Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Joint report on social inclusion summarising the results of the examination of the National Action Plans for Social Inclusion (2003-2005) {SEC(2003)1425}
Date: 2003-12-12
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, EU policy, marginalisation, poverty, report, social integration, social policy

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 12.12.2003
COM(2003)773 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

JOINT REPORT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION

summarising the results of the examination of the National Action Plans
for Social Inclusion (2003-2005)

{SEC(2003)1425}

EN

  EN

Executive summary .................................................................................................................... 4

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8

PART I – The European Union................................................................................................ 13

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

5.1.

5.2.

5.3.

5.4.

5.5.

5.6.

5.7.

5.8.

6.

6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

6.4.

7.

7.1.

7.2.

7.3.

8.

8.1.

8.2.

8.3.

9.

Social Inclusion – the EU situation............................................................................ 13

Key trends and new and emerging challenges arising from the NAPs/Inclusion ...... 29

Strategic approaches adopted in the NAPs/inclusion (including targets) .................. 36

Key policy approaches for objective 1.1. 'Promoting employment' .......................... 43

Key policy approaches for objective 1.2. 'Promoting access to resources, rights,
goods and services'..................................................................................................... 51

Social protection systems........................................................................................... 51

Housing and basic services ........................................................................................ 57

Access to health care.................................................................................................. 62

Access to education.................................................................................................... 65

Access to culture ........................................................................................................ 70

Access to justice......................................................................................................... 72

Access to sport and leisure......................................................................................... 73

Access to transport ..................................................................................................... 75

Key policy approaches for objective 2. 'Preventing the risks of exclusion'............... 76

Promoting e-inclusion ................................................................................................ 76

Preventing and tackling over-indebtedness................................................................ 80

Preventing and tackling homelessness ....................................................................... 82

Preserving family solidarity ....................................................................................... 84

Key policy approaches for objective 3. 'Helping the most vulnerable'...................... 88

Promoting the integration of people facing persistent poverty .................................. 88

Eliminating social exclusion among children .......................................................... 103

Promoting comprehensive actions in favour of areas marked by exclusion............ 107

Key policy approaches for objective 4. 'Mobilising all relevant bodies' ................. 110

Promoting the participation of people suffering exclusion ...................................... 110

Mainstreaming the fight against exclusion .............................................................. 112

Promoting dialogue and partnership ........................................................................ 120

Gender mainstreaming ............................................................................................. 124

2

 
10.

11.

Use of indicators ...................................................................................................... 128

Identification of examples of good practice............................................................. 134

PART II – The Member States............................................................................................... 147

BELGIUM.............................................................................................................................. 148

DENMARK............................................................................................................................ 152

GERMANY............................................................................................................................ 156

GREECE ................................................................................................................................ 160

SPAIN 165

FRANCE ................................................................................................................................ 170

IRELAND .............................................................................................................................. 175

ITALY 180

LUXEMBOURG.................................................................................................................... 185

THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................... 190

AUSTRIA............................................................................................................................... 194

PORTUGAL........................................................................................................................... 198

FINLAND .............................................................................................................................. 203

SWEDEN ............................................................................................................................... 208

UNITED KINGDOM............................................................................................................. 212

3

 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Overall assessment and key conclusions

A renewed political commitment

The Lisbon European Council of March 2000 asked Member States and the Commission to
take steps to make a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty by 2010. It also agreed that
Member States should co-ordinate their  policies  for combating poverty  and  social  exclusion
on  the  basis  of  an  open  method  of  co-ordination  combining  common  objectives,  national
action  plans,  common  indicators  with  the  aim  of  promoting  more  ambitious  and  effective
policy strategies for social inclusion.

The importance of achieving the Lisbon aim of a significant reduction of poverty should not
be  underestimated.  Success  will  critically  depend  on  how  Member  States  translate  the
strategic  ambitions  set  out  in  their  NAPs/incl  into  concrete  actions  to  improve  the  living
conditions of the most vulnerable people. It is also crucial that the EU economies return fast
to a trajectory of sustainable economic  growth.  In this connection, and in  the  context  of  the
development  of  a  knowledge-based  society,  Member  States  should  ensure  a  consistent  link
between their inclusion strategies and their policies in the economic and employment fields.

The  present  report  identifies  key  trends  and  challenges  across  the  Union  and  good  practice
and  innovative  approaches  of  common  interest.  It  will  form  the  basis  for  the  Joint
Council/Commission  Report  on  social  inclusion  to  be  presented  to  the  Spring  European
Council of 2004. It assesses progress made towards meeting the Lisbon objective for poverty
reduction  and  maps  out  the  policy  agenda  for  the  future  EU  social  inclusion  process  in  a
context which is set to change radically. The process will, from 2004, have to take account of
the  accession  of  10  new  Member  States  where  the  nature  and  extent  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion  are  often  sharply  different.  From  2006  onwards,  it  will  form  part  of  the  new
streamlined  structure  for  EU-level  policy  co-ordination  on  social  protection  as  proposed  by
the Commission in May 2003 and endorsed by the Council in October 2003.

A still worrying background of poverty and exclusion

Despite an overall improvement since 1995, the numbers affected by relative income poverty
are still very significant with more than 55 million people or 15 % of the EU population living
at risk of poverty in 2001. More than half of them lived persistently on low relative income.
Across  the  Union  there  are  considerable  differences  in  the  severity  of  the  problem.  For
instance,  the  overall  risk  of  poverty  ranged  in  2001  between  10%  in  Sweden  and  21%  in
Ireland.  In  Southern  countries,  as  well  as  in  Ireland,  poor  people  not  only  benefit
comparatively less from the overall prosperity of their respective countries, but also are more
likely to be subject to more persistent forms of poverty and deprivation. The risk of poverty
tended to be significantly higher for particular groups such as the unemployed, single parents
(mainly women), older people living alone (also women mainly) and families with numerous
children.

A  particular  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  faced  by  young  people  deprived  of
sufficiently solid skills to get  a firm  grip on  the labour  market.  In 2002,  almost  19%  of  the
people aged between 18 and 24 had exited the school system too early and were not following
any  training.  Also  children  are  in  a  vulnerable  situation.  They  tend  to  experience  levels  of
income poverty that are higher than those of adults (19% in 2001), and material deprivation in
the early years may affect negatively their development and future opportunities. A particular

4

 
concern arises when children are living in jobless households, without almost any links to the
world of work (10% of all children in the Union, in 2002).

The eradication of poverty and social exclusion requires further steps

Against  this  background,  the  second  generation  of  NAPs  Inclusion  constitutes  a  strong
political  acknowledgement,  three  years  after  the  Lisbon  Summit,  of  the  challenge  to  ensure
social inclusion across the European Union. Member States have reiterated that modernisation
of  the  economy  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  efforts  to  reduce  poverty  and  fight  against
exclusion.

This is demonstrated by the main positive strategic developments in this second generation of
NAPs Inclusion:

(cid:1)  The  new  NAPs  are  generally  broad  in  scope,  reflecting  the  multi-dimensional
nature  of  poverty  and  exclusion  and  covering  a  wider  range  of  policy  fields,
notably the provision of basic services like lifelong learning, health, and housing.
They  also  better  reflect  the  diversity  of  national  strategies  and  the  different
degrees of development of social protection systems.

(cid:1)  There  is  a  clear  effort  on  the  part  of  a  majority  of  Member  States  to  set
quantitative targets for poverty reduction. Others have set quantified intermediate
targets  which  nevertheless  can  serve  to  lend  more  ambition  to  policy  and  to
facilitate monitoring of the NAPs.

(cid:1)  Many  Member  States  have  significantly  strengthened 

institutional
arrangements for mainstreaming poverty and social inclusion into national policy
making. There is also much greater emphasis on extending this process to regional
and local levels.

their 

(cid:1)  The process of encouraging the participation of key stakeholders of civil society
(NGOs, social partners and business community) in the preparation of the  NAPs
has  been  improved.  This  should  strengthen  the  relevance  of  the  NAPs  and  the
Nice objectives as a reference tool for national policy making.

However, while real progress has been  made,  it should also be noted that  more needs to be
done, in particular:

(cid:1)  A truly multidimensional approach will require further attention to issues such as

housing, lifelong learning, culture, e-inclusion, and transport.

(cid:1)  The setting of targets needs to be developed further so that targets are increasingly

specific, quantified and ambitious.

(cid:1)  More  emphasis  should  be  put  on  achieving  and  monitoring  the  efficiency  and

quality of measures designed to tackle poverty and social exclusion.

(cid:1)  The  progress  made  in  mainstreaming  social  inclusion  through  strengthening
institutional arrangements needs to be further deepened, particularly to ensure that
social inclusion goals be borne in mind in setting overall expenditure priorities.

5

 
(cid:1)  The  increased  participation  of  civil  society  must  be  extended  beyond  the

preparation of the NAPs to their implementation and monitoring.

(cid:1)  More needs to be done to ensure that economic, employment and social policies

are mutually reinforcing.

Six key priorities

Taking into account the diversity of  the  NAPs  Inclusion  2003-2005,  the  Member  States  are
urged to give particular attention, over the course of the next 2 years, to the six following key
priorities.  These  are  especially  relevant  in  the  context  of  a  continuing  uncertain  global
economic and political climate:

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Promoting investment in and tailoring of active labour market measures to meet the
needs of those who have the greatest difficulties in accessing employment;

Ensuring that social protection schemes are adequate and accessible for all and that
they provide effective work incentives for those who can work;

Increasing  the  access  of  the  most  vulnerable  and  those  most  at  risk  of  social
exclusion to decent housing, quality health and lifelong learning opportunities;

Implementing  a  concerted  effort  to  prevent  early  school  leaving  and  to  promote
smooth transition from school to work;

Developing a focus on ending child poverty;

Making  a  drive  to  reduce  poverty  and  social  exclusion  of  immigrants  and  ethnic
minorities

Keeping the momentum ahead

In order to keep up the momentum of the positive developments evident in the NAPs until the
assessment  of  the  open  method  of  co-ordination  for  fighting  poverty  and  exclusion,  which
will take place in 2005, Member States and the European institutions should:

(cid:1)  continue  to  promote  the  mobilisation  and  participation  of  all  stakeholders  from
civil society as well as the marginalised persons themselves in the implementation
and monitoring of the NAPs/inclusion 2003-2005 and ensure greater visibility of
the  NAPs/inclusion  as  a  tool  for  encouraging  political  debate  and  support  for
national strategies

(cid:1)  ensure  that  the  inclusion  and  employment  strategies  are  implemented  in  a
consistent  and  mutually  reinforcing  way  and  that  a  good  interaction  is  ensured
between  the different components of  the  upcoming streamlined social protection
process ;

(cid:1)  ensure  that  the  social  inclusion  priorities  identified  in  the  NAPs  are  reflected  in
the mid-term review of the Structural Funds  and  in  the  strategic  orientations  for
their future after 2006;

(cid:1)  take  full  account  of  gender  issues  and  the  increasingly  significant  issue  of

exclusion among immigrants and ethnic minorities;

6

 
(cid:1)  maintain  the  efforts  to  develop  the  commonly  agreed  indicators  or,  where
appropriate and with a complementary role, national indicators for the monitoring
of  national  policy  targets,  with  a  view  to  facilitating  the  assessment  of  the
achievement in reducing poverty and exclusion in 2005;

(cid:1)  continue  to  develop  the  national  statistical  base  in  order  to  be  able  to  monitor
effectively  the  social  inclusion  strategies  and  to  ensure  that  they  support  the
implementation of EU SILC so that this instrument may deliver more timely and
reliable statistics to underpin the common indicators;

(cid:1)  make  full  use  of  the  pool  of  good  practices  already  displayed  by  the
NAPs/inclusion,  by  intensifying  the  process  of  exchange  of  best  practice  by
ensuring effective dissemination of learning and by supporting this through by EU
funding  programmes  such  as  EQUAL  or  the  Community  Action  Programme  to
combat social exclusion;

(cid:1)  promote  the  progressive  phasing  in  of  the  candidate  countries  into  the  overall
process, based upon the forthcoming Joint Inclusion Memoranda (JIMs) and upon
the adoption of national action plans for the new Member States in 2004;

(cid:1)  ensure that the Union's social inclusion goals are reflected during the course of the
preparation  of  and  the  follow  up  to  the  next  Spring  European  Council,  and  in
particular  that  there  is  consistency  between  such  goals  and  the  Broad  Economic
Policy Guidelines and the European Employment Strategy.

7

 
INTRODUCTION

Purpose and structure of the report

The present report assesses progress made in the implementation of the open method of co-
ordination,  sets  key  priorities  for  urgent  action  and  identifies  good  practice  and  innovative
approaches of  common  interest  to  the Member  States.  It  aims  at  promoting  more  ambitious
and  effective  policy  strategies  for  social  inclusion  through  mutual  learning.  It  draws
extensively from the National Action Plans for social inclusion 2003-2005,  that  all  Member
States submitted in July 2003. The report is intended to provide the basis for the Joint Report
on social inclusion that the Commission and the Council will present to the Spring European
Council of 2004, as a key step in the periodic assessment of progress towards the social and
economic goals defined by the Lisbon strategy.

The  focus  of  the  report  is  on  policies  and  strategies  implemented  by  Member  States  in
combating poverty and social exclusion,  and  therefore promoting  greater social inclusion.  It
highlights  examples  of  good  practice  in  several  policy  domains,  on  the  basis  of  indications
and  information  provided  in  the  NAPs/inclusion  for  the  period  2003-2005.  It  is  not  the
purpose of this report, neither of the NAPs/inclusion, to present a general description of how
national  social  protection  systems  are  organised  or  what  impact  such  systems  as  well  as
policies  in  other  domains  have  had  on  social  cohesion.  Therefore,  the  report  will  tend  to
privilege recent action and may neglect more structural policies or institutions that concur in a
decisive manner to promote social inclusion. For this reason, references to Member States in
the text of the report cannot be interpreted as exhaustive, in the sense that they will highlight
examples of recent policy action, while disregarding those cases where similar policies exist
for long.

In order to provide the necessary  context information, the report starts by  analysing the key
features  and  trends  as  regards  social  inclusion  in  the  EU.  This  analysis  is  carried  out  in  a
comparative framework, on the basis  of the set of commonly agreed  indicators endorsed by
the Laeken European Council. The report then moves to a description of the main challenges
as  perceived  by  the  Member  States  in  their  NAPs/inclusion,  on  the  basis  of  which  it  is
possible  to  set  a  policy  agenda  for  the  Union  over  the  period  covered  by  the  Plans  (2003-
2005) in the  form of a  concise list of  six  key  priorities,  taking  into  account  the  diversity  of
initial situations and of social systems.

The report further assesses how Member States are translating the EU common objectives into
national strategies to combat poverty and social exclusion. This role of the report is of special
significance given that the NAPs/inclusion 2003-2005 were expected to bring out significant
improvements as regards the multidimensionality, the coherence and the ambition of national
strategies. The experience gained with the first series of NAPs/inclusion as well as the setting
of  national  targets  for  the  reduction  of  poverty,  as  requested  by  the  Barcelona  European
Council, should be of considerable help here.

Throughout the report, frequent use is made of the expressions "poverty", "social exclusion "
and "social inclusion". For ease of reference, the following definitions are given1:

1

These  definitions  are  intended  to  complement  and  reinforce  the  understanding  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion  which  is  reflected  in  the  common  objectives  and  commonly  agreed  indicators  which  under
pin the open method of co-ordination.

8

 
                                                
Poverty:  People  are  said  to  be  living  in  poverty  if  their  income  and  resources  are  so
inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living considered acceptable in the
society  in  which  they  live.  Because  of  their  poverty  they  may  experience  multiple
disadvantage through unemployment, low income, poor housing, inadequate health care and
barriers  to  lifelong  learning,  culture,  sport  and  recreation.  They  are  often  excluded  and
marginalised from participating in activities (economic, social and cultural) that are the norm
for other people and their access to fundamental rights may be restricted.

Social exclusion: Social exclusion is a process whereby certain individuals are pushed to the
edge of  society  and prevented from  participating  fully  by  virtue  of  their  poverty,  or  lack  of
basic competencies and lifelong learning opportunities, or as a result of discrimination. This
distances them from job, income and education opportunities as well as social and community
networks and activities. They have little access to power and decision-making bodies and thus
often feeling powerless and unable to take  control over the decisions that affect their day to
day lives.

Social inclusion: Social inclusion is a process which ensures that those at risk of poverty and
social  exclusion  gain  the  opportunities  and  resources  necessary  to  participate  fully  in
economic,  social  and  cultural  life  and  to  enjoy  a  standard  of  living  and  well-being  that  is
considered  normal  in  the  society  in  which  they  live.  It  ensures  that  they  have  greater
participation  in  decision  making  which  affects  their  lives  and  access  to  their  fundamental
rights2.

Background

Following  the  recognition  under  Articles  136  and  137  EC  of  the  Amsterdam  Treaty  of
combating social exclusion  as one  of the  fields  where  the  Community  had  an  active  role  in
supporting and complementing the activities of Member States, the Lisbon European Council
of March 2000 agreed on the need to take steps to make a decisive impact on the eradication
of  poverty  by  2010.  It  also  agreed  that  Member  States  should  co-ordinate  their  policies  for
combating poverty and social exclusion on the basis of an open method combining common
objectives, National Action Plans and a Community action programme.

In December 2000 the Nice European Council decided to launch the new method in the field
of combating poverty and social exclusion and defined a common set of four objectives:

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

To facilitate participation in employment and access to resources, rights, goods, and
services for all;

To prevent the risks of exclusion;

To help the most vulnerable;

To mobilise all relevant bodies.

National  Action Plans for social  inclusion (NAPs/inclusion  for  short)  play  a  key  role  in  the
EU  process,  to  the  extent  that  they  translate  the  common  objectives  into  national  policies,
while taking into account their individual national circumstances and the particular nature of
national social protection systems and social policies.

2

As defined in the Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

9

 
                                                
All  Member  States  submitted  their  first  NAPs/inclusion  in  June  2001.  Their  preparation
provided  an  opportunity  for  wide  information  and  consultation  of  the  most  concerned
stakeholders  and  to  review  the  bases  of  the  national  strategies  to  fight  poverty  and  social
exclusion.  It  also  represented  an  opportunity  to  develop  a  more  strategic  and  integrated
approach  to  combating  poverty.  Moreover,  the  information  provided  in  the  NAPs/inclusion
provided a good basis for the exchange of learning and best practice across the Union.

The main findings of the examination of the NAPs/inclusion carried out by the Commission
and  the  Member  States  were  presented  in  the  Joint  Report  on  social  inclusion,  which  was
endorsed by the Laeken European Council in December 2001.

A  solid  basis  for  monitoring  progress  and  assessing  the  effectiveness  of  policy  efforts  was
established with the endorsement of 18 commonly agreed indicators to measure poverty and
social exclusion also at Laeken. A variety of domains is covered - income poverty, as well as
long-term unemployment, health and lifelong learning – reflecting the widespread perception
that  poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  Europe  have  a  multi-dimensional  nature  and  cannot  be
reduced to one single variable. These indicators should serve as a basis for the EU and each
individual  Member  State  to  assess  objectively  progress  of  the  multi-annual  process  on  the
basis of verified outcomes. National indicators should continue to have a role, in particular in
those  fields  (e.g.  housing)  where  it  was  not  yet  possible  to  define  a  significant  common
ground.

Another achievement in 2001 was the adoption of the first Community action programme to
encourage co-ordination in the fight against social exclusion. The programme, which will be
implemented 
to  support  policy  analysis  and  statistical
improvements, the exchange of good practice and the promotion of networking across Europe
among NGOs active in fighting poverty and social exclusion. The programme, which is part
of the Open Method of Co-ordination, should be closely combined with the NAPs/inclusion.

in  2002-2006, 

intended 

is 

During the first two years, the implementation of the EU social inclusion process was smooth
and  is  regarded  by  the  Commission,  the  Council  and  other  stakeholders  as  a  positive  step.
Reflecting a wide consensus about the usefulness of the new process and the robustness of the
common objectives adopted in Nice, the Council decided in December 2002 to ask Member
States  to  prepare  a  second  round  of  NAPs/inclusion  for  July  2003  on  the  basis  of  common
objectives where just a few substantive changes were introduced:

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

An  invitation  to  Member  States 
their
to 
NAPs/inclusion  (in  fulfilment  of  the  conclusions  of  the  Barcelona  European
Council);

include  national 

targets 

in 

An  emphasis  placed  on  gender  differentiation  in  the  analysis  of  social
exclusion and in assessing policy impact;

The  highlighting  of  the  special  difficulties  facing  immigrants  as  regards  their
social inclusion.

The future of the EU social inclusion process

In line with the Lisbon strategy, the Open Method of Co-ordination on social inclusion should
be seen in close connection with other processes contributing to economic growth and greater
social  cohesion.  Particularly  relevant  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  goals  of  the  social  inclusion
process  are  the  economic  and  the  employment  policy  co-ordination  processes,  underpinned

10

 
respectively  by  the  Broad  Economic  Policy  Guidelines  and  the  European  Employment
Strategy.  Also  increasingly  relevant  is  the  Open  Method  of  Co-ordination  on  pensions  that
was  launched  in  2002  and  the  co-operative  exchange  on  health  and  long-term  care  for  the
elderly.  It  is  vital  that  at  national  level,  Member  States  ensure  coherence  between  their
strategies for social inclusion and their policies in these areas.

Equally  at  the  EU  level,  there  is  a  need  to  improve  the  consistency  between  the  policy
messages arising from the different co-ordination  processes, while  avoiding a multiplication
of processes with different rules and often overlapping objectives. These are the main reasons
why the Commission has set out in a recent communication3 a proposal aimed at streamlining
and  simplifying  policy  co-operation  in  the  field  of  social  protection  based  on  the  Open
Method of Co-ordination. This will involve the creation of a streamlined process, on the basis
of a common set of objectives encompassing healthcare, pensions and social inclusion, which
fit more effectively other policy co-ordination processes, notably the Broad Economic Policy
Guidelines  and  the  Employment  Strategy,  thereby  giving  more  visibility  to  the  social
dimension in the implementation of the overall Lisbon strategy. Reporting arrangements will
be simplified, with one single strategic report every three years alternating with light updates
in  the  intervening  years  from  2006  onwards.  The  Commission  has  further  proposed  that  a
Joint Report on social protection and social inclusion be issued for the first time in 2005, with
the aim of analysing major policy developments against the background of recent social and
economic trends and forecasts and providing the basis for the delivery of key policy messages
to the Spring European Council.

In moving gradually to this new streamlined process of policy co-ordination, it is crucial not
to lose the momentum that the preparation and monitoring of the NAPs/inclusion has set off
in  many  Member  States.  Throughout  the  consultation  following  the  publication  of  the
communication of May 2003, this point was well stressed by many stakeholders and Member
States.  The  visibility  of  the  different  elements  of  the  process  and  in  particular  of  the
NAPs/inclusion has to be therefore ensured in the future within a context leading to increased
consistency in the formulation  of  strategies  at  both  national  and  EU  level.  Furthermore,  the
goals and the monitoring tools of the EU social inclusion process will need to be adequately
and consistently reflected in the Sustainable Development Strategy.

The impact of enlargement

With enlargement, the Union will have to face new and comparatively  greater challenges in
promoting social inclusion. It is possible to infer from comparative social indicators based on
national  data,  as  well  as  studies,  that  large  sections  of  the  populations  in  the  applicant
countries  live  on  low  income  and  lack  access  to  some  basic  services  and  facilities.  In  most
applicant  countries  unemployment  is  high  and  social  protection  systems  are  not  sufficiently
developed in order to provide secure income to elderly, sick or disabled people. In some, the
social  situation  of  ethnic  minorities,  of  children  and  of  mentally  ill  persons  raises  serious
concerns.  On  the  other  hand,  income  inequality  is  generally  lower  and  lifelong  learning
performance  is  better  than  in  many  present  Member  States.  In  a  general  context  where  the
concept of social exclusion as defined above is still rather recent and where there is a risk that
the  promotion  of  social  inclusion  may  be  seen  as  a  secondary  goal  subordinate  to
competitiveness  or  economic  growth,  it  will  be  essential  to  emphasise  the  complementarity
between policies and strategies aiming for economic growth and social cohesion.

3

COM(2003)261 of 27th May 2003.

11

 
                                                
However, enlargement should also  be seen as  a  positive  opportunity  for  a  more  widespread
two-way  exchange  of  experience  and  good  practice,  and  more  intense  networking  between
associations,  local  and  national  authorities  facing  broadly  similar  challenges.  The  greater
diversity of social situations and systems in the Union after enlargement will act as a powerful
stimulant for driving forward the open method of co-ordination in the area of social protection
and social inclusion.

For these reasons it was crucial to involve all Acceding Countries in the EU social inclusion
process,  well  before  the  date  of  formal  enlargement.  DG  EMPL  and  each  of  the  Acceding
Countries agreed in 2002 to initiate a bilateral co-operation process centred on the drafting of
Joint  Inclusion  Memoranda  (JIMs)  with  the  aim  of  identifying  the  key  social  challenges  in
each country, setting out the major policies in place or envisaged and highlighting a few key
policy  issues  for  further  review.  The  JIMs  will  be  finalised  and  signed  jointly  by  the
Commission and  each  of the  10 acceding  countries  before  the  end  of  the  current  year.  This
process is expected to prepare the accession countries for their full participation in the social
inclusion  process  which  will  start  in  mid-2004  with  the  submission  of  their  first
NAPs/inclusion for the period 2004-2006.

12

 
PART I – THE EUROPEAN UNION

1. 

SOCIAL INCLUSION – THE EU SITUATION

After  setting  the  economic  and  demographic  context,  this  chapter  provides  a  synthetic
comparative analysis of the situation and trends over recent  years  of  social inclusion in
the Union. It does so on the basis of a selection of the EU common indicators of poverty
and social exclusion. A description of the common indicators, together with background
information on their adoption process, the methodological framework for their selection
and the statistical sources used, is included in chapter 10 and in the Statistical Annex. The
latter also contains tables showing the  results of the indicators on the basis of common
EU sources.

The economic and demographic context

The  situation  of  social  inclusion  since  the  launch  of  the  EU  inclusion  process  must  be
seen  in  the  context  of  deteriorated  overall  macroeconomic  conditions,  with  the  EU
continuing  to  feel  the  impact  of  the  prolonged  economic  slowdown.  EU  GDP  growth
averaged  only  1.1%  in  2002,  down  from  a  brisk  annual  growth  rate  of  3.5%  in  2001.
According to the Commission's Autumn Economic Forecasts, the sluggishness in the EU
economy is expected to continue in 2003 and there is unlikely to be a vigorous rebound.
GDP growth is expected to average a mere 0.8% in 2003 before picking up to a modest
2% in 2004 and approach 2.5% only in 2005.

Although  during  the  initial  stage  of  the  economic  slowdown  EU  labour  market
performance  remained  quite  resilient,  employment  growth  in  the  EU  slowed  down  in
2002, after growing by well over 1 percentage point per year on average since 1997, and
unemployment has started to rise again after half a decade of steady decline. Employment
contraction has been a worrying feature in Belgium, Denmark and Germany. The average
unemployment rate for the EU as a whole rose to 7.7% in 2002, and is projected to rise to
8.1% in 2003. Despite progress in the immediately preceding years, unemployment rates
remain particularly high in Finland, Greece and Spain, and especially so for women in the
latter two countries. It is expected to rise beyond the 9% level in France and Germany.

Notwithstanding  these  disappointing  developments,  the  EU  has  continued  to  make
progress towards reaching the Lisbon and Stockholm employment targets, although at a
much slower pace compared to recent years. In 2002, the employment rate in the EU is
estimated  at  64.3%,  almost  one  percentage  point  higher  than  in  2001,  when  it  stood  at
63.4%.  The  employment  rate  for  women  has  risen  more  noticeably  to  55.6%,  up  from
54.1% in 2001, while for men it fell slightly over the last year to 72.8%. The gender gap
in  employment  rates  is  thus  narrowing,  but  large  differences  of  between  27  and  29
percentage points remain in Greece, Italy and Spain. For the older age group (55-64 years
of age) the employment rate for the EU as a whole stood at just over 40%, with Belgium
recording the lowest rate (at just under 27%) and Sweden the highest (68%). Over recent

13

 
years the employment rate for older people has risen substantially in all Member States
except Austria, Germany, Greece and Italy.

Meanwhile,  the  long-term  societal  consequences  of  ageing  of  the  European  population
are becoming clearer. Soon the century-long growth in the size of Europe's working age
population will come to a halt, and in less than a decade the impact of the retirement of
the  baby-boomers  will  begin  to  be  fully  felt.  Although  fertility  increased  slightly  from
1.45 children per woman in 1999 to 1.47 in 2001, it is still well below the replacement
level  of  2.1.  Life  expectancy  is  growing  –  it  increased  by  two  years  for  both  men  and
women  over  the  past  decade  –  and  mortality  is  increasingly  concentrated  in  old  age.
Today, people aged 65 and over represent 16% of the total population while those below
15  represent  17%.  Already  by  2010  these  shares  will  be  inverted.  The  most  dramatic
increase will occur in the number of 'very old' people (aged over 80), which will rise by
almost 50% over the next 15 years.

The rising old age dependency rates will increase demands on society to cope with caring
needs.  At  the  same  time,  developments  in  household  structures  slowly  undermine  the
objective  conditions  for  inter-generational  solidarity  within  the  family.  There  are  fewer
and  later  marriages,  and  also  more  marital  breakdowns.  The  trend  towards  smaller
households,  with  more  people  living  alone  at  all  ages,  is  continuing.  There  is  also  a
striking rise in the number of children living with only one adult, and a fall in the number
of couples with children. In 2000, 10% of children aged 0-14 years were living with just
one adult compared with 6% in 1990. The overwhelming majority of these single parents
are women.

Income poverty risk: cross-country comparisons in 2001

In  the  absence  of  a  fully  developed  set  of  indicators  reflecting  the  multi-dimensional
nature of the issue, the analysis of poverty and social exclusion in the EU is largely based
on available, primarily income-related indicators. There is a primary focus on indicators
showing  the  relation  to  the  average  level  of  prosperity  in  a  given  country  and  point  in
time. An absolute notion is less relevant for the EU for two basic reasons. First, the key
challenge for Europe is to make the whole population share the benefits of high average
prosperity,  and  not  to  reach  basic  standards  of  living,  as  in  less  developed  parts  of  the
world. Secondly, what is regarded as minimal acceptable living standards depends largely
on  the  general  level  of  social  and  economic  development,  which  tends  to  vary
considerably across Member States.

The proportion of individuals living in households where income is below the threshold
of 60% of the national equivalised median income is taken as an indicator of the risk of
poverty. In 2001, 15% of the EU population were classified as being  at risk of poverty,
corresponding to more than 55 million individuals in the EU. This average value for the
EU masks considerable variation across Member States, with the share of the population
at risk of poverty ranging from 10% in Sweden to 21% in Ireland.

The longer the length of time someone has to live on low income the greater the risk of
deprivation and exclusion from social, cultural and economic activity and the greater the

14

 
risk of extreme social isolation. In all countries, half or more of those at risk of poverty in
2001 have been living on low income for an extended period of time, that is, they had an
equivalised income below the 60% threshold in the current  year  and at least two  of  the
preceding  three  years  (i.e.,  1998-2000).  In  Greece  and  Portugal,  where  the  at-risk-of
poverty rate is very high, as many as two out of three of those with an income below the
poverty threshold in 2001 have been persistently at risk of poverty. On average in the EU,
9 % of the population have been persistently poor in 2001.

Figure 1.

At-risk-of-poverty rate, total and persistent share - 2001

24

20

16

12

8

4

0

S

D

DK

FIN

NL

A

L

B

EU15

F

UK

E

I

EL

P

IRL

of which: persistent rate

At risk of poverty rate 

Note: Data on persistent poverty risk are not available for Sweden.

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

The  relative  median  poverty  gap  -  i.e.,  the  difference  between  the  median  equivalised
income of the poor and the 60% threshold, expressed as a percentage of this threshold -
measures how far below the threshold the income of people at risk of poverty is. This is
an  important  indicator  to  complement  the  headcount  measure  of  poverty  risk,  as  it
provides information on "how poor are the poor".

In 2001, the median poverty risk gap was 22% at EU level. This means that half of those
at  risk  of  poverty  had  an  equivalised  income  below  78%  of  the  at-risk  of  poverty
threshold, or 47% of the median equivalised income.

15

 
Figure 2.

The median at-risk-of-poverty gap, 2001 (%)

30

24

18

12

6

0

B

FIN

L

A

D

DK

F

NL

S

EU15

P

UK

E

IRL

EL

I

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

The  comparative  analysis  of  the  national  thresholds  helps  to  illustrate  the  relative
dimension of the poverty measure that is being used. This comparison is important for the
understanding  of  the  different  level  of  economic  well-being  across  countries4.  Figure  3
shows  the  monetary  value  of  the  national  at-risk  of  poverty  thresholds  in  Purchasing
Power  Standards  for  a  single  adult  household.  The  values  for  Portugal  and  Greece  are
particularly low. At the other extreme, Luxembourg stands out for having a value of the
threshold which is 170% of the EU average.

4

Such  comparison  will  be  all  the  more  important  in  the  context  of  an  enlarged  Union,  since  in
Accession countries relatively narrow income distributions result in rates of poverty risk that are
not  too  dissimilar  from  those  recorded  in  the  current  Member  States,  in  spite  of  their  very  low
levels of average national income.

16

 
                                                
Figure 3.

Illustrative value of the at-risk of poverty threshold for a single adult

household, in PPS, 2001

16000

12000

8000

4000

0

P

EL

E

I

S

FIN

IRL

EU15

NL

F

UK

B

A

D

DK

L

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

From the analysis above it appears that the income poverty risk manifests itself in various
forms simultaneously. The countries with the highest exposure to poverty risk in terms of
headcount ratio, both when measured in one point in time and over a longer period, often
also  display  the  highest  relative  poverty  gap.  This  is  the  result  of  wide  income
distributions at the bottom, combined with relatively low overall living standards.

The focus of the poverty risk measure is on the bottom part of the income distribution. It
is also interesting to look at the overall income distribution, for example as measured by
the  relative  position  of  the  bottom  quintile  to  that  of  the  top  group.  In  2001,  the  total
equivalised  income  received  by  the  top  income  quintile  was  4.4  times  greater  that
received by the poorest income quintile group. Ratios range from 3.1 in Denmark to 6.5
in  Portugal  (see  Table  6  in  the  Statistical  Annex).  The  ranking  of  countries  is  quite
similar if  one  looks at  the Gini coefficient, which  is  a  summary  measure  of  the  overall
distribution  of  income  (Table  7).  It  is  notable  that  income  inequality  appears  to  have
decreased (or at least remained stable) over the period 1995-2001 in all except the Nordic
countries which have traditionally been characterised by low income inequality anyway.

Incidence of poverty risk by gender, household type and age

Women are generally at greater risk of living in a poor household: in 2001, 16% of adult
women (aged 16 years or more) had an income below the threshold, against 13% of men
in  the  same  age  group5.  This  pattern  is  consistent  across  all  Member  States,  with  the

5

Except  for  single  person  households,  gender  gaps  in  poverty  risk  need  to  be  interpreted  with
caution, since they rely on the assumption of equal sharing of income within the household.

17

 
                                                
widest differences being recorded in  Austria,  Finland and the United  Kingdom.  Austria
and  Finland,  together  with  Ireland,  also  display  the  largest  gender  gaps  in  terms  of
persistent poverty risk (Table 3), whereas the gender gap for the EU as a whole for this
indicator is small. Evidence concerning the median gap by gender is mixed (Table 4), as
in  many  countries  the  gap  is  higher  for  men  than  for  women.  The  risk  of  poverty  is
comparatively  greater  for  women  in  specific  age  groups,  in  particular  for  older  women
(aged 65 years and over: 21% as compared to 16% for older men for the EU as a whole).

Figure 4.

At-risk-of-poverty rate for individuals aged 16 years and over by

gender, 2001

25

20

15

10

5

0

NL D L S A DK

FIN B

EU15 F UK E 

I P

IRL EL

Total Women Men

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

By household type, the risk of poverty is highest among single parent households (35%
for the EU average), most of whom are headed by women.  In the United Kingdom, the
exposure  to  the  poverty  risk  for  single  parent  households,  which  represent  a  relatively
high  proportion  of  all  households,  is  particularly  high  (50%,  see  Table  9).  Also  those
living in large households with three or more dependent children are particularly exposed
to income poverty risk, with Ireland, Italy, Spain and Portugal displaying the highest risk
(between 34% and 49%, against a EU average of 27%).

As  a  consequence,  in  most  countries  children  experience  levels  of  income  poverty  that
are higher than those for adults. Material deprivation among children must be a matter of
serious  concern,  as  it  is  generally  recognised  to  affect  their  development  and  future
opportunities. In 2001, rates of poverty risk for children were of 24% or more in Spain,
Ireland, Italy, Portugal and the United Kingdom. Differences in the persistence  of child
poverty relative to adults are also significant (12% as against 9% for the EU as a whole),
which suggests that specific factors shape the risks of poverty faced by children relative
to those faced by the entire population.

18

 
Figure 5.

At-risk-of-poverty rate for children (aged 0-15 years), 2001

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

S D DK

FIN NL A L B

EU15 F UK E 

I EL P

IRL

0-15

Total

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

At  the  other  extreme  of  the  age  scale,  people  aged  65  years  and  over  (Table  2)  suffer
from a relatively high risk of poverty as well, especially in Denmark, Greece, Ireland and
Portugal.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Italy,  Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands  and  Sweden,  the
elderly are less affected by the risk of poverty than the total population.

The analysis of the income situation of the elderly can suffer from the fact that the data
source used to calculate income poverty rates takes no account of imputed rent, i.e., the
money  that  one  saves  on  rent  by  living  in  one's  own  accommodation.  This  is  likely  to
result  in  underestimated  living  standards  of  older  households,  who  are  generally  more
likely  to  be  living  in  their  own  accommodation  than  younger  households.  Furthermore,
the  omission  of  interest  payments  will  tend  to  overestimate  the  income  of  those
(generally younger) households who are still paying a mortgage. All this will also tend to
affect  comparisons  of  the  overall  poverty  risk  across  countries,  as  long  as  the  share  of
owner-occupiers  in  the  total  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty  varies  a  lot  across
countries.  This  is  actually  the  case,  and  this  share  is  highest  in  the  Southern  European
countries,  with  a  maximum  of  93%  in  Greece,  and  lowest  in  Germany  and  the
Netherlands (35% of the total number of those at risk of poverty). Therefore, if imputed
rent were taken into account, the distribution of the poverty risk across countries would
likely be flatter than Figure 1 suggests.

Analysis  of  income  data  may  also  suffer  from  not  taking  into  account  benefits  in  kind
(social  housing,  home  care,  free  services,  e.g.),  which  are  particularly  relevant  for
assessing the net income situation of elderly persons.

19

 
Trends in income poverty over the most recent years

Determining trends in income poverty risk since 2001 remains problematic due to delays
inherent in  compiling  and validating statistics6,  although  recent  investment  in  statistical
capacity-building are expected to bring some improvement in timeliness in the future. It
is therefore not possible to establish a clear picture of the impact on income poverty made
by the new EU co-ordination process. The years immediately preceding the set-up of the
new strategy have  witnessed  a  trend  reduction  of the level of relative  poverty,  with  the
EU average declining from 17% in 1995 to 15% in 2001.

The  relative  nature  of  the  measure  of  poverty  risk  under  consideration  must  be  kept  in
mind when interpreting changes over time. A decrease (increase) in the proportion of the
population  at  risk  of  poverty  means  that  there  are  less  (more)  people  with  an  income
below the threshold, which itself varies over time since it refers to a central value of the
income distribution of the year in question. If the level of the poverty threshold increases,
namely as a result of economic and employment growth, and at the same time the at-risk
of poverty rate decreases, then the income of some of those below the poverty threshold
in the starting year will have grown at a faster pace than the level of the threshold.

In all countries, the value of the poverty threshold has grown by more than just inflation,
reflecting the growth in the overall level of prosperity. How do the results of poverty risk
rate observed for 2001 relate to this improvement? Figure 6 below shows the percentage
point  change  over  the  period  1998-2001  of  both  the  standard  poverty  risk  rate  and  the
"poverty risk anchored in one moment in time", which is calculated with reference to the
value  of  the  threshold  in  1998  uprated  only  by  inflation.  In  all  countries,  the  at-risk  of
poverty rate anchored in 1998 has decreased over the three  years to 2001, especially  in
Spain  and  Ireland.  However,  in  Ireland,  the  proportion  of  the  population  with  an
equivalised income below the current threshold has increased: this means that the income
conditions of some of those who were at-risk of poverty in 1998 have improved, but not
enough to keep pace with the overall increase in living standards in the country.

6

Another problem is the lack of confidence interval estimates for changes over time. Trends over
time must, therefore, be interpreted with caution.

20

 
                                                
Figure 6. Changes between 1998 and 2001 in the at-risk-of-poverty rate and the
at-risk-of-poverty rate anchored in one moment in time (1998)

Percentage point changes

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

-8

BE

DK

DE

EL

ES

FR

IE

IT

LU

NL

AT

PT

FI

SE

UK EU15

Risk-of-poverty rate

Risk-of-poverty rate anchored in one moment in time (1998)

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

Measuring the impact of social protection

One important methodological principle for the selection of the common indicators is that
they  must  measure  social  outcomes  rather  than  the  means  by  which  they  are  achieved.
This  is  in  the  respect  of  the  very  nature  of  the  open  method  of  co-ordination,  whereby
Member States agree on objectives but are left free to choose the policies by which these
objectives are to be met. Furthermore, an indicator that measures policy effort is of little
help if there is no way of knowing whether the effort is achieving its goal. One indicator
that makes a partial exception to this rule is the indicator of at-risk of poverty rate before
social cash transfers, which when compared to the risk rate after social transfers  can be
seen as an indicator of impact of social transfers in reducing poverty.

In  the  hypothetical  situation  of  absence  of  all  social  cash  transfers  and  pensions,  the
poverty risk for the population of the EU would be considerably higher than it is in reality
(39% instead of 15% in 2001). It can be argued that the prime role of old age pensions is
not to redistribute income across individuals but rather over the life-cycle of individuals.
If, therefore, pensions are considered as primary income rather than social transfers, the
at-risk-of  poverty  rate  would  be  24%,  9  percentage  points  higher  than  the  poverty  risk
measured after social transfers.

21

 
Figure  7  below  shows  the  percentage  drop  (in  absolute  value)  of  the  at-risk  of  poverty
rate  calculated  before  and  after  cash  transfers7,  both  excluding  and  including  pensions
from the notion of "social cash transfers". When pensions are excluded and considered as
primary income, the drop is lowest in Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain.  It is highest in
Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Luxembourg  and  especially  Sweden,  reflecting  both  the
higher  level  of  social  protection  expenditure  in  these  countries  as  well  as  its  focus  on
income  re-distribution.  When  pensions  are  included,  the  picture  changes  significantly.
The  contribution  of  social  transfers  to  the  reduction  of  income  poverty  risk  remains
highest in Sweden, followed by Germany, and becomes much higher in Italy and Greece.
This  reflects the structure  of  social protection expenditure  in  these  countries,  as  a  large
share of it is devoted to pensions, as well as the structure of the population by age.

Figure 7. Impact of social transfers (excluding and including pensions) on the at-
risk-of poverty rate, 2001.

% reduction in the total at-risk-of-poverty rate

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

EL

I

P

E

IRL

EU15

F

UK

FIN

B

A

D

DK

NL

L

S

Excluding pensions

Including pensions

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

The impact of social cash transfers on the poverty risk rate differs across age groups and
by  gender  (Table  12).  For  the  EU  as  a  whole,  social  cash  transfers  excluding  pensions
have the highest poverty risk-reducing effect on children (in 2001, the drop was of 39%,
as against 32% for people aged 16 years and over). In the Nordic countries, the drop in
the  poverty  risk  rate  for  children  was  as  high  as  65%  or  more;  on  the  other  hand,  in

7

This indicator must be interpreted with some caution, for a number of reasons. First, no account is
taken of interventions that, like social cash transfers, can have the effect of raising the disposable
income  of  households  and  individuals,  namely  transfers  in  kind  as  well  as  tax  credits  and  tax
allowances.  Second,  it  compares  the  poverty  risk  before  and  after  transfers  keeping  "all  other
things equal".

22

 
                                                
Greece,  Spain  and  Italy,  children  are  the  group  who  benefit  least  from  poverty  relief
allowed  by  social  benefits  (the  percentage  drop  was  of  less  than  15%).  Among  adults,
social  benefits  (excluding  pensions)  reduce  the  poverty  risk  more  for  men  than  for
women in all countries (with the sole exceptions of the Netherlands and Sweden; the drop
for  the  EU  as  a  whole  was  of  35%  for  men  and  33%  for  women).  When  pensions  are
included, however, differences by gender are less marked, and are in favour of women in
a few countries.

In interpreting the indicator of poverty risk before social transfers, it must be kept in mind
that social protection can provide a relief to poverty but does not per se' help individuals
and families durably elude poverty. If they are to be effective in the fight against poverty
and  social  exclusion,  social  transfers  in  cash  must  be  accompanied  by  adequate  health
care, education, social services and integration into the labour market for those capable of
working.  This  is  why  many  Member  States  are  increasingly  focusing  their  policies  on
promoting  individual  self-sufficiency  through  an  employment-friendly  social  protection
system that fosters participation in the labour market.

Low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty and social exclusion, and in order to
measure and analyse this phenomenon more at length, it is necessary to take into account
other  equally  relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  education,  housing,
healthcare, the degree of satisfaction of basic needs and the ability to participate fully in
society. Many  of  these  aspects  are in  reality  very  difficult  to  measure,  especially  at  the
level of the EU. The rest of this chapter discusses the evidence based on the EU common
indicators  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  which  do  not  cover  other  important  aspects
like  adequacy  of  housing,  mortality  and  access  to  health  care  by  socio-economic  status
and social participation.

The labour market dimension of poverty and social exclusion

Employment is a key factor for social inclusion, not only because it generates income but
also because it can promote social participation and personal development.

Long-term unemployment is very closely associated  with social distress,  as  people who
have been jobless for a long time tend to loose the skills and the self-esteem necessary to
regain a foothold in the labour market, unless appropriate and timely support is provided.
In 2002, long-term unemployment affected 3% of the EU labour force (and 39% of the
unemployed).  Almost  two  thirds  of  them  had  in  fact  been  unemployed  for  a  very  long
time  (at  least  24  months,  see  Table  19).  Within  the  EU,  according  to  2002  figures,
Austria, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Sweden have long-term unemployment
rates of 1% or below. Long-term unemployment remains high in Greece and Italy, where
more  than  5%  of  the  labour  force  is  affected.  These  two  Member  States,  along  with
Spain, also display the greatest disparity between genders. For the EU as a whole, long-
term  unemployment  rates  are  higher  for  women  than  for  men,  although  in  Finland,
Ireland, Sweden and the UK the opposite applies.

At the EU level, long-term unemployment has declined gradually from its peak level of
4.9% in 1995 to 3% in 2002. The most evident gains are recorded in Ireland and Spain:

23

 
between 1995 and 2002, Spain more than halved its long-term unemployment rate to just
below the 4% level, while in Ireland it decreased from 8% to 1.3%.

Figure 8.

Long-term unemployment rate, 1995 and 2002

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

NL

L

A

DK

S

UK

IRL

P

FIN

F

EU15

B

E

D

EL

I

1995

2002

Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS

The  fact  that  being  in  employment  is  by  far  the  most  effective  way  to  secure  oneself
against  the  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  clearly  borne  out  by  the  evidence
shown in Figure 9 according to which only 7% of the employed  population (and 6% of
wage  and  salary  employees)  in  the  EU  lived  below  the  risk  of  poverty  line  in  2002,  as
against 38% of the unemployed and 25% of the inactive. In Ireland, Italy and the United
Kingdom, around one in two unemployed persons are at risk of poverty. The retired are
particularly exposed  to  the  risk  of  poverty in Greece  and  Ireland,  whereas  in  Denmark,
Ireland  and  the  United  Kingdom  other  economically  inactive  people  display  a  high
poverty risk.

24

 
Figure 9. Risk of poverty rate and most frequent activity status, 2001

40

30

20

10

0

Total

Employed

of which:
Dependent
employee

of which: Self-
employed

Unemployed

Retired

Other inactive

Source: Eurostat, ECHP-UDB, version June 2003

Even  if  people  in  employment  are  less  exposed  to  the  risk  of  poverty  than  other  status
groups, they represent a large share of those at risk of poverty, since a large part of the
adult population is at work. In the EU, around a quarter of the people aged 16 years and
over at risk of poverty are in employment; in Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Portugal
this  share  is  of  40%  or  higher.  The  in-work  poor,  therefore,  must  raise  policy  concern.
Low pay is obviously an important risk factor of in-work poverty, but being low-skilled
and remaining in unstable and often part-time employment8, can also lead to poverty as
well as to inadequate pensions in the future. Other, equally important factors relate to the
household situation of workers: clearly, lone parents or sole earners in a household with
children are particularly vulnerable to poverty risk (see Table 14).

Indeed,  the  notion  of  in-work  poverty  only  partly  refers  to  the  situation  of  individuals,
since the poverty risk is measured at the household level. Thus, the economic well-being
of the unemployed, the inactive or the low paid depends on the sum of all the resources
contributed by all the members of their households. Increasingly,  therefore, the absence
of employment at the level of households is recognised as a key risk factor for poverty.

In the  EU as a whole, in  2002, around  one  in  ten individuals aged 18 to 59  years were
living  in  jobless  households  (Figure  10).  This  share  was  highest  in  Belgium  (14%),
followed by the United Kingdom (11%). Invariably, women are more likely to live in a
jobless household than men.

8

The evidence shows self-employment as being another "risk factor". Reliability of income data for
the self-employed, however, is not guaranteed, given the problem of under-reporting of income.

25

 
                                                
There  is  some  evidence  of  progress  in  this  area.  The  proportion  of  working  age  adults
living in jobless households has declined between 1995 and 2002/2003 in most countries,
with particularly large falls in Ireland, the Netherlands and Spain.

Figure 10.

People aged 18-59 years living in jobless households, 2002

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

B

D EL

E

F

IRL

I

L NL

A

P UK

EU15

Total  Women Men

Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS

Particular concerns are raised when children are growing up in a jobless household, as the
absence of a working adult  as  a  role  model  could  be  a  factor  affecting  educational  and
future  labour  market  achievements  of  children.  In  2002,  the  share  of  children  living  in
jobless  households  was  slightly  higher  than  for  prime  age  adults  (9.9%)  but  variations
across  countries  are  more  marked,  with  less  than  3%  of  children  living  in  jobless
households in Luxembourg and more than 17% in the United Kingdom.

The share of children living in jobless households has decreased in many countries, and
considerably so in Ireland and Spain.

26

 
Figure 11.

Children living in jobless households, 1995 and 2002

25

20

15

10

5

0

L

A

P

EL

NL

E

I

D

F

EU15

IRL

B

UK

1995

2002

Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS

Regional cohesion

All the indicators that have been examined so far are calculated at the national level. Yet,
territorial  differences  matter  not  only  across  but  also  within  countries.  A  clear
understanding  of  the  nature  and  situation  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  at  the  sub-
national level is important for the design and implementation of effective policies to fight
against  them.  It  may  be  particularly  relevant,  for  instance,  to  distinguish  between  rural
and urban areas. Unfortunately, however, considerations of statistical reliability hinder a
breakdown  by  region  of  most  of  the  EU  common  indicators.  Furthermore,  there  is  no
accepted definition, at EU level, of regions other than those based on administrative and
political criteria (i.e. the NUTS classification).

A  proxy  measure  of  social  cohesion  across  regions  is  represented  by  the  dispersion
(coefficient  of  variation)  of  employment  rates  at  NUTS2  level.  Regional  cohesion  is
lowest in Italy, followed at some distance by Spain. The former country also shows little
improvement  since  1996,  whereas  for  the  EU  as  a  whole  there  appears  to  be  some
convergence  of  regional  employment  rates.  Objective  1  regions  have  seen  their
employment  rates  increase  at  a  faster  pace  than  in  others:  between  1996  and  2002,  the
number  employed  in  the  former  rose  by  over  5%  of  the  working-age  population,  as
against 4% in  the rest  of the  EU.  Still,  the proportion of the working-age population  in
employment  remains  markedly  lower  in  Objective  1  regions  (56.2%  in  2002)  than  in
others (66.7%).

27

 
The skill dimension of poverty and social exclusion

The lack of basic competences and qualifications is a major barrier to inclusion in society
and this is even more the case in an increasingly knowledge-based society and economy.
There is thus a growing danger of new cleavages in society being created between those
learning  for  employment  and  adaptability,  personal
having  access 
development and active citizenship and those who remain excluded. “Making a European
Area  of  Lifelong  Learning  a  Reality”9  therefore  still  remains  a  major  challenge  for  a
socially inclusive society.

lifelong 

to 

2002/2003  LFS  data  show  that  around  19%  of  all  18-24  years  old  had  only  lower
education (i.e., less than upper secondary qualification) and had not attended education or
training  in  the  four  weeks  preceding  the  survey.  Values  ranged  from  10%  or  less  in
Austria, Finland and Sweden to 41% in Portugal. In all countries, young males are more
likely  to  leave  the  education  system  with  low  educational  qualifications  than  young
females (Table 20).

Trends over time can be observed by looking at different cohorts of people: the difference
between  the  share  of  people  with  low  educational  attainment  among  youth  (18  to  24
years)  and  the  elderly  (aged  65  years  and  over,  Table  21)  is  striking:  in  the  EU  as  a
whole,  as  many  as  70%  in  the  latter  group  have  attained  less  than  upper  education,  as
opposed to the 19% of all 18-24 year olds noted above. Major gains appear to have been
recorded  in  Southern  countries,  which  all  started  with  low  educational  attainment  rates
for the older cohorts of well over 80%.

Health

An indicator in the area of health that can be seen as expressing the health status as well
as the general well-being of nations is  the  life expectancy at  birth  (Table 22). This  is a
complex  indicator  reflecting  several  dimensions;  apart  from  the  health  status  of
individuals,  it  reflects  access  to  and  utilisation  of  health  services,  as  well  as  socio-
economic factors more at large.

The EU population is characterised by high life expectancy at birth: national figures are
between  just  below  77  years  (in  Denmark,  Ireland  and  Portugal)  and  79  years  (Spain,
Italy and Sweden). Although life expectancy is about six years higher for women than for
men, due to persistently higher male mortality throughout the entire life cycle, the gap is
starting to narrow as life expectancy has increased more for men than for women in the
last decade in the majority of the Member States.

There is a widespread understanding that poor health is both a cause and a consequence
of  wider  socio-economic  difficulties.  Accordingly,  the  overall  health  status  of  the
population  tends  to  be  weaker  in  lower  income  groups.  The  percentage  of  people
claiming their health to be bad or very bad is significantly higher for those below the risk

9

(COM (2001) 678 final)

28

 
                                                
of  poverty  line  than  for  those  above  it  in  the  Union  as  a  whole  (16%  and  7%
respectively), as well as in all Member States (Table 23).

2. 

KEY TRENDS AND NEW AND EMERGING CHALLENGES ARISING FROM THE
NAPS/INCLUSION

Trying  to  identify  current  trends  from  the  NAPs/inclusion  is  made  difficult  due  to  the
absence of recent data, even at national level, and the very different approaches taken in
the  analytical  chapters.  In  general,  however,  the  NAPs/inclusion  of  2003  reflect  a  less
optimistic climate for tackling poverty and social exclusion than was the case at the time
of the first NAPs in June 2001. Most Member States fear that the current economic slow-
down, accompanied by rising long-term unemployment and less chances for getting jobs,
may put more people at risk of poverty and social exclusion and worsen the position of
those  already  affected.  However,  this  perception  varies  significantly  from  country  to
country  In  spite  of  the  more  difficult  world  economic  situation  a  number  of  countries,
while  still  with  relatively  high  numbers  at  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  remain
broadly  confident  that  they  will  sustain  recent  positive  economic  trends  and  that  these
will contribute to a reduction in poverty and social exclusion (EL, E, IRL, I, UK). Others,
while  highlighting  some  increased  pressures,  appear  confident  that  they  will  be  able  to
maintain their existing relatively high levels of social inclusion and cope with increased
demands  on  the  basis  of  their  existing  well  developed  systems,  but  with  perhaps  some
additional attention being given to particularly vulnerable groups (B, DK, FIN, L, NL, A,
S).  However,  a  number  of  other  Member  States  appear  more  pessimistic  and  note  an
increased challenge, particularly in relation to growing unemployment (D, F, P).

Significant efforts  have been  made over the past two  years in  a  number  of  countries  to
strengthen their efforts in several areas. As a result some positive trends are beginning to
emerge.  In  some  countries  (IRL,  UK)  there  appears  to  be  real  progress  in  reducing  the
numbers at risk of persistent or long-term poverty. Significant steps forward can also be
seen in reducing child poverty (IRL, UK).

On the negative side there are a number of trends that seem to be increasingly common in
several countries. Unemployment levels are increasing overall. In some countries in spite
of more positive developments in relation to unemployment relatively high income gaps
have persisted (IRL, UK). The numbers dependent on minimum income schemes tend to
increase. In terms of accommodation there are indications that housing waiting lists have
grown  and  there  is  a  tendency  for  homelessness  to  increase.  While  overall  health
standards have been largely maintained there has been some indication of an increase in
mental health problems and in problems related to addiction.

The  major  structural  changes  identified  in  the  2001  Joint  Report  continue  to  be
recognised  as  important  factors  which  are  impacting  on  poverty  and  social  exclusion,
sometimes positively and sometimes negatively. These are:

29

 
–  the  impact  of  the  major  structural  changes  in  the  labour  market  as  a  result  of  rapid

economic change and globalisation;

–  the  impact  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  knowledge  based  society  and  Information  and

Communication Technologies;

–  the  effect  of  an  ageing  population  and  the  resultant  higher  dependency  ratios  and

greater demands on care services;

–  the impact of increased migration and growing ethnic diversity;

–  the continuing changes in household structures with continuing high levels of family
break  ups,  growing  numbers  of  lone  parent  families  and  the  trend  towards  the
deinstitutionalisation of family life;

–  the trend to greater equality between men and women and in particular higher labour

market participation by women.

The  risk  factors  associated  with  poverty  and  social  exclusion  which  were  identified  in
2001  are  confirmed  in  the  2003  NAPs.  These  are:  long-term  dependence  on
low/inadequate income, long-term unemployment, low quality or absence of employment
record,  low  level  of  education  and  training  and  illiteracy,  growing  up  in  a  vulnerable
family,  disability,  health  problems  and  difficult  living  conditions,  living  in  an  area  of
multiple  disadvantage,  housing  problems  and  homelessness,  immigration,  ethnicity,
racism and discrimination.

However,  while  the  range  of  risks  and  barriers  remain  constant  the  2003  NAPs  paint  a
more nuanced and complex picture and some situations emerge more strongly than before
as  particularly  associated  to  social  exclusion:  living  in  a  jobless  household,  inadequate
income,  over  indebtedness,  mental  illness,  alcohol  or  drug  misusing,  disability,
depending on long term care, asylum seekers, refugees and migrants, living in urban and
rural disadvantaged areas.

In relation to the link between unemployment, poverty and social exclusion three aspects
are particularly noteworthy. The first is the increased recognition that the unemployed are
not a homogeneous group and the reasons people have difficulties in accessing the labour
market vary significantly from person to person. This is especially the case for the long-
term  unemployed,  who  tend  to  suffer  from  a  cumulative  series  of  disadvantages  which
may include functional illiteracy, outdated competencies, lack of linguistic competencies,
disability or poor health, addiction, too long absence  from the  world of work  and other
factors. These, if not countered by adequate  and timely support, may lead to permanent
exclusion from the labour market. In addition, such disadvantages can be exacerbated by
negative objective factors such as lack of jobs, lack of child care, lack of transport, living
in  a  region  of  high  unemployment,  lack  of  housing,  lack  of  open  and  flexible  learning
opportunities meeting their needs and interests, prejudice and discrimination (e.g. against

30

 
immigrants, ethnic minorities, ex-prisoners,  people  with  learning  difficulties,  women  or
men due to their sex). Secondly, there is more emphasis on the very vulnerable situation
of jobless households but also the greater poverty risks for households where one rather
than  two  people  are  working.  Thirdly,  vulnerability  of  three  particular  groups  is
repeatedly  stressed:  older  male  and  female  workers  whose  skills  became  redundant,
young  men  and  women  in  the  16-25  age  group  without  formal  competencies  or
accredited qualifications and immigrants and ethnic minorities.

In relation to low income and poverty five aspects receive more attention. First, there is
some  evidence  that  even  in  those  countries  where  the  incomes  of  the  poorest  have
increased in real terms they have done so more slowly than the  rest of society and thus
relative  income  poverty  may  have  increased  (UK,  IRL).  The  second  is  an  increased
emphasis  on  the  very  high  risk  faced  by  people  who  are  surviving  long-term  on  a  low
income (FIN, UK). The third is a concern in some countries to avoid any growth in in-
work poverty. The fourth is the recognition of the extent that over indebtedness can trap
people  in  poverty  (A,  B,  FIN,  F,  IRL  and  UK).  Finally,  there  is  particular  concern  in
several countries (e.g. UK, IRL, D, I, L, P, S) over the situation of children growing up in
families on low incomes.

The importance of disadvantage in education and training as a barrier to social inclusion
and the knowledge economy and society was already well emphasised but the new NAPs
draw particular attention to three aspects. The first is the issue of functional illiteracy not
only  among  pupils,  but  also  in  the  whole  adult  population  (D,  F),  the  second  is  the
particular problem of early school leaving (D, FIN, IRL, NL) and the third is the growing
importance of life long  learning  and  the  acquisition  of  new  basic  skills  like  learning  to
learn, languages, social competencies, ICT and a sense of enterprise.

In relation to poor health and disability there is recognition that the nature and degree of
the  risk  varies  widely  depending  on  the  type  of  disability  (S).  In  general  there  is  more
emphasis  given  in  the  NAPs  to  the  particularly  high  risk  of  long-term  poverty  and
exclusion for people with a disability (A, IRL, NL, DK).

The  higher  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  linked  to  immigration  or  as  a  result  of
coming  from  an  ethnic  minority  is  highlighted  far  more  in  the  2003  NAPs  by  many
Member  States.  However,  the  complexity  and  diversity  of  situations  is  also  stressed.
Particular aspects that are mentioned are difficulties in finding accommodation, acquiring
a  well-paid  job  (F,  FIN,  S,)  barriers  in  access  to  lifelong  learning,  especially  of
languages.  More  attention  is  also  given  to  older  immigrants  (D),  to  forced/arranged
marriages,  to  poorer  health  (S)  and  lower  educational  levels  (NL,  DK).  Gender
differences are also highlighted in some NAPs (IRL, S). The particular problems faced by
Roma and many Travellers (IRL) are highlighted by several Member States. A number of
Member  States  (UK,  S,  F,  FIN,  B  and  IRL)  make  a  direct  link  between  discrimination
and social cohesion issues.

Generally the 2003 NAPs emphasise the need to take more into account the situation of
people facing multiple risks or an accumulation of problems as they can become trapped
in poverty and social exclusion (S, FIN). In particular the following groups are regularly

31

 
highlighted:  ex-prisoners,  homeless,  people  leaving  institutions,  alcohol  and  drug
abusers, mentally ill, prostitutes.

An important feature of the 2003 NAPs is the increased attention given to regional  and
local  variations  in  the  levels  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  how  the  underlying
causes of poverty and social exclusion can vary from region to region (B, F). In particular
increasing
declining  regions  with  negative  migration,  high  unemployment  and 
dependency  ratios  (FIN,  P)  contrast  with  problems  of  congestion  in  growing  regions
where  issues  of  accommodation  feature  more  highly.  Also  the  issue  of  marginal  rural
areas with ageing populations, poor services and higher dependency levels is highlighted
(IRL, EL,  P,  UK).  The  particular  concentrations  of  poverty  and  multiple  deprivation  in
specific  communities  in  cities  is  regularly  highlighted.  In  this  regard  the  problem  of  a
decline of social capital is noted. In communities facing multiple disadvantage there has
often been a decline in the networks of relationships, support systems and organisations
that facilitate the active participation of people in the community in which they live and
which are a necessary part of a strong and vibrant civil society.

Another issue that features more prominently in the 2003 NAPs is the significant role that
gender inequalities can play in poverty and social exclusion. However it is less clear that
this reflects an increase in the actual impact of gender of just a greater awareness of the
issue. The gender dimension is particularly raised in the context of lone parents, domestic
violence,  the  problems  created  by  flexible  working  and  diminished  pension  rights.
Gender  differences  among  the  most  disadvantaged  groups  are  also  emphasised,  for
example in relation to homeless, ex-prisoners and addicts (DK).

The  recognition  of  the  extent  to  which  poverty  and  social  exclusion  can  be  passed  on
from  one  generation  to  the  next  is  not  new  in  the  2003  NAPs.  However,  there  is  an
increased recognition of the extent to which those who grow up in poverty are at high risk
of becoming the next generation of poor and unemployed. More attention is given to the
ways in which the intergenerational transfer of poverty takes place and on the particular
dimensions of child poverty that need to be addressed to break this cycle.

Another important dimension of poverty and social exclusion that is given more attention
is  the  movement  in  and  out  of  poverty.  A  few  NAPs/inclusion  highlight  the  need  to
understand better what is it that traps some people in long-term poverty or why some are
regularly in and out of poverty while others (the majority) may only be poor for relatively
short periods.

Core Challenges

The overarching  policy challenge  that  emerges  from  the  NAPs  is  the  need  for  Member
States  to  ensure  that  there  is  a  strong  integration  of  economic,  employment,  lifelong
learning, cultural and social policies and that a concern with preventing and eradicating
poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  mainstreamed  across  all  these  policy  areas.  This  is
essential  if  an  integrated  and  co-ordinated  approach  to  eradicating  poverty  and  social
exclusion  is  to  be  achieved.  It  is  also  clear  that  countries  that  combine  high  levels  of
social  protection  with  highly  productive  economies  and  continuously  high  levels  of

32

 
employment  are  most  able  to  sustain  socially  inclusive  societies.  Effective  policies  in
areas  such as  social  protection,  lifelong learning, health, housing,  transport  and  culture,
sport and recreation that result in accessible services for all are vital. However, for more
vulnerable persons such universal provision often needs to be complemented by targeted
and  tailored  supports  which  will  help  them  to  overcome  particular  barriers  to
participation in society.

The first joint report identified 8 core challenges that to a greater or lesser degree need to
be addressed  by all Member  States.  Analysis of the  2003  NAPs  as  well  as  the  analysis
carried  out  in  the  previous  chapter  suggest  that  these  continue  to  provide  a  robust
framework  for  Member  States.  However,  a  number  of  dimensions  of  these  overall
challenges have gained more emphasis.

Developing  an  inclusive  labour  market  and  promoting  employment  as  a  right  and
opportunity for  all: Without  exception Member States stress the importance of a  job  in
preventing  and lifting  people  out  of  poverty.  A  broad  range  of  policies  and  approaches
are emphasised many of which  are  also reflected in their  NAPs/employment. However,
the  NAPs/inclusion  particularly  highlight  the  challenge  of  developing  tailored  and
individualised supports to those who are most disadvantaged and distant from the labour
market  (e.g.  immigrants,  ex-prisoners,  persons  who  left  institutions,  people  with
disabilities) and the need to give special attention to the situation  of jobless households
and the young unemployed lacking basic competencies or formal qualifications.

Guaranteeing  an  adequate  income  and  resources  to  live  in  human  dignity:  While
employment is stressed as being, for most people, the key way of ensuring an adequate
income the importance of effective systems of income support for those who cannot earn
their living or are retired remains a key challenge and several Member States need to do
more  in  this  regard.  Linking  income  support  systems  closely  with  policies  to  increase
people's ability to access the labour market and to end long-term dependency is also seen
as very important. Equally important is to ensure that tax, income support and minimum
wage policies are carefully integrated so that work pays sufficiently to lift people out of
poverty.

Tackling  educational  disadvantage  by  prevention  and  lifelong  learning  opportunities:
Within  this  overall  challenge  four  particular  challenges  now  stand  out:  developing  co-
ordinated  and  integrated  responses  to  prevent  early  dropping  out  from  school;  learning
opportunities  for all of  those  who  suffer  from  functional  illiteracy;  increasing  access  to
lifelong learning for all marginalised persons with a particular focus on the older workers,
the ageing population and groups at high risk of exclusion; increasing the focus on early
childhood education and early and flexible individual support in all formal education and
training  (including  universities)  to  break  the  cycle  of  educational  disadvantage  and  to
open up doors for second  chances throughout  life.  It  is also important  to  recognise  that
lifelong  learning  is  not  only  important  to  facilitate  people  moving  into  employment.
Given  that  over  50%  of  people  over  25  are  outside  the  labour  market  more  attention
needs  to  be  paid  also  to  preparing  people  for  a  meaningful  life  in  dignity  outside  the
labour market.  A  lack  of  competencies  is  stated  for  both  men  and  women  in  areas  like
managing a household, in parenting, in dealing with money or debts, with health risks in

33

 
the  household  and  competent  care  for  ill  persons  or  the  elderly,  in  culture  and  active
citizenship. As neither schools nor families reliably transfer these essential competencies,
a new challenge for opening up lifelong learning opportunities for all is clear.

Preserving  family  solidarity  while  promoting  gender  equality  and  protecting  the
individual rights and benefits of family members and the rights of the child: The changing
nature of the family and the implications of this for the provision of support and care are
of major concern in a number of Member States.  Nearly all Member States  continue to
face  the  challenge  of  higher  levels  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  for  lone  parent  and
larger families. The importance of maintaining equity during times of economic difficulty
is also highlighted, as these groups are even more at risk. There is also a high recognition
that if poverty and social exclusion are to be reduced in the long-term then the cycle of
child poverty needs to be broken. All the Plans acknowledge the importance for families
of managing the balance between work and family life and in this regard more attention
is  given  to  the  need  to  ensure  that  low  income  groups  benefit  from  efforts  to  reconcile
work  and  family  life.  The  challenge  of  supporting  particularly  vulnerable  families  and
especially of addressing domestic violence is frequently highlighted.

