Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament - Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
Date: 2003-10-01
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU environmental policy, environmental impact, evaluation of resources, management of resources, renewable energy, sustainable development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 1.10.2003
COM(2003) 572 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 4

1.

2.

2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

3.

3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

4.

General Introduction .................................................................................................... 6

Definitions.................................................................................................................... 8

Natural resources.......................................................................................................... 8

Resource productivity .................................................................................................. 9

Decoupling................................................................................................................... 9

Sustainability and the use of natural resources .......................................................... 10

Three pillars: economic growth, social progress and environmental quality............. 10

Policy responses......................................................................................................... 10

Resource use and environmental impacts .................................................................. 11

What is the current situation? .................................................................................... 11

4.1.

Resource use and scarcity .......................................................................................... 11

4.1.1. Non-renewable resources........................................................................................... 11

4.1.2. Renewable resources.................................................................................................. 13

4.1.3.

Security of supplies.................................................................................................... 14

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

4.6.

4.7.

5.

5.1.

5.2.

5.3.

5.4.

Trends in resource use................................................................................................ 14

Pathways of natural resources through the economy................................................. 16

Trends in environmental impacts............................................................................... 18

Health aspects of resource use ................................................................................... 18

Resource management concepts ................................................................................ 19

Summary .................................................................................................................... 19

What Policies on Natural Resources already exist?................................................... 20

Introduction................................................................................................................ 20

Policies for environmental media .............................................................................. 21

Policies that influence the use of resources and their environmental impact ............ 21

Policies that can help to reduce the impact of resource use....................................... 22

2

5.5.

A coherent approach to environmental impacts of resource use ............................... 22

6.

6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

6.4.

6.5.

7.

What needs to be done? ............................................................................................. 23

Introduction................................................................................................................ 23

Core elements of a future thematic strategy............................................................... 24

Work under way......................................................................................................... 25

Time-scale.................................................................................................................. 27

Enlargement and the international dimension............................................................ 27

Future Development of the Resources Strategy......................................................... 28

3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This  Communication  is  a  first  step  towards  the  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Sustainable  Use  of
Natural  Resources  (Resources  Strategy),  called  for  in  the  EU’s  Sixth  Environment  Action
Programme. It aims to launch a debate on a framework for using resources which supports the
objectives of the Lisbon strategy and the EU’s sustainable development strategy. After analysing
the  environmental  issues  associated  with  the  use  of  natural  resources,  it  outlines  the  main
features that a future strategy should comprise, building on existing policies. Although it sets out
basic  ideas  on  how  the  EU  should  target  its  efforts  to  reduce  the  environmental  impacts  of
resource use, it does not actually propose specific measures to this end. This will be done in the
final strategy to be presented in 2004.

Natural resources provide the basis for the three pillars of sustainable development, economic,
social and environmental. However, physical reserves can become depleted and scarce, and this
can  then  undermine  future  economic  and  social  development.  Moreover,  the  way  in  which
resources  are  used  can  reduce  the  quality  of  the  environment  to  an  extent  that  can  threaten
ecosystems and the quality of human life.

At  present  the  environmental  impacts  of  using  non-renewable  resources  like  metals,  minerals
and fossil fuels are of greater concern than their possible scarcity. With fossil fuels for example,
it is the greenhouse gases from their use that are a pressing problem today rather than the risk of
reserves  running  out.  With  renewable  resources  like  fish,  clean  water  and  land  the  picture  is
different because of loss of biodiversity and habitats. The Resources Strategy should therefore
focus  on  reducing  environmental  impacts,  thus  enabling  growing  economies  to  use  resources
efficiently,  from  both  an  economic  and  an  environmental  point  of  view.  This  de-linking  –
commonly  called  decoupling  -  of  impacts  from  growth  is  the  overarching  goal  to  which  this
strategy  will  contribute.  It  will  be  necessary  to  ensure  that  policies  that  influence  directly  or
indirectly the use of resources strike a balance between the economic, environmental and social
pillars of sustainable development.

Implementing  new  policies  and  adapting  existing  ones  in  order  to  achieve  the  necessary
decoupling  of  resource-related  environmental  impacts  from  economic  growth  will  be  a  long-
term process. Businesses, consumers and institutions need time to develop and adopt production
and  consumption  patterns  with  lower  impacts.  They  will  also  need  public  policies  with  clear
long-term objectives in order to plan investment and innovate. For this reason the time scale for
the strategy is 25 years.

The  relations  between  resource  use  and  environmental  impact  are  only  partially  known  at
present.  Furthermore  they  change  with  time,  for  example,  as  a  result  of  technical  or  social
developments. Differences in regional conditions and use patterns need also to be considered. In
addition,  environmental  impacts  related  to  the  use  of  different  resources  vary  widely.  So,
initially the strategy has to determine which resources at any given time are of biggest concern,
e.g. the resources with the greatest potential for environmental improvement, taking into account
technological  possibilities  and  socio-economic  aspects.  To  perform  the  functions  described
above,  and  to  take  account  of  continuously  evolving  patterns  of  environmental  impacts  of
resource  use,  the  strategy  will  comprise  three  strategic  elements  that  will  apply  continuously
throughout its life:

Knowledge gathering

The entire life-cycle of resources, from their  extraction, through their  use  in the production of
goods and services and the subsequent use phase, to the waste phase, gives rise to environmental
impacts. Any  given  raw material can take numerous different pathways through the economy.
Aluminium, for example, can be transformed into goods as diverse as window-frames, aircraft
bodies  and  beverage  cans,  and  these  all  interact  in  very  different  ways  with  the  environment.

4

Knowledge about these pathways and impacts is presently dispersed between many actors, and
significant gaps exist. The Resources Strategy has to ensure that knowledge is readily available
to decision-makers and that gaps are being filled.

Policy assessment

The  use  of  natural  resources  is  influenced  by  numerous  environmental  policies,  including  for
example  strategies  on  the  marine  environment,  soil  protection,  biodiversity  and  the  urban
environment, as well as climate change policy, the water framework directive and many others.
In  addition,  many  non-environmental  policies  strongly  influence  resource  use  –  sometimes
unintentionally.  Examples  include  fiscal,  transport,  agricultural  and  energy  policies.  However,
there is currently no mechanism for assessing how far policy-choices in these different areas are
compatible with  the  overall aim of decoupling  economic  growth from the  impacts  of resource
use.  The  Resources  Strategy  will  make  these  assessments,  raise  awareness  of  potential  trade-
offs, and suggest alternatives wherever possible.

Policy integration

To  bring  the  strategy  to  life,  concrete  actions  will  need  to  be  taken  on  the  basis  of  the
information  generated  by  the  previous  two  strategic  elements.  This  will  involve  political
judgements  on  the  relative  importance  of  different  impacts  and  environmental  targets,  taking
into  account  wider  sustainable  development  considerations  and  identifying  measures  with  the
greatest potential for environmental improvement of resource use. The Resources Strategy will
therefore work towards increasing the integration of resource-related environmental issues into
other  policies  that  influence  the  environmental  impacts  of  the  use  of  natural  resources,  in
particular under the Cardiff Process.

Following  publication  of  this  document,  the  Commission  will,  in  an  open  and  collaborative
process  involving  the  Community  institutions  and  stakeholders,  develop  a  comprehensive
strategy to be proposed in 2004.

5

1. 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Natural  resources  include  both  the  raw  materials  necessary  for  most  human  activities  and  the
different  environmental  media,  such  as  air,  water  and  soil,  which  sustain  life  on  our  planet.
Careful management of the use of these resources is a basis for sustainable development. This
has  been  recognised  internationally,  most  recently  at  the  Johannesburg  World  Summit  on
Sustainable  Development  (WSSD),  where  it  was  agreed  that,  “protecting  and  managing  the
natural  resource  base  of  economic  and  social  development  are  overarching  objectives  of,  and
essential requirements for, sustainable development.”1

In March 2000, the European Council agreed an ambitious objective to make the EU “the most
competitive  and  dynamic  knowledge-based  economy  in  the  world,  capable  of  sustainable
economic  growth  with  more  and  better  jobs  and  greater  social  cohesion.”  A  Gross  Domestic
Product  (GDP)  growth  rate  of  3%  is  deemed  necessary  to  fulfil  the  Lisbon  agenda.2  Since
resource productivity is improving, less resources will be required per unit of GDP in the future.
However,  since  resource  productivity  improvements  do  not  easily  outweigh  economic  growth
there  is  a  risk  that  associated  impacts  on  the  environment  will  still  increase.  Protecting  and
managing  our  resources  base  can  therefore  not  rely  on  resource  productivity  improvements
alone.  That  is  why  there  have  been  calls  for  "delinking  economic  growth  and  environmental
degradation…",  as  in  the  WSSD  plan  of  implementation,3  and,  at  EU  level,  in  the  Sixth
Community  Environment  Action  Programme  (Sixth  EAP),4  which  sets  “decoupling  between
environmental  pressures  and  economic  growth”  as  one  of  its  objectives,  aiming  among  others
“at a general improvement of the environment” and “restoring and developing the functioning of
natural systems”.

Using natural resources in a sustainable way means:

(a)

(b)

ensuring the availability of supplies; and

managing the environmental impact of their use.

