE 71
— 61 euros per hour worked in the EU15) and in water
transport (NACE 61 — 52 euros per hour worked) and
lowest in retailing (NACE 52 — 19 euros per hour) and
hotels and restaurants (NACE 55 — 14 euros). Produc-
tivity was substantially lower in the latter two sectors of
activity than in manufacturing in all Member States,
but it was also lower than in manufacturing, if to a
smaller extent, in business services, excluding real
estate and renting (Graph 11).

Value-added per hour worked in other business services, retailing and hotels and restaurants 
relative to manufacturing, 2001
Index, value-added per hour in manufacturing=100

Retail trade (52)

Hotels+restaurants (55)

Other business activities (74)

11

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

IE

BE

LU

ES

NL

FI

BG SE HU PT

IT

CZ

AT

DE DK

LV

SK

FR UK

LT

EE RO

EL, CY, MT, PL, SI: n.a. ; DK: NACE G: 1999, NACE H-K: 2000; DE, IE: 2000

Source: Eurostat, SBS, LCS and LFS

32

Chapter 1— Employment and value-added

Labour productivity and investment

Capital employed in market services can be estimated
in the same way as for industry, namely, by relating in-
vestment to hours worked to give a measure of capital
used per unit of labour input. Investment per hour
worked can then be related to value-added per hour
worked to measure the importance of capital in gener-
ating value-added. Results confirm a clear relation-
ship between the two variables over the enlarged EU
as a whole, with sectors with the highest level of pro-
ductivity being also those with the highest levels of
capital per hour worked (Graph 12).

Value-added and investment per hour worked
in market services

As noted in respect of industry, there is likely to be a posi-
tive relationship between value-added and investment in
market services, especially insofar as investment re-
flects the capital used in service activities. Value-added,
therefore, will tend to be higher for any given level of la-
bour input, the larger the amount of capital employed
and, accordingly, the higher the cost of that capital (in
terms of rent and servicing borrowing) and the required
return on investment. The amount of capital employed in
service activities is particularly large in real estate (NACE
70) and leasing (NACE 71), which, accordingly, tends to
imply relatively high value-added per hour worked. It is
also large in parts of the transport industry and communi-
cations, in which, accordingly, value-added per hour
worked is high as well (Graph 12).

The relationship between investment and value-added,
however, is also affected by the skill level of the workers
employed and their productivity per se, which will tend to
be reflected in their average earnings. In computers and
related activities,
therefore, value-added per hour
worked is higher than would be expected given the level
of investment (ie the sector lies above the regression line
describing the average relationship in the graph). On the
other hand, in Hotels and restaurants, value-added per
hour worked is lower than would be expected given in-
vestment because of the relatively low skill, and wage,
level of those employed in the sector.

33

12

)

R
U
E

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l

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0

Correlation between value-added per hour and 
investment per hour in market services in the EU, 
2001

Real estate activities (70)

Rental activities (71)

Water transport (61)

Computer & related 
activities (72)

Research+development (73)

y = 0.7x + 23.3
R2 = 0.73

Hotels, restaurants (55)

0

10

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70

Investment per hour worked (EUR)

EU covers all old and new Member States except EL, LU, PL and SI

Source: Eurostat, SBS, LCS and LFS

70

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0

 
 
 
 
Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of
enterprise

This chapter, first, examines the division of employment
between different-sized enterprises in the various sectors
of activity and in different Member States and secondly,
the extent of variation in value-added per person em-
ployed. Although there are some gaps in the SBS data
published, mainly for reasons of confidentiality, in most
cases, there are sufficient data to give a reasonably good
indication of the size distribution of enterprises. There are,
however, more countries for which data are missing than
in the case of the data examined in Chapter 1 (see Box on
this page). In addition, Hungary and Slovakia, for which
data are available, are excluded from much of the analy-
sis because in both cases, there is incomplete coverage
of small enterprises.

As in Chapter 1, the analysis focuses, first, on industry,
especially manufacturing, and then on market services.

Industry

Division of employment between

enterprises of different size

Small firms, defined as those employing under 50 people,
accounted for 35% of total employment in manufacturing
in the EU15 in 2001. The proportion was similar in mining

Data on employment by size of enterprise

The SBS data by size of enterprise are broken down ac-
cording to the number of persons employed into the follow-
ing size classes: 1 to 9, 10 to 19, 20 to 49, 50–99, 100–249,
250–499, 500 to 999, 1000 and over. Data, however, are
not always complete in each Member State for every size
class, in part for reasons of confidentiality if there are com-
paratively few enterprises in particular size classes (ie the
small number of enterprises in particular size classes in
certain sectors in some countries risks revealing details of
individual companies).

The data are available for most Member States; but not for
Greece and Luxembourg or for Cyprus, Malta and Bulgaria
as well as for industry for Slovenia. Data for both Hungary
and Slovakia are incomplete for small enterprises (see
Methodological notes) and are therefore not included in the
analysis in order to avoid giving a misleading indication of
the size distribution of enterprises. Data are disaggregated
where possible to the NACE 3-digit level, though in many
cases there are gaps in the statistics published largely be-
cause of confidentiality problems (where there is only a
small number of enterprises in a particular size class). Data

are also missing for some NACE 2-digit sectors in a number
of countries for the same reason.

The data presented here, therefore, are also incomplete, in
that they cover only those sectors, or industries, within in-
dustry and market services for which data are available.
Nevertheless, despite the gaps, the data give a reasonable
indication of the relative importance of enterprises of differ-
ent size for employment in the main industries and in most
of the NACE 2-digit sectors of activity in nearly all Member
States.

As for the other SBS data, the latest figures available relate
to 2001. Since the size structure of enterprises changes
only slowly over time, these data are likely to give a good
guide to the present division of employment between en-
terprises across the Union.

For all the variables included in the SBS, data are broken
down by size of enterprise. Statistics are, therefore, avail-
able, for example, for value-added, investment and labour
costs as well as the number employed. The analysis here is
confined to employment and value-added.

34

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

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35

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

13

Division of employment in manufacturing by size of enterprise, 2001

Micro 

Small  Medium 

Large

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

IE

RO

DE

LV

DK

EE

FI

LT

AT

UK

SE

NL

BE

FR EU15 CZ

PL

PT

ES

IT

EL, CY, LU, HU, MT, SI, SK, BG: n.a. ; IE: 2000; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

and quarrying (33%). Large firms, defined as those em-
ploying 250 or more people, accounted for 42% of total
manufacturing employment and 50% of the total in min-
ing. In construction, small enterprises were more impor-
tant, employing 73% of all workers in the sector, while only
13% of those employed worked in large firms. In Germany
and the UK, employment in large enterprises accounted
for 70% of total employment in mining and quarrying
(Table 18).

Small firms were generally a bigger source of employ-
ment in the southern EU countries than elsewhere. The
number employed in small enterprises was over 50% of

the total in manufacturing in Italy and Spain, and just un-
der 50% in Portugal (Graph 13). By contrast, large firms
employed over 50% of the total working in manufacturing
in Germany, Sweden and Finland. In construction, over
25% of the total employed worked in large enterprises in
Sweden and the UK as compared with only 3% in Italy and
9% in Spain as well as Germany (Graph 14).

In the new Member States for which data are available,
small enterprises were in general less important in mining
than in the EU15 and, by implication, larger enterprises
more important, though data are missing in a number of
cases on the split between large and medium-sized firms.

14

Division of employment in construction by size of enterprise, 2001

Micro 

Small 

Medium 

Large

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

RO

LT

LV

EE

AT

NL

DK

DE

UK

FI

PL

SE

BE

ES EU15 CY

CZ

FR

PT

IT

EL, IE, LU, HU, MT, SI, SK, BG: n.a. ; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

36

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

Table 19 – Employment in manufacturing by size of enterprise, 2001

EU15 BE CZ DK DE

EE

ES

FR

IE

IT CY

LV

LT NL AT

PL

PT

FI

SE UK

RO

% of total

Basic manufacturing
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Food, drink, tobacco (DA)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Textiles, clothing (DB+DC)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Metals+metal products (DJ)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

17
27
26
30

17
21
22
40

18
33
29
20

17
30
25
28

:
24
:
:

22
21
23
34

10
27
:
:

12
24
22
42

Other manufacturing (DD,DE,DH,DI,DN)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

17
26
26
31

:
25
:
:

Chemicals, fuel (DG+DF)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Engineering
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Machinery+equipment (DK)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

Elect+precision engineering (DL)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

3
8
20
69

7
14
20
59

9
20
28
43

9
15
20
56

2
7
19
72

6
11
17
66

8
20
26
46

7
11
17
65

17
:
27
:

9
20
34
37

13
17
24
47

18
17
26
40

21
:
26
:

5
9
20
66

:
:
23
56

6
15
33
46

19
11
21
50

9
21
:
:

4
16
16
64

18
29
39
14

13
32
35
20

9
20
:
:

2
7
14
77

6
17
29
49

6
18
30
46

6
14
26
53

:
:
29
40

:
:
27
36

8
19
37
36

10
21
28
40

11
19
29
41

1
4
14
81

4
10
18
69

4
13
27
57

6
14
19
61

9
:
:
:

6
:
37
:

5
:
23
:

14
40
:
:

11
:
:
:

4
13
:
:

6
:
:
:

9
20
42
29

5
11
29
54

23
36
23
18

20
29
23
28

22
42
24
12

24
38
20
18

23
37
24
16

6
18
27
48

:
:
20
47

17
34
25
24

12
23
21
44

16
24
25
35

26
18
20
36

10
28
37
24

11
31
26
33

14
23
25
38

2
7
19
73

6
12
17
65

9
20
26
45

7
13
18
62

:
:
:
:

:
:
37
47

:
:
:
:

10
38
41
11

:
:
:
:

:
:
31
:

2
:
23
:

5
29
34
32

1
6
20
73

30
35
:
:

38
23
16
22

27
40
:
:

28
39
20
13

31
34
21
15

6
15
26
53

16
24
22
38

15
29
27
28

23
26
19
32

35
:
:
:

20
:
:
:

35
:
:
:

62
:
:
:

41
:
:
:

6
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

51
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

7
:
:
:

4
:
:
:

6
14
26
54

9
23
:
:

10
:
:
:

6
:
:
:

8
17
:
:

9
14
:
:

10
25
:
:

:
:
:
:

:
20
:
:

4
16
30
49

12
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

:
14
:
:

:
11
:
:

5
15
:
:

7
10
19
65

14
27
26
34

14
20
20
46

20
30
35
15

13
32
27
28

14
28
27
32

2
7
23
68

8
20
24
48

9
29
34
28

8
15
16
61

:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

11
:
:
:

7
20
28
45

14
23
:
:

3
8
28
61

5
11
24
59

5
15
31
49

6
10
24
60

:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

19
13
28
41

15
11
19
55

:
:
26
:

3
5
16
75

9
8
20
63

8
9
26
57

16
9
21
55

21
30
:
:

21
29
28
22

13
29
37
21

33
31
26
11

25
32
:
:

7
21
35
37

10
18
21
50

18
35
30
18

8
8
14
70

11
:
:
:

7
16
16
60

19
:
:
:

14
25
26
34

10
:
:
:

2
7
24
66

6
12
22
61

8
16
31
46

4
8
14
74

:
:
:
:

9
16
16
60

:
:
:
:

16
25
23
36

17
18
:
:

3
7
:
:

6
10
17
68

8
15
25
52

6
10
13
71

13
22
27
38

3
9
19
69

12
25
34
29

17
32
31
21

16
23
27
33

3
8
21
69

6
15
25
54

8
22
31
38

7
16
27
50

Transport equipment (DM)
2
1-9
5
10-49
8
50-249
250 and more
85
Note: EL, LU, HU, MT, SI, SK, BG: no data available.  IE: 2000; PL: 1998; BE, DK, ES: NACE DB only; BE, DK, DE, ES, IE, IT, AT, FI, SE: NACE DG only.
Basic manufacturing is DA+DB+DC+DG+DH+DI+DN;  Chemicals and fuel is DF+DG; Engineering is DK+DL+DM.