Ensuring good accommodation for all: The challenge of developing integrated strategies
that will prevent and reduce homelessness is one that seems to be increasingly shared by
Member States. In addition economic change is leading to new pressures on housing and
some Member States face the challenging of providing an increase in affordable housing
in  some  cities  in  order  to  tackle  increasing  waiting  lists  and  overcrowding.  There  is  a
particular  challenge  to  recognise  that  the  market  on  its  own  is  not  meeting  all  housing
needs and that some groups such as those with disabilities and immigrants face particular
difficulties.

Guaranteeing  equal  access  to  quality  services  (health,  transport,  social,  care,  cultural,
recreational,  legal):  Ensuring  the  provision  of  quality  services  which  are  adequate,
accessible  and  affordable  for  all  citizens  is  still  a  major  challenge  for  some  Member
States. In particular the challenge of increasing access to health services and care services
especially  for  the  elderly  and  the  mentally  ill  or  suffering  as  well  as  the  importance  of
access  to  transport  are  given  a  new  prominence  in  many  NAPs.  The  need  for  greater
recognition to be given to access to culture as both a core dimension of social inclusion
and as a means of helping people to overcome social exclusion is evident.

Improving  delivery  of  services:  The  challenge  of  providing  services  in  a  flexible  way
which  responds  to  local  and  individual  needs  and  which  takes  on  board  the  particular
needs of excluded groups and communities is a common one. For some Member States
the  challenge  is  to  maintain  good  services  at  a  time  of  economic  slow  down  while  for
others the challenge is to continue to invest in the development and the quality of services
when  resources  are  tight.  A  growing  challenge  is  to  guarantee  to  low  income  families
equal  access  to  core  services  such  as  electricity,  water  and  transport  in  a  context  when
there  is  an  increasing  liberalisation  of  these  basic  services.  A  common  challenge  is  to
ensure  a  better  access  to  and  a  much  closer  co-ordination  and  sharing  of  information
between different services and between the different levels of governance thus facilitating
multipurpose initial reception and better-integrated support. With an increasing emphasis

34

 
in  some  Member  States  on  targeting  or  tailoring  services  for  persons  at  risk  it  will  be
important  to  avoid  people  experiencing  continued  exclusion  from  the  mainstream,  for
instance  in  separate  education  and  training  “measures”,  by  ensuring  that  all  public
services mainstream  social  inclusion  in  their  own  concept,  management  and  procedures
thus demonstrating their corporate social responsibility.

Regenerating  areas  of  multiple  deprivation:  Developing  local  partnerships  between  all
relevant actors and developing integrated economic, social and employment responses to
tackle  the  problem  of  multiple  deprivation  in  some  communities  is  a  widely  shared
challenge.  Within  this  increased  attention  is  also  given  to  the  task  of  rebuilding  social
capital  and  mobilising  local  people  themselves  through  community  development  and
"learning cities and regions" or "social city" approaches which help to empower people to
change their lives. In the process of regeneration a particular challenge is to tackle crime
and to reduce drug abuse.  However, it is striking that  while  the  issue of  urban  areas  of
multiple deprivation is well covered only a few Member States address the problems of
poverty  and  social  exclusion  in rural areas.  Those that do emphasise  the  need  for  more
emphasis to be given to multi-dimensional and integrated approaches that will address the
interconnected  range  of  problems  such  as  out-migration  resulting  in  depopulation  and
ageing populations,  diminishing economic base  with  limited  employment  opportunities,
small unviable farms, low income and dependence on social welfare and non availability
or  withdrawal  of  key  services.  This  in  area  that  will  merit  more  attention  in  the  future
development of the social inclusion process.

6 Key Priorities

It  is  clear  from  the  preceding  analysis  that  an  effective  strategy  to  significantly  reduce
poverty and social exclusion needs a multi-dimensional and long-term approach tackling
in  particular  the  8  core  challenges  identified  above.  However,  in  the  context  of  the
continuing uncertain global economic and political climate, Member States are urged to
give  particular  attention  over  the  course  of  the  next  two  to  three  years  to  the  6  key
priorities  outlined  below.  These  priorities  are  especially  important  if  the  momentum
towards the Lisbon goal of achieving a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty and
social exclusion by  2010  is  to  be  maintained  and  if  those  most  at  risk  are  not  to  suffer
disproportionately the impact of the slowdown in economic growth or the controls of the
budgetary deficits.

1. 

2. 

3. 

Promoting investment in and tailoring of active labour market measures to meet
the  needs  of  those  who  have  the  most  difficulty  in  entering  the  labour  market
and  a  better  linkage  between  social  protection,  lifelong  learning  and  labour
market policies so that they are mutually reinforcing.

Ensuring that social protection  systems, including  minimum  income  schemes,
are adequate for all to have a sufficient income to live life with dignity and that
they provide effective work incentives for those who can work.

Increasing  the  access  of  the  most  vulnerable  and  those  most  at  risk  of  social
exclusion  to  decent  housing  conditions,  to  quality  health  and  long  term  care

35

 
4. 

5. 

6. 

services  and  to  special  and  regular  mainstream  lifelong  learning  opportunities,
including to cultural activities.

A  concerted  effort  to  prevent  early  leaving  from  schools  and  other  areas  of
formal  education  and  training  and  to  tackle  the  continuing  problem  of  the
transition from school to work in particular of young people leaving school with
low qualifications.

A focus on ending child poverty as  a key step to combat the intergenerational
inheritance  of  poverty  with  a  particular  focus  on  early  intervention  and  early
education initiatives which identify and support children and poor families.

A  concerted  drive  to  reduce  the  levels  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  to
increase  the  labour  market  participation  of  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities
to the same levels as the majority population.

In  pursuing  these  key  priorities  it  will  be  important  for  Member  States  to  develop
integrated  and  co-ordinated  strategies  at  local  and  regional  levels  and  especially  in
communities facing multiple disadvantages. Such strategies should adapt  policies  to the
local situation, facilitate the mobilisation and involvement of all actors and ensure more
accessible  and  quality  services  for  poor  and  socially  excluded  citizens.  It  will  also  be
essential to ensure that gender is mainstreamed all through these priorities with a view to
promoting gender equality.

3. 

STRATEGIC APPROACHES ADOPTED IN THE NAPS/INCLUSION (INCLUDING
TARGETS)

The fundamental reason for Member States to develop National Action Plans is to enable
them to review and further strengthen their policies and programs with a view to moving
them  on  to  a  new  level  of  effectiveness.  Member  States  approach  this  task  from  very
different  starting  points  both  in  terms  of  the  level  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  in
terms of their very different welfare traditions and in the light  of different structures  of
governance. Member  States  also differ significantly  in  the  extent to which they  already
focus on access to rights,  including  social  rights,  as  a  core  principle  underpinning  their
approach to the development of policies and programmes. All these factors influence how
they approach the task of preparing a National Action Plan. Indeed there is a noticeable
trend in several of the 2003 NAPs/inclusion for Member States  to adapt the framework
drawn  up  on  the  basis  of  the  Common  Objectives  and  to  prepare  a  plan  that  fits  more
closely  with  their  own  national  policy  making  tradition.  To  some  extent  this
"nationalisation" of the  plans can  be  seen  as  a  positive  step  towards  mainstreaming  the
preparation of plans into national policy making processes. However, it runs the  risk of
some  important  dimensions  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  identified  in  the  Common
Objectives being neglected.

Whatever  the  starting  point  adopted  by  Member  States,  it  is  clear  that  developing
effective  strategic  plans  for  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  the  context  of  the
common objectives agreed by all Member States require three critical dimensions:

36

 
–  first, plans need to be comprehensive and multidimensional - that is they should reflect
all  the  different  policy  domains  (economic,  employment,  social  and  cultural)  that
affect  people's  lives  and  they  should  ensure  that  actions  and  policies  across  these
different areas are, as far as possible, integrated and are thus mutually reinforcing;

–  secondly,  plans  need  to  be  coherent  and  logically  planned  thus  moving  from  an  in
depth  analysis  of  the  situation,  to  setting  clear  objectives  and  priorities  and  then
proposing specific actions to meet those objectives;

–  thirdly, they must set clear targets that need to be achieved if significant progress is to

be made towards the overall goal of eradicating poverty.

The NAPs and  not  the systems in each  Member  State  are  assessed  below  in  relation  to
each of these three areas.

Multidimensional Approach

National  Plans  mostly  highlight  the  multidimensional  nature  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion. However, the extent to which they go on to address the broad range of policy
domains outlined in the common objectives in an integrated and comprehensive manner
varies significantly.

Some countries made a real start in the development of a multidimensional approach to
combating poverty and social exclusion. Belgium, for example, develops a quite genuine
multidimensional  approach  to  social  inclusion,  while  attempting  to  adopt  measures  on
specific areas  (justice, culture, education and training, sports and leisure, family policy)
and to tackle the problems of the most vulnerable (homeless, children in care, victims of
human trafficking, illiterate persons). The French Plan is also quite comprehensive, and
covers  a  broad  range  of  actions  in  the  different  policy  areas  affecting  social  inclusion.
However, an interaction and integration of these actions it is less evident. The Irish Plan
also  presents  a  well-balanced  and  broad-ranging  strategic  approach.  While  it  sees
employment as the major route out of poverty, it recognises that not everyone can use the
labour market as a way out of poverty. Therefore, a number of targets are set in relation
to  the  provision  of  adequate  income  support  structures  and  special  programmes  are
targeted  at  specific  groups  who  have  particular  difficulties  (people  with  disabilities,
Travellers,  ex-prisoners,  homeless,  migrants  and  ethnic  minorities).  The  United
Kingdom  strategy  to  tackle  problems  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  broad  and
comprehensive.  It  is  based  on  the  improvement  of  employment  opportunities  and  on  a
longer-term investment in public services with a view to  enhancing  the  quality  of these
services. A key objective is the eradication of child poverty. Portugal adopted a systemic
strategy,  guided  by  implementation  principles,  and  through  transversal  strategic
intervention areas, and based on a quite strong analysis of the main trends in poverty and
social  exclusion.  An  overall  aim  is  the  recovering  of  the  gap  which  separates  Portugal
from the other European countries in the space of a generation. Greece considers social
protection  as  a  building  block  of  the  overall  development  path.  It  combines  general
policies,  especially  in  the  area  of  economic  growth  and  structural  change,  aimed  at

37

 
sustaining  the  pace  of  increase  in  social  spending  while  at  the  same  time  developing
specific policies to address problems of poverty and social exclusion.

In other countries, multidimensionality of poverty and social exclusion and targeting are
combined in a strategy which seeks an effective inclusion policy through setting limited
and  appropriate  political  objectives.  While  many  measures  are  planned  to  continue  and
reinforce  a  universal  social  welfare  system,  there  are  measures  on  specific  areas  and
attempts to tackle the problems of the most vulnerable people. In this respect, the revised
common  objectives  and  the  Common  Outline  for  preparing  the  NAPs  seem  to  have
contributed to a thorough reflection on priority groups such as the homeless, people with
disabilities,  migrants  and  ethnic  minorities,  children  in  care,  illiterate  persons.  The
German  Plan  builds  on  the  multidimensional  approach  adopted  in  the  first  report  on
poverty  in  2001.  It  sets  its  objectives  in  the  context  of  its  political  target  to  achieve  a
more  active  participation  of  all  citizens  in  social  life  through  lifelong  learning  and
employment  policy,  better  work-life  balance,  as  well  as  appropriate  social  protection
services. Luxembourg sets 5 spheres of activity, arising from the 4 Nice objectives and
representing  the overall  goals of its strategic  framework:  activation  and  participation  in
employment;  conciliation  between  family  life  and  professional  life;  access  to  housing;
reinforcement  of  the  mechanism  to  fight  social  inclusion  of  young  people  under  25;
access of vulnerable people to resources, rights and services. The Finnish plan responds
to  the  common  objectives  with  a  number  of  concrete  measures,  aiming  in  particular  at
improving  the  universal  system.  Targeted  special  actions  are,  at  the  same  time,  being
reinforced. Sweden is following a mainstreaming approach combining the overall aim of
including  the  total  population  in  a  universal  social  welfare  policy  system  and  health
services (and to avoid targeted systems) with a stronger awareness of the need to ensure
that the most vulnerable groups are fully integrated into the regular system.

Some other countries, whether or not they have universal social welfare systems, adopt a
more individualised approach directed towards those most at risk, or justified on the basis
of  an  analysis  of  their  specific  situation  and  the  challenges  to  be  faced.  Denmark  has
adapted its first plan's main objective of the creation of a more inclusive labour market,
through a more specific focus on the most disadvantaged groups (drug abusers, families
with  alcohol  abuse,  the  mentally  ill,  the  homeless  and  prostitutes).  Social  policies  in
Spain  continue  to  be  highly  structured  around  specific  groups.  This  has  allowed  the
beneficiaries to be highly involved in the planning and implementation stages, but makes
the introduction of a more integrated approach difficult. Italy bases its strategic approach
following  closely  the  White  Paper  on  Welfare,  which  identified  two  basic  issues:  the
demographic situation (effects of low  fertility  rate  combined  with a  high rate  of  ageing
population) and the role of the family as a pillar of the Italian social model. Netherlands
sets  a  sharper  demarcation  of  poverty  and  social  inclusion  issues  and  puts  a  stronger
focus on the most vulnerable people, for  the identification of  whom,  an  innovative  risk
model  has  been  developed.  The  Austrian  Plan  sees  the  risk  of  social  exclusion  and
poverty as being particularly concentrated on a number of specific  groups  characterised
by one or more risk features.

Despite clear progress, there is still a lack of a comprehensive and strategic approach in a
number  of  important  areas,  notably  access  to  lifelong  learning  opportunities,  access  to

38

 
culture,  access  to  transport  and  eInclusion.  Indeed  in  many  cases  significant  and
important work that is often happening on the ground is not well reflected. The potential
that a focus on access to social rights and their interdependence can bring to ensuring  a
multi-dimensional  approach  is  evident  in  some  plans  such  as  those  of  Belgium  and
France. However, this remains an area for further development. In this regard the recent
work by the Council of Europe on how to strengthen access to social rights is helpful.

Coherent and Planned Approach

In  assessing the extent to which Member States have  in  their  Plans  framed  their  policy
measures in a coherent and planned approach, three criteria have been applied: first, the
quality of analysis and the diagnosis of key risks and challenges to be addressed by the
Plans; secondly, the extent to which the Plans have taken into account this analysis and
their  past  experience  in  setting  clear  and  detailed  priorities  and  goals;  and,  thirdly,  the
extent  to  which  specific  policy  measures  and  actions  are  detailed  which  link  with  the
preceding analysis and setting of objectives.

Overall,  the  2003  plans  tend  to  be  more  coherent  than  the  first  round  of  plans.  They
contain more  extensive analyses  and a  more  in-depth  identification  of  those  who  are  at
greatest  risk  and  reflect  wider  consultation  in  their  preparation.  Many  have  clearer
objectives, more focussed priorities and more specific targets which provide the basis for
introducing  concrete  new  actions.  More  plans  link  better  to  national  policy  making.
However,  some  plans  still  remain  more  reports  than  action  plans.  While  documenting
well  the  situation  and  describing  existing  programmes  and  local  or  nation  wide  actions
they  tend  to  lack  ambition  and  lack  clear  and  precise  details  of  what  actions  will  be
undertaken to further enhance the effectiveness of national policies.

A  number  of  NAPs  set  out  clear  and  coherent  plans,  consisting  of  good  analysis,  the
development  of  strategic  objectives  and  priority  goals  which  follow  logically  from  the
analysis and the formulation of policy measures to achieve these. The Netherlands NAP
is  a  striking  example,  with  planned  policy  measures  and  actions  closely  linked  to
achieving the goals. The coherence of the plan is facilitated by its relatively narrow focus.
Sweden, Denmark and Finland also achieve a coherent approach within focused plans, as,
to some extent, also do Austria and Germany. Ireland takes a broader approach covering
more  fully  the  range  of  common  objectives,  but  also  manages  to  achieve  a  coherent
approach where the actions described link well to the analysis and objectives as, to some
extent, do Luxembourg and the UK. In certain plans, there is an interesting and detailed
analysis followed by a broad range of policy actions, but the connecting link between the
two dimensions – strategic objectives and goals – is less evident in the NAPs of France,
Belgium,  Italy  and  Portugal.  There  is  good  analysis  and  priorities  and  goals  have  been
clearly set in the case of Greece and Spain, but policy measures to achieve these goals are
less developed.

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  criteria,  it  is  also  necessary  to  consider  a  further
dimension  reflecting  the  extent  to  which  responsibilities  in  the  fight  against  social
exclusion  are  distributed  between  the  central,  regional  and  local  authorities.  Given  the
increasing tendency towards a decentralisation of competence for some social policies to

39

 
the sub-national level, the issue of the balance to be struck between the different levels of
authority arises widely in the NAPs. In several of the countries with devolved structures
(Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy, France, United Kingdom) considerable emphasis is put
on  developing  integrated  strategies  in  this  regard.  However,  co-ordination  of  inclusion
policy with a view to create a strategic  approach is often difficult between the different
levels.

Setting Targets

The  conclusions  of  the  Barcelona  European  Council  invited  Member  States  "to  set
targets, in their NAPs, for significantly reducing the number of people at risk of poverty
and  social  exclusion  by  2010".  This  was  subsequently  included  in  the  revision  of  the
Common  Objectives  that  was  agreed  by  Member  States  in  December  2002.  This
invitation was elaborated on in the Common Outline that was agreed for the 2003/2005
NAPs/inclusion  by  the  Commission  and  Member  States.  This  stated  that:  "Quantified
targets  should  be  set  for  reducing  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion. These should draw as appropriate on the commonly agreed indicators but also
take into account other  issues  identified  in the report  on  indicators  such  as  deprivation,
housing and homelessness and literacy and numeracy. When necessary they should also
draw on national data which better reflects those aspects of poverty and social exclusion
that are a priority for a Member State. Targets should be disaggregated by sex whenever
data is available and this is relevant." An Appendix was also included giving suggestions
on approaches to setting targets.

There  are  many  non-quantified  and  broad  targets  set  throughout  the  NAPs.  However,
only  a  few  Member  States  have  set  ambitious,  achievable  and  time  specific  quantified
targets for the reduction of the number of people at risk of poverty and social exclusion
across  a  range  of  relevant  policy  domains.  A  more  common  approach  has  been  to  set
either intermediate outcome targets that are indirectly linked to the reduction of poverty
and social exclusion or to set input targets related to policy effort (see table below).

40

 
Country

Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Austria
Portugal
Sweden
Finland
United Kingdom

Table 1. Use of Quantified Targets in the NAPs/inclusion

Direct 
Targets1
Laeken

Outcome

Intermediate
Outcome Targets2

Input Targets3

Non
Laeken

*
*

*

*

*

*
*

*
*
*

*

*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*

*
*
*
*

*
*

1. 

2. 

3. 

Direct  Outcome  Targets  are  those  targets  that  directly  indicate  a  reduction  in
poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  a  key  policy  domain  (i.e.  unemployment,  low
income,  poor  housing/homelessness,  educational  disadvantage,  poor  health).
They are subdivided into targets based directly on Laeken indicators and targets
based on other national measurements.

Intermediate  Outcome  Targets  are  those  outcome  targets  which  may  indirectly
contribute  to  a  reduction  in  poverty  and  social  exclusion  (e.g.  reduction  in
number  of  people  depending  on  assistance  payments;  general  increase  in
employment levels; reduction in level of sick leave)

Input  Targets  are  those  targets  which  aim  at  an  increase  in  policy  effort  (e.g.
increasing  the  number  of  homeless  assisted;  ensuring  that  all  immigrants  can
participate in an integration programme)

The  setting  of  clear  overall  targets  for  the  reduction  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty  and
social exclusion is most developed in the NAPs of Greece, Spain, Ireland and Portugal.
Greece, Spain and Portugal base this on the Laeken indicator of 60% of median income.
Greece sets a series of targets, most of which are quantified, which are to be achieved by
2010 and includes specific targets for the elderly and children as well as the overall target
but does not set targets for the timespan of the plan. Spain sets just one target of reducing
the at-risk-of-poverty level by 2% over the course of the 2003/2005 plan. Portugal aims
to reduce the risk of poverty by 2% in 2005.

Ireland  sets  an  overall  target  of  reducing  the  numbers  who  are  consistently  poor
(measured  by  a  combination  of  income  and  deprivation  indicators)  below  2%  and  if
possible to eliminate consistent poverty.

41

 
The UK sets a quantified target of reducing the number of children living in low-income
households  by  a  quarter  by  2004-05.  This  is  a  contribution  to  the  broader  target,  to  be
fully quantified when a long-term measure of child poverty has been settled, of halving
child poverty by 2010 and eradicating it by 2020.

The  Member  States  which  most  consistently  and  systematically  set  quantified  targets
derived  from  the  priorities  and  objectives  they  set  in  their  plans  are  Ireland,  France,
Netherlands,  Portugal,  Sweden  and  the  UK.  Ireland  and  the  UK  comprehensively  set
targets across a wide range of policy domains covered by the Common Objectives. The
UK  sets  a  very  extensive  range  of  targets  (100)  covering  key  areas  identified  in  the
common objectives. These are spread across the four devolved administrations, but some
targets only cover one of them. They are mainly aimed at measuring specific outputs and
outcomes  such  as  rising  standards  in  lifelong  learning,  improving  health  and  cutting
crime. France sets targets across a range of policy areas but these tend to focus more on
input or performance targets (e.g. number/percentage of people to be covered by different
policies)  rather  than  on  actual  outcomes  in  terms  of  social  exclusion,  though  a  specific
output  target  for  the  reduction  10,000  in  the  number  of  young  people  leaving  the
education system without a diploma or qualification is included. The Netherlands adopts
a  more  focussed  approach  and  its  targets  (a  combination  of  outcome  and  performance)
relate very coherently to the priorities in their plan but do not touch on many important
aspects of social exclusion. Sweden likewise focuses quite ambitious targets on a few key
areas  such  as  achieving  an  employment  rate  of  80%  or  halving  dependence  on  social
assistance  between  1999  and  2004  or  halving  the  number  of  sick  days  by  2008.  All  of
these can potentially make a very important contribution to reducing poverty and social
exclusion. However, none are direct measurements of the reduction of poverty and social
exclusion. Also, while setting ten national targets in areas crucial to social inclusion apart
from the overall targets mentioned earlier, most are not yet quantified.

A number of Member States are less systematic in setting quantitative targets across the
full range of the common objectives. In general targets are more common in the area of
employment/unemployment  and  this  may  reflect  targets  already  set  in  the  employment
process. Thus intermediate targets towards the Lisbon objectives for employment are the
only targets that are quantified in the Italian NAP. Finland includes in its NAP quantified
targets  for  a  few  sectors,  which  would  contribute  to  reducing  poverty  and  social
exclusion. For instance it aims to raise the employment rate to 75% towards  the end of
the decade and to increase the average effective  retirement  age by at least 2-3  years by
2010. It also includes an input target on social housing production. Germany's targets are
partially taken from other contexts but without relating them to the issue of poverty and
exclusion and they are rarely quantified or specified. Germany adopts intermediate output
targets in a range of policy areas, which may have an important impact on poverty  and
social  exclusion.  In  some  cases  quantified  and  specified  targets,  such  as  cutting  the
number  of  youth  not  having  obtained  vocational  qualifications  by  half  by  2010,  have
been  developed.  In  spite  of  setting  an  overall  target  for  reducing  numbers  at  risk  of
poverty,  Spain  does  not  set  targets  in  key  areas  such  as  health,  housing  and  lifelong
learning.

42

 
Belgium  does  not  include  quantified  targets  in  its  NAP  but  intends  to  subsequently
produce an annex with quantified targets.

Few  Member  States  take  the  gender  dimension  into  account  when  developing
quantitative  targets.  Thus  examples  of  engendered  targets  are  rare.  Among  its  targets
Ireland  emphasises  the  Lisbon  target  of  increasing  the  employment  participation  of
women to an average of more than 60% in 2010. Sweden specifies reducing the number
of women and men, irrespective of ethnic background, whose income is under 60% of the
median income but does not specific targets. The UK aims to achieve a 20% reduction in
the rate of unplanned children of teenage mothers and a reduction of 40% in the rate of
births to teenage mothers under 17 by 2007.

Poverty and social exclusion of disadvantaged people take complex and multidimensional
forms and require the mobilisation of a wide range of policies in an integrated approach
at the local level. Such an approach has certainly been adopted by most Member States in
addressing the problems of disadvantaged areas. However, for other areas, the importance
of linking and integrating policies in a consistent way, from the identification of the key
risks and challenges to the establishment of clear priorities through the assessment of the
effectiveness  of  existing  responses  and  the  setting  of  targets,  is  not  yet  evident  in  the
NAPs.

4. 

KEY POLICY APPROACHES FOR OBJECTIVE 1.1. 'PROMOTING EMPLOYMENT'

In  the  context  of  the  European  employment  strategy,  and  the  implementation  of  the
guidelines in particular:

(a) To promote access to stable and quality employment for all women and men who
are capable of working, in particular:

–  By  putting  in  place,  for  those  in  the  most  vulnerable  groups  in  society,  pathways
towards employment and by mobilising training policies to that end;

–  By  developing  policies  to  promote  the  reconciliation  of  work  and  family  life,
including the issue of child- and dependent care;

–  By  using  the  opportunities  for  integration  and  employment  provided  by  the  social
economy.

(b)  To  prevent  the  exclusion  of  people  from  the  world  of  work  by  improving
employability, through human resource management, organisation of work and life-long
learning.

All  Member  States  emphasise  the  key  role  of  participation  in  employment  in  fostering
social inclusion, as it is a crucial means of both ensuring an adequate income (both in the
present and when retired) and facilitating social participation.

43

 
The link between the Naps on inclusion and the Naps on employment

The  NAP  inclusion  must  be  closely  co-ordinated  with  the  NAP  employment  and  both
plans should be read together to get a fuller picture of the measures being taken to combat
social  exclusion  through  participation  in  the  labour  market.  The  NAPs  employment
provide  the  framework  for  the  formulation  of  specific  policies  for  the  integration  of
disadvantaged  groups  in  the  labour  market,  as  they  cover  the  whole  range  of  policy
actions aimed at increasing employment levels towards the Lisbon targets, improving the
functioning  of  labour  markets  and  enhancing  employability.  These  are  all  essential
conditions for  making the  labour market more open  and  inclusive. The  NAPs inclusion
place a focus on actions that facilitate participation in employment for those individuals,
groups  and  communities  who  are  most  distant  from  the  labour  market.  In  many  cases
there exists a strong and natural overlap between the two plans, even if they are part of
two  different  exercises.  However,  only  few  NAPs  present  additional  elements  on
strategies to prevent and tackle social exclusion on the labour market.

The  Employment  strategy  itself  is  increasingly  concerned  with  the  objective  of  an
inclusive  labour  market.  In  1999,  a  separate  guideline  concerning  the  integration  of
disadvantaged  groups  and  individuals  in  the  labour  market  was  introduced  in  the
European  Employment  Strategy.  Recently,  in  June  2003,  a  new  European  Employment
Strategy was introduced, built around three objectives: full employment, the promotion of
quality  and  productivity  at  work,  and  strengthening  social  cohesion  and  inclusion.  The
latter  overarching  objective  calls  for  participation  in  employment  through  promoting
access  to  quality  employment  for  all  women  and  men  capable  of  working,  combating
discrimination  on  the  labour  market  and  preventing  the  exclusion  of  people  from  the
world  of  work.  Attention  is  also  given  to  reducing  regional  employment  and
unemployment  disparities  and  employment  problems  in  deprived  areas  in  the  European
Union and positively supporting economic and social restructuring.

The new strategy translates the overarching objectives into ten guidelines, many of which
support  the  aim  of  an  inclusive  labour  market.  One  specific  guideline  promotes  the
integration of and  combating  the  discrimination  against  people  at  a  disadvantage  in  the
labour  market  and  includes  targets  such  as  achieving  a  significant  reduction  in  the
unemployment gap between non-EU and EU nationals and for other groups according to
national definitions. Specific reference to the reduction of the number of working poor is
made in the context of the guideline on making work pay. Also other specific guidelines
such  as  life  long  learning,  increasing  labour  supply  and  promoting  active  ageing  and
transforming  undeclared  work  into  regular  employment  contribute  to  promoting  an
inclusive labour market. The implementation of the guidelines and in particular the way
member  States  promote  inclusive  labour  market  will  be  reported  in  more  detail  in  the
Joint Employment Report 2003/2004, based on the national action plans on employment.

Promoting participation in employment: priorities, overall measures and the
institutional framework.

Several Member States stress the importance of the macroeconomic climate to generate
high  rates  of  growth  and  employment,  and  a  well-functioning  labour  market.  Some

44

 
Member States underline that an essential condition to achieve these objectives, as well
as an inclusive labour market, is a better co-ordination of economic, fiscal, employment
and social policies.

Three  aspects  in  the  new  NAPs  are  particularly  noteworthy  and  represent  an
improvement compared to the first NAPs. The first is the increased recognition that the
unemployed,  particularly  the  long-term  unemployed,  are  not  a  homogenous  group  and
that  the  barriers  to  their  access  to  the  labour  market  vary  significantly  from  person  to
person.  Secondly,  there  is  more  emphasis  on  the  very  vulnerable  situation  of  jobless
households but also the greater poverty  risk  for households with a  sole  earner.  Thirdly,
vulnerability of some specific groups is repeatedly stressed: disabled people, immigrants
and ethnic minorities, older workers whose skills are at risk of obsolescence, youth with a
low  level  of  educational  attainment.  Furthermore,  women  are  recognised  as  a  distinct
group whose participation in the labour market can only be increased with a combination
of services and care support.

While all Member States place great emphasis on the need to promote an inclusive labour
market,  there  are  differences  in  priorities  of  action.  Some  countries  (e.g.  Luxembourg)
concentrate  on  the  reduction  of  unemployment,  particularly  long  term  unemployment,
and the barriers faced by the most vulnerable groups, whereas others emphasise the need
to increase labour participation in general and of specific groups in particular. In the latter
case, the effective integration into the labour market of those at a disadvantage is seen as
having  the  multiple  purpose  of  delivering  increased  social  inclusion,  raising  overall
employment rates and improving sustainability of social protection systems.

For example, developing policies to improve the labour market situation of older workers
is important for a number of perspectives, the most important of which is that unless the
participation rate of older workers is increased, population ageing will strongly affect the
availability  of  labour  resources,  economic  growth  and  the  sustainability  of  social
protection  systems.  But  promoting  active  ageing  could  also  help  alleviate  the  social
effects  of  ageing  populations.  Several  Member  States  (Austria,  Denmark,  Greece,
Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands) consider active ageing by means of improving the
working  conditions  for  older  workers,  reducing  early  retirement  schemes  or  stimulating
demand on the part of employers as well as labour supply.

Delivery: Member States continue to devote particular attention to delivery mechanisms
as a means of developing more effective labour market programmes. The trend towards
greater  decentralisation  that  was  already  noted  in  the  first  Joint  Inclusion  Report
continues. Regions,  the  local actors and the  municipalities are  more  and  more  involved
and  increased  emphasis  is  given  on  local  conditions  for  the  conception  of  employment
policy measures related to poverty. The public employment service is being decentralised
and/or  given  greater  autonomy  vis-à-vis  the  central  government,  often  with  a  strong
involvement of the social partners, NGOs, the social services and other local actors.

In  the  Netherlands,  functional  integration  is  occurring  at  the  level  of  municipalities,
which are made financially responsible for both social benefit payments and reintegration
measures. In Italy, the decentralisation of labour market policies and of the PES is part of

45

 
a wider political design, but the search for greater effectiveness of labour market policies
is  also  an  important  consideration.  Yet,  in  the  absence  of  a  strong  co-ordination  of
policies  and  measures,  and  adequate  allocation  of  financial  resources  as  well  as  of
effective strategies for sharing information (e.g., using common reporting and monitoring
standards) there is the risk that imbalances between regions affected by different or even
dynamics might even increase.

THE NETHERLANDS: EXPERIMENTS IN SOCIAL ACTIVATION (1996-2001)

During  1996-2001,  the  Ministry  of  Social  Affairs  and  Employment  authorised  (on  request)  the
municipalities to deviate from a number of provisions of the National Assistance Act (ABW) in
order to develop new activation instruments to prevent social exclusion of benefit recipients who
are  greatly  distanced  from  the  labour  market  and  promote  their  reintegration  into  the  labour
market.

The experiments were followed closely by means of a longitudinal evaluation study. A supporting
project was set up by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment to follow and disseminate
the  results,  whilst  supporting  the  municipalities.  Evaluation  studies  show  that  the  experiments
have contributed to a reduction in social isolation, a strengthening of the labour market position
and a more active attitude among the participants. The experiments have provided the incentive
for  developing  long-lasting  social  activation  strategies,  which  are  continued  even  beyond  the
experimental period.

The success factors in the experiments were that the policy received widespread support among
the  municipalities  and  that  they  converged  with  the  development  of  policy  strategies  aimed  at
strengthening social cohesion within cities and neighbourhoods. In carrying out the experiments,
the municipalities co-operated with other municipal departments as well as several other related
bodies and sometimes even client organisations.

It  is  notable  that  the  experiments  were  carried  out  without  extra  subsidies.  Social  activation
experiments are now being implemented for other groups of benefit recipients, particularly those
on disability benefit schemes. Steps have also been taken to strengthen the policy.

The regulatory framework: A comprehensive policy framework to enhance the openness
and  responsiveness  of  the  labour  market  to  excluded  people  has  to  pay  attention  to  the
regulatory  framework  in  which  labour  markets  operate  as  well  as  labour  market
arrangements  and  institutions.  Measures  in  this  area  include  the  introduction  of  social
clauses/chapters  in  collective  agreements  or  the  establishment  of  quotas  for  the
employment  of  persons  with  reduced  capacity  to  work  (e.g.,  Germany).  General
legislative  provisions  promoting  equal  opportunities  in  favour  of  excluded  groups,
namely migrants (see Chapter 5), also facilitate their access to the labour market. Finally,
extending  social  protection  coverage  to  workers  on  atypical  contracts  is  also  seen  as  a
means  of  achieving  a  more  inclusive  labour  market.  In  Austria,  coverage  of  severance
pay  has  been  extended  to  atypical  contracts.  Moreover,  in  Spain,  policy  efforts  are
directed at converting fixed-term contracts into open-ended ones.

Most Member States refer to the active involvement of employers in the strive towards a
more  open  and  inclusive  labour  market.  Besides  the  more  traditional  instrument  of
employment  subsidies  to  employers,  this  is  done  in  various  ways,  mainly  employment

46

 
campaigns in favour of specific target groups, particularly disabled people and migrants;
measures to stimulate social corporate responsibility (Austria, Belgium, Italy and Spain),
and general actions focused on combating discrimination. As many as six Member States,
however, do not refer to these types of involvement of employers in the social inclusion
process in their strategy.

In line with the 9th guideline of the European Employment Strategy, Greece and Italy also
put priority on the transformation of undeclared work into regular employment. Curbing
the extent of employment in the black  economy  is  seen  to  lead  to  an  increase  in  social
rights and help prevent disincentives and distortions in the labour market; it also would
limit  non-wage  labour  costs  for  the  whole  labour  force.  In  order  to  improve  the
transformation  of  undeclared  work 
the
computerisation of the Social  Insurance  Institute,  on  the  legalisation  of  immigrants  and
the upgrading of the Labour Inspection Services.

into  regular  work,  Greece  counts  on 

Another  important  headway  in  comparison  with  the  first  NAP  is  that  for  a  number  of
Member States, monitoring or even evaluation of policy measures is being carried out or
announced. Still, more attention needs to be paid to this aspect.

Promoting access to stable and quality employment: pathways towards employment

A  variety  of  approaches  are  adopted  by  Member  States  to  tackle  barriers  to  access  to
employment – let alone quality and stable employment – faced by vulnerable groups.

As  observed  for  several  years,  many  Member  States  offer  personalised  guidance  to  the
unemployed  or  job  seekers,  which  means  that  an  individually-tailored  combination  of
measures is used to create pathways towards employment. More and more countries rely
on such packages, where labour market interventions are often integrated with measures
in  other  related  areas,  such  as  social  services,  health  care  and  rehabilitation,  language
learning courses, etc. This approach calls for close and effective co-ordination of various
bodies, at both the central and local level. Some examples:

–  In  Finland,  a  pilot  project  was  launched  in  2002  to  promote  the  employment  of  the
long-term  unemployed.  The  objective  is  to  formulate  packages  of  employment
services, labour market policies, municipal social welfare and health care services and
social  insurance  institution  rehabilitation  services.  Based  on  the  outcomes  of  this
experiment, a reform of the public employment service is planned for 2004 to create a
network of workforce development centres, which will involve the employment office,
the local authority, the social insurance institute and other service providers.

–  The  Netherlands  offer  a  ‘reintegration  ladder’  to  people  greatly  distanced  from  the
labour market. It begins with social activation measures and ends with regular work.
Each  step  on  the  ladder  demands  higher  skill  requirements.  Individual  goals  for  the
client  are  adapted  over  time.  Those  with  multiple  problems  (for  example  a
combination  of  long-term  unemployment,  problematic  debts  and  psychosocial
problems) can access an integrated offer of various services.

47

 
Although  the  most  important  aim  is  to  facilitate  integration  into  the  "primary"  labour
market,  this  is  very  difficult  for  certain  groups  with  very  serious  difficulties.  To  these
people, various forms of sheltered work  are offered. The latter  generally  risk  equipping
too specific  work  experience to be  easily  transferable, and the  "primary"  labour  market
becomes  increasingly  less  accessible.  Consequently,  sheltered  jobs  must  be  carefully
targeted  at  persons  whose  work  capacity  is  very  limited  on  a  permanent  basis,  and  for
whom  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  attain  the  productivity  norm  required  in  the
competitive sector.

Several member states intend to further exploit the job creation potential of the social
economy, which in many countries (Austria, Germany) already represents a high share of
national GDP. In Belgium, this is done through a system of co-financing by the Federal
government. In Sweden, financial support is given to centres providing information and
advice  to  encourage  people  to  start  co-operative  enterprises  and  to  promote  the
development of entrepreneurship in the social economy. Obviously, the social  economy
must be seen not only as a vehicle of job creation, but also as fulfilling needs for social
services and assistance that are unmet by the market economy.

Finally, inactivity and poverty traps  created by  the  tax-benefit  system  are  recognised in
virtually all NAPs as a potentially important barrier to employment. Member States have
therefore  put  in  place  various  activation  measures,  with  a  view  to  eliminating
disincentives  to  employment  or  training  by  implementing  minimum  labour  incomes,
increasing  low  wages  or  tax  reforms.  Indeed,  activation  is  a  consolidated  key  goal  of
labour market and social policy in many Member States, namely Ireland, the Netherlands,
Sweden  and  the  United  Kingdom,  where  it  is  combined  with  job  search  assistance  and
skill  formation.  Other  countries  –  Greece  and  Italy  –  have  only  recently  been  shifting
towards  a  welfare-to-work  approach.  More  details  about  Make  Work  Pay  policies  are
given in the next chapter, concerning the promotion access to resources, rights, goods and
services.

The vulnerable groups

refugees,  people  with  disabilities, 

Many  NAPs  place  stronger  emphasis  on  the  vulnerable  groups  than  it  was  done  in  the
first  round  of  NAPs.  Groups  that  are  frequently  indicated  are  immigrants,  ethnic
minorities  and 
long-term  unemployed,
disadvantaged youth, older people, the low skilled and social assistance recipients. There
are  also  a  large  variety  of  groups  such  as  drugs  and  alcohol  misusers,  (ex-)  prisoners,
people  living  in  disadvantaged  areas,  lone  parents,  social  benefit  recipients…  that  are
mentioned  by  one  or  two  Member  States.  Measures  for  these  groups  are  often  co-
financed through EQUAL and ESF funds.

the 

For the identification of the most vulnerable groups or individuals, the Netherlands have
put  in  place  an  innovative  risk  model  that  links  characteristics  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion to risk factors such as income situation, position on the labour market, health
and living conditions. This risk model enables a better identification of risk accumulation
and  of  generation-to-generation  poverty.  In  Spain,  the  establishment  of  a  system  of
indicators for profiling individuals at risk of exclusion in employment, so as to facilitate

48

 
the  shift  towards  a  preventive  approach,  has  been  set  as  on  objective.  In  Luxembourg,
assessment centres have been set up to this purpose.

LUXEMBOURG – ASSESSMENT CENTRES

Recipients  of  the  minimum  guaranteed  income  (RMG)  who  are  capable  of  working  receive  an
insertion  allowance  equivalent  to  the  minimum  social  wage  if  they  participate  in  an  activation
measure and if they are registered as jobseekers.

"Assessment centres" were created with the purpose to establish for each of these recipients  an
assessment  of  their  capacities  and  the  obstacles  they  face  to  insertion.  On  the  basis  of  this
assessment,  individualised  insertion  plans  are  drawn  up  aimed  at  restoring,  improving  or
maintaining  their  "employability".  Participants  are  thus  directed  towards  the  reintegration
measures  that  are  considered  most  suited  to  them  (training  periods  within  firms,  social  utility
jobs, vocational training, and therapy).

Participants to this measure are being followed up every 3, 6 and 12 months from the start of the
assessment.  Results  are  very  promising,  as  more  than  90%  of  the  measures  proposed  are  still
being followed after 3 or 6 months.

Participants  appear  to  have  benefited  from  this  measure  in  various  ways:  strengthening  of  the
social competencies, improvement of the presentation and of the approach to the labour market
and the job search, enhancing of their professional skills.

Ethnic  minorities  and  migrants:  Many  Member  States  pay  attention  to  policies  for  the
integration  of  ethnic  minorities,  refugees  and  migrants.  In  the  Netherlands,  a  specific
quantified target relates to the employment rate of these groups. While paying attention to
the  particular  needs  and  disadvantages  of  these  groups,  many  countries  also  emphasise
their  "obligations"  or  responsibility  in  the  labour  market.  In  Denmark,  for  example,  a
wide  range  of  initiatives  and  activities  are  started  by  authorities  spanning  the  labour
market and the social, housing and educational sectors, but these are combined with the
stick  of  a  lower  out-of-work  social  assistance  benefit,  so  as  to  strengthen  incentives  to
take up work.

Disabled  people:  All  Member  States  are  developing  a  wide  range  of  actions  and
instruments  to  improve  the  employment  situation  of  disabled  people.  Merely  looking
after  the  financial  needs  of  disabled  people  through  cash  benefits  is  insufficient;  as  it
would  still  leave  many  excluded  from  the  labour  market  and  often  from  society  more
generally. In addition to vocational rehabilitation and training measures, various types of
employment assistance schemes are offered to the persons with disabilities: employment
subsidies,  sheltered  jobs  and  continued  assistance  with  disability  aids  and  related  costs
once a person makes the transition from benefits to paid employment.

Reconciliation of family and work life

In order to raise employment rates, especially among women, all member States highlight
the importance of making it possible to combine working – or studying – with parenting.
However, availability and use of childcare facilities should not be seen only as a means to
help  reconciliation,  but  also  as  an  important  means  of  fostering  early  learning

49

 
opportunities  for  all  children,  in  particular  for  children  from  more  disadvantaged
backgrounds. Member States generally fail to highlight this issue.

Various  approaches  can  be  identified,  namely  the  extension  of  child  care  facilities,  the
provision of financial support for families with young children, the creation of a family-
friendly  working  environment,  the  increase  in  flexible  or  part-time  working  patterns,
reviewing  the  parental  leave  and  maternity  schemes  and,  finally,  raising  awareness  of
employers about the importance of creating a family-friendly working environment.

While  early  childhood  care  and  education  services  are  extending,  there  is  a  remaining
care gap for the 10 – 18 year old children, as youth services have less and less staff and
locations and tend not to cover these age groups with reliable services on each working
day.  Only  the  Nordic  comprehensive  approach  to  school  welfare  systems,  notably
Finland, is comprehensive enough to take all care gaps into account.

Improving employability

All the NAPs recognise the importance of skills as a necessary condition for entering the
labour  market.  Training  measures  for  specific  target  groups  such  as  disabled  people,
migrants,  older  people,  disadvantaged  youth,  are  therefore  developed  in  all  Member
States. Additionally, some Member States (France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Portugal)
promote  the  valorisation  of  informally  obtained  competencies.  This  approach  is  of
particular  interest  of  low-skilled  workers  or  migrants  and  non-EU  nationals  who  have
acquired experience in their home country.

The  promotion  of  lifelong  learning  also  goes  through  organisational  reforms  and
institutional changes. In Greece, a new subsidiary of the PES was created to take up the
vocational  training  responsibilities.  Furthermore,  a  new  corporation  (Employment
Observatory)  was  established  with  the  main  purpose  to  identify  existing  needs  in  the
labour market and evaluate active employment policies.

From this the importance of effective adult education systems in developing employment
related training is becoming increasingly clear. The development of such systems needs
to  be  based  on  a  thorough  needs  analysis  and  the  formulation  of  a  coherent  policy
directed at specific target groups. This means, for instance, that initiatives should provide
national  certification  pathways,  offering  a  variety  of  modes  of  assessment,  including
credits  and  accreditation  of  prior  learning.  An  effective  adult  education  provision
involves  the  key  stakeholders  and  pays  specific  attention  to  outreach  activities  and
guidance,  counselling  and  support  at  all  stages  of  the  process.  The  use  of  "learning
mediators",  liasing  between  the  target  group  and  the  provider  can  be  particularly
important  in  ensuring  the  participation  of  minority  groups.  Removing  financial
disincentives to participation in adult education can also be important.

While the improvement of employability is seen as an essential means for the access to
the  labour  market,  there  is  less  emphasis  on  policies  to  maintain  and  improve
employability  throughout  working  lives  as  a  way  to  stay  in  jobs  and  move  up  the  job
ladder.

50

 
5. 

KEY POLICY APPROACHES FOR OBJECTIVE 1.2. 'PROMOTING ACCESS TO
RESOURCES, RIGHTS, GOODS AND SERVICES'

(a) To organise social protection systems in such a way that they help, in particular, to:

–  Guarantee that everyone has the resources necessary to live in accordance with human

dignity;

–  Overcome  obstacles  to  employment  by  ensuring  that  the  take-up  of  employment

results in increased income and by promoting employability;

(b)  To  implement  policies  which  aim  to  provide  access  for  all  to  decent  and  sanitary
housing, as well as the basic services necessary to live normally having regard to local
circumstances (electricity, water, heating, etc.).

(c) To put in place policies which aim to provide access for all to healthcare appropriate
to their situation, including situations of dependency.

(d) To develop, for the benefit of people at risk of exclusion, services and accompanying
measures which will allow them effective access to education, justice and other public
and private services, such as culture, sport and leisure.

5.1. 

Social protection systems

Social  protection  systems  fulfil  a  fundamental  role  in  preserving  social  cohesion  by
preventing  people  momentarily  or  permanently  deprived  of  earned  income  from  falling
into poverty. The relationship between the level of expenditure in  social  protection  and
the risk of poverty is reasonably established on empirical grounds. As can be seen from
Figure 12, Member States with higher than average per capita social expenditure tend to
show  relatively  lower  risk  of  poverty,  and  vice  versa.  However,  this  simple  correlation
should  not  be  taken  as  the  only  guide  for  policy  action.  A  number  of  other  equally
relevant factors  are at play in  determining the share of the population falling  below  the
poverty  threshold,  such  as  the  extent  to  which  the  tax  system  responds  to  social  equity
objectives, the way  the  benefit system  is  structured  by  major  branches,  the  targeting  of
welfare provision, the efficiency of services delivery, the age structure of the population,
the  business  cycle  and  the  general  pattern  of  income  distribution  and  overall  economic
prosperity.

51

 
Figure 12.

Correlation between risk of poverty and per capita social expenditure

– 2000

L

A

NL

DK

S

D

FIN

10000

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

)

S
P
P

(

a
t
i
p
a
c

r
e
p
e
r
u
t
i
d
n
e
p
x
e

l
a
i
c
o
S

B

EU1

F

I

UK

IRL

EL

P

20

22

E

18

3000

8

10

12

14

16

Risk of poverty (%)

Faced  with  demographic  ageing,  all  EU  Member  States  must  modernise  their  social
protection  systems  in  order  to  ensure  adequate  pension  and  healthcare  provision  in  the
future without jeopardising the stability of public finances. A number of Member States
(Italy,  Portugal,  Greece,  Germany,  Austria,  France),  are  undertaking  wide-ranging
reforms  of  their  social  protection  systems  which  will  have  an  impact  on  the  inclusion
policies described in the Action Plans. More generally, Member States are facing difficult
choices  in  times  of  sluggish  growth  between  the  need  to  control  rising  costs  (due  to
mounting  pressure  on  social  assistance  and  unemployment  benefits)  and  the  need  to
provide adequate coverage to more exposed fringes of society.

Minimum income

For  people  permanently  excluded  from  the  labour  market,  basic  protection  against
poverty and exclusion has to be ensured by means of a last resort “safety net” whenever
other forms of social insurance are exhausted or not available. Nearly all Member States
provide some form of minimum income guarantee for all legal residents. Such financial
assistance is supplemented by a variety of allowances or services delivered locally to help
beneficiaries  bear costs  with  housing,  education,  care  or  legal  assistance.  Two  Member
States  (Greece,  Italy)  are  developing  an  alternative  concept  of  a  “solidarity  network”,
based  on  a  strong  preventive  role  of  the  family  and  combining  a  variety  of  targeted
schemes  administered  in  a  decentralised  way.  While  minimum  income  guarantee
schemes  have  contributed  to  reduce  significantly  the  risk  of  poverty  in  many  EU
countries,  they  have  come  increasingly  under  scrutiny  in  order  to  ensure  that  they

52

 
 
 
 
 
promote  rather  than  hinder  effective  integration  in  the  labour  market  and  that  they  are
administered  in  an  efficient  way.  On  the  other  hand,  it  remains  to  be  seen  how  the
alternative approach will be implemented in Greece and Italy so as to tackle effectively
the considerable challenge of poverty reduction in these countries.

The NAPs/inclusion document a  number  of policy reforms with incidence  on  the  level,
the scope, the access, or the eligibility to minimum income benefits.

Improving/maintaining adequacy: On this issue, there is a variety of policy approaches
in the NAPs/inclusion, ranging from plans to increase the real value of minimum income
benefits up  to a  given target (Spain,  Ireland)  to the recognition  of the need to  cut  them
back  in  order  to  avoid  discouraging  the  up-take  of  jobs  or  as  a  result  of  the  current
economic  slowdown  (Denmark,  Netherlands),  whereas  others  attempt  to  maintain
purchasing power through some form of indexation (France, Belgium, Luxembourg).

Spain announces the purpose to harmonise progressively the provision of the “minimum
income for integration” (RMI) across all Autonomous Communities and to increase the
dedicated  budgets  to  70%  of  the  minimum  wage,  in  average.  Ireland  sets  the  target  to
achieve a weekly rate of EUR 150 (in 2002 terms) for the lowest social welfare benefits
by 2007. During the period of the Plan, rate increases will be made in order to reach this
target.  Both  countries  link  strategically  the  objective  of  raising  the  adequacy  levels  of
minimum  welfare  payments  to  their  global  poverty  targets.  Austria  announces  the
intention  to  harmonise  social  assistance  schemes  across  the  Länder  in  terms  of  rates,
access and eligibility.

Ensuring a  sufficient old age minimum  income:  This  is  the  area  where  more  intense
reform action is taking place as nearly all Member States are reviewing policies with the
aim of ensuring financial sustainability in the long term while guaranteeing an adequate
minimum  level  for  pensions.  This  can  be  interpreted  to  some  extent  as  an  attempt  to
anticipate  the  effect  of  earlier  reform  efforts  with  the  aim  of  reducing  future  pension
liabilities, while trying to ensure the position of those having earned little or no pension
rights.  Many  countries,  in  the  context  of  reforms  aiming  to  ensure  the  sustainability  of
pensions,  may  see  replacement  rates  of  old  age  pensions  cut  back  (Germany,  Austria,
France, Italy, Sweden). Measures announced in some NAPs/inclusion seek to safeguard
the  position  of  those  most  vulnerable  persons,  who  rely  on  minimum  or  social  (non-
contributory) pensions. The Austrian Plan sets out a number of schemes for this purpose,
including  temporary  inflation  protection  of  pensions  (for  2  years),  the  creation  of
hardship funds and  the setting of  a 10% ceiling for the reduction  the  value  of  pensions
comparatively to 2002, as a result of reform. Austria will also be raising the supplements
for  married  old  aged  couples  and  will  be  reducing  the  tax  liability  of  people  on  low
incomes.  In  Sweden  an  additional  subsistence  allowance  will  be  created  for  (mainly
immigrant) older people deprived of rights Belgium pledges to set a rate of increase for
the income guarantee of older people.

Other countries however, (Ireland, UK, Portugal, Greece, Spain) where  old age  poverty
risk  is  significant,  seek  to  increase  the  real  purchasing  power  of  minimum  pensions,
sometimes  by  setting  targets.  In  Ireland,  the  government  plans  to  increase  the

53

 
supplementary pension coverage from the present 50% to 70% and has set the target for
social welfare pensions to reach the target of EUR 200 by 2007. The UK has now added a
new Pension Credit to their State pension system and announced a further £ 100 payment
for  pensioners  over  80.  As  a  result  of  these  measures,  the  poorest  third  of  pensioner
households  is  expected  to  gain  around  £1,600  a  year  in  real  terms  (two  thirds  are
women).  Spain  plans  to  increase  survival  and  minimum  pensions.  In  Greece,  the
introduction of the EKAS supplement has made pensions increase faster than wages over
recent  years.  In  Portugal,  minimum  old  age  and  disability  pensions  will  be  made  to
converge to  65-100% of the minimum  wage,  and  elderly  couples  (over  75)  will  have  a
social pension set at the level of the minimum wage.

Tuning assistance schemes to specific needs: Some NAPs/inclusion announce measures
with  the  purpose  of  improving  protection  for  particular  categories  or  tackling  specific
issues. Austria  increased  the  net  income replacement  rate  for  the  lowest  unemployment
benefits  from  55%  to  80%  (people  with  dependants)  or  to  60%  (people  with  no
dependants).  Greece  is  piloting  three  income  support  schemes  targeted  to  poor
households living in disadvantaged or mountainous regions, older long-term unemployed
persons and poor households with children under 18. It has decided to proceed with such
schemes over the life span of the Plan. Belgium (Flanders region) will ensure minimum
electricity  provision  to  poor  households.  France  focuses  on  the  financial  difficulties  of
larger families and extended the family allowance beyond the 20th birthday of the eldest
child.  Finland  expanded  the  scope  of  preventive  social  assistance  in  order  to  alleviate
difficulties  caused  by  rent  in  arrears,  participation  in  active  measures,  or  over-
indebtedness, and resulting in a sudden deterioration in the person’s or family’s financial
situation.  It  also  introduced  a  social  credit  for  persons  without  possibilities  to  obtain
credit on reasonable terms because of a low income and limited means.

Some  policy  reforms  raising  welfare  support  to  child  bearers  can  be  interpreted  partly
also as a means to increase birth rates. However, to the extent that childcare allowances
are not conditional on any type of occupational status, they may act as a disincentive to
participation in employment. Austria's new childcare allowance offers a universal right to
a cash benefit whose aim is to lift young families above the minimum income level even
if  not  employed.  Ireland  will  set  child  benefits  at  the  level  of  33-35%  of  minimum
welfare  benefits.  Other  countries  are  reflecting  the  goal  of  making  work  pay  in  their
family support policies. Finland has increased child and other family allowances and the
criteria for eligibility will be relaxed with a view to increase the attractiveness of working
rather than going on social security. Sweden introduced a ceiling on childcare fees which
will prevent the increase of childcare costs as a result of parents increasing the numbers
of hours worked. Efforts have also been made to protect the pension rights of parents who
interrupt  their  working  career  for  the  sake  of  child  bearing.  Such  efforts  have  been
particularly stepped up in Germany and Austria.

The  calculation  of  minimum  income  or  assistance  is  not  yet  adapted  to  the  Lisbon
Strategy,  as  access  to  the  knowledge  society  is  more  and  more  limited  by  fees  which
cannot be covered by a very small income. Access to e-learning or transport and costs for
books for learning or library services is not possible if there is no expenditure foreseen in
the individual budgets when public knowledge related services are not free any more.

54

 
Making work pay

The  NAPs  2003  reflect  Member  States'  ambition  to  develop  activation  strategies  in
accordance  with  the  guidelines  established  under  the  European  Employment  Strategy.
Increasingly  such  strategies  are  extended  to  beneficiaries  of  minimum  income  schemes
and  other  social  assistance  benefits.  The  recent  Hartz  IV  reform  in  Germany,  which
merges  unemployment  benefit  and  social  assistance  schemes  for  those  capable  of
working,  is  paradigmatic.  Following  on  the  experience  gained  with  the  activation  of
recipients  of  unemployment  benefits,  many  Member  States  try  to  minimise  the
discouraging effect provoked by social assistance upon the willingness to search for a job
or to participate in active measures. Also, in an increasing number of countries financial
incentives  are  being  created  or  improved  with  the  aim  of  making  receipt  of  welfare
benefits  continue  after  the  take-up  of  a  job.  The  purpose  is  to  overcome  obstacles  to
employment by ensuring that the take-up of a  job will  always have  a positive  effect  on
personal income.

Sweden gives a strategic content to this objective by holding on to the long-term "social
justice" target of halving the number  of people dependent on social assistance by 2004,
through  a  combination  of  job  creating  economic  growth  and  activation  policies.  The
target has been set in the 2001 NAP/inclusion but seems now harder to be met, given the
more difficult economic climate.

A  number  of  NAPs/inclusion  announce  reviews  of  the  eligibility  conditions  for
minimum  income  and  other  welfare  benefits  in  order  to  encourage  recipients  to
participate in active labour market programmes, to intensify their efforts to look for work
and  to  accept  job  offers  (Austria,  Denmark,  Germany,  Netherlands).  However,  the
success of these policies is dependent on the performance of the labour market.

Denmark  reduced  cash-benefits  of  claimants  having  received  them  for  six  months  or
more. Public benefits such as housing benefits partly or wholly cease after a six months’
cash-benefit period, unless the benefit claimant has supplementary wage income. At the
same  time,  the  financial  incentive  was  reinforced,  by  setting  off  a  smaller  amount  of
wage  income  against  the  cash  benefit.  Netherlands  will  abolish  the  municipal  specific
allowances  for  those  younger  than  65,  and  long-term  unemployed  persons  on  social
assistance  will  be  offered  activation.  At  the  same  time,  a  new  "persistent  minimum
income  supplement"  will  be  introduced  in  favour  of  those  long-term  welfare  recipients
who have no prospects of returning to the labour market. Such benefit will have therefore
no incidence on the poverty trap. In Germany, a consequence of the 'Hartz IV' reform is
to give former social assistance recipients access to active labour market policy measures
and  be  included  in  the  social  insurance  schemes.  However,  the  possible  impact  on
incomes  of  the  former  recipients  of  long  term  unemployment  benefits  (Arbeitslos)  of
stricter means testing and lower levels will have to be monitored. A special responsibility
will be borne by the renewed public employment service together with local authorities in
avoiding the "creaming off" of those having lost entitlement to benefits.

France  has  set  out  in  the  past  a  number  of  activation  schemes  with  the  aim  to  provide
individualised support and job opportunities to persons who are distant from the labour

55

 
market.  Under  the  new  decentralised  framework,  a  new  type  of  subsidised  contract
("Activity  Minimum  Income"  or  RMA)  will  be  created  with  the  aim  of  providing
recipients  of  the  integration  minimum  income  (RMI)  a  pathway  of  integration  of  18
months  comprising  part-time  work  and  individual  guidance.  Luxembourg  is  giving
priority status to new claimants of guaranteed minimum income (RMG) for traineeships
in enterprises and individualised integration (to become compulsory for people aged 25-
45).

An increasing number of Member States seek to improve financial incentives to take up
work. Measures include the retained payment of (a part of) benefits after a job has been
taken up, tax reforms to increase the take-home pay of low wage earners and minimum
wage  increases.  Other  measures  to  make  work  more  attractive  include  an  adaptation  of
social security rules in order to better cover a-typical contracts.

In-work benefits have a long tradition in the UK and Ireland. They now gain increasing
popularity elsewhere. The Netherlands increased the tax credit for people in work and for
working parents, and intends to increase it further, in order to promote the outflow from
benefits  to  paid  work.  Belgium,  with  the  "bonus  crédit  d'emploi"  (after  2004),  and
France,  with  the  "prime  pour  l'emploi"  (since  2001)  are  introducing  tax  credit  schemes
with  the  aim  of  improving  the  net  income  of  low  wage  earners.  In  both  countries,  the
conditions  offered  to  part-timers  will  be  improved.  In  addition,  Belgium  has  targeted
working  single  parents  through  fiscal  measures  in  order  to  increase  work  attractiveness
and lift them out of poverty. Finland will experiment for a three-year period with the rule
that at least 20 % of the earned income of a person or family applying for income support
will be disregarded. Luxembourg will increase from 20% to 30% the proportion of earned
income of a person or family applying to income support under the minimum guarantee
scheme.

The UK has reformed its tax credit system with the creation of the Working Tax Credit
(WTC)  and  the  Child  Tax  Credit  (CTC).  WTC  provides  financial  support  to  adults  in
low-income  households  as  well  as  help  with  eligible  childcare;  CTC  is  a  means-tested
support  for  families  with  children,  bringing  together  all  pre-existing  income-related
support  for  children.  Both  CTC  and  the  childcare  element  of  the  WTC  are  now  paid
directly to the main carer in the family, often a woman. This should lead to a transfer of
resources from men to women of up to £2  billion.  Also  in  the  UK,  funding  for  tenants
and  part-time  workers  (generally  lone  parents  and  disabled  people)  will  be  improved
from  April  2004.  Ireland  has  established  a  Family  Income  Supplement  providing
additional income support for those on low incomes from work and comprising additional
allowances  for  child  dependants.  Lone  parents  in  need  receive  the  One  Parent  Family
Payment and are now eligible for a substantial earnings disregard in order to facilitate the
taking up of jobs.

Raising net minimum wages widens the wedge between earned and welfare income and
contributes  to  driving  people  into  jobs.  It  also  has  an  important  differential  effect  on
women's income. The UK National Minimum Wage (NMW) is explicitly conceived as a
tool  (together  with  tax  credits)  for  affording  a  minimum  income  from  work  while
allowing  wages  to  respond  to  labour  market  conditions.  Further  increases  of  NMW  are

56

 
planned for 2003-2004, amounting to the double of the average pay rise. An extension of
the  NMW  to  youths  aged  16-17  is  being  considered.  Austria  has  set  the  target  of  a
monthly  gross  wage  of  EUR  1000  for  full-time  work,  to  be  implemented  through
collective  agreements,  and  pledges  not  to  tax  income  up  to  that  level.  Germany  has
increased to EUR 400 per month the threshold for exemption of social contributions on
the  so-called  Mini-Jobs,  and  between  EUR  400  and  800  employee  contribution  is
introduced  only  gradually.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  reform,  the  number  of  insured
small  jobs  increased  considerably.  Many  new  entrants  stem  from  the  illegal  economy.
Since they  are now covered by basic old-age insurance, they tend to be less exposed to
the risk of poverty.

5.2. 

Housing and basic services

The  2003-2005  NAPs/incl  all  agree  that  decent  housing,  at  an  affordable  price  for
households  and  in  a  safe,  dynamic  environment  offering  appropriate  social  support  and
an environment where children can grow up in good conditions, is a central plank in the
fight against poverty and social exclusion.

The social and economic cost of the absence of decent housing, though not yet evaluated
at  European  level  as  the  absence  of  social  protection  has  been,  appears  to  seriously
compromise the dynamism of a country or region.

The  Joint  Report  on  Social  Inclusion,  adopted  in  December  2001  and  presented  at  the
Laeken-Brussels European Council, had stressed that for all Member  States the need to
guarantee  everyone  access  to  decent  housing  was  one  of  the  eight  core  challenges  of
their policies against poverty and social exclusion. It stated that: "Access to good quality
and affordable accommodation is a fundamental need and right. Ensuring that this need
is  met  is  still  a  significant  challenge  in  a  number  of  Member  States.  In  addition,
developing appropriate integrated responses both to prevent and address homelessness is
another essential challenge for some countries."

On the question of access to housing, in the absence of common indicators and in their
failure to present any national indicators in spite of the request formulated at the Laeken-
Brussels European Council, the 2003-2005 NAPs/incl tend to be little more than reports
emphasising  certain  elements  of  the  policies  introduced  at  national  or  regional  level.
While  most  Member  States  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Finland,  France,  Greece,  Ireland,
Luxembourg, Portugal, United Kingdom) emphasise the acuteness of their unmet housing
needs, they  fail to set any objectives for eradicating their existing  housing problems  by
2005,  or  even  2010,  or  even  further  down  the  line.  The  sole  exception  is  the  United
Kingdom,  which  guarantees  that  by  2010  all  social  housing  will  be  decent.  While
measures for combating the situations of penury or degradation or insalubrity reported are
mentioned, it is therefore difficult in most cases to assess them against the Nice objective
of access for all to decent and sanitary housing.

For certain Member States, such as Belgium, France, Ireland and Luxembourg, which are
experiencing a steep increase in unmet demand for affordable housing for persons on low
incomes, it is a particularly important challenge.

57

 
For others, such as Greece, Portugal and the United Kingdom, the paramount challenge
between now and 2010 is to combat the dilapidation and insalubrity which affects a large
part of the housing stock for people on low incomes and promote the social integration of
the families concerned, notably by rehousing them. France also plans to make this a big
priority for the next five years.

Finally, for countries such as Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden, the
main  challenge  is  still  to  help  target  groups  such  as  young  persons,  single  persons,  the
elderly,  disabled  people,  immigrants,  Roma,  travellers  and  the  homeless  to  obtain
accommodation  appropriate  to  their  specific  needs.  These  Member  States  also  give
priority to improving the neighbourhood and the surrounding areas.

Consumer protection

In  the  first  instance,  the  Member  States  need  to  ensure  compliance  with  the  standards
defining  the  concept  of  decent  housing  and  a  fair  balance  between  the  rights  and
responsibilities of tenants and landlords.

Avoiding exploitation or abuses on the property market and preventing the expulsion of
tenants  or  owners  who  have  got  into  social  difficulties  (separation,  unemployment,
illness,  etc)  is  a  concern  expressed  by  most  of  the  Member  States  (Austria,  Belgium,
Finland,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Sweden),  although  it  is  not  possible  to  evaluate  the
situation prevailing in the other countries.

Several new initiatives in this area are described in the 2003-2005 NAPs/incl.

–  Support for tenants throughout all stages of the expulsion procedure: obligation to be
put in contact with the social services, specifications relating to the social investigation
to be carried out by the social services, training social workers in the legal and welfare
aspects of the expulsion procedure, liaison with the Debt Commissions, paying off of
rent  arrears  for  persons  with  no  ability  to  pay  these  sums  back  (France,  Sweden,
Germany).

–  Statutory obligation to attempt to reach an amicable settlement in disputes relating to
requests for rent adjustments, recovery of unpaid rent or demands for expulsion from
the  accommodation.  Development  of  social  mediation  services  (Austria,  Belgium,
France, Spain).

–  Encouraging owners' associations and tenants' associations to co-operate in preventing

unfair rent increases and implementation of expulsion procedures (Finland).

–  Development  of  accommodation  advice  and  information  services,  especially  for

immigrants (Austria, France).

–  Giving disadvantaged persons more legal protection against accommodation unfit for
habitation  and  against  "sleep  merchants",  i.e.  owners  who  rent  furnished  rooms  or
mattresses in overpopulated rooms or insalubrious buildings (France, Belgium).

58

 
Access to decent, affordable housing

All  Member  States,  because  of  the  deficiencies  in  their  housing  markets,  need  to
intervene  in  order  to  combat  the  exclusion  of  persons  or  families  affected  by  social
problems or living in certain geographical areas. Such State aid, although not allocated on
a non-discriminatory basis, is a legitimate element of public policy10.

The  Member  States  describe  a  series  of  measures  designed  to  give  low-income
households better access to decent housing appropriate to their needs. These measures are
essentially  social  transfers  in  favour  of  low-income  groups  and  thus  contribute
significantly towards reducing poverty and social exclusion.

–  Aid for social housing:

–  Modulation of subsidies for social housing managed by public or private not-

for-profit bodies:

–  New subsidies for public or not-for-profit bodies for the construction of social
housing,  increasingly  targeted  on  geographical  areas  where  shortages  have
been noted, on small flats for single people where a significant demand is not
being  met,  on  accommodation  for  young  people,  elderly  people,  disabled
people and immigrants (Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany Ireland,
Luxembourg, Spain, Sweden).

–  Earmarking  of  land  or  imposition  of  obligations  on  local  authorities  for  the

construction of new social housing (France, Portugal, Spain).

–  Payment  of  compensation  to  local  authorities  for  structural  cost  differences
linked  to  the  needs  of  services  and  specific  factors  such  as  changes  in  the
structure of populations or influxes of immigrants (Finland).

–  Transparency  in  the  allocation  of  social  housing,  through  the  widespread

introduction of a single registration number (France).

–  Sale  of  social  housing  to  existing  occupants,  thus  creating  cash  for  new

investment and a better social mix (France, United Kingdom).

–  Adjustment  of  the  means-tested  income  limits  for  tenants  and  of  the  rules

fixing social housing rents (Denmark, France, Luxembourg, Spain).