In  this  context  the  Community  has  already  tackled  a  number  of  environmental  issues.
Traditionally,  these  have  focussed  on  point  sources  of  environmental  impact  in  the  very  early
and very late phases in the life cycle of resource use. More recently, attention has also turned to
diffuse sources  of  environmental  impact  resulting  from  use  of  products.  Developing  a  general
co-ordinated  approach  for  tackling  the  environmental  impacts  of  using  natural  resources,
materials and products, the Community is launching three  closely interrelated  initiatives along
the lines set out in the EU’s Sixth Environment Action Programme:

– 

– 

– 

1

2

3

4

a strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources;

a strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste;

an integrated product policy to address the environmental impact of products.

http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/summit_docs/2309_planfinal.htm, paragraph 2.
Commission  Recommendation  for  the  2002  Broad  Guidelines  of  the  Economic  Policies  of  the  Member
States and the Community, COM(2002) 191 final of 24.4.2002.
WSSD called for “delinking economic growth and environmental degradation through improving
efficiency and sustainability in the use of resources.”
http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/summit_docs/2309_planfinal.htm, paragraph 14.
Decision N° 1600/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 July 2002 laying down
the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme, [2002] OJ L 242/1.

6

                                                
The Resources Strategy will focus on understanding and mapping the links between the use of
resources  and  their  environmental  impacts  in  order  to  identify  where  action  is  needed.  The
Integrated Product Policy (IPP) provides a toolkit of instruments that can be applied to reduce
the environmental impact of a product throughout its life cycle5. The two initiatives are therefore
complementary.  The  Waste  Prevention  and  Recycling  Strategy  takes  the  waste  phase  as  its
starting point6. It should, over time, focus on areas linked to the priority issues identified by the
Resources Strategy. Parallel implementation of the three initiatives will allow frequent feedback
between  them  and  thus  help  to  gradually  improve  the  overall  approach  through  an  iterative
learning process. Tackling the environmental issues of resources and products simultaneously at
different stages of their life-cycles will also improve understanding of trade-offs: how measures
adopted  to  reduce  environmental  impact  at  one  stage  can  increase  impact  at  another  stage.
Clearly, a coherent approach needs to ensure that reduction of environmental impact is assessed
over the entire life-cycle.

Given  the  expected  overall  increase  of  resource  use,  the  overarching  environmental  goal  of  a
Resources Strategy should be to reduce the negative impact of resource use on the environment,
i.e. on air, water, soil and living organisms. For this it is necessary to identify the resource usage
with the greatest potential for environmental improvement. The strategy therefore has to provide
a knowledge base by “mapping the hot spots” of resource-related impact and then assessing the
options  for  improvement.  In  assessing  these  options  the  likely  socio-economic  effects  will  be
taken into account. The options are likely to fall into one of three categories:

– 

– 

– 

using resources with more eco-efficient technology;

changing the patterns of consumption;

using less of a given resource if there are cost-efficient and feasible means to do so.

“Mapping of hot spots” requires good understanding of the entire life cycle of a resource. The
Resources Strategy will therefore investigate the pathways of individual natural resources, from
their extraction to their multiple uses for products of many kinds and other purposes, and back
into  the  environment  as  either  pollutants  or  waste.  This  should  help  identify  and  assess  the
points along these pathways where policy initiatives would be most effective and appropriate in
reducing environmental impact.

There  is  a  strong  link  here  with  IPP.  Being  an  open-ended  process  where  every  subsequent
product  generation  should  be  more  sustainable  than  the  previous  one,  IPP  will  have  a  clear
effect  in  driving  the  sustainable  use  of  natural  resources.  However,  being  a  process-oriented
initiative it is not suitable for defining specific impact-related targets. These are policy decisions
to  be  taken  in  the  wider  context  of  sustainable  development,  and  here  the  Resources  Strategy
will provide important input.

Links  between  the  Resources  Strategy  and  waste  prevention/recycling  are  equally  important:
prevention  and  recycling  reduce  environmental  impact  from  the  extraction  of  primary  raw
materials and from the transformation of primary raw materials in production processes. Waste
management is therefore part of the life-cycle of resources use and constitutes an integral part of
its management.

The  Resources  Strategy  intends  to  provide  the  scientific  knowledge  needed  for  assessing
environmental  problems  and  setting  impact-related  targets,  also  on  the  basis  of  results  from

5

6

Integrated Product Policy, COM(2003)302 final of 18.06.2003.
Towards a thematic strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste, COM(2003)301 final of 27.05.2003

7

                                                
Community  funded  research.  At  present  there  is  no  generally  accepted  single  indicator  of  the
environmental impact of resource use, so “pressure” indicators like energy use or generation of
waste  have  sometimes  been  used  as  proxies.  However,  the  relationship  between  pressure  and
environmental  impact  is  not  always  linear  and  considerable  research  needs  to  be  done  to
improve our understanding of this subject. The strategy will contribute to this.

The aim of the strategy is to develop a framework and measures that allow resources to be used
in a sustainable way without further harming the environment, while achieving the objectives of
the  Lisbon  strategy.  Building  on  existing  policies  within  the  broader  context  of  the  EU’s
sustainable  development  strategy  it  will,  together  with  the  two  other  initiatives,  provide  the
environmental  elements  of  an  overall  strategic  approach  to  the  sustainable  management  of
natural resources, while giving equal attention to socio-economic aspects. It will not, however,
attempt  to  implement  specific  initiatives  in  environmental  areas  that  are  already  covered  by
well-established policies.

The  present  Communication  represents  the  first  step  in  drawing  up  the  Resources  Strategy.  It
examines the problem with resource use and how it fits into the  overall context of sustainable
development  (Section  3).  It  then,  in  Section  4,  reviews  our  knowledge  of  resource  use  and
environmental  degradation  before  moving  on,  in  Section  5,  to  a  review  of  existing
environmental  and  non-environmental  policies  that  affect  resource  use.  Sections  6  and  7  then
outline a possible way forward for the thematic strategy itself.

2. 

DEFINITIONS

2.1. 

Natural resources

These include:

(a)

(b)

(c)

7

8

raw  materials  such  as  minerals  (including  fossil  energy  carriers  and  metal  ores)  and
biomass. Fossil energy carriers, metal ores and other minerals (e.g. gypsum, china clay)
are  non-renewable  in  the  sense  that  they  can  not  be  replenished  within  a  human
timeframe.  Their  stocks  are  finite  and  are  diminishing  because  of  the  use  by  human
activities. In contrast, biomass is in principle renewable within the human timeframe. It
includes  quickly  renewable  resources,  such  as  for  example  agricultural  crops  and
slowly renewable resources, such as timber7. However, these biological resources used
as raw materials can be exhausted if they are overexploited.8 This is an acute threat to
certain commercially fished marine species, for example.

environmental  media  such  as  air,  water  and  soil.  These  resources  sustain  life  and
produce biological resources. In contrast with raw materials it is their declining quality
that causes concern. It is not a question of how much there is, but what state they are in.
For example, the total quantities of air and water on earth do not change within human
time  scales,  but  because  of  pollution  their  quality  is  often  poor.  Moreover,  the
biological diversity of environmental resources is of vital importance.

flow  resources  such  as  wind,  geothermal,  tidal  and  solar  energy.  These  resources
cannot be depleted, but require  other  resources  to  exploit them. For  example,  energy,
materials and space are needed to build wind turbines or solar cells.

The  meaning  of  “renewable  resources”  is  different  from  “renewable  energy  resources”  as  defined  in
Directive(2001)77final of 27.10.2001.
The term “Biological Resources” is defined under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

8

                                                
(d)

space,  as  it  is  obvious  that  physical  space  is  required  to  produce  or  sustain  all  the
above-mentioned  resources.  Land-use  for  human  settlements,  infrastructure,  industry,
mineral extraction, agriculture and forestry are some examples.

2.2. 

Resource productivity

Resource efficiency or resource productivity can be defined as the efficiency with which we use
energy and  materials  throughout  the  economy,  i.e.  the  value  added  per  unit  of  resource  input.
This means that resource productivity  is  defined  analogously  to  labour  productivity:  the  value
added per unit of human resource. An example of resource productivity calculation on a national
level is dividing the total economic activity of a country (expressed in GDP) by the total energy
use (e.g. in toe) or total material-use (tons). The reverse of this quotient, i.e. energy use divided
by  economic  activity,  is  also  used  and  is  called  the  energy  intensity  of  the  economy.  If  the
energy (or material) intensity of the economy decreases, dematerialization is said to occur. The
given definition of resource efficiency deals solely with the use to which resources are put. This
implies that it does not consider the way resources are extracted or harvested (upstream of the
economic  activity)  nor  how  they  are  disposed  to  air,  water  and  soil  (downstream  of  the
economic activity). In order to fully understand the environmental implications of resource use,
it  is  necessary  to  include  both  upstream  and  downstream  activities  (including  the  use  of
infrastructure, transport, dispersive losses, etc.).

2.3. 

Decoupling

Decoupling refers to de-linking one parameter  from another.  There  are two sets  of parameters
that  are  relevant  in  this  Communication:  economic  growth  versus  resource  use  and  economic
growth  versus  environmental  impacts.  Decoupling  resource  use  from  economic  growth  can
mean two things: 1) the economy grows faster than resource use , while the absolute quantity of
resource  input  is  still  increasing;  2)  the  economy  grows,  while  total  resource  input  remains
stable or decreases. These different degrees of de-linking are commonly referred to as relative
and  absolute  decoupling  respectively.  Similarly,  decoupling  of  environmental  impact  from
economic  growth  means  that  the  economy  grows  at  a  faster  rate  than  environmental  impact
(relative  decoupling)  or  while  environmental  impact  stabilises  or  decreases  in  absolute  terms
(absolute decoupling). Box 1 illustrates the latter.

B ox 1
A b solute an d relative d ecoup lin g of environm ental im p act from  econ om ic grow th.