:
:
15
69

:
:
14
81

:
9
18
:

4
13
:
:

3
:
21
:

2
6
11
82

3
5
12
79

7
17
21
56

5
13
22
60

4
5
13
79

6
12
22
60

3
6
17
74

5
11
16
68

2
6
11
81

2
5
11
81

1
2
6
91

6
16
30
48

3
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

Source: Eurostat, SBS (theme4/SBS/sizclass)

:
:
:
:

9
23
30
38

3
8
31
58

4
10
17
69

:
:
:
:

3
8
12
77

:
:
10
85

1
3
10
86

4
7
15
75

:
:
8
89

37

Large enterprises, therefore, accounted for 95% of em-
ployment in Poland. The proportion was the same in
Romania (Table 18).

In manufacturing, the size distribution of enterprises was
more similar in the new Member States to that in the EU15
countries. In Romania, however, over 60% of employment
was in large firms, significantly more than in the EU15 and
reflecting the organisation of production under the previ-
ous regime (Table 18 and Graph 13).

In construction, small firms were responsible for a
smaller share of employment
in the new Member
States than in the EU15 and medium-sized firms for a
larger share. In Romania, small firms accounted for
only 25% of employment and large ones for over 40%
(Table 18 and Graph 14).

Manufacturing sectors

Within manufacturing, small firms are particularly impor-
tant in basic manufacturing, while large enterprises tend
to predominate in both Chemicals and fuel and engineer-
ing. In basic manufacturing, therefore, 44% of the total
employed in the EU15 worked in small enterprises in
2001, while 30% worked in large enterprises. In Spain and
Italy, around 60% or more were employed in small firms.
In Chemicals and fuel, over two-thirds of employment was
in large enterprises and almost 60% in engineering. In It-
aly, by contrast, small firms accounted for a bigger share
of employment (40%) in these industries than large ones,
while in Germany and the UK, over two-thirds of
employment was in large enterprises (Table 19).

Within basic manufacturing, small firms were particu-
larly important in the EU in textiles and clothing sector,
though less so in the new Member States (NACE DB).
In the EU15 countries, over 50% of those employed in
the industry worked in small enterprises in 2001. In
Spain and Italy, the proportion was around two-thirds.
In the new Member States, on the other hand, under a
third were employed in small firms in all the countries
for which data are available. In the Czech Republic,
Latvia and Lithuania, around half of employment was
in large enterprises. In Romania, the figure was almost
60%. A similar difference is also apparent between the
EU15 countries and the new Member States in metals
and metal products, though it is less marked. In Po-
land, 55% of those employed in this sector worked in
large firms as against an EU15 average of under 30%.
In Romania, the figure was almost 70%.

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

In engineering, the division of employment between dif-
ferent-sized enterprises was more similar between the
EU15 countries and the new Member States. In Romania,
however, large enterprises accounted for a bigger share
of employment than the EU15 average in all the activities
included in the sector.

Labour productivity in

enterprises of different size

In all countries,
including the new Member States,
value-added per person employed — here used as an in-
dicator of labour productivity — (see Box on this page),
was much higher in 2001 in large enterprises than in
smaller ones and over twice the level in micro enterprises
(Table 20). In general, therefore, the smaller the size of the
enterprise, the lower the level of labour productivity, whch
may be a reflection of the tendency for the capital intensity
of production to increase with the size of enterprise (Graph
15). Labour productivity is also generally higher in larger
firms than smaller ones in construction in most countries,
though the difference was generally less pronounced than
in manufacturing and there were some exceptions. In Bel-
gium, the UK and Cyprus, medium size enterprises had
the highest levels of productivity and in the Netherlands,
the level in micro enterprises was similar to that in large en-
terprises. In all these cases, this might be a reflection of
firms being involved in different sectors of manufacturing.

Value-added per person employed
and labour productivity

In the previous chapter, labour productivity was mea-
sured by value-added per hour worked. In this chapter,
different sized enterprises are compared in terms of
value-added per person employed, largely because the
data on average hours worked by size of enterprise are in-
complete. Although this is a less satisfactory measure of
productivity, it is unlikely to be affected very much by vari-
ations in average working time between enterprises of dif-
ferent size. This is confirmed for manufacturing at least
(there are no data for services) by an examination of the
SBS data which are available by enterprise size, which
show in most countries relatively little variation between
size categories of enterprise. The differences in
value-added per person employed between enterprises
of different size reported in the analysis should, therefore,
be indicative of differences in labour productivity. These,
in turn, as explained in Chapter 1, are likely to be related to
differences in the capital-intensity of production.

38

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Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

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4
3

3
5

7
5

6
4

5
9

2
9

5
.
0
8

4
.
3
7

7
.
1
2
3

4
.
9
8
2

:

:

:

:

0
.
2
0
1

3
.
3
4
6

0
.
5
3

2
.
3
4

4
.
3
5

0
.
0
7

0
.
7
5

7
.
2
4

7
.
2
4

1
.
7
4

4
.
2
5

4
.
5
4

:

:

:

0
5

2
6

6
7

2
8

1
8

0
9

0
.
7
4

4
.
4
4

0
.
1
5

8
.
7
7

9
.
9
5

9
.
4
5

4
.
0
4

2
.
5
4

3
.
3
5

4
.
7
4

:

:

:

0
6

7
5

6
6

6
7

5
8

3
0
1

0
.
4

3
.
4

4
.
6

0
.
5

3
.
5

6
.
7

2
.
8

8
.
1
1

9
.
9
1

3
.
5
1

4
.
6

8
.
8

6
.
2
1

7
.
2
1

8
.
9

3
1

0
1

1
1

8
3

1
4

9
5

0
5

9
6

9
9

3
.
0

7
.
2

3
.
3

8
.
4

8
.
3

7
.
1

2
.
3

3
.
5

8
.
7

5
.
5

1
.
3

0
.
4

3
.
5

5
.
6

9
.
4

4

4

:

2
2

0
4

7
6

8
4

2
6

3
8

4
.
4

3
.
4

7
.
5

5
.
8

9
.
6

3
.
8

0
.
0
1

3
.
0
1

3
.
2
1

6
.
0
1

2
.
8

0
.
7

8
.
8

5
.
3
2

0
.
0
1

7

5

:

2
8

7
6

4
8

5
3

0
3

7
3

:

:

:

9
.
2
1

:

:

8
.
3
4

5
.
0
5

:

:

:

:

6
.
4
1

0
.
1
3
1

0
.
2
8

:

:

3
.
8
1

4
.
4
2

0
.
5
2

2
.
2
2

8
.
8
2

7
.
6
3

9
.
8
2

1
.
7
2

:

:

:

:

:

2
2

7
7

9
9

7
2
1

1
.
5
2

9
.
6
3

2
.
0
5

9
.
9
5

0
.
2
4

5
.
3
2

0
.
5
3

4
.
2
4

4
.
1
5

3
.
8
2

:

:

:

2
4

2
6

4
8

6
4

8
6

2
8

7
.
7
3

3
.
7
4

0
.
0
8

8
.
1
1
2

5
.
2
3
1

:

:

1
.
8
6

:

:

:

:

:

8
1

2
2

8
3

:

:

:

1
.
5
2

7
.
3
6

0
.
0
7

6
.
9
4

3
.
5
5

7
.
3
3

5
.
1
4

8
.
3
4

3
.
2
6

9
.
0
5

6
.
1
3

6
.
6
3

3
.
9
3

9
.
3
4

7
.
5
3

1
5

8
2
1

1
4
1

4
5

7
6

0
7

2
7

3
8

9
8

:

5
.
1
4

6
.
3
5

6
.
2
6

:

:

:

1
.
3

:

:

5
.
9
6

1
.
5

7
.
8
4

3
.
6
5

8
.
5

0
.
1
2

6
.
9
2

8
.
2
4

3
.
1
6

2
.
9
3

9
.
9
1

3
.
6
2

4
.
0
3

4
.
5
4

0
.
6
2

:

:

:

4
3

8
4

0
7

4
4

8
5

7
6

:

4
.
3
2

3
.
3
3

5
.
6
5

8
.
9
3

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

1
4

9
5

:

:

:

0
.
5

8
.
6

4
.
9

2
.
8

0
.
8

1
.
5

9
.
5

7
.
9

5
.
7

0
.
2
1

6

8

0
1

1
6

3
8

4
1
1

3
4

9
4

1
8

3
.
6
6

3
.
4
6

4
.
6
6

2
.
5
6

3
.
5
6

3
.
1
3

4
.
8
3

3
.
7
4

3
.
5
6

7
.
4
5

:

0
.
7
2

9
.
9
3

6
.
6
4

0
.
4
3

9
9

2
0
1

2
0
1

8
4

9
5

2
7

8
5

:

6
8

7
.
0
7
4

9
.
2
8
1
7

:

:

6
.
3
4
4
1

5
.
6
4

2
.
5
4

4
.
9
4

3
.
0
6

6
.
3
5

7
.
0
4

0
.
8
3

6
.
1
4

4
.
3
4

3
.
0
4

:

:

:

7
7

5
7

2
8

4
9

8
8

6
9

3
.
3

2
.
4

9
.
6

3
.
7

2
.
6

7
.
3

3
.
7

3
.
0
1

4
.
4
1

7
.
0
1

2
.
3

8
.
6

5
.
9

6
.
6

9
.
2
1

5

9

1
1

6
2

1
5

2
7

5
2

2
5

4
7

:

:

:

1
.
2
7

4
.
7
8

4
.
4
3

4
.
8
4

5
.
9
5

0
.
3
8

2
.
5
6

9
.
6
2

6
.
0
4

7
.
0
5

4
.
4
2

2
.
4
3

7
.
2
7

6
.
3
3
2

4
.
4
9
1

0
.
6
1
2

7
.
0
8
1

6
.
9
2

0
.
8
3

4
.
7
4

0
.
7
6

2
.
1
5

3
.
8
2

8
.
5
3

6
.
2
4

8
.
0
5

6
.
5
3

)

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(

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g
n
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r
r
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u
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d
n
a

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n
n
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)

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(

e
r
o
m
d
n
a

0
5
2

g
n
i
r
u
t
c
a
f
u
n
a
M

l

a
t
o
T

9
4
2
-
0
5

9
4
-
0
1

9
-
1

9
4
2
-
0
5

9
4
-
0
1

9
-
1

)
F
(

n
o
i
t
c
u
r
t
s
n
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e
r
o
m
d
n
a

0
5
2

l

a
t
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r
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0
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9
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1

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1
4

8
5

2
7

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1

6
6
1

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0
9

4
4

7
5

1
7

6
5

0
7

4
8

8
0
1

)

C

(

i

g
n
y
r
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(

g
n
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5

9
4
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1

9
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1

)
F
(

n
o
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t
c
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r
t
s
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9
4
2
-
0
5

9
4
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=
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l

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t
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.
y
nl
o
G
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:
E
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,
T
A
,
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,
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,
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,
K
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B
;
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nl
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;
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r
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m
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m
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p
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:
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;
8
9
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1
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.
e
bl
a
l
ai
v
a
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M
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,
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s
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S
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m
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t
a
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u
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:
e
c
r
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o
S

39

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

Table 21 – Value-added per person employed in manufacturing by size of enterprise, 2001

EUR (thousand)

EU15 BE CZ DK DE EE EL ES FR

IE IT CY LV LT HU NL AT PL PT

FI SE UK

RO

28
36
44
61
44

24
34
45
66
47

Basic manufacturing
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Food, drink, tobacco (DA)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Textiles, clothing (DB+DC)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Metals+metal products (DJ)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Other manufacturing (DD,DE,DH,DI,DN)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total

23
25
32
41
30

32
40
46
58
45

30
39
48
64
47

:
45

3
:
: 10
:
:
54 10

3
26
43
5
61 11
73 18
53 12

29
36
:
:
44

3
4
7
7
6

6
34
45
8
57 10
61 13
53 10

:
49

2
:
: 11
:
:
58 10

43
43

:
:
: 45
:
:
48 47

: 20 31
5
: 29 40
:
: 41 41
:
:
:
: 62
8 35 36 44

: 24 18 10
:
: 35
:
:
:
:
:
:
: 38 24 11

:
:
:

7
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
5 13

44 33
:
42
:
48
:
79
:
57

: 10
: 14
:
:
:
:
9 17

:
:

3
: 22 27
38
33
: 24 32 37
51 41 10 32 43 44
60 59
54 41

: 21 18 10
:
: 42
:
72 55
:
: 64 60 130 62
95 41 26 13

:
8 38 41 44

:
:
:

4
:
3
7
: 15
: 27 104
70
7 20

:
9
25 26
: 15
38
:
: 24
53 44
:
: 45
: 15 23

32 19
44 29
45 40
:
58
44 38

43 34
44 44
47 47
50 59
46 50

46 33
46 40
: 47
: 57
47 48

3
: 17 29
: 20 19 35
5 26 26 31
:
: 35
:
6 25 22 34

: 24 13
:
: 26
:
:
:
:
:
:
30 31 15

4
4
6
8
7

0
3
3
5
4

4
4
6
5
5

39 24
:
31
:
38
:
57
39 38

4
7
5 10
4 12
5 14
5 11

7
: 21 41
8 25 32 41
: 36 42 41
:
: 61 51
8 45 37 44

9
35 28 19
8
:
40 38
:
:
47 49
60 52
:
:
45 39 23 12

: 20 32
5
: 30 41
:
: 44 44
:
:
: 66 55
9 35 37 46

: 23 19 11
:
: 37
:
: 50
: 69
:
: 40 26 11

:
:
:

2
8
: 10
: 11
: 13
4 11

7
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
5 12

4 11
49 41
8 17
46 46
9 24
47 51
60 76 10 31
9 18
50 60

54 36
43 44
:
48
69
:
54 55

: 11
: 17
:
9
:
:
9 22

41
:
:
:
61

35
32
58
55
50

31
:
:
:
37

46
47
51
65
54

41
:
:
:
69

:
:
:
:
52

28
40
54
61
54

:
:
:
:
34

35
44
48
59
49

27
43
:
:
54

46
47
49
:
54

43
63
48
68
63

51
35
39
:
40

45
46
51
55
49

46
48
52
68
55

Chemicals, fuel (DG+DF)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total

45 104
6
61 102 15
93 19
75

73 57
66 51
69 65
112 141 24 117 87

: 35 29 19
: 25 50
:
: 63
: 46 71
:
: 64 69 268 78
:
: 79
: 87 95
99 129 21 106 83 15 96 69 88 533 74 36 14

6
8
:
:

:
:
:

79 87
: 19
99 85 11 26
5 16
: 19
83 70 13 46
: 37 122 77 17 84
9 31 110 76 15 54

57
38
8 20 100
55
56
90
:
68
94
87
: 120
89 114 102

:
:
:
:
3

1
2
6
8
6

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
4
4
4

:
:
:
:
4

4
7
9
6
6

:
:
5
4
4

36
42
49
62
55

37
44
51
59
52

35
44
48
44
44

52
48
54
65
59

: 11
9
:
:
:
:
:
8
:

:
:
0
:
: 12
: 17
7 15

57 35
51 42
50 49
57 65
54 59

:
36
50
:
56 10
69 14
63 12

41
5
52 11
57
9
74 10
62 10

: 44
:
:
: 44
: 45 45
: 50 61

52 39
6
51 46 10
49 51
52 63
51 57

: 28 40
: 36 45
8 32 45 48
5
: 47 53
7 28 40 49

52
7 14
57 41
44
45 49 10 20
48 55
47
9 25
56 69 10 30 111
86
52 62 10 25

46 28
7
: 42
:
59 51
:
:
: 51
9 35 43 55 105 45

Engineering
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Machinery+equipment (DK)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Elect+precision engineering (DL)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Transport equipment (DM)
:
1-9
:
10-49
4
50-249
4
250 and more
Total
4
Note: LU, BG, MT, SI: no data available. EL, IE: 2000; PL: 1998; HU: enterprises with 5 persons employed or more; BE, DK, ES: NACE DB only; 
BE, DK, DE, ES, IE, IT, AT, FI, SE: NACE DG only.
Basic manufacturing is DA+DB+DC+DG+DH+DI+DN;  Chemicals and fuel is DF+DG; Engineering is DK+DL+DM.

5
6
: 13
75 24
: 23 50
5
-6 11
: 12
53 39
: 31 43
9
:
:
7 13
: 45 44
66 48
8
: 11 13
8
:
: 57 59 143 56
8 13
9
8 48 44 53 122 42 24

: 35
:
47 35 18
:
: 42
:
41 39
: 44 41
:
51 47
: 47 67
:
51 69
49 67 12 33 44 63

60
53 34
6 13
46
44 44 11 18
46 58
46
9 29
51 72 14 24 151
49 63 11 23 124

61 41 10 13
9 18
42 68
42 52
9 22
62 70 11 41
55 68 10 32

34 34 22
:
35 44
:
43 55
69 54
:
49 48 24

58 49
47 49
52 54
58 65
53 58

5
30
48
9
58 10
74 12
65 10

:
38
49
:
49 11
64 19
61 18

65 33
53 39
50 47
65 59
60 53

23 27
: 40
55 44
: 44
55 43

7 15
9 22
8 24
8 30
8 23

4 13
4 10
: 11
: 10
4 11

:
:
4
:
6 17
: 32
7 28

: 17
9
:
:
:
:
:
: 10

58
51
53
54
53

32
40
45
15
22

47
46
53
58
53

38
46
54
62
55

50
43
48
68
56

49
49
56
77
71

31
45
42
66
61

41
44
46
47
46

35
40
46
65
61

35
41
48
61
53

4
7
6
5
6

8
6
4
3
3

7
5
:
:
7

Source: Eurostat, SBS (theme4/SBS/sizclass)

40

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

15

Value-added per person employed by size of enterprise in manufacturing, 2001

EUR (thousand)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1-49

50-249

250 and more

212

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

RO LT

SK

EE

LV

CZ HU PT

EL

IT

SE DK

ES

FR DE EU15 AT

UK

NL

BE

FI

IE

LU, CY, MT, PL, SI, BG: n.a ; EL: 10-49; HU: 5-49; SK: data uncertain for enterprises with <20 employees

Source: Eurostat, SBS

Productivity in manufacturing

In all countries for which data are available, labour pro-
ductivity seems to have been higher in 2001 in larger en-
terprises than in smaller ones in all
industries within
manufacturing (Table 21).

Differences between small and large enterprises were
particularly wide in food, drink and tobacco, where in the
EU15 countries, productivity in micro enterprises was
only just over a third of that in large ones. They were also
wide in chemicals and fuel but generally slightly narrower
in engineering, though more so in machinery and equip-
ment than in the other engineering sectors (productivity in
micro enterprises being over 60% of that in large ones). In
Estonia and Hungary, productivity in large enterprises in
machinery and equipment was lower than in smaller
ones. This was also the case in Romania, while in Poland,
the difference was small.

are less developed. In 2001, small firms accounted for
the majority of employment in market services in most
countries, while a third of employment was in micro
firms (Graph 16).

In Italy, 60% of employment in market services was in mi-
cro firms and in Portugal, 50%, while in Spain it was just
under 50%. In Estonia and Slovenia, the figure was also
around 50%. In Romania, in sharp contrast to the division
of employment in industry, over half of employment in
market services was in micro enterprises. In all these
countries, only around 20% of employment or less was in
large enterprises.

By contrast, large firms accounted for a bigger share of
employment than small firms in the UK (47% of the total as
against 40% in small firms and only 23% in micro firms). In
Germany, France, the Netherlands and Finland, less than
half of employment in market services was in small
enterprises.

Market services

Sectors within market services

Division of employment between

enterprises of different size

Small firms are much more important in the EU for em-
ployment in market services (NACE G, H, I and K ex-
cluding J) than in manufacturing. This is particularly
so in the new Member States, where market services

Small enterprises are of most importance for employment
in Hotels and restaurants. In 2001, 70% of employment in
this sector in the EU15 was in small firms and 45% in micro
firms (Table 22). In Belgium, Italy, Austria and Portugal,
small enterprises accounted for around 80% or more of
total employment. This was also the case in the Czech Re-
public, Lithuania and Slovenia. In Poland, as in the Czech
Republic, Italy and Portugal, 60% of employment was in
micro enterprises (Graph 17).

41

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

Table 22 – Employment in market services by size of enterprise, 2001

EU15 BE CZ DK DE EE ES FR

IE

IT

LV

LT NL AT

PL

PT

SI

FI

SE UK

RO

% of total

Distributive trades (G)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Wholesale trade (51)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Retail trade (52)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

37
21
12
29

32
29
20
19

40
15
7
39

44
26
12
18

36
34
19
11

49
18
6
27

54
28
7
11

45
25
10
20

Hotels+restaurants (H)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Hotels, accommodation  (55.1-2)
23
1-9
29
10-49
27
50-249
250 and more
21
Restaurants, bars, canteens (55.3-5)
59
1-9
28
10-49
4
50-249
9
250 and more

27
33
21
19

51
22
6
21

Transport, communications (I)
:
1-9
:
10-49
:
50-249
:
250 and more

Business services (K)
1-9
31
10-49
18
50-249
16
35
250 and more
Computer+related activities (72)
29
1-9
21
10-49
19
50-249
32
250 and more
Research+development (73)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Other business activities (74)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more

28
18
16
38

13
14
20
53

11
19
13
57

31
14
14
40

28
23
26
23

14
10
:
:

28
12
13
47

58
24
:
:

:
31
19
:

60
15
6
19

63
19
10
8

31
30
28
12

71
16
5
7

18
11
9
62

48
23
17
11

:
31
16
:

:
18
56
:

50
20
17
13

24
30
19
27

19
31
29
21

26
26
12
36

27
35
24
14

11
35
37
18

32
35
20
13

15
19
16
50

:
:
:
:

22
21
23
34

8
22
34
35

21
20
22
37

25
25
16
34

17
28
27
27

29
20
8
43

48
30
11
11

34
41
14
11

53
26
9
12

12
19
13
55

26
22
19
33

15
22
21
42

9
15
19
57

23
22
19
36

53
22
11
14

47
36
:
:

36
30
18
16

28
45
:
:

15
34
:
:

34
50
:
:

16
19
24
41

35
31
20
14

:
:
:
0

:
:
0
0

33
27
:
:

54
22
9
15

42
33
16
8

62
12
5
22

54
22
12
12

16
28
33
23

67
20
5
8

37
17
10
35

37
16
15
31

19
:
21
:

24
:
35
:

34
15
15
36

33
24
16
27

22
33
23
22

38
18
10
35

49
23
8
20

42
31
13
14

52
20
6
22

9
13
13
65

19
18
18
45

13
22
25
41

:
19
29
:

15
17
16
51

33
22
18
27

21
28
28
22

36
16
:
:

32
26
26
17

16
18
51
15

40
30
13
17

16
11
8
65

34
18
20
28

31
16
21
32

:
40
:
:

:
18
:
:

70
15
6
9

65
21
8
6

73
10
5
12

65
18
6
11

45
35
13
6

73
12
3
12

24
14
11
51

58
13
11
18

44
22
:
:

55
15
:
:

56
12
11
20

39
31
19
11

:
36
25
:

:
33
17
:

32
41
:
:

12
37
:
:

36
42
:
:

11
14
15
60

26
31
30
13

30
35
:
:

8
19
:
:

33
35
:
:

22
34
21
23

32
:
:
:

43
27
17
13

39
42
17
1

13
47
40
0

45
41
12
2

16
21
15
48

38
28
25
9

45
41
15
0

45
30
25
0

38
26
22
14

30
26
13
31

26
33
21
20

30
19
8
43

49
26
8
17

19
30
25
25

56
25
4
16

10
20
14
56

20
19
15
46

20
21
15
44

7
11
13
69

18
18
14
49

28
23
17
32

21
26
27
25

32
17
9
42

48
33
13
5

36
42
18
3

61
24
9
7

12
15
14
59

34
23
20
24

34
24
23
:

11
22
:
:

34
23
18
26

38
57
35 22.4
20 10.9
8 9.69

40 44.4
25
33
20 16.2
15 6.39

75 67.9
8 13.7
9 4.95
7 13.4

60 62.7
15 17.5
8 8.81
11

17

31 19.7
27
18
: 31.7
: 21.7

72
73
13 15.2
: 3.39
: 8.44

28 22.1
4
16
7 13.1
61 48.7

44 40.1
12 14.1
21 14.5
24 31.3

: :
16 :
20 25.7

: :

: :
4 :
:
62

0
0

54
35
11 12.8
14 14.6
21 37.6

47
29
17
7

:
35
17
:

:
28
16
:

51
28
17
4

:
31
:
:

:
26
:
:

33
24
24
19

43
29
:
:

41
36
:
:

17
28
:
:

:
:
:
:

30
22
15
33

26
25
:
:

29
21
9
41

38
21
15
27

18
24
30
28

44
20
10
27

24
12
14
50

30
22
21
27

15
21
30
:

18
30
:
:

32
20
19
28

37
24
14
25

33
:
18
:

39
19
9
33

37
30
15
18

18
37
29
16

44
27
9
19

18
15
11
56

40
18
16
26

:
20
17
:

:
16
:
:

42
18
14
25

Total market services (G, H, I, K)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Note: EL, CY, LU, HU, MT, SK, BG: no data available; DK: NACE G: 2000; DE: 2000 except NACE H: 1999; NL: NACE H to K: 2000; PL: 1998
Source: Eurostat, SBS (theme4/SBS/sizclass)

34 50.2
10 19.1
9 11.6
48 19.2

26
24
16
35

50
22
12
15

47
20
12
22

25
20
15
40

59
15
8
18

31
21
19
30

31
27
20
22

23
31
20
25

25
23
14
39

29
23
16
31

35
20
14
31

46
29
17
8

29
20
16
35

35
21
12
31

40
18
13
30

:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:

22
17
10
51

23
27
20
30

20
11
5
65

24
25
10
40

12
28
22
38

27
25
7
41

12
12
10
66

27
18
17
38

42
18
15
25

6
10
15
69

23
18
18
41

23
18
12
47

63
15
13
9

:
31
24
:

:
28
11
:

:
30
27
:

:
18
46
:

:
38
15
:

8
8
13
72

20
20
30
30

:
35
22
:

:
5
41
:

:
18
29
:

51
14
14
20

42

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

16

Division of employment in market services by size of enterprise, 2001

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Micro 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

UK

LT

NL

FR

DE

AT

FI

LV

IE

PL

SE

BE

CZ

SI

ES

EE

PT

RO

IT

DK, EL, LU, HU, MT, CY, SK, BG: n.a. ; DE: 2000 excl. H 1999; NL: 2000 excl. G 1999; PL: 1998; LV, RO: excl. NACE K ; CZ, LT, 
PL, SI: excl. NACE H

Source: Eurostat, SBS

Employment in the distributive trade was also concen-
trated in small enterprises, if generally to a lesser extent,
except in the southern EU countries and many of the new
Member States. Just under 60% of those employed in the
distributive trades in the EU15 worked in small firms. The
figure, however, was over 75% in Spain, Italy and Portu-
gal, as it was in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Slovenia
and Romania, while in Poland, it was only slightly less
(Graph 18). In the UK, on the other hand, half of employ-
ment was in large enterprises .

half of those in employment worked in small enterprises
and 35% in large firms. Small firms, however, predomi-
nated in Italy (accounting for 70% of total employment),
though not in Spain or Portugal as in other service sectors.
This was also the case in the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Lithuania and Slovenia, in each of which 65% or more of
employment was in small firms. In France and the Nether-
lands, by contrast, around 45% of employment was in
large enterprises (Graph 19).

In business services, the share of employment in small
firms is, in general, relatively low. In the EU15, just under

In transport and communications, the majority of those
employed tended to work in large enterprises throughout
the EU. The two main exceptions were Spain, with only

17

Division of employment in hotels and restaurants by size of enterprise, 2001

Micro

Small

Medium

Large 

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

UK

DK

IE

SE

FI

LT

EU15

DE

AT

NL

FR

SI

BE

ES

PL

PT

CZ

IT

EL, LU, CY, HU, LV, LT, MT, SK,  RO, BG: n.a. ; DE: 1999; NL: 2000 ; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

43

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

18

Division of employment in distributive trades by size of enterprise, 2001

Micro

Small  Medium 

Large

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

LT

UK

DK

DE

AT

NL

FI

FR

IE

SE EU15 PL

LV

BE

SI

EE

ES

PT

RO

IT

CZ, EL, LU, CY, HU, MT, SK, BG: n.a. ;  DK, DE: 2000 ; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

35% of employment in large firms, and Slovenia, where
the figure was under 20%. In the other new Member
States, apart from Estonia, around half or more of employ-
ment was in large firms. In Romania, the figure was over
70%. (Graph 20).

number of countries, including in some of the new Mem-
ber States, labour productivity was higher in medium-size
enterprises in 2001 than in large ones (Graph 21).

Sectors within market services

Value-added per person employed in

enterprises of different sizes

Value-added per person employed in the EU15 countries
was, on average, 30% higher in medium-size enterprises
than in large firms in both the distributive trades and busi-
ness services.

Differences in value-added per person employed be-
tween enterprises of different sizes were less pro-
nounced in market services than in industry. Indeed, in a

In business services, both micro and small firms had
levels higher than for large enterprises (Table 23).This

19

Division of employment in business services by size of enterprise, 2001

Micro

Small

Medium

Large

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

FR

NL

RO

DE

LV

UK

FI

EU15

BE

AT

IE

EE

ES

LT

SE

PT

PL

CZ

IT

DK, EL, LU, CY, HU, MT, SI, SK, BG:  n.a. ; DE, NL: 2000 ; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

44

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

20

Division of employment in transport and communications by size of enterprise, 2001

% of total

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Micro 

Small  Medium 

Large 

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

RO

FR

NL

LV

BE

UK

AT

DE

DK

IE

EE

LT

CZ

SE

PT

IT

FI

PL

SI

ES

EL, LU, CY, HU, MT, SK, BG: n.a. ; DE, NL: 2000 ; PL: 1998

Source: Eurostat, SBS

In Transport and communications, on the other hand,
labour productivity was higher in large enterprises
than in smaller ones in all EU15 countries but not in
most of the new Member States.

was the case in most of the new Member States as well
as in EU15 countries. It was also the case in Romania.
In a number of countries, labour productivity was also
higher in small firms than in large ones in the distribu-
tive trades.

In hotels and restaurants, labour productivity seems to
have been higher in most countries in firms of 50 or
more persons employed than for those smaller than
this, but the difference was not big and there was little
a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e i n g e n e r a l b e t w e e n m e-
dium-sized and larger enterprises.

21

Value-added per person employed in market services by size of enterprise, 2001

EUR (thousand)

1-49

50-249

250 and more

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

EE

LT

LV

SI

RO

PL

PT

NL

ES

AT

UK

FR

FI

BE

SE

IE

IT

DK, DE, EL, LU, CZ, CY, HU, MT, SK, BG: n.a. ; PL: 1998; EE, LV, RO: NACE H excl. ; PL, SI: NACE K excl.

Source: Eurostat, SBS

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

45

Chapter 2 — Employment and productivity by size of enterprise

Table 23 – Value-added per person employed in market services by size of enterprise, 2001

EU15

BE

CZ DK

DE

EE

ES

FR

IE

IT

LV

LT

HU

NL

AT

PL

PT

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

RO

EUR (thousand)

Distributive trades (G)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Wholesale trade (51)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Retail trade (52)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total

26
39
50
38
35

40
52
57
71
53

20
28
42
26
25

29
50
65
51
43

43
66
77
:
61

21
28
34
36
27

17
20
25
25
20

Hotels+restaurants (H)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Hotels, accomodation (55.1-2)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Restaurants, bars, canteens (55.3-5)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total

25
27
31
38
29

16
17
19
21
17

18
17
29
34
20

25
35
40
52
37

18
14
16
27
18

Transport, communications (I)
:
1-9
:
10-49
:
50-249
:
250 and more
:
Total

53
48
57
65
59

19
29
:
:
24

:
16
22
:
14

2
6
:
:
4

:
3
10
:
4

:
4
15
:
9

:
3
5
:
2

3
6
12
14
11

38
39
44
36
39

59
54
54
61
56

27
26
24
:
25

23
17
17
22
19

43
22
23
25
25

21
15
14
20
18

71
43
51
73
64

:
:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:
:

18
19
21
26
19

23
24
29
31
25

16
15
16
24
17

47
47
46
53
50

4
11
18
9
8

9
12
:
:
12

4
5
7
6
5

2
4
:
:
5

2
7
:
:
11

2
3
:
:
3

9
16
25
13
16

19
28
38
37
25

27
33
44
59
34

16
19
22
29
19

13
18
25
25
17

18
25
31
32
27

12
15
15
18
13

24
31
40
72
44

37
42
44
42
41

53
53
53
57
54

33
33
32
36
34

27
30
32
27
28

32
35
39
41
35

25
27
26
24
25

37
36
36
57
50

28
35
47
41
37

50
38
74
80
60

24
25
:
:
26

20
17
20
18
19

25
17
20
27
21

19
17
21
15
18

48
47
20
70
60

23
41
62
38
29

33
50
62
67
41

18
31
62
:
22

17
28
32
26
21

24
34
40
48
31

16
22
20
22
17

28
38
40
68
51

3
6
7
6
5

:
22
21
:
22

:
4
7
:
5

2
3
:
:
4

4
7
:
:
11

2
2
:
:
3

9
10
18
15
14

8
12
15
9
11

5
:
:
:
8

2
3
4
:
3

1
2
5
5
2

0
3
7
:
4

1
2
3
:
2

4
7
6
13
9

7
9
11
7
8

:
17
22
:
16

:
6
:
:
6

3
4
7
10
6

:
6
9
:
11

:
3
6
:
4

14
12
16
15
15

42
40
43
31
38

64
58
55
:
61

30
21
20
:
23

21
17
25
25
21

39
28
33
34
33

19
13
12
22
18

69
41
39
57
52

33
44
54
36
40

52
61
69
:
59

24
29
27
27
26

21
26
29
31
24

23
28
32
37
27

21
22
25
28
22

30
50
45
59
52

10
10
12
8
10

17
65
62
:
42

-2
23
15
:
4

3
10
16
16
7

:
:
:
:
13

:
:
:
:
5

7
43
33
28
23

11
22
37
31
18

:
28
45
:
28

:
17
20
:
12

6
12
19
17
9

9
16
22
23
18

6
10
13
13
7

16
31
30
59
41

3
4
6
7
4

:
19
34
:
20

:
9
17
:
13

7
10
15
19
10

:
10
:
:
13

:
11
:
:
9

11
9
18
41
18

11
17
25
32
17

:
11
12
:
11

:
6
5
:
6

:
4
7
:
4

:
5
8
:
6

:
3
4
:
3

13
10
11
10
10

41
49
58
44
46

58
64
:
:
63

32
37
33
35
34

27
31
32
31
30

31
34
37
42
37

27
30
27
27
28

45
47
51
56
52

28
47
52
45
40

37
:
62
:
52

21
33
33
36
30

22
27
28
28
25

27
33
33
42
33

21
24
21
23
22

37
38
45
54
48

31
46
54
36
39

50
67
69
81
68

21
25
26
25
24

16
16
24
24
20

23
22
29
42
31

16
14
20
20
17

52
51
68
71
66

:
:
:
:
:

16
19
35
20
23

:
:
:
:
14

44
53
65
51
51

36
49
52
67
55

58
61
63
52
57

53
54
54
37
49

12
13
10
7
11

49
58
68
91
73

15
32
29
14
19

49
50
57
71
59

28
62
81
70
59

37
36
33
22
31

12
11
9
7
10

60
51
55
41
49

60
57
65
54
59

83
61
59
42
60

8
11
13
9
9

6
10
7
6
7

33
37
36
39
35

47
61
71
38
53

:
17
30
:
16

22
:
38
:
37

6
12
21
:
10

27
39
:
:
42

7
12
:
:
16

:
:
39
24
23

18
21
:
:
18

62
42
46
26
39

45
69
72
29
46

13
16
16
11
14

11
11
11
11
11

97
58
140
142
114

Business services (K)
52
1-9
53
10-49
54
50-249
41
250 and more
Total
49
Computer+related activities (72)
42
1-9
50
10-49
61
50-249
79
250 and more
Total
59
Research+development (73)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Other business activities (74)
1-9
10-49
50-249
250 and more
Total
Total market services (G, H, I, K)
41
1-9
46
10-49
56
50-249
45
250 and more
Total
46
Note: EL, LU, BG, CY, MT: no data available; DK: NACE G: 2000; DE: 2000 except H: 1999; NL: NACE H to K: 2000; HU: enterprises with 5 persons employed or more.