10

In so far as it is limited to what is strictly necessary (the principle of proportionality) and does not
affect trade between Member States in a proportion contrary to the Community interest, it is fully
in  line  with  the  basic  objectives  of  the  Treaties  and  is  in  the  interests  of  the  Community.
Commission Decision: State Aid N 209/2001 – Ireland – guarantee for borrowings of the Housing
Finance Agency.

59

 
                                                
–  Aid for private investment with a social aim:

–  Aid for investment and to cover the possible rental risks incurred by private
owners who undertake to rent accommodation to persons on low incomes for
a certain duration and at capped rents (France, Luxembourg).

–  Tax measures to encourage owners to put vacant property back on the rental

market (France, Portugal).

–  State aid for tenants and property acquirers of modest means:

–  National  objective  of  limiting  the  proportion  of  net  rent  in  the  disposable
income of  low-income  households  and  the  net  disposable  income  after  total
expenditure on housing (Netherlands).

–  Housing  allowances  or  tax  incentives  for  persons  on  modest  incomes  or
certain target groups, such as young people or the elderly (Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Sweden).

–  Aid  funds  for  situations  where  essential  services  have  not  been  paid  and
adjustment  of  electricity  and  water  tariffs  for  the  very  poor  (Belgium,
France)11.

–  Public programmes for the renovation or demolition of housing plus rehousing:

–  Programmes  for  the  transformation  or  the  eradication  of  housing  falling
below the minimum standards of decency (Belgium, Spain, France, Portugal,
United Kingdom).

Aid  for  persons  and  families  with  income,  disability,  health  or  social  integration
problems.

The housing component in policies for the social protection of persons and families with
income, disability, health or social integration problems is the third justification for State
intervention in this field.

In the 2003-2005 NAPs/incl, a major priority is to focus State intervention in the housing
field on the most vulnerable groups and on the regions in the greatest difficulties.

11

The recently adopted electricity and gas directives require Member States to ensure that there are
adequate  safeguards  to  protect  vulnerable  customers,  including  measures  to  help  them  avoid
disconnection. Member States may also take measures to protect final customers in remote areas.
In  this  context,  the  implementation  of  such  measures  will  also  contribute  to  the  prevention  of
social exclusion.

60

 
                                                
In addition to this priority, a number of new initiatives are described:

–  Programme  of  co-operation  between  the  social  housing  agencies,  the  social  services
and  the  care  services  for  the  integration  of  disabled  people,  the  elderly,  immigrants,
refugees, travellers, Roma, the homeless (Finland, United Kingdom).

–  Refocusing  of  urban  development  policy  on  the  most  vulnerable  groups  and  most

disadvantaged regions (Denmark).

–  Coverage  of  the  additional  housing  costs  for  disabled  people  (Austria,  France,

Luxembourg)

–  Programme  of  local  advisers  for  the  co-ordination  of  local  social  initiatives,  support
for  the  development  of  residents'  networks,  social  prevention  measures  (Denmark,
Finland).

–  Development of mediation bodies (public agencies, not-for-profit associations and co-
operatives)  which  offer  information  and  brokerage  services  for  the  renting  of
accommodation, accessible to disadvantaged persons (Belgium, France, Luxembourg).

–  Development  of  supported  housing  (which  includes  the  support  of  a  social  work
professional  or  health  professional)  for  elderly  persons,  disabled  persons,  homeless
persons, etc (Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom).

SOCIAL AND BUDGETARY SUPPORT FOR GAS AND ELECTRICITY CONSUMERS FACING
PAYMENT PROBLEMS (BELGIUM)

When people run into debt, their debts nearly always include energy bills. Yet energy is a basic
need.  The  Federal  Government  has  taken  the  initiative  of  allowing  the  "centres  publics  d’aide
sociale" (social assistance centres) to step up their efforts in terms both of prevention and cure, by
adopting  an  Act  of  4  September  2002  assigning  to  the  social  assistance  centres  the  task  of
providing guidance and financial social assistance in the context of the supply  of  energy  to  the
very poor.

This law meets the need to anticipate the consequences of the liberalisation of the electricity and
gas markets on the one hand, and to tackle the growing demand for help with overindebtedness
on the other. When the electricity and gas markets were opened up, provision was made for the
possibility of creating in Belgium a fund sourced from a tax on transportation of energy, with a
view to financing in full or in part certain public service obligations. It was also decided to collect
resources from the gas and electricity sector in advance and allocate these to the social assistance
centres in order to provide funding for the tasks specified in the Act in question.

These tasks fall into two categories. The first involves providing support and social and budgetary
guidance for gas and electricity consumers facing payment problems, establishing and negotiating
repayment plans, and offering guidance in day-to-day household budgeting. The second concerns
the  possibility  of  granting  financial  assistance  for  the  payment  of  bills,  so  that  the  person
concerned  can  start  anew  on  a  healthy  financial  basis,  and  the  development  by  the  social
assistance centres of a preventive social policy in relation to energy supply.

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5.3. 

Access to health care

Effective access for everyone to the health care they require is regarded as a priority by
all Member States.

Nevertheless, certain obstacles to access to health care seem to persist in most  Member
States, and these impact most severely on the most disadvantaged population groups:

–  Waiting times;

–  Cost burden of care and treatment too high for low-income patients;

–  Administrative, cultural or geographical difficulties in obtaining access to health care.

–  Inadequate screening, vaccination, awareness-raising;

Moreover, cost containment plans in relation to medical care covered by social protection
schemes  could  well  result  in  persons  with  low  or  modest  incomes  having  even  worse
access  to  care  and  treatment  in  the  future,  unless  such  access  is  guaranteed  by  the
Member  States.  These  cost-containment  measures,  although  announced  in  numerous
Member States, are nevertheless not presented in the 2003-2005 NAPs/incl.

Finally,  the  studies  cited  by  various  Member  States  in  their  NAPs/incl  indicate  a  high
prevalence  of  problems  among  the  most  disadvantaged  social  groups,  such  as  mental
disorders,  tobacco,  alcohol  and  drug  abuse/addiction,  respiratory  disorders,  obesity,
sequelae of accidents, premature or low-weight babies, infant mortality (France, Belgium,
Germany, Ireland, Portugal).

While certain Member States (Belgium, Denmark, France, Netherlands) adopt a holistic
approach  to  reducing  socio-economic  inequalities  in  the  health  field,  others  prefer  to
focus more on certain specific problems.

The measures described in the 2003-2005 NAPs/incl fall into three main categories.

Making health services more affordable and more accessible

Access  to  health  care,  medical  treatment  and  surgery  may  be  hampered  by  financial,
institutional, administrative, cultural and/or geographical obstacles.

These obstacles result in belated access to health care for disadvantaged populations, with
a concomitant aggravated deterioration of their state of health and higher economic  and
social costs.

Four Member States appear, in setting targeted and time-dated objectives, to have made a
resolute commitment to cutting waiting times for patients to see GPs and specialists and
to  obtain  medical  treatment  and  surgery  (Finland,  Ireland,  Netherlands,  Portugal,
Sweden).

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Two  others  (Belgium,  France)  have  taken  steps  to  abolish  or  reduce  the  financial
obstacles to access to health care and treatment by introducing the following measures:

–  Extension  of  the  annual  ceiling  on  expenditure  chargeable  to  households,  and
guaranteed right to health care for persons residing illegally in the country (Belgium).

–  Flat-rate  allowance  for  supplementary  health  insurance  for  persons  whose  means
exceed by no more than 10% the ceiling for universal medical cover, whereby persons
on modest incomes receive 100% reimbursement of medical care costs (France).

Additionally,  some  Member  States  have  taken  steps  to  improve  access  to  their  health
services for disadvantaged populations. The following new measures are described:

–  Creation of offices staffed by a  medico-social  team  in  hospitals  to  receive  and  assist
patients with no means of support; educating medical, administrative and welfare staff
about  the  problems  of  precariousness  and  social  exclusion;  organising  continuity  of
care for persons in precarious situations (France).

–  Mobile medical teams, including psychiatric teams, for persons living on the streets, in

partnership with the NGOs (Denmark).

–  Improvement  of  first-line  health  care  availability  (primary  health  care  network)  in
rural  areas  or  disadvantaged  urban  areas,  or  for  specific  population  groups  such  as
homeless persons or migrants (Austria, Belgium, Greece, Portugal).

–  Improvement of the emergency services (France, Portugal).

Adapting the services to the needs of the most disadvantaged populations

Adapting the organisation of health care to the priority needs of the most disadvantaged
populations  is  the  second  major  priority  of  the  policies  aimed  at  giving  all  individuals
access to the requisite health care, including persons with dependencies.

Some  of  these  needs  are  specifically  underlined  and  are  being  addressed  through  the
reinforcement of existing mechanisms relating to:

–  medical care for children and adolescents (Germany);

–  disabilities,  the  dependency  of  elderly  persons  (Greece,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Spain,

Sweden);

–  mental problems (France, Greece, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom);

–  treatments of alcoholism or drug abuse (Denmark, Germany, Sweden).

Developing screening, disease prevention, awareness and health education for all, with a
particular focus on the poor.

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A few Member States present complete strategies in this area:

–  France  intends  to  renew  its  regional  plans  for  access  to  prevention  and  care,
mobilising health professionals, NGOs and institutions and involving a whole raft of
actions  such  as  measuring  infection  risks,  preventing  addiction,  preventing  lead
poisoning,  giving  close  attention  to  the  health  problems  of  young  people  in
difficulties. It also intends to continue with its "Health and Urban Policy Workshops",
whereby  professionals,  in  consultation  with  the  local  population,  can  identify  the
specific needs in run-down neighbourhoods and improve co-ordination.

–  Belgium  and  Spain  are  developing  intersectoral  prevention  and  health  education

strategies for at-risk groups.

Several Member States are giving priority to initiatives to promote the health of children
and pregnant women, with the following measures aimed at disadvantaged social groups:

–  Schemes  to  reduce  the  incidence  of  low-birth  weight  in  the  lower  socio-economic
groups  through  health  education  during  pregnancy  (concerning  diet,  drinking  and
smoking), and encouragement for pregnant women to attend pre-natal medical check-
ups (Ireland).

–  Financial encouragement for mothers and their young children to have regular medical

check-ups (Austria, France).

–  Development of preventive school medicine: screening, vaccinations, identification of

mental or language problems (Austria, France, Netherlands).

–  School sex education to reduce teenage pregnancies, an important poverty risk factor

(Denmark).

The Netherlands is the only country presenting a strategy to raise the life expectancy of
persons  in the  lower socio-economic  groups (from  age  53 to age 56 by the  year  2020).
The  Netherlands  has  also  set  a  target  of  halving  worker  sick  leave  through  the
development of occupational health services and part-time leave and through adaptation
of the workload on return to work.

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REGIONAL PROGRAMMES OF ACCESS TO PREVENTION AND CARE (FRANCE)

These  regional  programmes  (French  abbreviation:  PRAPS)  are  designed  to  help  reduce
inequalities  in  access  to  care  and  prevention  for  people  in  precarious  situations  by  providing  a
regional impetus. They have succeeded in mobilising professionals, institutions and NGOs in all
regions. This process has led to more than 1500 initiatives in a wide variety of fields: the mental
health  of  young  people  in  difficulty,  the  mental  suffering  of  persons  in  precarious  situations,
addiction prevention, measurement/reduction of infection risks, measures to combat slum housing
or lead poisoning, shelters for battered girls and women, etc. Under these programmes, more than
370  public  hospitals  have  been  equipped  with  permanent  health-care  reception  services
("permanences d’accès aux soins de santé - PASS) for marginalised members of society: socio-
medical  units  providing  access  to  health  care,  prevention  and  screening  for  these  individuals,
dealing with their problems and helping them complete procedures necessary for recognition of
their rights to social protection. The role of these PASS services is to provide first-line care for
these  people,  both  upstream  and  downstream;  to  promote  suitable  care  facilities,  mobile  if
necessary, for the most marginalised members of society; to educate medical, administrative and
welfare  staff  about  the  problems  associated  with  precariousness;  to  devise  support  and  care
arrangements suitable for persons needing to undergo extensive treatment after leaving hospital.
Twenty PASS centres have been equipped with  medical,  social  and  administrative  software  for
local epidemiological data collection.

5.4. 

Access to education

All NAPs devote a lot of attention to access to education as a crucial right and tool which
prevents social exclusion, reduces risks and supports re-integration into civil society and
the  work  place.  There  is  also  a  growing  recognition  that  all  formal  education  is  not
something  that  happens  at  one  point  in  a  person's  life  but  needs  to  be  seen  in  the
framework of lifelong learning which also includes all non-formal and informal learning
opportunities.  This  should  range  from  early  childhood  learning  (competent  parenting  at
home  and  public  care  and  learning  services),  through  pre-school  education,  to  higher
education,  initial  vocational  training,  adult  general,  civic  and  vocational  training.  All
these dimensions are important. However, the successful completion of initial and basic
education is critical to providing people from a disadvantaged background with a way out
and breaking the hereditary and intergenerational dimension of social exclusion. Paying
especial attention to early childhood education and to supporting parents through targeted
and  multi-professional  support,  involving  learning  the  family-related  competencies,  can
be particularly  important in breaking  the  cycle  of intergenerational  poverty  and helping
children with special needs to catch up their peers before starting compulsory education.
Lifelong  learning  then  provides  second  chances  for  all  age  groups,  especially  for  those
who left school earlier.

In  spite  of  the  extensive  coverage  of  education  one  does  not  get  a  full  sense  of  its
fundamental  importance  in  tackling  social  exclusion  nor  a  sense  of  an  overall  strategic
approach to the issue of lifelong learning and social exclusion. This is in part because of
the  structure  of  the  NAPs  which  means  that  many  of  the  measures  relevant  to  lifelong
education  in  its  fullest  sense  are  scattered  through  different  sections.  There  is  also  a

65

 
tendency in some NAPs to see education primarily through the prism of the access to the
labour  market  and  not  to  sufficiently  acknowledge  its  importance  for  inclusion  in  civil
society, particularly in the  context  of the emerging knowledge  based  society and  active
citizenship. The interconnections between progress in learning and other dimensions that
affect  people's  lives  such  as  health,  environment,  family  and  community  circumstances
are  not  generally  well  represented.  Nor  do  the  NAPs  well  reflect  the  emphasis  that
Member States gave to inclusion by active participation opportunities of young people at
all levels of society and open and participative lifelong learning  structures  which  was  a
feature of their 2002 reports in the follow-up of the White Paper on Youth. There is now
an  extensive  body  of  good  practice  in  Member  States  arising  from  then  support  of
Community  programmes  such  as  Socrates,  Leonardo  and  Youth.  These  highlight  the
contribution that education and life long learning can make to tackling social exclusion.
However, they are only infrequently referred to in the NAPs.

In  spite  of  the  reservations  outlined  above,  one  can,  from  the  various  actions  and
approaches  that  are  indicated  by  Member  States  and  drawing  on  the  experience  of
programmes  like  Socrates,  begin  to  identify  a  framework  for  ensuring  that  lifelong
education  and  training  opportunities  contribute  fully  to  building  a  socially  inclusive
knowledge  society  in  Europe.  The  following  elements  emerge  as  being  important  for  a
comprehensive approach:

–  to make all stages of education and training available to all without discrimination of

age, sex, disability or cultural, religious or regional and national background;

–  to encourage the participation of the learner and his or her rights during all stages of

the learning process;

–  to mainstream social inclusion within all lifelong learning;

–  to ensure that everyone has access to literacy and new basic skills for the knowledge

society;

–  to  extend  the  network  of  specialised  guidance  and  counselling  services,  including
counselling and guidance which will assist people to move from one level of education
to another; and

–  to create an open learning environment in society and at work.

A number of themes occur regularly in the NAPs/inclusion.

Increasing  early  intervention:  There  is  a  widespread  recognition  of  the  critical
importance of learning in early  years. However, only a  few  countries have  a systematic
policy towards providing care and learning for pre-school age children, while others tend
to  regard  it  as  just  a  support  for  working  mothers  or  for  families,  not  as  a  learning
opportunity  for  all,  especially  for  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds.  There  is  a
need  to  ensure  that  a  screening  system  is  put  in  place  in  all  countries  to  identify
(potential) learning difficulties so as to prevent problems and to ensure early intervention

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during  early  childhood.  Such  an  approach  will  require  ongoing  and  structured  co-
operation between the health, education and social sectors.

In  its  NAPs  Denmark  stresses  the  need  for  learning  to  start  early  to  break  the  negative
social legacy. Strengthening basic competencies like communication with early language
learning,  numerical,  social,  cultural  and  civic  competencies  starts  in  early  childhood.
Thus early co-ordinated effort in kindergartens is highlighted. The UK again stresses the
importance  of  integrated  local  initiatives  in  the  early  years  through  its  Surestart
programme. Sweden has expanded pre-school provision, which means that more children
from  unemployed  and  immigrant  backgrounds  have  access  to  pre-schools.  Germany
focuses on expansion in 0-3 sector  and  improving the quality of care  and education for
young children. Ireland emphasises an Early Start Programme.

LINKING NURSERY FACILITIES AND PRIMARY EDUCATION (NETHERLANDS)

In  2001  the  ’s-Hertogenbosch  municipality  contracted-out  nursery  facilities  to  five  school  bodies
within the municipality. Almost all school bodies (around 93 per cent) participated in this through the
association  Stichting  Peuterspeelzaalwerk  ’s-Hertogenbosch.  The  goal  of  the  administrative
collaboration between nursery facilities and primary education is to achieve an unbroken development
line for children aged between 0 and 12, in other words a development without fault-lines between the
(teaching) services which are present.

To this end in the coming years the ’s-Hertogenbosch municipality will physically accommodate all
nursery  facilities  within the primary  school.  By  May  2003  this  had  already  been  realised  by  70  per
cent. Within the framework of the regulations on pre- and early-school education programmes (vve),
collaborative  clusters  have  also  been  formed  around  the  implementation  of  the  vve  programmes
between  nursery  facilities  and  primary  schools.  These  collaborative  clusters  are  situated  in
disadvantaged  neighbourhoods  because  the  vve  regulations  are  aimed  at  children  from  this  target
group,  aged  between  2  and  5  (i.e.  nursery  and  the  first  two  primary  education  years).  The  most
important aim of the regulations is a timely approach to disadvantages or learning arrears suffered by
indigenous and children from ethnic minorities, to prevent a (language) disadvantage in group 3 of the
primary education.

Preventing  educational  disadvantage  within  the  school  system:  Ensuring  equal
opportunities for all in the education system is a common theme though approaches tend
to  vary  between  stressing  improving  the  universality  and  inclusiveness  of  existing
provision (FIN, F, S) to better targeting of particular groups (A, D, DK, EL, E, I) such as
immigrant  children  and  children  and  young  people  with  impairments.  A  wide  range  of
different approaches are identified:

–  give  particular  attention  to  the  transition  between  different  stages  of  schooling
including  between  kindergarten  and  primary  school  (F)  and  from  school  to  further
education (FIN);

–  closer monitoring of pupils is highlighted (DK,) and the development of more personal
action programmes to meet the individual needs of pupils experiencing difficulties (E,
S) and to give individual support to those at risk of dropping out (IRL);

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–  increase  efforts  to  prevent  illiteracy  among  children  (A,  E,  F,  IRL,  S,  UK).  For
example  France  proposes  smaller  first  grade  classes  in  disadvantaged  establishments
to  master  reading,  writing  and  ICT  as  well  as  the  early  testing  and  treatment  of
dyslexia  and  that  reading  training  should  be  continued  until  pupils  reach  secondary
level  if  necessary.  The  Netherlands  talks  of  targeting  extra  resources  to  schools  for
students who have learning problems especially languages.  Ireland through the Early
Literacy  Measure  is  developing  a  proactive  approach  to  preventing  literacy
difficulties.  Sweden,  in  order  to  improve  the  attainment  of  objectives  in  upper
secondary  school,  strengthens  the  pupils'  right  to  support  at  school  and  makes  an
allocation  of  funds  to  develop  the  pupils'  basic  reading,  writing  and  mathematics
skills;

–  strengthen remedial services (FIN, F, IRL) and educational guidance and counselling

services (DK, FIN, F, IRL)

–  improve  out  of  school  supports  such  by  enhancing  the  development  of  homework
assistance measures (DK), creating out of school opportunities (UK) and after school
care centres;

–  develop the training of teachers on social inclusion (DK, EL, P) and strengthen links

between parents and schools and parent participation (DK, E, I, IRL)

–  address cost barriers to full participation in schools  including purchase of equipment

and participation in external activities (B, E, NL, UK, );

–  develop  integrated  approaches  to  educational  disadvantage  at  the  local  level  such  as
through Education Action Zones (UK) or improving schools in segregated areas (S).

It  is  clear  from  the  range  of  measures  highlighted  by  Member  States  that  the  roles  of
schools  are  changing  and  that  they  are  increasingly  taking  on  a  broader  support  role.
They  are  becoming  learning  communities  which  are  open  to  a  range  of  other  kinds  of
supports.  This  means  involving  all  necessary  partners  in  their  work  and  developing  a
vision of an inclusive school. The range of different measures also highlights the need for
increased  co-ordination  between  the  different  levels  of  administration.  Thus  coherent
planning  systems  are  needed  to  set  objectives,  monitor  implementation  and  to  evaluate
progress,  in  particular  in  relation  to  early  school  leaving  which  is  a  problem  involving
several sectors.

Tackling  early  school  leaving:  Many  Member  States  give  especial  attention  to  early
school leavers. Much of the emphasis is on preventing the problem through the types of
measures outlined above especially by improving the social and intercultural dimension
of school management and procedures and better individual monitoring and support for
those  at  risk  of  dropping  out.  Promoting  better  links  between  general  and  work  related
education  (F)  and,  for  those  who  can  not  be  integrated  back  into  the  mainstream
education  system,  strengthening  the  link  between  learning  and  work  programmes  (NL)
are  highlighted.  For  the  Netherlands  the  need  for  a  comprehensive  approach  and  the
mobilising of diverse bodies is also  important  as is  developing  integrated  responses  for

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Belgium.  Ireland,  through  a  schools  completion  programme,  directly  targets  those  in
danger of dropping out of the education system and is a key initiative for discriminating
positively in favour of children and young people who are at risk of early school leaving.

Expanding  access  to  adult  education  and  increasing  literacy  and  basic  skills:  The
importance of adult education providing a second chance for those who lost out at school
is a recurrent theme (DK, IRL). The needs of particular groups such as disabled people,
immigrants,  women  are  often  raised.  For  example  Sweden  emphasises  extending  adult
education  (including  outreach,  counselling  and  individual  study  plans)  to  immigrants.
Intensifying the fight against illiteracy amongst adults is highlighted by many NAPs (B,
D, DK, F, NL, UK). The estimations on the degree of adult literacy vary largely and give
the impression that Europe needs a major adult literacy campaign. In this regard there is
an  urgent  need  for  research  into  assessment  methodologies  for  adults  with  literacy  and
numeracy  difficulties.  In  several  NAPs  particular  attention  is  given  to  integrated
approaches  at  regional  and  local  levels  (D,  F)  and  to  teaching  language  to  immigrants
(DK,  F,  NL,  S).  Greece  uniquely  looks  at  the  opportunity  to  address  educational
weaknesses by offering illiteracy and lifelong learning opportunities for conscripts as part
of a broader social policy. However, while literacy and numeracy are regularly mentioned
access to relevant competencies for the knowledge society (ICT, interpersonal and civic
competence  and  learning  to  learn)  is  rarely  ensured  systematically  at  local,  regional  or
national levels. This is particularly true for those who do not belong to the active labour
force  anymore.  Thus  there  is  a  need  to  ensure  that  adult  education  systems  provide  a
broad range  of education  and  training  which  should  meet  the  individual  learners'  needs
which are often related to life skills.

Finland  stresses  the  importance  of  further  strengthening  lifelong  learning  opportunities
for  older  people.  However,  in  spite  of  the  ageing  populations,  most  NAPs  do  not  give
much  attention  to  making  it  easier  for  older  people  to  access  learning  opportunities
though  there  is  now  a  growing  body  of  good  practice  in  Member  States  on  informal
intergenerational lifelong learning opportunities which could be drawn on.

The dominant impression is that learning opportunities reported in the NAPs are mainly
focussed on supporting transition to employment. As most of the excluded population is
not in employment, lifelong learning opportunities should also be opened to life, survival,
active  citizenship  and  social  skills.  Making  the  knowledge  society  available  for  the
participation  for  all  those  who  are  without  paid  activity  and  therefore  regarded  as
"inactive" in the labour market is much less addressed and this especially affects women.

It  is  striking  that  in  most  NAPs  little  attention  is  given  to  access  to  higher  education
even  though  lifelong  learning  policies  in  Europe  are  dedicated  to  open  up  higher
education  to  non-traditional  learners  and  to  increase  the  representation  of  persons  from
ethnic and cultural minorities in universities. However, Sweden makes improving access
of women and men, irrespective of ethnic background, to higher education one of its key
targets.  The  UK  mentions  a  package  for  assisting  single  parents  in  further  and  higher
education by supporting additional childcare costs. Ireland details a range of programmes
to  increase  the  participation  of  vulnerable  groups  in  third-level  education  such  as  the

69

 
Special  Fund  for  Students  with  Disabilities,  the  Student  Assistance  Fund  and  the
establishment of a National Office for Access to Higher Education.

5.5. 

Access to culture

Cultural  policies  should  be  a  central  part  of  any  comprehensive  and  multi-dimensional
approach to tackling and preventing poverty and social exclusion. Participation in cultural
activities  is  a  key  way  in  which  people  and  communities  can  define  and  develop  their
own  identities  and  communicate  and  represent  themselves  to  others  and  engage  in
symbolic  exchange.  It  is  thus  a  means  of  people  becoming  active  agents  in  democratic
society. Thus promoting access to and participation in cultural activity is as intrinsically
important and valid an aspect of building an inclusive society as promoting participation
in the economic, employment or social domains. A crucial factor about cultural  activity
in relation to social policy is that it has a positive starting point: people are not defined as
a problem, but as a potential and actual asset.

In addition to the intrinsic value of culture there is now a very wide body of practice on
the ground that shows that participation in cultural activities can also be instrumental in
helping  people  and  communities  to  overcome  social  exclusion.  It  is  well-documented
how active involvement in cultural and arts activities can be a key tool in helping people
who are isolated  and marginalised to  gain  skills  and  self-confidence.  This  often  creates
new opportunities for their participation in society and can also be an important route for
supporting  the  retraining  and  reintegration  into  the  labour  market  of  people  who  have
been  long-term  unemployed.  Equally  significant  is  the  contribution  that  cultural
programmes can play in the regeneration of disadvantaged communities and regions both
through  building  a  positive  sense  of  community  identity  and  social  capital  and  through
being a trigger for economic and employment growth.

In  spite  of  the  centrality  of  culture  to  the  process  of  social  inclusion  the  2003
NAPs/inclusion are striking for their lack of a strategic approach to the development of
inclusive  cultural  policies.  There  is  more  mention  of  access  to  culture  in  some
NAPs/inclusion (DK, F, EL, IRL, L) than in 2001. However, many Member States still
give little or no attention to this issue In many cases where access to culture is mentioned
this is  limited  merely  to  increasing  access  to  cultural  institutions  such  as  museums  and
libraries,  which,  while  important,  is  only  part  of  what  needs  to  happen.  Even  here
exciting initiatives that are taking place in Member States such as training staff in cultural
institutions  like  theatres,  museums  and  libraries  as  lifelong  learning  mediators  making
learning  opportunities  more  available  and  attractive  and  reaching  out  to  non-traditional
visitors  or  the  training  of  actors  with  a  multicultural  background  for  theatre  work  with
socially excluded persons is not mentioned. Similarly important and extensive work that
is going on the ground in many countries, particularly in the fields of community arts and
of outreach to marginalised groups and communities by cultural institutions like libraries,
museums and theatres, is not well reflected in the NAPs. This may indicate a failure of
some NAPs to give sufficient importance to linking to and building on experience on the
ground  where  significant  co-operation  already  takes  place  between  economic,  social,
employment  and  cultural  actors.  In  many  cases  it  would  also  appear  to  result  from  the
lack of involvement of relevant cultural ministries and agencies in the preparation of the

70

 
NAPs/inclusion.  However,  it  may  also  be  evidence  of  a  lack  of  understanding  within
many cultural ministries and agencies of the relevance of the social inclusion agenda to
their  work  and  a  lack  of  alignment  of  broad  social  and  cultural  objectives  –  in  other
words  a  failure  to  mainstream  a  concern  with  poverty  and  social  inclusion  into  the
cultural domain. More broadly this may also reflect the lack of a truly multi-dimensional
understanding  of  social  exclusion  and  a  tendency  in  the  NAPs  to  overemphasise  the
significance  of  access  to  employment  at  the  expense  of  other  important  dimensions
instead of seeing them as being mutually reinforcing. The lack of visibility at policy level
of  the  multitude  of  local  cultural  activity  that  is  directly  supporting  social  inclusion  is
particularly  worrying  at  a  time  of  economic  recession.  The  importance  of  much  of  this
activity  in  countering  social  exclusion  may  not  be  appreciated  and  it  may  cease  to  be
prioritised  for  financial support,  for  instance  in  the  expenditure  of  EU  Structural  Funds
which have made a very significant contribution in this area.

In their NAPs/inclusion Denmark,  Finland, Greece, Ireland and  Luxembourg give some
mention to programmes for increasing access to cultural facilities and involving children
in cultural activities. Denmark stresses that a considerable number of the cultural benefits
such as libraries and museums are available cheaply or free and are thus expected to help
to prevent social exclusion. To support participation  in cultural life  the  government has
sought  to  support  cultural  activities  for  children  through  networking  between  major
institutions  such  as  the  Cultural  Inheritance  Protection  Agency,  the  National  Library
Authority,  the  Film  Institute  and  the  Danish  Arts.  Greece  highlights  a  scheme  of  the
Ministry  of  Labour  and  Social  Security  to  give  performance  vouchers  providing  free
admission to theatrical performances, summer open-air cinemas, concerts and other  arts
events and free tickets for performances at Epidaurus and other ancient theatres. Greece
also highlights the role of the libraries particularly in remote  rural regions. Finland  also
mentions the continued free provision of basic library services and their role in providing
access  to  knowledge  and  culture.  Ireland  recognises  that  as  general  access  to  arts  and
culture facilities improves and participation in arts and culture activities increases, there
will be a positive impact on socially disadvantaged individuals and groups.

France,  Sweden  and  the  UK  detail  more  extensively  initiatives  to  increase  access.
Sweden outlines its proposed Agenda for Culture 2003-2006, which contains a range of
initiatives  aiming  to  make  cultural  activities  more  available.  The  UK  makes  access  to
culture  a  specific  policy  objective  and  the  devolved  administrations  also  share  this
objective. For instance Scotland has produced a National Cultural Strategy and there is a
target  to  increase  the  number  of  under-represented  groups,  particularly  children  and
young people, taking part in cultural and sporting activity by 5% by 2006. A number of
interesting  initiatives  in  England  are  detailed  such  as  Creative  Partnerships  aimed  at
developing the creative potential of children in deprived areas. France proposes a range
of  innovative  activities  to  increase  participation  in  cultural  activities  and  to  increase
understanding  between  those  in  the  cultural  sector  and  disadvantaged  populations.  A
network to battle exclusion in the cultural sector is proposed. Belgium and Portugal treat
the  issue  in  most  depth  and  stress  the  central  importance  of  access  to  culture  for
promoting social inclusion. Portugal stresses the link between education and culture and
the  potential  for  personal  development  and  redressing  structural  inequalities  in  basic
education. Belgium provides data on participation in cultural activities and highlights the

71

 
low participation of people at risk of poverty. The Belgium NAP also describes a range of
initiatives in relation to preventing the risk of exclusion arising from a lack of culture and
promoting  cultural  initiatives  in  favour  of  the  most  vulnerable.  One  interesting  project
which  seeks  to  increase  the  access  of  the  poorest  to  culture  through  the  granting  of
cultural cheques is included as an example of good practice.

THE AGENDA FOR CULTURE 2003-2006 (SWEDEN)

The Ministry of Culture presented an Agenda for Culture 2003-2006 at the beginning of 2003. In order
to make cultural activities available for more people, admission to a number of state museums will in
future  be  free  of  charge.  Other  features  of  the  agenda  include  continuing  measures  for  children,
disabled  persons  and  culture  at  work  and  more  regional  programmes.  In  addition,  the  Government
Book Price Commission will, up till the end of 2005, continuously monitor and evaluate the effects of
the  reduction  of  VAT  on  books  and  newspapers  from  25%  to  6%.  Inviting  professional  artists  and
cultural  workers  to  visit  schools,  workplaces  or  unconventional  environments  is  one  way  of  giving
more  people  access  to  culture.  During  the  period  2003-2006  the  Ministry  of  Culture  will,  in  co-
operation  with  cultural  workers,  artists’  organisations  and  employers,  explore  new  roles  for  artists
outside mainstream cultural life.

One dimension of access to culture that is assuming growing importance is the role it can
play in promoting social inclusion in societies in which increased immigration is leading
to greater ethnic and cultural diversity. Promoting social inclusion and social cohesion is
not  a  question  of  uniformity.  Culture  is  a  precious  factor  of  difference  and  this  means
allowing  for  the  celebration  of  different  cultures  within  a  single  society.  Equally
increasing access to the cultural activities of the majority  community can help to foster
better  understanding  and  a  sense  of  belonging  providing  the  aim  is  not  assimilation.  In
this regard the Finnish NAP acknowledges the need to target support for cultural plurality
in response to the projected growth in Finland's immigrant population. The overarching
policy  objective  is  to  prevent  the  escalation  of  cultural  conflicts  and  promote  social
participation of ethnic groups. The government also plans to draft an immigration policy
programme that is designed to promote the language and cultural rights of children from
ethnic groups.

5.6. 

Access to justice

The  problem  of  access  to  legal  services  and  justice,  especially  for  certain  vulnerable
groups,  is  very  widely  recognised  in  the  NAPs/incl.  Most  Member  States  (Belgium,
Denmark,  France,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  Portugal,  Spain,  Sweden  and  the
United Kingdom) feature measures to promote access to justice in their Plans.

The subject has certainly been given a higher priority than in the NAPs/incl 2001-2003.
Measures  concerning  justice  feature  among  the  strategic  measures  in  the  Belgian
NAP/incl, and the  Netherlands has even set a specific target  for the introduction of an
appropriate system of  legal aid for  disadvantaged  persons  seeking  legal  redress,  so  that
these persons can use the system of legal aid and mediation in the same way as the more
comfortably-off.

The NAPs/incl particularly emphasise:

72

 
–  the stepping up and extension of free legal aid for people on low incomes, by relaxing

the eligibility conditions in terms of level of income;

–  access  to  good-quality  information,  including  through  information  campaigns
regarding services already available, which is recognised as essential for the settlement
of disputes and effective application of the laws;

–  mediation  on  behalf  of  populations  in  a  precarious  situation,  which  is  used  also  for

settling disputes, including disputes between administrations and citizens.

The  groups  identified  in  the  NAPs/incl  include  ethnic  minorities,  immigrants,  asylum
seekers, ex-offenders and persons on low incomes living in rented accommodation. Legal
protection is also necessary, and is envisaged, for victims of domestic violence, children,
disabled  persons,  victims  of  human  trafficking,  transsexuals,  cohabiting  couples,
prostitutes.

Spain,  for  example,  plans  to  create  an  arbitration  system  for  settling  complaints  and
claims by disabled persons, as well as legal defence measures. It also plans to adopt a law
protecting disabled persons' assets.

The NAPs/incl also report other measures designed to improve access to the law and to
justice,  such  as  improving  support  for  victims,  training  police  officers  and  judicial
officers, setting up specialist advice  centres  for asylum seekers,  establishing a complete
network of departmental legal access committees to produce initiatives aimed at helping
people in danger of social exclusion, and simplifying procedures and making them easier
to understand.

5.7. 

Access to sport and leisure

As  stated  in  the  Nice  Declaration  on  the  specific  characteristics  of  sport  and  its  social
function  in  Europe12,  access  and  participation  in  sport  and  leisure  activities  play  an
important  role  in  contributing  preventing  vulnerable  groups  becoming  isolated  and  in
increasing participation in voluntary activities and thus has a positive impact on socially
disadvantaged  individuals,  groups  and  areas.  However,  improvement  of  access  to  sport
and recreation activities does not feature prominently in the NAPs/incl.

Sport

Only  United  Kingdom  set  a  specific  target  -  for  Scotland  –  aiming  at  increasing  the
number of under-represented groups, especially children and young people, taking part in
cultural and sporting activity by 5 per cent by 2006.

In  other  Plans,  measures  aim  in  particular  at  making  participation  in  sport  available
cheaply or for free (Denmark, Belgium, Greece, France). Other actions include:

12

Annex 4 of the Nice European Council Conclusions.

73

 
                                                
The Irish Sport Capital Programme provides funding on an annual basis to voluntary and
community  organisations  to  assist  with  the  provision  of  sporting  facilities  aimed  at
increasing  levels  of  participation  and  improving  standards  of  performance.  Priority  is
awarded to applications from organisations located in areas of social disadvantage.

In  Belgian  Flanders  a  campaign  has  been  organised  for  the  support  of  sport  in
neighbourhood  and  districts,  with  the  participation  of  60  municipalities,  aiming  in
particular  youngsters  disadvantaged  as  their  access  to  sport.  In  2003  a  specific  training
for sport educator in districts is being developed.

Greece  promotes  the  participation  of  people  with  special  needs  in  popular  sports
programmes,  putting  particular  emphasis  on  the  development  of  special  programmes,
such as: sport at work, Gypsy encampments, areas with a high population of repatriated
Greeks,  Muslim  and  immigrant  communities  –  where  activities  are  organised  in
association  with  their  own  community  groups.  Special  efforts  will  be  made  for  the
Paralympics games.

In  Sweden,  the  Government  launched  a  project  to  study  and  disseminate  information
about  how  public  resources  for  sport  benefit  people  with  various  ethnic  backgrounds,
how  disabled  people  can  use  these  resources  and  how  the  resources  are  distributed
between women and men, girls and boys.

Leisure

Initiatives aim in particular at facilitating groups and individuals holidays for low-income
and  disadvantaged  people  and  their  children  (Belgium,  Luxembourg).  Other  measures
featured in the Plans:

France  will  pursue  and  reinforce  culture  programmes  for  people  with  disabilities.  The
label  “Tourism  and  Disability  ”  aims  at  promoting  accessibility  of  tourist  sites  and
equipment  for  disabled  persons  (target:  500  labels  in  2003).  The  label  will  also  be
reinforced  and  integrated  with  a  national  communication  campaign  and  an  itinerary
exhibition.

The  Greek  Workers’  Hearth  Organisation  specialises  in  the  securing  of  access  for  its
members  to  cultural  goods  and  leisure  activities  (social  tourism  vouchers,  excursions,
theatre tickets, etc.).

Irish National Play Policy provides play environments for children in local communities
and rural areas, especially those which are disadvantaged.

The  Portuguese  “without  frontiers”  Programme  ensures  access  to  cultural  activities,
sport  and  recreation  to  children  and  young  people  at  risk  of  exclusion.  450  books  in
Braille will be published, between 2003-2006, in order to improve the  access of people
with visual impairments to the National Library. Portugal will also increase by 10% the
number of disabled participants and their families in cultural, leisure and sport activities.

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5.8. 

Access to transport

A small number  of Member States  draw  attention in their 2003 NAP's  to the important
impact  that  transport  policies  can  have  in  either  contributing  to  social  exclusion  or  in
facilitating social inclusion. However, in general there is a failure to develop a coherent
or  strategic  approach  to  the  connection  between  social  inclusion  and  transport  policies.
This  reflects  a  weakness  in  the  multidimensional  approach  adopted  by  most  Members
States  and  a  failure  to  mainstream  a  concern  with  poverty  and  social  exclusion  into
transport  policy.  Indeed,  the  majority  of  Member  States  give  no  attention  at  all  to  the
issue of transport.

From those Member states who do address the issue of access to transport (B, EL, F, IRL,
UK) one can begin to develop a picture  of how transport related  factors  can compound
the  primary  risks  of  social  exclusion  but  also  how  a  positive  linkage  between  transport
and social objectives can promote social inclusion. Limited access to transport, whether
because of cost or availability, can increase social exclusion by:

–  limiting the ability of the unemployed to access jobs and/or training opportunities;

–  limiting  access  to  key  services  such  as  health,  lifelong  learning,  culture,  sports  and

recreation;

–  limiting the possibility of some groups such as the elderly and people with disabilities

or women with small children to access facilities and maintain social contacts;

–  undermining social capital and forcing people on low incomes to have an increasingly

local and restricted lifestyle;

–  absorbing  a  disproportionate  part  of  the  income  of  people  living  on  low  wages  or

dependent on welfare payments;

–  limiting the possibility of flexible working and reconciling work and family life;

–  containing 

the  opportunities  for 

immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities 

living 

in

disadvantaged areas to engage and integrate with the wider society.

Lack of good transport infrastructure can also limit the possibility of economic and social
regeneration  of  disadvantaged  communities  and  contribute  to  the  continuing  decline  of
marginal rural areas. Poor communities can frequently bear a disproportionate part of the
costs of traffic as they are often situated next to major strategic transport networks which
can isolate them from surrounding neighbourhoods, lead to higher levels of air and noise
pollution  and  increased  risk  of  accidents,  especially  to  children.  As  the  mobility  gap
between  car-owners  and  non  car-owners  in  the  EU  countries  continues  to  grow,  unless
positive  policies  to  improve  access  to  transport  for  all  are  in  place,  their  transport  will
continue to be a factor in entrenching social exclusion and inequality in society.

Policy approaches identified in the NAP's can broadly be divided into two groups; first,
policies  to  increase  access  for  all  and,  secondly,  measures  which  specifically  target  the

75

 
socially  excluded.  Greece  stresses  that  improving  the  quality  of  public  transport  and
keeping fares at a reasonable level mainly benefits those at risk of poverty and that good
transportation  connections  are  of  vital  importance  for  the  countryside  and  the  islands,
especially for vulnerable groups. France, under the heading of improving universal access
to essential services, highlights its use of transportation solidarity cards allow the social
and  economically  disadvantaged  to  use  public  transportation  networks  for  a  reduced
charge. France also plans to extend its "travel with a handicap" programme.

Ireland  takes  the  broadcast  approach  by  stressing  its  commitment  to  integrate  transport
policies with other government policies, particularly balanced regional development and
social  inclusion.  As  well  as  emphasising  major  general  investment  in  the  transport
structure to ensure that accessible transport is provided in both urban and rural areas, it
gives especial emphasis to overcoming isolation and exclusion of people on low incomes
living in rural areas and plans to build on a series of rural transport initiatives that have
been  isolated  since  2001.  Like  France,  Ireland  is  also  committed  to  further  developing
disability  access.  Belgium  highlights  the  importance  of  ensuring  that  transport  policy
contributes to enabling a better link between home and work and thus removing a barrier
to  people  taking  up  employment.  The  UK  mentions  a  recent  report  on  "Transport  and
Social  Exclusion"  undertaken  by  their  Social  Exclusion  Unit  and  makes  comments  in
passing that older people may have more difficulties with transport and about free school
transport.

6. 

KEY POLICY APPROACHES FOR OBJECTIVE 2. 'PREVENTING THE RISKS OF
EXCLUSION'

(a) To exploit fully the potential of the knowledge-based society and of new information
and  communication  technologies  and  ensure  that  no-one  is  excluded,  taking  particular
account of the needs of people with disabilities.

(b) To put in place policies which seek to prevent life crises which can lead to situations
of social exclusion, such as indebtedness, exclusion from school and becoming homeless.

(c) To implement action to preserve family solidarity in all its forms.

6.1. 

Promoting e-inclusion

The  impact  of  the  knowledge-based  society  and  Information  and  Communication
Technologies  (ICTs)  on  inclusion,  the  eInclusion  issue,  is  substantially  recognised  by
the different Member States, as was already the case in the 2001 Inclusion NAPs.

Again, the starting point varies greatly among member states, as some of them (e.g. the
Nordic countries and the Netherlands) experience much higher levels of diffusion of ICTs
(e.g. in terms of Internet penetration, also specifically in low-income groups) and of use
of the possibilities they offer for social inclusion. However, it is interesting to notice that,
with respect to 2001, internet penetration in the EU - when measured in terms of internet

76

 
users as percentage of the total population13 - has globally increased from 34,3 % to 43,5
%;  this  trend  has  affected  all  considered  age  groups  and  socio-economic  categories,
although to different extents. In particular, the increase in access rate has been higher for
women  (~  10,8%)  than  for  men  (~  7,5%),  thus  showing  a  trend  toward  bridging  the
existing  "gender  divide"  within  the  digital  divide.  Moreover,  access  has  proportionally
increased  more  among  unemployed  and  self-employed  people  (~14%)  with  respect  to
populations  belonging  to  other  employment-related  categories  (~10-12%).  On  the  other
side, Internet penetration among housepersons, especially women,  retired people and in
rural  areas  is  clearly  lagging  behind.  The  picture  is  obviously  much  diversified  if
statistics  at  country  level,  and  especially  at  regional  level,  are  considered.  In  fact,  big
disparities characterise the "geographical" distribution of  access  and use  of  ICTs across
the EU.

Luxembourg  and  the  UK  now  join  the  Nordic  countries  and  Netherlands  in  scoring  an
Internet access rate above – or much above - the 50 % threshold. A group of countries –
such as Italy, Belgium, Austria, Germany are positioned around the EU average; Ireland,
Spain  and  France  still  have  a  lower  than  average  access  rate  (~35%),  together  with
Portugal and Greece (~21%). Between 2001 and 2003, the growth in Internet penetration
in  the  UK,  Luxembourg,  Germany,  Belgium  and  France  has  been  higher  than  the
European average (+10-12 %).

As  the  diffusion  of  ICTs  among  (national)  populations  is  a  complex  phenomenon  to  a
large extent market driven, it is difficult to directly relate actual trends and phenomena to
policy measures addressing them, as the ones implemented by the Member States in the
2001-2003 period. However, higher than average  growth rates in internet access among
certain  disadvantaged  groups  (women,  unemployed)  or  within  certain  countries
(Germany,  Belgium,  Luxembourg,  UK),  often  match  the  strategic  objectives  that  the
NAPs 2001 had set and the effort put in wide-ranging eInclusion programmes.

Measures  concerning access to the new  ICTs and  their opportunities are  foreseen again
by  Member  States  for  the  2003-2005  period.  Some  initiatives  still  aim  at  the  overall
population (policies for raising awareness and providing computer literacy and access to
a  broad  section  of  society).  We  find  in  Finland  and  France  introduce  an  innovative
approach  along  this  line,  whereby  access  to  new  technologies  is  mainly  considered  as
access  to their contents  and  services,  especially  cultural  contents.  Thus  coupling  digital
and  traditional  literacy  and  the  fight  against  cultural  exclusion  are  at  the  core  of  the
eInclusion policy of their National Plans.

Other  countries  target  specific  groups  at  risk  of  exclusion,  such  as  younger  people  in
situations  of  disadvantage  (Luxembourg),  low-income/  unemployed/  retired  people
(Belgium, Ireland) and women. An interesting trend - conducive to social capital building
-  is  the  provision  of  ICTs  equipment  and  skills  to  parents  and  children  –  involving
schools, families and local communities (Belgium, Denmark, UK). Also, the progressive
creation of public access points in libraries, community centres, cybercafes is foreseen by

13

Source of all data mentioned in this section: Eurobarometer 59.2 – Spring 2003.

77

 
                                                
many Member States. A correlation between the achieved level of Internet penetration in
a country and the choice of general vs. group-specific eInclusion policies implemented is
not necessarily found.

ICTs  related  measures  fostering  access  to  employment  are  addressed  in  the  2003
Inclusion NAPs; however, the 2002  Employment NAPs had already partly covered this
domain.  ICTs  are  used  as  tools  supporting  services  for  job  search,  orientation  and
vocational training; provision of ICTs skills for socio-professional integration of groups
at  risk  of  exclusion  is  planned  –  and  in  fact  implemented  -  by  most  EU  countries.
Moreover, new open and flexible forms of learning supported by new ICTs (e-learning)
are progressively used for re-qualification of workers, training of people under temporary
contract, adult education.

Integration of ICTs in school curricula at all educational level and provision  of internet
connection to all educational institution is a goal achieved by some countries and pursued
by many  others; as  a  matter  of  fact,  access  and  digital  literacy  provided  through  public
education are considered by MS as being among the most important means for including
the  new  generations  in  the  knowledge  society.  Again,  the  description  of  policies  and
measures planned or taken in this field is often included in the NAPs Employment 2002,
and only partially covered by the NAPs Inclusion 2003.

Provision of ICTs access and services to disabled people has been particularly focused on
by  practically  all  national  governments.  European  initiatives  in  this  field14  have
stimulated the adoption of WAI guidelines for public web sites - several Member States
have  developed  legislation  to  mandate  the  adoption  of  the  Guidelines  -  and  the
engagement  in  developing  universal  design  for  e-accessibility  following  the  creation  of
the  "European  network  on  Design  for  all",  EDEAN15.  The  implementation  of  speech
recognition applications for adapting ICTs equipment to the needs of some categories of
disabled  people  is  an  innovative  approach  in  this  respect  (Denmark).  Initiatives  for
integrating disabled people in the labour market with the support of ICTs are also a good
model to be followed (Austria), as well as the programmes aiming at improving access by
disabled  people  to  services  in  the  field  of  health  or  education.  Sweden  gives  a  high
priority  to  meeting  disabled  persons'  needs  of  effective  telecommunications  and  other
services  and  to  meeting  their  needs  for  products  and  services  that  depend  on  high
transmission capacity (broadband).

As a matter of fact, the opportunities potentially offered by the knowledge society reside
very much in the – universal – provision of contents and services, access being a mean
and not an aim in itself. From this point of view, relatively little is included in the NAPs
2003-2005  (with  some  exceptions).  Some  initiatives  have  been  launched  in  the  field  of
public services provided on-line – portals for social services, provision of administrative
information  or  of  legal  assistance  (France,  Germany,  Greece,  Netherlands);  a  working

14

15

In  particular  under  the  Action  Plan  eEurope  2002,  action  line  "participation  for  all  in  the
Knowledge based economy".
EDEAN  has  created  a  National  Network  in  each  Member  State  and  in  Europe  more  than  100
organisations are participating.

78

 
                                                
group on eHealth has been created in Greece. A programme for training and exchange of
good  practices  in  the  field  of  e-government  at  local  level  is  foreseen  in  France.  A
particular attention to ICTs access and use at local level is especially to be found in the
UK  and  Ireland.  Greece  addresses  the  issue  of  Internet  penetration  in  rural  areas,  with
grants to young farmers for purchasing computers and Internet connections.

Equal participation of women to the knowledge society is among other issues targeted in
the  NAPs  with  specific  initiatives,  such  as  provision  of  education  and  professional
training in the ICTs field, support to networks and to women entrepreneurship.

All  in  all,  the  impression  is  more  of  isolated  initiatives  and  actions  than  broad  ranging
strategies. As a matter of fact, only few NAPs attribute a really strategical importance to
eInclusion (Portugal, Greece, Spain, Sweden), while most National Plans choose to focus
on other priorities. Often, programmes and actions targeting specific groups or areas are
actually  implemented  in  Member  States  but  are  not  reported  in  the  NAPs  Inclusion.  In
some  cases,  only  a  reference  is  made  to  other  national  strategies  or  documents.  An
opportunity for exchange of practices and policy responses is thus missed.

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

FOUR E-INCLUSION ACTIONS (GREECE)

Women and the Information Society: The Operational Programme "Information Society"
has a twofold strategy. It includes measures of a general nature to facilitate the dissemination
of  technologies  and  information  science  (e.g.  in  education,  in  very  small  businesses)  and
measures  specially  designed  for  women.  Projects  have  been  designed  with  a  positive
discrimination quota in favour of women (70/30), such as programmes to develop skills in
new professions.

For the participation of disabled people a Working Group on "Universal Access and Ease
of Use in the Information Society" was set up in 2002 to put together a general framework.
The  following  actions  have  been  proposed:  advanced  Eurozone  services  for  disabled
individuals, special education equipment, promotion of equality of access to health services
and  development  of  health  information  systems  for  the  elderly  and  for  disabled  people,
development  of  educational  programmes,  provision  of  telecommunications  services  for
disabled  people, 
the  process  of  creating  a  national  network
"e-accessibility.gr" being part of EDEAN.

involvement 

in 

Introduction  of  new  technologies  into  education:  The  Ministry  of  Education  is  co-
ordinating a number of measures to ensure that the potential of ICT is assimilated into the
day-to-day teaching process. The initiative is designed along three axes: 1) Development of
equipment 2) Development of digital content 3) Further training of teachers.

For  the  rural  areas,  grants  are  to  be  paid  to  young  farmers  to  allow  them  to  purchase
computers and internet links.

Indicators  for  eInclusion  in  2003-2005  are  provided  by  France,  Greece,  Spain  and
Portugal.  In  general,  this  area  is  slightly  better  developed  than  in  the  2001  NAPs;
however,  we  are  still  far  from  a  system  of  indicators  which  could  really  allow  the
monitoring of progress at national level.

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6.2.

Preventing and tackling over-indebtedness

Most of the NAPs/incl see preventing and tackling over-indebtedness as a major element
in the fight against social exclusion and poverty. Some emphasise that over-indebtedness
has  damaging  consequences  for  individuals  and  their  families,  making  participation  in
economic  and  social  life  difficult  (D).  It  limits  freedom  of  movement  and  makes  it
difficult to escape from poverty (B), and can even lead to loss of accommodation, often a
factor behind the rise in homelessness (P), an extreme form of social exclusion. It makes
it  difficult  to  find  work,  because  it  deters  employers  who  know  it  will  be  their
responsibility  to  collect  the  debt  from  the  worker's  salary,  with  all  the  legal  and
administrative procedures that that entails (A).

In  some  Member  States  the  1990s  saw  an  unprecedented  growth  in  consumer  credit,
stemming  from  the  liberalisation  of  the  financial  system,  lower  interest  rates,  increased
advertising  and,  in  some  cases,  irresponsible  encouragement  of  consumers  to  take
advantage of facilities offering immediate access to goods and services (P).

The  main  causes  mentioned  behind  the  growing  problem  of  over-indebtedness  in  some
Member States (growing numbers of debtors, increasing levels of  debt)  include:  loss of
job  or  job  insecurity  (FIN),  family  events  such  as  separation  or  divorce  (D),  problems
faced by certain low-income families in avoiding amassing multiple debts (UK), and the
ignorance  of  some  young  people  about  the  dangers  of  obtaining  goods  or  services  via
new technologies such as the Internet and mobile phones (B).

Member  States  apply  two  types  of  measures,  although  not  always  in  the  same  way:
preventive  measures,  focusing  on  information,  advice  and  education;  and  remedial
measures, involving strict rules on seizure of assets, easier repayment schemes and debt
cancellation.

Information, advice and education:

–  Luxembourg  and  Belgium  announce  information  campaigns  on  the  risks  of  running

into debt;

–  Portugal  plans  to  extend  its  consumer  education  network,  with  the  affiliation  of
education  establishments  and  the  establishment  of  local  training  and  information
services in locations where they do not  exist at present, while the Walloon region in
Belgium intends to continue supporting 125 "consumer schools";

–  France is studying measures to ensure consumers are given more objective and fairer

information, particularly in the field of advertising;

–  With effect from 1 June 2003 Belgium supplemented its negative database of incidents
of loan repayment with a positive database of loans awarded, while France is planning
reforms in these areas and strict rules concerning revolving credit;

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–  In  Austria,  Belgium,  Finland,  Germany,  Ireland,  Portugal  and  the  United  Kingdom,
there are plans for reinforcing the competent services that provide advice, training and
guidance for people in debt;

–  In  Belgium  (Walloon  region)  there  are  plans  to  try  out  savings-and-loan  groups,
"Groupes  Épargne  Crédit"  (based  on  systems  that  already  exist  in  other  Member
States,  such  as  the  "Credit  Unions"  in  Ireland),  whereby  local  members  can  better
meet  their  financial  needs  by  pooling  their  resources,  while  at  the  same  time
collectively sharing the risks and responsibilities.

Treatment of over-indebtedness

–  In Germany, in accordance with the commitments given in the  NAP/incl 2001-2003,

new rules were introduced in 2002 reforming the civil bankruptcy procedure.

–  More  appropriate  rules  relating  to  seizure  of  assets  (ceilings  regarding  unseizability,
realisation of assets seized, etc.) have been introduced in Germany, in accordance with
the  commitments  given  in  the  NAPincl  2001-2003,  and  Belgium  has  in  turn
announced similar measures, as well as a new law on the amicable recovery of debts
(prohibition  of  any  behaviour  which  violates  the  debtor's  life,  honour  or  human
dignity).

–  France and Belgium have launched a re-organisation of the funds set up to help people

with debts, particularly rent debts.

–  A  civil  bankruptcy  procedure  (known  in  France  as  "rétablissement  personnel"),
whereby persons of good faith who are permanently unable to repay their debts due to
insufficient means can have their debts written off, has been introduced in Germany, is
the subject of a new law in France, is being debated in Belgium and is slated to form
part  of  a  reform  package  in  Finland  which  will  also  cover  debt  restructuring  and
seizure procedures.

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MONEY ADVICE AND BUDGETING SERVICE (IRELAND)

The  Money  Advice  and  Budgeting  Service  (MABS)  is  a  countrywide  service  funded  by  the
Department of Social and Family Affairs. The service is managed by 52 locally based companies
with  board  members  drawn  from  the  statutory  and  voluntary  sectors.  The  MABS  provides  an
independent, free and confidential service primarily to low-income families who are in debt or at
risk of getting into debt. It has an emphasis on practical, budget-based measures that will succeed
in  removing  people  permanently  from  dependence  on  moneylenders  and  open  up  alternative
sources of low cost credit through  their local  Credit  Unions.  Credit  Unions  are  member  owned
and  member  run  financial  co-operatives.  Members  of  a  credit  union  have  a  common  bond
generally based on where they live (community) or where they work (occupational). The MABS
has  a  special  relationship  with  the  credit  unions  which  operate  a  "special  accounts"  system  to
enable  the  MABS  client  repay  debts  and  save  small  amounts.  A  Loan  Guarantee  Fund  also
operates to provide "crisis" loans as an alternative to the moneylender. The aim of the service is
to  help  people  to  regain  control  of  their  finances and to  budget  for  the  future.  It  helps  them  to
prepare a budget plan and to contact their creditors with a view to rescheduling repayments. The
Money Adviser also helps the client to maximise their income, prioritise their debts, and where
necessary,  contact  and  refer  to  other  support  agencies.  The  MABS  frequently  intervenes  to
prevent repossession of the family home and also to prevent disconnection of gas and electricity
supply.  A  Pilot  Debt  Settlement  Programme  was  recently  agreed  by  the  MABS  and  the  Irish
Bankers' Federation and supported by the other main creditors. This Pilot Scheme provides a non-
judicial  alternative  for  resolving  cases  of  multiple  consumer  debt  that  are  likely  to  prove
intractable and otherwise end up in court. The scheme introduces a range of innovative features
that are new to this jurisdiction such as a finite period for an agreed debt repayment programme,
the freezing/reduction of interest and the write-off of residual debt on successful  completion  of
the  programme.  The  debtor's  principal  private  residence  is  secured  against  enforced  sale  or
repossession

6.3.

Preventing and tackling homelessness

Being  "homeless",  "without  a  roof  over  one's  head"  or  having  "no  fixed  abode",
depending on the terminology used in the Member States, is probably the most extreme
form  of  social  exclusion  and  poverty  in  Europe.  The  consequences  are  particularly
serious,  in  terms  of  health,  employment  (finding  or  keeping  a  job),  children's  access  to
education, and family life.

The  following  groups  of  people  are  defined  as  homeless  in  the  Finnish  Plan:  persons
sleeping out of doors or in temporary shelters; persons using lodging houses etc. because
they have no home of their own; persons in various forms of institutional accommodation
because  they  have  no  home  of  their  own;  released  prisoners  who  do  not  have  a  home;
persons  living  temporarily  with  friends  or  relations  because  of  the  lack  of  a  home;
families  living  separately  or  in  temporary  accommodation  because  they  do  not  have  a
home; homeless mothers living in a home for unmarried mothers; and unmarried couples
that are about to have a child and do not have a joint home. This definition which is the
most  comprehensive  seems  to  have  been  accepted  by  most  agencies  researching  the
phenomenon and the European Observatory on Homelessness.

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The  2003-2005  NAPs/incl  make  it  clear  that  homelessness  can  stem  from  a  variety  of
factors:  over-indebtedness,  family  break-up  (often  preceded  by  domestic  violence),
unemployment, drug addiction, alcoholism, release from prison, mental illness.

"Those  who  live  on  the  streets  are  no  longer  the  traditional  marginalised  members  of
society, beggars and vagabonds. A new generation of homeless, including more and more
women  and  young  people,  is  now  emerging,  among  whom  are  people  with  mental
disorders, drug addicts, alcoholics, ex-prisoners and others who, whether due to structural
or personal  reasons, find themselves  cut  off  from  the  usual  standards  and  institutions  –
social  links  broken,  absence  of  rules  and  routines,  self-marginalisation,  estrangement
from  work,  reduced  cognitive  capacity  –  and  with  no  social,  psychological  or  financial
support", states Portugal's NAPincl.

In  the  absence  of  clear,  common  definitions,  and  given  the  difficulties  of  counting  a
population which slips under the radar of the normal censuses, it is difficult to establish
precise  and comparable figures. The  efforts made  since 2001  by  certain Member States
(Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Netherlands, United Kingdom) and by Eurostat have
still  not  yielded  harmonised  statistics,  and  despite  the  recommendations  of  the  Laeken
European  Council  many  Member  States  do  not  present  "tertiary  indicators"  of
homelessness in their NAPs/incl.

The estimates are therefore based more on administrative data (numbers of persons dealt
with  by  the  homelessness  services)  than  on  exhaustive  data.  And  assessment  is  made
even more difficult by the massive influx into certain Member States of asylum seekers
or immigrants in irregular situations, with no specific abode.

Homelessness  is  a  multidimensional  problem  which  calls  for  an  integrated  and  holistic
approach  straddling  a  number  of  domains,  not  only  housing  but  also  health  (especially
mental health), employment, training, justice and social protection.

While  all  Member  States  describe  in  their  NAPs/incl  efforts  to  improve  the  emergency
reception  and  temporary  housing  of  homeless  persons  and  to  alleviate  their  day-to-day
difficulties,  and  some  emphasise  the  prevention  dimension  (Germany),  only  four  have
introduced  strategies  designed  to  eradicate  homelessness  completely  (Austria,  Finland,
Ireland,  United  Kingdom)  and  three  are  preparing  such  strategies  (Belgium,  France,
Portugal).

These strategies  for preventing and  combating situations  of homelessness are  based  not
only  on  improving  the  social  emergency  mechanisms,  providing  more  temporary
accommodation, setting up multidisciplinary mobile outreach teams, networking between
public authorities, health care and psychiatric institutions, emergency shelter institutions
and  social  housing  agencies,  co-operation  with  NGOs  and  a  guaranteed  rehousing
capacity  by  the  public  authorities,  but  also  on  sustained  efforts  by  professionals  and
volunteers to help with social integration and re-integration.

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HOMELESSNESS STRATEGY IN SCOTLAND (UNITED-KINGDOM)

In  1999  the  Scottish  Executive  established  a  Homelessness  Task  Force,  which  made  59
recommendations. All have been accepted and all legislative recommendations have been taken
forward16. These will mean that all homeless people are entitled to permanent accommodation by
2012  and  that  support  will  be  provided  to  those  who  are  intentionally  homeless.  All  local
authorities  are  required  to  produce  homelessness  strategies,  incorporating  the  need  to  ensure
groups at risk should receive appropriate advice and support. These strategies were submitted by
all Scottish local authorities in March 2003 and are currently being reviewed.

The Scottish Executive is also targeting considerable resources to tackle this problem. Along with
local  government,  it  has  pledged  that  any  need  to  sleep  rough  will  end  by  2003.  The  Rough
Sleepers Initiative (RSI) has already made considerable progress, receiving funds of £36 million
over  five  years.  Revenue  funding  of  £11  million  a  year  is  now  paid  directly  through  the  Rate
Support  Grant,  thus  allowing  local  authorities  to  match  their  funding  stream  to  specific  local
needs.  In  addition,  a further  £2  million  of  capital  funding  was  made  available  for  2002/03  and
2003/04. A key element is the Glasgow Hostels Decommissioning programme, the staged closure
of  all  of  the  city's  large-scale  hostels  and  replacement  by  purpose-built  accommodation  and
tailored support services. Finance is provided the city council's RSI programme plus an extra £47
million from the Executive over the next three years.

6.4.

Preserving family solidarity

Across  Europe  there  is  evidence  that  the  family  unit  is  changing  and  evolving.  For
example, there are fewer and later marriages, and also more marital breakdowns. In 2001
there were only 5 marriages per 1,000 inhabitants in EU-15, compared with almost 8 in
1970.  Furthermore,  the  estimated  divorce  rate  for  marriages  entered  into  in  1960  was
15%, whereas for marriages entered into in 1980 the figure almost doubled to 28%. The
trend  towards  smaller  households,  with  more  people  living  alone  at  all  ages,  is  also
continuing. Furthermore, there is a striking rise in the number of children living with one
adult, and a fall in the number of couples with children. In 2000 10% of children aged 0-
14 years were living with just one adult compared with 6% in 1990. The overwhelming
majority of these single parents are women.

At  the  same  time  there  are  many  societal  changes,  which  place  new  and  significant
demands on the family unit, such as longer periods of education, managing the life-work
balance,  increased  unemployment  (including  for  young  people),  support  to  old  age
dependency, participation in long-term care and the cost of housing. These trends reflect
the  crosscutting  and  important  nature  of  family  issues  among  Member  States.
Furthermore, they make  it  clear  that,  not  only  is  the  capacity  of  the  family  to  meet  the
demands  placed  on  it  affected  by  policies  from  several  domains,  such  as  employment,
social protection and health, but it is also important to monitor what the specific impact is
of these policies on the family.

16

via the Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 and the Homelessness etc (Scotland) Act 2003.

84

 
                                                
Despite the heterogeneity of the situations and approaches across Member States, there is
a certain amount  of  convergence  in  the  challenges  faced,  and  solutions  considered.  For
example, most Member States highlight the fact that the size of the family – in terms of
both the number of children and the number of parents – affects the likelihood of social
exclusion.  In  general,  it  appears  that  single  parents  are  relatively  more  likely  to  be
affected by social exclusion, as are, in most Member States, families with three or more
children.  Furthermore,  during  periods  when  the  economic  situation  is  relatively  poor,
these groups are even more at risk. This issue is addressed specifically by, for example,
the  Netherlands  and  Luxembourg,  where  the  importance  of  maintaining  equity  during
problem periods is highlighted.

Given the broad range of family-related issues and concerns referred to above, there is, as
would  be  expected,  a  wide  range  of  measures  aimed  at  addressing  the  issues,  both
explicitly with family policies, and more broadly in other policy areas. When discussing
family  policy  there  is  a  consensus  amongst  Member  States  that  the  aim  is  to  support
parents  so  they  are  not  financially  disadvantaged,  allowing  them  to  invest  in  their
children's welfare. This is addressed in many ways across the Member States, with a wide
variety  of  mechanisms  in  place  to  support  family  formation.  These  range  from
mechanisms for all families, such as minimum income guarantees, updated parental leave
entitlement  or  allowance,  or  the  increase  in  flexible  or  part-time  working  patterns  (all
Member States), to mechanisms targeted at more specific subgroups, such as an increased
allowance if twins are born (Ireland), or in the case of multiple birth (Austria) or for the
first  child  (e.g.  Finland),  or  a  reduction  in  school  fees  for  larger  families  (Spain).
Furthermore,  as  employment  is  commonly  identified  as  a  key  factor  in  ensuring  social
inclusion,  and  because  all  Member  States  are  committed  to  increasing  female
employment rates, all NAPs/Incl. recognise the importance for families of managing the
balance between work and family life. This topic is addressed under two main headings:
family formation and work balance, and caring for the elderly generations.

When discussing family formation all Member States highlight the importance of making
it  possible  to  combine  working  –  or  studying  –  with  parenting.  In  addition  to  parental
leave  entitlement,  one  of  the  most  important  factors  is  therefore  the  availability  of
childcare. Indeed, one of the targets defined at the European Council of Barcelona (2002)
was  for  Member  States  to  "…strive,  taking  into  account  the  demand  for  childcare
facilities and in line with national patterns of provision, to provide childcare by 2010 to at
least 90% of children between 3 years old and the mandatory school age and at least 33%
of  children  under  3  years  of  age".  Member  States  (in  particular  the  Mediterranean
Member States and the UK) have highlighted that the availability of childcare alone is not
sufficient  to  bring  more  mothers  into  the  labour  force;  childcare  must  be  affordable
(increasingly  so  in  large  families  or  for  lone  parents)  available  at  times  consistent  with
working patterns and of a high quality.

The issue of the cost of childcare is part of the overall debate to ensure that parents who
work,  or  study,  are  not  financially  disadvantaged  for  doing  so.  As  would  be  expected,
there is a range of financial (fiscal and/or cash) initiatives in all Member States focused
on  this  highly  relevant  point.  For  example,  a  Lone  Parent  Childcare  Grant  has  been
introduced in Scotland, with £24m (EUR 34m) funding between 2001 and 2004, to assist

85

 
lone  parents  into  further  and  higher  education,  by  supporting  additional  childcare  costs
and childcare supply. This grant provides lone parents with the opportunity to study, with
the aim of improving their prospects in the labour market, and, in turn, providing a more
secure  future  for  their  children  –  a  subject  which  is  echoed  across  all  NAPs/Incl.  This
trend of opening of welfare payments as support to higher and tertiary levels of lifelong
learning  is  coherent  with  the  Lisbon  Strategy  and  the  emphasis  on  access  to  the
knowledge society while in former times support for access to lifelong learning was often
limited to basic skills. A further example can be found in Sweden, where childcare places
have been expanded and a ceiling on childcare fees has been introduced.