R ela tive
D ecoupling

G row th of econom y

G ro w th of ov erall im p acts

A b solute
D ecoupling

D ecrease o f o verall im pacts

2,0

1,5

1,0

0,5

0

2 005

2 010

2015

2020

2025

2 030

T he u pp er gro w th lin e rep resen ts econom ic grow th . T he m id dle (do tted) lin e sho w s an ann ual g ro w th o f
env iro nm ental im p acts related to resou rce u se. T he lo w er (dash ed ) line sh ow s a decrease in  env iro nm ental
im p act.

9

3. 

SUSTAINABILITY AND THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

3.1. 

Three pillars: economic growth, social progress and environmental quality

The most commonly used definition of the term sustainable development is found in the 1987
report,  Our  Common  Future,  by  the  World  Commission  on  Environment  and  Development
(known as the Brundtland Commission). This defines sustainable development as “development
that  meets  the  needs  of  the  present  without  compromising  the  ability  of  future  generations  to
meet their own needs”. Achieving this in practice requires that economic growth, social progress
and improving  environmental  quality  go  together.  These  three  pillars  can  not  be  developed  in
isolation  since  they  are  strongly  interdependent.  Economic  growth  can  provide  the  additional
financial resources for improving the quality of the environment and reinforcing social cohesion.
Social policy underpins economic performance and helps citizens to take up their responsibility.
Environmental policy contributes to preserving the natural resource base of the economy and to
enhanced quality of life.

There  are  many  examples  to  show  that  environmental  progress  can  go  hand  in  hand  with
economic  growth.  Environmental  policies  together  with  market  demand  help  foster  the
European  eco-industry.  In  1999  it  accounted  for  €  183  billion  and  had  one  third  of  the  world
eco-market.  It  is  an  important  future-oriented  industry  for  the  EU.9  The  potential  of  the  eco-
industry will be strengthened after enlargement, as export to and from the Acceding Countries is
expected to be more dynamic than between current Member States.

Sustainable development can occur without impeding progress. However, co-operation between
the policy areas that cover the three pillars is necessary. A good example may be the concerted
attempts of many actors to bring hydrogen-powered fuel cells to the market. The EU envisages
investing 600 million Euro over four  years on  research in this  field  and  developed  a  five  step
plan to push fuel cell use.10 The US and Japan are also planning major programmes to build up a
hydrogen  infrastructure  and  promote  advanced  automobile  technologies.  Japan  expects  to  sell
around  5  million  fuel-cell  vehicles  by  202011.  This  development  could  be  the  first  step  in  a
transition to a new energy supply infra structure, which can offer supply security, environmental
soundness and many new jobs.

3.2. 

Policy responses

In principle, there are  two  ways  in  which  the  use  of  natural  resources  can  hamper  sustainable
development. First, natural resource use depletes physical reserves and can therefore make them
scarce.  This  scarcity  could  then  undermine  the  ability  of  future  generations  to  access  the
resources necessary for future economic and social development. Secondly, natural resource use
can result in environmental impacts that reduce the quality of the natural environment (such as
the  atmosphere,  bodies  of  water,  soil)  in  a  way  that  threatens  eco-systems  or  the  quality  of
human life.

It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  these  two  potential  problems,  because  they  require
different policy  responses.  If scarcity of a natural resource  is  a  problem,  its  availability  to  the
current  generation  might  need  to  be  limited.  This  would  require  setting  targets  to  reduce  the
current and future use of natural resources. However, if we focus on reducing the environmental
impacts of resource use,  the  appropriate  policy  response  would  be  to  ensure  that  resource  use
does  not  lead  to  unacceptable  environmental  degradation.  This  response  would  include  the

9

10

11

ECOTEC Ltd, 2002, Analysis of the EU Eco-industries, their employment and export potential.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/energy/pdf/hlg_summary_vision_report_en.pdf
Eamonn Bates Issue Tracker, July 2003.

10

                                                
promotion of clean technologies and more eco-friendly consumer products. Although in certain
cases,  e.g.  through  more  recycling  or  more  resource-efficient  design,  this  could  reduce  the
quantity of resources used, this would be a consequence rather than an explicit objective of the
policy. In section 4.1 it will be shown that, with the exception of a limited number of renewable
resources, such as fish, tropical timber, and biodiversity, scarcity is not the main issue.

3.3. 

Resource use and environmental impacts

The entire life-cycle of resources, from their extraction to their final disposal as waste, gives rise
to environmental impacts. The use of resources can unlock toxic materials and affect the quality
of  the  land  around  us.  After  use,  materials  are  often  returned  to  the  ground  in  a  much  more
chemically or physically active  state  than  before.  The  use  of  many  renewable  resources,  from
their  production  to  final  disposal  also  exerts  numerous  pressures  and  may  lead  to  loss  of  bio-
diversity  and  degradation  of  the  environment.  In  addition,  the  burning  of  energy-bearing
materials releases carbon dioxide, which contributes to global climate change. On the other hand
some renewable resources have the potential and the capacity to give environmental benefits, for
example using wood may contribute to climate change mitigation due to carbon storage. Where
economic growth increases the volume of materials displaced and the use of land, it should be
ensured  that  the  related  impact  on  the  environment  does  not  increase  to  a  degree  that  would
undermine the capacity of the environment to produce resources. Failure to address these issues
could  lead  to  our  “moving  beyond  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  environment”,  as  stated  in  the
Sixth EAP.

At the same time it is clear that taking resource use as a proxy for environmental impacts is not
the  way  to  proceed.  Developing  knowledge  about  the  relationship  between  resource  use  and
environmental  impacts  is  therefore  a  prerequisite  for  the  Resources  Strategy.  Recent  research
has shown that it is possible to identify those materials and resources whose use have the biggest
environmental impact.12

4. 

WHAT IS THE CURRENT SITUATION?

4.1. 

Resource use and scarcity

4.1.1.  Non-renewable resources

Calls  for  reduced  consumption  of  non-renewable  natural  resources  are  based  on  concerns  that
the  resources  required  to  sustain  future  economic  growth  or  social  development  will  not  be
available. Such calls focus mainly on minerals, metals and fossil fuels, as it is undeniable that
their total physical stocks are finite.

(a)

Reserves of fossil fuels and mineral resources

The  known  world  reserves  of  fossil  fuels  are  very  large  and  keep  growing.13  Given  the  total
tonnage  of  proven  coal  reserves,  the  present  rate  of  coal  mining  could  continue  for  over  200
years. Proven oil reserves have increased by about 45 billion barrels since the last survey by the
World Energy Council, despite the production of some 75 billion barrels of oil and natural gas.
In other words, the increase in proven reserves has outweighed consumption in recent years.

12

13

Weighting Materials: Not just a Matter of Weight. CML (Leiden, 2003).
www.worldenergy.org

11

                                                
For metals the prospects are similar. For most metal ores known reserves equal several decades
of today’s production (Box 2).14 Although several decades may not seem enough to ensure long-
term security of supply, it must be kept in mind that at any given time, reliably known reserves
are  only  a  fraction  of  total  physical  reserves.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  less  effort  is  made  at
geological exploration as long as there are sufficient proven reserves.

Two other factors explain why reserves of non-renewable resources tend not to decline:

– 

– 

efficiency improvements: process improvements mean that a greater proportion of the
resources  present  in  reserves  can  be  extracted.  In  addition,  innovation  means  that  we
can make more out of a tonne of steel today than we could one century ago. This means
resources  are  used  at  a  slower  rate  than  past  or  current  consumption  patterns  would
suggest.  Moreover,  improvements  in  exploration  and  extraction  techniques  mean  that
today  we  can  exploit  reserves  which  were  previously  unknown  or  not  considered
viable.

recycling: some materials can be recycled to a very high degree, e.g. aluminium. Each
tonne  of  aluminium  recycled  saves  many  tonnes  of  primary  raw  material,  such  as
bauxite, and sometimes fossil energy. Again, increasing recycling rates mean that some
resources  are  used  at  a  slower  rate  than  past  or  current  consumption  patterns  would
suggest.

Examples of metal reserves

For economic reasons mining companies tend to reduce exploration efforts once they
have  established  reserves  for  the  next  20-40  years,  but  this  is  not  indicative  of  any
geological shortage.

Box 2

    World

Production 1999 (103 tonnes)
EU-15
13000
560
201
182
17
3
0.5

535000
8040
3020
12600
1120
198
18

Iron
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Nickel
Tin
Silver

World Reserves
(103 tonnes)
71,000,000
190,000
64,000
340,000
49,000
9,600
280

Reserves/Production
(years)

133
24
21
27
44
49
16

The existence of these mechanisms does not mean that concerns about scarcity can be rejected.
It just means that they must be treated with caution and with due consideration for the specific
conditions of any particular resource. Moreover, it shows that the fact that  a  given resource is
finite  does  not  automatically  imply  that  this  resource  will  become  scarce.  Indeed,  as  some
resources  can  be  substituted  for  others  or  even  made  redundant  through  the  use  of  new
technologies, there is no reason why we should use a given resource forever and thus exhaust its
entire physical reserve.

(b)

Technological and scientific progress in the use of mineral resources

14

Report to DG Environment by Simonds and COWI (2001).

12

                                                
There  are  many  examples  of  innovation  which  have  led  to  one  resource  being  substituted  for
another.  There  have  been  marked  changes  in  production  and  consumption  patterns  during  the
course  of  the  twentieth  century.  In  general,  historical  experience  suggests  that  patterns  of
resources  use  change  because  alternatives  become  available,  not  because  they  become
physically scarce.15

Progress  in  our  understanding  of  health  impacts  and  eco-toxicity  is  another  important  reason
why the use of many mineral resources is decreasing: for example, asbestos, radium, uranium,
lead, mercury and cadmium are being used at restricted levels for toxicity reasons, even though
there is no shortage of reserves.