:
122
:
:
85

53
63
84
102
72

-35
11
79
41
39

:
38
46
:
54

25
:
38
:
30

:
33
:
:
12

64
43
:
:
78

:
25
:
:
19

4
11
18
10
8

25
36
:
:
54

:
17
:
:
15

36
4
:
:
16

33
41
:
:
42

:
:
:
:
34

22
28
34
37
28

55
12
20
57
34

36
39
48
42
42

:
44
54
:
50

62
34
48
41
43

49
36
35
:
49

11
5
:
:
5

:
17
:
:
15

10
11
:
:
9

7
12
:
:
9

:
51
:
:
45

:
11
10
:
10

7
11
:
:
8

19
30
:
:
27

32
59
64
:
56

:
:
47
:
35

41
43
46
46
44

14
9
:
:
7

33
49
64
46
44

25
38
45
50
33

4
8
10
12
8

37
36
43
50
42

:
:
:
:
36

29
28
55
43
42

42
45
41
32
39

6
10
12
10
10

41
62
57
26
38

7
9
10
7
8

9
11
14
14
13

47
45
39
35
41

:
:
:
:
18

46
39
43
34
39

62
49
46
31
45

33
44
54
44
43

24
27
24
17
22

:
:
:
:
19

6
21
25
27
19

50
48
42
33
40

3
4
7
12
5

11
23
32
32
20

36
45
55
49
45

12
14
15
11
12

44
49
53
46
47

32
32
30
30
31

8
13
12
9
11

50
25
22
18
26

10
6
7
6
7

:
11
:
:
10

39
49
45
29
40

10
21
19
12
13

29
41
43
38
35

44
43
46
23
38

52
58
53
43
49

67
41
45
60
55

7
6
6
:
6

5
7
7
6
6

:
:
:
:
5

:
:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:
:

:
:
:
:
:

Source: Eurostat, SBS (theme4/SBS/sizclass)

3
49
42
33
17

:
6
6
:
6

:
2
3
:
2

:
2
4
:
3

:
3
4
:
5

:
1
4
:
2

2
4
6
9
8

4
7
5
4
5

:
10
13
:
8

:
4
3
:
4

:
5
5
:
5

3
40
31
17
15

46

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

The aim here is, first, to examine the variation in average
labour costs per employee both between sectors and
across the enlarged EU and, secondly, to relate average
labour costs to value-added per person employed, or
productivity.

Industry

Average annual labour costs

In the EU15, annual labour costs per employee in industry
were highest in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Aus-
tria and Sweden in 2001, in all cases, close to or just over
40 thousand euros per employee. They were lowest in

Portugal at only 13 thousand euros per employee. In the
EU15 countries together, they averaged some 35 thou-
sand euros (30 thousand euros in EU25) (Table 24).

In the new Member States, they were just under half the
EU15 average in terms of euros in Cyprus (on the basis of
the data available for manufacturing), Malta and Slovenia
(in the last, much the same as in Portugal). In the other
new Member States, they were only around a quarter or
less of the EU15 average, again in euro terms. (It should
be noted that the figures adjusted to purchasing power
parity terms would give a better indication of the true cost
of labour.) In Bulgaria and Romania, labour costs were
under 10% of the EU15 average.

Labour costs in manufacturing were much the same or
slightly higher than in industry as a whole, while in mining,

Adjusting labour costs for the self-employed

An allowance needs to be made for the self-employed
when computing labour costs in order both to give an ac-
curate indication of their scale and to improve the com-
the data across sectors of activity and
parability of
Member States. The assumption made is that the earn-
ings of the self-employed are the same as those of em-
ployees, which is the most neutral assumption to make in
the absence of data. The scale of the adjustment, there-
fore, varies in proportion to the share of the self-em-
ployed in the work force (ie making no allowance for the
self-employed tends to understate labour costs by a
larger amount the greater the number of self-employed
relative to employees).

The adjustment in question is relatively small in most Mem-
ber States in respect of manufacturing where those re-
corded as self-employed in the SBS data represented only
around 6% of the work force in the EU15 in 2001. It is, how-
ever, larger in construction where 18% of those in work
were self-employed. The proportion in manufacturing var-
ied, however, from only around 1% in Luxembourg to 17%
in Italy. In the new Member States, it varied from under

0.5% in Latvia, Slovakia and Hungary (in the last two re-
flecting the incomplete data on small firms) to 10% in the
Czech Republic. In market services, on the other hand, the
adjustment required is much larger since some 16% of the
total in the work force in the EU15 were self-employed in
2001 according to the SBS. This proportion varied from
only around 6% in France to 23% in Spain and 45% in Italy.
In the new Member States and candidate countries it var-
ied between 1% in Latvia to 28% in the Czech Republic,
though in most countries, it was under 10%, apart from in
Malta (25%). It was also high in Bulgaria (32%), while in Ro-
mania, it was 10%.

Unit labour costs — and the share of labour in value-added
— can, therefore, be estimated by the equation:

(Totalemployed/Employees)x(Labourcosts/Value-added)
which can be rearranged as:
(Labour costs/Employees)/(Value-added/Total employed)

which is equivalent to the ratio of average labour costs per
employee to labour productivity, expressed in terms of the
number employed rather than hours worked.

47

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

O
R

G
B

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U

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5
3

9
2

6
2

8
2

2
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2

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3
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2

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2

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3
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3

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2

1
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2
3

2
2

5
2

7

5

5

5

4

5

5

6

6

5

6

6

5

5

9
4

2
4

5
3

8
2

0
3

9
3

7
3

7
5

8
4

6
4

6
4

4
5

1
3

1
4

9
4

7
3

5
3

4
3

4
3

6
3

4
3

0
5

9
3

9
3

8
3

8
3

5
3

6
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9

7

6

6

5

7

7

9

7

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2
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D
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(
g
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(

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(
y
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+
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(

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(
o
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(
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5
1
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5
2

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l
b
a
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.
y
l
n
o
G
D
:
K
S
I,
S
,
T
M
,
V
L
,
T
L
,
U
H
,
E
E
,
G
B
,
T
A
,
IE
,
K
D
;
y
l
n
o
B
D
I:
S
,
V
L
,
T
L
,
U
H
,
E
E
,
G
B
;
0
0
0
2
:
A
D
E
C
A
N
K
S
,
A
D
E
C
A
N
T
A
,
F
D
+
G
D
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C
A
N
L
P
,
Y
C
,
IE
;
e
l
b
a
l
i
a
v
a
a
t
a
d
o
n
:
L
E
:
e
t
o
N

.

M
D
+
L
D
+
K
D
s
i
g
n
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r
e
e
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g
n
E
;
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+
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l
e
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f
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l
a
c
i
m
e
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C
;
N
D
I+
D
+
H
D
+
G
D
+
C
D
+
B
D
+
A
D
s
i
g
n
i
r
u
t
c
a
f
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n
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m
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s
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S
B
S

,
t
a
t
s
o
r
u
E

:
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48

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The SBS data on labour costs and the LCS

The SBS data on labour costs relate to the cost of personnel employed
in businesses. As such, they include non-wage labour costs — social
contributions paid by employers in particular — as well as wages and
salaries. They are on a similar basis to the data collected as part of the
periodic Labour Cost Survey (LCS), conducted by national statistical
institutes for Eurostat every four years, which provide details of the
main components which make up overall labour costs (basic wages,
overtime and other bonuses, non-wage labour costs and so on).

Unlike the LCS, however, the SBS uses the enterprise as the statistical
unit of classification rather than the local unit. This difference in the ba-
sis of classification may mean that the LCS may assign the local units of
an enterprise to a different sector of activity than the enterprise itself, if
their main activity differs from that of the enterprise. While data from
both surveys are disaggregated to the NACE 2-digit level and relate to
the same NACE Rev.1 sectors of activity, the use of local units instead
of enterprises to perform this disaggregation may, therefore, produce
different results. In addition, unlike the SBS, the LCS does not include
enterprises with under 10 people employed, or more precisely, Mem-
ber States are not required to cover these in the data collection.

The coverage of employees may also differ in that management staff
and sales representatives, for example, are excluded from the LCS but
may be included in the SBS. It is possible as well that the average num-
ber of employees counted as being in work over the year may vary be-
tween the two sources, especially as regards temporary workers. The
LCS, moreover, includes the cost of training (other than those for ap-
prentices) and direct subsidies, which are not included in the SBS
data, but both of which tend to be small.

A comparison of average annual labour costs per employee as re-
ported by the two surveys for 2000 is shown in Table 25.

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

they were significantly higher in most countries,
including in the new Member States. In construc-
tion, the average cost of labour was generally
lower than in other parts of industry (Graph 22).

Within manufacturing, labour costs were highest
in chemicals and fuel in all countries, followed, in
most cases, by transport equipment. Average la-
bour costs were also relatively high in other engi-
neering sectors, while the reverse was the case in
basic manufacturing (where labour costs were
only just over 70% of the average level in engi-
neering). This was especially true in textiles and
clothing, where labour costs were under 60% of
the average level in manufacturing as a whole.
These differences reflect the different average
skill levels of the labour employed.

A similar pattern of labour costs differentials is
evident for most countries, though the extent of
the variation between sectors differs signifi-
cantly. In Ireland, therefore, average labour
costs in engineering were only some 3% higher
than in basic manufacturing and in Denmark,
Finland and the Netherlands, only around 10%
higher, while in Germany, they were almost
40% higher. (Labour costs in engineering were
lower than in basic manufacturing in Luxem-
bourg, but only few people — only some 5
thousand — were employed in engineering.)
The difference was even bigger in Lithuania, at
over 50%. In the other new Member States,

22

Average annual labour costs per employee in industry, 2001

EUR (thousand)

Mining, quarrying (C)

Manufacturing (D)

Construction (F)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG

RO

LT

LV

EE

SK

CZ

HU

PL

PT

SI

MT

CY

ES

IT

IE EU25 EU15 DK

UK

FR

FI

NL

AT

SE

DE

LU

BE

EL: n.a. ; IE, CY: 2000

Source: Eurostat, SBS

49

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

23

Average annual labour costs per employee in manufacturing sectors, 2001

EUR (thousand)

Basic manufacturing

Chemicals, fuel 

Engineering

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

BG

RO

LV

LT

SK

EE

CZ

HU

PL

SI

CY

MT

PT

IE

ES

IT

EU25 DK

NL

FI

LU EU15 SE

UK

FR

AT

BE

DE

EL: n.a.; IE, CY, PL Chemicals&fuel, AT NACE DA, SK NACE DA: 2000; BG, EE, HU, LT, LV, SI: excl. DC; DK, IE, AT, BG, EE, HU, LT, LV, 
MT, SI, SK: excl. DF

Source: Eurostat, SBS

however, the difference was in most cases smaller
than in the EU15 countries, Poland being the main ex-
ception (the difference being similar to the EU15 aver-
age) (Table 24 and Graph 23).

Labour costs, value-added

and unit labour costs

The average share of labour costs in value-added in
manufacturing in the EU15 (adjusted for the self-em-
ployed — see Box) was 70% in 2001. The only coun-
tries where the share was significantly higher than this

were France (74%), Sweden (76%) and Germany
(77%). The cost of labour in relation to value-added
was much lower than average in Finland (53%) and
even more so in Ireland (only 23%, reflecting the high
value-added figures) (Table 26).

In the new Member States, the share of labour costs in
value-added was in general below the EU15 average,
varying from 67% in Lithuania and 63% in the Czech Re-
public and Estonia to 48% in Hungary.

In mining, labour costs were in most countries lower than
in manufacturing and were especially low in Denmark, the

24

Unit labour costs in industry, 2001

% of value-added

Mining, quarrying (C)

148

362

Manufacturing (D)

Construction (F)

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

IE

LV

HU

FI

SK MT RO CY

CZ

EE

UK

PT

LU

NL

ES

LT

BE

DK

AT

IT EU15 BG FR

SE

DE

EL, PL, SI: n.a. ; IE, CY: 2000

Source: Eurostat, SBS

50

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

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51

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

Netherlands and the UK, where the industry consists
mainly of oil or natural gas extraction.

