Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament - Climate change in the context of development cooperation
Date: 2003-03-11
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: action programme, climate change, cooperation policy, developing countries, development policy, environmental impact, environmental policy, reduction of gas emissions

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 11.3.2003
COM(2003) 85 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION
TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

2.

3.

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 3

Rationale for action...................................................................................................... 4

current and projected changes and impacts of climate change on partner countries ... 8

3.1

Environmental and socio-economic effects of climate change.................................... 9

3.1.1

Ecosystems and natural resources................................................................................ 9

3.1.2

Economic sectors and food security........................................................................... 10

3.1.3

Human health, migration/displacement and infrastructure ........................................ 10

3.1.4 Macro-economic impacts of climate change.............................................................. 11

3.2

4.

4.1

4.2

Meeting the challenge of climate change by means of adaptation and mitigation .... 11

Proposal for an EU Climate change strategy for support to partner countries........... 12

Overall objective and guiding principles ................................................................... 12

Strategic priorities ...................................................................................................... 13

4.2.1

Raising the policy profile of climate change, both in dialogue and co-operation (a)
with partner countries and (b) within the Community............................................... 14

4.2.2

Support for adaptation to climate change................................................................... 15

4.2.3

Support for mitigation................................................................................................ 17

4.2.4

Capacity development................................................................................................ 19

4.3

Indicative strategic responses for EU partner countries............................................. 19

ANNEXES …………………………………………………………………………………...20

ANNEX I:…………………………………………………………………………………….22

ANNEX II: Indicative strategic responses for EU partner countries ....................................... 28

ANNEX III: Information on the science and projected impacts of climate change................. 34

ANNEX IV: Summary of the international climate change process ....................................... 35

ANNEX V: Other international initiatives relating to climate................................................. 38

ANNEX VI: Climate change relevant projects financed under the Fifth Framework

Programme for research ............................................................................................. 43

ANNEX VII: Adaptation needs and options............................................................................ 46

ANNEX VIII: Mitigation needs and options ………………………………………………...48

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific  evidence1  confirms  that  climate  change2  is  already  taking  place  and  there  is  new
and  stronger  evidence  that  most  of  the  warming  observed  during  the  last  50  years  is
attributable to human activities. Scientists further project that the rate of change will be more
rapid  than  previously  expected.  Sea  levels  are  projected  to  rise  as  a  result  of  increased
warming, and changes in rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and other extreme weather events
are also projected.

But  climate  change  is  not  only  an  environmental  problem.  It  is  also  clearly  a  development
problem  since  its  adverse  effects  will  disproportionately  affect  poorer  countries  with
economies  predominantly  based  on  natural  resources  and  related  economic  sectors
(agriculture,  forestry and fisheries). Yet even countries with more diversified economies  are
vulnerable  to  climate  change  since  lack  of  financial  resources,  adequate  technology,  and
stable and effective institutions translate into poor capacity for adaptation to climate change.
Developing countries, having the most vulnerable populations and the least adaptive capacity,
are likely to suffer the greatest consequences, despite having so far contributed the least to the
problem. Furthermore, within countries, the poorest members of society often tend to live on
the  most  marginal  land  and  be  particularly  reliant  on  natural  resources  and  rain-fed
agriculture. They are thus at most risk from flooding and drought.

At  the  same  time,  partner  countries  have  legitimate  needs  for  economic  development.
Increasing industrialisation in developing countries will  however lead  to  both higher  energy
consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as has happened in developed countries.
It is therefore in all parties’ interest to promote sustainable trends in GHG emissions also in
partner countries3. Despite ongoing national efforts in these areas, partner countries will need
support in reconciling their legitimate needs for economic development with the protection of
the environment and sustainable use of energy and natural resources.

The  EU  is  committed  to  assisting  its  partner  countries  in  the  fight  against  poverty,  the
fulfilment  of  the  Millennium  Development  Goals  and  the  promotion  of  sustainable
development. Climate change forms an integral part of this agenda given the multiple ways it
affects societies and interacts with place-specific vulnerabilities. It is therefore important that
any  response  to  climate  change  is  conceived  within  and  in  coherence  with  existing
development  frameworks,  rather  than  in  isolation  from  them.  That  is,  as  an  integral  part  of
mainstream EU development co-operation activities.

The EU subscribes fully to the principle that development strategies and processes should be
country  owned  and  driven,  and  that  the  partner  countries  themselves  are  responsible  for
identifying  and  responding  to  environmental  issues.  However,  climate  change  concerns  (as
environmental concerns in general) often have low priority in partner countries. Strengthening

1

2

3

All scientific information and statements in this section are from the Third Assessment Report of the
IPCC (2001).
Climate change is caused by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere,
released primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels and from agriculture and land-use changes. The
GHGs cause the atmosphere to retain more of the infrared heat radiated from the Earth’s surface, thus
leading to a gradual rise in global temperature.
There will probably be rising international pressure on DCs to take positive action to control emissions
increasing in parallel with their growth in the negotiations for the second commitment period under the
Kyoto Protocol.