(c)

Mineral resources price trends

In  a  functioning  market,  scarcity  should  lead  to  rising  prices  as  long  as  demand  persists.
According  to  this  indicator  there  are  no  signs  of  the  imminent  scarcity  of  non-renewable
resources. Despite increasing consumption, metal and energy prices have decreased in constant
terms over the last decades. Crude oil prices, for example, have followed a general downward
trend ever since the oil crises (Box 3).16 However, the expected medium term increase in world
oil demand may influence this trend.

Crude oil prices since 1975 in constant US $ (year 2000).

Box 3

80

60

40

20

0

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

4.1.2.  Renewable resources

While  there  is  little  evidence  that  scarcity  of  non-renewable  resources  is  a  serious  threat  to
sustainable development, there is a growing consensus that a number of renewable resources are
becoming scarce. Examples of this include fisheries and freshwater.17

Although  these  resources  can  be  renewed  or  replenished,  current  consumption  outstrips  their
capacity to regenerate. On the other hand, timber in the EU is being harvested such that the total
cut per year is only 50% of the net annual increment, leading to an increasing stock. While some
renewable resources could, in principle, be substituted by others, scarcity of renewable resources
would, in itself, constitute an environmental impact, such as the loss of biodiversity due to the

15

16

17

Partial  substitution  of  coal  in  domestic  heating  and  industrial  power  generation  is  a  common  example,
notwithstanding that coal maintains to be one of the most important carriers of primary energy.
http://www-cta.ornl.gov/data/Chapter5.html
However, the dynamics of resource use for fish and water are very different. Scarcity of fish is due mainly
to over-fishing while scarcity of fresh water is due mainly to pollution.

13

                                                
extinction of certain species or the loss of habitats. This is a fundamental difference with non-
renewable resources.

4.1.3. 

Security of supplies

Despite sufficient world reserves, the  availability of  certain resources may become limited for
geopolitical  reasons.  For  example,  the  oil  shortage  in  the  1970s  was  the  result  of  an
economically and politically motivated trade embargo and not of physical scarcity. In the wider
context  of  sustainable  development  a  European  Resources  Strategy  will  have  to  take  due
account  of  the  possibility  that  supplies  might  be  interrupted  by  such  events  and  of  the
consequences  for  using  natural  resources.  European  energy  and  transport  policies  for  which
security  of  supply  has  already  been  one  of  the  core  topics  for  several  decades  will  play  an
important role in this respect.18 It is also important  to  note that while predictions about global
physical  scarcity  of  most  non-renewable  resources  have  turned  out  to  be  unfounded  over  the
medium term, domestic reserves in the EU are limited. Despite considerable progress made in
tapping conventional energy reserves in the EU, their levels remain low and they are expensive
to extract. In the future, they are likely to decline sharply, and it is anticipated that in the next 20
to 30 years more than 70% of the EU’s energy requirements will have to be covered by imported
products. Price developments resulting from an increased world oil demand and their potential
influence on the security of supplies will have to be carefully assessed. Security of supply will
therefore remain to be an important policy issue. Security of supply does however not seek to
minimise  import  dependence  but  aims  to  reduce  the  risks  linked  to  such  dependence.19  For  a
wider examination of security of supply issues see “Security of supply – the current situation at
European level”.20

4.2. 

Trends in resource use

The quantities in which individual resources are used, the products and services into which they
are  converted  and  the  technologies  applied  are  changing  all  the  time.  Certain  resources  may
become obsolete due  to  technological  innovation,  natural  rubber  and  natural  indigo  being  two
examples,  while  for  others  demand  may  grow,  e.g.  nickel  with  the  use  of  stainless  steel,  of
which  it  is  an  important  component.  Resources  may  also  be  banned  or  phased  out  for  health
reasons, like asbestos or mercury.

In  some  economic  areas  resource  use  has  been  subject  to  active  management  for  a  long  time,
such as OPEC for crude oil, ECSC for coal and steel, the EU Common Fisheries Policy, or land
use planning systems. Quite a few countries also aim at a sustainable forest policy. The use of
many other resources is influenced in a less visible way for example by fiscal, social and trade
policies.  Recent  data  show  significant  differences  in  the  trends  for  the  resource  groups
“materials” (including biomass), “energy” and “land”. These are discussed below.

(a)

Material efficiency is improving

Material  flow  accounting  has  shown  that  in  the  last  twenty  years  overall  consumption  per
inhabitant remained virtually unchanged in the EU at around 16 tonnes per year.21 At the same

18

19

20

21

For  example  the  adopted  directives  on  RES  for  electricity  and  energy  savings  in  buildings  and  the
proposed directives on oil and gas stocks.
Green  Paper  “Towards  a  European  strategy  for  the  security  of  energy  supply”,  COM(2000)769  final,
29.11.2000.
Commission Staff Working Paper: Security of supply - The current situation at European Union level.
SEC(2002)243.
EUROSTAT (2002): “Material use in the European Union 1980-2000: indicators and analysis”, Working
Papers and studies series, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

14

                                                
time the economy grew by  50% over the same period. Today we create over 50%  more  value
per  kilogram  of  material  used  than  in  1980.  This  means  we  have  significantly  improved  our
material  efficiency.  In  Box  4  the  results  of  material  flow  studies  in  the  EU  15  are  presented,
clearly  showing  that  both  Domestic  Material  Consumption  (DMC)  and  material  consumption
per capita are decoupled from economic growth.

Material flows provide valuable indications of the overall trends in resource use. However, they
can  not  tell  us  how  the  materials  interact  with  the  environment.  Everything  else  being  equal,
stabilising  material  use  per  capita  would  not  reverse  the  trend  in  environmental  degradation.
However, it can substantially contribute to reducing impacts  where less polluting technologies
and consumption patterns are applied and  the  gains are not outweighed  by population  growth.
Nevertheless, in some cases like the progressive sealing of land, impacts keep growing even if
material input remains constant.

Identifying changes in flow patterns and their potential interactions with the environment (where
and  how  they  impact  on  the  environment)  requires  a  comprehensive  collection  of  data  and
continuously updated knowledge of material flows. Much work is  already being  conducted by
national, European and international bodies including OECD and the European Commission.22
However,  many  material  flows  need  to  be  examined  in  much  more  detail  in  order  to  support
policy-making.  How  materials  like  heavy  metals  are  dispersed  from  for  example  short-lived
consumer  products,  housing  or  infrastructure  into  the  environment  also  needs  to  be  better
understood.

Box 4

Relative decoupling of material use from economic growth

EU-15  material  consumption  increased  by  about  3%  between  1980  and  2000.  The  increase  was  mainly  due  to
increased use of minerals (+5%) and biomass (+6%), whereas the weight of fossil fuels decreased (-5%). Material
consumption  per  inhabitant  declined  from  16.2  tonnes  per  capita  to  15.6  tonnes  per  capita  (-3%).  Development
over time implies a strong (relative) decoupling of economic growth and material use (see figure). Overall material
efficiency increased by 52%. In 2000, material consumption in the EU was about 5.9 billion tonnes, or about 15.6
tonnes  per  inhabitant  per  year.  50%  of  total  materials  consumed  in  2000  were  minerals,  26%  biomass  and  24%
fossil fuels (Eurostat, 2002).

Indices  of  main  indicators  for  EU-15,  1980-2000  (1980=100),  DMC=  domestic  material  consumption  (source
Eurostat 2002).

22

For  example  through  EUROSTAT,  the  EEA  and  the  European  Topic  Centre  for  Waste  and  Material
Flows.

15

                                                
(b)

Energy consumption continues to rise

Energy  is  a  key  resource  for  our  economy.  Overall  demand  is  predicted  to  grow  substantially
over  the  coming  decades,  by  30%  for  the  OECD  countries23  and  by  70%  for  the  world  as  a
whole in the next 30 years.24 For the EU, these increases are smaller than the targeted doubling
of the economy over the same period;25 if efforts are maintained, the decoupling of energy use
from  economic  growth  will  continue.  However,  energy  consumption  will  still  increase  in
absolute  terms.26  To  understand  the  potential  impact  this  will  have  on  the  environment  it  is
necessary  to  assess  carefully  how  various  energy  options  influence  material  flows  and  their
interaction  with  environmental  media.  For  example,  large-scale  moves  towards  biomass  as  an
energy  source  would  have  to  be  assessed  in  terms  of  the  agricultural  area  or  forest  reserves
needed  and  the  consequences  this  would  have  for  natural  habitats.  In  the  wider  context  of
sustainable development, the consequences of a biomass energy policy on food production and
on the wood market need to be considered. It is necessary to ensure sound knowledge of present
use  patterns  and  possible  future  trends,  and  to  make  them  available  to  policy-makers  and
stakeholders.  Otherwise  decisions  to  substitute  one  energy  source  by  another  may  shift  the
environmental  burden,  e.g.  from  air  to  soil,  without  decreasing  the  overall  impact  on  the
environment.

(c)

Space is not being used efficiently

Physical  space  (land  and  sea)  is  also  a  key  resource.  Once  used  for  built-up  areas  or
infrastructure,  it  may  be  impossible  to  reclaim.  However,  such  land  use  is  accelerating  in
Europe. Built-up areas have expanded by 20% during the last two decades, which is much faster
than population growth  (6%). There  are  many  reasons  for  this,  such  as  the  decentralisation  of
urban land uses, the demand for bigger houses and out-of-town developments (like supermarkets
and  leisure  centres),  and  the  provision  of  transport  infrastructure.  These  trends  are  causing
increasing  amounts  of  soil  being  sealed,  leading  to  losses  of  bioproductive  land  and  the
fragmentation of natural areas in most of Europe.27 Land should thus be considered as a scarce
resource  which,  partly  due  to  inefficient  urban  development,  is  reducing  the  quality  of  the
environment as a whole.