Unit labour costs and investment

Unit labour costs can be related to investment per per-
son employed to examine how far high investment —
used as an indicator of capital per worker — can ex-
plain low labour costs per unit of value-added and vice
versa. (For this purpose, a EU21 aggregate has been
calculated covering the countries for which data are
available — data are missing for Greece, Luxem-
bourg, Poland and Slovenia.) In mining, a high level of
investment per person employed was associated with
low unit labour costs and, correspondingly, a large
share of value-added going to capital. The same was
the case in Chemicals and fuel.

In other sectors, however, the same kind of inverse re-
lationship is much less evident. In textiles and clothing
and construction, therefore, investment per worker
was close to or above the manufacturing average
while unit labour costs were much lower than manu-
facturing average. In transport equipment and in elec-
trical and precision instruments, both investment per
person employed and unit labour costs were higher
than the average for manufacturing (Graph 26).

In the labour intensive construction sector, labour costs
per unit of value-added were in general higher than in
manufacturing and in some cases, close to or above
100%, which implies that the sector made a financial loss
(though it may also be a consequence of the assumption
made about the earnings of the self-employed). The main
exception, leaving aside Latvia, was the UK, where labour
costs were under 60% of value-added (Graph 24).

the ratio of

Within manufacturing,
labour costs to
value-added was higher in engineering taken together
than in basic manufacturing which in turn was higher than
in the chemicals and fuel industry. In chemicals and fuel,
the low ratio reflects the capital-intensive nature of pro-
duction, a large share of value-added, therefore, going to
capital. In engineering, the relatively high ratio may in part
be a result of the relatively depressed state of the sector in
2001, which may have reduced value-added more than
labour (adjustment of labour costs to lower value-added
tends to take a little time).

Much the same pattern of differences between sectors
is evident in most countries including the new Member
Ireland
States. The main exceptions are Finland,
(where value-added in engineering is particularly
high) and the Czech Republic. In most of the new
Member States, however, the share of labour costs in
value-added was lower than the EU15 average in both
basic manufacturing and engineering (Graph 25).

25

Unit labour costs in manufacturing sectors, 2001

% of value-added

100

Basic manufacturing

Chemicals, fuel 

Engineering

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

IE

LV

HU

FI

MT

SK

CZ RO CY

EE

PT

UK

NL

ES

DK

BE

IT EU15 BG AT

LU

SE

LT

FR

DE

EL, PL, SI: n.a.; IE, CY, AT NACE DA, SK NACE DA: 2000; BG, EE, HU, LT, LV: excl. DC; DK, IE, AT, BG, EE, HU, LT, LV, MT, SK: excl. DF

Source: Eurostat, SBS

52

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

26

Unit labour costs and investment per person employed by industry groupings in the EU, 2001

Unit labour costs, % of value-added (top axis)

Investment per person employed, EUR
thousand (bottom axis)

% of value-added

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Mining and quarrying (C)

Chemicals (DG)

Food, drink, tobacco (DA)

Textiles, clothing (DB)

Other manufacturing (DD,DE,DH,DI,DN)

Transport equipment (DM)

Metals+metal products (DJ)

Machinery+equipment (DK)

Elect+precn engineering (DL)

Construction (F)

Manufacturing (D)

128

0

5

10

15

20
EUR thousand

EU covers all existing and new Member States except EL, LU, PL and SI

Source: Eurostat, SBS

Market services

Average annual labour costs

Average annual labour costs per employee averaged
25 thousand euros in market services in the enlarged
Union in 2001. This was some 6 thousand euros less
than in manufacturing (Graph 27). Labour costs varied
from around 35 thousand euros in Sweden, Belgium
and Luxembourg and over 25 thousand euros in most
EU15 countries to around 8 thousand euros or less in
most new Member States except in Cyprus, Malta and
Slovenia where it was higher. In Bulgaria and Roma-
nia, average labour costs were under 3 thousand eu-
ros, only around 10% of the EU15 level, much the same
as in manufacturing.

In most EU15 countries, labour costs per employee
were less than in manufacturing, in the new Member
States, they were much the same.

Within market services, labour costs per employee
varied significantly between sectors. They were high-
est in transport and communications and business
services, where the average was around a third higher
than in the distributive trades and over twice as high
as in hotels and restaurants (Graph 28). This is in large
part a reflection of differences in the skill levels of the
work force.

The same pattern of differences was evident in most
countries, though there were some differences, espe-
cially in the new Member States. In 3 of the 14 EU coun-
tries for which data are available — Sweden, France
and Denmark — therefore, average labour costs in
business services were higher than in transport and
communications. The same was the case in 4 of the 8
new Member States, for which there are data (the
Czech Republic, Cyprus, Slovenia and Slovakia) and
in a fifth (Lithuania), there was no difference. This may
reflect a larger presence of foreign-owned enterprises
in business services in these countries than in other
service sectors.

Average labour costs in services

Any comparison of labour costs between either countries
or sectors needs to take account of variations in average
working time and in the importance of part-time employ-
ment which this reflects. This is not done in the analysis
here because the focus is ultimately on unit labour costs
rather than on average costs per employee. For this pur-
pose, there is no need to make an adjustment for differ-
ences in hours worked, since, essentially the total cost of
labour to businesses is being related to their total
value-added.

53

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

27

Average annual labour costs per employee in market services (Nace G to K excluding J), 2001

EUR (thousand)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BG RO LT

LV

EE

SK

CZ HU

PL

SI MT

PT

CY

ES

IE EU25 NL

IT

DE UK EU15 AT

DK

FI

FR

LU

BE

SE

EL: n.a. ; DE, IE: 2000 ; DK: NACE G 1999, NACE H to K 2000

Source: Eurostat, SBS

Labour costs, value-added

and unit labour costs

The differences in average labour costs between ser-
vice sectors reflect similar differences in value-added
per person employed, for which the level was also rel-
atively high in transport and communications and
business services.

Labour costs in market services amounted to some 68%
of value-added in the EU15 in 2001, slightly less than in
manufacturing (70%). This difference, however, is attrib-

utable to the particularly high level of value-added in the
real estate and renting activities, which are not represen-
tative of market services in general. In 13 Member States,
including the new entrants, unit labour costs were higher
in market services than in industry (Tables 26 and 27).

In the EU15 countries, unit labour costs in market services
ranged from around 80% in Sweden and Belgium, the
countries with the highest average cost of labour, to
around 60% in Germany and the UK and only 47% in Ire-
land (Table 27). In the new Member States, unit labour
costs were generally lower than in the EU15, except in the
Czech Republic (85%). This country apart, labour costs

28

Average labour costs per employee in market service sectors (Nace G to K excluding J), 2001

EUR (thousand)

Distributive trades (G)

Hotels and restaurants (H)

Transport, communications (I)

Business services (K)

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BG

RO

LT

LV

SK

EE

CZ

HU

PL

MT

SI

PT

CY

ES

IE

NL EU25

IT

DE EU15 UK

DK

AT

FI

BE

FR

LU

SE

EL: n.a. ; DE, IE: 2000; DK: NACE G 1999, NACE H to K 2000. Business services exclude real estate and renting

Source: Eurostat, SBS

54

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

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55

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
29

Unit labour costs in market services, 2001

% of value-added

Distributive trades (G)

Hotels and restaurants (H)

Transport, communications (I)

Business services (K)

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Chapter 3 — Labour costs and value-added

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

LV MT

IE

RO EE

UK

SK

CY

LT

DE

LU

HU BG EU15 NL

DK

ES

AT

FI

IT

BE

FR

PT

SE

CZ

EL, PL, SI: n.a. ; DE, IE: 2000; DK: NACE G 1999, NACE H to K 2000. Business services exclude real estate and renting

Source: Eurostat, SBS

were less than 60% of value-added in all of the countries
for which there are data.

Within market services, the share of labour costs in
value-added in both the EU15 and the new Member
States was relatively high in hotels and restaurants and
business services once real estate and rental activities
are excluded. It was lowest in transport and communica-
tions (Graph 29).

Within business services, high unit labour costs were high
in computer and related activities (over 80%) and re-
search and development. In the latter, this partly reflects a
relatively high level of public sector involvement (and so
an absence of profits) and partly the fact that R&D is an
activity which feeds into production rather than necessar-
ily generating income independently. In computer and re-
lated activities, labour costs amounts to around 80% or
more in most EU15 countries, but were in most cases
much lower in the new Member States.

In transport and communications, unit labour costs were
highest in air transport and were over 100% in Austria and
Sweden and were exactly 100% in France, while in Hun-
gary and Lithuania, they were close to 200%. In all these
countries, therefore, subsidies were necessary in order to
maintain operations (Table 27).

Investment per person employed in market services was
higher than in manufacturing in most countries. There is
evidence of an inverse relationship between investment
per worker and unit labour costs across service sectors in

the enlarged EU. The share of value-added going to capi-
tal rather than labour, therefore, tends to be larger in the
sectors where investment is highest — in real estate and
rental activities in particular, but also in post and
telecommunications (Graph 30).

30

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

0

Correlation between unit labour costs and 
investment per person employed in the EU market 
services, 2001
Unit labour costs (EUR)

Research+development (73)

y = -0.54x + 78.3
R2 = 0.55

Travel 
agencies 
(63)

Post , telecom. (64)

Rental activities (71)

Real estate activities (70)

120

100

80

60

40

20

20

40

60

80

100

Investment per person employed (EUR)

0
120

EU covers all existing and new Member States except EL, PL and SI

Source: Eurostat, SBS

56

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

The SBS contain data for regions within EU Member States as
well as national aggregates. Regions are defined at both a
NUTS 1 and NUTS 2 level and the analysis here focuses on
the latter in both the EU15 countries and the new Member
States as well as in Bulgaria and Romania (see Box, p. 61). Al-
though the regional data included in the SBS are for a more
restricted set of variables, they can, nevertheless, be used to
give an indication of regional variations in certain aspects of
the structure of the market economy. Data, however, are
mainly confined to industry and are available only for a limited
number of service activities.

The aim here is twofold. First, it is, to examine the relative
numbers employed in particular sectors of activity, spe-
cifically for selected manufacturing industries, and, sec-
ondly, to assess the variation in average wages in these
sectors across regions in different countries. This focus
rather than a comparison of regional wage levels across
the EU as a whole has been chosen in order to limit the ex-
tent of the variation being examined. As indicated by the
data on labour costs in the previous chapter, therefore,
average wages are many times higher in some of the
EU15 countries than in most of the new Member States.
Regional variations, therefore, tend to be dominated by
national variations.

The manufacturing industries chosen for study are tex-
tiles and clothing (NACE, sub-section DB), basic metals
— ie iron and steel — (NACE, division 27), machinery and
equipment (NACE, division 29), electrical machinery and
equipment (NACE. division 31) and transport equipment
(NACE, sub-section DM). These together cover many of
the main types of industry (capital intensive as well as la-
bour-intensive, technologically advanced as well as rela-
tively basic). The number employed in each of these in
each region is, first, related to working-age population to
give an indication of the relative importance of the indus-
try concerned for jobs in different parts of the enlarged
EU. Population of working age, therefore, is effectively
used as a scalar to enable meaningful comparisons to be
made of employment in different regions in the selected

industries. In consequence, the resulting measure is not
affected by the size of the region perseor by the scale of
business activities in the regional economy (as compari-
sons of the share of the selected industries in market sec-
tor employment would be).

Regional employment

in the selected industries

Textiles and clothing

The number employed in textiles and clothing (NACE
sub-section DB) is relatively high in most parts of the new
Member States, as well as in Bulgaria and Romania. The
main exceptions are in the capital city regions (Praha,
Bratislavsky, Közép-Magyarország, where Budapest is
situated, and Mazowieckie, where Warsaw is located).
The industry is also a relatively large source of employ-
ment in Portugal (in Norte, it employs 7% of working-age
population), northern and central parts of Italy, Cataluña
in Spain, Flanders in Belgium and in the East Midlands,
North West and West Yorkshire in the UK.