An  additional  point  of  interest  is  that  of  choice.  For  example,  since  July  2002  local
authorities in Denmark have had the opportunity to grant parents financial assistance to
look after their children for a limited period, instead of placing the children in a day-care
facility.  If  parents do wish to rejoin the  labour market  after  a  period  of  caring  for  their
children, all Member States have practices in place to help them back into work.

Ensuring the provision of quality services which are adequate, accessible and affordable
for  all  citizens  is  still  a  major  challenge  for  some  Member  States.  In  particular  the
challenge  of  increasing  access  to  health  services  and  care  services  especially  for  the
elderly  and  the  mentally  ill  or  suffering  are  given  a  new  prominence  in  many  NAPs.
Regarding the care of elderly generations, there are variations across the Member States
in the level to which care is 'institutionalised'. For example, in Greece the key objective is
that "the elderly and disabled people should be able to remain in their familiar physical
and social environment; that the cohesion of their family should be preserved; (and) that
the  use  of  institutional  care  should  be  avoided,  as  should  situations  of  social
exclusion…".  There  is,  however,  a  general  agreement  across  all  Member  States  that  a
level  of  formalisation  of  care  provision  is  increasingly  necessary,  to  support  but  not
supplant the role of the family. To this end, the majority of Member States now have an
established  carer's  leave  and/or  carer's  allowance  system  in  place,  which  allow  elderly
people to be cared for in the family home, whilst having contributions or fiscal measures
in  place  to  ensure  the  carer  is  not  financially  discriminated  against.  In  Austria,  for
example, employees who take up this responsibility  are  protected  from redundancy  and
dismissal and also have health and pension insurance contributions paid for them during
the period  they are caring.  A further  example can  be  found  in  Ireland,  where  a  "carer's
leave  benefit"  scheme  has  been  introduced,  which  guarantees  employment,  social
security payments and maintenance of social insurance contributions for up to 65 weeks.

Breaking the intergenerational transfer of poverty

The  recognition  of  the  extent  to  which  poverty  and  social  exclusion  can  be  passed  on
from  one  generation  to  the  next  is  not  new  in  the  2003  NAPs.  However,  there  is  an
increased recognition of the extent to which those who grow up in poverty are at high risk
of becoming the next generation of poor and unemployed. More attention is given to the
ways in which the intergenerational transfer of poverty takes place and on the particular
dimension of child poverty that need to be addressed to break this cycle.

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The  need  to  break  the  intergenerational  transfer  of  poverty  is  discussed  in  most  NAPs,
with Member States introducing new policies – or building on existing ones – to address
this area of concern. These policies take different forms in different Member States. For
example,  Austria,  Denmark,  Finland,  Spain  and  the  UK  discuss  the  need  to  identify
children  at  risk  of  poverty  from  an  early  age  and  act  appropriately.  For  example,
children's  centres  are  being  introduced  into  disadvantaged  areas  within  the  UK  and  a
Working  Group  being  set  up  in  Sweden,  specifically  to  analyse  the  situation  of  young
people  in  particularly  vulnerable  families,  to  break  the  intergenerational  transfer  of
poverty.

PROJECT TO PROVIDE HOME AND FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO FAMILIES IN DIFFICULTY
(CIGNO MOUNTAIN COMMUNITY, VALLE BIFERNO, ITALY)

The  aim  of  this  project  is  to  assist  families  who,  for  a  variety  of  reasons,  are  at  risk  of  social
exclusion  and  also  find  it  difficult  to  properly  manage  relations  between  parents  and  children.
More specifically, the priority objectives of the project include:

– to avoid having to take children away from homes and to re-establish normal family relations

– improvement and recovery of families’ educational resources

– improvement of parents’ ability to manage domestic affairs and look after their children

– creation of a network of links between the family and environment

– promotion of a process to offer a real solution to family problems

–  prevention  of  psychological  and  social  problems  in  minors  by  promoting  harmonious  and
complete development of their personalities.

These aims  and  objectives  are addressed  by  working  with  various social  partners  to  build  up  a
solidarity  network  around  the  family.  Family  support  activities  include  dealing  with  problems
associated  with  care  for  children  during  the  first  three  months  of  life,  children’s  difficulties  at
school, and help at the most critical points throughout the day. Economic support, in the form of a
fund which families can apply to, is also being planned. This approach is thought to be a viable
alternative to bringing families into an office for family therapy.

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7.

KEY  POLICY  APPROACHES  FOR  OBJECTIVE  3. 
VULNERABLE'

'HELPING  THE  MOST

(a)  To  promote  the  social  integration  of  women  and  men  at  risk  of  facing  persistent
poverty,  for  example  because  they  have  a  disability  or  belong  to  a  group  experiencing
particular integration problems such as those affecting immigrants.

(b) To move towards the elimination of social exclusion among children and  give them
every opportunity for social integration.

(c) To develop comprehensive actions in favour of areas marked by exclusion.

These objectives may be pursued by incorporating them in all the other objectives and/or
through specific policies or actions.

7.1.

Promoting the integration of people facing persistent poverty

People with a disability

Main trends and challenges

Even  if  all  Member  States  recognise  in  the  NAPs/inclusion  that  disability  appear  as  a
determinant of poverty and exclusion, it should be noted that only some Member States
have  included  a  specific  reference  to  people  with  disabilities  under  the  section
"challenges".  Disabled  people  are  mainly  included  in  the  "disadvantaged  "  category.
Therefore, it is unclear where certain measures for "vulnerable"  groups  apply  to people
with  disabilities.  Nevertheless,  most  Member  States  included  in  their  NAPs/inclusion  a
considerable  amount  of  policies  and  measures  for  people  with  disabilities  in  chapter  4
(strategic measures), probably reflecting the preparations of the European year of people
with disabilities (2003).

Examples of challenges mentioned by MS in NAPs/incl:

Data and indicators

Few data and indicators appear in the NAPs/incl. Most of them relate to employment and
the health sector. Germany includes also statistics from surveys related to poverty rates,
disability  and  quality  of  life.  Greece  includes  a  statistical  appendix  based  on  a  special
survey  on  disabilities  conducted  in  2002.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  definitions  and
criteria  for  determining  disability  differ  across  the  Member  States  according  to  their
perceptions of, and approaches to, disability. This constitutes an obstacle to the collection
of comparable data. Therefore, it is crucial to start developing appropriate indicators and
comparable data to measure progress towards eradication of poverty and social exclusion
of people with disabilities.

Main policy approaches

88

 
(cid:1)  Member States are generally taking a civil rights approach to disability: from
seeing  people  with  disabilities  as  the  passive  recipients  of  benefits,  they
acknowledge  the  legitimate  demands  of  people  with  disabilities  for  equal
rights.  Accordingly,  they  are  making  efforts  to  develop  policies  that  aim  at
the  full  participation  of  people  with  disabilities  into  the  economy  and  the
society. It implies equal opportunities, empowerment and active citizenship in
mainstream society.

(cid:1)  There is a positive trend in Member States to design accessibility policies for
the provision of goods, services and infrastructures to favour the inclusion of
everyone  including  people  with  disabilities  in  social  and  economic  life.
Nevertheless  several  obstacles  remain,  notably  those  relating  to  physical
barriers,  legal  and  administrative  barriers,  new  technologies  and  attitudes
where much more efforts should be done.

(cid:1)  In order to combat the poverty of many people with disabilities, all Member
States  have  established  as  main  priority  the  promotion  of  social  inclusion
through  employment  of  people  with  disabilities.  Some  attention  is  also
deserved to the importance of co-operation with businesses and to corporate
social responsibility.

(cid:1)  Only  "modern"  policies  favour  independent  living  at  home  rather  than
institutions.  There  is  a  general  tendency  for  Member  States  to  promote  the
provision of long-term care and assistance at home or in the family. However,
an  adequate  or  expensive  care  system  leads  in  many  cases  to  the  family
shouldering the burden of support.

Legislation

The  Council  Directive  2000/78/EC  of  27  November  2000,  establishing  a  general
framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, constitutes a major step in
the development of anti-discrimination policy. Some Member States have already or are
expected to adapt existing anti-discrimination  laws  to  the  EU  Directive. Others went  or
intend  to  go  beyond  the  field  of  employment  in  their  legislation,  notably  to  introduce
anti-discrimination  measures  in  other  sectors.  Greece  included  a  special  article
safeguarding rights of disabled people in its revised Constitution in 2002.

Member  States  also  adopt  action  plans  for  people  with  disabilities  and  multiple
specific  measures  in  sectorial  fields  with  particular  emphasis  in  improving  the
employment of persons with disabilities. Sweden adopted in 2000 a national action plan,
which  requires  central  government  agencies  to  take  the  disability  perspective  into
account. Portugal intends to present in 2005 a national plan for rehabilitation and a law
on NGOs representative of people with disabilities. Spain will approve a new action plan
for people with disabilities aimed notably at promoting the autonomous life for disabled
people who live with the family at home.

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Some Member States prepare overview reports on the situation of people with disabilities
in order to support policy-making decision on the medium-long term (Austria, Germany
(2004).

ESF and EQUAL funds associated to national financial resources are used by Member
States  for  employment,  training  and  access  to  new  technologies  for  people  with
in  2002  for  employment  promotion
disabilities.  Austria  allocated  EUR  104m 
programmes for people with disabilities. This fund will be increased further in 2003 and
2004 by EUR 36m.

Mainstreaming disability issues

Exclusion  from  people  with  disabilities  from  full  participation  in  society  results  from
various factors, demanding action in many policy areas.

Even  if  some  developments  in  disability  Member  States  policies  (mainly  in  Nordic
countries)  show  an  increasing  tendency  towards  mainstreaming  disability  issues  in  the
relevant  policies,  there  is  a  lack  of  visibility  of  this  in  the  NAPs/incl.  In  Sweden,  the
national action plan for disability policy underway is based on a mainstreaming approach
and  therefore  involves  all  social  sectors  and,  in  particular,  requires  central  government
agencies to  take  the  disability perspective into  account. Therefore,  it is a  challenge  to
get Member States to do more in this area, as recalled by the Council resolution of
15  July  2003  on  promoting  the  employment  and  social  integration  of  people  with
disabilities17.

Mainstreaming  the  disability  perspective  into  all  relevant  sectors  of  policy  formulation
requires  taking  into  account  the  needs  of  disabled  people  when  developing  general
policies. This approach requires action at an early stage, in co-operation with all relevant
stakeholders  including  those  who  will  be  affected  by  the  policies.  In  many  countries
special structures aim to ensure the coherence of national actions. Often they favour the
participation  of  NGOs.  But  these  structures  tend  to  focus  on  measures  in  support  of
people  with  disabilities,  so  they  lack  the  mainstreaming  approach.  Sweden  has  also  a
Disability  Committee  chaired  by  the  Minister  for  Children  and  Families  (who  is  also
responsible  for  disability  policy)  including  state  secretaries  from  all  the  ministries  that
deal with issues related to disabled persons, as well as representatives of organisations for
disabled persons. Italy created a new " national committee for disability issues".

Review of the progress since the 2001 NAPs/incl

In  general,  Member  States  have  not  defined  very  precise  objectives  and  targets  on
disability issues.  In  addition, the  issues involved  in  poverty  and  social  exclusion  are  so
complex  that  two  years  is  too  short  to  indicate  whether  changes  have  had  effects.  It  is
why it is difficult to make  a  clear  assessment  of  progress made.  There  is  no significant
report on the few targets announced in the first NAPs and on the  concrete outcomes of
policies. Indicators and data on disability issues are generally missing. Therefore, there is

17

2003/C 175/01 OJ C 175 of 24.7.2003.

90

 
                                                
a  need  for  establishing  more  concrete  objectives  and  targets  against  which  conduct
assessment and a more systematic evaluation of national policies.

(cid:1)  The  development  of  policies  and  the  delivery  of  services  to  promote  the
social inclusion of people with disabilities are receiving increasing  attention
in  most  Member  States,  particularly  with  respect  to  their  integration  into
working  life.  In  general  terms,  the  results  of  employment  measures  seem
mixed.

(cid:1)  Most Member States active policies designed to combat unemployment have
moved towards more personalised policies tailored to addressing the needs of
individuals.  Some  countries  have  established  targets  on  the  participation  of
disabled  people  and  severely  disabled  people  in  working  life:  in  Germany,
there was a reduction in the number of severely disabled people unemployed
of around 24% (initial target 25%).  Ireland set target  aiming at reducing the
level  of  unemployment  experienced  by  vulnerable  groups  towards  the
national average by 2007.

(cid:1)  Introduction of innovative legislation for disabled persons with regard to their

employment and income (Luxembourg).

(cid:1)  Policies  on  social  security  and  social  protection  related  to  people  with
disabilities  are  being  refocused  in  certain  Member  States  notably  to  favour
the  employment  of  people  with  disabilities.  Belgium:  new  method  of
calculation for aggregating earned income with sickness benefit.

(cid:1)  Education of children with disabilities in mainstream schools has improved in
most Member States. In Ireland, programmes to increase the participation of
vulnerable  groups  in  higher  education  have  been  expanded,  and  include  the
Special Fund for Students with Disabilities.

(cid:1)  Policies on independent living have been developed in many Member States.
They  raise  problems  related  to  family,  to  the  right  and  actual  possibility  to
live as every other citizen, etc. Austria has developed services for people with
disabilities and improved the situation of people requiring long-term care: the
burden on the family members providing care – who are mostly women – is
reduced, thus increasing  their employment opportunities. The targets related
to services for people in need of long-term care set in the plans of the Länder
until 2010 have in part already been reached.

Conclusion:  Even  if  employment  is  a  critical  factor  for  social  inclusion  of  people  with
disabilities,  it  is  more  and  more  acknowledged  that  social  exclusion  goes  beyond
unemployment.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  effects  of  disability  have  not  been
sufficiently  addressed  by  some  Member  States  in  key  policy  areas  such  as  education,
training, information society, care, housing, transport or participation in culture and sport,
to name just few examples.

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Objectives and targets

In line with the strategies defined in the NAPs 2001-2003, all Member States propose a
wide  range  of  measures  for  the  inclusion  of  people  with  disabilities,  mainly  related  to
their employability. Sometimes the objectives are quite vague and a lack of coherence is
visible.

Only some countries have set targets, which are often not very ambitious, see under 5.

A clear  allocation of  financial resources  to support these  actions  it  is  rarely  mentioned.
Some  countries  give  data  on  allocations  to  some  employment  measures  notably  funded
by ESF and EQUAL.

CLEARING: ASSISTANCE FOR YOUNG PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL NEEDS IN THEIR TRANSITION
FROM SCHOOL TO WORKING LIFE (AUSTRIA)

For many young people with special needs, leaving school brings with it the danger that
the continuity in their support might be broken. After leaving compulsory school, some move to
various  institutions  and  measures,  and  a  considerable  number  stay  at  home  with  their  families
without  any  perspectives  for  support  or  employment.  A  comprehensive  safety  net  or  support
system for the after-school phase of disabled schoolchildren did not exist until now.

With  “Clearing”,  a  new  service  was  developed  which  acts  directly  at  the  interface
between  school  and  employment.  Clearing  facilities  have  the  task  in  the  final  or
penultimate  school  year  of  determining  together  with  those  affected  the  best-suited
individual  package  of  measures  for  integration  into  employment.  This  service  includes
in  particular  :  drawing  up  a  profile  containing  interests  and  suitability;  carrying  out  a
strengths/weaknesses  analysis;  establishing  or  outlining  any  possible  needs  regarding
extra  training;  revealing  employment  perspectives  on  the  basis  of  the  interests  and
suitability  profile,  and  building  on  that;  the  drawing  up  of  a  career/development  plan.
The idea is not to take existing problems away from young people and their parents, but
that  they  should  be  offered  the  support  necessary  to  solve  issues  which  arise  as
independently  as  possible,  according  to  the  principle  of  “helping  people  to  help
themselves”. An essential factor for success is the active inclusion of the young people,
their  parents  and  teachers.  The  needs,  possibilities  and  interests  of  the  young  people
form the basis of the actions of the clearing offices.

Clearing  also  has  an  essential  co-ordinating  function  in  the  existing  distribution  of
responsibilities  for  support,  which  is  not  always  transparent  for  those  affected.  The  co-
operation  partners  are  the  provincial  education  authority,  the  Public  Employment
Service,  class  teachers,  parents,  facilities  for  people  with  disabilities  and  the  Federal
Social  Welfare  Office,  whereby  the  latter  plays  a  managing  role.  The  clearing  process
was  successfully  completed  with  1450  young  people  in  2002.  As  it  was  possible  to
provide  suitable  apprenticeships,  employment  contracts,  Public  Employment  Service
measures  or  further  school  education  for  many  young  people  with  disabilities,  the
clearing measures are to be further extended.

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Immigrants & ethnic minorities (incl. Roma and Travellers)

The first round of National Action Plans for Social Inclusion (NAPs/incl) in 2001 clearly
demonstrated  the  need  to  address  the  issue  of  integration  of  immigrants  in  a  more
comprehensive,  integrated  and  strategic  manner.  In  the  revised  common  objectives  for
the  second  round  of  the  Social  Inclusion  Process  (Copenhagen  European  Council
December  2002),  the  emphasis  to  be  given  to  the  situation  regarding  ethnic  minorities
and immigrants18 was,  therefore,  reinforced, with Member  States  agreeing  to  "highlight
more clearly the high risk of poverty and social exclusion faced by some men and women
as a result of immigration".

As  in  previous  National  Action  Plans,  a  majority  of  Member  States  continue  to  clearly
identify ethnic minorities and immigrants as being particularly at risk of social exclusion.
In  Germany,  for  example,  the  unemployment  rate  of  immigrants  is  twice  that  of  the
general  population  and  immigrants  are  more  than  twice  as  likely  to  be  in  low-income
households.  In  Denmark,  activity,  employment  and  education  rates  are  lower  for
immigrants across the board, in particular for first generation and female immigrants. In
France,  the  poverty  rate  for  foreign  households  is  significantly  higher  than  the  national
average. Immigrants in Finland are four times more likely to live in poverty and are three
times as likely to be out of work than the population as a whole.

Most  countries,  however,  continue  to  present  the  issue  of  immigrants  and  ethnic
minorities in rather general terms, highlighting health, housing and employment as areas
of particular concern. In many cases, however, only a brief reference is made to migrant
and  ethnic  groups  being  at  risk,  with  little  attempt  to  analyse  their  situation  or  factors
which  lead  to  exclusion  and  poverty.  Only  a  few  countries  attempt  to  identify  trends,
negative or positive, in the living and working conditions of these groups. It is regrettable
that  few  Action  Plans  give  clear  evidence  that  the  situation  facing  migrant  populations
has improved since the submission of the first action plans in 2001.

Only a minority of Member States (UK, S, FIN, B, IRL, F) made a direct link between
discrimination and social cohesion issues. Sweden, for example clearly sets its work on
vulnerable groups in a human rights/anti-discrimination context with a detailed overview
of  the  work  of  the  Swedish  Ombudsman.  Only  a  few  countries  link  fighting
legislative  measures.  The  Council  directive  on  combating
discrimination  and 
discrimination on the grounds of ethnic or racial origin19, which was to be implemented
into national law during 2003, was highlighted in only a number of the National Action
Plans, including Sweden, Denmark, Italy and Ireland.

18

19

The term ethnic minorities generally refers to national citizens of a different ethnic origin than that
of the  majority of the population. These  may include citizens  from  former  colonies.  Yet,  it  may
also refer to groups among the immigrant population with an ethnic origin which is distinct from
that of the majority of the population.
Council  Directive  2000/43/EC  implementing  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  between  persons
irrespective of racial or ethnic origin.

93

 
                                                
In many cases the emphasis is on the need for immigrants to adapt, most notably through
training and support  measures.  In Austria  and  Italy, for  example, a primary  focus  is  on
providing  language  courses  for  immigrants.  Furthermore,  Austria  financially  supports  a
great number of projects which on the one hand offer social and legal advice to the target
groups and on the other hand facilitate integration. While these initiatives are important,
in particular in the initial phase of integration, there is a continued need for measures that
address  the  potentially  discriminatory  behaviour,  attitudes  or  practices  of  the  majority
population  which  can  prevent  an  immigrant  from  accessing  a  job  or  service  or  training
course  irrespective  of  his  or  her  language  ability.  In  addition,  few  plans  explicitly
acknowledge  the  contribution  of  foreigners  and  immigrants  to  the  economic  prosperity
and cultural diversity of their country.

INTER-CULTURAL SOCIAL MEDIATION SERVICE (SEMSI) - MUNICIPAL COUNCIL OF MADRID

The  SEMSI  (Spanish  Intercultural  Social  Mediation  Service)  of  the  Madrid  City  Council  is  a
public  service  designed  to  further  inter-cultural  coexistence,  to  work  on  new  forms  of  social
relations on the basis of cultural diversity. It facilitates the access of the immigrant population to
public resources, encourages their social participation, and enables the municipality to have at its
disposal adequate knowledge of the situations, needs and problems of this group. It is developed
through  an  Agreement  with  the  General  Foundation  of  the  Autonomous  University  of  Madrid,
which provides the personnel for developing and co-ordinating the service (social mediators). The
technical work is carried out in co-ordination with the Primary Care Social Services of the City
Council.

The  SEMSI  arose  from  the  need  to  tackle  the  problems  and  requirements  of  the  immigrant
population not only regarding difficulties they face in accessing  public resources,  but  also  with
the  aim  of  acquiring  better  knowledge  of  its  problems  and  needs  in  order  to  achieve  full
integration. In particular: to encourage the participation of the immigrant population in the life of
the  community.  To  offer  information  about  the  social  resources  available  to  supply  its  needs:
social, educational, health, and juvenile resources, resources designed for women, for leisure and
free time, for social interaction; to collaborate with professionals in the municipal Social Services
by offering an inter-cultural perspective; to create a climate in the community favourable to the
expression of cultural diversity.

The  SEMSI  collaborates,  inter  alia,  with  different  NGOs  offering  solutions  to  problems  (legal,
employment, housing…) which the immigrant population faces on arrival in Madrid, as well as
supporting activities directed towards promoting intercultural coexistence.

Lack of data and indicators

As  highlighted  in  the  last  Joint  Employment  Report,  the  lack  of  data  on  vulnerable
groups,  and  in  particular  migrant  and  ethnic  groups  continues  to  be  a  major  problem.
There  is  a  lack  of  generalised  data  and  common  indicators  for  people  of  immigrant's
origin.  Only  a  small  number  of  countries  (including  United  Kingdom,  Belgium,
Netherlands,  Spain  and  France)  list  data  or  indicators  thereby  attempting  to  gain  a  real
picture  of  the  situation  and  needs  in  their  countries.  The  UK  continues  to  have  a  most
developed range of statistics and indicators, for example on percentage of different ethnic
groups in low income households, qualifications, etc.

94

 
Some progress can be noted however. In Germany for example, a recent study of poverty,
immigrants and health highlighted the lack of data and research in this area. To improve
this situation, a national health  survey  for  children  and  young  people  commissioned  by
the Federal Government will develop a module to record the health conditions of children
and  young  people  with  an  immigrant  ethnic  background.  This  data  should  become
available for the first time in 2006.

Objectives and targets

Despite the acknowledgement that immigrants are at a particular risk of social exclusion,
a  narrow  integrationist  approach  dominates,  comprising  mainly  language  and  other
training measures. Only a few countries have provided clear and specific objectives and
targets for supporting immigrants. Examples include:

–  The Netherlands has set a concrete target of increasing paid work of ethnic minorities

by 0.75% per year to 2005.

–  The  Irish  Plan  includes  a  series  of  concrete  targets  in  relation  to  the  Traveller
Community,  including  to  reduce  the  gap  in  life  expectancy  between  the  Traveller
Community and the population as a whole by at least 10% by 2007, and to double the
participation in third level educational institutions by mature  disadvantaged  students,
including Travellers and refugees, by 2006.

–  Greece  has  set  the  target  that  by  the  end  of  2005  no  Greek  Roma  families  will  be
living in tents or makeshift accommodation, and prefabricated and permanent homes
are being made available to reach this goal.

–  The Swedish Plan specifies the integrated nature of its approach, with all targets valid

for both women and men, irrespective of ethnic background.

–  Denmark  has  set  the  rather  general  target  in  that  people  from  a  non-Danish  ethnic
background must be integrated to allow them to participate in the  labour market and
society on par with the rest of the population.

Rather than specific measures, many Member States attempt to target vulnerable groups
through  their  mainstream  initiatives,  with  a  general  focus  on  improving  employability,
access to housing, lifelong learning opportunities etc.

National  programmes  for  integrating  immigrants  consist  in  general  of  three  main
components: language tuition, orientation or introduction courses and professional labour
market training. The programmes, compulsory in certain countries, are either of a general
nature  or  tailored  to  the  specific  needs  of  the  individual.  Even  such  specific  measures
were  highlighted,  however,  few  indications  were  given  on  the  allocation  of  financial
resources to support this action.

95

 
Specific measures, which focus, in particular on employability, include:

(cid:1)  In  the  UK,  National  Asylum  Support  Service  which  provides  funding  for
local  authorities  to  support  language  training  and  wider  employment
integration initiatives for refugees.

(cid:1)  In Sweden, local authorities in co-operation with National Integration Office
run  induction  programmes,  language  training  and  assistance  for  new
immigrants in finding a job.

(cid:1)  In Denmark mentoring schemes for minority ethnic women have been set up
targeting young women who enter into forced marriages and lose contact with
their families and support network. The women are offered practical support
and advice on pursuing education or training or applying for a job. In 2002,
the  Danish  government  also  launched  a  programme  “Urban  areas  for
everyone”,  involving  five  projects  that  will  run  over  a  four-year  period,
focusing on integrating new refugees and immigrants into housing schemes.

(cid:1)  Support  by  the  Federal  Government  in  Belgium  for  "Diversity  Plans"  in

companies and certain sections of the civil service.

(cid:1)  In Germany, in the North Rhine-Westphalia Land, an information campaign
“Immigrants: An Opportunity for Business and the Administration" has been
running  since  June  2002,  with  the  aim  of  improving  the  situation  of  young
people  from  immigrant  families  in  training  and  work.  A  second  project  has
been  launched  in  Berlin:  “Berlin  –  City  of  Diversity”,  aiming  at  equipping
school  and  health  authorities  with  qualifications  in  diversity  and  anti-
discrimination issues.

(cid:1)  In Greece,  an operational programme for immigrants  with a  budget of  EUR
260m (between 2003-2006), has been planned. The programme will provide
information, advisory and support services for immigrants; development and
promotion  of  opportunities  for  integration  into  the  labour  market;  cultural
integration;  upgrading  of  provision  of  health  and  preventive  medicine
services  for  specific  groups  of  immigrants;  creation  of  support  structures  to
respond to emergency needs for reception and temporary housing.

(cid:1)  In  France,  a  "contrat  d'accueil  et  intégration"  (reception  and  integration
agreement)  has  been  created  for  every  newly  arrived  foreigner,  which
includes courses in the French language and civics training.

(cid:1)  In  the  Netherlands,  "Integration  Programmes"  both  for  newly  arrived

immigrants and those longer established will be offered.

(cid:1)  In Luxembourg, introduction programmes and a awareness-raising campaign
will be launched in view of the next local elections, to facilitate participation
of immigrants in civic and political life.

96

 
In some cases, measures adopted need to be closely monitored to gauge their impact. For
example, the Danish Plan seeks to combine a new cash benefit for immigrant households
with a number of initiatives to support their education and use of skills. This includes the
obligation  to  draw  up  a  binding  contract  between  newly  arrived  foreigners  and  local
authorities  and  to  develop  a  planned  integration  programme  focusing  on  increasing
employment. If an individual fails to stick to the terms of the plan, social benefits will be
cut. It remains to be seen, however, if this scheme will in fact result in the integration of
more people into the labour market.

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BERLIN – CITY OF DIVERSITY

(Introduction of Anti-Discrimination Training Measures to Public Administrations)

The aim of the project “Berlin – City of Diversity” is to equip the administration in the
fields  of  education  and  health  with  diversity  and  anti-discrimination  qualifications  in
order to promote equal treatment and the eradication of discrimination. This applies not
only with regard to immigrants, but also to all minority groups. A change in the attitude
of  the  administration’s  employees  to  members  of  minorities  in  their  capacities  as
customers and as colleagues is to be achieved.

“Introduction  of  Anti-Discrimination  Training  Measures  to  Public  Administration”  is  a
project  which  is  supported  by  the  EU  Programme  of  Action  to  combat  discrimination.
The  project  is  being  implemented  in  three  European  cities:  Berlin,  Bangor  (Northern
Ireland)  and  Altea  (Spain).  In  Berlin  the  project  is  called  “Berlin  –  City  of  Diversity”.
The project was developed by the Centre européen juif d’information (CEJI) [European
Jewish Information Centre] in co-operation with the Northern Ireland Council for Ethnic
Minorities in Northern Ireland (NICEM).

to 

in  addition 

In  Berlin, 
the  Commissioner  for  Integration  and  Immigration,
representatives  of  the  administration  as  well  as  several  non-governmental  organisations
are  involved  in  the  project.  The  office  of  the  Commissioner  for  Integration  and
Immigration of the Senate of Berlin, in co-operation with Eine Welt der Vielfalt e.V., co-
ordinates the project at regional level.

Between September 2002 and August 2004, the diversity and anti-discrimination trainers
are being trained. They will then pass on their knowledge in eight courses. To prepare for
the qualifications, there will be a deep analysis of needs, comprising general research and
data  collection  of  a  number  of  single  interviews,  a  survey  using  a  questionnaire  and
several  focus  groups.  In  the  next  Phase  (January  2005  –  June  2005)  the  activities  of
previous  phase  will  be  evaluated.  The  aim  is  to  allow  the  results  and  findings  of  the
project to be incorporated in the administrative reform. In this way, the findings will be
used effectively, they will be internalised.

The  project  develops  training  programmes  for  local  officials  in  education  and  health
services  and  addresses  different  forms  of  unequal  treatment  and  focus  on  tackling
multiple discrimination. The training is intended to emphasise the importance of cultural
and  ethnic  diversity  in  policy  design,  working  practices,  recruitment  and  promotion  of
better community relations. A parallel aim is to produce a training manual which can be
used by local authorities across Europe to develop their own programmes adapted to the
local situation and needs.

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Roma, Gypsies and Travellers

In  addition,  to  the  above-mentioned  targets  for  Ireland  and  Greece,  a  number  of  NAPs
(Greece,  Spain,  Finland,  Ireland,  Portugal)  present  specific  measures  for  the  social
inclusion  of  Roma,  Gypsy  and  Traveller  people,  with  a  particular  focus  on  equal
treatment and equal opportunities. However, in some cases details are scant on how the
envisaged measures should be carried out. No provision is given in any NAP/inclusion on
specific measures on the particular situation of Roma immigrants within Member States.

In Greece, work is continuing on the implementation of the Integrated Action Programme
for the Social Inclusion of Greek Gypsies, which is designed along two axes: the creation
of  infrastructure  to  tackle  the  housing  problem  of  the  Roma  population  and  to  provide
services  in  the  areas  of  training,  employment,  culture,  sport,  health  and  welfare.  This
measure also featured in 2001 NAP/incl. However, no detail on assessment of the impact
of this action is given.

In  Spain,  the  aim  is  to  improve  the  standard  of  living  of  the  Gypsy  population  in  a
situation  or  at  risk  of  exclusion,  by  ensuring  access  to  and  use  of  social  protection
systems.  In  addition,  integrated  social  intervention  programmes  are  to  be  developed,
including activities in the fields of education, housing and  environment, health, training
and employment, and social services.

In  Ireland,  Implementation  of  “Traveller  Health  –  A  National  Strategy  2002-2005”
launched in February 2002 will continue. A Study Group has been established to develop
an all-Ireland Traveller Needs Assessment and Health Status Study that it is expected to
start  in  early  2004.  An  enhanced  strategy  will  be  implemented  on  Traveller  education,
with  a  particular  focus  on  measures  to  reduce  early  school  leaving.  An  Advisory
Committee  on  Traveller  Education  advises  the  Minister  for  Education  and  Science  on
measures taken in this field.

New measures in pipeline

A  small  number  of  Member  States  appear  to  be  using  the  2003-2005  NAPs  as  an
opportunity to introduce new measures to support vulnerable groups.

Examples of new measures in pipeline include:

–  In Germany, the immigration act under discussion in Parliament will introduce a new
legal  footing  for  integration  initiatives,  with  statutory  minimum  provision  to  be
provided by the Länder. A Federal Office for Migration and Refugees is due to be set
up  in  order  to  provide  a  co-ordinating  role  for  integration  measures.  Under  the
provisions of the act, new immigrants who intend to stay longer-term should take part
in  integration  courses  immediately  after  arrival  (basic  and  intermediate  language
courses, orientation courses).

–  In Finland, the Act on special subsidies for immigrants has been introduced to provide
permanent income support  for pensioner returnees and other  immigrants  in  a  similar

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position. The special subsidies constitute a discretionary social benefit under the social
welfare system, granted by the Social Insurance Institution (KELA). There will be an
estimated 3,700 recipients of special subsidies in 2003. The new legislation comes into
force on 1 October 1 2003. Its estimated cost is about EUR 20 million per year.

–  In  Sweden,  the  Government  has  invited  the  Confederation  of  Swedish  Enterprise  to
collaborate on measures to help immigrants who are excluded from the labour market.
A working group will examine how public bodies can make better use of the business
sector’s  efforts  to  integrate  immigrants  into  the  labour  market  and  will  propose
measures in order to facilitate co-operation in this area. The working group will report
by 30 December 2003. Also Sweden has produced an action plan against racism.

–  A National Action Plan Against Racism will be published by the Irish government by
the end of 2003 and measures implemented from 2004 onwards. In addition, the health
sector  will  work  with  the  Equality  Authority  to  integrate  an  equality  dimension  into
the  health  service  across  the  nine  grounds  of  the  Equal  Status  Act,  2000  (gender,
marital  status,  family  status,  sexual  orientation,  religion,  age,  disability,  race  and
membership  of  the  Traveller  Community)  with  a  particular  emphasis  on  equality
proofing.

Conclusion

Social inclusion policy measures for immigrants cuts across the full range of issues dealt
with  in  the  Plans.  Although  the  vulnerability  of  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities  to
poverty  and  exclusion  has  been  recognised  by  all  Member  States,  in  only  a  few  cases
specific targets and objectives have been set out.

Little  attention  is  paid  to  promoting  the  access  of  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities  to
resources, rights, goods and services, in particular to social protection schemes, to decent
and sanitary housing, to appropriate healthcare and to education. The lack of emphasis on
rights  is  particularly  surprising  given  that  the  Tampere  European  Council  in  October
1999,  already  called  for  "a  more  vigorous  integration  policy",  which  "should  aim  at
granting  legally  resident  third  country  nationals  rights  and  obligations  comparable  to
those  of  EU  citizens".  In  this  context,  the  likely  integration  in  the  new  Treaty  of  the
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union is an essential point of reference
since most of its provisions are applicable to all persons irrespective of their nationality.

In future developing a stronger focus on rights seems an essential prerequisite for action
since it provides the necessary basic framework on which all further integration policies
must lie.

The  lack  of  detailed  data  and  indicators,  let  alone  common  indicators,  hinders  any
thorough analysis of the situation facing these vulnerable groups. Envisaged and adopted
measures need to be closely monitored and assessed to gauge their impact.

The  specific  situation  of  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities  faced  with  poverty  and
exclusion will require greater effort and analysis if we are to increase their labour market

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participation  to  the  same  levels  as  the  majority  population,  and  to  promote  their
participation in social, cultural and political life.

Other people facing persistent poverty

Drug addicts

Equality  of  social  opportunities  for  persons  with  drug  problems  is  disproportionately
reduced.  Drug  and  alcohol  problems  often  translate  into  homelessness,  unemployment
and low education. Furthermore, those addicted to illegal drugs are frequently affected by
criminal  law  penalties  and  the  subsequent  exclusion.  The  NAPs/inclusion  stress  the
importance to introduce or reinforce appropriate measures and programmes to reduce the
sometime large gaps in school and work careers so that social re-integration succeed.

The  main  efforts  concern  re-integration  programmes  for  former  drug  addict  persons
aiming at improving the social opportunities of those affected, in particular re-integration
into work and employment, as in the German Plan. Italy is implementing a number of
actions on prevention of drug abuse and re-integration of drug addict persons into society
and  the  world  of  work:  guidance,  planning  and  co-ordination  of  activities  running  at  a
central  and  regional  level;  co-ordination  of  activities  carried  out  by  the  different  actors
involved; action targeting drug addicts inside prisons.

Another  important  focus  is  on  prevention  policies  and  measures.  In  Finland,  a  new
teacher training development programme was launched in 2001, with the aim to improve
recognition  of  pupil  difficulties  and  symptoms  of  drug  use.  The  core  content  of
pedagogical  studies  consists  of:  ethical  and  social  basis  of  teaching  work;  human
relations,  co-operation  and  interaction  skills;  understanding  of  learning  processes;  and
prevention of learning difficulties and exclusion.

In some countries, programmes on addiction prevention are reinforced within the context
of an active and integrative urban development policy in order to bring districts of cities
where  social,  economic  and  urban  development  problems  are  intensifying  out  of  their
situation and to stabilise them. In Germany the programme “The Social City” aims at an
integrated encouragement (housing, economic, employment and social policy) of districts
with  a  special  need  for  development.  In  United  Kingdom,  particularly  in  England,  the
links between drugs and neighbourhood deprivation are addressed by close joint working
between the Home Office and the Neighbourhood Renewal Unit. Ireland addresses the
problem of the concentration of drug misuse in disadvantaged areas and districts, too.

In several countries (Ireland, Italy, Austria Finland, Sweden) efforts have been paid to
a stronger interdisciplinary, cross-departmental co-operation between all those authorities
involved  in  drug  issues.  Drugs  advisory  councils  have  been  set  up  to  monitor  the
implementation of drug programmes and bring a strategic focus to tackling drug-related
problems.  National  Action  Plans  and  Strategy  programmes  intended  to  link  all  the
different  dimensions  of  drug  issues  –  prevention,  reduction,  treatment,  rehabilitation,
research – exist in some Member States (Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Sweden)

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The need for further research and a particular attention to the collection and analysis of
data  has  been  identified  and  research  projects  (also  aimed  at  identifying  the  needs  of
specific  target  groups)  are  important  elements  of  national  policy  measures  including  in
Ireland and Sweden. Belgium plans to create a national observatory on drugs and drug
addictions for gathering and analysing data and studying the impact of current policies in
the field.

IMPROVING THE PROFESSIONAL INTEGRATION OF ADDICTS “ADDICTION NETWORK”

In  RESTART  seven  project  sponsors  have  come  together  to  form  a  Berlin  development
partnership within the context of the EQUAL community initiative to use each of their skills to
build up a network to improve professional integration and personal development and to prevent
discrimination and unequal treatment in working life.

This  development  partnership  is  supported  by  strategic  partners  from  various  sectors  of  the
economy,  social  sponsors  and  the  administration  (including  from  the  areas  for  drugs  and
addiction and for policy on people with disabilities in the administration). The Berlin Addiction
Network  that  is  also  active  in  the  field  of  professional  integration  and  qualification  of
disadvantaged people – i.e. drug addicts – is one of the strategic partners and has taken part in this
development partnership with a sub-project. The representative of the Addiction Network is the
Berlin  addiction  agency  BOA  e.V.,  which  has  carried  out  counselling,  qualification  and
employment  measures  for  people  addicted  to  drugs  and  helped  by  medicine  in  the  field  of
computers and new technologies.

As part of the sub-project within RESTART BOA e.V. wants to enable 30 addicted women living
with  drug  substitutes  to  integrate  into  working  life  by  means  of  tailor-made  assistance  and
qualification.  By  means  of  interlinking,  permeability  and  the  harmonised  structure  of  the
measures  within  the  development  partnership,  long-term  structural  changes  for  the  optimum
professional(re-)integration  of  this  target  group  should  be  achieved  involving  the  institutions
involved in the process of professional integration and small and medium-sized companies.

Prisoners and ex-prisoners

People  who  commit  crimes  come  often  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and  released
prisoners are at risk of leaving prison lacking the skills and resources needed to find a job
and  accommodation.  Consequently,  many  find  it  very  difficult  to  settle  back  in
mainstream society, with the result of recidivism. NAPs/inclusion pay a specific attention
to  the  elaboration  of  effective  provisions  for  the  re-integration  of  prisoners  back  into
society  thus  reducing  the  risks  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  The  creation  or  the
reinforcement of measures alternative to prison is also often pointed out.

A  special  and  widely  acknowledged  concern  consists  in  preventing  or  reducing
recidivism (Austria, Belgium, Ireland, Finland, Sweden). Ireland features a very high
recidivism  rate  (approx.  70  %).  In  Sweden,  a  three-year  pilot  project  involving
intensified  release  preparations  and  the  possibility  of  serving  the  last  few  months  of  a
long  prison  sentence  at  home  with  electronic  monitoring  has  been  launched.  Finnish
Yhteistyössä  rikoksettomaan  elämään  (‘Towards  a  crime-free  life  together’)  is  a  co-
operation project, backed by national, local and regional authorities, aimed at guidance of
offenders towards a crime-free life which seeks to develop regional co-operation models.

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A priority objective of the re-integration of prisoners is to secure  employment  for them
with their release. The Austrian Plan mentions help to find outside jobs (by means of day
release) towards the end of their sentences, which they can then keep after their release.
Spain  envisages  a  programme  for  the  entrance  of  prisoners  into  the  labour  market.
Greece is  implementing programmes  to subsidise  new  jobs and  new  businesses  for  ex-
prisoners  and  young  offenders  or  young  people  at  social  risk.  In  Italy  a  2000  edict
outlines practical measures for the application of penal institution and reconsiders prison
employment with a view to creating jobs for convicts, ex-convicts and offenders serving
alternative sentences.

Austria  and  France  plan  specific  training  schemes  for  prisoners,  France  particularly
focusing on fight against illiteracy. The provision of training and education is also a key
element of the Irish strategy to enable prisoners to acquire practical skills which will help
them secure employment and facilitate re-integration on release. Priority is also given to
helping  prisoners  deal  with  drug  addiction.  Measures  to  encourage  the  integration  of
convicts and offenders serving alternative sentences into the workplace and professional
training have been adopted in Italy.

The promotion of a better re-insertion after release and the goal of reducing re-offending
risks also take into account the objective of limiting prisoners’ children distress. Belgian
Plan  reports  a  French  Community  initiative  to  set  up  a  legal  framework  to  recognise
specific  schemes  (“Services-Liens”)  aiming  at  allowing  convicted  parents  to  keep
contacts  with  their  children  and  Spain  will  launch  a  specific  programme  intended  for
female  prisoners  with  children  in  their  custody.  Spanish  Plan  also  contemplates  to
normalise health care in the prisoner population through its inclusion within the National
Health System.

Other groups

Measures regarding specific situations of other groups feature, more sporadically, in the
NAPs/incl. Actions are, in particular, focused  on  problems  faced  by  people  affected  by
chronic illness, notably mental health impairments, prostitute persons, persons victim of
trafficking, persons victim of social distress. These actions are normally not implemented
in  the  context  of  broader  policies,  and  they  are  often  carried  out  under  pilot  projects,
sometimes  at  local  and  regional  level,  and  the  work  of  voluntary  associations  through
target-group oriented services, prevention and counselling.

7.2.

Eliminating social exclusion among children

Child poverty is a serious concern for many Member States and measures to prevent and
alleviate  it  feature  frequently  in  the  2003  NAPs/inclusion.  Indeed  child  poverty  and
exclusion is set as one of the key priorities in a number of NAPs (D, IRL, I, L, P, S, UK).
Member  States  repeatedly  stress  that  in  order  to  make  long  term  progress  on  the
eradication of poverty it is essential to break the intergenerational inheritance of poverty.
This  means  focussing  more  on  the  social  inclusion  of  children  and  when  necessary
countering the negative social legacy.

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Some  Member  States  emphasise  the  rights  of  children  in  the  framework  of  the  UN
Convention  on  the  Rights  of  the  Child  and  on  the  right  of  children  to  grow  up  in  a
psychologically  and  physically  safe  environment.  For  instance  Sweden  emphasises  that
the  UN  Convention  should  be  taken  into  account  in  all  policy  areas  and  that  the  best
interests of children are to be taken into account in all decision-making and measures that
affect them. The parliament has recently passed provisions as a further step in compliance
with the Convention. Austria will incorporate the UN Convention into its constitution and
by 2004 will have drawn up a National Action Plan for children and young people. The
rights  of  children  are  also  reflected  in  the  Greek  NAP  with  the  appointment  of  a
Children’s Ombudsman. Ireland also intend to do appoint an Ombudsman in addition to
the  establishment  of  the  National  Children’s  Office  which  aims  to  bring  a  better  focus
and  greater  impact  to  Government  activity  in  relation  to  children  including  on  social
inclusion  issues.  The  French  NAP  highlights  the  role  of  the  children's  rights
commissioner  in  defending  and  promoting  the  rights  of  children  notably  in  the  area  of
child-protection policies. However, in many countries there is no acknowledgement of a
rights-based agenda for children  and  young people. This means in effect that priority is
given to basing children and young people's services on an adult understanding of what
children  and  young  people  need  rather  than  on  their  "rights"  to  universally  agreed
services. Thus there seems to be a particular variability in terms of basic services such as
health and  education and also broader topics such as  "age  of consent"  and  treatment  of
marginalised  groups. Countries that  give  less  emphasis  to  the  rights  of  children  tend  to
focus  on  children  and  young  people  as  future  employees  rather  than  on  improving  the
quality of life now.

The limited focus on children's and young people's rights in many NAPs is not surprising
given  their  very  limited  involvement  in  the  preparation  of  the  NAPs.  It  also  helps  to
explain  the  lack  of  use  of  indicators  which  define  children  and  young  people's
experiences  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  from  their  own  perspective.  The  countries
which do target child poverty as a headline indicator tend to use the 60% median income
figure  rather  than  broader  based  deprivation  indicators,  though  Ireland  applies  its
consistent  poverty  indicator  which  combines  income  and  deprivation  measures.  It  is
striking that while many NAPs have gone beyond the Laeken indicators on other issues
they  have  not  chosen  to  do  so  on  issues  affecting  children  and  young  people.  This
remains an area for further development in the future20. One encouraging development is
reported in Ireland with plans to commence a national longitudinal study on children.

It  is  clear  from  the  NAPs/inclusion  that  there  is  a  consensus  that  preventing  and
alleviating child poverty requires action in many different policy domains. Thus it is not
surprising  that  it  is  an  issue  that  cuts  across  many  sections  of  the  NAPs/inclusion.
Important  actions  and  policies  are  covered  in  the  sections  on  employment,  childcare,
social protection, education, training, health and the family.

20

In  this  regard  it  should  be  noted  that  the  inter-generational  transmission  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion, the situation of children and persistent exposure to risks are also key considerations of a
Commission  task  force  that  is  currently  developing  indicators  for  the  sustainable  development
strategy at the level of Member States and the EU.

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PROMOTING THE WELFARE OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE (FINLAND)

The Turku strategy focuses on children, young people and families with children. The strategy  is
pursued through a network model managed and monitored by a management group for the welfare
of  children  and  young  people,  whose  members  include  experts  from  all  service  authorities  and  a
town-planning  expert.  Indicators  for  monitoring  relevant  factors  have  been  developed  in  Co-
operation with the National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health (STAKES).
The indicators are supported by a tri-annual ‘child budget’, a tool for examining after the fact how
much the various authorities spend annually on managing children’s and young people’s affairs. In
addition  to  indicator  and  resource  monitoring  (child  budget)  projects,  an  environmental  impact
assessment model from a child’s viewpoint (child EIA) is being developed to ensure that children’s
views are taken into account in land use and town planning.

Three overall approaches  to child poverty stand out: first, developing an integrated  and
holistic approach, secondly, early intervention and thirdly, supporting children wherever
possible  in  the  context  of  the  family  and  the  community.  The  UK  puts  tackling  child
poverty  at  the  heart  of  its  strategy  and  a  major  effort  across  government  and  involving
very significant investment  of  additional  resources  is  evident.  Having  set  the  ambitious
target to halve child poverty by 2010 and eradicate it by 2020, much emphasis is put by
the  UK  on  partnership,  multi-agency  working  and  early  intervention.  The  Sure  Start
programme is a major initiative to address the needs of the most disadvantaged children
from  0-3  through  a  network  of  children’s  centres  in  areas  of  greatest  need.  Another
feature of the UK approach is building from the bottom up in response to local needs and
involving parents and children in designing and delivering services. This is evident in the
Children’s Fund, which works with children between 5-13 who show early signs of being
at  risk  of  social  exclusion.  Sweden  stresses  that  arrangements  that  work  well  for  all
children – universal systems and broad-based solutions that benefit the large majority –
are particularly appropriate for children at risk. It has recently strengthened provisions for
the  protection  of  children  at  risk  and  has  established  a  working  group  to  analyse  the
situation of young people in vulnerable families with a view to identifying areas in which
further  measures  are  necessary.  In  order  to  prevent  and  deal  with  child  battering,
measures are  proposed  to  strengthen the  collaboration between the police, schools,  pre-
schools,  the  health  service  and  the  social  services.  Germany,  with  its  focus  on  making
society  child  and  family  friendly  and  its  programme  on  development  and  opportunities
for  children  and  young  people  in  areas  with  disadvantages  stresses  the  importance  of
interlinkage  covering  areas  such  as  youth  welfare,  schools,  administration  of  labour,
urban planning and social, health and cultural policy. Finland stresses early intervention
and  the  development  of  joint  services  and  multi-professional  co-operation.  It  intends,
among  other  things,  to  strengthen  and  expand  its  model  of  early  intervention  with  Co-
operation between social welfare, health care, police, education authorities and NGOs and
will give special attention to children with mental health problems. Portugal emphasises a
range of priorities including early intervention and support for families and is putting in
place  local  plans  for  the  protection  of  children  and  young  people  at  risk  in  39
municipalities. Greece stresses how important it  is for  the  development  of  children  that
they  have  access to services such as  education, health  and  culture as  well as  to  income

105

 
support. Spain intends to produce a National Strategy for Childhood and Adolescence in
difficulty  and  at  social  risk  and  to  develop  an  integrated  prevention  and  intervention
programmes with minors at risk in conjunction with NGOs.

PLAN FOR THE ELIMINATION OF EXPLOITATIVE CHILD LABOUR (PEETI PLAN) (PORTUGAL)

The  PEETI  plan  was  introduced  in  Portugal in  1998  as  part  of  the  active  social  policies to  make
individual  citizens  (minors  and  their  families)  and  the  general  public  more  involved  and  more
accountable in the fight against child labour.

The PEETI objectives are: (i) to identify, monitor and characterise the situation of young victims of
exploitative child labour or dangerous work as a consequence of having dropped out of school; (ii)
to  guarantee  a  response  to  the  situations  identified  in  the  PEETI  plan,  notably  by  implementing
projects within the framework of the Individual Education and Training Plan (Portuguese acronym:
PIEF),  by  employing  flexible  and  differentiated  strategies  and  by  pursuing  the  School  Holidays
programme  ;  (iii)  to  combat  the  worst  forms  of  child  labour  (ILO  Convention  No  182  and  ILO
Recommendation  No  190,  both  ratified  by  Portugal);  (iv)  to  promote  the  social  and  educational
integration of children and young victims of child labour.

The plan was designed to help minors in the following situations: school drop-outs; minors at risk
of early insertion into the world of work; victims of exploitative child labour and the worst forms of
exploitation. To attain the objectives described, the PEETI plan methodologically implements the
following measures: indication/diagnosis/reporting  of  child  labour  and school  drop-out  situations;
an  integrated  programme  and  individual  education  and  training  plans;  a  school  holidays
programme/projects;  allocation  of  training  grants,  monitoring  of  situations  involving  the  worst
forms  of  exploitation.  The  plan  has  five  PIEF  regional  co-ordination  structures,  comprising
representatives of the PEETI, the IEFP, the DREs and the ISSS. In each of the five regions there is
a regional PEETI co-ordinator for the respective area.

There  is  much  emphasis  on  the  need  to  target  children  who  are  at  especial  risk  and
experiencing a negative social legacy. Denmark is establishing a Committee of Ministers
to co-ordinate efforts in this regard. It puts considerable stress on strengthening children’s
competencies  through  early  intervention  and  a  range  of  supports.  The  importance  of
recognising  the  particular  problems  faced  by  some  children  such  as  refugees  who  are
minors, children from families where there is substance abuse or mental illness, children
who  are  sexually  abused  and  children  with  disabilities  is  stressed.  Finland  stresses  the
importance  of  developing  the  quality  and  quantity  of  foster  care  and  of  integrating
children  in  need  of  special  care  into  normal  schools.  In  the  UK  the  Welsh  Assembly
Government  has  established  a  Children  and  Youth  Support  Fund  which  works  through
partnerships  in  every  local  authority  and  aims  to  provided  targeted  support  which  will
improve the life chances of children  and  young  people  from  disadvantaged  families.  In
Italy  emphasis  is  put  on  support  for  the  development  of  the  foster  family  and  adoption
policies  and  under  the  2002-2004  Childhood  Plan  implementation  of  various  forms  of
foster care are planned. Ireland is putting in place a range of community-based services to
address the needs of children with significant needs.

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7.3.

Promoting comprehensive actions in favour of areas marked by exclusion

The  regional  dimension  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  receives  more  attention  in  the
2003  NAPs/incl,  particularly  measures  which  seek  to  capitalise  on  the  strengths  and
opportunities in deprived areas.

The major challenges identified are the same as in the previous NAPs.

Combating regional inequalities

While  some  Member  States  stress  the  importance  of  overcoming  regional  inequalities,
only very few of them identify it as a key issue in their Plans.

Greece, for instance, highlights the need to reduce the gap in quality of life between rural
populations  and  urban  populations  as  a  particular  priority.  The  Plan  includes  both
integrated urban development initiatives and rural development initiatives.

Disadvantages faced by rural areas

Rural  areas  still  face  a  diverse  range  of  challenges  from,  inter  alia,  loss  of  population,
lack  of  facilities  and  social  services,  pressures  from  ongoing  agricultural  restructuring
and  environmental  concerns.  Other  rural  areas  are  facing  a  more  recent  series  of
challenges such as population influx from urban conurbation.

Greece is the only country making the intervention in rural areas as a key strategy. Greek
Plan faces the problem of poverty and social exclusion in rural areas through a wide set
of  measures.  The  integrated  development  of  the  countryside  aims  in  particular  at  the
elimination of the  differences  in  quality of life  enjoyed by urban and rural populations.
The  overall  approach  relies  on  three  dimensions,  economic,  through  qualitative
development in line with the principles of sustainability and respect for the environment;
pensions; and access to social services, particularly health and care services.

The Irish Plan presents a targeted investment programme for disadvantaged rural areas:
the  CLÁR  programme 
for
Disadvantaged Rural Areas’, launched  in October  2001. Key targets  in  relation  to  rural
areas  are:  improve  transport  services  to  and  improve  access  to  employment,  health,
education and housing services for rural dwellers.

(Ceantair  Laga  Árd-Riachtanais)  or 

‘Programme 

The Austrian NAP establishes balanced regional  development as an essential objective
for a more cohesive society and describes some measures adopted to combat poverty and
social inequality in rural areas.

The Portuguese NAP emphasises the growing gulf between peripheral rural regions and
coastal  rural  regions  due  to  economic  development  which  has  led  to  an  exodus  of
populations  from  the  rural  interior.  Accordingly,  an  inclusion  and  development
programme  will  be  launched  to  combat,  inter  alia,  isolation,  population  exodus  and
exclusion in depressed rural areas.

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In  France,  a  bill  on  the  improvement  of  rural  areas  provides  for  the  development  of
services to families and the elderly and greater "regionalisation" of health policy.

In  Spain,  the  promotion  of  integrated  plans  for  improving  housing  in  rural  areas  is
foreseen.  The  NAP  also  mentions  support  of  the  funding  of  NGO  programmes  in
vulnerable rural areas.

In the United Kingdom a specific target has been established to narrow the productivity
gap  between  the  least  productive  rural  areas  and  the  national  average  by  2006,  and  to
improve the rural population's access to services.

Measures to help deprived areas and neighbourhoods

In Germany, the promotion of an active and integrated urban policy has been reinforced
since  1999  by  the  programme  "Die  soziale  Stadt"  (The  Social  City),  which  seeks  to
promote  deprived  urban  neighbourhoods  via  an  integrated  approach  (involving  housing
policy, economic policy, employment policy and social policy).

In  the  Netherlands,  a  specific  objective  from  the  year  2005  for  deprived  urban
neighbourhoods offers assistance to 30  towns for  formulating  local  integrated  strategies
to revitalise such neighbourhoods.

The  Spanish  NAP  supports 
integrated  plans  for  deprived
the  promotion  of 
neighbourhoods and disadvantaged areas, as well as the support of the funding of NGO
integrated programmes introduced in vulnerable urban areas.

France  is  devoting  specific  attention  to  the  economic  revitalisation  of  751  run-down
urban  neighbourhoods.  Another  major  strand  of  the  Plan  is  the  recently  adopted  town
planning and urban renovation Act ("loi d’orientation et de programmation pour la ville
et  la  rénovation  urbaine").  No  specific  measures  seem  to  be  devoted  to  the  overseas
territories.

Denmark confirms its continuation of the initiatives launched  for urban  and residential
areas exposed to a high concentration of social problems. An initial evaluation shows a
reduction in the physical, financial and social deterioration of these  areas. Future action
will be focused more on priority areas and at-risk groups.

In  Portugal,  the  above-mentioned  "inclusion  and  development  programme"  will  also
promote  the  inclusion  of  marginalised  and  run-down  urban  areas.  A  project  is  also
planned for the organisation and development of the communities of the City of Lisbon,
to be monitored by permanent observatories.

In the United Kingdom a "National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal", launched in
January 2001, will bend mainstream programmes towards the specific needs of the most
deprived  areas;  the  long-term  aim  is  to  eliminate  inequalities  and  geographical
disadvantages within 10 to 20  years.  The  accent  is  on  integrating  all  available  policies,
not only local, sector-based initiatives.

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LOCAL DEVELOPMENT AGREEMENTS TO OVERCOME SEGREGATION IN THE LARGEST CITIES
(SWEDEN)

Parliament  adopted  a  new  national  metropolitan  policy  in  1998.  At  the  same  time,  local
development  agreements  were  introduced  as  an  instrument  for  implementing  the  new  policy.
Breaking down segregation in a district calls for broad-based measures over a long period of time.
It also requires participation, dedication and systematic co-operation between residents, business,
voluntary organisations, interest organisations, local authorities, central agencies, the media and
others.  If  the effects  of  this  collaboration  are to  be lasting,  development  efforts  must also  have
structural  effects,  i.e.  changes  in the  regular  activities  of  the  bodies  concerned.  In  other  words,
positive development calls for a strategy that embraces the local, regional and national levels.

An important task of metropolitan policy is to formulate and refine local development agreements
as  strategic  instruments  for  collaboration.  The  agreements  represent  an  objective-oriented
learning  and improvement  process  that  promotes  the  development  potential  of  both  individuals
and local authority districts. The effects of the development efforts must benefit the residents of
the  district  or the district  itself.  External  persons  or  organisations  can  therefore  be  engaged  for
certain tasks as long as they produce results in the district. Owing to the high rate of turnover in
the local population it has proved difficult to follow and measure the effects of the efforts made
on  behalf  of  individuals.  Work,  including  work  on  indicators,  is  in  progress  with  a  view  to
improving  the  monitoring  of  developments  both  with  regard  to  individuals  and  to  districts.  A
local  development  agreement  consists  of  the  main  body  of  the  agreement  and  a  number  of
annexes.  The  body  of  the  agreement  sets  out  the  obligations  of  the  local  authority  and  central
government,  the  parties’  objectives  and  the  responsible  evaluators.  The  annexes  contain  action
plans,  co-operation  agreements,  an  appendix  on  future  issues  and  evaluation  programmes  etc.
Nowadays,  these  action  plans  basically  represent  the  districts’  development  programmes  and
contain a description of the present situation, analyses, a strategy and a choice of measures. The
agreement presents a continuous chain of objectives. It contains horizontal national objectives set
by  Parliament  and  local  outcome  targets  set  by  the  local  authority  in  co-operation  with  other
bodies. Evaluation is carried out at both national and local levels.

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8.

KEY  POLICY  APPROACHES  FOR  OBJECTIVE  4.  'MOBILISING  ALL  RELEVANT
BODIES'

(a) To promote, according to national practice, the participation and self-expression of people
suffering  exclusion,  in  particular  in  regard  to  their  situation  and  the  policies  and  measures
affecting them.

(b) To mainstream the fight against exclusion into overall policy, in particular:

–  by  mobilising  the  public  authorities  at  national,  regional  and  local  level,  according  to  their
respective areas of competence;

– by developing appropriate co-ordination procedures and structures;

– by adapting administrative and social services to the needs of people suffering exclusion and
ensuring that front-line staff are sensitive to these needs.

(c) To promote dialogue and partnership between all relevant bodies, public and  private,  for
example:

–  by  involving  the  social  partners,  NGOs  and  social  service  providers,  according  to  their
respective areas of competence, in the fight against the various forms of exclusion;

–  by  encouraging  the  social  responsibility  and  active  engagement  of  all  citizens  in  the  fight
against social exclusion;

– by fostering the social responsibility of business.

A striking feature of the 2003 NAPs/inclusion compared to 2001 is the extent to  which
many Member States have linked the NAPs/inclusion process more clearly with existing
policy  making  processes  and  have  extended  and  deepened  their  arrangements  for
mobilising  all  relevant  bodies  and  for  achieving  greater  co-ordination  of  effort  in  the
struggle against poverty and social exclusion. This is evident not just in the arrangements
for preparing their action plans but in the longer term arrangements that have been put in
place to embed the objectives and values of the EU’s social inclusion process into their
policy making systems. However, in some cases there is still much to be done if a really
coherent  approach  to  preventing  and  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  to  be
achieved.  Several  Member  States  recognised  themselves  that  current  arrangements  are
not  completely  satisfactory.  Co-operation  and  consultation  with  the  different  partners
need  to  be  improved,  both  in  view  of  the  implementation  and  of  the  monitoring  of  the
current  Plans,  as  well  as  for  the  elaboration  of  the  next  ones.  Happily  there  are  an
increasing  number  of  examples  of  good  practice  across  the  EU  that  can  assist  them  to
strengthen their systems.

8.1.

Promoting the participation of people suffering exclusion

The  participation  of  people  suffering  exclusion  in  policy  making  is  essential  as  their
direct experience and knowledge contributes important insights to what does and doesn’t

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work and this leads to the development of better focussed and more relevant policies. The
challenge  is  to  put  in  place  structured  ways  of  ensuring  this.  In  the  preparation  of  the
2003  NAPs  most  countries  extended  the  participation  of  the  excluded  and  several
countries  strengthened  their  efforts  to  consult  with  groups  representing  the  excluded.
Some  others  (notably  EL,  NL  and  Pt)  could  have  better  detailed  the  presentation  of
consultation processes for the elaboration of their NAPs/incl. Little evidence is given in
the Italian Plan on the amount and the quality of this involvement.

The  most  common  ways  the  voice  of  the  excluded  are  taken  into  account  are  through
their involvement in consultative seminars or through involving representatives of NGOs
on steering groups. The latter clearly works best when networks of NGOs concerned with
poverty have been established and  are  recognised  and  sometimes  resourced  by  national
authorities.  In  most  cases  where  advances  have  been  made  it  is  intended  to  carry  this
forward into the implementation and monitoring of the plans. In a few cases interesting
attempts  have  been  made  to  find  better  ways  of  directly  assisting  the  most  excluded  to
contribute  to  the  policy  debate.  Belgium  reports  on  an  interesting  enquiry  into  the
participation of the excluded, Germany plans a study on people in extreme poverty  and
the UK  has  established  a  "Participation  Working  Group"  looking  at  ways  of  increasing
participation  in  the  NAP.  In  the  Netherlands,  the  number  of  municipalities  which  have
established  consultative  bodies  for  people  on  benefits  has  doubled.  However,  one  area
where  consultation  and  involvement  has  remained  underdeveloped  in  most  Member
States is in relation to children and young people. There is little evidence of how, if at all,
they have been  included in the NAPs process  nor is there  evidence  of linking the NAP
process  to  existing  children  and  young  peoples  structures  such  as  school,  youth
parliaments and youth councils. This is surprising given the high priority given in many
plans to child poverty.

There is a clear trend to give more importance to the involvement of those experiencing
exclusion  in  efforts  to  tackle  poverty  and  social  exclusion  at  the  local  level.  This  is
important because  it  helps to foster  the  personal development  and  empowerment  of  the
person  involved  through  building  self-confidence,  overcoming  social  isolation  and
creating new networks and contacts. Thus one finds in Spain emphasis on involvement in
forums  of  public  administration.  In  Sweden  great  stress  is  put  on  local  participatory
democracy and taking a user perspective into account. In Ireland there is an emphasis on
supporting  local  community  development  projects  and  local  fora  and  a  comprehensive
consultation process is underway with a view to bringing greater cohesion to community
and local development programmes.  A  community  development  approach  is  also  a  key
feature of the delivery of much of the EU  PEACE  Programme  in  Ireland  and  Northern
Ireland. In Belgian, Finnish, Luxembourg and German NAPs one can also find examples
of this involvement.

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THE FLEMISH DECREE ON COMBATING POVERTY (BELGIUM)

With  the  emergence  of  the  first  Flemish  associations  of  the  poor  in  the  1980s  and  the  access  to
participation  created  at  that  time  both  by  Federal  policy  and  by  Flemish  policy,  the  associations
requested  structural  recognition  of  their  work.  Their  participation  in  the  drafting  and  evaluation  of
policies at various levels highlighted the need for financial and professional support. Spurred on by the
example of France, where a wide-ranging law on poverty was in preparation, this request led in 1993
to the idea of a poverty decree.

In  1993,  the  competent  Minister  approved  for  the  first  time  an  Order  ("Arrêté")  for  subsidies  in
connection  with  the  fight  against  serious  poverty.  Having  met  a  series  of  conditions  imposed,  five
associations received a subsidy. When the time came for renewal of these subsidies the following year,
an additional condition was imposed: the associations were required to draft proposals for what should
lead to a decree on poverty. A steering group composed of representatives of the associations and of
the  administration  met  five  times,  culminating  in  a  note  in  1996  to  the  Minister  in  charge  of  co-
ordinating poverty policy and the Minister-President of Flanders on the recognition and subsidising of
associations "where the poor have their say". The note set out the six criteria which can still be found
in the Decree today.

All  of  these  efforts  culminated  in  the  adoption,  on  21  March  2003,  of  the  Decree  on  policy  for
combating  poverty.  The  decree  provides  a  structural  basis  for  the  various  initiatives  adopted  by  the
Flemish  Government  in  the  fight  against  poverty:  the  establishment  of  an  action  plan  to  combat
poverty; the setting up of a permanent consultation arrangement; financial and content-related support
for "Associations where the poor have their say" which meet the following six criteria: encouraging
the poor to meet in groups, giving a say to the poor, working towards the social emancipation of the
poor, working on the social structures, organising dialogue and training activities, continuing to seek
out the poor; support for the Flemish network of these associations, whose task is to support and co-
ordinate the activities of the "associations where the poor have their say"; the training and insertion of
experts in the day-to-day reality of poverty.

The budget for implementation of the Decree in 2003 is EUR 1 170 000. In 2004, 2005 and 2006, this
sum will be increased each year by EUR 406 000.

While  it  is  important  to  point  out  the  progress  in  comparison  with  the  previous
NAPs/incl,  in  most  cases  no  evidence  can  be  found  of  any  direct  impact  on  the  design
and delivery of policy measures resulting from this increased involvement. This impact is
quite  difficult  to  assess,  but  it  can  be  assumed  to  be  quite  weak,  except  in  a  few,  very
specific, issues.

8.2.

Mainstreaming the fight against exclusion

The National Level

In  some  Member  States  such  as  Finland  and  Sweden  where  promoting  an  inclusive
society and preventing poverty and social exclusion is already at the heart of their policy
making system the emphasis has been on  reinforcing this.  In others significant progress

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has been made in strengthening institutional arrangements to mainstream a concern with
poverty and social inclusion. These include:

–  ministerial committees to  co-ordinate and  mainstream  policies  on  poverty  and  social

exclusion (A, B, F, FIN, E, IRL, L, P, UK)

–  co-ordinating  or  steering  committees  of  senior  officials  (IRL,  D)  supported  by

agencies or offices (B, IRL, UK) to provide day to co-ordination and promotion

–  mechanisms for ensuring that a concern with poverty and social exclusion is taken into
account  when  policies  are  being  proposed  or  reviewed  such  as  poverty  proofing  in
Ireland or Targeting Social Need in UK

–  Interministerial  memoranda  of  understanding  to  develop  specific  actions  related  to

fight against poverty and social exclusion have been concluded in Italy

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND POVERTY PROOFING (IRELAND)

A  range  of  institutional  structures  have  been  established  to  mainstream  a  concern  with  poverty  and
social  exclusion  at  the  heart  of  policy  making  and  to  ensure  that  a  coherent  crosscutting  and  co-
ordinated  approach  is  adopted  by  government  departments  and  agencies.  These  include  a  Cabinet
Committee  on  Social  Inclusion,  Drugs  and  Rural  Development  chaired  by  the  Taoiseach  (Prime
Minister),  a  Senior  Officials  Group  on  Social  Inclusion,  a  Social  Inclusion  Consultative  Group  and
Social  Inclusion  Units  in  key  government  departments.  An  Office  for  Social  Inclusion  (OSI)  has
overall  responsibility  for  co-ordinating  the  preparation  and  implementation  of  the  NAPS  and
NAPs/inclusion and is required to publish an annual report to Government on progress in relation to
the NAPS and NAPs/incl. The OSI is assisted by the  Combat  Poverty  Agency,  a  specialist statutory
public body responsible for advising government and working for the  prevention  and elimination  of
poverty and social exclusion through research and policy analysis, developing innovative anti-poverty
measures and promoting a greater public understanding.