3

                                                
the environmental dialogue  with partner  countries and linking it  to sustainable  development
(including  poverty  alleviation  and  social  and  economic  development)  is  therefore  key  to
creating awareness and raising the policy profile of climate change.

As a response to the above, the Commission invites the Member States, European Parliament,
civil society and other stakeholders to contribute to the formulation and implementation of a
coherent and co-ordinated EU climate change strategy and action plan for support to partner
countries,  on  the  basis  of  the  objectives,  strategy  and  action  plan  proposed  in  the  present
paper.

The overall objective of the proposed strategy is to assist EU partner countries4 in meeting the
challenges posed by climate change, in particular by supporting them in the implementation
of  the  UN  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  and  the  Kyoto  Protocol.  For  this
purpose, climate change concerns and its potentially disastrous long term implications need to
be fully mainstreamed into EU development co-operation so that they receive a higher profile
in  priority-setting  in  a  way  that  is  completely  coherent  with  the  overarching  objective  of
poverty reduction. Such an approach will equally contribute to the implementation of the EU
strategy for sustainable development, in particular its external dimension, and in the case of
the Community, to the Cardiff process on environmental integration.

The  proposed  strategy  is  composed  of  three  sub-sections.  The  first  sub-section  defines  the
overall objective and lists some guiding principles. The second sub-section operationalises the
overall  objective  by  identifying  four  strategic  priorities:  (i)  Raising  the  policy  profile  of
climate  change,  (ii)  Support  for  adaptation,  (iii)  Support  for  mitigation,  and  (iv)  Capacity
development.  Finally,  the  third  sub-section  identifies  indicative  strategic  responses  for  EU
partner countries, placing an emphasis on vulnerability and adaptation5.

The action plan (Annex I) translates the recommendations of the strategy into concrete actions
and indicates the concerned entities. The focus of the action plan is on adaptation to climate
change, capacity development and research6.

The  paper  starts  with  two  analytic  background  sections.  The  first  explores  the  rationale  for
action. The second analyses current and projected changes and impacts of climate change on
partner countries, and adaptation and mitigation as a response to climate change.

2.

RATIONALE FOR ACTION

The scientific context: Current and projected global climate changes

Scientific evidence7 confirms that climate change is already taking place and there is new and
stronger evidence that most of the warming observed during the last 50 years is attributable to
human  activities.  Scientists  further  project  that  the  rate  of  change  will  be  more  rapid  than

4

5

6

7

For the Community this means the ACP, ALA, MEDA, CARDS and TACIS countries. However, this
paper will not cover Croatia, Russia and Ukraine as they have emission targets under the Kyoto
Protocol.
See Annex II for indicators and selection process.
Notably the ECs new RTD Framework Programme (2002-2006) under its Research Priority on
Sustainable Development, Global Change and Ecosystems will provide opportunities for partner
countries to participate in energy, transport and climate change research projects.
All scientific information and statements in this section are from the Third Assessment Report of the
IPCC (2001).

4

                                                
previously  expected.  Projections  for  climate  change,  based  on  current  scientific  evidence,
include the rise of global average surface temperatures by another 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius
over the next  100  years.  This projected rate  of warming is  the  highest in 10,000  years.  The
rise  in  temperature  is  predicted  to  have  strong  adverse  effects  through  rising  sea  levels
(between  9  and  88  centimetres),  more  irregular  precipitation,  and  an  increase  in  extreme
weather  events  like  droughts  and  storms.  (See  Annex  III  for  more  details  on  the  science  of
climate change and projected effects).

The international context: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol (KP), Monterrey and Johannesburg

Global  climate  change  has  its  given  place  on  the  international  agenda  for  sustainable
development.  The  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  (UNFCCC)8
was  opened  for  signature  at  the  “Earth  Summit”  in  Rio  in  1992,  where  environment  and
development  agendas  were  reconciled,  and  came  into  force  in  1994.  In  1997,  Parties  to  the
UNFCCC  adopted  the  Kyoto  Protocol  with  the  view  to  strengthening  the  UNFCCC
commitments9.  The  EC  and  the  Member  States  are  all  Parties  to  the  UNFCCC  and  have
ratified the Kyoto Protocol10.