Basic metals

Employment in basic metals (NACE division 27) is generally
lower than in textiles and clothing (only around 40% of em-
ployment in the enlarged EU) and is concentrated in different
regions. It accounts for a relatively large number of jobs in
Moravskoslezko in the east of the Czech Republic (5% of
working-age population), Východné Slovensko and Stredné
Slovensko in Slovakia (in the east and centre, respectively),
Közép-Dunántúl in the west of Hungary and Slaskie in the
south of Poland as well as in Yugozapaden (where Sofia is sit-
uated) and Vest in Romania. In the EU15 countries, it is rela-
tively important in Düsseldorf, Arnsberg and Saarland in

57

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

58

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

The SBS regional data

The SBS regional data cover a limited number of variables
(at present, the number employed, local units, wages and
salaries and gross investment), disaggregated at a NACE
2-digit level, for NUTS 2-level regions across the EU. Unlike
the data analysed in previous chapters, these variables are
classified to NACE sectors of activity according to the main
activity of local units (ie enterprises or parts of enterprises
— eg workshops, factories, warehouses, offices and so on
— situated in a geographically identified place). This
should give a more accurate representation of the actual
regional distribution of employment and the other variables
than if the basis of classification of activities were the enter-
prise as in previous chapters.

The regional basis of classification of these data is the stan-
dard NUTS — ie the nomenclature of territorial units for sta-
tistics — system used by Eurostat. This, so far as possible,
divides countries into administrative areas which are simi-
lar in terms of population. In practice, there are large differ-
ences in both the population size of regions and their land
area. Overall, there are some 206 NUTS 2-level regions in
the EU15 and a further 41 in the 10 new Member States.
Bulgaria and Romania are divided into 6 regions and 8 re-
spectively.

land and the UK. This does not affect the results presented
here significantly. In some countries where regional data
are not available, specifically Denmark and Slovenia, na-
tional data have been used instead. (For Slovenia, data are
for employees rather than the total employed.) As a result,
data are enterprise-based, as in previous chapters, rather
than based on the main activity of local units as for other
countries. In Portugal and Finland, where the NUTS classi-
fication have recently changed and where because of this
no SBS data are as yet available for the regions affected,
the data shown for employment are based on LFS regional
data which have been aligned with the SBS national fig-
ures. This is also the case for the Czech Republic, where
there are no SBS regional data.

In addition, there are a number of regions where data are
missing for the industries selected for analysis here, mainly
for confidentiality reasons, and where estimates based on
available data are presented instead in order to have a
complete a map as possible. Estimates in these cases are
derived from NUTS 1 level data for the industry in question
or from the data for 2000 or 1999. These estimates ought
not to be a major source of error given the relatively wide
sectors into which the data are divided.

The data used in the analysis relate mainly to 2001 but to
2000 where data for the later year are not yet available. This
applies to Belgium, Denmark, Greece, France, Ireland, Fin-

No such estimates have been made for average wages
since there is no readily available alternative data source to
use.

Germany, Luxembourg, Champagne-Ardenne in France,
Norra Mellansverige in Sweden, Pohjois-Suomi in Finland,
Asturias and Pais Vasco in Spain, Sterea Ellada in Greece
and West Midlands in the UK.

Machinery and equipment

There are some three times the numbers employed in ma-
chinery and equipment (NACE sector 29), ie mechanical
engineering, in the enlarged EU than in basic metals. Em-
ployment is also more dispersed across the EU. It is par-
ticularly high in most parts of the Czech Republic (over
2% of working-age population) as well as in Severen
Tsentralen and Yuzhen Tsentralen in Bulgaria and Centru
in Romania (where it also accounts for over 2% of work-
i n g - a g e p o p u l a t i o n ) .
i n
I t
Baden-Württemberg, Unterfranken and Schwaben in
Germany (4% or more of working-age population). Em-
in
ployment

in the sector is equally important

i s e v e n h i g h e r

Emilia-Romagna in Italy and only slightly less so in
Piemonte, Veneto, Lombardia and Marche. Elsewhere,
there are relatively large numbers employed (over 2% of
working-age population) in Småland med Öarna (almost
4% of working-age population) and Norra Mellansverige
in Sweden, Etelä-Suomi in Finland, Pais Vasco in Spain
and the West Midlands in the UK.

Electrical machinery and equipment

Electrical machinery and equipment (NACE sector 31), ie
electrical engineering, has a similar regional distribution
across the enlarged EU as machinery and equipment. How-
ever it employed around half the number of people in the Un-
ion as mechanical engineering in 2001. Again, employment is
high in many Czech regions (close to 3% of working-age
population in Jihozápad and Severovýchod,
in the
south-west and north, respectively), in Közép-Dunántúl and
Nyugat-Dunántúl in the west of Hungary (2% of working-age

59

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

60

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

31

Average annual wages per employee in textiles and clothing and in basic metals, 2001

EUR (thousand)

Textile and clothing (DB)

Basic metals (DJ27)

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BG

RO

EE

LT

LV

SK

CZ

HU

PL

PT

SI

MT

CY

ES

IT

EU25

IE

FR EU15 SE

FI

BE

NL

UK

DE

AT

DK

LU

EL: n.a.

Source: Eurostat, SBS

population) and in the Západné Slovensko region in th west of
Slovakia. The number employed is particularly large in Ger-
many in Bayern (3% of working-age population in Oberpfalz
and Mittelfranken) and Baden-Württemberg, in Sweden in
Östra Mellansverige, Norra Mellansverige and Småland med
Öarna, in northern Italy in Lombardia and in the UK, in the
West Midlands.

Transport equipment

The number employed in transport equipment (NACE di-
vision DM) is similar to that in textiles and clothing. The re-

B a y e r n

gional location of employment in the industry in the en-
larged Union is however very different. Employment in
transport equipment was particularly concentrated in
a n d
B r e m e n ,
N i e d e r s a c h s e n ,
Baden-Württemberg in Germany (above 5% of work-
ing-age population in some regions), in Västsverige in
Sweden (4% of working-age population), in Limburg in
Belgium, in Comunidad Foral de Navarra in Spain, in
Piemonte, around Turino, in Italy, in eastern parts of
France, and the West Midlands, in the UK. In the new
Member States, employment in the sector was high in
several Czech regions, especially in Støední Èechy, the
region surrounding Prague (4% of working-age popula-

Average annual wages per employee in machinery and equipment, electric machinery and 
equipment and in transport equipment, 2001
EUR (thousand)

Machinery and equipment (DK29)

Electrical machinery and equipment (DL31)

Transport equipment (DM)

32

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BG

RO

LV

LT

SK

EE

CZ

HU

PL

SI

PT

CY

MT

IT

ES

IE

SE

FR EU25

FI

NL EU15 BE

AT

LU

UK

DK

DE

EL: n.a.

Source: Eurostat, SBS

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

61

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

62

tion), as well as in Nyugat-Dunántúl in the west of Hun-
gary, Pomorskie in northern Poland and Bratislavsky in
Slovakia (some 2% of working-age population in each
case).

Regional wage variations

The main purpose here is to examine variations in av-
erage wages across NUTS 2 regions within countries.
It begins, however, by indicating the extent of variation
between countries in order to put regional variations
into perspective The regional analysis covers only the
countries which are large enough to have NUTS 2 re-
gions. It, therefore, excludes Luxembourg and Den-
mark, which are both NUTS 2 regions in themselves,
as well as the three Baltic States, Slovenia and Cyprus
and Malta. It also excludes the Czech Republic, where
no data are available, and much of Portugal and Fin-
land, where the same applies because of a recent
change in regional boundaries. There are, in addition,
a few regions in other countries where there are no
data for the sectors examined because of confidenti-
ality reasons.

Average wages in the selected sectors vary markedly
between countries, even if the new Member States are
not taken into account, In textiles and clothing, they
vary from 38 thousand euros per employee a year in
Luxembourg and 31 thousand euros in Denmark to 13
thousand euros in Spain and only 7 thousand euros in
Portugal (Graph 31). (It should be emphasised once
more that these comparisons take no account of differ-
ences in price levels which affect the real value of
wages. This is particularly relevant for comparisons
between EU15 countries and the new Member States,
since wages in euro terms greatly understate the rela-
tive level of real wages in the latter. It also affects com-
parisons between the UK and the other EU15
countries, since in the UK the exchange rate against
the euro was unusually high in 2001, so increasing
wages expressed in euros.)

The extent of the variation in basic metals is much the
same, with wages being significantly higher than in tex-
tiles and clothing in all Member States. A similar differ-
ence between wages in the two sectors is evident in the
new Member States. Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia apart,
however, the extent of the difference between countries is
narrower(Graph 31).

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

The regional data on average wages

The SBS contain data for only a limited number of vari-
ables at regional level. While there are data for wages
and salaries and for the total number employed in the dif-
ferent NACE activities, there are no data for the number
of employees. This means that it is not possible to calcu-
late the average wage per employee. Although the num-
ber of self-employed are relatively small
in most
countries in the industries selected for analysis, they are
sufficiently large in a few to distort comparisons between
countries. The data presented here, therefore, are based
on an estimate of the number of employees. The ap-
proach adopted is to calculate the ratio of the employees
to total employed in each of the selected sectors at na-
tional level and to apply this ratio to the regional data for
employees. This effectively assumes, therefore, that the
relative number of self-employed is the same in each re-
gion, which may not be the case but it is unlikely to distort
the results significantly.

Differences in wages between the three engineering sec-
tors are much less, though much the same extent of varia-
tion between countries is evident, if with some change in
their rank order. Germany, in particular, has higher rela-
tive wage levels in these sectors than in the more basic
manufacturing sectors (Graph 32). In contrast to the
EU15 countries, the rank order of the new Member States
does not change. However, in the same way as in most of
the EU15, wage levels in engineering are very similar to
those in basic metals in all these countries. In both Bul-
garia and Romania, however, wages are substantially
higher in basic metals than in engineering, which is also
the case in Belgium, the Netherlands and Austria.

Average wages in all of these sectors vary significantly
across regions relative to the national average in the sec-
tor concerned (see Maps). In order to interpret these vari-
ations, however, they need to be looked at in relation to
the scale of employment in the different regions. A high or
low average wage might, therefore, be a result of the sec-
tor being comparatively small in the region in question
and so unrepresentative of the composition and nature of
employment in other regions. The commentary below on
each of the sectors focuses on differences in wage levels
between regions where the sector concerned employs a
significant number of people relative to working-age pop-
ulation. Even taking account of differences in numbers
employed, there are wide regional variations in average
wages in particular sectors.

63

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

64

Textiles and clothing

In Belgium, the textiles and clothing sector is concen-
trated in Flanders. Average wages are around 10%
higher in the west of the region than the east. In Ger-
many,
the sector employs more than 1% of work-
ing-age population only in three regions, Tübingen,
Oberfranken and Chemnitz (in the new Länder). Wage
levels are much the same in the first two but are only
just over a third of this level in the last. In Spain, wage
levels are some 15% higher in Cataluña than in Ma-
drid, some 35% higher than in Galicia (an Objective 1
region, ie a region receiving EU Structural Fund sup-
port because its GDP is below 75% of the EU average)
and 70% higher than in Castilla-la-Mancha (also an
Objective 1 region).
In Italy, average wages in
Lombardia are some 10% above those in Veneto and
20–25% higher than in Toscana or Umbria. Wages in
Puglia in the south, are some 20% below those in
Umbria. In the UK, wages vary widely between ‘textile’
regions. They are some 30% higher in West Yorkshire
than in Lancashire and Greater Manchester and some
25% higher than in inner London. In Leicestershire,
they are lower still and half the level in neighbouring
Derbyshire.

In the new Member States, wage differences are gener-
ally narrower in textiles and clothing than in the EU15. In
Hungary, however, average wages are over 30% higher
in Nyugat-Dunántúl in the west of the country than in the
south and east. In Poland, wage levels in the ‘textile’ re-
gions vary between 10 and 15%, as they do in Slovakia.
The same is the case in Bulgaria and Romania, outside
Bucuresti, where they are some 25% higher than
elsewhere.

Basic metals

In Belgium, average wages are substantially higher in ba-
sic metal in Oost-Vlaanderen than in Liege or Hainaut in
Wallonia. In Spain, they are much the same in the ‘steel’
regions, in Asturias (an Objective 1 region) as in Pais
Vasco or Navarra. In France, they are some 20% higher in
Lorraine than in Champagne-Ardenne.

In Italy, as in Spain, wage levels are very similar in ‘steel’
regions, though lower in Puglia in the south than in the
northern regions. In Austria, levels in Oberösterreich are
over 10% higher than in Steiermark and higher again than

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

in Tirol. In Sweden, wage differences between regions
are mostly small. In the UK, wages are around twice the
level in South Yorkshire and East Wales than in West
Midlands.