The mainstreaming of social inclusion at central Government level is reinforced by Poverty Proofing.
This mechanism, introduced in 1998, requires that policies and programmes are assessed at design and
review stage to identify their impact on people experiencing poverty so that this can be given proper
consideration  and  any  necessary  ameliorative  measures  taken.  This  process  has  recently  been
evaluated and the Office for Social Inclusion has been mandated to address a number of weaknesses so
as  to  make  it  more  effective  and  to  ensure  that  it  is  appropriately  operationalised  in  all  relevant
Government  Departments.  Increased  co-ordination  will  also  be  developed  with  other  proofing
mechanisms.  In  this  regard,  a  template  to  support  an  integrated  proofing  approach  encompassing
poverty, gender and the wider equality agenda will be developed and piloted by the Office of Social
Inclusion in partnership with the  Department  of  Justice,  Equality  and  Law  Reform  and  the  Equality
Authority. This work will be carried out during the lifetime of this National Action Plan. It is also the
intention that poverty proofing be extended to local authorities and other State Agencies.

However, in spite of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  several  Member  States  to  link
their NAPs more strongly with national policy making processes there is still little clear
evidence of the NAPs directly impacting on national budgetary processes and thus on the
overall  allocation  of  resources.  Indeed  there  is  little  evidence  of  resources  for  social
inclusion  being  significantly  increased  so  as  to  make  a  decisive  impact,  though  some
increased prioritisation of poverty and social exclusion is evident. Finland does situate its

113

 
NAP clearly  within  the  framework  of  its  new  government  programme  and  stresses  that
measures  will  be  implemented  within  the  framework  of  the  budget  for  2003  and  the
budget  framework  decided  by  the  Government  for  2004-2007.  Ireland  does  "poverty
proof" its annual budget but the impact of this is unclear. However, in general the lack of
a broad financial perspective means that it is not possible to tell if specific increases that
have been announced in some areas have been balanced by cuts in other areas. However,
Spain does include a table outlining the  Global  Budgetary  allocation of  the NAP 2001-
2003 which details the relevant objectives related to the plan and the percentage of annual
growth  on  spending  as  well  as  an  estimate  for  spending  for  2003-2004.  From  this  it  is
possible  to  see  increases  in  particular  areas  and  thus  better  follow  policy  trends.  More
Member States than in the first round of NAPs do attempt to indicate the resources they
will allocate to specific actions. Many NAPs list funding linked to the plans in a table or
financial  annex  but  often  this  is  not  broken  down  action  by  action  and  what  is  new  or
additional  funding  may  not  be  clearly  identified.  In  general  the  plans  that  are  clearest
about the specific actions they are developing to achieve specific goals are most likely to
indicate  clear  allocations  for  specific  measures  (FIN,  IRL,  L,  UK).  It  is  clear  that  in
future  more  and  better  analysis  of  spending  trends  over  time  and  a  better  evaluation  of
who benefits from spending would strengthen future NAPs. This would help to clarify if
shifts  in  spending  over  time  are  responding  to  changing  needs  and  challenges  and
whether  spending  in  particular  areas  crucial  to  social  inclusion  is  increasing  or
decreasing.

Decentralisation to regional level

A key feature of several NAPs is the increased attention that has been given to the need
to mainstream a concern with social inclusion not just at the national level but at all levels
of  governance.  Particularly  striking  is  the  extent  to  which  the  regional  dimension  has
those  countries  with  strongly  devolved  regional
into  account 
been 
administrations. For instance:

taken 

in 

–  Austria  has  established  a  co-ordination  committee  involving  the  Länder  and  their

activities and plans are more comprehensively reflected in the NAP.

–  Belgium has given much attention to reflecting its complex federal structure and has
involved  regions  on  working  groups  on  indicators  and  actions.  Attention  is  given  to
how regional plans and actions link to the national plan, for example 'le Plan d’Action
flamand de lutte contre la pauvreté'. Most of the regions have their own Action Plans
which  are  incorporated  into  the  NAP.  The  result  risks,  however,  to  be  a  reporting
exercise, rather than a truly strategic approach.

–  Spain  demonstrates  notable  advances  in  extending  the  strategy  of  combating  social
exclusion to the regional and local authorities, which have most of the competencies.
13 regional plans have been approved so far and the remaining four are expected to be
approved  shortly.  Also  the  main  capitals  and  important  cities  have  presented  or  are
planning to  implement their plans. A more  important active  participation  of  regional
parliaments is also foreseen.

114

 
–  In Germany the Federal government has extended its dialogue  on the  NAP/inclusion
with the  Länder and city and local  authorities. Further integration of the work of the
Länder  would  enhance  the  NAP.  Italy  has  emphasised  the  decentralisation  to  the
regions and local authorities and most have improved their capacity to integrate multi-
sectoral, decentralised and stakeholder and partnership-based approaches. On the other
hand,  a  strong  co-ordination  of  policies  and  measures  as  well  as  monitoring  and
evaluation seem necessary to avoid the risk that imbalances between regions affected
by different or even divergent dynamics might increase.

–  The UK NAPs highlights new strategic approaches being developed by the devolved
administrations  in  Northern  Ireland  (New  Targeting  Social  Need  and  the  Promoting
Social Inclusion Initiative), Scotland (Closing the Opportunity Gap) and Wales (Child
Poverty Task Group). Community involvement was an important issue in the drafting
process but needs to be developed further.

Decentralisation  also  leads  to  new  professional  challenges  for  local  and  regional
administrations.  Lifelong  learning  about new developments in  social  inclusion  for  local
politicians and decision-makers  and  staff in public services is a  challenge, which is not
always met in the political strategies.

The local level

The need to mainstream and co-ordinate efforts to tackle poverty and social exclusion at
the local level is widely acknowledged. Thus the role of local and city authorities in this
regard is featured by many Member States.

For  instance  Sweden  emphasises  the  role  of  municipalities  and  the  need  to  encourage
horizontal  co-operation  in  local  action  plans  during  implementation.  Ireland  draws
attention to its local government anti-poverty learning network and the UK highlights the
role  of  local  authorities  in  producing  community  strategies  in  England  and  Wales.  In
France  the  new  constitutional  law  on  decentralisation  will  lead  to  close  partnership
between  the  State,  local  authorities,  experts  in  the  field  and  citizens  concerned  in
developing new ways of implementing and assessing policies to fight financial insecurity
and social exclusion and in future  the  department  will  in  future  have  full  responsibility
for the minimum income integration programme and mobilising all the  actors  involved.
In Denmark local authorities are well represented in the institutional set-up in combating
social  exclusion.  Greece  emphasises  the  need  for  networking  and  co-operation  at  all
levels. The key role of the prefectural level in providing the introduction of cohesion and
global vision in the provision of services and the establishment at this level of collective
consultative  bodies  on  issues  of  social  policy  including  relevant  NGOs  is  highlighted.
Germany stresses that the way a problem is dealt with has to be found as near as possible
to the site of the problem, that is locally. The federal structure and the federal guarantee
for  local  government  mean  that  regionally  and  locally  different  strategies  are  pursued
when  combating  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Local  authorities  are  also  actively
involved in the consultation and deliberation process around developing the NAP through
the "Permanent  Group  of Advisers".  The  Federal Government plans to further intensify
dialogue with relevant players. In Finland autonomous local councils and municipalities

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play  a very crucial role in combating social exclusion.  In  Luxembourg  the  role  of  local
authorities in elaborating and implementing the national plan is stressed. In Portugal the
Social Network ("Rede Social") aims at combating poverty and social exclusion through
the setting up of partnership structures in which local authorities play an essential role to
promote  local  social  development  and  to  integrate  planning  dynamics  of  strategic
participation. Ireland highlights the role of County and City Development Boards in co-
ordinating social inclusion policies at local level and envisages the local authorities will
develop local inclusion strategies to underpin and strengthen national actions.

It is not clear whether poorer and better-off local and regional administrations are equally
provided  with  the  necessary  means  for  these  responsibility  as  the  difference  between
poorer and wealthier regions has doubled in the course of the last ten years.

The European Social Fund and the Community initiative EQUAL

The European Social Fund is the main financial tool through which the European Union
translates its strategic employment policy aims into action. Its mission is to help prevent
unemployment  in  order  to  make  Europe's  workforce  and  companies  better  equipped  to
face new challenges and to prevent people from losing touch with the labour market.

Breakdown of ESF allocations highlighting funding for EQUAL and the social
inclusion policy field

Member
State
B
DK
D
EL
ES
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK

(M

(M  EUR)

ESF 
total 
excluding EQUAL
1,007
430
11,108
4,241
11,402
6,506
1,057
7,836
39
1,826
631
4,370
802
996
7,100

ESF  policy  field  for
soc/incl (% of total)
12%
22%
21%
17%
9%
26%
22%
5%
35 %
36%
50%
16.%
11%
15%
25%

EQUAL 
EUR)
74
30
514
104
515
320
34
394
4
208
102
114
72
86
399

Note: These figures reflect the situation as  currently  known  to  the  services  of  the  Commission.However,
they  must  be  regarded  as  approximations  because  overlapping  between  different  policy  fields  is
unavoidable.  One  country  may  choose  to  regard  some  actions  as  more  closely  related  to  the  policy  field
"social inclusion",  while another country  may instead prefer to classify the  same action  under  a  different
policy field (for instance under the policy field for "employability"). Direct comparisons between the shares
allocated to social inclusion by different countries should therefore be undertaken with caution.

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All Member States refer to the European Social Fund (ESF) and its contribution to policy
measures  related  to  their  National  Action  Plan  on  Inclusion.  Spain,  Denmark,
Netherlands and the UK all provide Annexes outlining the contribution of EU structural
funds and the Community Initiative EQUAL. However, in many Member States there is
still  little  evidence  of  a  strong  strategic  link  being  made  between  the  challenges  and
priorities  set  in  the  NAPs/inclusion  and  the  expenditure  of  Structural  Funds.  In  most
cases it is not clear what are the institutional arrangements for linking the NAPs process
into  the  process  for  allocating  and  monitoring  Structural  Funds  expenditure.  Nor  is  it
clear how the NAPs/inclusion priorities will be taken into account in the mid-term review
of  the  funds.  However,  this  clearly  provides  an  opportunity  for  building  a  stronger
alignment. It will also be important that the priorities identified in the NAPs process are
fully  taken  into  account  in  the  debate  on  the  future  of  the  Structural  Funds  after  2006.
These  should  be  committed  to  contributing  to  achieving  the  Lisbon  goal  of  making  a
decisive impact on the eradication of poverty and social exclusion.

Spain's  NAP  includes  an  analysis  of  the  relationship  between  the  ESF  funding  planned
for  the  2000-2006  period  and  the  European  inclusion  strategy.  Moreover,  it  includes  a
prospective table detailing the estimated budgetary effort required by the implementation
of the NAP by major objective over the period 2003/04. Sweden outlines the importance
of ESF funding. One element of the European Social Fund’s programme Growing Power
Objective 3 is Integration and Diversity. The equivalent of SEK 130 million in EU funds
will be allocated for this initiative during the programme period 2000-2006.

The  EQUAL  Community  Initiative  Programme  tests  and  promotes  new  ways  of
combating discrimination and inequalities in the labour market. The Programme which is
partially  funded  by  ESF,  has  certain  key  principles:  trans-national  co-operation,
innovation, empowerment and partnership to enable the outcomes to inform mainstream
policies  and  practices.  The  Programme  operates  on  a  thematic  basis,  and  while  its  is
structured around  the  European  Employment  Strategy  it  includes  as  a  priority  theme  to
address the needs of refugees and asylum seekers.

Several Member States have highlighted the initiatives funded by the Programme in their
NAPs/inclusion  (E,  UK,  A,  IRL,  D,  EL,  FIN,  D,  B,  S,  L).  Ireland  has  formed  21
Development  Partnerships  through  EQUAL.  These  partnerships  are  set  up  in  order  to
focus on combating discrimination and inequalities in connection with the labour market.
Austria has fifty eight development partnerships within the framework of the Community
Initiative  EQUAL.  Three  of  these  partnerships  specifically  target  asylum  seekers.
Substantial  amounts  of  ESF  monies  are  provided  to  increase  integration  measures  for
people with disabilities.

Adapting Administrative and Local Services

As well as the emphasis on co-ordination and decentralisation of services to a local level
several  Member  States  put  stress  on  adapting  all  services  to  improve  their  accessibility
and their inclusive quality and to ensure that they are more user friendly for all citizens.
For instance France highlights plans to develop amongst other things a quality approach
to  reception  in  social  welfare  organisations,  a  system  of  multipurpose  initial  reception

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and  the  creation  of  public  service  centres  in  disadvantaged  neighbourhoods.  Denmark
highlights  its  advisory  and  consultative  user  councils  but  also  stresses  the  need  for
improved  user  participation.  The  Belgian  NAP/inclusion  puts  a  special  emphasis  on
concrete  measures  to  accelerate  the  payment  of  social  benefits  and  to  improve
information about rights. It also provides for automatic provision of pensions at statutory
age (Kafka plan). Spain will promote "single  counters" for dealing with several income
dependent  benefits.  Ireland  will  continue  adapting  administrative  and  social  services  to
the  needs  of  people  experiencing  social  exclusion,  through  the  setting  of  standards  and
guidelines  for  delivery.  Greece  proposes  to  introduce  a  "network  of  services"  which  is
designed to tackle the fragmentation of social services at the level of the user.

Many NAPs report about the problem of beneficiaries not taking up the social assistance
they are entitled to. The Dutch Plan notes that such problem is  to  be found particularly
among  the  self-employed,  ethnic  minorities  and  the  elderly.  For  instance,  in  Germany
some  elderly  do  not  apply  for  demand  based  social  security  (social  assistance)  out  of
shame or fear that their children would have to pay for them. The introduction of a flat
rate minimum old  age  assistance  will enable  easier  access.  In  addition,  pensioners  with
less  than  EUR  844  in  benefits  will  be  informed  by  the  administration  to  claim  social
assistance.

This  trend  might  also  be  a  challenge  for  the  provision  of  services,  which  depend  on
transfer  payments  by  regional,  national  governments  and  the  European  Union.  At  local
level  payments  could  be  used  in  order  to  improve  the  inclusive  quality  of  mainstream
institutions, for instance in the field of lifelong learning or housing, instead of providing
special  institutions  and  cost-intensive  “measures”  by  which  excluded  persons  are  again
taken apart from the rest of the population and confronted with additional problems.

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LEGAL PROTECTION OF THE SOCIALLY VULNERABLE – LEGAL PROTECTION PROJECT
”REACHING OUT TO USERS”, CITY OF COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)

The project aims to develop methodologies aimed at ensuring that intentions for legal protection
in Denmark’s legislation are realised in the practical work with socially vulnerable groups. As an
aspect  of  the  project,  four  pilot  projects  were  initiated  in  Denmark’s  largest  local  authorities
(Copenhagen,  Odense,  Aarhus  and  Aalborg).  One  of  the  local  authorities  is  the  City  of
Copenhagen,  which  is  trying,  via  the  project  “Reaching  out  to  users”  to  establish  contacts  to
people who do not ask for help and who may not be motivated to  become  involved  in  and  use
public services. In some situations, to utilise the rights granted to users in social legislation, the
individual user must be able to describe his or her needs and expectations to the social system.
Some of the most socially vulnerable and most marginalised people can barely handle this task,
and these are the people in focus for the project. The ambition of the project is to develop new
methods  to  ensure  that  remedying  services  are  offered  to  the  most  socially  disadvantaged  and
marginalised people on equal terms with other users.

The project integrates outreaching street work with caseworker assignments in local centres, and
establishes a dialogue with users that subsequently enables them to utilise the local centre. The
means of solving this task lies in establishing outreaching casework at street level in the local area
where the user is, thus taking advantage of the fact that in their own space - open air - users are
initially more open and receptive to discussions on their needs. The aim is to continue the project
by launching street-level casework. Employees at the local centres run the project, having allotted
time to realise the outreaching function. The project works with residential facilities for homeless
people,  the  misuser  treatment  system,  services  for  mentally  ill  people,  the  district  psychiatry
facilities and the health authorities. A midway report is available, and the final evaluation will be
available  in  September  2003.  Initial  experience  shows  that  the  outreaching  casework  has
succeeded in establishing good contacts to the target group. Additionally, this contact has shifted
in  a  favourable  direction  for  the  users  included  in  the  project,  and  both  employees  and  users
review the experience as positive.

Monitoring and Evaluation

An important tool for ensuring that the NAPs remain at the centre of policy debate is that
their  implementation  should  be  regularly  monitored  and  evaluated.  The  inclusion  of
marginalised persons in the overall monitoring and evaluation of the policies, objectives
and  targets  would  not  only  contribute  to  their  active  citizenship  rights  and  their  self-
esteem,  but  also  increase  the  quality,  as  the  individual  citizen’s  perspective  is  added.
Arrangements for both the systematic monitoring and the evaluation of the 2003 plans are
somewhat patchy. However, several Member States have included provisions.

In Belgium at mid-term the SPP Intégration sociale will prepare a report on progress. In
France the Inter-ministerial committee to combat social exclusion is undertaking a study
to establish the methodology and tools for monitoring and assessing the NAP. As part of
its evaluation effort Germany has undertaken research on monitoring  and evaluation. In
the  process  of  drafting  its  new  NAP  Finland  undertook  an  extensive  evaluation  of  the
effectiveness,  strengths,  shortcomings  and  weaknesses  of  the  first  Plan.  This  involved
many actors as well as research institutes. The findings are detailed in the NAP and serve

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to  highlight  the  value  of  an  effective  monitoring  and  evaluation  process.  In  Ireland  the
Office  for Social  Inclusion has  to publish an annual  report  to  Government  on  progress.
Spain  provides  for  the  monitoring  and  assessing  of  the  NAP  by  the  Interministerial
Commission of the NAP on Social Inclusion and a report on the impact of the NAP from
the Economic and Social Council. The monitoring and evaluation will also be done at the
municipal  level  by  the  Social  Services  Commission  of  the  Spanish  Federation  of
Municipalities  and  Provinces  (FEMPL).  Denmark  envisages  a  role  for  the  Council  for
Socially Disadvantaged People. An  important tool for monitoring progress is  good data
and analysis and several Member States highlight initiatives to strengthen data collection
and Ireland puts in place a specific strategy on data involving a number of relevant actors.
In  Portugal,  alongside  the  interministerial  commission,  a  NGO  Forum  will  follow  the
implementation  and  the  assessment  of  the  Plan.  In  Luxembourg,  a  "co-ordination  and
consultation Group" met four times to assess the implementation of the 2001-2003 Plan
as well as to prepare the new one.

8.3.

Promoting dialogue and partnership

Reinforcing dialogue at National level

Encouragingly  several  Member  States  have  taken  or  are  in  the  process  of  taking
significant  steps  to  ensure  structured  and  ongoing  dialogue  between  different  actors  on
poverty and social exclusion at national level by establishing commissions or consultative
committees involving the different actors.

These  include:  Austria  (Federal  Platform  for  Social  Integration),  Belgium  (La
Commission d’Accompagnement du Service de  Lutte contre la Pauvreté, la Précarité  et
l’Exclusion  sociale),  Denmark  (Council  for  Social  Disadvantaged  People),  Finland
(Permanent  Subcommittee  25  for  EU-Affairs),  France  (National  Council  for  Policies
against Exclusion), Germany (Permanent Group of Advisers), Greece (The Commission
for  Social  Protection),  Ireland  (Social  Inclusion  Forum,  National  Economic  and  Social
Council, National Economic and Social Forum and Social Inclusion Consultative Group),
Luxembourg  (Groupe  de  Concertation  et  Coordination),  Sweden  (Committee  for  user
influence in social development matters).

In  Italy,  a  Poverty  and  Social  Exclusion  Enquiry  Commission  carries  out  studies  and
draw  up  assessment  and  policy  proposals.  The  Netherlands  while  not  reporting  on  its
institutional  arrangements  makes  encouraging  active  input  by  and  close  co-operation
between all stakeholders one of the five main strategic objectives of its plan. France plans
a national meeting in 2004 of those working in the fight against  social  exclusion  and  a
European  seminar  of  Ministers  and  major  European  social  networks.  In  order  to
strengthen user influence in connection with implementation of  the national action plan
Sweden has set  up  a  committee for  user influence  in  social  development  matters  in  the
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, in which the Network against Social Exclusion and
representatives of the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and the National Board
of  Health  and  Welfare  will  have  a  major  role.  This  committee  is  to  act  as  a  body  for
consultations between the public sector and voluntary users' organisations for the purpose

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of  mobilising  all  relevant  bodies  in  the  efforts  to  combat  economic  and  social
vulnerability.

Promoting Partnerships at local level

A growing emphasis in the NAPs is on ensuring that the integrated approach at national
level  is  translated  into  integrated  and  multi-dimensional  action  on  the  ground.  In
particular  stress  is  placed  on  bringing  the  knowledge  and  resources  of  different  actors
together so that their efforts are integrated and mutually reinforcing. Such networked co-
operation and encouragement of interlinkages is given significant emphasis in the NAPs
of  Austria  (development  partnerships),  Denmark  (Social  Council),  Finland  (local
partnerships), Germany (e.g. Development and Opportunity for Young People in Socially
Disadvantaged  Areas),  Ireland  (area  based  partnership  supported  by  a  Local
Development  Social  Inclusion  Programme),  Sweden  (e.g.  Joint  Committees  of  local
authorities  and  county  councils  for  health  and  social  services  and  local  development
agreements with metropolitan authorities) and the UK (local strategic partnerships).

Some  of  these  initiatives  (including  Austria  and  Finland)  rely  on  EU  funding  and
programmes as the Territorial Employment Pacts Programme, the European Social Funds
and EQUAL initiative.

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THE SOCIAL NETWORKS PROGRAMME (PORTUGAL)

The  social  networks  programme  involves  the  setting  up  of  effective  and  dynamic  partnerships
combining  the  social  welfare  activities  of  the  various  players  involved  (public  agencies  and
private not-for profit bodies), based on equality between them and agreed common objectives in
the field of poverty and social exclusion, with a view to achieving more in the social welfare field
than individual initiatives could achieve.
The  programme  promotes  integrated,  participative  and  systematic  planning  and  reinforces
synergies,  capabilities  and  resources  at  local  level  (local  diagnoses,  information  systems  and
social development plans).
It is designed to guarantee more effective responses and social interventions in the municipalities
and parishes (freguesias).

The programme was launched at the  start  of  2000 in  41  pilot  municipalities  which already  had
some  experience  of  partnership  work,  notably  in  connection  with  local  implementation  of  the
fight against poverty and the introduction of the guaranteed minimum wage. These were the first
moves towards the mainstreaming of social inclusion. By 2003, 176 municipalities had a social
network set up and had reached different stages of advancement in the actions planned (31 more
municipalities  had  joined  the  social  networks  programme  in  2001;  another  45  in  2002,  and  a
further 60 in 2003). On average, 50 to 60 partners are actively involved in each local project.

The  main  objective  of  this  programme  is,  through  concerted  planning  of  social  measures,  to
develop  a  system  which,  in  each  municipality,  includes  individuals  and  groups  in  situations  of
poverty and/or social exclusion as stakeholders, with a view to gradually improving the quality of
life  and  thus  achieving  greater  social  cohesion.  The  desired  outcomes  are  of  various  types:
partnerships  (and  their  internal  rules)  which  organise  into  networks  and  gradually  consolidate
through the shared, linked and consensual production of diagnoses of social problems (updated as
and when necessary), information systems, social development plans and feasible action plans, in
order to resolve the problems and satisfy needs in situations of poverty and social exclusion.

NGOs and civil society

The important role played by NGOs in the struggle against poverty and social exclusion
is widely acknowledged and several member states highlight their traditions and policies
for supporting activities by NGOs and volunteers. There is an emerging trend to include
not only professionals, but also stakeholders and NGOs of socially excluded groups and
specialised  researchers  in  dialogues  and  partnerships  as  described  above.  More
particularly several highlight the important contribution of NGO networks in advancing
the debate on policies. Spain highlights the importance of supporting NGOs as strategic
agents in social inclusion and indicates its  intention  to  finance  programmes  intended  to
promote networks of NGO devoted to preventing exclusion and exchanging information
on good practice.  It will continue to promote the establishment of a state-wide  network
and  autonomous  regional  networks  of  social  action  organisations  in  co-operation  with
EAPN. The UK reports on the role of regional anti-poverty networks (Poverty Alliance in
Scotland, Anti-Poverty Network Cymru) as well as some national organisations in policy
development. Finland stresses the role of the Finnish  Federation for Social Welfare and
EAPN-Fin in drawing on the experience of their members on the ground to contribute to

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policy debate. The importance that Ireland attributes to ensuring that the voices of those
experiencing  poverty  and  social  exclusion  are  heard  in  debates  on  national  and  local
policy-making is reflected in the funding it provides to support the work of ten national
anti-poverty  networks.  These  cover  a  broad  range  of  anti-poverty  interests  and  are
representative of people at particular risk of poverty. Germany highlights the involvement
of non-governmental organisations (charitable associations, self-help initiatives, National
Poverty Conference, etc.), together with other actors (trades unions, churches, the Länder
and local  authorities) in  a  regular  consultation and  deliberation  process  which  has  been
further developed and institutionalised. Sweden highlights ongoing consultations with the
Network  Against  Social  Exclusion  in  the  preparation  of  its  plan.  In  some  countries
(including  Greece,  Finland,  Germany,  and  Sweden)  the  participation  of  Churches  and
religious organisations to the elaboration  of policy measures related  to  the fight  against
poverty and social exclusion and the involvement in the elaboration of the NAP/inclusion
are stressed.

Finland elaborates in some detail on the important role played by NGOs in the delivery of
a substantial proportion of the Finnish service and support system and provides estimates
on  the  scale  of  the  sector.  It  also  stresses  the  role  of  NGOs  in  looking  after  and
influencing people's rights and interests. The significant contribution of the Evangelical-
Lutheran  Church  of  Finland  and  its  local  parishes  is  also  highlighted.  However,  in
general there is little evidence in most NAPs of the financial  volume,  the  exact kind of
activities and the number of persons among the excluded and in the mainstream reached
by NGOs and the social economy. Future action plans will have to take into account these
details in order to assess where NGOs are covering a field effectively and where the areas
of strategic concern still are.

In general, while important progress has been made, there is still a need to promote and
ensure a real consultation, for which sufficient time is allowed and adequate resources are
provided.  The  issue  at  stake  is  how  to  deepen  the  quality  of  the  involvement  of  the
different actors and how to establish a more equal and ongoing partnership.

Social Partners

Social partners are involved in most of the consultation processes for drafting the NAPs.
Their  implication  takes  normally  the  form  of  participation  in  drafting  groups  and
committees  (including  Belgium,  Finland,  Germany,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  Portugal,
Spain and Sweden). In other countries their role does not feature clearly. Austria stressed
the  participation  of  social  partners  in  the  work  of  development  partnerships  established
under EQUAL.

In  general,  it  is  difficult  to  asses  whether  and  to  what  extent  this  involvement  is  really
proactive and covers also areas which are not traditionally part of the social dialogue.

Public awareness

Several Member States highlight the need to create a wider public awareness of poverty
and  social  exclusion  and  the  NAPs/inclusion  process  and  propose  interesting  actions  in

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this  regard.  However,  for  most  Member  States,  specific  tools  for  raising  awareness  are
not clearly indicated.

In  Belgium  various  types  of dialogue are set  and publications prepared  and  a  bi-annual
report  is  also  made  available  to  everyone.  France  plans  to  launch  an  intra-  and  extra-
media  campaign  to  change  the  way  the  public  thinks  and  raise  awareness  of  the  fight
against social exclusion. Sweden emphasises that a key focus of the 2003 plan is to raise
awareness  of  the  social  inclusion  process  as  it  is  still  not  sufficiently  known  in  many
quarters.  The  dissemination  of  successful  horizontal  inclusion  strategies  to  all  local
authorities  is  also proposed. Spain identifies a  broad  range  of  actions  (dissemination  of
NAP,  improving  social  media  coverage,  events,  campaigns  and  debates,  public  opinion
survey, involvement of schools) to increase awareness and debate on the need for social
inclusion policies. In the United Kingdom, the profile of the 2003 NAP has been raised
significantly by printing and publishing the text in both the English and Welsh languages.
Several other NAPs have also been published (D, DK, IRL, NL). More generally in the
UK the Social Exclusion Unit makes its research available to all parts of the country. In
Ireland  the  Combat Poverty Agency has  as  one  of  its  core  functions  to  create  a  greater
public awareness of poverty and social exclusion and what needs to be done about it.

Encouraging debate and discussion on social exclusion policies in national parliaments is
highlighted  as  another  means  of  promoting  awareness  in  a  number  of  NAP  (E,  IRL).
Nevertheless, national parliaments' involvement in the process remains scanty.

Social responsibility of business

Promoting the social responsibility of business is featured in a few NAPs (DK, E, F, IRL,
I,  S).  For  example  in  2002  in  Sweden  the  government  established  the  Swedish
Partnership  for  Global  Responsibility  whose  overall  objective  is  to  improve  the  living
conditions  of  poor  people  and  to  implement  human  rights.  Also  in  Sweden  corporate
social responsibility is one of the priorities of the Swedish Equal programme. Ireland has
a  mechanism  that  promotes  the  social  corporate  responsibility,  carried  out  by  the
Foundation  for  Investing in Communities.  In  Denmark a number of  ways  of  promoting
social responsibility of companies such as prizes for employing people requiring special
work  conditions  and  the  development  of  a  self-evaluation  tool  on  social  responsibility,
the social index, are used.

9.

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

Gender  mainstreaming  concerns  (re)organisation,  improvement,  development  and
evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all
policies, at all stages by the actors normally involved in policy making. It is a challenging
task for which several Member States are demonstrating more awareness. Although only
a  very  few  mainstream  gender  consistently  across  their  NAPs,  others  are  slowly
developing their means and know-how.

The gender perspective, in pointing out where social  and financial  inequalities intersect
with gender inequalities, contributes to the overall strategy in two ways:

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–  by enhancing the effects of policies to combat poverty and social exclusion and,

–  by developing gender equality among men and women with low incomes.

The  use  of  gender  issues  as  a  tool  to  serve  anti-poverty  policies  is  prevalent  in  most
NAPs.  This  implies  that  gender  equality  doesn't  appear  in  the  priorities  set  by  most
NAPs. Sweden, Ireland, Austria, Luxembourg, Denmark and Portugal gave evidence, to
various  degrees,  that  they  develop  their  NAPs  with  a  view  to  combating  poverty  and
promoting gender equality. Sweden explained that "activities are organised on the basis
of the needs, obligations, rights, roles, priorities and opportunities of both sexes, which in
turn helps to raise their quality and effectiveness."

Wide national differences regarding the organisation of gender mainstreaming

In September 2002, the Social Protection Committee identified the following conditions
for mainstreaming gender into the NAPs:

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

to  create  a  context  combining  legal  provisions,  political  will  and  the
formulation of clear goals

to build a capacity including training and expertise all along the process

to  establish  adequate  institutional  mechanisms,  keeping  in  mind  that  the
ultimate institutional mechanisms are new ways of working, planning and
implementing policies.

Concerning  the  context,  legal  provisions  are  in  place  in  all  Member  States.  Although
political will is more often expressed than in the previous NAPs, it is not systematically
flanked with clear goals. As mentioned above, many NAPs use gender issues as a means
to  achieve  priority  objectives  such  as  child  poverty  or  family  crisis  with  the  risk  of
neglecting gender equality. Only very few Member States remark that gender equality is
also  an  objective  to  be  pursued  in  its  own  right  when  combating  poverty  and  social
exclusion.

Concerning building a capacity, there are some promising examples of the use of gender
experts  and  expertise.  In  Luxembourg,  the  members  of  the  inter-ministerial  committee
had  gender  training.  Austria  used  the  Territorial  Employment  Pact's  experts  for  gender
analysis. Germany set up a competence centre to support gender mainstreaming through
training and research. Greece has a new manual to help evaluating mainstreaming within
operational programmes.

Concerning  the  institutional  mechanisms,  when  mentioned,  they  appear  to  have  been
developed along three main lines by the Member States, sometimes combining with each
other:

–  a new way of working which integrates the gender competence in the core of the work
of departments in charge of combating poverty. In Denmark, Finland and Sweden all
public authorities have to incorporate and promote gender equality.

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–  a partnership between gender and poverty departments to allow the former to actively
participate  at  key  stages  in  the  elaboration  of  the  NAPs.  This  is  an  option  taken  by
Ireland, Luxembourg and Denmark

–  a  consultation  process  between  gender  and  poverty  departments  which  both  develop
specific Action Plans. Portugal and Spain took this option. Although there is a risk of
limiting  this  to  a  list  of  respective  activities,  if  actively  developed,  it  can  lead  to
mainstreaming gender into poverty and poverty into gender equality policies.

Some Member States announced new institutional mechanisms for gender mainstreaming
but these do not seem to be operational in the current NAPs. For instance, France plans a
national  equality  council  and  a  national  charter  for  gender  equality  and  Belgium
announced  the  creation  in  2003  of  an  the  Institute  for  the  equality  of  opportunities
between men and women.

For  the  other  Member  States,  their  NAPs  do  not  mention  the  mechanisms  used  to
integrate  gender  issues, which  makes it difficult to apprehend the  sustainability of  their
commitment.

The way the above-mentioned conditions for gender mainstreaming are fulfilled impacts
on the ability to consistently integrate a gender perspective across all stages of the Plans
as is requested by the Common Objectives.

More statistics but not enough gender analysis and gender impact assessment

Statistics disaggregated by sex help uncover the gender situation in two ways:

–  to show differences between men and women which should be further analysed in the

light of existing policies

–  to monitor policies and measures aimed at reducing poverty to make sure that women
as much as men can benefit from them, that they do not widen gaps between them and,
even better, they promote gender equality.

Nine  Member  States  have  improved  their  provision  of  sex  disaggregated  data.  Six
Member  States  (Greece,  France,  Ireland,  Portugal,  Netherlands  and  Luxembourg)
provided a very partial gender breakdown, although, for most of them, data is available.
France and  Luxembourg are planning further  development with their national statistical
offices.

The second step is to actively use statistics for gender analysis. Sweden and Austria made
use of their gender information in many chapters of their NAPs. The statistics presented
by Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain and the UK offered them more opportunities to
develop  gender  analysis  than  they  took  up.  The  analysis  conducted  by  Ireland,  the  UK
and the NL are still mainly limited to the labour market. Germany went a bit further with
the internet usage. Denmark turned its attention to gender in some of the most vulnerable
groups where statistics are still scarce and where new surveys are being planned.

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Consequently, there is often a limited coherence between what the NAPs' statistics show
and the identified challenges. Data on common indicators (cf.  Annex) show differences
between  men  and  women  regarding  their  risk  of  poverty  according  to  age,  household
types and education. These differences should call for further gender analysis taking also
into account other factors such as inactivity, employment status, health and childcare and
the increasing need of care services for disabled people, seriously ill and elderly persons
at home.

The  third  step  after  gender  analysis  is  the  gender  impact  assessment  of  policies  and
measures.  Gender  impact  assessments  help  create  effective  gender  mainstreaming  and
allow more in-depth policy adaptation. Limited gender impact assessment often leads to
marginal adjustments. Only three Member States are involved in widening the scope  of
their gender impact assessment. Sweden and Denmark have made it compulsory for their
local authorities. Ireland has launched the impact assessment of 130 measures as part of
the National Development Plan.

Barely no quantitative targets segregated by sex

Very  few  Member  States  have  engendered  quantitative  targets  apart  from  the  targets
already set in the European Employment Strategy. Sweden specifies most of its targets in
relation  to  men  and  women.  Germany  have  gender  targets  for  IT  training  and  internet
usage. Austria intends to close gender gaps related to minimum pension. Greece has an
indirect gender target with respect to childcare availability which goes beyond those set
by  the  Barcelona  European  Council.  Luxembourg  plans  to  teach  the  Luxembourg
language to  migrant  women  in  proportion  to  their  share  in  the  migrant  population.  The
UK quantified targets on lone parents and teenage pregnancies.

There are barely no quantified targets for the vulnerable groups for which many Member
States focussed their gender priorities in their NAPs.

Gender  mainstreaming  across  the  common  objectives:  still  limited  to  employment  with
enhanced attention to the most vulnerable groups of men and women

Mainstreaming  gender  into  policies  means  weaving  equal  treatment  into  the  policy
provisions. Additional specific measures can be taken to prevent or  compensate for any
remaining  disadvantages  which  are  identified  linked  to  sex.  The  sustainability  of  these
adjustments should be carefully analysed. When cutbacks in budgets occur, they are more
likely to be discontinued.

Gender  mainstreaming  is  better  developed  in  the  field  of  employment,  as  it  has  been
boosted  by  the  European  Employment  Strategy,  as  was  also  the  case  in  the  previous
NAPs. In addition, this time there is slightly more attention given to difficulties met by
women from low income groups. Lone parents' difficulties are also a constant concern in
most NAPs as previously.

Specific measures are developed in the field of reconciliation with more attention given
to improving childcare facilities and affordability. (cf. Ch. Employment). Reconciliation
is a field where the risk of conflicting measures is increased by the lack of/limited gender

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impact  assessment.  Some  backward  steps  have  appeared  since  the  2001  NAPs,  such  as
the rights to reconciliation for working fathers in Portugal.

Too little attention is paid to the gender deficit in access to income and resources and the
measures to overcome them. An overall gender impact assessment of measures taken in
employment, reconciliation and pension systems is often missing, which otherwise could
help improve the situation of elderly women more exposed to poverty.

In  most  NAPs,  gender  mainstreaming  is  weak  outside  of  employment  issues.  When
gender  is  dealt  with,  it  is  mainly  through  specific  measures,  often  geared  to  assisting
vulnerable groups of women (sometimes men).

Specific  measures  cover  initiatives  associated  with  problems  of  gender  relations  per  se
such  as,  domestic  violence  (all  except  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands),  trafficking  and
prostitution  (Finland,  France,  Greece,  Denmark),  and  teenage  pregnancies  (UK  only).
Actions are mainly concentrating on the victims while prevention including the actors is
not yet common.

Gender  and  disability  is  combined  in  Austria,  Germany,  Denmark  and  France.  More
attention  is  given  to  immigrants  and  to  female  immigrants  in  Austria,  Greece,  France,
Denmark,  and  Luxembourg  (cf.  chapter  4.4.1).  While  the  Netherlands  identifies  single
older women, (older) women from ethnic minorities and single parents as risk groups in
general there is little integration of social inclusion and gender policies in the NAPs and
the gender dimension is not much reflected in policies proposed.

Gender concern among stakeholders still marginal in many NAPs

Member  States  were  invited  to  mainstream  gender  in  the  mobilisation  of  relevant
stakeholders.  Only  Spain  and  Ireland  explicitly  mentions  the  consultation  of  Equality
bodies. Ireland has developed an elaborate institutional structure including at consultative
level, the Equality Authority and national women's organisations. It is likely that Gender
departments or Equality bodies were also consulted in a few other countries where such a
process is standard practice. The participation of NGOs dealing with gender issues is very
marginal (only mentioned by Ireland and Spain). In Ireland, gender equality stakeholders
appear  to  be  involved  at  every  stage,  in  the  preparation,  the  implementation,  the
monitoring  and  the  assessment  of  its  various  measures.  Regarding  the  involvement  of
men  and  women  suffering  from  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  the  UK  organised
consultations where gender issues were  raised. Examples include means-tested benefits,
childcare, care work, low paid jobs, precarious and informal work and homeworkers.

10.

USE OF INDICATORS

Background

Indicators are an essential tool in the Open Method of Co-ordination as they help monitor
progress  towards  the  common  objectives  and  measure  the  challenges  ahead.  The

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importance of indicators was already stressed at Lisbon, when the Council called on the
Commission to report annually on progress towards the Union's strategic goals. The Nice
European  Council  invited  Member  States  and  the  Commission  to  develop  commonly
agreed indicators in order to monitor progress towards the objectives in the fight against
social  exclusion  and  poverty.  This  recommendation  was  reinforced  by  the  Stockholm
European  Council  in  March  2001,  which  gave  the  Council  the  mandate  to  improve
monitoring of action against poverty and social exclusion by agreeing on a set of social
inclusion indicators by the end of 2001. The task of developing this set of indicators was
undertaken by the Social Protection Committee, and more specifically its Indicators Sub-
Group that was set up in February 2001.

In December 2001, the Laeken European Council endorsed a first set of 18 indicators of
social exclusion and poverty, organised in  a  two-level  structure  of  primary  indicators  –
consisting  of  10  lead  indicators  covering  the  broad  fields  considered  to  be  the  most
important elements in leading to social exclusion – and 8 secondary indicators – intended
to support the lead indicators and describe other dimensions of the problem.

In setting out the methodological principles to guide the selection of indicators, the SPC
stressed  first  that  the  portfolio  of  EU  indicators  should  be  balanced  across  different
dimensions  and,  as  such,  it  should  be  considered  as  a  whole.  As  for  the  nature  of  the
indicators  themselves,  the  most  important  principle  is  that  common  indicators  should
address  social  outcomes  rather  than  the  means  by  which  they  are  achieved.  This  is
because an indicator that merely measures policy effort is of little help if there is no way
of knowing whether that effort is achieving its goal. Furthermore, it is in the very nature
of the open co-ordination method that Member States  agree on the indicators  by  which
performance  is  to  be  judged  but  are  left  free  to  choose  the  policies  by  which  these
objectives  are  to  be  met.  Two  other  important  methodological  principles  are  that  an
indicator should be responsive to policy interventions and that it should have a clear and
accepted normative interpretation. This means that indicators must be of a form that can
be  linked  to  policy  initiatives  and  there  should  be  agreement  that  a  movement  in  a
particular direction represents an improvement or  deterioration  of  social  outcomes.  The
remaining methodological principles are more obvious – to give just a few examples, that
an  indicator  should  be  robust  and  statistically  validated,  should  be  measurable  in  a
sufficiently comparable way across Member States, and should be timely and susceptible
to revision.

On  the  basis  of  the  above  methodological  principles,  the  Indicators  Sub-Group  has
continued working over the past year to refine and consolidate the original list of "Laeken
indicators".  It  highlighted  the  need  to  give  children  a  special  focus  when  analysing  the
common indicators and, to this purpose, to have a standard breakdown by age of all the
Laeken  indicators,  whenever  relevant  and  meaningful  (and  conditional  upon  statistical
reliability); it redefined the indicator of population living in jobless households and added
a new indicator of  in-work poverty. The list of  common  indicators,  as  approved  by  the
Social Protection Committee in July 2003, is included in the statistical annex.

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The use of the common indicators in the NAPs

Member States were requested to make use of the common indicators in the NAPs; they
were  also  invited  to  use  third-level  indicators  defined  at  the  national  level  to  highlight
specificities in particular areas not adequately covered by the common indicators, and to
help  interpret  the  primary  and  secondary  indicators.  Given  that  the  Social  Protection
Committee  has  not  yet  been  able  to  put  forward  a  proposal  for  a  commonly  agreed
indicator on the key dimension of housing, it was agreed that in the NAPs this dimension
should  be  covered  through  tertiary  indicators,  namely  to  describe  the  issues  of  decent
housing, housing costs and homelessness and other precarious housing conditions.

All NAPs make use of the common indicators. They do so in various ways and to various
degrees. Many Member States (Belgium, Greece, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal and
Finland) draw  an  extensive  analysis  of  the  situation  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  on
the  basis  of  both  the  common  indicators  and  national  indicators  supporting  them  or
highlighting aspects relevant to their national situation. However, such analysis is hardly
integrated into the core of the national action plan, that is, the formulation of the policy
strategy  for  the  fight  against  social  exclusion  and  poverty.  True,  Greece,  Spain  and
Portugal  set  overall  quantified  targets  for  the  reduction  of  the  poverty  risk  rate;  in
addition, Greece uses the indicators to identify the major challenges it is faced with and
includes specific quantified targets for the elderly and children. However, indicators are
not used for policy monitoring or planning purposes, nor are intermediate targets for the
timespan of the plan set.

On  the  other  hand,  Ireland  and  the  United  Kingdom  make  large  use  of  the  common
indicators alongside the national definitions of poverty used in their own national strategy
against social exclusion and poverty. These countries are also the most comprehensive in
setting  targets  across  a  wide  range  of  policy  domains  covered  by  the  Common
Objectives. However, they do so mainly on the basis of national indicators, in the respect
of  the  national  policy  and  monitoring  tradition  in  the  area  of  social  inclusion.  Also  the
French  NAP  plans  to  make  large  use  of  indicators:  it  elaborates  a  rich  system  of
indicators – combining common and national indicators, outcome and policy indicators –
for the follow-up of the plan.

Austria, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands make only limited use of the common
indicators,  for  different  reasons.  The  Danish  NAP  is  very  much  focused  on  the  most
vulnerable groups, for which there is no or little coverage in the Laeken indicators. In the
Austrian and German NAPs, on the  other hand, indicators  are seen only as providing  a
framework for analysis. Finally, the Dutch NAP uses the Laeken indicators only for the
purpose  of  benchmarking  its  performance  against  the  performance  of  the  other  EU
countries; in developing its strategy, it makes large use of national, mainly policy-related,
indicators.  Even  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  is  calculated  with  reference  to  the  national
minimum income level (threshold fixed at 101% of this level).

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The  use  of  indicators  in  the  Dutch  NAP  raises  the  question  of  the  lack  of  a  clear  link
between the common indicators and policy instruments. The NAP points for example to
the impact of the economic cycle on the outcomes, something which cannot be controlled
by  policy-makers.  Furthermore,  in  areas  where  the  central  Government  has  little
influence,  the  Dutch  NAP  has  opted  for  policy-related,  mainly  qualitative,  indicators.
These objections to the use of common indicators are justified only to an extent. Policy
initiatives in the area of the Employment Strategy are subject to much the same problems
as  in  the  area  of  social  inclusion:  namely,  performance  in  terms  of  employment  and
labour  force  growth  is  very  much  related  to  economic  and  demographic  developments;
yet the use  of  outcome indicators  (and  targets) is more  consolidated and  there  is  a  vast
body of theoretical underpinning for them. As a consequence, their use in policy-making
is less questioned and statistical capacity in this area is more consolidated.

It must be recognised that there remain serious practical issues to be addressed before the
common  indicators  can  be  used  to  full  advantage  to  assess  performance  in  practice.
Important  issues  concern  the  reliability  and  timeliness  of  relevant  data.  Many  of  the
poverty  and  social  exclusion  indicators  are  drawn  from  the  European  Community
Household  Panel  (ECHP),  the  EU-wide  harmonised  survey  on  income  and  living
conditions.  The  use  of  this  source  for  this  purpose  was  explicitly  recognised  at  the
Laeken European Council in 2001. A new data  collection  tool, the EU-SILC, will soon
replace the ECHP as the reference source for statistics on income and living conditions in
the  EU.  With  significant  investment  in  statistical  capacity-building,  this  is  expected  to
effectively address some of the acknowledged weaknesses of the ECHP. For example, it
is important that in the future we can calculate poverty rates taking account of the value
of  imputed  rents  for  homeowners;  information  on  gross  income  by  components  should
also  be  improved  to  allow  the  calculation  of  the  indicator  of  poverty  risk  before  social
transfers on a gross basis rather than a net one; last, but not least, timeliness of the data
must be improved.

The use of tertiary or national indicators

Several third-level indicators have been used in the NAPs.

Alongside  the  definitions  of  the  common  indicators,  some  Member  States  have  used
different  definitions  and/or  alternative  data  sources  for  measuring  and  characterising
current levels of poverty and social exclusion. For example, France, Germany, Italy and
the United Kingdom use national data sources to calculate income poverty risk indicators,
as  they  provide  more  timely  results.  Sensitivity  analysis  of  the  use  of  these  different
sources and definitions is presented as well. Greece and Italy define relative poverty risk
on the basis of both income (Laeken definition) and consumption, and justify the use of
consumption  by  the  likely  higher  stability  of  consumption  patterns  and  its  greater
adherence to the actual living standards of households. The high proportion of the self-
employed, as well as the importance of house ownership, also among poor households, in
these countries are other arguments in favour of the use of consumption-based measures.
However,  the  use  of  consumption  expenditure  for  the  measurement  of  poverty  risk  has

131

 
been  discussed  at  length  at  EU  level  and  eventually  rejected,  both  on  theoretical  and
practical grounds. Expenditure reflects choices, not opportunities, and thus fails to reflect
resources  accruing  to  the  household.  Moreover,  household  expenditure  surveys  are  not
fully harmonised.

Some countries refer also to national indicators of absolute poverty (Italy), non-monetary
indicators  of  living  conditions  (Belgium,  Italy,  France),  or,  still,  measures  of  self-
perceived poverty or deprivation (Belgium, Italy). Ireland uses the measure of consistent
poverty,  a  combination  of  relative  income  and  deprivation  measures  that  is  believed  to
give a more accurate picture of the category of the population that experience generalised
deprivation due to lack of resources  than income poverty  alone. Such indicators  clearly
provide useful complementary information to that of relative poverty  risk. In particular,
Ireland uses the comparison of trends over time of the consistent poverty risk rate and the
relative poverty risk to highlight the sometimes pro-cyclical nature of the latter measure
(see also chapter 1, Figure 7).

The  sub-national  dimension  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  in  some  instances
(Belgium, Greece, France, Italy) described through a regional breakdown of the common
indicators.  In  particular,  Greece  interestingly  distinguishes  between  rural  and  urban
regions,  highlighting  the  different  nature  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  these  two
areas.

Most Member States used policy-related indicators, which can be more easily integrated
within the development of a policy strategy. Examples of these indicators are the number
of  unemployed  or  long-term  unemployed  persons  who  are  assisted  by  some  labour
market policy measure, the number of available  social  housing units and the amount of
minimum income benefits. In fact, the distinction between input-related and performance
indicators  is  not  always  straightforward  and  some  indicators  are  better  qualified  as
"intermediate  output"  indicators.  Such  indicators  express  on  the  one  hand  the  policy
effort  in  favour  of  those  at  risk  of  poverty  and  on  the  other  hand  the  impact  of  social
policies as well as of the economic context more at large. Benefit dependency indicators
–  quite  largely  used  in  the  NAPs  –  are  an  example  of  this  type  of  indicators.  Even  the
Laeken indicator of "early school leavers" can be seen as belonging more to the category
of intermediate output indicators than a performance indicator in the strict sense.

Finally, some interesting indicators have been used in the area of health and housing. In
the  area  of  housing,  issues  of  decent  housing,  housing  costs  and  homelessness  are
addressed in some NAPs. In the area of health, many  Member  States  show information
on  life  expectancy  by  socio-economic  status  (proxied  through  a  broad  occupational
classification).  The  Belgian  and  French  NAPs  display  several  indicators  of  health
outcomes and access to health care by socio-economic status. They are based on a special
health  survey  that  should  be  closely  analysed  in  order  to  see  whether  it  could  be
replicated in other countries.

Indications for future developments at EU level

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In this second round of NAPs/inclusion, Member States  were  expected to make  use for
the first time of the EU commonly agreed  indicators,  to  underpin  both their analysis  of
the  social  situation  and  the  monitoring  of  progress  towards  stated  policy  goals.  The
assessment  of  how  indicators  have  been  actually  used  in  the  NAPs  is  a  precious
opportunity for the Social Protection Committee, particularly its Indicators Sub-Group, to
draw lessons for future work in the area of social inclusion.

While it is fair to say that the list of indicators has responded generally well to the above
expectations,  it  is  clear  that  EU  indicators  tend  to  be  much  more  favoured  as  tools  for
international  comparison  in  an  analysis  of  the  situation  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion
than as tools for policy monitoring.

The  lack  of  a  clear  link  between  the  common  indicators  and  policy  instruments  is  an
obvious reason for  this,  and the use of national or tertiary policy-related  indicators was
called for in order to fill this gap.  However,  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  current  list  of
common  indicators  needs  to  be  improved  and,  above  all,  that  the  statistical  capacity  to
calculate them needs to be improved.

Looking  at  the  current  list  of  common  indicators  as  a  whole,  the  concept  of  social
exclusion that emerges seems to be related to lack of income, income inequality, lack of
employment  and  lack  of  an  adequate  educational  attainment  level.  It  is  unquestionable
that  these  are  some  of  the  key  dimensions  of  social  exclusion  and  poverty,  but  other
important areas – such as health, living conditions and housing - are not  yet adequately
covered  and  further  efforts  need  to  be  devoted  to  them.  Furthermore,  it  would  be
important to develop a better  understanding  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  at  the  sub-
national level. In all these domains, however, a combination of factors – data as well as
institutional  differences  across  the  EU  –  still  make  it  difficult  to  define  common
indicators that can be used across all 15 Member States.

The major concrete challenge we are faced with is thus that of the statistical capacity. At
both  the  Community  and  national  levels,  it  is  clear  that  there  are  big  gaps  in  data
availability.  This  is  true  in  particular  with  respect  to  the  vulnerable  groups,  where  a
number of NAPs/inclusion lack basic quantitative information concerning groups which
cannot  be  identified  through  conventional  household  surveys,  such  as  alcohol  abusers,
drug addicts, homeless people, ethnic minorities, etc.

At the European level, the priority lies in improving the  current European databases. In
particular, it is of crucial importance that the new EU-SILC delivers timely and reliable
statistics  and  that  it  is  actively  implemented  by  all  national  statistical  services  with  the
support  of  policy  departments  (as  users).  In  the  meantime,  it  is  also  important  that  the
transition between the ECHP and EU-SILC is ensured in the best possible way.

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11.

IDENTIFICATION OF EXAMPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE

The  dissemination  of  examples  of  good  or  best  practice  is  a  key  element  in  the  open
method of co-ordination for social inclusion. It allows Member States to learn from one
another,  by  systematically  exchanging  information  regarding  their  experiences  in
implementing  new  or  radically  overhauled  policies  or  institutional  mechanisms.
Accompanied  with  evaluation  results  and  details  of  how  these  results  were  obtained,  it
should  facilitate  the  preparation  of  reforms  or  the  implementation  of  model  integrated
multidimensional  approaches  and  the  mobilisation  of  all  stakeholders,  considered
particularly effective.

The 2003-2005 NAPs/incl reveal the areas in which Member States appear to have made
most  effort  over  recent  years  to  overhaul  the  content  of  their  policies  or  the  way  the
policies are implemented, whether at national, regional or local level.

Employment support measures for persons in situations of  great difficulty  head the list.
Thirteen  13  such  programmes  are  described,  relating  to  disabled  persons,  persons  long
out of employment for various reasons, notably illness, the long-term unemployed, social
assistance recipients and young persons.

Many Member States  also describe  measures designed  to mobilise  all  local  players  and
public  authorities  to  combat  social  exclusion  and  poverty.  Ten  such  programmes  are
described.

Many  examples  of  good  practice  are  also  described  in  relation  to  child  protection  and
protection of families from social exclusion. Seven such experiments or new policies are
described.

Home  help  and  care  for  dependent  elderly  persons  is  not  forgotten  either.  Three  such
programmes are presented.

Four  programmes  relating  to  the  reception,  counselling,  housing  or  re-housing  of  the
homeless are also presented.

Examples  of  good  practice  for  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  over-indebtedness  are
described in three of the NAPs/incl.

Examples of good practice for the integration of immigrants are described in two of the
NAPs/incl.

Four  programmes  to  improve  access  to  justice  and  the  public  administrations  are
presented.

Three  schemes  to  create  better  dialogue  and  partnership  with  NGOs  and  persons  in
situations of exclusion or poverty are presented.

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Areas  in  which  just  a  single  example  of  good  practice  is  presented  include  cultural
participation, education  and  social research,  food  aid,  violence  against  women,  care  for
drug addicts and the transformation of campsites.

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Member
State

Title of Measure

Austria

'Clearing'

Labour Market
integration

Denmark

Integration of
young people into
the labour market

France

Germany

Employment
policies for persons
in great difficulty
"50,000 Jobs for
the Severely
Disabled"

Project
'Opportunity 2000'

Federal Institute for
Employment –
'FAIR'

Summary

1. EMPLOYMENT

Assistance  for  young  people  with  special  needs  in  their  transition  from  school  to  working  life.  A
comprehensive  safety  net  or  support  system  for  the  after-school  phase  of  disabled
schoolchildren

Labour  Market  integration  measures  for  recipients  of  social  assistance.  Alongside  a  financial
minimum  income,  an  objective  of  social  assistance  –  in  the  spirit  of  helping  people  to  help
themselves  is  the  reintegration  into  the  labour  market  of  beneficiaries  who  are  able  and
willing to work.
Integrating socially disadvantaged young people into the labour market – Young People's Unit Brondby
local authorityNine local authorities are participating in the project. The project aims to transfer young
people from the cash-benefit system and start them on an education or integrate them into the labour
market  via  on-the-job  training  or  work.  They  are  supported  by  their  caseworkers  from  the  local
authority,  a  voluntary  or  professional  contact  person  supporting  him  or  her  in  life  outside  the
workplace, and a mentor at the workplace who makes sure that the young person is integrated into the
environment
Employment policies for persons in great difficulty have been built around two main issues; bringing
those persons back to productive activity by promoting employment and implementing a personalised
support programme which is adapted to the situation and needs of the individual.
A legally required objective of reducing the number of severely disabled people seeking employment
by 25% between October 1999 and October 2002. A strengthening of the specialist integration services
and of the employment exchanges. An increase of the vocational qualification training and individual
mentoring schemes for unemployed severely disabled people. An advertising campaign to highlight the
new measure, including, telemarketing/information hotline, brochures, events, trade fairs, Internet
Qualification of unemployed social assistance recipients ,who have long-term severe health restrictions,
high degree of mental fragility and/or low self esteem and cannot be integrated into the labour market
with the usual set of instruments.
 The  “FAIR”  Special  Programme  has  been  implemented  with  the  goals  of  improving
performance at finding work for the long-term unemployed. Additional employees were hired
who dealt solely with the better integration  and  mentoring of the long-term unemployed and
finding  work  for  them.  The  long-term  unemployed  are  mentored  in  every  one  of  the  offices
concerned, according to a systematic programme.

Related
Topic Areas

Disabled
people
Children,
Education.

Children &
Young
People

Disabled
people

Health
Disability

136

 
Member
State
Ireland

Title of Measure

Preventative
strategy for
unemployment

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

The Employment Action Plan (EAP) Preventative Strategy aims to reduce unemployment, and prevent
the  drift  into  long-term  unemployment,  by  actively  engaging  with  unemployed  people  and  assisting
them to return to employment. The participants are interviewed to assess their current skills with a view
to  providing  them  with  an  individual  plan  which  may  lead  directly  to  employment,  retraining  or
education. The Preventative Strategy commenced in September 1998 with all those under 25 years of
age who were six months on the Live Register and referred for interview. Over time the process has
been  progressively  expanded  to  include  additional  groups  crossing  specified 
thresholds  of
unemployment duration.

Netherlands

Luxembourg Assessment Centres Assessment Centres for those who are unemployed are able to increase their employability. This allows
persons who are able to work, to find work, to have their own resources, to find their dignity and to
escape a potential situation of poverty and of social exclusion..
The  Ministry  of  Social  Affairs  and  Employment  arranged  opportunities  to  experiment  within  the
(general benefits) law, with the goal of promoting reintegration into the labour market and preventing
the social exclusion of those entitled to benefits who are greatly distanced from the labour market.
This is a programme for training and entering the labour market to promote innovative activities in the
field of employment for youths who have serious difficulties in accessing jobs and a high risk of social
exclusion. It includes information and personalised plans for employment integration, orientation and
support for regulated or occupational training.

Spain

The  purpose of the  Stockholm  Matching  project is to  develop  methods that  help to  find  work  in  the
open  labour  market  for  people  who  depend  on  social  assistance  to  support  themselves.  The  social
services and the business sector are to collaborate on the development of methodologies for recruiting
persons living on social assistance to work in the labour market. The main target group of the project is
social  welfare  officers,  representatives  of  the  labour  market  and  business  and  study  and  careers
counsellors.  The  secondary  target  group  consists  of  long-term  unemployed  persons  who  have  no
contacts with the regular employment services and receive a subsistence allowance.
The  DELTA  project  was launched  in  1997, to  see  whether  collaboration  would  be  more  effective  in
helping people who have been ill or unemployed for a long time. Social insurance offices, the primary
health  care  system  and  social  services  collaborate  with  the  DELTA  project,  county  labour  board,
psychiatric clinics, and the adult education system on 26 related projects in Hisingen.

137

Socially
disadvantage
d people

Mobilising
stakeholders,
Education
Most
vulnerable

Sweden

Experiments in
social activation
(1996-2001)
Integrated
Employment
Project for the
Insertion of Young
People into the
Labour Market
Stockholm
Matching

DELTA-Financial
co-operation in
Hisingen

 
Member
State

Belgium

Spain

Title of Measure

Work and
Development
Centres in Malmö

Improve suitability
of minimum
income systems
Plan for basic
social service
benefits of
Municipal
Governments.

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

Work  and  development  centres  in  Malmö  is  a  collaboration  project  within  the  framework  of  the
metropolitan  programme  between  Malmö,  the  employment  services  and  the  social  insurance  offices.
The main objective is that long-term unemployed people should find work or start  studying  within  a
year. Priority is given to people with a foreign background and unemployed youth in need of further
motivation and counselling programmes.

2. MINIMUM INCOME/SOCIAL SAFETY NET

Promote access to resources for all, along with the modernisation of administrative legal and financial
content of various minimum allowance regulations.

This is a Social Services programme carried out over several years. It has currently been consolidated
and  led  by  the  administration,  financial  and  political  foundations  of  the  basic  network  of  the  Public
Social Services system.

Austria

Provision of long-
term care

Belgium

Denmark

France

Making health
services more
affordable
Social inequality in
Health
Horsens Local
Authority Health
Plan
Regional Health
Care and
Preventive Care
Programme
"PRAPS"

3. HEALTHCARE

Along with the uniform nation-wide introduction of nursing care allowance, the Länder were obliged to
draw up requirements and development plans for long-term care provision for people with disabilities
as  well  as  older people (outpatient,  half-inpatient  and  inpatient  services).  This  was  also  to  provide  a
strategic orientation for long-term care in the respective province.
Improve access to healthcare systems and prevent the risk of exclusion due to serious health problems
through maximum cost bill institutional arrangement.

The plan aims to provide better health for the vulnerable groups of the local authorities and break the
negative  effects  of  intergenerational  transmission.  The  activities  will  focus  on  the  most  vulnerable
citizens and have a preventive and health-promoting aim. The project encompasses several sub-goals,
including  counteracting  social  inequality  in  health  aspects  and  improving  the  health  of  children  and
young people.
Regional  programmes  mobilising  together  healthcare  professionals  and  institutions,  local  decision
makers  ,and  social,  prevention  and  dependency  programmes,  and  to  improve  outreach  to  the  most
disadvantaged persons and meet their specific needs. Under these programmes, more than 370 public
hospitals have been equipped with healthcare help desks (PASS), 45 city centres (ASV) and activities
such as addiction prevention, fight against unsanitaring housing have been developed.

138

 
Member
State

France

Belgium

Title of Measure

The Social Watch
Programme

Supporting those
who have difficulty
paying electricity
and gas bills

Denmark

Resident Advisors
Programme

Netherlands

Administrative
collaboration
between nursery
facilities and
primary education
Hertogenbosch

Greece

Citizens Service
Centres

Summary

4. HOUSING

This Programme has the task of informing,  guiding  and  offering  housing  to  all  persons  experiencing
difficulties  (single  mothers,  families  and  young  people  estranged  from  their  families  along  with  a
strong onset of asylum seekers…)...
Among the debts which people are confronted with this is often linked to energy supply. The federal
government took the initiative to allow public centres of social aid to accentuate their efforts both at the
preventative  level  and  curative  level.  The  first  aspect  is  aimed  at  the  framework  and  the  social  and
budgetary accompaniment of those people who are having difficulties making payments. The second
aspect is the possibility of granting financial aid to audit invoices so that the person concerned could set
out again on a healthy financial basis.
To  perform  preventative  and  outreach  work,  create  networks  and  facilitate  contacts  to  the  local
authorities, and to participate in co-ordinating local initiatives to improve  social  housing  activities  in
the relevant housing areas.

5. EDUCATION

The  goal  of  the  administrative  collaboration  between  nursery  facilities  and  primary  education  (five
schools)  is  to  achieve  an  unbroken  development  line  for  children  aged  between  0  and  12,  in  other
words a development without fault-lines between the (teaching) services which are present.

Related
Topic Areas

Mobilising
Stakeholders

6. E-INCLUSION (ICT)

The Citizens Service Centres (KEP) are organic units of the local government authorities in which they
are established (Regions, Prefectures, Municipalities and Communes) and are responsible for providing
administrative information to the public and resolving problems or transacting business the public may
have with the authorities. The central website www.kep.gov.gr created by the Ministry of the Interior to
further the objective of provision of information through the KEP and also to offer direct information
to  citizens  with  access  to  the  internet,  contains  information  mainly  on  administrative  procedures  and
dealings which can be transacted at the KEP.

Belgium

7. CULTURE, SPORTS, LEISURE
Project ' Article 27' A model for cultural participation managed through a specific NGO created by actors from the cultural
sector. Access to cultural activities with very low price entry tickets,, for underprivileged people, with
support from various french speaking communities and regions in Belgium and the partnership of 433
social and cultural institutions.

139

 
Related
Topic Areas

Helping the
most
vulnerable

Member
State
France

Title of Measure

Programme "Ville-
Vie-Vacances."

Summary

Every year this initiative provides approximately 800,000 young people who do not go on holiday with
numerous  sports  and cultural activities  as  well  as  activities  related  to  integration  into  the  workforce.
The  participation  rate  among  girls  has  grown  significantly,  thanks  to  a  change  in  the  orientation  of
activities for them based on their input.

Sweden

Agenda for Culture Agenda for Culture Programme 2003-2006

8. INDEBTEDNESS

Ireland

Money Advice and
Budgeting Service

Netherlands

Integrated Debt
Assistance in
Arnhem and
Dordrecht

The  Money  Advice  and  Budgeting  Service  (MABS)  is  a  countrywide  service  funded  by  the
Department of Social and Family Affairs. The MABS provides an independent, free and confidential
service primarily to low-income families who are in debt or at risk of getting into debt.
The points  of  departure for  this  model’s  integrated  debt assistance  are that  registration is carried  out
from  an  integrated  viewpoint  (financial-technical  and  psycho-social  backgrounds),  that  there  are
applicable simultaneous or consecutive assistance programmes for both aspects, that there is an official
to monitor and co-ordinate the programmes (case management), and that a start on budget supervision
or  other forms  of  supervision  is  made  as  soon  as  possible.  In  integrated  debt  assistance there  is  also
generally  a  chain  of  prevention,  registration,  assistance  programmes  (psycho-social  help,  budget
supervision and budget management), connections with the statutory  route (Debt  Repayment  Natural
Persons Act), progress monitoring/supervision and aftercare or care for people who drop out.

Austria

Denmark

France

9. HOMELESSNESS
Homeless strategy By  the  year  2006,  all  formerly  homeless  families  and  individuals  in  Vienna  are  to  be
provided  with  their  own  rented  accommodation  at  locations  separate  from  hostels  for  the
homeless.  Homeless  people  will  only  be  accommodated  in  supervised  facilities  for  a
temporary  period  of  a  maximum  of  two  years.  After  the  end  of  the  supervised  phase,  they
their  own  flats.  For  older  people,  specialised  senior  citizen’s  complexes  are  planned  in
Vienna for accommodation without time limits
Agreement in June 2002 concluded between the Danish government and the local authorities. The main
priority areas are: housing assistance, emergency offers, alternative emergency departments, alternative
nursing homes.
Promote  a  global  and  integrated  approach  of  people  who  are  in  situation  of  greatest  exclusion.
Modernise, configure and co-ordinate the whole emergency service field. Insure a better protection of
most  excluded  people,  offer  a  true  aid,  prevention  and  social  reinsertion  policy.  Services  and  social
support  for  homeless  people  in  partnership  between  public  authorities  and  solidarity  associations:
telephone  helpline  24h/24h,  mobile  teams,  day-care  centres,  emergency  accommodation,  social

To reduce the
number of
homeless persons.
Policies related to
Homelessness

140

 
Member
State

Sweden

United
Kingdom

Germany

Greece

Spain

Sweden

Title of Measure

Summary

housing,  temporary  housing,  accommodation  and  reinsertion  centres,  new  normalised  system  of
information common to the social emergency field.
Stockholm City has since 1999 offered a Roof Over Your Head guarantee as one element of the long-
term efforts to improve support for the homeless. The objective  is to  guarantee  all  homeless  persons
who  apply  for  a  place  at  a  hostel  before  midnight  accommodation  for  the  night,  provided  that  their
behaviour is not threatening.
The Rough Sleepers Unit (RSU), established in April 1999, had responsibility for delivering the target
of reducing rough sleeping in England to as near to zero as possible and by at least two-thirds by 2002..