4.3. 

Pathways of natural resources through the economy

The life cycle of natural resources used in our economy includes several phases. The first phase
consists of extraction, comprising activities like mining, harvesting and fishing. At the very end
of the cycle, even if subject to recycling numerous times, resources return to the environment -
air,  water  and  soil  -  as  emissions,  effluent,  and  waste.  In  between  these  phases,  resources  are
transformed into products of many kinds and other goods that are consumed more or less rapidly
or added to the built-up environment. This middle phase of the life cycle links the production of
natural  resources,  for  example  by  mining  or  agricultural  methods,  with  the  environmental
impacts by their use. During this phase every resource follows different and often very complex
pathways. Phosphorus, for example, may be used in detergents or fertilisers. Only at the end of
the life  cycle  do  these  paths  converge  again  when  the  phosphorus  returns  to  the  environment,
where  it  can  damage  rivers,  lakes  and  coastal  waters,  regardless  of  whether  it  was  used  in
detergents or fertilisers.

23

24

25

26

27

OECD Environmental Outlook, Paris 2001.
World  Energy  Technology  and  Climate  Policy  Outlook  –  2003.  European  Commission,  OPOCE
Luxembourg 2003.
Commission  Recommendation  for  the  2002  Broad  Guidelines  of  the  Economic  Policies  of  the  Member
States and the Community, COM (2002) 191.
Environmental Signals 2002, benchmarking the millennium, European Environment Agency.
Environmental Signals 2002, benchmarking the millennium, European Environment Agency.

16

                                                
Lead, to take another example, is mined at various locations under very different technical and
environmental conditions and then transformed by a multitude of technologies into products as
diverse as electric batteries, chemical substances and construction materials. Throughout this life
cycle some of the lead re-enters the environment where its toxicity may harm biological systems
and human health.

Pollution  abatement  has  traditionally  concentrated  on  the  early  stages  of  the  life  cycle  (for
example  Integrated  Pollution  Prevention  and  Control  (IPPC)  at  the  industrial  manufacturing
phase)  and  at  the  end  (waste  policy).  Only  recently  more  attention  is  being  given  to  the
intermediate  stages,  like  the  use  phase  of  products  in  Integrated  Product  Policy  (IPP).  The
Resources Strategy will bridge this gap by relating the environmental impact of resource use at
the end of the cycle to the extraction of resources at its very beginning. For this it will need to
have a  clear picture of the  volumes of resource  flows and the  pathways  they  take  through  the
economy and back into the environment. This will also provide information about the potential
choices which could be made at each step of the life cycle and what its economic, environmental
and social impacts would be.

(a)

Resources entering the economy

The stream of natural resources entering our economy is generally reasonably well known. Data
on  domestic  production  and  imports  are  available  from  a  large  variety  of  sources.  They  are
processed into annual and multi-annual data collections, statistics and trend analyses by a large
variety of actors from industry, trade, academia, public authorities and others.

The Resources Strategy will draw on this existing knowledge. However, detailed investigations
of the use of individual resources will be needed from time to time in order to support political
decision-making and to adjust policies to changing economic and technological circumstances.

(b)

Pathways resources take through the economy

Any  stream  of  raw  material  that  enters  the  economy  will  soon  split  into  several  pathways.
Aluminium, for example, will be transformed into goods as diverse as window frames, aircraft
bodies  and  beer  cans.  Some  of  these  may  not  return  to  the  environment  for  many  decades
because of their long life-expectancy and efficient recycling. Others  return  to the  environment
very  quickly  -  it  is  estimated,  for  example,  that  over  100,000  tonnes  of  aluminium  are  lost
annually  in  drink  cans  that  are  not  recycled.  These  losses  need  to  be  replaced  with  primary
aluminium, which takes thirty times more energy to make. Crude oil is another example: apart
from  being  used  as  fuel,  it  is  converted  into  hundreds  of  plastics  and  many  thousands  of
chemical  substances.  Although  plastic  waste  may  be  particularly  visible,  some  of  the  most
damaging environmental impacts may come from very small quantities of oil that are converted
into harmful substances acting, for example, as endocrine disrupters.

Knowledge about these pathways is highly dispersed between many actors and significant gaps
exist.  The  Resources  Strategy  will  ensure  that  the  knowledge  is  readily  available  to  decision-
makers, fill any gaps and propose action.

(c)

Resources returning to the environment

From the moment we first start to extract a resource we generate emissions, effluents and waste
which  return  to  the  natural  environment.  Threshing  grain,  for  example,  leaves  behind  large
volumes of  straw  that  eventually  has  to  be  returned  to  nature  as  CO2  (incineration)  or  as  bio-
mass  (composting).  During  the  use  phase  of  many  products,  more  material  returns  to  the
environment. For  example,  several  thousand  tonnes  of  zinc  are  washed  into  European  sewage

17

waters annually from buildings, infrastructure and consumer goods. Certain resources are even
meant to be dispersed, such as the previously mentioned phosphate in fertilisers and detergents.

Pollution  abatement  policies  and  waste  policy  aim  at  minimising  the  amounts  of  dispersive
losses to the environment. However, while they have achieved impressive results in reducing the
amounts of polluting substances going into the environment, it can be useful to analyse whether
the most important material and waste streams have been addressed. By mapping the pathways
through all three phases described above the Resources Strategy will provide the links between
resource use, economic activity and environmental impact. It can then point out where action is
most  urgent  and  has  the  biggest  potential  to  effectively  achieve  environmental  and  economic
benefits. The principal options are:

– 

– 

– 

using more efficient and cleaner technologies.

changing the pattern of consumption so that some specific resource uses are reduced;

using less of a resource to protect it and to alleviate impact from its use;

In  doing  this,  the  strategy  will  take  into  consideration  regional  differences,  technological
developments, and changing production and consumption patterns.

4.4. 

Trends in environmental impacts

Both OECD and EEA report that the growth of our economies outweighs the improvements in
resource  productivity,  resulting  in  a  potential  increase  of  many  related  environmental
impacts28,29.  OECD's  Environmental  Outlook  indicates  that  the  following  issues  should  be
addressed  urgently:  biodiversity,  tropical  forest  coverage,  fish  stocks,  groundwater  quality,
urban  air  quality,  climate  change  and  chemicals  in  the  environment.  Moreover,  surface  water
quality,  forest  quality  in  OECD  regions  and  ozone  layer  integrity  requires  further  action,  the
report says. EEA's Environmental  Signals 2002  concludes  that  ‘some  environmental  pressures
continue  to  be  closely  coupled  with  development  in  certain  sectors,  such  as  green  house  gas
emissions  from  transport  (and  tourism),  waste  generation,  space  and  territorial  degradation,
energy and resource consumption from households, and reduction of stocks from fisheries’.  In
their recently published "Europe's environment: the third assessment", EEA reports that the state
of  the  environment  across  Europe  has  improved  in  several  respects  over  the  past  decade.
However,  it  warns  at  the  same  time  that  much  of  the  progress  is  likely  to  be  wiped  out  by
economic growth because governments have yet to make significant strides towards decoupling
environmental pressures from economic activity30.

4.5. 

Health aspects of resource use

While the use of natural resources is the basis of human well-being, it may also have unwanted
impacts on human health during their production, use and disposal. For example, mining entails
risks of injury and silicosis if precautionary measures are not implemented. Asbestos has caused
cancer in many workers in manufacturing plants and is a recognised health threat during its use

28

29

30

The OECD Environmental Outlook (Paris 2001) looks 20 years ahead using an economy-based assessment
of environmental pressures and conditions to 2020.
Environmental Signals 2002, benchmarking the millennium, European Environment Agency.
EEA, 'Environmental assessment report No 10 was prepared for the 'Environment for Europe' Ministerial
Conference being held under the auspices of the UN Economic Commission for Europe in Kiev, Ukraine
on 21-23 May 2003.

18

                                                
phase  in  buildings.  In  the  waste  phase  of  the  life-cycle,  “Minamata  disease”,  a  neurological
disorder caused by methylmercury poisoning of the food chain, is a well documented case.31

These examples have received considerable political attention and measures have been taken to
avoid or reduce these types of environmental health risks. However, this does not mean that all
problems are solved. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that diseases are caused
by 25 different risk factors, of which a few are environmental (e.g. ambient air, indoor air, lead,
water, climate change)  32 and related to the use of resources. WHO estimated that exposure to
fine particulate matter in outdoor air leads to about 100 000 deaths (and 725 000  years  of life
lost) annually in Europe.33 On the other hand, projected emissions from road transport suggest
that  emissions of  the traditionally regulated  pollutants will fall  to  less  than  20%  of  their  1995
levels  by  2020.34  The  Commission  has  presently  developed  a  Community  Strategy  for
Environment and Health that identifies where initiatives at the European level are most urgent
and what action to take.35

4.6. 

Resource management concepts

There  are  various  concepts  that  address  the  resource  management  question  from  different
angles.  The  number  and  divergence  of  these  concepts,  which  all  have  their  specific  merits,
reveals  that  there  is  no  clear  and  unanimous  answer  or  approach  to  the  problem.  The  various
concepts  serve  a  number  of  functions,  such  as  awareness  raising  (Ecological  Footprint)  and
material  flow  accounting  (TMR).  Moreover,  some  concepts  include  targets  (e.g.  Factor  4),
whereas others are process-oriented (Green GNP ). This means that the concepts have different
angles  of  view  and  different  scopes,  emerge  from  different  schools  of  thought  and  imply
different perceptions of problems and different solutions. None of them focuses on the impact of
resource use. Therefore there is no single concept that can serve as an analytical framework for
the  Resources  Strategy.  Nevertheless,  the  Resources  Strategy  can  build  on  elements  of  these
concepts.36

Furthermore, a group of resource use indicators have been developed in the context of research
on impact assessments in Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) for various kinds of resources,
including biotic and mineral resources, land and soil use, water extraction etc.