In the new Member States, wage levels tend to be rela-
tively high in the regions where basic metals are most im-
in Hungary, for example,
portant, in Közép-Dunántúl
Slaskie in Poland and Východné Slovensko in Slovakia.
This is also the case in Bulgaria, in the capital city region.
The same is not the case in Romania, however, where
wage differences are much wider.

Machinery and equipment

In Belgium, wage levels are relatively similar across re-
gions, though lower in Brabant Wallon than elsewhere. In
Germany, there are large differences in averages be-
tween the old and the new Länder. They are particularly
high in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, where the sec-
tor accounts for a high level of employment.

In Spain, wages are highest in Pais Vasco and Navarra,
where the sector of activity employs most people relative
to working-age population. In France, wage differences
are relatively small between the regions where the sector
employs more than 1% of working-age population,
though some 10% lower in Picardie and Cham-
pagne-Ardenne in the north and north east than in Centre
or Alsace and Lorraine.

Wage differences are also relatively small across the
northern regions of Italy where the sector is concentrated,
in the Netherlands and across the main Swedish regions,
while in Austria, differences are slightly wider. In the UK,
regional wage variations are wider still, wages being
highest in the south east and East Anglia and lowest in the
north east, the south west, South Western Scotland and
Northern Ireland.

In the new Member States, wages differences are rela-
tively narrow in Hungary but wider in Poland and Slovakia.
In Poland, wages are highest in Dolnoslaskie and Slaskie
in the south of the country (5–10% above the national av-
erage) and lowest in Podkarpackie in the south east. In
Slovakia, wages in the sector are some 30% higher in
Bratislavsky than in Východné Slovensko in the east. In
Romania, differences are relatively large in Romania, es-
pecially between Bucuresti (over 40% above the national
average) and the rest of the country.

65

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

66

Electrical machinery and apparatus

In Germany, wages are again highest in electrical engi-
neering in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg where the
sector is of most importance (employment is generally
low in the new Länder). In France, wage differences be-
tween the main regions are relatively small.

In Italy, wages are again high in Lombardia (10–15%
above other parts of the north). In the Netherlands, wages
are highest in Giederland and Limburg, the only two re-
gions where employment in the sector is more than 1% of
working-age population. In Austria, wages are substan-
tially higher in Vorarlberg than in Burgenland (a former
Objective 1 region) in both of which employment is
similarly high.

Regional wage differences are also relatively wide in
Sweden, where most regions have over 1% of work-
ing-age population in employment in the sector. In the
UK, few regions have employment in electrical engineer-
ing this high, but in those that do, wages are around 30%
higher in Hampshire in the south than in Shropshire in the
west centre.

In the new Member States, employment in the sector is
relatively small except in Hungary and Slovakia. In both
cases, wages are much higher in the capital city regions
than elsewhere.

Transport equipment

In Belgium, wage levels are similar in Brussels and in the
Flemish regions where the transport equipment sector is
concentrated. In Germany, wages are once more higher
than elsewhere in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg,
though also in Bremen, Braunschweig and Saarland.
Wages are substantially lower in the new Länder, but few
work in the sector. In Spain, average wages are similar in
the main regions — Navarra, Aragon and Cataluña –ex-
cept in Galicia (an Objective 1 region) where they are
10% lower. Wages are also similar across the main
F r e n c h r e g i o n s — F r a n c h e - C o m t é , A l s a c e ,
Haute-Normandie — but 30% or so lower than in Île de
France, where large numbers are employed in the sector
in absolute terms.

In Italy, there is less of difference in wages between north
and south than in other sectors, wages in Lombardia be-

Chapter 4 — Employment and wages in industry by region

ing some 15% higher than in Basilicata. In Sweden, wage
levels are similar across regions. In the UK, differences
are again very much wider, wages being around twice the
level in the West Midlands than in Northumberland, where
the sector is equally important.

In the new Member States, the sector employs sizeable
numbers of people only in a relatively few places. In most
cases, wages are relatively high in those places, such as
Nyugat-Dunántúl in the west of Hungary, Pomorskie in the
north of Poland and Bratislavsky in Slovakia.

67

Methodological notes

The data used for the analysis in this publication come mainly
from the Structural Business Statistics (SBS) compiled by
Eurostat. These are supplemented by data from the Labour
Cost Survey (LCS) on average hours worked where SBS data
are missing (essentially in market services).

The analysis contains several comparisons between dif-
ferent sources of data. In the first chapter a comparison is
made of the SBS data on hours worked with data from the
LCS and with estimates made from the EU Labour Force
Survey (LFS). In the introductory chapter, data on total
employed from the SBS are compared with data from the
LFS. In the third chapter, SBS labour cost data are com-
pared with LCS data. These three sources are described
in turn below.

Structural Business Statistics (SBS)

Annual survey collected within the framework of Council
regulation on structural business statistics (Regulation
(EC, EURATOM) No. 58/97 of December 1996. The SBS
Regulation governs the transmission of data to Eurostat
from the reference year 1995 onwards and, in principle,
covers all market activities in sections C to K and M to O of
NACE Rev. 1, but, in practice, the data available are con-
fined to NACE Rev. 1 sections C to K, excluding section J,
financial services. For further information, visit:
http://forum.europa.eu.int/Public/irc/dsis/bmethods/
info/data/new/main_en.html

More precisely, within the SBS, the data used in the Intro-
duction, in Chapter 1 on employment, value-added, in-
vestment and hours of work and in Chapter 3 on labour
costs are taken from:

series which covers all enterprises from 1995
onwards (though the data are less complete and less accu-
rate for the years before 1999). The data available for Greece
cover only enterprises with 20 persons or more employed
and are, therefore, not included in the series. Data on total
persons employed are not available for Poland and Slovenia
because of missing data on self-employed in these two coun-
tries. In the analysis of employment, the number of employ-
ees has therefore been used instead. Data for Hungary do
not cover enterprises with less than 5 persons employed and
the coverage of small enterprises is also incomplete for
Slovakia.

The data used in Chapter 2 on employment and
value-added per person employed by size of enterprise
are taken from:
series, which covers en-
terprises whose main activity is in industry (NACE Rev. 1.
sections C to F) or in market services (NACE Rev. 1. sec-
tions G to K excluding section J) and which breaks data
down by the employment-size of enterprise. In the analy-
sis, these data are grouped into four size classes, micro
enterprises with 1-9 persons employed, small enterprises
with 10-49 persons employed, medium-sized enterprises
with 50-249 persons employed and large enterprises with
250 or more persons employed. Data for Poland refer to
the year 1998, the latest available. Data are not available
for Greece, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia and
Bulgaria and they are incomplete for Hungary and
Slovakia.

The data used in Chapter 4 for the regional location of em-
ployment and average wages per employee in selected
sectors of activity are taken from :

The
series, which, since 1995, covers all
business activities whenever available (Sections C to K
(except section J) of NACE Rev.1. The data are broken
down to the 2-digit level of the activity nomenclature
NACE Rev. 1 and to level 2 of the geographic nomencla-
ture NUTS. To obtain the average wages per employee,
the number of employees has been estimated by calcu-
lating the ratio of the employees to total employed in each
of the selected sectors at national level and applying this
ratio to the regional data for total employed.

: a harmonised survey of
private households in all Member States which pro-
vides data on the population living in these by nation-
ality and by work status as well as by sex and age on
the basis of a common set of questions. The main fo-
cus is on employment, unemployment and inactivity
and the various aspects of these, including the sector
of activity in which people are employed and the num-
ber of hours per week they work. The survey is now
carried out quarterly in most Member States. The data
used in the report come from the survey conducted in
the second quarter of 2001, which is generally taken to
be representative of 2001 as a whole (the second
quarter survey is the one generally used for annual
data). The only exception is Malta for which data are
available only from 2002.

68

Methodological notes

: the 2000 edition of the
four-year survey is carried under Council Regulation (EC)
No. 530/1999 and Commission Regulation (EC) No
1726/1999. It provides detailed harmonised data on
hours worked, wages and salaries and other employ-
ment-related costs. It covers local units of enterprises
with 10 or more employees in economic activities in NACE
Rev.1, sections C-K. The survey covers all employees (in-
cluding apprentices) with direct contracts with the local
unit (or the enterprise to which it belongs) and who re-
ceive remuneration irrespective of the type of work they
do, the contract duration or the hours worked. Data are
missing for Belgium and Malta for 2000.

Division by sector of activity

The data are divided between sectors of activity using the
NACE Rev. 1 system of classification. This is composed of
Sections (1-letter codes), Sub-sections (2-letter codes),
Divisions (2-digit codes), Groups (3-digit codes) and
Classes (4-digit codes). The SBS data which are at pres-
ent available cover the following sections:

C Mining and quarrying
D Manufacturing

DA Food products, beverages and tobacco
DB Textiles and textile products
DC Leather and leather products
DD Wood and wood products
DE Pulp, paper and paper products; publishing and

printing

DF Coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear

fuel

DG Chemicals, chemical products and man-made

fibres

DH Rubber and plastic products
DI Other non-metallic mineral products
DJ Basic metals and fabricated metal products
DK Machinery and equipment not elsewhere

classified

DL Electrical and optical equipment
DM Transport equipment
DN Manufacturing not elsewhere classified

E Electricity, gas and water supply
F Construction
G Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles
H Hotels and restaurants
I
Transport, storage and communication
K Real estate, renting and business activities

For analytical purposes, manufacturing sectors are
grouped into three broad sectors: ‘Basicmanufacturing’
which include sub-sections DA, DB, DC, DD, DE, DH, DI
and DN; ‘Chemicals and fuel’ which cover sub-sections
DF and DG; and ‘Engineering’ defined as sub-sections
DJ, DK, DL and DM.

The variables in respect of the data used in Chapter 1 to 3
are classified to sectors of activity on the basis of the main
activity of enterprises, an enterprise being defined as ‘the
smallest combination of legal units that is an organisa-
tional unit producing goods or services, which benefits
from a certain degree of autonomy in decision-making,
especially for the allocation of its current resources’.

The employment data used in Chapter 4 are classified to
sectors of activity and NUTS 2-level regions on the basis
of the main activity of local units, a local unit being defined
as ‘an enterprise or part of an enterprise — eg a work-
shop,factory,warehouse,office,shopandsoon—situ-
ated in a geographically identified place’.

Definitions

Number of persons employed

The total number of persons who work in the observation
unit (ie an enterprise or local unit), including working pro-
prietors and partners working regularly in the unit and un-
paid family helpers, as well as those working outside who
belong to the unit and are paid by it (eg sales representa-
tives, delivery personnel, repair and maintenance teams).
It includes part-time and seasonal workers, apprentices
and home workers who are on the payroll.

Value-added

Value-added measured at factor cost, which is the gross in-
come from operating activities after adjusting for operating
subsidies and indirect taxes (including value-added tax), or
total revenue from sales and other activities less goods and
services purchased, other than the services of labour and
capital employed by the business.

Investment

Gross investment during the year in all tangible goods. All
investment is valued prior to (ie gross of) value adjust-
ments, and before the deduction of income from dispos-

69

Methodological notes

als of fixed assets. It corresponds to the increase in the
capital stock during the year.

EU25
The aggregate has been calculated when data
are available for the EU15 and for the 10 new Member
States (ie excluding Bulgaria and Romania.

Labour or personal costs

Wages and salaries paid to employees plus employers’
social security costs, whether compulsory or voluntary.
These are adjusted in the analysis to incorporate the
earnings of the self-employed when relating labour costs
to value-added.

Unit labour costs

EUR

Euro

SBS

Structural Business Statistics

LFS

Labour Force Survey

LCS

Labour Costs Survey

labour costs per unit of value-added, adjusted for the
earnings of the self-employed (ie including an imputed
estimate of the latter. It is equivalent to the share of
value-added going to labour.

NACE Rev. 1 : the latest version of the statistical classifi-
cation of economic activities in the EU

NUTS
used for statistical purposes in the EU

the system of nomenclature of territorial units

“:” in the tables denotes data not available.

Abbreviations

BE
CZ
DK
DE
EE
EL
ES
FR
IE
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
BG
RO
EU15
1st May 2004.

Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Slovenia
Slovak Republic
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
Romania
the European Union before the enlargement of

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