Innovative methods
for improving
support for the
homeless
The Rough
Sleepers Unit
(England)

10. TERRITORIAL/REGIONAL DIMENSION

Related
Topic Areas

Local Development
and Social Policy:
The Municipality
of Arkhanes

The Social City' Measures in varied fields of policy, such as housing, economic, employment, activation of citizens and
social policy, in disadvantaged districts with a special need for development, brought together into an
active and integrative urban development policy in integrated programmes lasting several years.
Through a comprehensive development plan, based on co-operation among the municipal authority, the
Herakleion  Development  Corporation  and  the  other  agencies  in  the  region,  an  attempt  was  made  to
differentiate  the  local  economy  and  create  new  small  and  medium-sized  businesses.  As  a  result,  the
rural  area  in  question  has  enjoyed  significant  rates  of  growth  over  the  last  ten  years,  as  well  as
substantial  increases  in  employment.  At  the  same  time  the  Municipality  has  implemented  a
comprehensive, integrated social intervention plan, intended  to  end social  exclusion and improve  the
local quality of life.
To improve  the  standard of  living  of the inhabitants  of  the  neighbourhood  where  it  has  been  carried
out,  from  a  multi-disciplinary  perspective.  All  of  the  institutions  of  a  social  nature  existing  in  the
neighbourhood have been involved, to create a compact unit of technical and material resources, with
the involvement of  the  population,  for  the  optimisation  of living  conditions  and egalitarian  access  to
social protection systems.

Project for
integrated Social
Integration in
Aldea Moret

Local development
Agreement to
overcome
segregation in the
largest cities

Breaking down segregation in a district calls for broad-based measures over a long period of time. It
also  requires  participation,  dedication  and  systematic  co-operation  between  residents,  business,
voluntary organisations, interest organisations, local authorities, central agencies, the media and others.
If  the  effects  of  this  collaboration  are  to  be  lasting,  development  efforts  must  also  have  structural
effects,  i.e.  changes  in  the  regular  activities  of  the  bodies  concerned.  In  other  words,  positive
development calls for a strategy that embraces the local, regional and national levels.

Mobilising
Stakeholders

141

 
Member
State
United
Kingdom

Austria

Finland

Title of Measure

The National
Strategy for
Neighbourhood
Renewal (England)

Child Care
Allowance (CCA)
The Turku Model
for promoting the
welfare of Children
and Young People

HARAVA

Ireland

Teen Parent
Support Initiative

Italy

United
Kingdom

Project to provide
home and financial
Assistance to
Families in difficulty

Lone Parent
Childcare Grant
(Scotland)

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

The long-term goals are: to deliver lower worklessness and crime, and improve health, skills, housing
and  the  physical  environment  in  all  the  poorest  neighbourhoods;  and  to  narrow  the  gap  between  the
most  deprived  neighbourhoods and the rest  of  the  country. The  emphasis is on  using  all  mainstream
government  policies,  not  just  local  area-based  initiatives,  to  regenerate  neighbourhoods  and  improve
local public services.

11. FAMILY SOLIDARITY/CHILDREN

This replaces the parental leave benefit system, creating a new universal family benefit, extending the
circle of beneficiaries to housewives/househusbands, students, part-time employees, etc.
The  Turku  strategy  focuses  on  children,  young  people  and  families  with  children.  The  strategy  is
pursued through a network model managed and monitored by a management group for the welfare of
children  and  young  people,  whose  members  include  experts  from  all  service  authorities  and  a  town
planning expert. Indicators for monitoring relevant factors have  been  developed  in  co-operation  with
the National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health (STAKES). The indicators are
supported  by  a  tri-annual  ‘child  budget’,  a  tool  for  examining  after  the  fact  how  much  the  various
authorities spend annually on managing children’s and young people’s affairs.
Harava  (‘Rake’)  is  a  joint  project  between  child  protection  organisations  and  the  public  sector,  co-
ordinated by the Central Union for Child Welfare in Finland and the Association of Finnish Local and
Regional  Authorities.  The  aim  of  the  project  is  to  use  practical  experiments  to  develop  co-operation
and service models for psychosocial services for children and young people. The project promotes co-
operation between NGOs, the public sector and private service providers, and cross-sector co-operation
between the social welfare, health care and education authorities.
Teen  parents  support  initiative:  a  pilot  initiative  implemented  progressively  since  1999  as  part  of
National Child care Investment Strategy. The following supports are offered: support with parenting;
provision of information on a range of issues including income supports, health services, education and
training; access to group supports and one to one support.
The aim of this project in the province of Campobasso is to assist families at risk of social exclusion
who for a variety of reasons find it difficult to maintain a peaceful family  environment and  properly
manage  relations  between  parents  and  children,  building  up  around  them  a  solidarity  network  and
implementing social action in order to make foster care and institutionalisation ever less of a necessity.
This  is  an  innovative  package,  providing  £24  million  from  2001  to  2004,  to  assist  lone  parents  into
further and higher education through supporting additional childcare costs and childcare supply.

142

To help the
most
vulnerable

 
Title of Measure

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

Member
State

France

Germany

Spain

Greece

New migrants
integration

Anti-Discrimination
Training Measures in
Public
Administrations
Berlin

Inter Cultural
Social Mediation
Service (SEMSI)

Investing in
Services: The Help
at Home
Programme

Italy

"The Elderly
Project"

Denmark

Drug Abuse

12. TO HELP THE MOST VULNERABLE
12.1. IMMIGRANTS

Creating  a  true  public  service  for  foreigners  legally  settling  for  a  long  period,  pushing  forward  an
integration  policy,  fighting  against  any  form  of  intolerance.  Interministerial  action  programme  for
integration of foreigners: help platform  managed by  International  Migration  Office  (OMI);  Guidance
and  support  for  newcomers  and  integration  contracts;  services  benefit  (language  courses,  pre-
professional orientation, link with employment public service, information…)
The  aim  of  the  project  “Berlin  –  City  of  Diversity”  is  to  equip  the  administration  in  the  fields  of
education  and  health  with  diversity  and  anti-discrimination  qualifications  in  order  to  promote  equal
treatment and the eradication of discrimination. This applies not only  with  regard  to immigrants,  but
also to all minority groups. A change in the attitude of the administration’s employees to members of
minorities in their capacities as customers and as colleagues is to be achieved.
This is a public service which favours people living together in inter-cultural situations and working in
new social relationship systems constructed on the basis of cultural diversity and the richness entailed
by multi-cultural environments.

12.2. ELDERLY PEOPLE
The objective is: "That the elderly and disabled should be able to remain in their familiar physical and
social environment; that the cohesion of their family should be preserved; that the use of institutional
care should be avoided, as should situations of social exclusion; that they should be ensured a decent
and healthy life and that the quality of their life should be improved ". Each service provision unit in
the programme consists of a social worker, who is responsible for co-ordinating the programme, one or
two  nurses  and  one  to  three  home  helps  or  community  carers.  These  people  apply  the  principles  of
team work and community planning.
The  Fondazione  del Monte  di  Bologna  e  Ravenna  launched  the  Elderly  Project  three  years  ago.  The
project  includes  a  vast  programme  of  home  care  for  non  self-sufficient  old  people  living  in  the
provinces  of  Bologna  and  Ravenna  and  has  the  two-fold  aim  of  letting  the  elderly  stay  in  their  own
home while relieving families of the burden of constant care and assistance thus making it possible for
them to stay near to their loved ones.

12.3. DRUG MISUSERS
To minimise the incidence of new drug misusers and limit existing  misusers' abuse. To reinforce the
access  to  relevant  treatment(care,  support,  training,  residential  accommodation  and  employment).  A
social treatment guarantee for misusers introduced on 1 January 2003, obligating regional authorities to
offer  social  treatment  within  14  days.  A  committee  of  ministers  has  set  up  to  prepare  a  strategy  for
reinforced efforts in combating drug misuse.

143

 
Member
State
Sweden

Title of Measure

Drug Prevention
activities in the
largest cities

Denmark

Portugal

Violence against
Women
Anti-Poverty
Programme"PCLP"

Denmark

France

Legal Protection of
the socially
vulnerable
Access to rights
and public
administration
policy

United
Kingdom

The Community
Legal Service
(England and
Wales)

Belgium

Dialogue and
partnership
promotion

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

The purpose is to work in partnership to find an appropriate balance between preventive measures, care
and  treatment  and  measures  to  limit  the  supply  of  drugs.  The  project  will  be  implemented  in  four
priority areas; Schools; Risk environments, e.g. restaurants and places of entertainment, and support for
young  people  at  risk;  New  arrangements  for  support  for  and  treatment  of  young  misusers;  Care  and
support for long-term misusers.

12.4. OTHER VULNERABLE GROUPS
Combating violence against women, through bringing the violence 'into the open', preventing violence,
setting up services for both victims and abusers and making them visible.
Stimulation,  co-ordination,  monitoring  and  assessment  of  local  multi-dimensional  projects  aimed  at
combating poverty and social exclusion. It is planned to promote these fundamental actions with a view
to  change  the  exclusion  situation  and  the  social  marginalization  of  certain  groups  that  are  more
vulnerable to poverty and exclusion.

13. ACCESS TO RIGHTS AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Legal  protection  project –  'Reaching  out  to  users'  in  the  City  of  Copenhagen  to  establish  contacts  to
people who do not ask for help and who may not be motivated to become involved in and use public
services
Improvement of the quality of services rendered to the disadvantaged people policy through measures
and process such as: simplifying administrative language of the application forms with the participation
of  users;  development  of  multipurpose  initial  reception;  Internet  portal  of  social  services  allowing
professionals to give multipurpose initial practical information on rights (shared information network,
simulation  software  estimating  potential  entitlements…);  definition  of  a  standard  of  quality  of  the
reception  in  social  welfare  organisations  (office  layout,  confidentiality,  training  of  personnel…);
deadlines to respond to a query…
The  focus  of  the  Community  Legal  Service  (CLS)  is  the  type  of  legal  problems  that  most  affect
people's  lives.  These  include  such  problems  as  housing,  debt,  employment,  welfare  benefits,
community  care,  discrimination,  immigration,  mental  health,  and  consumer  disputes.  The  CLS
provides  the  framework  for  local  networks  of  legal  and  advice  services  known  as  CLS  Partnerships
(CLSP's).  CLSPs  bring  together  the  local  funders  (such  as  local  authorities,  the  Legal  Services
Commission  etc)  and  local  providers  of  services  (Citizens  Advice  Bureaux,  Law  Centres,  private
solicitors etc).

14. PROMOTING DIALOGUE AND PARTNERSHIP
"Flamish Poverty Decree": dialogue and partnership promotion between all actors, public authorities,
social  services,  those  who  are  excluded  and  all  citizens.  Working  with  all  relevant  actors  in  the
implementation of policies that concern them.

144

Justice

Justice,
Employment,
immigration

 
Member
State

Title of Measure

Yearly  Report  on
Poverty (Bruxelles)

Finland

Citizens' Welfare
Network (HYVE)

Co-operation model
for the prevention
of Social
Exclusion,
Jyväskylä
East Helsinki local
working model for
preventing social
exclusion,
Mellunkylä
Local Government
Anti-Poverty
Learning Network

Ireland

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

In  Brussels,  the  Observatory  for  Health  and  Social  Affairs  produces  yearly  reports  and  provides
technical assistance to initiatives of the regional government. A Decree of the Brussels Parliament (8th
June  2000)  stipulates  that  the  reports  must  be  discussed  in  a  Round  Table  with  delegates  from  the
Parliament, the public welfare centres (CPAS), municipalities and NGOs. These debates have resulted
in various resolutions of the Brussels Parliament.
HYVE is a regional welfare-boosting model in which one or more local authorities co-operate with the
Finnish Federation for Social Welfare and Health, its regional associations and other local actors. The
work is based on the social situation, needs, problems and challenges in the relevant area. The aim is to
produce  welfare  services  and  support  through  co-operation  in  which  the  work  of  public-sector
professionals  is  linked  to  third-sector  and  NGO  work.  This  linkage  is  done  by  developing  network
models which not only combat threats and risks but also actively reform service concepts and welfare
service structures.
In the Jyväskylä model, the basic strategy for the prevention of social exclusion involves marshalling
local forces and launching joint projects. Involved in the projects are the City social welfare and health
authorities and other authorities, the employment office, the Social Insurance Institution, the university,
the polytechnic and organisations. The joint projects each have their own target group (e.g. the long-
term unemployed, immigrants, those with mental health problems).
The district suffers from high long-term unemployment, a large number of immigrants and a low level
of  income  and  education.  The  model  is  based  on  the  City’s  own  basic  services.  Because  social
exclusion is closely linked to an accumulated variety of shortcomings in living conditions, the model
has a broad-based approach: all aspects of life, from everyday concerns to the living environment and
culture, are considered important.
A network between local authorities created by the Combat Poverty Agency (CPA) which is a State agency with
a  statutory  remit  to  fight  poverty  and  social  exclusion  through  providing  advice  to  Government,  conducting
research and developing innovative approaches to tackling poverty. The purpose of the network is to encourage
and facilitate practical changes within local authorities so as to enhance their capacity to promote social inclusion
and anti-poverty measures. Services provided to Network members include: access to commissioned research on
poverty and social exclusion; regular newsletters for local authority staff and members highlighting good practice
and  new  initiatives;  monthly  electronic  briefs  (e-bulletins)  exchanging  ideas  and  information;  regular  quarterly
meetings  for  exchanging  information  and  enhancing  skills;  training  on  how  to  target  and  tackle  poverty
effectively;  evaluation  support  for  new  projects;  guidance  on  the  facilitation,  participation  and  consultation  of
communities; support and resources on community development; and grants to develop joint initiatives between
communities and local authorities.

Immigrants
Health
Employment

Immigrants
Employment
Education

Territorial/
Regional
Dimension

145

 
Member
State
Italy

Portugal

Sweden

Title of Measure

Creation of a
Services and
Planning Centre for
social exclusion
(Provincial
Administration of
Potenza)
The Social
Network
Programme: to
tackle poverty and
social exclusion.
A pilot project
systematically
linking social
services, higher
education and
research

Summary

Related
Topic Areas

The Inter-institutional action to identify the most suitable initiatives for dealing with the economic and
social  problems  in  the  province  of  Potenza  through  the  involvement  of  all  the  various  responsible
parties. A statistical-information based system which makes possible to outline social emergencies in
the city and monitor development in view of the creation of a Services and Planning Centre for Social
Inclusion.

Local  Mobilisation  of  all  relevant  stakeholders  and  public  authorities  to  tackle  poverty  and  social
exclusion. To put in place at a local level plans for participation processes based on social diagnostic;
in  order  to  promote  partnership  with  public  bodies  and  associations  with  a  view  to  seek  the  most
appropriate solutions to provide essential services and equipment; improving widespread knowledge.

The purpose of the project is to integrate the delivery of local social services into social work, social
service care programmes and social science research. The aim is to develop new arrangements for co-
operation between research, education and work in the field based on the practical social work being
done in one or more local authority areas.

Education
Health

146

 
PART II – THE MEMBER STATES

147

 
BELGIUM

Situation and key trends: The difficult economic situation since 2001 has resulted in
a  rise  in  long-term  and  youth  unemployment  which  has  offset  the  impact  of  the
Belgian  government to  implement its  Active Welfare State  programme.  Despite  this,
Belgium  has  combined  improvements  in  social  protection  with  active  labour  market
measures.  In  2001,  13%  of  the  population  were  at  risk  of  poverty,  the  EU  average
being  15%.  Without  all  transfers,  this  rate  would  have  been  38%.  A  new  Federal
government took office recently and an updated NAP is to be published in April 2004.

Progress  made  2001-2003:  Of  the  300  measures  in  the  2001  NAP,  two-thirds  have
been carried out or are in preparation though a quantitative assessment is difficult. An
improved system of indicators is in place which will help in setting strategic priorities
in the future. A big political effort has been made to make the transfer from benefits to
work  more  attractive  with  targeted  measures  to  help  vulnerable  groups.  In  health
policy,  progress  has  been  made  through  innovations  in  care  provision.  The  situation
regarding  housing  however  is  becoming  increasingly  difficult  for  those  on  low
incomes and achievements in this area are unclear. Efforts have been made to improve
funding for educational priorities but financial barriers remain for many and Lifelong
Learning  remains  underdeveloped.  Anti-discrimination  actions  have  taken  place  and
there are new agencies to monitor equality questions.

Strategic  approach:  Belgium  espouses  an  approach  based  on  the  ten  fundamental
rights  laid  down  in  the  1995  General  Report  on  Poverty,  combined  with  the  Nice
objectives and an improved set of indicators. However, the NAP itself does not show
much evidence of strategic planning at national level although it appears to have taken
place in the Regions. An integrated monitoring system may help to evaluate the impact
of  NAP  actions.  Key  targets  and  quantified  objectives  are  difficult  to  track  but  are
promised  in  the  updated  NAP  due  next  April.  The  institutional  setting  for  civil
dialogue  is  well-developed  in  Belgium  and  could  be  better  exploited  for  the  NAP.
There  is  nevertheless  evidence  of  fresh  thinking  and  preparedness  to  broach  new
policy areas and this NAP represents a real progression from the 2001 exercise.

Key  policy  measures:  While  many  measures  continue  the  "Active  Welfare  State
Strategy"  there  are  measures  on  access  to  justice  and  culture,  rights  of  a-typical
families, and attempts to tackle the problems of the most vulnerable. Gender issues are
covered in a patchwork of measures rather than a strategic approach but the indicator
system  gives  much  new  data  with  which  to  develop  one.  Immigration  issues  are
addressed  to  a  degree.  Serious  efforts  are  underway  to  face  up  to  over-indebtedness
among the poor.

Challenges  ahead:  The  drift  into  long-term  unemployment  remains  relatively  high
and  jobless  households  remain  a  key  concern.  Housing  remains  an  area  where  more
innovative measures are urgently needed. The performance of the  monitoring system
for  the  impact  of  policy  measures  and  target  setting  could  be  improved.  A  start  has
been made in developing a multi-dimensional,  coherent  approach  to  social  exclusion
and  the  task  now  is  to  build  on  this,  including  by  better  exploiting  Belgium's  solid
institutional setting for social inclusion policy design.

148

 
1.

Situation and key trends

With only 0.7% of GDP growth in 2002, Belgium has been through an economic slow-down
since  2000.  Though  economic  activity  is  now  forecast  to  recover  slightly,  its  effects  on  the
labour  market  will  be  felt  with  a  time-lag.  Unemployment  rose  in  2001  and  2002  and  is
forecast to rise again this year to 7.8%. Employment rates in Belgium are still below the EU
average especially for women and even more so for older workers. There is an exceptionally
low rate of employment for the age group 55 to 64 years, 26.3% compared to the EU average
of 37.8% (2000). National data (RVA-ONEM) out in September 2003 indicate that long-term
unemployment, while it has fallen significantly since 1995, is rising once  more, particularly
for women and young people. In spite of a comprehensive activation strategy, the percentage
of people living in jobless households remains the highest in the EU at 16.5%. The Belgian at
risk of poverty rate (13%) is somewhat lower than the EU average (15%). The situation is not
uniform across all groups of the population with over-65s at 26% in 2001 appearing worse off
than the EU average of 19% and women  generally being worse off than men. Single parent
households  and  young  adults  living  alone  fare  worse  than  others  at  25%.  The  unemployed
have an overall rate of 32%.

Belgium has a well-developed social protection system and the dilemma of the fight against
poverty on the one hand and the removal of inactivity traps on the other has been one of the
key  policy  issues.  While  spending  on  social  protection  in  real  terms  has  risen  by  2.75%
between  1999  and  2000,  it  is  following  the  EU  pattern  of  falling  as  a  percentage  of  GDP
(down  to  26.7  in  2000  from  27.4  in  1999  and  just  below  EU  average  of  27.3).  However,
without  all  transfers,  Belgium  would  see  a  risk-of-poverty  rate  of  40%.  In  a  country  where
early retirement is common and at a time of poor economic growth, continuing to provide a
quality social protection system for an ageing population will be an increasing challenge.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP-inclusion

The  Administration  set  up  a  detailed  monitoring  system  for  300  measures  but  due  to  a
problem of timing it has proved difficult to keep up to date. The improved Belgian system of
indicators  is  now  in  place  and  will  be  useful  to  evaluate  long-term  trends  but  a  real
quantitative assessment of the last NAP is not yet possible.

An important element of the last NAP was the great political effort to combat inactivity traps
at  the  same  time  as  raising  minimum  incomes  to  alleviate  rising  poverty.  Benefits  are
increasingly  linked  to  activation,  not  always  without  controversy,  and  targeted  fiscal  and
parafiscal measures have been taken to make work more attractive. In the period 1999-2002,
the number of guaranteed minimum income recipients decreased by 13.4% while the number
of  recipients  in  activation  measures  rose  by  57%,  a  real  achievement  in  adverse  economic
circumstances.  Belgium  has  been  allocated  EUR  69.1  million  for  activation  from  the
European Social Fund for the period 2000-2006.

The Belgian health-care and health insurance  system are of  high  quality  though  inequalities
remain. The  last  NAP  set  out  to  tackle  this  by,  amongst  other  things,  the  Maximum  Health
Bill  which  reimburses  excess  expenses  by  use  of  the  most  advanced  tools  of  e-government
and this is now operational. Policies on education concentrated on countering school drop-out
rates  and  smoothing  transition  to  work  and  some  good  initiatives  planned  in  the  last  NAP
have taken place though little  progress has been  made in reducing  the cost of  education for
parents. While access to decent, affordable housing was clearly an issue for intervention, the
NAP's intentions were not ambitious and the achievements are unclear.

149

 
It  has  become  clear  that  unemployment  among  immigrants  may  not  simply  be  the  result  of
low  education  and  efforts  are  being  made  through  the  employment  services  to  prevent
discrimination  by  employers.  There  have  been  educational  priority  measures  favouring
immigrant  children  and  there  is  also  a  wide-ranging  new  anti-discrimination  law.  The
question  of  asylum  seekers  and  the  situation  of  those  without  proper  papers  remains  very
controversial. As the tight schedule did not allow for the intensive time-consuming process of
consultation  with  the  victims  of  social  exclusion,  the  first  NAP  was  seen  as  a  top-down
exercise. Since the last NAP, there has been a participatory evaluation research on health and
task-forces  on  indicators  and  NAP  actions  involving  stakeholders.  It  will  be  important  to
reflect their work in the follow-up to the 2001 NAP due in April 2004.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The  federal  structure  is  respected  by  presenting  all  initiatives  on  a  Region  by  Region  basis
throughout.  Unfortunately  this  results  in  a  reporting  exercise  rather  than  a  truly  strategic
approach. To the extent that there is an explicit overall strategy, the NAP espouses a  rights-
based  approach  to  poverty  prevention  (taken  from  Belgium's  1995  General  Report  on
Poverty) with the explicit involvement of all actors. The most striking difference between the
first  and  second  NAP  is  undoubtedly  the  extension  of  its  scope  to  nearly  all  dimensions  of
social life, even though employment very much continues to dominate. Important new areas
include  justice,  culture,  sports  and  leisure,  family  policy.  The  new  NAPs  outline  has
contributed to a thorough reflection on priority groups such as the homeless, children in care,
victims of human trafficking, illiterate persons and other very vulnerable groups.

Targets are more difficult to track as they are not treated systematically through the document
but  are  to  be  listed  in  a  separate  document,  not  yet  available.  As  regards  the  budget
implications and the link with the Social Fund, the NAP occasionally mentions some figures
but refers to the monitoring system for  further details. The NAP shows that important work
has been done in  the field  of indicators to provide a multi-dimensional view.  The statistical
annex provides very interesting data combining living conditions and at risk of poverty rates.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

There is a dense list of measures put forward under the overall schema with all the Regions
being mentioned under each heading used. There are a number of measures to increase access
to the labour market including support for the social economy, many of which will serve to
reinforce  actions  already  taking  place,  including  those  under  the  Employment  Process.  An
increase in net benefits for various target groups is promised, while speeded up payments to
benefit recipients and simplified procedures are promised under the 'Kafka' plan.

Access  to  justice  has  received  attention  from  the  newly  elected  government  and  there  are
several  commitments  covering  access,  speed,  young  people  before  the  courts  and  victim's
rights. In keeping with the overall rights-based approach, there is an effort to tackle access to
culture, particularly for children and vulnerable groups. The chapter on family policy shows
concern for the rights of a-typical households. A more strategic approach to excluded families
to prevent their children being taken into care has been set up but monitoring its impact will
be  important.  The  NAP  has  a  section  on  literacy,  on  Lifelong  Learning  as  a  bridge  to  the
labour market and some interesting new measures on e-inclusion. Some actions to counteract
school failure and early drop-out appear,  as well as movement towards integration of pupils
with special needs into mainstream education. For health, the Maximum Health Bill scheme is
to be widened.

150

 
The NAP recognises  that  the  supply of  social housing is far from meeting  demand and that
urgent efforts will have to be made find innovative and effective ways to address the problem
through the private sector.  Action has  been  taken to deal  with  the  issue  of  people  living  on
camp-sites.  Other  specific  measures  include  the  guarantee  of  a  basic  electricity  supply  in
Flanders while on a Federal level there is a service dealing with debts related to energy costs.
Other actions to reduce over-indebtedness include obliging financial institutions to keep track
of all clients' other loans, a move which shows the administration's determination to face the
problem.

5.

Gender perspective

Single parents, mostly women, were identified as a target group in the last NAP. Since then,
the government has improved the system to ensure payment of child support. Participation of
mothers  in  the  work-force  depends  in  part  on  affordable,  quality  child-care  and  while  there
has been increased provision, supply remains far less than demand. Indicators for the gender
dimension have been dealt with extensively and should be useful in devising a more strategic
approach to the overlaps between gender equality and social inclusion the future, while they
do not seem to have been used for that purpose here. There is a patchwork of special measures
for  women  in  various  fields  such  as  literacy,  social  and  health  care  and  fresh  efforts  are
underway to  increase child-care places.  An  Institute for  Equality between  Women  and  Men
has been created.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The immediate challenge will be to fulfil the promises of the active welfare state: more jobs
and  better  social  protection.  The  national  Employment  Conference  of  September  2003  has
shown the tension between reducing employment costs and maintaining the financial stability
of social protection. Employment continues to be seen as the key to social inclusion but the
NAP  does  not  really  include  a  strategic  response  to  new  trends  or  give  key  quantitative
targets. Though there is a detailed monitoring system in place, results are not yet available.

Decent,  affordable  housing  is  becoming  an  acute  problem  for  low-income  households  in
Belgium.  Care  will  have  to  be  taken  that  the  liberalisation  of  the  energy  market  does  not
further increase the disadvantage of those in poor housing. Belgian over-65s appear worse off
in income terms than the EU average while all other age groups are better off and in an ageing
society this figure must be of concern. While the current health-care system gives coverage to
most of the population, health outcomes are far from equal. The benefits of Lifelong Learning
are  not  only  linked  to  the  labour  market  but  there  is  extremely  unequal  participation  in
Belgium which is worrying for the future.

There  is  a  solid  institutional  setting  as  regards  inclusion  policy  design  with  the  Resource
Centre  for  the  fight  against  Poverty  which  involves  many  stakeholders,  and  the  Inter-
ministerial Conference, as well as Task Forces. However, these had little direct influence in
drafting the NAP and none at all were mobilised for gender issues. All concerned agree that
the  first  steps  have  been  taken  but  that  there  is  some  way  to  go  before  there  is  genuine
participation in the NAP process. That being said, a real start has been has been made in the
development of a genuine multi-dimensional approach to social inclusion and there is visibly
fresh thinking going on at administrative level. The challenge now becomes to build on these
initiatives to improve the interaction of different policy areas affecting social inclusion.

151

 
DENMARK

Situation  and  key  trends:  The  Danish  social  system  is  based  on  the  principle  of
universality.  All  residents  are  guaranteed  fundamental  rights  if  they  experience  social
problems such as unemployment, sickness or dependency. While it is legislation at national
level  that  determines  social  policy,  it  is  local  tax-collecting  authorities  who  actually
implement a large share of the social activities. Hence, it is the municipalities who, out of
their  own  budgets  –  with  varying  degrees  of  co-financing  by  the  state  –  pay  the  benefits,
develop and agree a personal social plan with the client and decide on the level of money set
aside  to  implement  the  national  government  structures  and  administrative  support.  The
Danish  model  is  based  to  a  large  extent  on  a  culture  of  ‘partnership’  characterised  by  the
involvement  of  social  partners,  the  local  authorities  and  other  relevant  organisations,
including user organisations. Denmark is among the Member States with the lowest risk of
monetary  poverty  and  a  more  equal  income  distribution.  However,  the  data  on  life
expectancy  situates  Denmark  at  the  bottom.  Moreover,  the  increase  in  life  expectancy
between 1960 and 2000 was the lowest in EU15.

Progress made in 2001-2003: The overall objective of the first national action plan was the
promotion of a more inclusive labour market. The creation of flexible and sheltered working
arrangements, the anticipatory pension scheme and the introduction of the 'working capacity
method' are the main  achievements in these fields. The local co-ordination committees are
expected to play a pivotal role in implementation. However, it would have been useful if the
second NAP had included a more comprehensive overall evaluation of the attainment of the
aims set out in the first NAP.

Strategic  approach:  In  the  second  NAP,  there  is  a  more  specific  focus  on  the  most
disadvantaged groups than there was in the first national action plan in 2001. Comparing the
first  and  second  NAP,  the  first  had  a  broader  policy  approach  and  a  greater  focus  on  the
positive effects that the active social policy and open labour market might have in reducing
social  exclusion.  The  second  NAP  represents  a  shift,  in  the  sense  that  the  intention  is  to
narrow  the  focus  towards  those  who  are  already  socially  excluded  and  marginalised.  Key
objectives of this plan are to focus on those most in need; to adapt efforts towards individual
needs, to increase user involvement, to strengthen voluntary work, and to maintain the focus
of local authorities on helping these groups.

Key  policy  measures:  A  number  of  initiatives  have  been  taken  to  develop  policies  for
refugees  and  immigrants.  These  include  the  obligation  to  draw  up  a  binding  contract
between newly arrived foreigners and local authorities and to develop a planned integration
programme  focusing  on  increasing  employment.  As  a  further  means  to  reduce  potential
disincentives to work, the rules governing cash assistance have been significantly tightened:
The  social  benefits  to  immigrant  families  during  their  first  seven  years  in  Denmark  have
been reduced to the level of the state grants given to students. The impact of these measures
will have to be closely monitored.

Challenges  ahead:  Denmark  intends  to  increase  the  employment  and  labour  market
participation of ethnic minorities, which is significantly lower than the average. The level of
benefits should not lead to a situation where people base their existence on public support.
The  key  challenge  ahead  is  to  devise  labour  market  tools  –  with  which  efforts  for  ethnic
minorities can be streamlined – in a manner that supports targeted initiatives and incentives.

152

 
1.

Situation and key trends

In 2002, real GDP grew by 2.1% and is expected to continue to increase by a further 0.8% in
2003. Denmark continues to have employment rates well above the EU targets, including for
women  and  older  workers.  However,  employment  in  2002  fell  by  0.6%.  In  2003,
employment is  expected to  decline further  by about 0.6%.  While  the number  of long-term
unemployed  rose  over  the  last  year,  it  is  almost  unchanged  compared  to  2001.  Moreover,
during the 1990s and up to 2001 it has fallen sharply to one of the lowest levels in the EU.
According  to  ESSPROS  data,  Denmark  spends  28.8%  of  its  GDP  on  social  protection
compared to the EU15 average of 27.3% (2000 data). Measured as expenditure per capita in
Purchasing  Power  Standards  (PPS),  the  Danish  expenditure  on  social  protection,  at  7,754
PPS, is the highest of all Member States.

According  to  2001  ECHP  data,  11%  of  the  Danish  population  lived  on  an  income  of  less
than 60% of the median income. Denmark has one of the lowest risks of persistent poverty
in the EU at 5%. This reflects the fact that Denmark has one of the EU’s most even income
distributions.  Immigrants  and  long-term  unemployed  are  over-represented  in  the  lower
income brackets. This tendency might be affected by the above-mentioned reduction of the
cash  assistance  given  to  immigrant  families,  depending  on  the  employment  effects  of  the
reduction.  The  employment  rate  of  people  with  another  ethnic  background  than  Danish
remained at a level of 45% in 2002; the average activity rate was 53%. These figures have
stayed at this level for the last decade.

2.

Assessment of Progress made since the last NAP/inclusion

The NAP points to a number of achievements in the implementation of the objectives of the
first  action  plan:  One  significant  development,  which  formed  part  of  developing  a  more
inclusive labour market, has been the  creation  of  nearly 12,000  new  flexible and  sheltered
working arrangements since 2000, increasing the number from 13,100 to 24,800 in 2002. A
concerted effort, built on partnerships between public bodies and private enterprises, led to
increased employment possibilities for persons who would otherwise be at risk of exclusion
from  the  labour  market  and  subsequent  social  marginalisation.  This  approach  was  further
supported by the reform of the anticipatory pension scheme, which was agreed in 2001. The
introduction from January 2003 of the 'working capacity method' is part of the reform. The
new  method  emphasises  the  actual  capacity  of  the  person,  rather  than  their  limitations.  A
more explicit and shared assessment of the person's capability provides the basis for a more
open  and  direct  dialogue  on  the  person’s  potential  and  labour  market  opportunities.  A
programme  at  national  level  to  change  the  approach  of  social  workers  in  assessing  the
person's social and labour market potential has been initiated, and initial reports indicate that
the method is achieving good results. The effects of the reform, including potential effects
on a number of recipients of anticipatory pension, still remains to bee seen.

The  creation  of  local  co-ordination  committees  has  also  played  an  increasing  role  in
developing  a  more  open  labour  market.  Since  these  committees  were  made  mandatory  in
1999, they  have  played an enhanced role in discussing  and  agreeing on  local initiatives to
increase  working  possibilities  for  those  who  have  difficulties  in  entering  or  remaining  in
employment.  The  co-ordination  committees  are  made  up  of  representatives  of  the  social
partners,  the  disability  organisation,  the  union  of  medical  doctors,  the  public  employment
service, the municipality  and  other  local  social  actors.  Their  role  is  to  discuss  measures  at
local  level  aimed  at  persons  with  limited  abilities  to  work,  preventing  entry  to  or  limiting
retention in the labour market. While the committees have some financial means to support

153

 
their initiatives, and this has strengthened their role, they do not replace public responsibility
but  play  a  supplementary  role  with  the  purpose  of  improving  co-operation  between  the
relevant actors at the labour market.

Initiatives  taken  to  improve  efforts  aimed  at  the  most  disadvantaged  groups,  such  as  the
mentally ill, drug and alcohol abusers and the homeless, include the extension of residential
facilities for mentally ill people and a social treatment guarantee for drug abusers.

The NAP underlines the importance of the ESF in an annex and gives examples of projects
carried  out  with  support  from  ESF.  However,  no  details  on  the  allocation  of  funds  are
provided.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The  shift  of  emphasis  in  the  new  NAP  is  reflected  in  the  action  plan  ‘The  Common
Responsibility’, aimed at co-ordinating efforts towards the most disadvantaged groups (drug
abusers,  families  with  alcohol  abuse,  the  mentally  ill,  the  homeless  and  prostitutes).  The
intention  in  'combating  negative  intergenerational  transmission'  is  to  adopt  a  more
individualised approach directed towards those most at risk, focusing on the responsibility of
the family  and  the  role  of  the  public  institutions.  Clear  expectations,  based  on  measurable
goals of attainment for all children, are to be developed by the public institutions, starting at
kindergarten level with assessment of knowledge of the Danish language. Emphasis is to be
put  on  early  and  targeted  intervention,  improved  early  learning  among  children,  reducing
barriers  in  changing  from  pre-school  to  school  activities,  and  the  development  of  social
competencies  and  increased  focus  on  formal  qualifications  to  break  the  vicious  circle  that
negative  intergenerational  transmission  represents.  However,  the  risk  of  stigmatising  these
children needs to be monitored closely.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

To  increase  incentives  to  work  for  third  country  immigrants,  a  so-called  “waiting  period”
has  been  introduced  in  July  2002.  Onwards,  only  individuals  who  have  been  living  in
Denmark for 7 out of the preceding 8 years are entitled to the full level of social assistance.
If not, they will receive a reduced social assistance. This has been combined with a number
of  initiatives  to  support  education  and  use  of  skills  of  the  immigrants.  Thus,  the
municipalities are responsible for the development of individual action plans for each person
to direct them most expediently into jobs or into training and education. There is a sanction
to  cease  social  assistance  if  a  person  does  not  follow  the  elements  in  the  plan.  Questions
have  been  raised,  how  families,  who  will  receive  support  only  at  the  new  reduced  benefit
level for a period of seven years, can find the means necessary to ensure proper integration.
Combating  negative  intergenerational  transmission  is  presented  as  the  key  initiative  in
preventing  the  risks  of  exclusion.  Basic  education  is  seen  as  important  in  this  regard,  and
again, the focus is on more targets and more systematic  competence development. This is,
coupled with a more individualised focus on the pupil, supported by tests and intentions in
order  to  increase  the  focus  on  those  who  have  particular  problems  and  may  need  special
support  measures.  As  for  the  integration  of  refugees  and  immigrants,  there  is  a  strong
normative  element  in the  approach,  emphasising  the  need  to  have  a  close  relationship  and
dialogue with the individual family, and to  ensure that  basic  values in  an open society are
accepted and practised by the pupil and the family. It is a challenge that much of the actual
implementation  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  local  social  workers,  teachers,  kinder  garden
pedagogues,  and  other  individuals  who  are  required  to  change  the  emphasis  of  their
approach.  It  is  important,  how  such  individualised  approaches  can  be  introduced,  while  at

154

 
the same time, reducing other social costs to keep local social budgets in balance. There is a
change in focus towards helping the most vulnerable groups. The effort will concentrate on
giving the weakest groups a meaningful life, to reflect and respect the weakest groups’ own
needs  and  wishes,  and  to  strengthen  their  possibilities  of  joining  and  contributing  to  the
community. There are an estimated 14,000 drug abusers, some  22,000 mentally ill people,
an  estimated  8,500  homeless  people,  and  an  assessed  5-7,000  prostitutes  in  Denmark.
Intentions  are  to  focus  directly  on  these  people.  The  plan  aims  at  greater  adaptation  to
individual  needs,  increasing  user  involvement,  and  enhancing  legal  protection.  For  the
period 2002-2005 significant resources are set aside to develop new activities. Among these
are  new  treatment  offers  to  drug  abusers,  a  wider  range  of  treatment  offers  for  alcohol
abusers, and  an expansion and improvement in the quality of supports for the mentally ill.
As  for  the  homeless,  the  aim  is  that  local  authorities  will  establish  temporary  residential
facilities  with  300  beds  until  a  sufficient  number  of  permanent  facilities  are  available.  An
additional 75 beds in alternative residential care facilities for drug and alcohol abusers with
immediate care needs is planned.

In Winter 2002/2003, a 'White Paper on Socially Vulnerable Inuits living in Denmark', was
published. Action to support this group is being implemented.

The establishment of the Council for Socially Disadvantaged People in April 2002 marked a
new development, which will underpin the aims in the plan ‘The Common Responsibility’.
This Council for Socially Disadvantaged People was established as an independent body to
monitor developments in the country and the effects of government policy. The Council will
act  as  an  advisor  on  policy-making  regarding  socially  marginalised  people.  The  gradual
development of the role of the local co-ordination committees has also meant that the debate
about  a  socially  inclusive  labour  market  has  now  reached  the  local  level,  where  the
initiatives  are  most  likely  to  be  successful.  Finally,  Denmark  has  a  long  tradition  of  co-
operation  between  voluntary  associations  and  the  public  sector  in  social  matters.  Further
initiatives have been taken to strengthen voluntary social work, amongst others, through the
agreement  on  the  charter  on  co-operation  between  the  voluntary  sector  and  the  public
authorities.

5.

Gender perspective

Overall, the government aims at targeting the initiatives in the reintegration effort, according
to  the  different  marginalisation  patterns  of  both  genders,  for  example  more  men  are
homeless  than  women.  Other  gender-based  initiatives  include  increased  support  to  female
victims of violence and a new action plan to prevent trafficking and to support its victims.

6.

Current Issues and Future Challenges

There is broad consensus as to the importance of attaining the target to significantly increase
employment by 2010 in order to ensure sustainable public finances in the face of the ageing
population.  The  Government  has  announced  the  establishment  of  a  Welfare  Commission,
which  is  required  to  put  forward  suggestions  for  major  reforms  in  the  social  benefits  and
policies by November 2005.

The municipalities and the counties are responsible for the major part of the implementation
of  government  objectives.  Budgets  are  currently  under  restrictions  from  the  central
government, but new initiatives are combined with resources allocated to the municipalities.

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GERMANY

Situation  and  key  trends:  A  comprehensive  social  protection  system  ensures  that,
according  to  the  ECHP,  Germany  is  among  the  Member  States  with  the  lowest  at-risk-of-
poverty rate. In 2001, 11% of the population lived in households below the national poverty
line and 6% were persistently under the risk of poverty. However, national data show higher
poverty  rates  in  the  Eastern  Länder  (16%  against  10%  in  the  Western  Länder)  and  for
holders of foreign passports (22% against 10% for Germans).

Progress made in 2001-2003: The Job-AQTIV Law, and the four laws for the promotion of
employment  and  reform  of  the  financial  support  for  the  unemployed  (Hartz  I-IV),  are
presented  as  responses  to  the  main  labour  market  challenges.  The  goal  to  reduce
unemployment among the disabled people by 25 % has almost been reached. Poverty in old
age, and for people unable to work, is addressed more effectively through the introduction of
a basic security system. The programme  'Social Town' has continued to act in overcoming
complex disadvantages in life. Some progress has been achieved in terms of monitoring and
evaluation of the implementation of the first NAP and this could be further strengthened and
developed during the implementation of the 2003 NAP.

Strategic approach: The NAP sets a target to secure the active participation of all citizens
in social life. This is to be achieved through education and employment policy, better work-
life balance, as well as appropriate social services. It links the establishment of a sustainable
strategy to fight poverty to four political objectives: improvement of people's capabilities to
lead  the  kind  of  live  they  value,  minimisation  or  prevention  of  poverty  risks  and  social
exclusion,  strengthening  personal  responsibility  and  existing  potentials,  and  making  social
security  poverty-proof.  The  NAP  also  tries  to  establish  a  link  with  the  'Report  on  Poverty
and Wealth' in order to establish an analytical and empirical framework for a policy against
social exclusion.

Key  policy  measures:  The  NAP  sets  out  a  programme  of  aims.  However,  there  is  a
commitment to assess the  potential  social  exclusion  risks  and  of  the  inclusion  potential  of
the  different  political  fields  (Agenda  2010,  reform  of  the  tax  system  etc.)  with  a  view  to
poverty  proofing  once  the  measures  have  been  implemented.  The  importance  of  local  and
regional  social  policy  and  the  interrelated  distribution  of  competencies  are  rightly  pointed
out.  However,  it  remains  unclear  whether,  and  to  what  extent,  the  regular  consultation
processes  on  both  horizontal  and  vertical  levels  referred  to,  are  actually  developed  to  the
required degree. This aspect is particularly important, because the multidimensional poverty
situation requires a fully integrated approach.

Challenges  ahead:  The  NAP  makes  it  clear  that  active  participation  in  working  life  is  of
key significance and emphasises the existing social security system's safeguarding function.
There  will  be  important  future  challenges  in  ensuring  that  the  system  can  continue  to  be
sustainable in order to perform this function effectively. The problems acknowledged in the
NAP regarding gaps in coverage of the basic social protection system need to be addressed.
Existing  regional  disparities  and  the  problems  of  exclusion  among  immigrants  need  to  be
tackled. The four objectives of a sustainable strategy identified in the NAP to fight poverty
need to become more operational.

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1.

Situation and key trends

In 2002, real GDP grew by 0.2% and is expected to remain unchanged in 2003. Employment
growth in 2002 was negative at -0.6%.  In 2003, employment is expected to decline further
by about 1.5%.  In  2002,  the  overall employment rate  declined  by  0.5  percentage points to
65.3%.  The  employment  rate  of  women  remained  unchanged  (58.8%).  The  overall
unemployment  rate  has  increased  to  8.6%  in  2002  and  is  expected  to  increase  further  to
9.4% in 2003. In 2002, unemployment was more than twice as high in the East than in the
West. According to ESSPROS data, Germany spends 29.5% of its GDP on social protection
compared with the EU15 average of 27.3% (2000 data). Measured as expenditure per capita
in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS), the German expenditure on social protection, at 7.025
PPS, is above the EU15 average of 6.155 PPS.

As  main  challenges,  the  NAP  identifies  persistent  unemployment,  the  lack  of  educational
and  vocational  qualifications,  insufficient  reconciliation  of  work  and  family  life,  health
impairments  and  finally  immigration.  It  sees  a  challenge  in  further  development  of  the
existing level of social protection, in the face of social and demographic changes.

2.

Assessment of Progress made since the 2001 NAPs/inclusion

The  NAP  claims  progress  in  fighting  social  exclusion  during  2001  –  2003  referring  to
numerous  employment  policy  measures.  Success  is  also  stated  in  social  environments  to
prepare immigrants and young people for a job. However, empirical evidence, for instance
from the JUMP programme fighting youth unemployment, shows that the participation rate
of holders of foreign passports continued to decrease despite a commitment in the last NAP
to equal participation of immigrants in training and qualification measures. A new regulation
in  the  pension  laws  improved  pension  entitlements  for  people  working  part-time  whilst
bringing up children. The  reform  of social housing  construction,  focussing  on  low-income
households, has been completed. Measures for better protection for over-indebtedness have
been  taken.  Since  the  start  of  the  new  Structural  Funds  programmes  in  2000,  ESF  –
including EQUAL –payments to Germany (Bund and Länder) to fight social exclusion have
already amounted to more than EUR 650 million. In addition, more than EUR 1.750 million
of  ESF  support  for  active  labour  market  policies  in  ESF  Policy  Field  A  has  already  been
paid to Germany. A considerable part was aimed at preventing the risk of social exclusion.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The  NAP  develops  a  broad-ranging  strategic  approach,  which  no  longer  confines  the
strategy  to  participation  in  the  labour  market  above  all,  but  extends  it  to  four  aspects:
education;  employment;  family  and  social  protection.  Nevertheless,  the  approaches  of
political  action  are  still  strongly  geared  towards  an  increase  of  participation  in  gainful
employment.  A  system  of  'basic  security'  is  pledged,  with  gaps  and  barriers  to  access  to
social protection to be identified and reduced. The central importance of social protection is
to  be  preserved  and  adapted  to  new  demands  in  terms  of  sustainability,  justice  between
generations and the reliability of the system for coping with the most important risks in life.
People  who  are  particularly  disadvantaged,  and  whom  the  welfare  state  has  considerable
difficulty reaching are identified as a target group. Important headway, in comparison with
the  first  NAP,  is  that  for  a  number  of  measures  and  problem  areas,  an  evaluation/
accompanying  research  is  reported  or  announced,  including  a  forecast  of  when  results  of
respective projects can be expected.

157

 
As an overall strategy, the NAP defines a broad spectrum of different political approaches,
measures  and  concepts  over  the  short,  medium  and  long-term.  The  strategy  would  benefit
from  better  co-ordination  between  different  authorities.  The  strategy  does  not  lead  to  an
“action plan”, but rather to a conglomerate of measures.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

Key  areas  of  reform  are  unemployment  benefits,  personal  (advice)  services,  and  new
organisational  structures  of  the  Public  Employment  Service,  including  closer  co-operation
with  Social  Welfare  Offices.  All  of  this  is  designed  to  speed  up  the  reintegration  of
unemployed  persons  into  working  life.  At  this  point  in  time,  the  benefits  and  costs  of
proposed reforms can only be assessed to a limited degree. The impact of both, the soon-to-
be established 'unemployment benefit II' and the better placement efforts in job centres, on
people  at  risk  of  poverty  needs  to  be  closely  monitored.  There  is  a  commitment  to  offer
everybody between 15 and 25 years of age a job or qualification measure, if unemployed. In
the light of the shortage of vocational training places, that has intensified in recent years, the
target  to  cut  the  number  not  having  obtained  vocational  qualifications  by  half  by  2010  is
quite ambitious.

The  federal  Government  wants  to  strengthen  the  integration  process  of  non-German
residents, in particular in the fields of linguistic competence, general pre-school, school and
vocational  education  and  individualised  job  placement  ('profiling').  The  NAP  admits  that
migrants are still disadvantaged  in these  areas.  Even  among  children  and  young  people  of
families of foreign origin having resided in Germany for a long time, the disadvantages in
comparison with German children and young people are still considerable. For example, in
the provision of kindergarten places, school enrolment, attendance at various school types,
including acquired school leaving qualifications, up  to the provision of vocational  training
and university places. Whereas in the NAP 2001-2003 a promise was given to increase the
participation of young migrants in further and continuing education; as well as in measures
aimed  at  vocational  integration  corresponding  to  their  proportion  of  the  unemployed,  this
commitment  has  now  been  dropped.  A  rather  narrow  integration  approach  for  migrants
dominates, comprising mainly language training and continuing education. Equal access of
migrants  to  social  benefits  is  explicitly  stressed.  But,  since  1996,  asylum  seekers  receive
lower social assistance rates during their first three years after their asylum application.

Society is to be made more child-friendly and family-friendly. The effect of the planned tax
reform would be an easing of the burden on poor households, but only, if they have income
from  gainful  employment.  The  abolition  of  the  tax-free  allowance  for  single  parents  will
lead  to  a  heavier  tax  burden.  But  the  government  has  decided  on  a  new  relief  amount  to
compensate for the extra burden of single parents. Families in precarious situations are to be
supported  by  means  of  a  family  poverty  prevention  programme.  The  number  of  children
dependant on public assistance is to be reduced  considerably by 2006. The introduction of
the nursing care insurance indicates progress for social inclusion, but nothing is said about
the problems such as refinancing, under-supply of staffing in old people's care, and gaps in
service  supply  in  the  case  of  dementia.  The  effects  of  the  health  reform  especially  on
chronically ill persons will have to be closely monitored. The need to extend the network of
advice  centres  for  those  in  debt  and  to  keep  working  on  uniform  nation-wide  quality
standards for counselling, involving all bodies is stressed.

The prevention of social exclusion from the knowledge society is to be reached mainly by an
increase of Internet connections in the institutions of youth welfare services. Until 2005, the
proportion of Internet users aged 14 and above is to increase to 70 %.

158

 
The NAP incorporates a few critical and positive remarks of different participants in the first
and second consultation procedure, in particular the demand for better funding of advice for
people in debt. The NAP contents itself with the reference to a co-ordination group between
the  ministries  and  a  pledge  to  pursue  a  dialogue  with  academic  representatives  and  an
established  group  of  advisers.  Information,  sensitisation  and  encouragement  of  a  public
discussion need to be further developed.

5.

Gender perspective

Under  the  first  NAP,  measures  for  better  protection  against  domestic  violence  have  been
taken. In the new NAP, gender mainstreaming is taken into account more strongly. In order
to promote the compatibility of work  and family life, the expansion  of  day-care places for
children below the  age of  three is  reported. The Nuremberg  project  on  poverty  prevention
for single parents is an attempt to bring together measures for the prevention of poverty. The
programme 
target  groups  with  special  demand  for
development', focus on training for young women. The proportion of women in IT jobs is to
increase to 40 %, but the quality of the jobs should be monitored according to the guidelines
of the European Employment Strategy.

'Vocational  qualification  for 

6.

Current Issues and Future Challenges

Together with the reports on poverty, the  NAP is to be made the  'foundation for strategies
for  the  strengthening  of  social  integration  and  the  fight  against  poverty  in  Germany';
however,  concrete  measures  to  achieve  the  four  key  objectives  need  to  be  made  more
operational.  In  particular,  as  regards  labour  market  and  education  policies  and  the
integration of immigrants further initiatives could ensure social cohesion. Existing regional
disparities will have to be tackled. Basic social security coverage serves well the prevention
of  poverty,  but  problems  identified  in  the  NAP  regarding  gaps  in  coverage  should  be
addressed.  The  challenge  of  ensuring  effective  co-ordination  between  various  levels  of
government needs to be further developed. The progress that has been made in ensuring the
ongoing participation of stakeholders in policy formulation in the context of the NAP needs
to be consolidated.

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GREECE

Situation and key trends: Greece has shown a continuous improvement in macroeconomic
conditions  since  1996.  Real  GDP  growth  (4,1%  in  2001  and  4%  in  2002)  continues  to  be
higher than the EU average (1,6% in 2001 and 1% in 2002). Employment growth shows a
modest  increase,  while  the  unemployment  rate  continues  to  decline.  Greece  is  making  a
serious effort to extend  and improve its social  protection  system,  which  is  reflected  in  the
substantial  increase  of  the  social  protection  expenditures  as  a  percentage  of  GDP.  The
poverty rate (20%) is above the EU-15 average (15%) in 2001, although a downward trend
has  emerged  during  the  last  few  years.  The  high  rate  of  growth  in  recent  years  combined
with rising expenditure on social policy and continuing job creation is expected to create an
environment more conducive to tackling the issues of poverty and social exclusion through
suitably designed policy measures.

Progress made in 2001-2003: The measures included in  the  NAPincl  2001-2003  are  now
under  implementation,  partly  financed  by  the  ESF.  Their  degree  of  success  remains  to  be
seen,  though  there  are  indications  that  their  effectiveness  is  improving.  Progress  has  been
made in improving employability measures in favour of the vulnerable groups, accompanied
by an increase in the number of social services provided to dependant household members.
Cash  Benefit  Policy  has  been  extended,  with  the  aim  of  expanding  the  coverage  to  more
groups  at  risk  of  poverty.  Various  legislative  reforms  have  also  taken  place,  and  a
Convergence  Charter  was  adopted  in  September  2003  which  are  aimed  at  increasing  the
effort in this direction.

Strategic approach: The new NAPincl is an integral part of the Greek convergence strategy
with the EU, and considers social protection as a building block of the overall development
path.  Its  strategic  approach  is  based  on:  a)  General  policies,  especially  in  the  area  of
economic  growth  and  structural  change,  to  sustain  the  pace  of  increase  in  social  spending
and redistribution b) Specific policies to address problems of poverty and social exclusion.
Four  strategic  policy  interventions  are  proposed:  (a)  The  countryside;  (b)  The  elderly;  (c)
Promoting  access  to  employment;  and  (d)  Quality  of  governance.  The  major  social  policy
goal  is  to  significantly  reduce  the  number  of  individuals  living  in  conditions  of  risk  of
poverty. To this end, ten national targets are set out to be achieved by 2010.

Key policy measures: The policy approaches and measures of the NAPincl reflect an effort
to strengthen and broader the Social Protection System,. The emphasis given to the need for
better governance is welcome in social policy  related  areas.  The  existing  measures require
improved  mechanisms  for  co-ordination,  monitoring  and  implementation,  especially  at  the
local level. The initiative taken for the establishment of a network of social services at the
local level will partly contribute to improve co-ordination and synergy between programmes
run  by  different  institutions.  The  newly  established  “National  Commission  for  Social
Protection” is the designated single instrument in the NAPs/inclusion for the mobilisation of
all the stakeholders. Its performance has to be closely monitored.

Challenges  ahead:  The  issue  of  mobilisation  of  the  full  range  of  relevant  stakeholders
remains  a  challenge.  The  socio-economic  integration  of  immigrants  constitutes  another
challenge  requiring  multidimensional  policy  approaches  and  sustained  interventions.  Of
crucial importance are the initiatives in the fields of Digital literacy and Life long learning.
In  addition,  persistent  application  of  a  gender  mainstreaming  approach,  and  widening
accessibility to all areas of economic and social life for the various categories of people with
disabilities, need to be strengthened.

160

 
1.

Situation and key trends

Output growth in Greece has been strong since 1996, reflecting a continuous improvement
in macroeconomic conditions. Real GDP growth accelerated in 2000 to 4,2% and continued
at similar levels in 2001 and 2002 (4,1%and 4% respectively). Prospects for 2003 are also
good. These growth rates, far outstrip the EU averages (3,5% in 2000, 1,6% in 2001 and 1%
in 2002). According to  national data total employment growth increased on  a  year to  year
basis by 0,76% in 2002(q2) and by 1,38% in 2003(q2). However, according to Eurostat data,
Greece  has  suffered  negative  employment  growth  change  for  a  third  consecutive  year  in
2002. The total employment rate has been on the increase, thereby modestly closing the gap
to  the  EU  average.  The  relative  gaps  in  employment  rates  are  narrower  once  comparisons
are made on the basis of FTE rates, reflecting the low incidence of part-time employment in
Greece.

Unemployment has been declining since 2000 and is projected to decline further but remains
high in  relation to  the EU-15  average  (9.6%  against  7.6%  in 2002).  It is still concentrated
mainly among the young and women, reflecting a variety of institutional inefficiencies and
structural imbalances. The LTU rate and the youth unemployment rate follow a downward
trend but remain higher than the EU averages. A modest downward trend appears also in the
unemployment rate of women.

Greece  has  been  making  serious  efforts  since  1996  to  extend  and  improve  its  social
protection system in terms of both quantity and quality. Part of this effort is reflected in the
substantial increase of social protection expenditures as a percentage of GDP: from 22,9% in
1990 (against 25,5% EU's average) to 26,4% in 2000 (against a 27,3% EU average), which
shows  a  convergence  to  the  EU  average.  The  poverty  rate  in  Greece  remains  high  (20%
against a EU average of 15% in 2001), although a downward trend has emerged over the last
few years. Taking imputed rent into account would probably imply a lower incidence of the
risk  of  poverty.  The  increase  of  the  labour  force  participation  rate  would  be  necessary  to
pursue this downward trend.

ECHP  data  for  2001  reveal  that  the  impact  of  pensions  and  other  social  transfers  on  the
reduction of the poverty risk is significant (19 percentage points) and rising – without these
the  risk  of  poverty  would  have  been  39%.  However,  it  is  still  lower  than  the  average  EU
impact of such transfers (24 percentage points). The impact due to social transfers other than
pensions was only three percentage points in Greece, whereas the average for EU-15 was 9
percentage  points.  Nevertheless,  even  for  those  not  crossing  the  60%  threshold,  transfers
lead  to  a  significant  improvement  in  incomes.  Greece  has  not  adopted  an  official  poverty
threshold. Although there is not a generalised minimum guaranteed income scheme for the
entire  population,  there  exist  several  categorical  income  benefit  schemes  targeted  to
population  groups  at  greater  risk  (foremost  of  whom  are  elderly,  jobless  and  disabled
people). The coverage of these schemes has been increased and new categories added during
the last years.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 Nap-inclusion

Employment policy towards the social vulnerable groups has shifted significantly during the
last  few  years  in  favour  of  active  measures.  Largely  under  the  influence  of  the  European
Employment  Strategy,  emphasis  has  increasingly  been  placed  on  improving  employability
instead of improving income support measures and other traditional passive policies, while
efforts to establish the preventative and individualised approach are under way. Progress has

161

 
also  been  made  in  increasing  the  number  of  social  services  provided  (day-care,  child-care
centres, help at home etc.) to dependant household members (elderly, disabled persons and
children),  expected,  among  other  things,  to  reconcile  family  life  and  work.  The  EU  co-
financing  of  some  measures  creates  the  preconditions  for  the  transfer  of  actions  to  local
authorities at the end of the co-financing period whereupon the local authorities will have to
secure the financing needed for the continuation of their activities.

Significant  changes  in  social  policy  and  other  related  areas  have  been  underway,  mainly
through legislative reforms and arrangements that have been adopted in recent years. These
are  in  the  right  direction  and,  undoubtedly,  should  contribute,  when  fully  operational,  to
more  efficient  action  for  the  promotion  of  social  inclusion,  and  especially  for  the  socio-
economic integration of the most vulnerable population groups of the Greek society.

A safety net is to be provided by a Cash Benefits Policy, directed to specific groups, taking
into  account  their  special  needs  and,  through  the  use  of  categorical  non-economic
information  minimising  the  dangers  of  dilution.  A  generalised  safety  net  is  considered
impractical and counterproductive at present, due mainly to the uncertainty as to the number
of the eligible beneficiaries. NAPincl 2001 included three new initiatives of income support
measures. After the  initial  phase  during  which  the  number  of  people  covered  was  limited,
the schemes have now been expanded.

Statistical information on the progress of the fulfilment of the four Nice objectives is, by its
nature, hard to acquire on a timely basis. The absence of a detailed progress implementation
report  of  the  measures  included  in  the  first  NAP,  with  proper  related  data  and  indicators,
makes it difficult to provide an accurate implementation assessment.. The monitoring system
foreseen in the first NAP is gradually taking shape. All measures of the NAP are now under
implementation, partly financed by the ESF.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

importance  attributed 

to  safeguarding  social  cohesion  and  highlighting, 

The new NAPincl is part of the Greek convergence to the EU average strategy, underlining
the 
the
developmental role of social policy in the overall Lisbon strategy. Its strategic framework is
based  on:  a)  General  policies,  especially  in  the  area  of  economic  growth  and  structural
change, so as to ensure steady growth, providing the funding for a gradual increase of social
spending  and  redistribution;  and  b)  Specific  policies  to  address  existing  and  emerging
problems of poverty and social exclusion.

Within  this  framework,  four  linked  strategic  areas  of  focussed  policy  interventions  are
proposed.  These  are:  (a)  The  countryside:  eliminating  differences 
in  economic
opportunities  and  quality  of  life  enjoyed  by  urban  and  rural  population  in  the  context  of
integrated  rural  development;  (b)  The  elderly:  securing  income  support  for  those  on  low
pensions  and  promoting  accessibility  to  all  social  services;  (c)  Promoting  access  in
employment: emphasis is placed on five population groups (Women, Older workers, Young
people,  Disabled  people  and  Immigrants),  while  it  considers  critical  the  objectives  of
making work pay and transforming undeclared labour into regular employment; (d) Quality
of governance: entailing four priority issues: strategic intervention; structured dialogue with
civil society; decentralisation of actions; range and quality of services.

A  distinctive  feature  of  this  strategy  is  the  emphasis  placed  on  the  need  for  governance
rather  than  reactive  management.  This  is  to  be  pursued  along  the  following  axes:  co-
ordination  among  policy  sectors;  compatibility  of  objectives  among  the  different  sectors;

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broad  social  consensus  and  joint  efforts  to  achieve  these  objectives;  and  finally,  a
transcending of narrow personal or sectoral interests.

The  major  policy  goal  is  to  significantly  reduce  the  number  of  individuals  living  in
conditions  of  poverty.  To  this  end,  ten  quantified  national  targets  are  proposed  in  areas
crucial to social inclusion. Four of these targets concern improving the position of particular
groups at high risk of poverty, while the rest refer to six other priority areas. The targets are
set for 2010, as the other Lisbon targets, and not for the reference period of the 2003-2005
NAPincl.  Success  in  reaching  the  employment  targets,  in  particular,  is  shown  to  be
indispensable for the social targets.

4.

Key policy approach: strengths and weaknesses

The  new  NAPincl  entails  a  great  variety  of  measures  such  as  cash  benefits,  employment
promotion  and  training  schemes,  social  support  related  programmes,  integrated  actions,
institutional  arrangements  etc.  These  measures  reflect  a  continuation  of  effort  and  a
commitment  to  strengthen  further  the  Social  Protection  System  so  as  to  cope  with
identifiable traditional and  emerging problems and needs in the area  of poverty  and social
exclusion.  At  a  strategic  level,  social  inclusion  is  integrated  in  the  overall  convergence
process  set  out  in  a  Convergence  Charter  adopted  in  September  2003,  while  a  package  of
new social measures complements those in the NAPincl. Particular emphasis is given to the
need for governance, which is particularly important in social policy related areas in Greece.
The existing measures, some of which are being extended and strengthened, require stronger
mechanisms for co-ordination, monitoring and implementation, especially at the local level
which need to be developed The initiative taken for the establishment of a network of social
services  at  the  local  level  will  partly  contribute  to  improve  co-ordination  and  synergy
between  programmes  run  by  different  institutions.  The  newly  established  “National
Commission for Social Protection” is the designated single instrument for the NAPincl for
mobilisation  of  all  the  stakeholders  and  the  promotion  of  structured  dialogue  with  civil
society and mutual assumption of responsibilities between the institutions represented. The
performance of this key Commission has to be closely monitored.

5.

Gender perspective

Certain  priority  criteria  for  women’s  participation  are  being  increasingly  applied  in  recent
years  in  the  majority  of  employment  and  training  schemes,  which  have  led  already  to  an
increase in the share of female participation. Investment projects, involving the provision of
subsidies  exclusively  for  women’s  business  –  start  up  and/or  for  the  modernisation  of
existing  business,  have  been  increasingly  promoted  in  recent  years  and  are  expected  to
continue.  Furthermore,  the  number  of  accompanying  social  services  aiming  at  helping
women  to  reconcile  family  life  and  work  have  also  been  increasing.  The  effectiveness  of
policies will be greatly enhanced if a better co-ordination of individual policy initiatives is
achieved. In particular policy measures aiming at increasing the supply and the demand for
women’s labour need to be better co-ordinated so as to maximise synergies.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The  recent  law  on  “Social  Dialogue  for  the  promotion  of  Employment  and  Social
Protection” is a welcome initiative. Nevertheless, the issue of mobilisation of the relevant
stakeholders  to  enhance  their  participation  and  ensure  co-ordination  of  action  through
structured  dialogue  and  mutual  assumption  of  responsibilities  remains  a  challenge.  It  is
crucial for the Employment and the Social Protection Commissions to operate  correctly in

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order  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  The  socio-economic  integration  of
immigrants constitutes another challenge requiring multidimensional policy approaches and
integrated  sustained  interventions.  The  implementation  of  the  action  plan  on  immigrant
integration  and  the  operation  of  the  Immigration  Policy  Institute  (IMEPO)  are  important
steps to overcome these challenges. Of crucial importance are the initiatives in the fields of
Digital  literacy  and  Life  long  learning  linked  with  present  and  prospective  employment
needs, of vulnerable social groups and to prevent problems emerging in future. Finally, the
emphasis offset in the NAPincl on ensuring a gender mainstreaming approach, as well as
in widening accessibility to all areas of economic and social life  for  various  categories  of
people  with  disabilities  will  need  to  be  pursued  vigorously  over  the  action  plan  period
Finally, the structural adjustment that agriculturally-oriented rural areas are expected to face
requires the continued application of a holistic policy approach to rural development.

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SPAIN

Situation  and  key  trends:  Over  the  past  two  years  the  Spanish  economy  has  maintained
annual  GDP  growth  above  2%,  higher  than  the  EU  average.  The  economic  situation  and
active  employment  policies  have  allowed  the  reduction  of  the  LTU  and  VLTU  rates.  The
situation of women in the  labour market,  although closer to EU  averages,  still  shows  very
high  unemployment  as  compared  to  men,  in  almost  all  age  groups  and  educational  levels.
The  proportion  of  temporary  jobs  (30.2%)  is  still  very  high.  Spain  shows  a  clear  trend  of
convergence  to EU  averages on  employment-related indicators.  However, progress  against
some indicators still lag behind.

Progress made in 2001-2003: Notable advances have been made in extending the strategy
of combating social exclusion to regional and local  governments.  The introduction of new
legislation  (included  as  measures  in  the  first  NAP)  has  set  the  foundation  for  the
development  of  more  concrete  measures,  now  present.  Some  improvements  have  been
recorded  in  co-operation  between  social  and  employment  services,  in  the  provision  of
resources for vulnerable groups and in the area of health policy. However, progress has been
less in other important areas, such as combating school drop-out.

Strategic approach: The Plan describes a comprehensive range of measures although it is
not clear how these are joined-up. One of the strategic weaknesses in the first NAP/incl, lack
of  targets,  continues  to  be  a  problem,  especially  in  the  areas  of  health,  housing  and
education.  The  approach  to  combating  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  centred  on  specific
vulnerable  groups.  Employment  will  continue  to  be  the  main  instrument  for  achieving
inclusion. However, special attention will also be focussed on guaranteeing access to health,
education  and  housing  for  at-risk  groups,  or  those  in  poverty.  It  is  important  to  note  the
target  set  of  a  reduction  by  2%  of  the  number  of  persons  under  the  60%  median  income
threshold.

Key  policy  measures:  The  reduction  in  income  taxes  for  those  with  lower  incomes,
improvements  in  pensions,  and  incentives  to  employers  should,  according  to  the  Spanish
NAP,  consolidate  the  trend  towards  better  results  regarding  income  levels.  Prevention  of
exclusion  is  tackled  through  policies  aimed  at  the  family,  at  regional  imbalances  and  at
reducing  obstacles  to  access  ICTs.  Following  the  first  JIR,  policies  tackling  obstacles  to
labour market participation of women with low social  and  educational levels  (also used in
NAP employment), have been included, as well as financial support to victims of domestic
violence.

Challenges  ahead:  Co-ordination  and  co-operation  among  the  different  administrative
levels  is  still  required  and  the  monitoring  of  progress  at  local  and  regional  level  is  a
challenge.  The foundations  have  been  set  for  some  of  the  key  areas  (such  as  social  health
assistance),  and  mechanisms  for  information  are  now  to  be  developed  and  implemented.
Given the importance of employment as an instrument to achieve social inclusion, there is a
need  to  strengthen  the  participation  of  social  partners.  The  increase  in  the  number  of
immigrants  may  have  the  effect  of  putting  extra  pressures  in  some  social  services  and
benefit schemes if this is not taken into account when drawing up the budget.

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1.

Situation and key trends

Over the past two years the Spanish economy has to maintained annual GDP growth above
2%,  i.e.  above  the  EU  average.  The  most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Spanish  economy
over the past eight years has been the steady decrease in unemployment from 18.8% in 1995
to 11.3% in 2002 (harmonised LFS). Despite a rate that remains one of the highest in the EU
(mainly due to high youth and female unemployment), there has been clear convergence.

These positive employment trends, and the  gradual improvement of pensions, have in  turn
narrowed  some  of  the  gaps  with  the  EU.  Most  income-related  indicators  show  a  path  of
convergence although Spain is still among the EU countries with the highest proportions of
poor lying below the 60% threshold. According to ECHP data for 2001, the risk of poverty
was 19% in Spain.

As  the  Gini  coefficient  shows,  although  there  has  been  an  improvement  in  the  Spanish
figure, the distance to the EU average remains unchanged (32% in Spain and 29% in the EU
in 2000). More importantly, the figures before and after social transfers show that in Spain
the effect of these transfers is weaker.