4.7. 

Summary

– 

– 

– 

31

32

33

34

35

36

with  the  exception  of  certain  renewable  resources,  predictions  about  global  scarcity
have turned out to be unfounded;

we have achieved decoupling of materials use and economic growth, notably in many
sectors  of  EU  industry,  but  some  environmental  impacts  of  materials  use  continue  to
increase.

although energy efficiency is likely to improve over the next 30 years (by 1% annually
in a “business as usual” scenario), due to economic growth, overall energy use is still
likely to rise with possibly associated further impacts;

http://www.nimd.go.jp/english/index.html
http://www.who.int/peh/burden/globalestim.htm
World health report 2002, Geneva, World Health Organisation 2002, http://www.who.int/whr/en/
A review of the Auto-oil II Programme, COM (2000)626 (05.10.2000).
A European Environment and Health Strategy, COM(2003)338, 11.06.2003.
‘Analysis  of  Selected  Concepts  on  Resource  Management,  A  study  to  support  the  development  of  a
thematic strategy on the Sustainable use of Resources’, COWI, March 2002, is available on the web.

19

                                                
– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

soil sealing continues to increase, leading to loss of bioproductive land and increase of
built-up land at a faster rate than our population is expanding;

the  extraction  and  use  (e.g.  through  combustion)  of  resources  may  sometimes  have
adverse  effects  on  human  health,  despite  continuous  progress  being  made  in  this
respect;

the  environmental  focus  of  a  resources  strategy  should  be  on  reducing  the
environmental impacts of resource use. In the wider context of sustainable development
a European Resources Strategy also needs to take into account the issues of economic
scarcity and security of supply.

using  resources  can  cause  environmental  pressures  at  any  stage  of  the  life-cycle.  The
links between the extraction of resources and the environmental impacts their use and
disposal may cause are often complex and not sufficiently understood;

although  elements  of  many  of  the  resource  management  concepts  can  be  used  in  the
Resources Strategy, no single one is suitable to serve as a basis for the whole strategy.

5. 

WHAT POLICIES ON NATURAL RESOURCES ALREADY EXIST?

5.1. 

Introduction

The  Resources  Strategy is breaking new  ground  as  the  EU  has  no  overall  policy  at  present  to
address  the  environmental  impacts  of  resource  use  and  the  Commission  is  not  aware  of  any
comprehensive national policies that address this area either.37 On the other hand, the OECD has
done  substantial  work.  Their  “Environmental  Strategy  for  the  First  Decade  of  the  21st
Century”,38  sets,  among  other  things,  the  goal  of  decoupling  environmental  pressures  from
economic  growth.  They  have  also  done  work  on  environmental  indicators.  The  Resources
Strategy  will  build  on  this  and  other  work,  including  existing  strategies  and  policies  that  are
resource-related,  such  as  the  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Marine  Environment,39  the  Thematic
Strategy  for Soil  Protection,40 the  Biodiversity  Strategy41  and  the  forthcoming  Strategy  on  the
Urban Environment.

The  Resources  Strategy  will  complement  environmental  policies  which  address  the  status  of
environmental media. Its point of departure is the beginning of the life-cycle of resources (i.e.
mining,  harvesting,  etc.).  From  there  it  tracks  resources  through  the  economy,  identifies  the
most serious environmental impacts related to their use and develops solutions. At this point it
links  in  with  the  other  strategies  and  policies  mentioned  above.  The  Resources  Strategy  may
therefore  be  seen  as  the  base  of  a  pyramid  of  environmental  policies,  the  top  of  the  pyramid
being concern for human health and bio-diversity.

37

38

39

40

41

None of the Member States have developed a resource strategy yet. This also means that none of them has
adopted  one  of  the  resource  management  concepts.  There  are,  however,  national  policies  that  address
individual  issues.  For  instance,  the  UK  funds  a  programme  to  encourage  more  efficient  use  of  raw
materials (Envirowise). In order to have a clearer picture of national policies that influences resource use,
the Commission intends to finalise a review of policy measures by Autumn 2003.
Environmental Strategy for the First Decade of the 21st Century, OECD May 16, 2001.
Towards a strategy to protect and conserve the marine environment COM (2002) 539 (02.10.2002).
Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection COM (2002) 179 (16.04.2002).
Biodiversity Strategy, COM (1998) 42 (04/02/1998) and Biodiversity Action Plan for the Conservation of
Natural Resources, COM(2001)162 final, Volume II, 27.3.2001.

20

                                                
5.2. 

Policies for environmental media

Generally, policies on soil, water and  air  all  have the environmental quality of their particular
medium  as  their  starting  point,  with  the  measures  required  being  determined  by  the  existing
knowledge of the problems. For example, in the field of water protection, the fact that a water
body does not meet “good quality” requires certain measures to be taken42. As for soil, the fact
that desertification is increasing and organic matter is decreasing means that measures are likely
to be necessary to redress this.

Such policies, including also those on biodiversity, are necessary to provide targeted responses
to particular problems because it is not feasible to look at all environmental problems together in
any degree of detail, something that was implicitly recognised in the Sixth EAP with the call for
Thematic  Strategies.  However,  when  dealing  with  resource  use,  which  affects  the  whole
environment, it is best not to separate out the different environmental media from one another.
That approach is followed in the Resources Strategy.

5.3. 

Policies that influence the use of resources and their environmental impact

In  addition  to  the  environmental  policies  that  address  the  state  of  particular  environmental
media, there are many others that affect the use of resources - sometimes unintentionally. These
include:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

economic  policy,  where  the  drive  for  strong  economic  growth  means  that  resources
have to be used to support it;

fiscal  policy,  where  the  traditional  focus  on  taxing  human  resources  (e.g.  through
national  insurance  contributions)  rather  than  resource  use  has  favoured  increasing
labour productivity over resource productivity;

agricultural  policy,  where  the  objectives  of  the  Common  Agricultural  Policy  are
widening beyond agricultural productivity to include among other goals, the integration
of environmental concerns for a sustainable use of water and soil;

fisheries  policy,  where  the  Common  Fisheries  Policy  aims  to  provide  for  coherent
measures concerning the conservation, management and exploitation of  living aquatic
resources.  This  includes  limiting  the  environmental  impact  of  fishing  in  consistence
with  other  Community  policies,  in  particular  with  environmental,  social,  regional,
development, health, and consumer protection policies.43

energy policy, where one aim is to ensure safe energy supply; transport policy, where
the  use  of  land  for  transport  infrastructure  can,  for  example,  lead  to  habitat
fragmentation.

However,  these  policies  also  contain  instruments  that  can  reduce  undesired  environmental
impact.  The  price  mechanisms  of  functioning  resource  markets,  for  example,  can  efficiently
discourage  negative  environmental  impacts  of  resource  use  by  stimulating  substitution  or
technological innovation. The key therefore  is  to integrate concern  about use  of  resources and
the  consequent  impacts  into  these  policies  in  a  co-ordinated  way.  An  example  of  this  kind  of
approach is the Biodiversity Action Plan which defines policy instruments and actions with the

42

43

Several aspects of the sustainable use of water resources are covered by the Water Framework Directive;
Directive 2000/60/EC.
Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  2371/2002  of  20  December  2002  on  the  conservation  and  sustainable
exploitation of fisheries resources under the Common Fisheries Policy.

21

                                                
aim  of  achieving  a  sustainable  management  (conservation  and  use)  of  natural  resources
(although  in  the  context  of  the  Biodiversity  Action  Plan  ‘natural  resources’  means  wild  plant
and  animal  species  and  their  related  ecosystems  and  habitats).  In  addition,  the  sectoral  action
plans of the Biodiversity Strategy  contribute  to integrating  biodiversity concerns into different
policy areas. The recent reform of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy is another example of
strengthened integration of environmental concerns in a sectoral policy area. In addition, a large
number of international conventions address the use of resources and the related environmental
impacts. Their contributions to an overall European approach will need to be elaborated in detail
when  working  out  the  final  strategy.  Further,  integrating  environmental  aspects  of  resources
policies  in  education  and  information  policies  can  help  to  encourage  citizens  and  stakeholder
groups to take on responsible consumption patterns. The Resources Strategy will emphasise the
importance  of 
that  affect
environmental  impacts  of  natural  resources  use  but  it  will  not  attempt  to  implement  specific
initiatives in areas that are already covered by well-established policies, including the previously
mentioned international agreements.

integration  of  environmental  concerns 

into  other  policies 

5.4. 

Policies that can help to reduce the impact of resource use

As well as policies, like the ones discussed in Chapter 5.2, that tackle environmental pressures
directly,  there  are  also  a  number,  either  existing  or  under  development,  that  can  help  reduce
these pressures. These include:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

the Cardiff Integration Process – this seeks to increase integration of environmental
issues  into  other  policy  areas.  The  integration  of  resource  concerns  as  underlined  in
Chapter 5.3 would be one of these issues;

Research  and  Innovation  Programmes44  -  parts  of  these  attempt  to  find  new
environmental  technologies  and  new  approaches  to  production  and  consumption
patterns  that  will  help  to  alleviate  the  environmental  impacts  of  resource  use.  Other
programmes  work  towards  a  better  understanding  of  the  impact  of  resources  use,  in
particular with respect to taking account of externalities;

the Environmental Technologies Action Plan45 will attempt to dismantle the barriers
to the application of new environmental technologies;

the Integrated Product Policy – which aims to reduce the environmental impact – and
hence the way in which resources are used – of products and services throughout their
life-cycles;

the  new  European  Chemicals  Policy  –  which  will  aim  for  a  more  sustainable  use  of
chemicals, and thereby reduce their impact on the environment.

Education and information on environmental resources policies.

5.5. 

A coherent approach to environmental impacts of resource use

While all the policies discussed in the previous chapters affect the use of resources, they have to
be  applied  coherently.  The  Resources  Strategy  will  facilitate  this  by  taking  a  holistic  view  of
how policy measures on the environmental impacts of the use of resources interrelate.

Examples of potentially diverging objectives within environmental policy:

44

45

for example the EU’s RTD Framework Programmes and the LIFE programme.
COM(2003)131.

22

                                                
– 

– 

– 

using bio-mass, including forest products, to produce energy can be an effective way of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but must be managed in a way that avoids negative
environmental impacts on land use and bio-diversity and avoids market distortions;

the banning of CFCs under the Montreal Protocol led to the use of alternatives, which
do not react with the ozone layer but have very high greenhouse gas potentials;

the adoption of the urban waste water directive has led to a significant improvement of
the waste water discharged into water courses. However, the disposal of the resulting
sewage  sludge  can  in  itself  have  a  significant  environmental  impact  if  not  managed
properly.

Examples of potentially diverging objectives between environmental policy and other policies:

– 

– 

subsidies  to  coal  mining  may  be  regarded  as  falling  within  the  social  pillar  of
sustainable development, but must be managed in a way that does not create barriers to
the  introduction  of  new  environmental  technologies  and  renewable  energy  sources.
Consideration should also be given to ways of achieving such social objectives in ways
that would be more economically efficient and less environmentally harmful;

reducing fishing quotas helps protect bio-diversity, but careful consideration has to be
given to short and long term employment impacts in the fishing industry.

Balancing different objectives is a key element for sustainable development, so policy choices
need  to  be  supported  by  a  proper  understanding  of  potential  trade-offs.  Environmental
assessments46 and internal  Commission  procedures  such  as  extended  impact  assessments47  are
increasingly used to assess policy options. However, there is currently no mechanism to relate
policy-choices  to  the  overall  aim  of  decoupling  economic  growth  from  the  environmental
impacts of resource use. The Resources Strategy  aims  at  giving  decision-makers the means  to
make these assessments.

6. 

WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE?

6.1. 

Introduction

The aim of the Resources Strategy is to develop a Community approach that will provide policy
makers  and  other  stakeholders  in  the  relevant  policy  areas  with  the  necessary  framework  and
information for:

– 

– 

– 

identifying and assessing the impacts of resource use on the various environment media
(air, water, soil), on bio-diversity and on human health;

addressing scarcity where relevant;

preparing  and  reviewing  policies  that  influence  resource  use  and  its  associated
environmental impacts.

This  should  also  help  the  Commission  to  examine  and  define  which  measures  might  be
necessary  to  enhance  the  coherence  of  existing  policies  in  promoting  a  balanced  approach  to
policy assessment, integrating economic, social and environmental objectives with regard to the

46

47

Directives 85/337/EEC and 2001/42/EC.
COM 2002/276 Communication on Impact Assessment.

23

                                                
use  of  natural  resources.  The  long  term  goal  of  this  approach  is  to  achieve  a  reduction  of  the
environmental  impact  of  resource  use  and  the  use  of  scarce  resources,  in  accordance  with  the
aims of a general improvement in the environment, restoring and developing the functioning of
natural systems and sustainable development of the EU as a whole.

6.2. 

Core elements of a future thematic strategy

(a)

Knowledge gathering

To support policy decisions on the prioritisation of resource-related environmental problems, a
sound understanding of the links between resources use and the associated impacts at each stage
of  the  life  cycle  is  needed.  Without  this,  impacts  that  are  highly  visible,  for  example  lead
mining,  may  attract  disproportionate  attention  when  compared  with  impacts  that  appear  to  be
more subtle or only make themselves apparent after a certain length of time, such as dispersal of
lead from leaded car fuel.

Such a knowledge base will need to include information on data like material flows, the state of
ecosystems,  land  use  and  marine  resources.  Many  bodies  exist,  both  at  the  national  and  EU
level,  which  could  contribute  the  necessary  knowledge  if  asked  the  right  questions.  The
Resources  Strategy  will  initiate  and  monitor  work  on  the  knowledge  base  needed  for  the
development and implementation of action. This can then feed into the policy-making process,
which  will  need  to  decide  which  impacts  to  focus  on  and  to  decide  which  options  are  most
appropriate, while maintaining economic growth.

In this context it is important to note that in a knowledge society, education and information of
citizens  and  other  stakeholders  about  the  knowledge  gathered  will  help  to  support  the
implementation of environmental policies in the field of resources use.

(b)

Policy assessment

Any policy to reduce  environmental impacts, such as by shifting the  demand pattern, or using
more  eco-efficient  technologies,  is  likely  to  have  impacts  on  other  policy  areas  or  on
technologies. Therefore it is necessary to undertake an assessment of the likely impacts on the
environment (both inside and outside the EU) of any such policy measure. This assessment will
examine  whether  the  likely  environmental  effects  are  compatible  with  the  objective  of  the
Resources  Strategy.  In  this  assessment  the  likely  socio-economic  effects  will  be  taken  into
account.  By  doing  this  it  will  make  policy-makers  and  other  stakeholders  aware  of  potential
trade-offs  –  with  other  environmental  and  non-environmental  policies  -  and  stimulate  the
development, where possible, of alternative measures.

(c)

Policy integration

Concrete actions will need to be taken on the basis of the information generated by the previous
two activities. This will require political decisions to be made that take into account the role of
natural resources within the wider context of sustainable development. For example, while it is
generally acknowledged that there is  a need to  get the prices  right48 there has often  been only
very  limited  progress  in  this  direction.49  Likewise,  from  an  environmental  perspective,  further

48

49

For example, in the Conclusions of the Gothenburg European Summit in 2001.
For example, the overall share of revenue from environmental taxes in total revenue from taxes and social
contributions in EU Member States is between 5 and 10 % (Environmental Signals 2002, Benchmarking
the  millennium,  European  Environment  Agency,  p.  125)  and  the  six  years  delay  to  reach  a  political
agreement  on  the  Commission's  proposal  for  a  directive  on  taxation  of  energy  products,  which  was
presented in 1997 (COM(97)30 of 12.3.1997).

24

                                                
progress  towards  the  elimination  of  environmentally  negative  subsidies  could  be  made.  The
“policy  integration”  element  of  the  future  strategy  will  assist  in  addressing  key  issues  while
considering  all  aspects  of  sustainable  development.  This  element  will  also  meet  the  need  for
permanent monitoring of progress  so that  any initiatives  of  the  strategy  can be  reassessed  and
revised if necessary.

6.3.  Work under way

According  to  the  Sixth  Environmental  Action  Programme,  the  Resources  Strategy  should
include five elements, or tasks.

Task 1: An estimate of materials and waste streams in the Community, including imports and
exports, for example by using material flow analysis

Work on the quantification of material and waste streams in Europe is already being conducted
by the Commission (EUROSTAT), the European Environment Agency and the European Topic
Centre for Waste and Material Flows. The Commission has recently reported on material flows
in Europe50 and has published the results of a wider analysis of this subject in direct response to
the request of the Sixth EAP51. Furthermore, it has launched the development of a methodology
for  assessing  the  patterns  of  use  of  individual  resources.52  The  objective  is  to  understand  the
relationship  between  the  use  of  selected  resources  and  the  environmental  impacts  created  at
various stages in their life  cycles. Depending  on  the results, further  work  on  a  wider  range  of
resources and the refining of such a methodology may be carried out. These activities serve the
immediate  purpose  of  collecting  data  on  specific  material  streams  and  related  environmental
impacts.  However,  in  the  longer  term,  they  will  serve  to  prepare  the  “knowledge  gathering”
required for the thematic strategy itself.

Task 2: A review of the efficiency of policy measures and the impact of subsidies relating to
natural resources and waste

The Commission has begun to prepare an overview of commonly used policy measures and how
they affect the use of resources in EU Member States and Acceding and Candidate Countries.53
This  will  be  followed-up  in  the  second  half  of  2003  by  a  more  detailed  investigation  in
connection  with  Task  3  below.  The  results  may  also  help  to  point  out  trade-offs  between
environmental  concerns  and  other  areas  of  sustainable  development  involved  in  selecting
different  policy  measures.  As  an  immediate  result  these  investigations  will  help  to  define
concrete tasks for the work programme that will be proposed for the Thematic Strategy. In the
longer term they should be seen as pilot projects in preparation of the proposed strategic “policy
assessment”.

Task 3: Establishment of goals and targets for resource efficiency and the diminished use of
resources,  de-coupling  the  link  between  economic  growth  and  negative  environmental
impacts

This encompasses the overall objective of the future Resource Strategy which is to de-couple the
negative environmental impacts of resource use from economic growth, so it can not be a one-
off activity.

50

51

52

53

Material use in the European Union 1980 – 2000: Indicators and analysis. EUROSTAT, 2002.
Resource use in European Countries. European Commission, December 2002.
http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/natres/index.htm
Resources – a dynamic view. European Commission, in progress.
Public-private interface. European Commission, in progress.