As  pointed  out  in  the  last  JIR,  Spain  ranks  among  the  countries  with  the  lowest  ratios  of
expenditure  on  social  protection  as  a  percentage  of  GDP:  20%  in  2000  (EU15  at  27.1%).
91% of the social protection budget (83% In the EU) is concentrated on old age, health and
disability and unemployment, leaving only 9% for addressing other needs.

As  regards  non-employment  indicators,  progress  has  been  somewhat  more  mixed.  For
example,  although  there  has  been  a  slight  improvement  since  1995,  Spain  continues  to
display  one  of  the  highest  proportions  of  early  school  leavers.  With  respect  to  the  most
vulnerable groups, there has been a high increase in immigrant population.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP/Inclusion

The  economic  situation  and  advances  in  active  employment  policies  have  allowed  the
reduction of LTU and VLTU rates, although there is still concern over the high proportion
of temporary jobs (30.2%). High regional disparities still persist despite slight improvement.

Under the competence of the regional governments coverage of minimum income guarantee
benefits  has  expanded  and  all  Autonomous  Communities  have  now  their  own  schemes.
There  is  a  trend  to  link  these  benefits  to  employment  insertion  activities.  The  most  recent
reform of the pension system has also been centred on those with the lowest incomes.

A Law on Quality of Education was passed in 2002 which has among its main objectives to
reduce drop-out and school failure.

In housing, some measures have been centred on increasing access to rented accommodation
and subsidies for house purchase. However, progress has been very limited and worsened by
the steady increase in the prices of housing.

With  respect  to  health,  the  most  significant  advance  is  the  recognition  of  social  health
assistance  within  the  national  health  system.  This  is  a  new  benefit,  which  will  improve
health services and is expected to have a notable effect on the most vulnerable groups, but
this will depend upon the degree to which the implementation is carried out. Effective access

166

 
by vulnerable groups and improving access to specialists (reduction of waiting lists) remain
key issues.

Notable advances have been made in extending the strategy of combating social exclusion to
the  regional  and  local  governments.  13  regional  plans  have  been  approved  so  far  and  the
other  four  are  expected  to  be  approved  shortly.  Some  cities  have  also  presented,  or  are
planning to implement, their Plans.

The provision of ICT programmes to the most disadvantaged groups has improved, as has
the use of ICTs in the educational system.

With regard to disabled people, different plans on education, employment and accessibility
have been introduced with the participation of beneficiary associations.

Regarding  the  mobilisation  of  all  bodies,  there  has  been  important  progress  in  the
involvement of the regional and local governments, and a more active participation of NGOs
and beneficiaries. However, participation by the social partners should be strengthened.

The  role  of  ESF  in  supporting  social  inclusion  aims  is  covered  well  by  the  NAP  in  an
informative and illustrative annex to the main Report. The implementation of ESF-supported
activity  will  provide  an  important  contribution  to  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion  in
Spain.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

One of the strategic weaknesses in the first NAP/inclusion (lack of targets) continues to be a
problem  in  this  new  Plan,  especially  in  the  areas  of  health,  housing  and  education.
Reconciliation  of  work  and  family  life,  strengthening  measures  to  stop  domestic  violence,
and to facilitate access to ICT by the most vulnerable groups, have been included  as  main
objectives.

The mobilisation of stakeholders should continue to allow improvement of the efficiency of
inclusion  policy.  Two  of  the  ten  main  objectives  of  the  new  NAP/inclusion  specifically
address this through the establishment of debate fora with NGOs and through the exchange
of information and good practices. As in the 2001 NAP, the involvement of the regional and
local  administrations  is  part  of  the  strategic  approach.  Three  of  the  ten  main  objectives
declared  in  the  NAP/inclusion  2003-2005  address  this  issue  through  co-ordination,
interregional  cohesion  -  by  means  of  inclusion plans at regional  and local level  (so  that  at
least  50%  of  the  population  will  be  covered  by  these  plans  by  2005)-  and  a  more  active
participation of regional parliaments.

It is important to note the target set of a reduction by 2% of the number of persons under the
60% median income threshold. This target may be reached through higher participation in
the labour market and through the continued  improvement of  pensions, as  well as through
concrete fiscal measures reducing income tax rates for those in the lower income brackets.

As  stated  in  the  first  NAP/incl,  social  policies  in  Spain  continue  to  be  highly  structured
around specific groups. This has allowed beneficiaries to be highly involved in the planning
and  implementation  stages,  but  it  is  not  the  easiest  way  to  introduce  horizontal  issues.
However, the Plan also serves as a way to introduce these issues so that a more integrated or
holistic approach can be achieved.

167

 
The  co-ordination  between  the  inclusion  and  employment  NAPs  is  not  mentioned
specifically in the new NAP inclusion as part of the strategy being followed, but some of the
measures  specific  to  the  NAP  employment  are  included  as  objectives,  such  as  reconciling
work  and  family  life,  and  improvement  of  co-ordination  of  social  protection  and
employment and social insertion, as well as reduced Social Security contributions for those
at-risk or in situation of exclusion.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

This  new  Plan  includes  269  measures  (84  measures  more  than  in  the  first  NAP),  most  of
which are concentrated around the first three common objectives. Most of the measures have
flowed  through  from  the  first  NAP  (to  be  implemented  or  on-going).  Other  measures
develop  those  set  out  in  the  first  NAP  which  have  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  new
legislation  and  provide  the  basis  for  the  development  of  concrete  interventions.  The  main
instruments in access to employment, also included in the NAP employment, are insertion
itineraries, incentives for employers through reductions in the Social Security payments and
strengthening of co-operation among NGOs and decentralised public employment services.

On access to other resources, the foundations set under the first Plan can now be developed
and implemented, including in-depth studies into the needs and the extent of the population
to be reached. There is a new battery of measures that aim to ensure access to justice. The
alleviation  of  family  disintegration  factors,  the  correction  of  social  problems  at  territorial
level, and the combat against specific obstacles arising from access to new technologies are
also addressed by different measures.

With  respect  to  the  first  NAP/incl,  this  second  edition  has  extended  some  measures  and
improved others. It continues the initial effort to mobilise and co-ordinate all relevant bodies
at  the  administrative  level.  The  efforts  to  gather  all  appropriate  information  on  the  very
decentralised  efforts  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  also  a  priority  to  be
accomplished in this new Plan.

5.

Gender perspective

The  situation  of  women  in  the  labour  market,  one  of  the  most  peculiar  features  of  the
Spanish  figures,  still  shows  very  high  unemployment  compared  with  men.  The  improved
analysis  on  gender  in  the  new  Plan  does  make  it  possible  to  monitor  the  outcome  of  the
measures  targeted  to  specific  groups  in  gender  terms.  An  Integrated  Plan  for  Domestic
Violence Victims has been introduced which acknowledges the situation of social exclusion
that victims of domestic violence are likely to experience.

The  new  Equal  Opportunities  Plan  is  also  built  into  the  main  body  of  measures  for  the
NAP/inclusion  and  aims  to  tackle  the  obstacles  to  labour  market  participation  of  women
with low social and educational levels. A new challenge may be the increase in single parent
households at risk of exclusion (most of which are headed by women).

6.

Current Issues and Future Challenges

Co-ordination and co-operation among the different administrative levels is still required in
many  areas  in  order  to  ensure  a  minimum  standard  of  measures  tackling  inclusion  policy.
Although  the  foundations  have  been  set  for  some  of  the  key  areas  (such  as  health),  the
mechanisms, both information and direct access by beneficiaries, are now to  be developed
and implemented to ensure that those targeted by services are able to profit from.

168

 
Given the importance of employment as an instrument to achieve social inclusion, there is a
need to strengthen the participation of social partners.

The  progressive  ageing  of  the  Spanish  population  has  been  accompanied  by  specific
measures to cater to the most disadvantaged older persons, but the caring needs of this group
is one of the most important challenges in the near future.  It would be useful to undertake
further research into the health situation of those in poverty or at risk of poverty. The high
increase in the proportion of immigrants also poses important challenges, as their integration
cuts across many, if not all the issues reflected in the Plan. For example, this may have the
effect of putting extra pressure in some social services and benefit schemes if not taken into
account when drawing up the budget.

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FRANCE

Situation  and  key  trends:  After  several  years  of  sustained  economic  growth  and  falling
unemployment,  the  very  low  rate  of  economic  growth  since  mid-2001  has  been
accompanied  by  a  slowdown  in  job  creation  and  an  upturn  in  unemployment,  which  now
stands at its highest level for three  years (9.6% in July 2003). Against this backcloth there
has  been  an  increase  in  "administrative"  poverty,  the  numbers  drawing  RMI  (the
occupational integration minimum  income allowance)  having begun to rise again  from  the
second half of  2002. The poverty  risk,  measured  at  15%  in  2001  according  to  Eurostat,  is
equivalent to the European average. However, the national statistics (INSEE) show a lower
rate, 12.7% in 2000.

Progress made 2001-2003: As the overall evaluation of anti-exclusion policies provided for
by  the  1998  Act  is  not  annexed  to  the  NAPincl,  analysis  of  the  results  is  sometimes
somewhat  elliptical.  Despite  the  encouraging  results  achieved  by  certain  employment
promotion schemes, unemployment remains very high. In the field of housing, the policies
have proved inadequate to meet  the  needs.  But while  policies  for  the  prevention of family
breakdown leave room for improvement, substantial progress has been made in the areas of
health, justice and, more broadly, access to rights.

Strategic approach: The Plan marries two strategies. The first continues the measures that
have  been  in  place  since  1998,  with  an  emphasis  on  access  to  employment  and  access  to
rights.  The  second  involves  mobilising  regional  solidarity  to  this  end,  via  decentralisation
and  the  private  sector,  which  has  been  relatively  inactive  in  this  field  so  far.  The  Plan
focuses  in  particular  on  procedures  for  mobilising  stakeholders  and  on  improving
monitoring.  Rather  than  setting  a  general  overall  objective  of  reducing  poverty,  it  focuses
instead  on  limited  but  realistic  specific  objectives  in  the  main  policy  areas  covered
(employment, housing, education, health). Substantial effort has been put into indicators for
portraying the intensity of the measures in the different areas.

Key policy measures: The strategic dimension of the NAPincl is somewhat blurred by its
multidimensional  character,  since  the  measures,  enumerated  according  to  the  Nice
objectives,  involve  the  mobilisation  of  a  whole  panoply  of  different  State  sectors.  Of  the
new  measures,  decentralisation  of  the  RMI  and  of  vocational  training,  the  employment
insurance  proposal,  the  civil  bankruptcy  ("rétablissement  personnel")  procedure  and  the
five-year urban renovation programme raise high expectations. The previous Plan's coverage
has been extended to disabled persons and foreigners. Much still needs to be done in terms
of gender mainstreaming, but measures to help women are better identified.

Challenges  ahead:  Access  to  employment,  job  precariousness  and  housing  issues  remain
the  major  challenges,  along  with  the  need  to  reduce  regional  inequalities  and,  as  regards
specific  groups,  to  improve  support  facilities  for  asylum  seekers.  And  the  problem  of
effective  access  to  rights,  or  even  the  creation  of  new  rights,  has  been  only  partially
addressed. The integration of foreign populations and the advancement into old age of poor
populations are also key issues for the years ahead. The keenly awaited "co-ordinated inter-
Ministerial  policy project"  (the PCPI) should help  to  make  the  financial  aspects  clearer.  It
would  also  reflect  the  firm  commitments  announced  in  the  Plan  regarding  the  integration,
monitoring  and  evaluation  of  policies,  particularly  as  the  monitoring  and  evaluation
commitments also apply to decentralised policies. In this context, the quantified objectives
need to be presented in more detail.

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1.

Situation and key trends

After  sustained  growth  from  mid-1997  to  2000  the  French  economy  has  seen  very  slow
growth  since  mid-2001  (1.2%  in  2002,  probably  0.2%  in  2003  and  a  predicted  1.7%  in
2004),  a  sharp  slowdown  in  new  jobs  and  an  upswing  in  unemployment  (8.8%  in  2002,
9.6%  in  July  2003),  with  unskilled  young  people  being  hit  particularly  hard.  Masking  the
steady decline since 1999 in very long-term unemployment (i.e. unemployment of more than
three  years),  long-term  unemployment  has  begun  to  rise  again  (2.9%  in  2002),  affecting
some 700 000 job-seekers, most particularly the over-50s. The unemployment rate is higher
among women (10%) than men, and substantial regional differences persist, with a variation
coefficient of 8.8% in 2001 according to the national figures. Job precariousness is growing,
with more people joining the unemployment register after the expiry of temporary contracts
or  fixed-term  contracts.  Working  life  for  many  young  people  consists  of  a  succession  of
short  spells  of  precarious  employment  sandwiched  between  spells  of  unemployment,  as
reflected  by  the  French  public  employment  service's  inflow  and  outflow  records  for  the
15/24 age-group.

According to Eurostat, the poverty risk rate (percentage of the population whose income is
less than 60% of the national median) was 15% in 2001 (12.7% according to France's own
statistics), at par with the European average, and the persistent poverty risk was 9%. Despite
the  economic  upturn  between  1997  and  2001,  there  are  no  signs  that  any  significant
reduction in poverty has been achieved. The national data indicate a slight reduction in the
rate  of  monetary  poverty  between  1996  and  2000,  only  the  number  of  RMI  (minimum
income  allowance)  recipients  having  decreased  substantially,  although  this  number  has
begun to rise again since the second half of 2002.

The  groups  most  vulnerable  to  the  risk  of  poverty  and  exclusion  are  still  the  same:  the
unemployed, the working poor, children under 18, unskilled young people, large and single-
parent  families,  women  over  65  and,  in  terms  of  specific  populations,  asylum  seekers  and
travellers,  who  admittedly  do  not  constitute  a  homogeneous  category.  The  challenges
identified in the first NAPincl remain broadly unchanged: the precarious existence of a large
part of the population, the existence of marginalised populations, access to employment and
improvement  of  occupational  income,  effective  access  to  rights,  and  inequalities  between
regions, whether depressed urban neighbourhoods or rural areas.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAPincl

Drafted during a period of growth, the NAPincl has been implemented in a less favourable
economic  climate,  albeit  one  without  any  major  discontinuity,  despite  weakened  political
leadership and the change of majority in 2002. It has enabled measures operating since 1998
to  be  embedded  and  extended,  such  as  the  TRACE  programme  to  help  young  people  in
difficulties  obtain  work,  or  the  regional  health  programmes.  Although  some  of  these
mechanisms have produced interesting  results, the scale of the  problem and  the worsening
economy have limited the impact on employment. But it is in the field of housing that the
gap between needs and results is the widest. The mechanisms for making households solvent
could also be improved. In contrast, universal health cover and regional health mechanisms
have had a certain impact on access to health care. The NAPincl has also allowed a number
of experiments to be introduced in the field of culture, children, justice and, more generally,
access  to  rights.  In  March  2003,  the  national  plan  to  reinforce  the  fight  against
precariousness and exclusion, based on effective access to rights and support for persons in
situations of serious exclusion, endorsed the priority accorded to this objective.

171

 
The  2001  NAPincl  unfortunately  never  acquired  high  visibility.  In  addition,  integration
between  the  different  strands,  the  participation  of  persons  in  situations  of  difficulty  and
training  initiatives  for  stakeholders  all  remained  limited.  As  regards  monitoring,  a
substantial effort was made in terms of indicators. The overall evaluation provided for by the
1998 Act should be available by the end of 2003.

3.

Strategic approach : main objectives and key targets of the 2003 NAPincl

Based  on the  multidimensional nature of  exclusion  and  the  dominance  of  the  employment
factor, the strategy proposed represents a straight continuation of the policies operating since
1998 and subdivides the four Nice objectives into a wide panoply of measures. The renewed
role  of  local  authorities,  with  the  decentralisation  project,  and  the  accent  on  the  market
sector and its role in employment represent the clearest changes of strategy. The Plan is also
innovative in the broadness of its scope, rather than in the detail of the actions, since many
of these are continuations of existing measures or revivals of past practices. Fields that were
left relatively unexplored in 2001, such as disability, foreign populations and gender are the
subject  of  new  developments.  Bridging  the  gap  between  the  strategy  and  the  challenges
sometimes relies on a degree of voluntary initiative over which the authors of the Plan have
little control, such as the commitment of local authorities after decentralisation, or the appeal
to private enterprise.

The  Plan  is  accompanied  by  a  vast  range  of  indicators.  Moreover,  the  setting  of  precise
quantified  objectives,  albeit  limited  in  number,  is  a  positive  innovation.  Chosen  for  their
relevance  and  realism,  they  cover  the  different  policies  only  partially  and  do  not  have  the
global  objective  of  reducing  poverty,  most  being  concerned  more  with  the  introduction  of
mechanisms rather than the  anticipated impacts  on  the target  groups. Quantification  of the
budget, although still lacking detail and precision at this stage, is a step in the right direction.
However,  the  financial  commitment  of  the  State  and  the  local  authorities  in  a  period  of
budgetary  pressure  may  prove  limited  and  will  need  to  be  monitored  carefully.  The
operations  co-financed  by  the  ESF,  mentioned  selectively,  ought  to  be  identified  more
precisely in the context of the budget monitoring.

The  Plan  places  a  strong  emphasis  on  an  integrated  approach  in  connection  with
decentralisation,  involving  new  modes  of  relationship,  management  and  evaluation  of  the
policies  concerned.  This  integration  relies  also  on  better  co-ordination  between  Ministries
(with  several  major  monitoring  and  evaluation  operations  planned),  on  modernising  the
administration and on raising awareness among all players and the general public.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The first Nice objective, concerning access to employment, embraces most of the measures
described, with a stronger policy of reducing social security contributions for the low-paid,
an  overhaul  of  "assisted  contracts"  for  unskilled  young  people  and  reform  of  vocational
training. The issue of "social minima" allowances is chiefly addressed under decentralisation
of  the  RMI.  Housing  is  the  subject  of  numerous  measures,  including  a  five-year  urban
renovation  programme.  There  is  a  strong  emphasis  on  combating  illiteracy,  education
provision  for  the  most  vulnerable  and  health  in  the  school  environment.  The  health  care
measures, mental  health  care  measures  and  programmes  of  access  to  justice  are  continued
and improved. More marginal measures deal with access to culture, sports and leisure.

Measures  to  prevent  people  losing  their  homes  have  been  marginally  improved,  with  an
improved  support  mechanism  for  tenants.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the

172

 
introduction of the civil bankruptcy procedure("procédure de rétablissement personnel") to
deal with cases of over-indebtedness. As e-inclusion is not put forward as a major challenge,
initiatives in this area are limited. One example worth mentioning, however, is the proposal
for a social services Internet portal as a general first port of call and a magnet for the pooling
of good practice.

Among  measures  to  help  the  most  vulnerable,  particular  mention  should  be  made  of  the
integration pathway for immigrants and the global approach to situations of major exclusion.
The provision of more accommodation, however, cannot prevent the market being saturated
by asylum seekers. Improved care arrangements and the equal opportunities bill should help
to  improve  the  integration  of  disabled  persons.  Housing  and  economic  development
initiatives  in  rundown  urban  neighbourhoods  have  been  extended,  and  a  project  for  the
revitalisation of rural areas includes plans to develop services for citizens and health policy.
The  implementation  arrangements  for  all  these  mechanisms  will  need  to  be  examined  in
order to assess their potential impact. The overseas territories, another vulnerable area, are
included implicitly via the appropriations mentioned in the budgetary annex.

With  regard  to  the  mobilisation  of  all  stakeholders,  the  Plan  sets  out  to  give  people  in
situations  of  difficulty  a  bigger  say  and  to  improve  co-ordination  between  all  levels  of
intervention.  Close  attention  is  also  given  to  communication  and  improvement  of  the
services provided to users.

5.

Gender perspective

This  dimension  receives  less  priority  than  it  did  in  the  2002  NAP/empl.  The  challenges
mentioned  include  inequality  in  the  unemployment  field,  family  situations,  ethnicity  and
spousal violence.  As  a  response,  the  Plan  adopts  a  transversal  and  specific  approach,  with
measures  of  varying  levels  of  intensity  to  promote  education,  vocational  training,
employment  and  respect  for  human  dignity.  It  also  addresses  the  situation  of  disabled
women and immigrant women. The mainstreaming approach is continued with the creation
of  a  National  Equality  Council,  a  draft  national  charter  and  a  proposal  for  capitalising  on
good  practices.  The  French  authorities  have  announced  that  the  gender  dimension  will  be
included for virtually all the quantified objectives and that there will be a better breakdown
by gender of the indicators, notably regarding monetary poverty.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

Although  combating  unemployment  and  the  phenomenon  of  the  working  poor  remains  a
major  challenge,  the  results  hinge  largely  on  the  economic  situation.  In  contrast,  the
proposals  regarding  housing  are  inadequate  for  the  scale  of  the  problem21.  And  it  is
regrettable that no major measures are announced to help certain specific categories, such as
asylum  seekers,  travellers  and  people  living  in  areas  of  deprivation,  apart  from  those  who
are covered by urban policy measures. The impacts of periods of precariousness and reliance
on social care for ageing populations are less tangible issues.

The  introduction  of  a  "co-ordinated  inter-Ministerial  policy  project"  (PCPI)  to  combat
exclusion  would  help  to  make  the  financial  commitments  clearer  and  permit  more  refined

21

Over  3  million  people  are  apparently  living  in  poor  housing  conditions  (lack  of  comfort,
overcrowding,  insecurity  of  tenure),  although  the  national  indicator  of  poverty  of  living  conditions,
which  covers  accommodation  difficulties,  has  been  falling  since  1998  (cf  8th  report  of  the  Haut
comité pour le logement des personnes défavorisées, October 2002).

173

 
                                                
monitoring, which is difficult with the present budgetary structure. It would also reflect the
"frame of reference" nature of the NAPincl by transforming it into a veritable programming
document.  The  sophistication  of  the  monitoring  and  evaluation  procedure  is  essential  for
assessing the impacts of the numerous measures, notably planned measures, whether we are
talking  about  financial  adjustments,  relaunching  of  certain  programmes  or  major
developments involving adoption of legislation, with timetabling uncertainties and possible
changes. Issues particularly concerned here are decentralisation and the introduction of the
RMA22, housing policy, rural policy, equal opportunities for disabled people and the concept
of employment insurance linked to renewal of vocational training.

22

RMA = Revenu minimum d'activité (Minimum activity income), a new assisted contract for persons
drawing the RMI.

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IRELAND

Situation and key trends: The slowdown in the global economy has impacted on the pace
of economic growth, resulting in a slight rise in unemployment and increasing pressure on
Exchequer finances. Analysis of poverty trends shows that the national 'consistent' poverty
measure  continues  to  fall, from  8.2%  in 1998  to  5.2%  in  2001.  However,  the  60%  risk  of
poverty  indicator  has  risen  from  19%  to  21%  over  the  same  period,  indicating  continued
income disparities affecting, in particular, elderly people, large families and lone parents.

Progress  made  in  2001-2003:  The  national  anti-poverty  strategy  was  reviewed  and
ambitious  new  targets  and  institutional  arrangements  have  been  established.  An  active
engagement  with  all  unemployed  people  at  an  early  stage  continues  to  record  sustained
success and progress has been achieved in the area of early school leaving and adult literacy.
Social  security  payments  have  increased  in  real  terms  and  investment  in  infrastructure
continues to exceed the EU average. However, life expectancy remains low, relative to other
EU states, and affordability of housing and homelessness continue to be a problem.

Strategic approach: This NAP presents a greatly improved strategic approach that is based
on a more complex understanding of the causes of social exclusion and better addresses the
common  objectives.  There  are  a  large  number  of  targets  that  are  quantifiable  and  time
focused. A new framework to tackle social exclusion has been established, with overall co-
ordination  and  responsibility  allocated  to  a  new  Office  for  Social  Inclusion,  although  one
would  have  to  question  if  the  resources  allocated  to  this  office  are  sufficient  for  the
ambitious  work  programme  outlined.  A  wide  ranging  consultation  process  and  the
establishment of a Social Inclusion Forum has increased civic society involvement. The key
objective is to consolidate the economic success of recent years to ensure that high levels of
employment are sustained and a more equal society is achieved.

Key  policy  measures:  Ireland  is  active  in  addressing  all  four  objectives,  with  particular
emphasis  placed  on  access  to  employment  and  raising  standards  of  education.  While
employment is seen as the major route out of poverty, the Plan recognises that not everyone
can use the labour market as a way out of poverty. A number of targets are, therefore, set in
relation  to  the  provision  of  adequate  income  support.  Special  programmes  are  targeted  at
groups  who  have  particular  difficulties,  such  as  people  with  disabilities,  immigrants,
Travellers  and  ex-prisoners.  Other  groups,  such  as  the  homeless  and  ethnic  minorities  are
identified as especially vulnerable. A range of social problems are highlighted for particular
attention,  such  as  domestic  violence,  indebtedness,  and  alcohol  and  drug  misuse.  The
importance of care systems and preserving family solidarity are also addressed.

Challenges ahead: The major challenge will be to ensure that resources are made available
to  implement  the  agreed  targets,  particularly  if  the  economic  downturn  continues.  Key
priorities will be enhancing infrastructure and access to services, particularly for those living
in rural areas. Efforts to tackle educational disadvantage and the integration of refugees and
immigrants  must  continue.  The  growing  income  inequalities  require  greater  focus  and  a
target in this area would be useful. The commitment to research the problem of high relative
income  poverty  is  welcome.  While  the  Plan  does  identify  significant  gender  inequality
issues,  it  is  weak  in  establishing  targets  and  developing  policy  responses.  Monitoring  and
evaluation of the NAP requires further clarification. Also, it is crucial that social inclusion
co-ordination be strengthened at local and regional level to ensure an integrated approach.

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1.

Situation and key trends

Ireland has continued to record high economic growth although the downturn in the global
economy has sharply reduced the pace of growth. GDP grew at 6.9% in 2002, which is the
highest in the EU and far in excess of the EU average of 1.1%. It is noteworthy, however,
that the corresponding increase in GNP was just 0.1%. Ireland’s per capita income in PPS
was  at  118%  of  the  EU  average  in  2001.  The  downturn  in  the  economy  is  reflected  in  a
slight  rise  in  the  overall  unemployment  rate  to  4.4%,  and  also  in  the  long  term
unemployment  rate  to  1.3%  (in  2002).  It  is  also  apparent  in  the  latest  social  partnership
agreement, which is less ambitious in the social domain than previous plans.

Analysis of poverty trends shows that the EU common indicator of 'risk of poverty' (defined
at the level of 60% of the national median) has risen from 19% to 21% between 1998  and
2001,  and  is  now  the  highest  in  the  EU.  This  trend  indicates  continued  income  disparities
affecting, in particular, elderly people, large families and lone parents. Also worrying is the
high rate of persistent poverty which, at 13% in 2001, is one of the highest among the EU
countries.  However,  the  national  'consistent'  poverty  measure,  a  composite  indicator
combining relative income and deprivation measures, continues to fall, from 8.2% in 1998
to 5.2% in 2001. Expenditure on social benefits increased by 25% between 1999 and 2001
but is still the lowest in the EU as a percentage of GDP.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP inclusion

Ireland  has  made  substantial  strategic  progress  in  the  last  two  years.  The  national  anti-
poverty  strategy  was  reviewed  and  ambitious  new  targets  and  institutional  arrangements
have  been  established.  Ireland  has  been  very  successful  in  facilitating  participation  in
employment. A major achievement has been the 26% increase in the participation of women
in  the  labour  force  between  1998  and  2003.  A  High  Supports  Process  was  introduced  in
2003 to target and support those suffering greatest disadvantage. While tailored programmes
are aimed at specific vulnerable groups such as Travellers, people with disabilities, refugees
and  lone  parents,  there  is  inadequate  data  available  on  these  groups,  which  presents
problems in assessing the impact of policies.

Although education spending has risen substantially in recent years, Ireland still invests less
of  its  national  income  in  education  compared  with  other  EU  Member  States.  Key  targets
have  been  set  in  the  area  of  literacy  and  reducing  the  number  of  young  people  who  leave
school early. Very positive results have been achieved with the rate of early school leavers
dropping from 18.9% to 14.7% between 1999 and 2002. Participation has increased in adult
literacy courses, while a radio and TV programme attracted weekly audiences in excess of
146,000  in  2002.  In  addition,  a  successful  pilot  on  workplace  literacy  has  now  been
mainstreamed.

Commitments  to  increase  social  security  payments  have  been  largely  met  with  total
expenditure increasing by 42% between 2000 and 2002. All payments were increased in real
terms, with the highest increases being granted to pensioners who are recognised as a group
at high risk of poverty. Targets have been set to raise the lowest income support payments to
EUR150 per week by 2007 (in 2002 terms), to raise pensions to EUR 200 and to ensure that
child  income  support  is  at  33  to  35%  of  the  minimum  adult  social  security  payment.
Expenditure  on  universal  child  benefit  increased  by  129%  between  2000  and  2002,  with
monthly  payments  increasing  from  EUR  54.00  to  EUR  117.60.  However,  the  impact  of
these  increases  has  been  somewhat  diminished  by  high  inflation  relative  to  other  Member
States, increases in indirect taxes, and other utility and service charges, which are regressive

176

 
by nature. For those in low paid employment, the minimum wage will be set at EUR 7 per
hour from February 2004, which is an increase of 25% since its introduction in 2000.

In the area of health, life expectancy for women is the lowest in the EU and for men it is the
second  lowest.  These  figures  are  substantially  lower  again  for  the  Traveller  population
which accounts for 0.6% of the population. A national health strategy was published in 2001
with a key target of reducing the gap in premature mortality between the lowest and highest
socio-economic  groups  by  at  least  10%  for  specific  diseases  by  2007.  Despite  major
increases  in  expenditure  on  health,  it  is  not  clear  if  the  resources  will  be  available,  or
sufficient, to address health infrastructure and service deficiencies

Rural  disadvantage  is  a  distinct  problem  in  Ireland,  particularly  with  regard  to  access  to
services.  Approximately  1,800  new  transport  services  on  300  new  routes  have  been
established  as  pilot  projects,  but  it  is  not  clear  how  many  of  these  schemes  will  be
mainstreamed.  A  number  of  initiatives  to  improve  the  quality  of  customer  services  have
been  introduced  and  there  is  a  commitment  to  ensure  'the  development  of  more  formal
expressions  of  entitlement  across  the  range  of  public  services'  ,  Although  developing
standards of access goes some way to meet the type of rights based approach called for in
the consultation process, it does not fully address the issue. It is also noted that there are few
targets set in this area.

Affordability of housing and homelessness affect a significant group of people, due in part
to  house  costs  increasing  far  in  excess  of  the  Consumer  Price  Index.  Targets  in  this  area
have been set and a social housing programme providing for the delivery of 25,000 houses
reached 65% of its target at the end of 2002. Improvements in housing for Travellers have
also  taken  place,  with  the  total  number  accommodated  increasing  from  3,805  in  2000  to
4,522 in 2002. However, there are still some 1,000 such families living in unauthorised sites
with no facilities. An integrated strategy on homelessness, aimed at drawing up local action
plans,  was  an  ambitious  and  worthwhile  exercise.  However,  specific  targets  for  the
elimination  or  reduction  of  homelessness  were  not  required,  thereby  making  it  difficult  to
meet and measure long-term objectives.

Developments  in  a  number  of  programmes  designed  to  assist  the  most  vulnerable  groups
have  taken  place.  The  'Springboard'  pilot  projects,  aimed  at  providing  intensive  family
support  to  vulnerable  families,  have  been  mainstreamed.  The  Monetary  Advice  and
Budgeting  Service  which  assists  more  than  11,000  clients  annually,  agreed  a  new  pilot
scheme  to  develop  a  non-judicial  alternative  for  those  who  have  intractable  and  multiple
consumer debt. This service will be of particular benefit to women who comprise in excess
of 66% of the clients. Additional expenditure for sports and recreation is being  targeted at
areas  of  social  disadvantage,  indicating  greater  efforts  to  tackle  broad  social  inclusion
problems.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

This NAP presents a  greatly improved strategic  approach  that  is well balanced  and broad-
ranging. It is based on a more complex understanding of the causes of social exclusion and
better  addresses  the  common  objectives.  There  are  a  large  number  of  targets  that  are
quantifiable  and  time  focused.  It  is  also  more  balanced  in  terms  of  focusing  on  universal
issues, as well as more specific groups, and is more comprehensive than the previous plan in
covering a wider range of issues, such as access to legal services, equality, and participation
in  art  and  cultural  activities.  The  establishment  of  a  Social  Inclusion  Forum  enables  those
experiencing poverty and social inclusion to contribute in a direct and  active way. A  wide

177

 
ranging  consultation  process  took  place  and,  in  an  innovative  exercise,  the  Equality
Authority  proofed  the  NAP  with  the  participation  of  groups  from  across  nine  distinct
grounds of discrimination set out in the equality framework. It is intended to continue with
this approach over the lifetime of the Plan.

However,  it  is  noteworthy  that  Ireland  operates  a  national  centralised  model  of  policy
formulation  and  implementation,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  progress  integrated  locally
based strategies. This is evident in the slow progress in implementing RAPID, a programme
aimed  at  developing  an  integrated  approach  in  the  twenty  five  most  disadvantaged  urban
areas in Ireland. The development of the Local Government Anti-Poverty Learning Network
and the extension of 'poverty proofing' to local areas may assist in enhancing the capacity of
local  stakeholders.  The  establishment  of  regional  education  offices  is  another  positive
development. Other recommendations put forward in a recent review of social inclusion co-
ordinating mechanisms should also lead to improvements at local and regional level.

The  key  objective  is  to  consolidate  the  economic  success  of  recent  years  to  ensure  high
levels  of  employment  are  sustained  and  a  more  equal  society  is  achieved.  While
employment is foreseen as the major route out of poverty, it is also recognised that this is
not the answer for everyone, and a number of targets are set in the area of adequate income
support.  A  key  target  is  to  reduce  the  numbers  of  those  who  are  ‘consistently’  poor  from
5.2% in 2001 to 2.0% by 2007.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The NAP is focused and contains a large number of targets, far more than the previous NAP.
The establishment of an Office for Social Inclusion should consolidate a cross-departmental
and inter-agency approach, although one would have to question if the resources allocated to
this  new  office  are  sufficient  for  the  ambitious  work  programme  outlined.  The  Plan  is
particularly  strong  in  the  area  of  employment,  income  supports  and  education  but  appears
weaker in the area of housing, and there is little reference to regional imbalance. Demands in
the  consultation  process  for  a  right-based  approach  in  social  exclusion  policies,  are  only
addressed in terms of developing standards of access to quality public services. The position
of  refugees  and  asylum  seekers  requires  particular  attention  in  view  of  their  high  risks  of
social  exclusion  and  the  identified  problem  of  racism.  The  policy  of  'direct  provision',
whereby  asylum  seekers  are  provided  with  lodgings,  food  and  a  small  payment  instead  of
social security payments, militates against their social inclusion and increases the isolation
of people, who  are  racially  and  culturally different  from  the  general  population.  However,
some  worthwhile  measures  to  promote  integration  have  been  taken,  including  language
support  and  allocation  of  additional  teaching  resources  to  schools.  Another  important
initiative is a national anti-racism programme aimed at building an inclusive society

5.

Gender perspective

There are a number of specific objectives and targets relevant to gender equality, notably in
the area of employment. Progress has been made in increasing the supply and affordability
of childcare, particularly in disadvantaged areas, but more is required. Overall, the analysis
in  relation  to  gender  mainstreaming  is  limited  and  there  is  an  absence  of  targets  in  many
areas. The under-representation of women in decision-making arenas is particularly marked.
The  proposal  to  develop  a  national  women's  strategy  should  be  used  to  strengthen  gender
mainstreaming.

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6.

Current issues and future challenges

Although the level of public investment in Ireland is very high at 5%, (almost double the EU
average),  it  must  be  noted  that  infrastructure  and  many  public  services  are  still  relatively
underdeveloped  because  Ireland  is  starting  from  such  a  low  historical  base.  Accordingly,
there remain huge challenges to ensure that the deficits in infrastructure and social provision
will be addressed. Educational disadvantage, and the integration of refugees and immigrants
must  continue  to  be  a  priority.  Growing  income  inequalities  remains  a  key  challenge  that
requires greater focus and a target in this area would be useful. The commitment to research
and  monitor  relative  income  poverty  is  welcome,  particularly  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the
'consistent' poverty measure has recorded dramatic decreases, that are contradicted by rises
in the risk of poverty indicator. Work has started on the development of a  data  strategy to
monitor progress on the set targets. Data is particularly needed to inform policy on specific
vulnerable  groups  such  as  the  homeless,  migrants  and  other  groups  who  are  not  readily
identifiable  in  national  statistics.  Also,  it  is  crucial  that  social  inclusion  co-ordination
mechanisms  be  strengthened  at  local  and  regional  level  in  order  to  ensure  an  integrated
approach that will enable the successful delivery and implementation of the NAP objectives.

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ITALY

Situation  and  key  trends:  According  to  the  latest  ECHP  survey  (2001)  the  at-risk-of-
poverty  rate  in  Italy  was  19%,  indicating  a  slight  increase  over  the  previous  year.  The  at-
persistent-risk-of-poverty rate has also increased to 13%. National data (based not on income
but  on  expenditure)  for  2002  show  a  more  nuanced  picture:  the  overall  national  rate  has
declined to 12.4% from the 13.6 recorded in 2001, with the South and the Centre improving
their  rates  while  the  North’s  has  remained  substantially  stable.  However,  the  profile  of
poverty has not changed: it affects mainly the larger households (of five people or more: for
them the incidence of poverty in 2002 was 24.6%) and those whose head is unemployed (the
incidence is 32.3%), and it is still overwhelmingly concentrated in the South (the at-risk-of-
poverty  rate  is  23.6%),  where  the  rate  is  more  than  four  times  higher  than  in  the  North
(5.4%).

Progress made Nap 2001-2003: The Italian Nap 2003 reports that most, but not all, regions
have  now  approved  their  regional  social  plans  that  are  also  complemented  by  local  plans
developed  by  municipal  authorities.  Most  regions  and  local  authorities  are  also  reported  to
have  improved  their  capacity  to  integrate  multi-sectoral,  decentralised,  stakeholder  and
partnership-based approaches into their own planning of social policies. Statistics prove that
there has been a slight improvement since the last NAP, with the effects of fiscal relief aimed
at larger households and slow but steady favourable trends in the labour market appearing to
be largely to credit for the overall slight decrease in the poverty rate.

Strategic approach: The strategic approach follows closely the 2003 Italian White Paper on
Welfare,  which  identified  two  basic  issues:  the  demographic  effects  of  Italy’s  very  low
fertility rate combined with a high rate of ageing population, and the role of the family as a
pillar of the Italian social model. The process of decentralisation will be pushed further. The
regions  have  now  been  invested  also  with  co-ordination  tasks,  while  management  and
implementation tasks have been fully transferred to local authorities.

Key policy measures

The  following  policy  priorities,  expressed  in  a  series  of  principles  and  guidelines  without
specific targets, define  Italy’s social  agenda  for  the  three-year  period  2003-2005:  to  favour
the  family  and  to  increase  the  national  birth  rate;  to  provide  better  services  to  disabled
people; to fight against extreme poverty; to accelerate the development of the South through
the launch of ESF-supported “territorially integrated plans”; to promote equal opportunities
between men and women; and to prevent drug addiction and dependency. Another distinctive
feature  of  the  Italian  Nap  is  the  focus  on  the  increased  flexibility  in  the  labour  markets
achieved through the recent adoption of a reforming package.

Challenges ahead: Given the existing budgetary constraints at both national and local level,
the regions lagging behind may find it difficult to cope with the fast pace of the process of
decentralisation.  In  a  context  of  increased  flexibility  in  the  labour  markets,  even  more
generous  family  (but  work-related)  allowances  may  fail  to  address  the  needs  of  the  most
vulnerable unless the risk of engendering dualism in the labour market is reduced through the
passing of a comprehensive welfare reform. It remains another absolute priority to implement
all  the  envisaged  measures  intended  to  remedy  the  current  rationing  of  childcare  services,
also in order to prevent the risk of the incentives to raising the birth-rate having a negative
impact on an already low female employment rate.

180

 
1.

Situation and key trends

According to the latest EHCP survey (2001) the at-risk-of-poverty rate in Italy has increased
to 19% from 18% in 2000. The at-persistent-risk-of-poverty rate has also increased to 13%
(from 11%). National data (based not on income but on expenditure) for 2002 show a more
nuanced picture: the overall national rate has declined  to 12.4% from the 13.6  recorded in
2001, with the South and the  Centre improving  their rates  while the  North’s  has  remained
substantially stable. However, the profile of poverty  has not changed: it affects  mainly  the
larger households  (of  five  people  or  more:  for  them  the  incidence  of  poverty  in  2002  was
24.6%)  and  those  whose  head  is  unemployed  (the  incidence  is  32.3%),  and  it  is  still
overwhelmingly concentrated in the South (the at-risk-of-poverty rate is 23.6%), where the
rate is more than four times higher than in the North (5.4%). Total social expenditure as a
percentage of GDP has increased in 2002 by half a point, reaching the 26.2%, but it is still
lower than the EU-15 average. The composition of social expenditure has also not changed,
if not slightly: 62.2% is made up of old-age and survivors’ pensions. The preponderance of
expenditure on pensions takes an obvious toll on all the other forms of social expenditure,
and explains why in Italy the at-risk-of-poverty rates before and after social transfers (when
pensions are excluded) show the smallest differential within EU-15. In terms of purchasing
power parities per inhabitant the latest available figures, for 2000, show Italy still trailing the
EU-15 average, even though the gap is narrowing.

Slow but steady favourable trends in the labour market (favouring especially women) appear
largely to credit for  the  overall slight  decrease  in  the  poverty  rate:  the  employment  rate  is
now  (2002)  at  55.4%,  up  from  the  54.6  recorded  in  2001  (it  was  52.7  in  1999).  Regional
differences remain vast, with the employment rate of the North (63.3) twenty points higher
than that of the South. The overall rate for women is 42%, and the regional  divide is  here
even  more  marked,  with  the  South  trailing  the  North  by  some  twenty-five  points.
Unemployment in 2002 has declined to the 9% (in 2001 it was at 9.5); the South (18.3%),
and especially women in the South (26.4%), still suffer the most. Also the rate of long-term
unemployment causes serious concern since it stands, in 2002, at 59.1%. Again, the South is
affected in a disproportionate manner: 15.3% of the population aged 15-59 live in a jobless
household.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP/inclusion

Performance  indicators show  that  there  has  been  a  slight  improvement  since  the  last  NAP
(even though households’  average expenditure,  on the basis of which “relative poverty” is
calculated,  has  on  the  whole  declined  in  Italy  during  the  year  2002,  with  the  obvious
consequence that the poverty line has also shifted downwards) but it is difficult to establish a
clear link between these positive trends and the policies pursued during the reference period
-  with  the  exception  of  the  effects  of  fiscal  relief  aimed  at  larger  households  and  of  the
favourable trends in the labour market (the latter are ascribed to the increased flexibility) -
since  impact  indicators  are  provided  only  sparingly,  especially  at  regional  level.  On  the
legislative side, the reform of Title V of the Constitutional Charter has inscribed within the
Constitution the process of decentralisation that has been taking place in Italy over the last
years, beginning with the approval of Law 328/00 that transferred over to the regions most
competencies in the area of social policy. The Italian Nap 2003 reports that most, but not all,
regions  have  now  approved  their  social  plans  that  are  also  complemented  by  local  plans
developed by municipal authorities.

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3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets of the 2003 NAP/inclusion

The  strategic  approach  follows  closely  the  2003  Italian  White  Paper  on  Welfare,  which
identified  two  basic  issues:  the  demographic  effects  of  Italy’s  very  low  fertility  rate
combined with a high rate of ageing population, and the role of the family as a pillar of the
Italian social  model. The Italian  Nap  views  the  family  as  a  pro-active  leading  actor  in  the
field of social policy, whose role is especially important  for the  support it  can offer  to the
most vulnerable: the elderly, disabled people and the minors. Recognising that the family is
also  called  upon  to  compensate  for  the  lack  of  social  services,  the  Government  intends  to
increase  monetary  support  in  the  form  of  both  direct  aid  and  fiscal  relief.  Newly-married
couples will also benefit from additional support directed at promoting home-ownership and
(along with all married couples) from measures aimed at raising the country’s birth rate.

The process of decentralisation will be pushed further. The regions have now been invested
also with co-ordination tasks, while management and implementation tasks have been fully
transferred to local authorities. Guidelines and targets will instead be determined at national
level through a process that once fully implemented will be not unlike the Open Method of
Co-ordination, with the Government retaining the power to set nation-wide priorities: in the
Nap  2003  10%  of  the  financial  resources  made  available  to  the  regions  are  earmarked  for
initiatives  aimed  to  support  the  role  of  the  family  and  increase  the  country’s  birth-rate.
Another distinctive feature of the  Italian Nap is  the  focus on active labour market  policies
(of  the  type  “welfare  to  work”)  and  on  the  increased  flexibility  achieved  through  the
adoption  of  the  reforming  package  termed  “legge  Biagi”.  Indeed,  intermediate  targets
towards the Lisbon objectives for employment are the only targets that are quantified in the
document. In 2005 the target rate for employment is 58.5%, in the case of women 46% and
for older workers 40%.

4.

Assessment of key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The  Nap  2003  takes  into  consideration  a  broad  array  of  trends:  the  persistence  of  the
concentration  of  poverty  in  the  South,  in  large  households  and  among  those  with  one  or
more  elderly  people  or  whose  head  is  unemployed;  the  already  mentioned  effects  of  the
increase  in  ageing  population  combined  with  a  low  fertility  rate;  the  recent  increases  in
labour  force  geographical  mobility  from  the  South  to  the  North  of  Italy  and  in  the
immigration flux; the considerable size of the informal economy; the low employment rate
of  disabled  people  (in  particular  women);  and  the  development  of  the  volunteer  and  third
sectors. The analysis is generally thorough, and the policy priorities clearly defined (such as
the  development  of  the  South  and  providing  more  support  to  large  households),  while  the
measures envisaged might fall short of what would be required, given the magnitude of the
problems (facing especially the South) and the current budgetary constraints that may force
to  reduce  transfers  to  the  regions.  Specific  measures  include  help  to  the  family  through
“solidarity  networks”;  the  liberalisation  of  and  easier  access  to  services  through  care-
vouchers,  financial  assistance  mechanisms  and  fiscal  relief;  the  setting  up  of  family-
assistance  networks  and  family-based  initiatives  to  help  people  mentally  and  physically
dependent. The quality of life of children (seen as dependent on the integrity of the family)
is  addressed  through  an  ad-hoc  plan.  Other  targeted  initiatives  include  more  and  better
services  for  disabled  people,  the  establishment  of  a  Commission  of  qualified  practitioners
and  experts  in  the  field  of  drug  dependency,  the  launch  of  ESF-supported  “territorially
integrated  plans”  for  the  development  of  the  South  and  the  set-up  of  monitoring  systems.
Social insertion of immigrants is directly promoted only through the provision of language
courses.  The  number  of  legal  immigrants  has  grown  considerably  in  2003  thanks  to  the

182

 
regularisation  of  over  700,000  previously  unregistered  foreign  workers.  The  provision  of
other  social  services,  such  as  shelters  and  intercultural  mediation,  falls  entirely  under  the
remit of the local authorities and may prove a difficult challenge for many of them.

Recognising  both  the  necessity  of  a  universal  approach  to  extreme  poverty  and  the
insufficiency  of  the  previous  scheme  that  was  experimented  in  a  limited  number  of
municipalities, but that proved marred by abuse and too expensive, the Government intends
to replace it with a new ”income of last resort”, whose final characteristics (amount, target
population and rate of co-financing on the part of the government) are to be negotiated with
the regions. Finally, a detailed list is provided of all the complex institutional arrangements
that have been required to make the plan operational.

The main strength of the Italian Nap - but also the most important challenge it faces - is the
fast pace at which the process of decentralisation has proceeded and is set to proceed. Most
regions  and  local  authorities  have  reportedly  improved  their  capacity  to  integrate  multi-
sectoral,  decentralised,  stakeholder  and  partnership-based  approaches  into  their  own
planning of social policies But a strong co-ordination of policies and measures, as well as of
monitoring and evaluation is still lacking to a degree, since evaluation structures at national
level are still in the process of being put in place, and not all regions have set up monitoring
structures. It is also fair to say that the “territorially integrated plans” face a daunting task,
since  they  are  the main  –  if  not  the only  - instrument  addressing specifically  the  Southern
regions.  Moreover,  such  an  ambitious  project  of  a  multi-level  governance  of  all  social
policies must be supported, in order to achieve the best results, by an adequate allocation of
financial resources. In this  regard the  Italian plan provides only scant information.  In fact,
the reported increase in the level of funding for social policy made available to the regions
could  easily  be  offset  by  other  budgetary  cuts.  Another  weakness  is  the  absence  of
quantified  targets  for  all  but  the  employment-related  measures,  which  will  make  more
difficult to evaluate the results achieved by the Nap 2003.

5.

Gender perspective

Overall,  the  principle  of  gender  mainstreaming  appears  to  have  been  implemented  in  the
Italian  Nap  only  to  a  limited  extent.  That  said,  the  plan  provides  sufficient  analysis,
indicators and statistics broken down by sex that show that despite recent favourable trends,
women  are  still  at  a  marked  disadvantage  in  relation  to  both  employment  and
unemployment. The promotion of equal opportunities between women and men is one of the
priorities acknowledged by the Italian plan, and many measures (especially those envisaging
better and more accessible care services, such as those already contained in recent Financial
Acts and present also in the NAP 2003), if adequately implemented, will not fail to make a
positive  contribution  to  reducing  the  gaps  in  employment  and  unemployment  rates.
However,  most  of  the  policies  are  presented  in  gender  neutral  terms  while,  for  instance,
there are likely to be significant differences by gender in the distribution of hidden labour,
and as far as the old age employment rate is concerned, women in old age are again likely to
face different problems with respect to old men who have been active for most of their life.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The narrowing down of the divide between the South and the North of the country remains
the  greatest  challenge.  Careful  monitoring  of  the  manner  in  which  regional  and  local
authorities  fulfil  duties  and  responsibilities  devolved  to  them  appears  also  necessary.  In  a
context of increased flexibility in the labour markets, even more generous family (but work-
related) allowances may fail to address the needs of the most vulnerable unless the risk of

183

 
engendering dualism in the labour market is reduced through the passing of a comprehensive
welfare reform (which is still in a very early drafting stage). Social insertion of immigrants
may  also  prove  a  bigger  challenge  that  envisaged  in  the  plan.  Another  absolute  priority
remains  the  implementation  of  all  measures  intended  to  remedy  the  current  rationing  of
childcare services, also in order to prevent the risk of the incentives to raising the birth-rate
having  a  negative  impact  on  an  already  low  female  employment  rate.  The  national
authorities  should  also  ensure  that  a  stronger  two-way  relationship  is  established  between
the Nap-exercise and the regional and local social plans and that the main stakeholders and
the  social  partners  are  adequately  and  systematically  involved,  as  foreseen  also  by
framework law 328/2000.

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LUXEMBOURG

Situation and key trends: During the first NAPincl the national economy was hit by
the slowdown in the global economy, with a significant downturn in the GDP growth
rate and  a  rise  in  unemployment.  Long-term  unemployment  rose  only  a  little,  albeit
more  among  women  than  men.  Employment  continued  to  rise  steadily,  albeit  more
slowly.  The  poverty  risk  rate  (after  transfers)  remains  stable  at  12%,  but  is  higher
among the young. The Luxembourg authorities anticipate a swift revival of economic
activity, expecting GDP to rise by 3.5% in 2005. However, the rise in unemployment
– the result of the preceding period of recession – is predicted to continue.

Progress made 2001-2003: Of the 81 measures described in the first NAPincl, spread
over  the  4  Nice  objectives,  21  were  terminated  at  the  end  of  the  period.  The  60
remaining measures are carried over for 2003-2005. The key achievements are in the
areas of care structures, access to housing, incomes for disabled persons and assessing
the  skills  of  young  persons.  Various  legislative  or  regulatory  procedures  are  still  in
progress. For the rest, the Luxembourg report gives details of the results obtained but
does not state with sufficient precision to what degree the objectives were or were not
achieved, or what prospects these results open up for the future.

Strategic  approach:  Although  the  Plan  does  not  provide  a  full  analysis  of  the
situation  at  the  outset  and  the  results  previously  achieved,  or  a  systematic
quantification of the objectives set, the strategy adopted by Luxembourg is based on 5
well-defined fields of action: activation and participation in employment; reconciling
family life and working life; access to housing; stepping up measures to promote the
social  inclusion  of  under-25s;  access  of  vulnerable  persons  to  resources,  rights  and
services.

Key  policy  measures: The  first  three  Nice  objectives are  well  covered  and  most  of
the  "challenges  ahead"  described  in  the  2001  Joint  Inclusion  Report  have  been
tackled.  To  this  end,  54  new  measures  have  been  added  to  the  60  measures  carried
over from the previous Plan.  It is perhaps  regrettable  that the partnership dimension
and the gender dimension, both in fact well present in Luxembourg's inclusion policy,
are not emphasised more in the presentation of these measures.

Challenges  ahead:  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg  is  urged  to  build  on  the
progress achieved, particularly in the areas of housing, preventing school failure and,
more generally, preventing the exclusion of  young people. The new legal provisions
adopted will need to be evaluated as soon as possible. But the main challenge remains
that of developing a  genuine evaluation  process  and  creating  the necessary tools for
this:  precise  and  complete  indicators,  justification  of  the  strategic  choices  made,
quantified objectives, definition of the financial resources, analysis of outcomes.

185

 
1.

Situation and key trends

For Luxembourg, the period 2001-2003 was marked by a slowdown in the global economy.
Annual  GDP  growth  was  only  1.2%  in  2001  and  1.1%  in  2002,  compared  with  8.9%  in
2000.  After  a  period  of  steady  decline,  unemployment  rose  to  2.8%  of  the  working
population in 2002, and this upward trend is continuing (3.6% in August 2003 according to
the  public  employment  service,  ADEM).  However,  long-term  unemployment  rose  only
slightly (+ 0.2 points between 2000 and 2002), although more for women than men.

According to ECHP data, the poverty risk rate (after transfers) is stable, at 11% in 1996 and
12% in 2001, albeit higher among young people (20%). The number of persons drawing the
guaranteed minimum income (RMG) has risen since  1999, but mainly  due to an  easing of
the eligibility conditions.

Luxembourg anticipates a swift revival of economic activity, forecasting GDP growth of 2%
in  2003,  3.2%  in  2004  and  3.5%  in  2005;  total  domestic  employment  growth  of  1.4%  in
2003, 1.6% in 2004 and 2.8% in 2005, and, simultaneously, unemployment reaching 3.3%
in 2003, 3.5% in 2004 and 3.6% in 2005. There is a risk that the country will witness a shift
from  residual  unemployment,  composed  of  a  hard  core  of  persons  on  whom  integration
measures have so far been focused, towards unemployment that is also economy-related.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAPincl

According  to  the  Ministry,  21  of  the  81  measures  described  in  the  2001-2003  NAPincl,
representing  between  10%  and  54%  of  the  measures  depending  on  which  Nice  objective
they  came  under,  were  terminated  at  the  end  of  the  period.  Reflecting  the  long-term
ambitions of the Grand Duchy's inclusion policy and its links with the ESF programmes, the
60 remaining measures will continue over the period 2003-2005.

Apart  from  certain  achievements  in  the  areas  of  care  structures,  access  to  housing  and
assessing the skills of young persons, various legislative or regulatory procedures have been
launched during the period concerned. Some of them have been  passed  or  are  about  to  be
passed  (Law  of  8  November  2002  on  housing  aid;  Law  of  15  July  2003  promoting  the
economic security and independence of disabled persons), but it is too early yet to evaluate
their implementation. The NAPincl gives the results of all the measures terminated but does
not state with sufficient precision whether the objectives were achieved, or what prospects
these results open up for the second NAPincl.

The links between the first NAPincl and the programmes supported by the ESF are clearly
specified, both as regards Objective 3 (the "Social inclusion/Equal opportunities" strand of
the "Objective 3" programme represents 35% of the actions within this Plan) and as regards
the EQUAL CIP, devoted even more broadly to inclusion measures, with 50% of the budget
earmarked for facilitating access to the employment market for those who are most removed
from it (essentially prisoners and ex-prisoners, drug addicts and the homeless).

186

 
3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets of the 2003 NAPincl

Five  fields  of  action  are  defined  in  the  NAPincl,  implementing  the  4  Nice  objectives  and
based  around  Luxembourg's  statutory  social  security,  social  assistance  and  social  welfare
schemes:

to 

the  guaranteed  minimum 

(cid:1)  Activation  and  participation  in  employment.  Luxembourg  wants  to  focus  its
efforts  on  the  hard  core  of  unemployment,  chiefly  through  the  legislation
the  "social
relating 
unemployment"  bill  tabled  on  25  May  2003.  This  bill  seeks  to  ensure  the
activation of all unemployed persons after 6 months on the employment service's
books  and  will  also  bring  in  closer  collaboration  between  the  employment
service and the social services. The RMG scheme also has an activation element,
which it is planned to extend by doubling the proportion of job-trainees on RMG
(4% in July 2005), particularly among the 25-35 year-olds.

income  (RMG)  and 

(cid:1)  Facilitating  access  to  housing.  An  active  housing  policy  based  on  substantial
financial subsidies will  be conducted.  The  three main planks of the  policy  will
be to promote access to housing through  financial assistance  from the State; to
create  a  Housing  Observatory;  and  to  support  the  emergence  of  pilot  projects
and new strategy concepts (examination of a sectoral housing plan; study of the
conditions for the creation of a partnership between the public sector and owners
of  unoccupied  dwellings;  recourse  to  long-term  leases  for  public  promoters;
launching  of  a  proposed  "social  accommodation  agency"  to  help  house  the
disadvantaged).

(cid:1)  Reconciling family life and working life. The Luxembourg Government intends
to promote the creation of daycare structures, to make these more accessible to
persons  with low  incomes and  to  give  them  a  bigger  role  in  the  education  and
socialisation of children.

(cid:1)  Stepping up measures to promote the  social inclusion of under-25s.  Two types
of  measures  are  planned:  on  the  one  hand,  preventing  loss  of  employment  (by
adapting  the  education  system  for  young  people  experiencing  difficulties  at
school;  by  consolidating  the  socio-occupational  integration  mechanisms  for
young people outside the school system; and by devoting special attention to the
development of social skills), and on the other hand, planning specific measures
for young people in situations of distress.

(cid:1)  Access  of  vulnerable  persons  to  resources,  rights  and  services.  The  second

NAPincl focuses in particular on:

–  drug  addicts,  whose  changing  profile  (higher  rates  of  usage  and  of  fatal  overdose,
younger  age  of  commencement,  etc)  has  made  it  necessary  to  adjust  the  previous
strategy;

–  persons with mental problems, for whom the measures planned in the previous NAPincl

remain unchanged;

187

 
–  elderly persons,  for  whom measures are planned with regard to their  re-integration  into
employment, access to communication technologies, health and prevention of the risks of
social isolation;

–  disabled  persons,  for  whom  measures  are  planned  with  regard  to  access  to  services,
incomes (in the wake of the new legislation adopted in July 2003) and co-ordination of
assistance;

–  persons faced with situations of social distress, for whom  various  measures  included  in
the first NAPincl will be continued, accompanied by a reform of the law on "domicile de
secours" (the place where a person is considered resident for the purposes of entitlement
to social-security benefits) and the legislation applicable to social assistance;

–  foreigners,  whose  integration  will  be  promoted  by  a  campaign  to  make  them  aware  of
their voting rights in the forthcoming municipal elections  and  by  efforts  to  improve  the
reception facilities and take specific charge of applicants for asylum.

Regrettably, this strategic approach is not clearly based on a thorough analysis of the starting
situation (precise causes of exclusion; effects of economic changes; responses to the risks of
structural  unemployment)  and  of  earlier  results.  Nor  does  it  contain  a  systematic
quantification of the objectives to be achieved in the fields of action chosen.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

Prevention  (through  training  and  access  to  information),  a  proactive  labour  market  policy
(for  persons  who  are  fit  for  work)  and  social  protection  (for  persons  who  are  not  fit  for
work) are the three cornerstones of the present Plan. There is balanced coverage of the first
three  Nice  objectives,  and  most  of  the  "challenges  ahead"  described  in  the  2001  Joint
Inclusion Report have been tackled (as regards housing, dealing with immigrants and linking
up  the  NAP/incls  with  the  ESF  programmes).  To  this  end,  54  new  measures  have  been
added to the 60 measures carried over from the previous NAPincl.

However, although the NGOs played an important role in the drafting of the Plan and will
also  have  an  important  role  to  play  in  its  implementation,  it  should  be  noted  that  the
partnership dimension (the fourth Nice objective) is not given sufficient emphasis in the five
fields  of  action  chosen,  even  though  it  is  certainly  an  important  element  in  many  of  the
measures presented.

5.

Gender perspective

Luxembourg  will  be  organising  "gender  training"  for  the  members  of  the  Interministerial
Committee responsible for monitoring the programme. For the rest, the gender dimension is
essentially seen in the measures for reconciling family life and working life. In addition, the
present weaknesses in the indicators relating to this aspect should be remedied through the
introduction of breakdowns of the national statistics by sex (measure 54).

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is urged to build on the progress already achieved in the
fields  of  housing,  preventing  the  exclusion  of  young  people  (including  preventing  school
failure) and welcoming immigrants. A close eye must be kept on the poverty risk among the

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under-25s,  which  remains  higher  than  among  the  rest  of  the  population.  In  addition,  an
evaluation of the new legal provisions will need to be organised as soon as possible.

But the main challenge remains that of developing a genuine evaluation process and creating
the  necessary  tools  for  this:  precise  and  complete  indicators,  justification  of  the  strategic
choices  made,  quantified  objectives,  definition  of  the  financial  resources,  analysis  of
outcomes.

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THE NETHERLANDS

Situation  and  key  trends:  In  2001,  11%  of  the  population  run  poverty  risks,  one  of  the
lowest  shares  within  the  EU.  As  elsewhere  poverty  risks  have  a  gender,  age  and  ethnic
dimension. The employment rates are with 74.4% overall and 66.2% for women well above
the  Lisbon  targets  but  inactivity  also  remains  high.  The  employment  rates  for  ethnic
minorities  are  50%  overall  and  36%  for  women.  Since  last  year  unemployment  has
increased by 40%.

Progress  made  2001-2003:  Activating  policies  combined  with  the  favourable  economic
climate  of  the  past  years  have  resulted  in  increased  labour  market  participation  by  ethnic
minorities and older workers.  Given the  Employment  recommendation to The Netherlands
to  make  work  pay  better  and  despite  efforts  made,  the  unemployment  traps  remain  of
concern. Especially couples and single parents face considerable income losses if they step
from the social scheme into a low paid job. Social activation programmes for people remote
from  the  labour  market  show  good  results.  Early  school  leaving,  overall  below  the  EU
average, remains above 30% for some ethnic minorities. Health care waiting lists continue to
be  problematic  for  disabled  and  older  people.  The  number  of  municipalities  with  a
consultative  body  composed  of  social  benefit  recipients  more  than  doubled,  from  22%  in
2001 to over 50%. The dialogue with civil society, somewhat interrupted by the government
changes, has recently been picked up again.

Strategic  approach:  While  still  very  strong  in  coherence  and  in  effectively  translating
targets into policy measures with a budgetary back up, the focus of the  Dutch strategy has
narrowed.  An  innovative  risk  model,  which  better  identifies  risk  accumulation  and
generation-to-generation  poverty,  should  help  to  better  centre  policies  on  the  key  risk
factors.  The  risk  exposure  of  groups  (women,  ethnic  minorities,  elderly)  is  as  such  not
analysed.  It  may  be  due  to  this  fact  that  gender  equality  and  social  inclusion  policies  are
poorly linked.

Key policy measures: A new financial award system gives municipalities a direct interest in
achieving  a  strong  from-benefit-to-work  performance.  Single  parents  with  small  children
now have to be available for work and extra in-work child credits should help to make jobs
pay better for them. But shortages in childcare continue to exist. Following the recent zero
growth wage agreement benefit levels, linked to the general pay trend, won't increase either.
Limits  set  on  municipalities  to  provide  income  support  should  help  to  reduce  the
unemployment  traps.  Plans  to  make  the  integration  courses  for  former  immigrants
compulsory seem to lack feasibility considering the waiting lists and the worrying drop out
figures. There is a concern that those most dependant on health care (chronically ill, disabled
and  elderly  people)  are  hardest  hit  by  the  health  care  reforms.  The  NAP  is  silent  on
initiatives to strengthen the dialogue with civil society

Challenges  ahead:  The  tougher  economic  climate  will  put  activation  policies  to  the  test.
Gender  policies  should  be  integrated  in  the  otherwise  solid  social  inclusion  strategy.  The
childcare shortages should urgently be tackled and single parents should be given priority.
The  waiting  lists  for  integration  courses  for  former  immigrants  should  be  solved  and  the
drop  out  from  these  courses  considerably  reduced.  Policies  to  prevent  and  tackle  early
school leaving should be better focused on ethnic minorities. Vulnerable people that cannot
influence their health care  consumption  pattern  should  be  compensated  for  the  health  care
reforms.

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1.

Situation and key trends

The recovery of the Dutch economy lags behind (0.2% against EU 1.1% in 2002). For 2003
GDP growth is expected to further decline by –0.9% Due to the tight labour market of the
past  years,  wages  have  increased  sharper  than  elsewhere  in  the  EU.  In  order  to  keep  the
budget deficit below the Maastricht ceiling of 3%, the government has decided upon extra
budget cuts of EUR 11 billion in 2004, mainly in social security and in health care. From a
historically low level in 2001, unemployment increased by 40% between 2002 and 2003 and
this trend is expected to persist  in the coming  year.  Especially  young people,  women,  low
skilled  and  ethnic  minorities  will  be  hit.  Youth  unemployment  has  exceeded  10%.  These
trends are not yet visible in the Eurostat figures of 2002. In this year, with 2.7% overall and
3% for women, the Dutch unemployment rates were the lowest in the EU. Also long term
unemployment was with 0.7% overall and 0.8% for women very low.

With 74.4% overall and 66.2% for women the employment rates are well above the Lisbon
targets. The employment rate for older workers has improved considerably and with 42.2%
in 2002  it has now  exceeded  the  EU  average. The employment  rate of people  from ethnic
minorities is  50% for  men and 36%  for  women (national  figures).  Inactivity  has  remained
high. Around 1.7 million people are on social benefits.

With  11%  the  overall  poverty  risks  are  among  the  lowest  in  the  EU  (2001  figures).
However, as in other countries, poverty has a gender, ethnic and age dimension. In 2003 the
population share  of  people  from  non-western  origin  is  at  10%  (8.9%  in  2000),  in  the  four
major  cities  it  is  above  30%.  National  figures  show  that  single  women  aged  65+  are  over
represented in the group of long term dependants on the social minimum income. The share
of single parents that risk to fall into poverty was 45% in 2001 (EU  average : 35%). Only
38% of the single parent households have an income from work above the social minimum.
30% of the households on social minimum incomes are from ethnic minorities.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP/incl

The co-operation with non governmental partners, somewhat interrupted by the government
changes,  has  recently  been  picked up  again.  The  Alliance  for  Social  Justice,  a  platform  in
which the social partners and a large number of NGOs are represented, normally meets the
government twice a year to discuss social inclusion priorities.

A  lot  of  effort  is  being  put  in  measuring  progress  with  relevant  indicators.  The  target  to
halve the unemployment difference between native Dutch and ethnic minorities by 2002 was
already  met  in  2001,  but  due  to  the  deteriorated  economic  situation  the  gap  has  started  to
widen again (by 1% in  2002).  The  target  to  increase  the  employment  of  older  workers  by
0.75 percentage points a year was well met in 2002. According to preliminary 2002 figures,
the  commitment  of  the  municipalities  to  set  up  reintegration  plans  for  300.000  long  term
unemployed till 2006 with a success rate of 40% (job placements) proceeds satisfactory. The
number of realised trajectories stays in behind, but the number of job placements is at 76%
(preliminary figures). The social activation programmes successfully reduce the distance of
participants to the labour market and in 2002 these programmes have been made accessible
for disabled people.

As  in  previous  years,  in  2002  benefit  levels  were  linked  to  the  general  pay  trend.  This
cornerstone  of  Dutch  income  policy  guarantees  purchasing  power  maintenance  for  the
lowest  income  groups.  As  confirmed  by  the  Employment  recommendation  to  The

191

 
Netherlands to make work pay better, the unemployment traps remain of concern. Especially
couples  and  single  parents  face  considerable  income  losses  if  they  step  from  the  social
scheme  into  a  low  paid  job.  In  2002  extra  tax  credits  have  therefore  been  introduced  for
households  with  children.  The  target  to  reduce  problematic  debts  with  10%  by  2005”
appears difficult to  measure and therefore has been  abolished.  Demand for debt  assistance
increased considerably and the debt monitoring system is now  being  improved  in  order  to
better identify the features and scale of the problem.

Municipalities with a large  share  of people  from  ethnic  minorities  are  provided  with  extra
integration  budgets,  which  should  primarily  be  spent  on  parents  and  job  seekers.  In  2002
early school leaving  was at 15% overall  and at 14.3% for  females  but among some ethnic
minorities it is above 30%. On average, primary schoolchildren from ethnic minorities have
a language deficiency of two years compared to native Dutch children (should be reduced to
1,5  years  in  2006).  Whereas  children  from  ethnic  minorities  have  started  to  catch  up,  the
educational performance gap for native Dutch children from disadvantaged groups shows a
worsening trend.

Waiting lists for health care have generally decreased since 2001, but bottlenecks continue
to  exist  for  those  most  dependant  on  health  care  namely  disabled  and  older  people.  The
access  to  ICT  objectives,  such  as  “the  connection  to  the  Internet  of  all  schools  and
municipalities”  have  been  achieved.  More  than  50%  of  the  municipalities  dispose  of  a
consultative body composed of social benefit recipients (22% in 2001).

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

There is a sharper demarcation of poverty and social exclusion issues and a stronger focus
on the most vulnerable people. An innovative risk model helps to better identify the people
that run the highest poverty risks. It links characteristics of poverty and social exclusion to
risk  factors  such  as  income  situation,  position  on  the  labour  market,  health  and  living
conditions  and  thereby  enables  a  better  identification  of  risk  accumulation  and  of
generation-to-generation  poverty.  The  risk  exposure  of  groups  (women,  ethnic  minorities,
elderly) is as such not analysed. The strategy is very strong in coherence and in efficiently
translating  targets  into  policy  measures  with  a  budgetary  back  up.  Key  policy  areas  have
been  left  out  though  such  as  unemployment  prevention  which  is  treated  in  the  NAP
Employment although not from a social inclusion perspective. Also, the 2001 targets on the
mobilisation of all actors have disappeared. Good examples of output targets are "to increase
the employment rate for ethnic minorities to 54% in 2005", "a 50% reduction of the waiting
lists for mental health care by 2007" and "extending the number of healthy years for people
with a low socio-economic status by three years (to 56 years) in 2020".

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The new law "Work and Assistance" makes municipalities financially responsible for both
social  benefit  payments  and  reintegration  measures;  those  with  a  strong  from-benefit-to-
work  performance  are  financially  rewarded.  While  much  better  enabling  tailor  made
approaches, this incentive system may involve the risk that difficult-to-place people are left
behind. There is also a risk that decentralisation weakens possibilities for strategic steering
and monitoring at the national level. Everybody aged 65- in the social scheme now has to be
available for work, including single parents with small children. Extra in-work child credits
should  make  work  pay  better  for  them.  These  positive  steps  should  prevent  single  parents
from drifting away from the labour market. However the NAP is surprisingly silent on the

192

 
continued shortages in childcare. The labour participation of women from ethnic minorities
remains underexposed.

Following the recent zero growth wage agreement benefit levels, linked to the general pay
trend, won't increase either. The  co-ordination between statutory  and  local income  support
should  be  improved  by  the  limits  set  on  municipalities  to  provide  additional  income
assistance.  Long  term  dependants  on  the  social  minimum  without  job  perspectives  will
receive an annual income supplement (EUR 454 for a couple). This will also help to better
align the objective of income transparency with that of poverty reduction.

Integration  policies  are  firmer  in  tone  and  focus  on  full  participation  in  society  and  on
acquaintance  of  the  Dutch  culture  and  customs.  But  a  waiting  list  problem  hinders  the
implementation  of  integration  courses  for  former  immigrant  and  the  drop  out  rates  are
worrying  which  also  raises  questions  on  the  feasibility  of  plans  to  introduce  more
compulsory  elements  for  this  group.  Although  early  school  leaving  among  some  ethnic
minorities exceeds 30%, the NAP lacks a specific focus on these youngsters.

The  introduction  of  own  contributions  for  health  care  services  and  a  25%  increase  of  the
own  risk  in  health  insurance  illustrate  the  trend  to  put  more  emphasis  on  individual
responsibility. There is a concern that not  all  those  most dependant on  health care such as
the elderly, chronically ill and disabled people will be fully compensated for these measures.
The  NAP  is  silent  on  initiatives  to  maintain  the  momentum  in  the  traditionally  strong
dialogue with civil society. The ESF assists at implementing important inclusion objectives
such as reintegration and social activation programmes for the (very) long-term unemployed
and the tackling of early school leaving.

5.

Gender perspective

Given the Dutch tradition of developing integrated policies, the separate way in which social
inclusion policies and gender policies are treated is rather astonishing. Despite the somewhat
critical evaluation in 2001, the gender dimension of poverty and social exclusion has been
treated even less this time. With  some  exceptions indicators  are not split by gender,  while
Dutch  gender  statistics  are  among  the  best  in  the  EU,  and  gender  specific  targets  are
missing.  Gender  mainstreaming  has  a  low  profile,  it  will  "where  necessary"  be  taken  into
account in the implementation of the NAP.

6.

Current issues and challenges ahead

The tougher economic climate will put the ambitious activation policies to the test. Priority
should be given to integrating the gender dimension of poverty and social exclusion in the
otherwise solid anti poverty strategy. Indicators should consequently be split by gender. The
childcare shortages should urgently be tackled and single parents  should be given priority.
The waiting lists for integration courses for former immigrants and the drop out from these
courses should be solved. Policies to prevent and tackle early  school leaving should  better
focus  on  ethnic  minorities.  Those  that  cannot  influence  their  health  care  consumption
pattern,  such  as  disabled,  elderly  and  chronically  ill  people,  should  be  compensated  for
health care reforms such as the introduction of a higher own risk and of own contributions
for health care services.

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AUSTRIA

Situation  and  key  trends:  Between  1997  and  2001  the  overall  at-risk-of  poverty  rate
decreased  slightly  to  12%,  while  the  persistent  risk-of-poverty  increased  to  7%.  Overall
spending  on  social  protection  reached  28.5%  of  GDP  in  2001  a  slight  increase  compared
with  1998.  Since  2000  the  youth  unemployment  ratio  has  gradually  increased,  but  still
remains on a very low level. The long-term unemployment rate, one of the lowest in the EU,
remained so far rather stable. While Austria has the highest share of persons (25-64 years of
age) at the upper secondary level in 2000, it has one of the lowest of the tertiary level. The
early  school  leaving  rate  amounts  to  9.5%  in  2002,  the  lowest  in  the  EU.  Female
employment continues to increase notably through part-time work.

Progress made in 2001-2003: A range of action has been undertaken in the field of old age
pensions  and  unemployment  benefits  for  the  lowest  group  of  recipients.  Increasingly
successful  actions  have  been  undertaken  in  support  of  persons  with  disabilities.  Measures
concerning  migrants  have  been  stepped  up  but  the  impact  of  measures  concerning  asylum
seekers seems to remain limited. Reintegration measures on the regional labour market and
social services have also been strengthened.

Strategic  approach:  A  wide  range  of  objectives  has  been  formulated  for  the  period  to
come.  They  concern  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  school  leavers  with  low  levels  of
reading  ability  by  20%  in  the  coming  years,  a  monthly  minimum  wage  of  EUR  1000  for
full-time  work  and  up  to  this  level  no  payment  of  income  tax,  the  further  extension  of
minimum pensions, further integration of immigrants and of care services.

Key  policy  measures:  The  NAP  is  characterised  by  a  variety  of  measures,  which  are
designed to address specific problems not yet satisfactorily covered by more general policies
of social protection. In a variety of fields gender mainstreaming actions have been launched
to improve framework conditions and reduce the care burden for women. A number of them,
such  as  especially  the  system  of  childcare  allowances  and  those  concerning  migrants  and
asylum seekers need to be monitored closely.

Challenges  ahead:  The  NAP  gives  an  overview  of  a  wide  range  of  interesting  and
important  measures  which  do  not  fully  constitute  an  action  plan.  While  the  presented
objectives are by themselves very important, they are in major parts not made more concrete
by  target  setting  and  rolling  out  a  financial  perspective  to  underpin  the  process.  Care
facilities for children up to 3 years old and at school age should be further extended. While
further  action  with  regard  to  an  enhanced  minimum  pension  are  planned,  the  effects,
especially on women, should be evaluated. Especially the situation of households with long-
term unemployed needs to be monitored with regard to the high risk of poverty. Discussion
of  policy  measures  in  a  gender  mainstreaming  perspective  should  also  be  enhanced.  The
mobilisation  of  all  relevant  bodies  needs  to  be  strengthened  significantly  in  view  of  the
reactions of the main stakeholders.

194

 
1.

Key trends and challenges

The  years  covered  by  the  NAP  were  characterised  by  weak  economic  development  and  a
rise  of  unemployment  from  3.7%  in  2000,  3.6%  in  2001  to  4.3%  in  2002.  The  LTU  rate
decreased  to  0.8%.  The  overall  employment  rate  increased  to  69.3  %  in  2002,  the  female
rate has continuously  gone up  and reached 63.1% in 2002. The  employment  rate  for  older
workers shows an increase from 28.9% in 2001 to 30.0% in 2002.

Compared  with  1997,  the  ECHP  2001  data  show  that  the  at-risk-of-poverty  rate  has
decreased by 1 percentage point to 12%. However, the rate indicating the persistent risk-of-
poverty increased to 7% in 2001 against only 4.7% over the cycle 1995-1997.

The  overall  education  and  qualification  level  of  the  population  (25-64  years  of  age  is
characterised  (in  2000)  by  the  largest  share  (61.9%  =  the  highest  in  EU  15)  at  the  upper
secondary level, while the share at the tertiary level is, with 14.2%, one of the lowest in the
EU. Early school leaving in 2002 stood at 9.5%, the lowest percentage in the EU, against a
Community  average  of  about  19%.  Austria  spent  in  2000  28.5%  of  GDP  on  social
protection, a slight increase of 0.2 percentage points on 1998. The general social protection
level  in  Austria  remains  relatively  high  compared  with  the  EU  average.  The  distribution
effect  of  social  transfers  in  Austria  is  above  the  EU  average.  Income  distribution  is  less
uneven which leads to a below-average at-risk-of-poverty rate in Austria. The risk of social
exclusion  and  poverty  is  therefore  seen  as  being  concentrated  on  a  number  of  specific
groups characterised by one or more risk features.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAP inclusion

Efforts  have  been  undertaken  to  protect  the  position  of  the  poorest  with  regard  to  old-age
pensions,,  notably  by  the  first  step  of  the  tax  reform  and  increased  supplements  for  low
pensions. Unemployment benefits for persons with previously the lowest net earnings were
increased. More persons, especially with flexible employment relationships, are covered by
the new severance pay regime. Regional re-integration policies into the labour market have
been strengthened.

The  childcare  allowance  introduced  in  2002  has  contributed  to  raising  income  levels  for
families with young children. A monitoring system was established to observe implications
for  the  labour  market  attachment  of  women.  In  this  respect  research  show  so  far  mixed
results.

Generally, the position of women has improved in a number of areas like an increase in the
rate  of  employment  and  concerning  educational  achievements.  Various  actions  have  been
taken to improve the overall framework conditions and to reduce the family and care burden
for  women.  A  series  of  interesting  and  increasingly  successful  policies  and  actions  have
been  described  with  regard  to  people  with  disabilities  and  concerning  the  improvement  of
long-term care facilities, notably by actions of the Länder. Also better targeting of subsidies
for  needy  persons,  as  well  as  support  facilities  and  actions  for  homeless  persons  are
important measures. Access to debt settlement procedures have been broadened through an
amendment of the insolvency act.

A range of policies and measures  concerning migrants and  asylum seekers  are highlighted
labour  market  participation,
showing 

increased  efforts  and  results  (extension  of 

195

 
improvement  in  education,  German  language  courses,  specific  housing  programmes  and
integration offices).

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The government underlines the necessity to conduct a policy mix of sound economic policy
on the basis of the EU stability pact targets, combined with a better co-ordination with fiscal,
employment  and  social  policies.  Major  reforms  are  designed  to  increase  the  long-term
sustainability  of  the  social  protection  system.  The  government  sees  a  full-employment
policy as the cornerstone of reducing poverty risks.

Objectives set in the NAP for the foreseeable future are more in particular:

(cid:1)  the  reduction  of  both  the  number  of  school  leavers  with  low  levels  of  reading
ability by 20% in the coming years, and of 18-24 years old persons, who have at
most completed compulsory school, as well as in a  general  way,  the  envisaged
closure  of  the  gap  in  educational  and  training  participation  between  young
people from migrant families and young people as a whole,

(cid:1)  the extension of unemployment insurance to atypical employment forms, such as
free  service  contracts,  self-employed  and  farmers  and  a  call  upon  the  social
partners to conclude agreements to the effect that the lowest monthly income for
full-time workers should be at least 1000 Euro,

(cid:1)  a  reduction  of  both  the  proportion  of  sub-standard  accommodation  in  the

housing stock and the number of homeless people.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The  continuing  increase  of  the  female  employment  rate  is  the  most  noticeable  positive
development on the  labour  market.  Most new  jobs created are of  a  part-time  nature.  After
mixed results so  far,  it  should  be  further  monitored  in  which  way  the  childcare  allowance
reaches  its  objectives  without  delaying  efforts  to  increase  more  forcefully  the  offer  of
childcare  facilities,  especially  for  those  below  three  years  of  age,  where  regional  demand
exists. A good policy example are the continuing efforts to increase the participation of girls
and women in the field of ICT. Also concerning the situation of disabled persons progress
has  been  made  in  a  number  of  fields  (employment,  long-term  care  facilities,  etc.).  With
regard  to  migrants,  a  number  of  actions  show  positive  results  but  they  have  to  be  further
developed.  As  far  as  asylum  seekers  are  concerned,  it  seems  that  the  actual  impact  of  a
number of positive actions remains vague and does not sufficiently document the focus that
these groups should receive in this NAP. The federal and the Länder level are called upon to
reach workable methods to overcome mutual limitations.

According  to  the  ECHP  4%  of  the  Austrian  population  are  acutely  poor,  mainly  older
persons. A number of measures to improve this situation are mentioned in the NAP which
should  be  intensified.  The  re-casting  of  social  assistance  and  unemployment  assistance
schemes, which is under examination, has to be put in the context of a possible increase in
the risk of poverty for a higher number of households with long-term unemployed.

ECHP data shows that the poverty risk for women of 65  years and more (29% in 1999) is
quite high. Various measures have been taken to cushion  potential negative  side  effects of
the pension reform, for instance the improved calculation of the child caring periods and the

196

 
creation of a special hardship funds. It remains to be seen, whether these measures will be
able to reach all persons with low pensions, especially  single  women  with  interruptions in
their working life and/or longer periods of atypical employment. The issue of strengthening
individual pension rights for women,  raised in the previous  JIR,  has  only  marginally  been
tackled by the recent pension reform.

Against the background  that  access  to  the  labour  market,  adequate  protection  under  social
and  labour  legislation  as  well  as  improved  education  opportunities  are  considered  core
elements  of  a  policy  preventing  poverty,  special  attention  is  paid  to  employment  and
educational  measures.  While  also  a  number  of  targeted  measures  for  population  groups  at
high  risk  have  already  been  taken  cross-cutting  policies  should  be  further  developed  in  a
coherent way to prevent the risks of exclusion.

The government underlines the increased co-operation between federal and regional bodies.
However,  the  participation  of  welfare  organisations  and  the  social  partners  should  be
actively enhanced.

5.

Gender perspective

While a large number of actions has been initiated to enhance equal opportunities between
men and women, the gender impact of recent measures, notably the pension reform, has to
be  monitored  closely..  There  is  still  an  additional  demand  for  childcare  facilities  and  the
impact of  the childcare allowance on  female  employment  requires  further  attention.  In  the
context of the Community Initiatives EQUAL and the Territorial Employment Pacts actions
are undertaken to address the reduction of gender-specific segregation.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The key objectives set in the present NAP are by themselves very important and are rightly
to be addressed with a large number of policy tools. The NAP shows that a large range of
measures  targeted  at  various  risk  groups  exist,  are  further  developed  and  continue  to  be
designed subject to the availability of budgetary  funds. However, targets,  indicators,  time-
frames  and,  to  a  large  extent,  a  budgetary  perspective  as  to  how  to  reduce  the  number  of
persons threatened by exclusion and poverty risks up to 2010 have, with few exceptions, not
been set in concrete terms. The NAP fulfils only partly the conditions of a proper action plan
on how to reach the 2010 objectives in a structured and comprehensive way, underpinned by
quantitative commitments.

A more comprehensive strategy on equal opportunities as a mainstreaming issue throughout
all relevant policy areas has still to be developed.

Gender  Mainstreaming  is  apparent  in  several  initiatives  related  to  employment  and
education but further and wider scope impact assessment is needed to effectively reduce the
gender gaps in low income groups. The issue of improving integration policies for non-EU
citizens needs to remain high on the agenda.

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PORTUGAL

Situation and key trends: The country's structural frailties persist, against a backdrop
of  economic  slowdown  and  rising  unemployment,  and  continuing  low  skills  for  a
significant  share  of  the  labour  force  and  low  overall  productivity.  The  situation
regarding  poverty  and  social  exclusion  remains  worrying:  in  2001,  20%  of  the
population  was  exposed  to  the  risk  of  poverty,  and  15%  to  the  risk  of  persistent
poverty. Portugal's poverty rate continues to be among the highest in the EU, despite a
clear improvement since 1995 (23%).

Progress  made  2001-2003: The absence of information for certain indicators  makes
reliable  evaluation  of  the  outcomes  of  important  policy  measures  difficult,  despite
certain  monitoring  efforts  made.  The  development  of  the  minimum  income  scheme
(with  modifications),  measures  to  promote  employment  and  the  expansion  of  the
"Social Network" are areas where progress has been achieved.

Strategic  approach:  The  2003-5  NAPincl  is  a  fairly  straight  continuation  of  the
overall  strategy  presented  in  2001,  but  with  the  main  objectives  slightly  lowered  as
regards reducing the poverty risk and child poverty. Because the approach is based on
very  broad  principles,  approaches  and  strategic  aims,  because  multiple  priorities  are
set out and  because  there  is  such  a diverse panoply of  instruments (the objectives of
which  are  not  always  specified),  it  is  difficult  to  establish  what  the  true  action
priorities are and precisely how the strategic objectives tie in with the implementation
of the measures. These difficulties are aggravated by the failure to identify sources of
funding and budgets for the main measures.

Key policy measures: A key measure of the NAPincl is the "Social Network", which
is  to  be  spread  wider  and  reinforced  from  the  point  of  view  of  mobilising  all
stakeholders.  There  are  also  measures  in  the  fields  of  education  and  training  and
measures to raise the level of minimum  pensions.  Special  attention  is  paid  to certain
vulnerable groups (at-risk children and young persons, the homeless, immigrants), and
there  are  also  measures  to  ensure  citizens  have  easier  access  to  information  on  their
social  rights  and  access  to  advice  in  serious  situations.  In  line  with  the  long-term
ambitions  announced  in  2001,  the  2003-5  NAPincl  contains  no  innovatory  policy
measures  (it  contains  actions  already  in  progress  and  new  instruments  designed  to
breathe new life into projects which had failed to make progress).

Challenges  ahead:  The  major  challenge  concerns  the  availability  of  the  necessary
funding to achieve the NAPincl goals, in an environment of budgetary restrictions. At
the operational level, monitoring outcomes continues to pose a challenge, and there is
an  obvious  need  to  develop  means  for  evaluating  progress  achieved,  notably  an
information  system  built  on  indicators  appropriate  to  the  goals  and  priorities  to  be
achieved. Bearing in mind the low level of participation by civil society and the social
partners,  the  conditions  and  mechanisms  for  an  effective  partnership-based  approach
need to be created.

198

 
1.

Situation and key trends

The efforts made to combat social exclusion have brought the poverty risk rate down (from
23% in 1995 to 20% in 2001 according to Eurostat, ECHP data). Nevertheless, Portugal still
has one of the highest rates in the EU, and is 5% above the EU average. The elderly (over-
65s)  and  the  children  (0-15  year-olds)  were  the  most  exposed  to  the  poverty  risk
(respectively  31%  and  27%),  along  with  households  of  one  elderly  person  (46%,  with
women being the most exposed), lone-parent families (39%) and large families (49% in the
case  of  households  of  two  or  more  adults  with  three  or  more  children).  The  risk  rate  for
persistent poverty is 15%, which, despite having fallen slightly, remains worrying, with 22%
of  the  children  in  this  category  in  the  year  2001.  Inequality  in  income  distribution,  as
measured by the income quintile ratio, was also higher in Portugal (6.5) than anywhere else
in the EU in 2001, despite a clear reduction since 1995 (7.4).

The country's situation continues to reflect the major structural problems that beset it: (a) the
shortcomings of the social protection system, whose per capita level of public expenditure is
the lowest in the EU (despite some impact on the risk of poverty, which would have  been
37%  without  social  transfers  including  pensions);  (b)  the  low  level  of  education  (in  2002,
only  20.6% of  25-64  year-olds  had  completed  at  least  upper  secondary  education,  and  the
early school-leaving rate of 45.5% contrasts strikingly with the EU  average of 18.8%); (c)
the  low  skill  level  of  large  sectors  of  the  working  population,  in  an  economy  based  on
labour-intensive,  low-paid  work  ("the  working  poor  "),  together  with  low  participation  in
continuing  training  (2.9%  in  2002),  hamper  sectoral  restructuring  and  explain  why
productivity growth is so low (0.3% in 2002, unchanged since 2001).

Despite  the  recent  rise  in  unemployment,  the  labour  market  is  characterised  by  an
employment rate above the EU average (68.2% in 2002) and an unemployment rate below
the  EU  average  (5.1%),  with  long-term  unemployment  representing  34.4%  of  total
unemployment;  however,  there  are  growing  signs  of  a  mismatch  between  supply  and
demand (e.g. the  rise in unemployment among  young graduates).  Additionally, the present
slowdown  in  economic  growth  (real  GDP  growth  fell  to  0.5  in  2002)  and  in  public  and
private  investment  has  prompted  the  new  Government,  elected  in  March  2002,  to  make
reducing  the  public  deficit  a  paramount  priority.  In  the  field  of  social  policy,  the
Government  has  pursued  a  vast  reform  of  the  social  security  system  (minimum  pensions,
differentiated family allowances, social integration minimum income), the health system and
the education system and has adopted a new Labour Code.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 NAPincl

The opportunity created by the first NAPincl - an innovative exercise for Portugal, with its
mainstreaming  of  inclusion  and  its  adoption  of  a  medium/long-term  perspective  -  remains
relevant,  although  evaluation  of  the  Plan's  implementation  cannot  be  conclusive.  The
difficulties in monitoring the indicators make  it impossible  to conclude whether,  and what
degree, the goals set for many of the measures were achieved, either because information is
not  available  or  because  the  information  available  is  inadequate.  This  is  particularly
noticeable, for example, with regard to the evaluation of the strategy for preventing risks of
"info-exclusion" which had marked the first NAPincl.

However, analysis of the progress made in the light of the 4 common objectives reveals that:
(a) the measures concerned with promoting access to the labour market have, in tandem with
the  NAP/empl,  achieved  considerable  success;  (b)  pursuit  of  the  reform  of  the  social

199

 
protection  system  has  not  affected  attainment  of  the  goals  inherent  in  the  Minimum
Guaranteed Income scheme (scheme combining financial benefits with a socio-occupational
integration plan); (c) the aim of having all persons in a situation of exclusion sign a "social
integration contract" within one year was too ambitious and was difficult both to implement
and  to  evaluate,  since  it  requires  multisectoral  involvement  and  since  the  universe  of
individuals  to  be  covered  remains  undefined  (the  same  comment  applies  to  the
individualised follow-up of children and young persons within three months); (d) the setting
up  of  a  national  social  welfare  helpline  has  made  it  easier  for  certain  priority  groups  to
obtain  information  and  a  rapid  response  to  their  problems;  (e)  the  "Urban  Social
Development Contracts" and the "Rural Areas and Social Development" project, which were
aimed  at  tackling  the  problems  of  the  regional  nature  of  exclusion,  were  abandoned  for
budgetary  and  policy  reasons;  (f)  as  regards  mobilising  stakeholders  in  the  process,  the
Interministerial Monitoring Committee,  set up  expressly  to  monitor  the  NAPincl,  operated
only  intermittently  and  its  composition  had  to  be  altered  following  the  change  of
government,  hence  its  impact  as  an  institutional  co-ordination  forum  has  been  established
only gradually; as regards civil society, the vague reference to the Co-operation and Social
Solidarity Pact and the project for the creation of an NGOs Forum illustrates the low degree
of involvement of these players.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets of the 2003 NAPincl

The 2003-5 NAPincl represents a straight continuation from the first NAPincl in terms of its
overall  principles  and  approaches.  The  strategic  aims  remain  broadly  the  same:  linking  of
economic  development  with  social  cohesion,  mainstreaming  of  inclusion  in  the  relevant
sectoral policies, modernisation of the social protection systems, development of integrated
programmes aimed at particular groups and regions, expansion of the network services and
at
equipment, 
central/regional/local  levels.  As  regards  the  multidimensional  approach,  the  new  NAPincl
makes  reference  to  other  connected  plans  (in  the  fields  of  employment,  drugs,  domestic
violence,  the  information  society,  health,  equal  opportunities,  etc.)  in  a  context  of  co-
ordination and complementarity that needs to be described more explicitly.

and  women,  participation  of 

equality  between  men 

agents 

The main objectives are extremely diverse in nature: leaving aside the goals adopted at the
European  level,  other  notable  objectives  include  reducing  the  poverty  risk  rate  by  2%  by
2005 and significantly  reducing  child poverty by 2010, which represents a lowering of the
more  ambitious  objectives  set  out  in  the  first  NAPincl.  Also  worth  mentioning  are  the
objectives of improving minimum pension levels by the year 2006, setting up a system for
social  audits  of  care  institutions  for  certain  vulnerable  groups,  ensuring  each  citizen  has
access  to  primary  health  care  and/or  a  GP.  The  principle  of  a  contract  system  for  socio-
occupational integration is maintained, but with no fixed deadline. The regional dimension
also seems to be less pronounced (50 Local Plans for at-risk children and young persons in
problem  regions),  although  the  "PROGRIDE"  Programme  for  Inclusion  and  Development
(which  will  succeed  the  Programme  to  Combat  Poverty  and  is  currently  being  developed)
should cover this dimension.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

Of the 200 instruments planned  to implement the  60 priorities  established in  the NAPincl,
fewer than a fifth have no associated goals owing to a lack of available information. All the
same, it should be emphasised that an effort has been made to quantify goals. In general, the
measures  proposed  are  not  innovatory  and  the  instruments  to  be  created  revive  the  main
features of projects already completed or others whose potential justifies a relaunch.

200

 
In addition to measures to promote an inclusive labour market, with the accent on vocational
training  and  a  stronger  emphasis  on  lifelong  education  and  training,  measures  to  promote
access to healthcare focus in particular on the most disadvantaged social groups, against the
backdrop  of  the  reform  of  the  Portuguese  National  Health  Service  begun  in  2002.  As  the
phenomenon of homelessness seems to be growing (with more and more women and young
persons affected) an "integrated intervention strategy for the homeless" will be finalised in
2005,  based  on  a  diagnosis  of  the  situation.  The  objective  of  "digital  cohesion"  promotes
access to the information society for women, disabled persons, ethnic minorities, immigrants
and  residents  of  deprived  areas.  The  promotion  of  a  "global  age  strategy"  also  includes
initiatives  to  reunite  families  of  immigrants.  The  varied  package  of  measures  for  children
incorporates  a  dual  strategy  aimed  at  children  or  at  families,  through  consolidation  of  the
institutional support network (Boards for the Protection of Minors) and the establishment of
Local Plans aimed at them. As regards mobilising the stakeholders, the "Social Network" is
an  emblematic  programme  because  it  contains  a  methodology  for  the  partnership-based
planning  of  social  intervention  by  municipalities  and  communes,  and  thus  has  a  local
dimension.

In Portugal, the Structural Funds play an essential role and the Operational Programmes co-
financed by the ESF under the CSF III 2000-2006 and the EQUAL CI are often mentioned
as  instruments  contributing  to  the  implementation  of  the  objectives  and  even  as  good
practices. However, as with the 2001-3 NAPincl, no quantification of the amounts is given,
which weakens the operational character of the NAPincl as a tool for rationalising national
and Community operations.

5.

Gender perspective

Equality between men and women is one of the strategic planks of the 2003-5 NAPincl, and
references to this issue permeate it, but difficulty in implementing the gender mainstreaming
approach  persists,  in  terms  of  defining  the  goals  and  the  impacts.  Reconciliation  and
expansion  of  the  support  structures  have  a  key  place,  and  the  "Gender  Social  Contract"
advocated in the first Plan has also lost some of its visibility. Finally, the references to link-
ups with the "National Equality Plan" and the "Plan to Combat Domestic Violence" call for
real integration of the measures envisaged in these plans and the NAPincl.

6.

Current issues and future challenges

The  key  challenge  for  a  country  aiming  gradually  to  put  right  a  series  of  accumulated
shortcomings  is  to  allocate  the  resources  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  the  NAPincl
objectives,  in  an  economic  situation  where  the  financing  of  social  policies  may  be
problematical.  Against  the  background  of  the  evolving  Structural  Funds,  it  is  essential  to
quantify budgets and sources of financing in order to ensure the continuity of the strategy.

There  are  several  challenges  to  be  met  on  the  programming  level:  (a)  in  view  of  the
monitoring  problems  encountered  for  the  2001-3  NAPincl,  substantial  efforts  need  to  be
made in order to build and consolidate an efficient information system; (b) from the point of
view  of  the  content  of  the  operations,  it  is  essential  to  target  the  priority  areas  more
precisely,  bearing  in  mind  that  exclusion  from  the  labour  market  is  only  one  of  the  many
dimensions of poverty and social exclusion (moreover, the situation of the "working poor" in
Portugal shows that the poverty risk extends beyond access to employment); (c) concerning
the methodology to be  adopted, local  partnerships working in networks  using  a method of
"social planning" (including exchanges of  good practice) seem to be the trump  card of  the
"Social Network"; the operational challenge of the contract-based approach for helping the

201

 
most vulnerable is linked above all to the rate of coverage of the universe in question and the
swiftness of the intervention.

In  terms  of  implementation,  and  bearing  in  mind  the  low  level  of  involvement  of  non-
institutional stakeholders in the preparation of the 2003-5 NAPincl, the challenge is to adopt
a  partnership-based  approach  with  civil  society,  the  social  partners  and  the  excluded
themselves  through  the  establishment  of  specific  structures  for  wide  and  continuing
participation  (e.g.  an  "NGOs  Forum").  At  the  same  time,  steps  to  make  the  Ministries
concerned more accountable must be continued within the framework of the Interministerial
Monitoring Committee.

202

 
FINLAND

Situation and key trends. The Finnish social protection system rests on the basic principles
of universal social welfare and health services and a comprehensive income security system.
The  aim  is  to  provide  the  entire  population  with  services  that  are  mainly  tax  funded  and
whose  organisational  responsibility  is  decentralised,  being  assigned  to  municipalities.  The
emphasis  is  on  preventive  measures.  Finland  spent  25.2%  of  GDP  in  social  protection  in
2000 (EU15 27.3%). In 2001, 11% of the Finnish population lived on an income of less than
60% of median income (EU-15: 15%).

Finland expects to reach just over 1% growth in total output in 2003. The forecasted growth
rate for 2004 amounts to 2.5%. The weaker growth since 2001 has started to have an impact
on  the  demand  for  labour.  The  unemployment  rate  is  expected  to  rise  to  9.3%  and  the
employment rate to decrease to 67.4% in 2003. However, the anticipated economic growth
for 2004 is assumed to reverse this trend.

Progress made in 2001-2003 Finland has carried out the policies and measures described in
2001  NAP/incl.  The  new  plan  includes  a  follow-up  table  of  the  implementation  of  all  the
measures  of  the  last  plan,  but  there  is  no  information  available  yet  on  their  results.  A
thorough  set  of  indicators  with  long-time  series  and  divided  by  gender  where  possible  is
nevertheless  in  place.  The  indicators  reveal  that  by  and  large  Finland  has  moved  slightly
towards  the  right  direction.  The  development  cannot  be  attributed  to  NAP/incl,  but  the
process has systematised the policy discussion and strengthened networks at national level.

Strategic approach The NAP/inclusion strategy in the coming decade is crystallised in four
general policies: promoting health and ability to lead an active life; increasing attractiveness
of working life; prevention and combating social exclusion; and ensuring effective services
and  a  reasonable  level  of  income  security.  The  starting  point  is  to  preserve  the  basic
structure  of  the  Finnish  social  security  system  and  work  mainly  within  that  structure,  by
emphasising the primacy of work. The improvement of basic income security is also called
for. The groups threatened by social exclusion will mainly be catered within the coverage of
services  and  benefits  intended  for  the  entire  population,  but  the  need  to  complement  the
universal system with specially targeted measures is underlined as well. The plan presents a
set  of  sufficiently  explicit  policy  objectives  for  various  sectors.  The  process  will  be
monitored and evaluated by Finnish authorities, but the NAP/inclusion is brief in specifying
which targets will be used for that purpose.

Key policy measures The plan responds to common objectives with a number of concrete
measures,  majority  of  which  aim  at  improving  the  universal  system,  but  targeted  special
actions are being reinforced at the same time. The measures include, for instance, enabling
the establishment of social enterprises, a National Health Project to secure the functioning of
the  health  care  system,  increase  of  annual  supply  of  reasonably  priced  rental  housing,
reducing  the  number  of  dropouts  with  performance-based  financing,  increasing  preventive
social  assistance,  organising  morning  and  afternoon  activities  for  schoolchildren,  and
supporting  the  integration  of  immigrants.  Budget  implications  have  been  identified,  where
possible.  It  is  evident  from  the  plan  that  recognition  of  and  co-operation  between  various
actors has intensified significantly.

Challenges ahead Finland has managed to maintain its level of performance in the field of
tackling social exclusion, even though the share of GDP spent on social expenditure in the
country is  less  than  EU-average.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  this  formula  is  sustainable
under the circumstances of prolonged economic slowdown.

203

 
1.

Situation and key trends

Finland expects to reach just over 1% growth in total output in 2003. The forecasted growth
rate for 2004 amounts to 2.5%. The weaker growth since 2001 has started to have an impact
on  the  demand  for  labour.  The  unemployment  rate  is  expected  to  rise  to  9.3%  and  the
employment rate to decrease to 67.4% in 2003. However, the anticipated economic growth
for 2004 is assumed to reverse this trend.

In  2001,  11%  of  the  Finnish  population  lived  on  an  income  of  less  than  60%  of  median
income  (EU-15:  15%).  Finland  spent  25.2%  of  GDP  in  social  protection  in  2000  (EU15
27.3%).

Structural  unemployment  remains  a  special  challenge;  the  number  of  people  living  alone,
with  a  higher  risk  of  poverty,  has  risen  significantly  during  the  last  decade;  single  parent
families among all families have gone up from 10% to 17% in ten years; sparsely populated
regions  have  specific  problems  in  relation  to  those  of  the  growth  centres;  differences  in
mortality between different social groups are notable; the number of children subject to child
protection has increased.

Risk  groups  requiring  targeted  measures  include  long-term  unemployed  and  recurrently
unemployed  and  disabled  people,  children  living  in  unstable  conditions,  immigrants,  the
chronically and mentally ill, substance abusers, women subject to violence and prostitution,
the over-indebted, the homeless, criminals and the Roma population.

2.

Assessment of progress made since the 2001 nap-inclusion

The objective of the last plan was to ensure that the level of poverty in Finland continues to
be one of the lowest of the EU countries, and good models of action and adequate resources
are available for the prevention of exclusion. These objectives have been upheld. Finland's
relative poverty rate remains among the lowest in EU and the necessary funding was made
available  to  undertake  the  measures.  Practically  all  measures  were  carried  out  during  the
implementation period. Given that some measures are still at the implementation stage, and
the normal data-lag of 1-1.5 years, there is no information yet available on their results.

Finland presents a comprehensive set of indicators in time-series starting from 1990. Laeken
indicators are in essence covered. They are supplemented with national indicators to better
reflect those  aspects  that  are  a  priority  for  Finland.  The  plan  points  out  a  need  to  develop
additional indicators to show how risks tend to accumulate in the same families or persons.

The  indicators  reveal  e.g.  that  the  number  of  recipients  of  income  support  has  decreased,
there  are  less  over-indebted,  the  perception  of  the  population  of  their  own  health  has
improved, long-term  unemployment and  homelessness have  slightly  eased,  the  problem  of
working  poor  is  a  minor  one,  etc.  Relative  income  poverty  has  increased  from  7.3%  to
10.8%, but inflation-adjusted fixed poverty level has dropped  down from 7.3% to  5.7% in
the  period  1995-2001  (national  data).  Notwithstanding  the  notable  increase  in  child
protection  and  significant  challenges  under  each  of  the  common  objectives,  by  and  large
Finland seems to have moved towards the right direction. There is no evidence to attribute
this development to NAP, but e.g. EAPN-Finland holds that NAP process has strengthened
networks between various actors and systematised the policy discussion at national level.

For the purpose of assessment of the NAP 2001, structured expert opinions were requested
from  50  social  inclusion  experts;  and  public  hearings  were  organised  for  NGOs  and  local

204

 
communities in 2002. A summary of the experts' opinions is attached to the new plan, and
their views were taken into account in its preparation, where possible. The organised use of
external  assessments  is  a  sign  of  openness  and  demonstrates  Finland's  willingness  to  get
policy feedback in the field of tackling social exclusion.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The  plan  analyses  the  challenges  in  a  comprehensive  manner  from  the  points  of  view  of
fiscal poverty, economy and employment, health, housing, education, structural trends, and
with special attention on the position of those groups that are at risk of exclusion. It sets out
several  policy  objectives  for  income  support,  development  of  the  service  system,
employment,  housing  and  education;  as  well  as  complementary  objectives  for  specially
destinated  measures.  The  objectives  will  be  subject  to  follow  up,  but  the  plan  is  brief  in
specifying which quantified targets will be used for that purpose. Most of the objectives are
nevertheless sufficiently clear to enable monitoring from the indicators whether the trend is
positive or negative.

The plan includes a target for housing  (increase of  the annual  supply of  reasonably priced
rental  housing  up  to  about  10  000  new  units  in  years  2004-2007).  The  Government's
employment targets are also referred to (jobs for 100 000 people by the end of the electoral
period; employment rate up to 75% by 2010; average effective retirement age up to at least
2-3  years by  2010).  It is acknowledged that  the latter  target  will be  subject  to  monitoring,
although  it  is  debatable  to  what  extent  would  the  kind  of  target  have  a  direct  effect  in
eradicating poverty and social exclusion.

Despite the sparse quantification of objectives, the new plan is more convincing than the old
in  many  ways,  e.g.  in  analysing  the  situation,  setting  the  policy  objectives,  looking  at  the
special needs of the risk groups, presenting good practices and a more comprehensive set of
indicators; as well as in dealing with such specific items as children, regional approach, and
immigrants. Interestingly, the strategies of other actors than the State are now explained in
the plan too.

4.

Key policy approaches

in  employment  The  plan  aims  at  reducing 

long-term
Facilitating  participation 
unemployment, increasing the work participation rate in various age groups, enhancing the
length of time at work by at least 2-3 years by 2010, and adding incentives for work as far as
social  security  is  concerned.  The  key  methods  include  reforming  the  employment  policy
system; developing labour market support; enabling the establishment of social enterprises;
rehabilitation for work; evaluating the potential for rehabilitation or pensioning of the long-
term unemployed; and promoting employment for disabled people.

Facilitating  access  to  resources,  rights,  goods  and  services  for  all  For  the  health  and
welfare  service  system  the  objectives  include  reducing  differences  in  health  between
population groups, improving  availability  and quality  of  services,  decreasing  public  health
impact  of  alcohol  consumption,  enhancing  the  potential  of  the  elderly  to  live  and  cope  at
home, and progressing disabled people 's potential for social participation. The measures are
a health care policy program 'Health for all - Health 2015' targeted to local level; a National
Health  Project  to  secure  the  functioning  of  the  health  care  system  (the  project  will  deal,
among other things, with the issue of charges, that may have prevented chronically ill low-
income people from seeking medical attention); and a parallel National Project for the Social
Welfare Field.

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For  housing  the  objectives  are  to  reduce  homelessness,  balance  supply  of  and  demand  for
reasonably  priced  housing  in  growth  centres,  and  preserve  the  social  balance  in  housing
districts while diversifying their resident structure. The actions cover increase of the annual
supply  of  reasonably  priced  rental  housing  up  to  about  10  000  new  units  2004-7;
development  the  housing  subsidy;  and  various  measures  to  safeguard  the  diversity  of  the
population structure.

For  education  the  intention  is  to  make  the  transition  from  comprehensive  school  to
vocational education more efficient and quicker, strengthen components in pupil counselling
services  that  help  prevent  social  exclusion,  and  reduce  the  number  of  dropouts  from
education  and  training.  The  methods  are  improving  pupil  welfare;  developing  teacher
training;  promoting  learning  at  work  (ESF);  developing  student  counselling;  vocational
remedial  education  development  program;  reducing  the  number  of  dropouts  with
performance-based financing; and raising the level of education among adults.

To prevent the risks of exclusion Income redistribution reduces relative poverty in Finland
very effectively preventing crisis situations leading to social exclusion (the inequality ratio
at 3.3 in 2000 was EU's second lowest after DK). The plan endeavours to reduce the need
for  income  support,  provide  sufficient  minimum  benefits  and  a  reasonable  guarantee  of  a
living,  ensure  comprehensive  insurance  coverage,  reduce  poverty  among  families  with
children  and  prevent  inheritance  of  social  exclusion,  make  health  care  charges  reasonable
and  increase  the  transparency  of  the  charge  system.  The  following  measures  are  foreseen:
raising  the  national  pension  level;  making  social  credit  statutory;  co-ordinating  income
support and earned income; increasing preventive social assistance; improving the economic
status  of  families  with  children;  developing 
insurance  system;  and
establishment of a special support for immigrants.

the  sickness 

To help the most vulnerable Various kinds of integrated measures aimed at risk groups are
displayed: early intervention in children's and young people's problems; organising morning
and  afternoon  activities  for  schoolchildren;  youth  participation  project;  supporting  the
integration of immigrants; implementing the national alcohol program; addressing the drug
problem;  programs  for  reducing  homelessness;  project  to  combat  violence  against  women
and prostitution and trafficking of human beings under the Government's equality program;
voluntary debt adjustment program; crime prevention; crime conciliation; 'Towards a crime-
free life together'-project; a number of projects of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church for the
prevention of exclusion; and determination of the focus for NGOs' measures.

To mobilise all relevant bodies The relevant stakeholders were devotedly involved in the
preparation of the plan and will take part in its implementation. It is evident from the plan
that  recognition  of  and  co-operation  between  various  actors  at  central  and  local  level  has
intensified  in  previous  years.  ESF-funding  has  been  made  available  for  local  partnership
projects, which have actively been pursued.

5.

Gender perspective

The  indicators  are  presented  satisfactorily  according  to  gender.  Gender  aspect  could  have
been  analysed  more  thoroughly  as  regards  single  parents  and  pensioners,  who  are  mostly
women.  Homelessness,  long-term  unemployment,  school  dropouts,  and  alcoholism  are
worse among men, and could have been scrutinised from their viewpoint.

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6.

Current issues and future challenges

The current issues include e.g. encountering different kinds of social exclusion in rural and
urban  areas,  and  tackling  the  higher  risk  of  exclusion  linked  to  immigration,  though
Finland's net migration rate at 1.2 was the second lowest in EU in 2001 (EU15 3.1). In the
coming  decades  ageing  of  the  population  is  going  to  create  pressures  to  increase
expenditure, for pensions in particular, while the tax base is decreasing at the same time.

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SWEDEN

Situation and key trends: The Swedish welfare state system rests on the basic principles of
universal social welfare and health services and of a comprehensive income security system.
It  is  highly  individualistic.  The  overarching  aim  is  to  include  the  total  population  in  a
general  welfare  policy  system  and  to  avoid  targeted  systems.  Sweden  spent  32,2%  of  its
GPD (2000) on social welfare, the highest figure in the EU. The GDP growth was 1,9% in
2002. The rate of poverty is the lowest in the EU, 10% in 2001, and incomes are relatively
evenly distributed. These figures together with high employment rate, 73,6 % (EU 64,3%) in
2002  and  the  low  unemployment  rate,  4,9%  provide  a  good  basis  for  maintaining  and
strengthening social inclusion efforts.

Progress  made  2001-2003:  The  existing  welfare  policy  is  continued  and  action  plans  in
several policy  areas as  well as measures to combat  discrimination  are  prepared,  proposing
new  initiatives  and  additional  financial  resources  for  the  areas  concerned.  A  progress  is
made  in  decreasing  the  share  of  population  receiving  social  assistance.  It  seems  that  the
major  goals,  the  employment  rate  80%  in  2004  and  halving  the  dependence  on  social
assistance by 2004, will be hard to meet in spite of developments in the expected directions.

Strategic  approach:  High  participation  in  labour  market  constitutes  a  cornerstone  of  the
welfare  state.  Free  education  at  all  levels  and  active  labour  market  policy  are  important
efforts  to  empower  individuals  to  the  labour  market.  The  Government  is  committed  to
substantially reduce the number of people at risk of economic vulnerability by 2010 and to
halve the number of sick leave days by 2008. Earlier goals, achieving 80 % employment rate
and halving the dependence on social assistance by 2004 are still valid. All are related to key
targets. Gender mainstreaming is embodied in the welfare system structure.

Key policy measures: The ‘primacy of work’ principle includes a broad range of measures
to  give  people  adequate  resources  to  find  employment  and  to  support  themselves.  The
activation  has  increased  and  rules  for  unemployment  insurance  have  been  changed  to
reinforce incentives to accept jobs and mobility. The pension reform strengthens further the
link of labour market activity to social security outcome. General social insurance facilitates
income  maintenance  in  case  of  illness,  unemployment,  parenthood  and  temporary  care  of
children. Social assistance is the final income security system in case all others fail. Social
security  is  guided  by  an  individualistic  approach  facilitating  progress  towards  gender
equality.

Challenges ahead: A basic challenge for the future is to ensure the sustainability of social
policy  and  to  reinforce  social  inclusion  measures  to  foster  balanced  social  and  economic
development.  Despite  the  improved  labour  market  situation  of  the  immigrants,  it  still
remains a need to reduce the differences between native-born Swedes and immigrants in all
indicators of poverty and social exclusion. It is necessary to secure social services of a high
standard  to  all,  but  first  and  foremost  to  the  most  vulnerable  groups  and  to  increase  co-
operation  between  different  levels  (local,  regional,  national),  to  halt  and  reverse  the
development of sick leaves and to reintegrate the long-term sick  into the labour market as
well as to intensify contacts with all stakeholders.

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1.

Situation and key trends

Sweden  spent  32,2%  of  its  GPD  (2000)  on  social  protection  (ESSPROS),  the  highest  in
the EU (EU 27,3%). Per capita expenditure on social protection in PPS in 2000 was indexed
to 120 (EU 100). Economical growth has considerably decreased in recent years to 1,1% of
the GDP in 2001, but is slowly catching up, 1,9% in 2002. The forecasts for 2003 and 2004
are 1,4% and 2,7% respectively. The unemployment rate fell down from 6,7% in 1999 to
4,9%  (men  5.3%  and  women  4,5%)  in  2002.  The  employment  rate  was  73,6  %  in  2002,
well  above  the  EU  64,3%,  and  in  particular  for  women  72.2%  as  to  the  EU  55,6%.  A
Swedish characteristic is the high employment rate of older workers, 68,0 % in 2002 (EU
40,6%).  The  long-term  unemployment  is  fairly  limited  and  slowly  declining,  1,0  %  (EU
3.0%) in 2002. Youth unemployment ratio (age 15-24) was 6,4%, EU 7,2% in 2002.

The poverty is low in Sweden, in 2001 the risk  at poverty rate (< 60% of median income)
was 10% (according to Eurostat data). The inequality of income distribution, as measured by
the  income  quintile  ratio,  is  at  3.1  among  the  lowest  in  the  EU.  The  Gini-coefficient  was
0.24  in  2001  (Eurostat  data).  According  to  national  data,  persistent  poverty  is  relatively
uncommon, 0,1 % over 5 years. However, a long-term trend of increasing income inequality
is discernible.

One of key trends is a recent increase (46 % since 1997) of sick leaves. Long-term absences
for  a  year  or  more  (3  %  of  workforce)  have  increased  mostly.  The  development  does  not
only counterbalance the increased employment rate, it also constitutes a major problem on
the macro-economic and the individual level.

As  one  fifth  of  the  population  either  have  immigrated  themselves  or  at  least  have  one
migrated  parent,  the  integration  of  immigrants,  new  immigrants  in  particular  has  not
increased.  Even  though  their  labour  market  situation  has  improved,  they  continue  to
experience  a  disadvantage  in  labour  market,  in  poverty  and  in  housing  segregation.  As  to
other  groups than  immigrants  hit  hardest by  the  economic  recession  in  the  1990's,  income
levels of single parents with children have increased close to the median income, yet, they
and young people, have not improved their situations as to poverty and unemployment.

2.

Assessment of progress made since 2001 NAP-inclusion

Sweden  separates  the  NAP/inclusion  process  from  political  process  of  national  welfare
policy, since national policy is created in a political process differing  from the  action  plan
process.  Therefore,  according  to  the  Swedes  the  NAP/inclusion  cannot  claim  to  have
determined the direction and scope of welfare policy. This means that the NAP/inclusion is
rather reporting national policy measures than being itself a policy-guiding document.

Despite  the  Government's  efforts  to  improve  dialogue  between  different  governmental
bodies and NGOs, the first NAP/inclusion mainly focused on the government's policy from
central perspective. As to the present NAP/inclusion contacts have been further intensified.

Both NAP/inclusion 2001 and 2003 continue the existing welfare state policy, and the basic
strategic  approach  is  a  long-term  obligation  to  fight  poverty  and  social  exclusion.
Development shows clearly a  close link between economic  development  and  social  policy
development. Sweden has prepared action plans relating to social inclusion in several policy
areas,  e.g.  older  persons,  health  care,  disability,  alcohol  and  drugs  as  well  as  measures  to
combat  discrimination.  These  action  plans  have  proposed  new  initiatives  and  additional

209

 
financial resources for the areas concerned. NAP/inclusion 2003 is more ambitious than the
previous one in pointing out the intentions guiding the social inclusion policy, in giving key
targets and goals.

A favourable economic development and the increase of the employment have contributed
to  the  fact  that  the  costs  of  financial  assistance  have  continued  to  fall.  The  share  of
population  receiving  social  assistance  has  sharply  decreased  (8,1%  in  1997  to  4,9%  in
2002). Yet, there was no reduction in the share of households depending for long periods of
time (at least 10-12 months).

It seems that the NAP/inclusion 2001 goals  1)  the  employment rate 80% in 2004 and 2)
halving the dependence on social assistance between 1999 and 2004, will be hard to meet
despite developments in the expected directions. The two goals are still valid, even though
the  deadline  for  80%  employment  rate  has  been  dropped.  A  substantial  progress  has  been
made in halving the dependence on social assistance with 25% decrease by 2002.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets

The  Swedish  welfare  state  system  rests  on  the  basic  principles  of  universal  social  welfare
and  health  services  and  of  a  comprehensive  income  security  system.  It  is  highly
individualistic. The  overarching  aim  is  to include the  total population in  a  general  welfare
policy  system  and  to  avoid  targeted  systems.  To  Sweden  this  policy  is  highly  efficient  in
alleviating  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  A  particular  attention  to  anti-discrimination
measures is laid to ensure better access by the most vulnerable.

A  new  main  goal,  substantially  reducing  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  economic
vulnerability  by  2010,  will  be  achieved  by  the  following  key  targets  broken  down  by
gender and ethnicity where possible: 1) reducing the share of individuals being under 60%
of  the  median  income,  2)  reducing  the  share  of  individuals  and  of  families  with  children
having  an  income  below  social  assistance  norm,  3)  decreasing  the  share  of  pupils  leaving
compulsory  school  with  incomplete  certificates,  4)  increasing  the  share  of  individuals  that
are  eligible  to  tertiary  education,  5)  decreasing  the  share  of  the  young  experimenting
narcotics,  alcohol  and  tobacco,  6)  increasing  the  treatment  of  drug  addicts  (alcohol  and
narcotics) and 7) decreasing homelessness.

Halving  the  number  of  sick  leave  days  by  2008  is  also  new.  As  closely  linked  to  the
labour market, it involves action from employers, health section and adjustment of sickness
insurance.

Achieving  employment  rate  of  80%  and  halving  the  dependence  on  social  assistance
between 1999 and 2004 are still valid main goals.

4.

Key policy measures: strengths and weaknesses

This  basic  strategic  approach  to  reduce  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  clear  in  the
NAP/inclusion 2003, but the plan is weak when it comes to description of political measures
to achieve the objectives. The strength of NAP/inclusion is that the major goals are tied to
key targets making it possible to evaluate to what degree specific goals are obtained or not.
The  weakness  of  the  NAP/inclusion  is  that  it  does  not  always  indicate  mechanisms  that
connect a specific measure to a specific goal, neither it provides a guideline how to prioritise
between  the  measures.  Therefore,  it  is  not  often  clear  how  certain  policy  measures  will
promote the specific objectives or if at all.

210

 
Facilitating participation in employment

Sweden  has opted  for the principle  of  activation  and  skill  enhancement.  The  ‘Primacy  of
Work’ principle includes a broad range of measures to give people  adequate  resources to
find employment and support themselves. Unemployment insurance scheme rules have been
changed  to  increase  incentives  to  accept  jobs  and  mobility.  Family  policy  constitutes  a
central  element  for  participation  for  both  men  and  women  and  strengthens  the  family  in
order to combine family and working life.

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

Sweden  has  a  developed  general  income  security  system.  General  social  insurance  is
facilitating  income  maintenance  in  case  of  illness,  unemployment,  parenthood  and
temporary care of children in case of illness. The implemented pension reform is based on
lifelong earnings with an additional basic guaranteed pension for low or no income earners.
Social  assistance  constitutes  the  final  income  security  system  in  case  all  others  fail.
Education is free at all the levels. Housing policy has been reformed, and local authorities
are  required  to  ensure  decent  housing  for  everybody.  To  combat  homelessness  additional
funds are allocated. The whole population is covered by the national health insurance, free
for children and with a top limit for adults.

To prevent the risks of exclusion among the most vulnerable

Numerous plans and measures cover the most vulnerable such as children at risk, misuse of
alcohol and drugs,  homeless  and  with  overcrowding,  crime  and  prostitution  as  well  as  the
long-term  unemployed,  disabled  people,  the  elderly  and  immigrants.  The  national  action
plan against racism, xenophobia, homophobia and discrimination is to enhance possibilities
for general legislation against discrimination.

5.

Gender perspective

Gender  mainstreaming  is  embodied  in  the  structure  of  the  welfare  system.  The  universal
schemes giving individual rights enhance equality between men and women. Key targets are
broken down by gender wherever possible, as are indicators. Family policy is an important
instrument to achieve  gender  equality. Special  concerns  are  women's  health  and their  high
level of sick leaves.

6.

Current issues and further challenges

As  development  shows  close  links  between  economic  and  social  policy  developments,  a
basic future challenge is to ensure the continuation of good interaction between economic,
employment and social policies and to reinforce social inclusion measures to foster balanced
social and economic development.

Current  issues  which  pose  further  challenges:  to  decrease  the  differences  between  native-
born  Swedes  and  immigrants  in  all  indicators  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion;  to  secure
social services of a high standard to all, in particular to the most vulnerable and to increase
co-operation between different levels (local, regional and national); to halt and to reverse the
development of sick leaves and to reintegrate the long-term sick into the labour market; to
further intensify contacts with other stakeholders, in particular political process and NGOs at
the regional and local level.

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UNITED KINGDOM

Situation  and  key  trends:  Since  the  last  National  Action  Plan  continued  strong
macroeconomic performance has led to sustained high levels of employment and low levels
of unemployment. Increasingly, the focus of anti-poverty and social inclusion strategies in the
UK is on particular disadvantaged groups who are likely to be at greatest risk, such as: lone
parents; the long-term unemployed; older people; those with few or no qualifications; ethnic
minority communities; sick or disabled people; and residents of deprived neighbourhoods. In
2001, 17% of the population were at risk of poverty, the EU average being 15%; without all
transfers, this rate would have been 40%.

Progress made 2001-2003: The UK has continued to build upon a broad and comprehensive
strategy  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Indeed,  the  2001-03  period  has  seen  the
introduction of many new measures or the enhancement of existing ones to combat poverty.
These  changes  have  directed  substantial  additional  resources  to  vulnerable  groups  –  in
particular, families with children.
However, the effect of many initiatives introduced is  yet to be seen and comparatively high
levels  of  low  income  and  high  disparities  still  exist,  although  this  should  be  set  within  the
context of increasing overall prosperity. Nationally established  ‘tertiary’  indicators  covering
children,  working-age adults, older people  and  communities,  and  including  direct  indicators
of poverty, indicators of risk of social exclusion and indicators of help for the most vulnerable
show progress in most areas.
The preparation of the  2003  NAP  has involved a  broader  range  of  actors  than  was  the  case
with  the  previous  Plan  and  the  involvement  of  the  devolved  administrations  and  of  people
with direct experience of poverty has further contributed to its quality.

Strategic approach: The 2003 NAP highlights that the ‘fight against poverty is central to the
UK  government’s  entire  social  and  economic  programme’.  A  ‘work  for  those  who  can,
support  for  those  who  cannot’  approach  to  welfare  reform  is  pursued,  the  strategy  on
participation in employment is described as ‘making work possible  … making work  pay …
making work skilled’. The key labour market objective is to achieve 'high and stable levels of
employment,  so  everyone  can  share  in  growing  living  standards  and  greater  job
opportunities’.

Key  policy  measures:  High  quality  public  services  are  a  cornerstone  of  the  approach  to
tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Spending  plans  for  the  period  2003/4  to  2005/6
envisage  significant  increases  in  public  expenditure  on  services,  concentrated  on  education,
health and transport.
The  abolition  of  child  poverty  is  also  key  to  the  UK's  strategy  to  tackle  poverty  and  social
exclusion, spearheaded by a pledge to eradicate child poverty by 2020.
The  introduction  and  enhancement  of  a  range  of  tax  credit  schemes  should  also  be
highlighted; amongst these the new 'Pension Credit' should make further progress in tackling
pensioner poverty.

Challenges ahead: Despite near  record employment levels and low unemployment,  income
disparities  remain  high  and  the  number  of  workless  households  continues  to  be  an  issue,
especially  in  the  most  deprived  neighbourhoods  and  the  proportion  of  people  on  long-term
incapacity, or other benefits, is particularly high.
Progress is being made on reducing child poverty although the real effect in the context of the
quantified target for 2004/05 still needs to be assessed.

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1.

Situation and Key Trends

The UK economy has continued to perform well with a 1.9% growth rate in 2002, above the
1% average EU growth and it is expected that growth will continue further in both 2004 and
2005.  This  strong  macroeconomic  performance  has  led  to  sustained  high  levels  of
employment  with  an  employment  rate  of  71.7%  (2002)  and  low  levels  of  unemployment;
whilst  the  unofficial  “inclusion”  count  (of  people  not  working,  who  want  to,  or  those  on
government  employment  schemes  or  working  part-time  because  they  cannot  get  full-time
jobs) stands at 4 million (May 2003). Notwithstanding this, relatively high levels of workless
households continue to give cause for concern and the number of people out of work and in
receipt  of  incapacity  benefits,  for  example,  is  particularly  high,  at  7.6%  of  the  working-age
population.

Expenditure  on  social  protection  in  2000  stood  at  26.8%  of  GDP,  slightly  below  the  EU
average of 27.3%. However, in real terms, expenditure on social protection per capita in 2000
was  4.7%  higher  than  the  EU  average,  a  significant  rise  on  previous  years.  Nonetheless,
inequalities in income distribution remained higher than in the EU in 2001 (4.9 against 4.4 in
terms of the income quintile ratio). In 2001 the risk of poverty rate (after social transfers) had
decreased to 17% (down from 20% in 1995 and 19% in 2000), but was still higher than the
EU average of 15% (without social transfers the UK rate would have been 40% set against an
EU average of 39%); and the persistent risk-of-poverty rate for the same year stood at 10% in
contrast to the 9% EU average. Nationally selected indicators also show some improvement in
poverty  risks and relative low  income;  whilst  the  GINI  co-efficient  shows  a  slight  increase.
Relationships  between  income  gaps  and  at  risk  of  poverty  in  this  context  should  be  further
assessed.

2.

Assessment of Progress made since the 2001 NAP/inclusion

The  NAP/inclusion  2003  shows  evidence  that  some  of  the  criticisms  made  of  the  previous
Plan have been taken on board with a broader reference to the roots of social exclusion and
the examination of a wide range of policy areas. There is also  a more  open  approach to the
involvement  of  a  broader  range  of  actors  in  the  preparation  and  monitoring  of  the
NAP/inclusion ‘the recognition that people with a direct experience of poverty have much to
offer a successful anti-poverty strategy is beginning to transform the UK’s approach’.

In addition to the agreed common indicators, the UK  assesses progress  against a number of
tertiary  indicators.  Whilst  progress  against  common  indicators  has  been  disappointing
(although more difficult to judge as post 2000-datasets are not yet available), progress against
the  nationally  established  tertiary  indicators,  which  are  more  up-to-date,  has  been  quite
positive with the majority moving in the right direction. It might be argued that this trend is as
a  result  of  the  overall  performance  of  the  UK  economy,  however,  success  may  also  be
attributed,  in  some  part,  to  the  impacts  of  tax  and  benefit  polices  introduced  to  combat
poverty;  although  in  the  case  of  some  recent  measures  it  may  be  too  early  to  see
improvements reflected by statistical data.

Whilst progress can be said to have been made in reducing absolute poverty, the reduction of
relative poverty has been slower. Even if the labour  market remains as buoyant  as  forecast,
further redistributive policies may be required to reduce inequalities.

Tackling the numbers of children living in poverty was identified  as a key challenge by the
2001  NAP.  The  abolition  of  child  poverty  is  key  to  the  UK  Government’s  strategy,
spearheaded  by  a  pledge  to  eradicate  child  poverty  by  2020.  Practical  progress  towards  the

213

 
quantified targets set for 2004/05 is still to be assessed and further work is underway to refine
the  way  child  poverty  is  measured  over  the  longer-term,  including  consultation  with
stakeholders.

The  role  of  ESF  in  supporting  social  inclusion  aims  is  covered  well  by  the  NAP  in  an
informative and illustrative annex to the main Report. The implementation of ESF-supported
activity will provide an important contribution to tackling poverty and social exclusion in the
UK.  UK  Structural  Fund  Programmes  also  concentrate  resources  on  the  most  deprived
neighbourhoods through ‘Community Economic Development’ areas; although experience to-
date has shown that in some cases there has been slow take-up of these resources.

3.

Strategic approach: main objectives and key targets of the 2003 NAP/inclusion

“The  fight  against  poverty  is  central  to  the  UK  Government’s  entire  social  and  economic
programme”. The UK government has a ‘work for those who can and support for those who
cannot’ approach to welfare reform, describing its strategy on participation in employment as
‘making work possible … making work pay … making work skilled’. The key labour market
objective  is  to  achieve  high  and  stable  levels  of  employment,  so  everyone  can  share  in
growing living standards and greater job opportunities’

The strategy to tackle problems of poverty and social exclusion combines: national action in
collaboration  with  devolved  administrations  and 
local  and
neighbourhood action with local government and voluntary and community sectors; economic
management to improve employment opportunities; efforts to make it easier for people to get
jobs,  retain  jobs  and  progress  in  jobs;  shorter-term  policies  to  make  work  pay  and  improve
living standards of those unable to obtain employment; and longer-term investment in public
services, particularly education and health, to improve opportunities.

regional  bodies,  and 

The key objective and associated target of the 2003 NAP is the eradication of child poverty by
2020, and the intermediate target to halve this by 2010, as well as the quantified target to cut
it by a quarter by 2004/05. In addition, a total of 100 targets are set out, grouped around the
four  Nice  objectives.  Although  it  should  be  noted  that  these  targets  are  those  already
announced,  relevant  to  social  exclusion,  which  form  the  UK  Government  and  local  Public
Service Agreements, or targets set by the devolved administrations.

4.

Key policy approaches: strengths and weaknesses

The UK has comparatively high rates of low income. The in-work incomes of  families with
children  have  been  improved  by  the  introduction  of  the  minimum  wage,  increases  in  the
employee  National  Insurance  contributions  threshold  and  increases  in  child  benefit  and  tax
credits. Pensioners’ incomes have benefited from improvements in the real level of the basic
state pension and social assistance. The out-of work-incomes for families with children have
also improved through real increases in Income Support/Child Tax Credit . The out-of-work
incomes of single people and childless couples have not increased through real improvements
in their benefits and their incomes have continued to decline relative to earnings. Despite the
real improvements that have been made in the Minimum Income Guarantee (MIG), the basic
state pension is significantly below MIG and pensioners on social assistance have not caught
up with the ratio to earnings that they had in 1979.

The  UK  highlights  the  financial  sustainability  of  its  strategic  approach  in  providing  a
foundation  of  support  through  the  state  whilst  targeting  additional  support  at  the  poorest
pensioners  through  income-related  measures.  A  minimum  income  is  guaranteed,  and  the

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promotion  of  saving,  including  through  occupational  and  private  pension  schemes,  is
encouraged. As a result of this approach, the UK spends only 5.1% of GDP on pensions, less
than half the EU average.

Non  take-up  of  available  benefits  remains  an  issue.  An  example  of  how  this  is  being
addressed can be seen in the recently introduced 'Pension Credit' which will provide an extra
£2bn  a  year  to  pensioner  households  and,  in  this  context,  includes  measures  to  ensure  that
take-up  is  high,  setting  a  target  that  3  million  pensioner  households  should  be  in  receipt  of
pensioner credit by 2006.

Progress is being made  towards the key objective  of  reducing and  eradicating  child poverty
although  the  real  effect  in  the  context  of  the  quantified  target  for  2004/05  still  needs  to  be
assessed. Further substantial work may be needed to realise this, including tackling low pay
for women (the UK gender pay gap remains amongst the highest in the EU) and measures to
improve  the  availability  and  affordability  of  childcare.  The  main  extra  resources  that  have
gone into the childcare strategy to date have been in the form of funding for nursery classes in
primary schools. It is arguable that this, mainly part-time, term-time provision is not the most
effective  way  of  enabling  (poor)  lone  parents  to  obtain  access  to  employment.  Childcare
element of the Working Tax Credit only covers a maximum of 70% of the costs of childcare
up to a ceiling. Childcare in the UK is still relatively  expensive  and there are issues around
availability  and  quality.  The  Government  has  set  ambitious  targets  for  increasing  childcare
provision  and  standards,  but  progress  has  proved  difficult  because  the  sector  exhibits  low
status and conditions of service. The lack of accessible, affordable and good-quality childcare
is amongst the  reasons  for  a  relatively low proportion of  lone  parents  in  employment  and  a
relatively  high  proportion  of  children  living  in  workless  households.  A  (second)  childcare
review is now under way, which suggests a recognition by Government that the policy mix is
not yet optimal. The NAP, however, fails to adequately highlight issues around the provision
of dependent  care, including care  for elderly/infirm relatives. Often the  burden of such  care
falls to women, which has implications for participation rates. One important development is
the creation of a new Minister for Children, Young People and Families.

The  UK  has  significant  regional  and  local  disparities  in  poverty  and  social  exclusion.
Attempts  have  been  made  to  simplify  the  many  area-based  initiatives  in  favour  of  a  shift
towards achieving a minimum standard of service provision for those living in disadvantaged
areas through ‘bending’ mainstream services to the needs of these residents, and the adoption
of 'floor level targets’.

About  one  third  of  government  spending  is  on  services.  High  quality  public  services  are  a
cornerstone  of  the  UK  Government’s  approach  to  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion.
Spending plans for the period 2003/4 to 2005/6 envisage an overall increase of 3.3% per year
in real terms. Public expenditure, as a proportion of GDP, will rise from 39.9% in 2002/03 to
41.9%  in  2005/6.  Whilst  progress  has  been  made  in  developing  a  multi-dimensional
overarching strategy, the implementation of this should be further strengthened .

5.

Gender Perspective

The NAP generally addresses gender well, in particular, the recognition of women’s increased
risk of poverty and highlighting policy measures committed to closing the gender income gap,
still an issue of particular concern; enhancing work  and  family life;  and  improved  childcare
provision. However,  as in the 2001 NAP, there  is a lack of  both  gender  mainstreaming  and
gender-specific  measures,  rather  gender  measures  emerge  where  these  fit  the  objectives  of
reducing child poverty and workless households.

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6.

Current Issues and Future Challenges

Employment  targets  set  in  Lisbon  for  2010  have  already  been  met,  and  significantly  lower
unemployment rates than the EU average prevail; however, certain groups still find it difficult
to get jobs. The targeting of resources and initiatives will be key to improving the life chances
of  these  groups.  In  addition,  the  UK  still  has  comparatively  high  rates  of  low  income.
Indebtedness  and  financial  exclusion  are  recognised  as  problems  and  the  NAP  begins  the
process of identifying solutions.

Increases  in  employment  have  benefited  all  groups  and  changes  to  benefits  and  tax  credits
have improved the situation of children, particularly low earning families.

Whilst  overall  there  has  been  a  reduction  in  worklessness,  and  increases  in  the  labour
participation rates of the most vulnerable groups, there is still a concentration of worklessness
in some neighbourhoods. Those without work requirements as a condition of benefit receipt
are  now  seen  as  most  at  risk.  There  remains  some  concern  about  the  number  of  workless
households and some elements of quality of work. Some grass roots organisations suggest that
people are being forced into unsustainable work, with a benefit system which is not flexible
enough, and a weak employment framework which cannot guarantee dignity and fairness.

Throughout  the  NAP  there  are  references  to  what  the  devolved  administrations  and  other
actors are doing. However, it is not clear to what extent NAP aspirations are ‘mainstreamed’,
or represented sufficiently in the spending priorities of the separate Ministries and at regional
and  local  levels.  An  examination  is  proposed  on  how  Government  policies  act  together
against poverty and social exclusion, and what the potential future drivers might be for further
progress. The learning from experiments with participatory ways of working with people with
direct  experience  of  poverty  in  preparing  the  NAP  could  also  usefully  be  transferred  to
broader areas of government policy-making.

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