25

                                                
The Commission will launch this task by further assessing the resource efficiencies of individual
countries,  building  on  the  results  of  recent  analyses  mentioned  under  Tasks  1  and  2  above.  It
will investigate the reasons for any differences found and their implications for the state of the
environment. For this the Commission has initiated work to clarify how benchmarking between
countries could help to establish goals and targets. The most problematic findings as well as best
practice will then be investigated through follow-up studies so that a first set of resource specific
targets will be  available towards the  end of 2004.  In  the  long  term  this  type  of  benchmarking
should become one of the routine tasks of the Resource Strategy’s “knowledge gathering”.

Task 4: Promotion  of  extraction  and production methods  and  techniques to encourage  eco-
efficiency and the sustainable use of raw materials, energy, water and other resources

and

Task  5:  Development  and  implementation  of  a  broad  range  of  instruments  including
research, technology transfer, market-based and economic instruments, programmes of best
practice and indicators of resource efficiency

Community environment, research and innovation policies  contribute  to  this  task,  for  example
through  the  IPPC  Directive,  the  Environmental  Technology  Action  Plan,  the  Community
Research and Development Framework Programmes and the LIFE programme. They contribute
to developing more knowledge based and less resource intensive products and processes and can
become key factors to support transformation of resource use patterns in the European industry.
International technology and environmental partnerships, like those mentioned in Chapter 6.5 of
this Communication, will also contribute to these tasks. Furthermore, new community policies,
such  as  the  Integrated  Product  Policy,  the  Thematic  Strategy  on  Prevention  and  Recycling  of
Waste  and  the  EU  follow-up  to  the  10-year  Framework  of  Programmes  decided  at  the  World
Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg will help by fostering technology transfer
and economic instruments. The strategy will also look at the use of market-based and economic
instruments,  including  optimal  use  of  fiscal  instruments  to  create  incentives  for  sustainable
resource use.

Indicators  of  resource  efficiency  are  being  considered  in  the  context  of  the  European  Union’s
Sustainable Development Strategy  and of  the  Johannesburg  commitments.54  With  the  build-up
of  knowledge  the  Resource  Strategy  will  attempt  to  go  beyond  quantitative  efficiency  and
pressure  indicators  and  define  its  specific  needs  for  indicators  of  aggregated  environmental
impact  .  The  Commission  will  work  on  their  development  in  co-operation  with  the  EEA  and
other  institutions.  This  activity  will  have  close  links  to  the  indicator-related  work  of  the
Integrated Product Policy and Community recycling and waste policies. However, large parts of
Tasks 4 and 5 require the integration of the environmental aspects of resources management into
other  policy  areas.  The  Resource  Strategy  should  contribute  to  this  integration  by  providing
data,  proposing  actions  and  ensuring  that  they  are  properly  considered.  In  order  to  do  this
effectively, the three strategic core elements described in Chapter 6.2 need to be operational on a
permanent basis.

In  parallel  to  these  tasks,  information  should  be  made  available  in  order  to  communicate
environmental  policy  messages  regarding  the  use  of  natural  resources  effectively  to  European
citizens. Member States should be asked to provide adequate information and education on these
policies.  Suitable  ways  of  achieving  this,  including  for  example  programmes  for  education,

54

COM(2002)524 final of 20.09.2002: Report from the Commission to the Council: Analysis of the open list
of environment-related headline indicators looks at the feasibility of producing such indicators.

26

                                                
training  and  diffusion  in  the  European  Research  Area,  can  be  explored  in  detail  when
developing the full strategy.

6.4. 

Time-scale

Consideration also needs to be given to the appropriate time scale  for  achieving  the  strategy’s
objectives.  There  is  general  consensus  that  the  full  implementation  of  new  policies  and  the
adaptation of existing concepts will require a long time period. The World Bank, for example,
advocates  a  long-term  perspective  for  natural  resources  management  as  it  “is  almost  always
related  to  long-term  problems”.  For  the  Resources  Strategy,  the  Commission  believes  that  25
years is most appropriate because:

– 

– 

– 

achieving the necessary decoupling of the environmental impacts of resource use from
economic  growth  and  the  necessary  further  improvements  in  resource  efficiency  will
require a significant change in production and consumption patterns and in the way we
manage  our  natural  resources,  and  institutional  changes  too.  This  can  not  be  done
overnight;

there  are  already  policies  that  address  the  short  and  medium  term,  but  they  lack  an
overall  framework  for  shaping  future  policies.  For  example,  the  Kyoto  objective  to
reduce CO2 emissions by 8% by 2008-2012, when compared with the 1990 level, has to
be related to the long-term objective to stabilise CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere,
which  may  require  a  reduction  of  more  than  50%.  The  Fifth  EAP  even  mentioned  a
“long term target of 70% cut”.

businesses  need  public  policies  with  clear  long-term  objectives  in  order  to  plan
investments and innovate.

6.5. 

Enlargement and the international dimension

As  a  result  of  its  forthcoming  enlargement,  EU  support  for  environmental  protection  will
increase  threefold  through  structural  and  rural  development  instruments,  plus  the  transitional
institution  building  facility.  The  Acceding  Countries’  priorities  will  be  to  build  up  their
economies and infrastructure. The Resources Strategy will take these needs into account while,
at  the  same  time,  guiding  these  countries  away  from  unsustainable  paths  of  resource  use  and
resource intensity.

The  EU’s  approach  to  resources  management  is  also  likely  to  play  a  major  role  in  other
neighbouring regions, such as Eastern Europe beyond the Acceding Countries and Central Asia.
EU  legislation  is  likely  to  become  the  principal  means  of  international  law-making  for  most
countries in the region. This approximation of legal frameworks will affect the management of
natural  resources  through  environmental  policies,  as  well  as  through  possibilities  for
strengthened economic links that will have implications for many other policy areas.

Clearly  a  European  resources  strategy  has  to  take  full  account  of  these  developments.  The
strategy  will  have  to  explore  how  it  can  contribute  to  the  European  Commission’s  goal  of
pursuing concrete and differentiated environmental objectives with neighbouring countries, for
example,  in  bilateral  mechanisms  or  sub-regional  co-operations  like  the  EU  Northern
Dimension, the Danube-Black Sea Task Force and the Regional Environmental Reconstruction
Programme in the Balkans.

The strategy should also take account of the new dynamic of EU participation in international
co-operation  in  the  environmental  field  following  enlargement,  as  well  as  the  impact  on  the

27

various  organisations  involved,  and  should  strive  to  develop  synergy  and  complementary
actions, where these provide added value.

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  EU’s  Resources  Strategy  has  to  take  account  of  Europe’s
interdependent  trade  relationship  with  many  other  regions  outside  Europe  and  its  global  trade
and  development  policies.  Resources  flow  over  the  whole  world  and  are  subject  of  extensive
trading. For example, the EU is one of the world’s greatest users of metals while less than 5% of
the  world  mining  production  comes  from  its  own  territory.  Other  examples  include  the
dependence of parts of the European livestock industry on imported cattle feed, as well as large
imports of seafood products and commodities that are often produced in non-sustainable ways in
countries outside the EU. Moreover, although in the EU the total forest area is rather stable or
even expanding, deforestation in developing countries for export purposes is continuing. At the
same  time  the  desire  to  subordinate  such  trade  flows  to  principles  of  sustainable  development
raises  difficult  questions  of  extra-territoriality  and  development  of  the  world  trading  system
rules. An EU resources strategy should therefore be set in a global  context, as many  solutions
(and  measures  to  stimulate  their  implementation)  will  only  be  coherent  and  effective  if
developed and implemented taking account of global considerations including the international
division of labour. A life-cycle approach to the sustainable use of natural resources should cover
the entire supply chain.

While  natural  resources  provide  significant  sources  of  income  for  many  countries,  there  exist
also important links between poverty and the use of natural resources in developing countries,
both as a side effect of unsustainable resource use along the entire value chain as well as through
their  economic  dependence  (and  therefore  their  vulnerability)  on  natural  resources.  Also,
purchasing policies at least cost, which frequently do not include the long-term sustainable costs
of resource use may lead to unsustainable use of soils, forests and oceans, and should in some
way be addressed in the appropriate policy areas.

Clarifying  the  role  of  these  equity  issues  in  a  European  Resources  Strategy,  including  the
unequal division of resource use, will demand substantial work in the process of developing the
final strategy.

7. 

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES STRATEGY

This Communication confirms that the aim of the future Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable
Use  of  Natural  Resources  is  to  develop  a  framework  and  measures  that  allow  resources  to  be
used  in  an  environmentally  sustainable  way,  while  achieving  the  objectives  of  the  Lisbon
strategy. The strategy will build on existing EU policies, as well as on national policies and the
various sector policies that influence the ways resources are used.

The  publication  of  this  document  marks  the  first  step  in  the  development  of  the  Resources
Strategy.  With  this  as  a  starting  point,  the  strategy  will  be  developed  in  an  open  and
collaborative process involving the Community institutions and public and private stakeholders.
An  Advisory  Forum,  chaired  by  the  European  Commission,  will  be  established  to  steer  the
policy development process. Working Groups  will be established to address specific resources
or  key  issues  and  analyse  them  from  the  three  –  environmental,  economic  and  social-
perspectives  of  sustainable  development.  The  European  Commission  will  invite  different
services and stakeholders to chair and co-chair these working groups.

On the basis of the analyses developed in this Communication, other thematic strategies and the
outcome  of  the  consultation  process  that  will  follow  the  adoption  of  this  Communication,  the
Commission will in 2004 propose a comprehensive Community strategy on the sustainable use
of natural resources. Furthermore, stakeholders are invited to look at the Commissions web page

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on  the  Resources  Strategy  (http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/natres/index.htm).
Comments and input to the development of the strategy can be submitted to the e-mail address
mentioned on the web page.

The  Commission  requests  the  Council  and  the  European  Parliament  to  endorse  the  approach
outlined in this Communication.

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