Under the UNFCCC, both developed and developing countries are committed to developing
and submitting inventories on greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by “sinks”
(such as forests, which absorb carbon dioxide) and reporting on measures taken to implement
the  UNFCCC;  adopting  national  climate  change  mitigation  programmes  and  adaptation
strategies;  promoting  technology  transfer;  co-operation  on  scientific  and  technical  research;
and promoting public awareness, education and training.

In  accordance  with  the  principle  of  common  but  differentiated  responsibilities,  developed
countries  shall  take  the  lead  in  combating  climate  change11  and  shall  also  assist  developing
countries in the implementation of their commitments under the UNFCCC by the provision of
funding,  including  for  technology  transfer  and  adaptation  for  those  who  are  particularly
vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change12.

At the resumed  session  of the Sixth  Conference  of  the  Parties  to  the  UNFCCC  (Bonn,  July
2001),  a  political  declaration  was  made  by  the  EU+  group13.  In  this  declaration  the  group
pledged  US$  410  million  (€  450  million  at  July  2001  exchange  rates)  per  year  by  2005  in
climate  change  funding  for  DCs.  This  amount  is  to  be  reviewed  in  2008.  There  is  not  yet
agreement  on  the  distribution  of  the  US$ 410/€ 450  million,  but  the  suggestion  at  the  time
was  that  distribution  should  be  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  countries’  CO2  emissions  in

8

9

10

11

12

13

The intermediate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise CO2 emissions in industrialised countries at
1990 levels by the year 2000.
The KP outlines binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for developed countries. In this
context, the EU is committed to reducing its collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 8% below its
emissions level in 1990 in the 2008-2012 period.
The EU adopted the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol at the Council meeting of 4 March 2002 (Council
Decision of 25 April 2002 concerning the approval on behalf of the European Community of the Kyoto
Protocol to the UNFCCC and the joint fulfilment thereunder, OJ 15 May 2002, L130, page 1). The
Member States completed their national ratification processes by 31 May 2002.
Given their historical responsibility for the occurrence of the problem and the technologies and
financial resources they command.
For example the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
The EU+ group consists of the EC and the Member States plus Canada, Iceland, New Zealand, Norway,
and Switzerland.

5

                                                
1990, i.e. according to the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP). Consequently, the EU share of the
pledge is to be met by the Member States, given that the Community has no CO2 emissions of
its own. The Commission will probably still make a contribution, even though by definition
truly additional funds under the current financial perspective are not available. (See Annex IV
for  a  summary  of  the  international  climate  change  process,  and  Annex  V  for  other
international initiatives relating to climate).

The  Monterrey  Conference  held  in  March  2002  addressed  the  challenges  of  financing  for
development. The agreed Consensus stresses the need to mobilise and increase the  effective
use  of  financial  resources  to  eliminate  poverty,  improve  social  conditions,  raise  living
standards  and  protect  the  environment.  It  also  recalls  that  good  governance  is  essential  for
sustainable development, seeing as critical the need to reinforce national efforts for capacity
building in developing countries. The EU announced in Monterrey its commitment to increase
its  ODA  from  the  current  level  of  0.33%  of  GNP  to  0.39%  between  now  and  2006  which
amounts to an extra € 7 billion per year by the year 2006.

Against  this  background,  and  in  the  light  of  the  Marrakech  Ministerial  Declaration14,  the
World  Summit  on  Sustainable  Development  (WSSD),  which  took  place  in  Johannesburg  at
the  end  of  August  2002,  provided  a  good  opportunity  to  highlight  the  need  to  maximise
synergies  between  sustainable  development  goals,  including  the  overarching  objective  of
poverty  reduction,  and  measures  to  fight  climate  change  and  adaptation  to  its  adverse
impacts15.  The  UN  Secretary-General  had  identified  five  priorities  for  the  Summit:  water,
energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity (WEHAB), priorities which indeed all have their
relevance  for  climate  change  concerns.  The  outcome  of  the  WSSD  included  agreement  to
increase urgently and substantially the global share of renewable energy sources with the EU
initiating  a  “coalition  of  the  willing”  committing  to  targets  and  timetables.  There  was  also
agreement  on  the  EU  proposal  for  a  10-year  framework  for  programmes  on  sustainable
consumption and production. The industrialised countries agreed to take the lead in this global
effort to correct unsustainable patterns and help developing countries put in place policies and
tools  to  this  end.  Two  EU  initiatives  on  water  (Water  for  Life)  and  energy  (EU  Energy
Initiative  for  Poverty  Eradication  and  Sustainable  Development)  were  also  launched  in
support  of  the  WSSD  Plan  of  implementation.  These  initiatives  demonstrated  the  EU’s
commitment to translate the political agreements made there into concrete action, in support
of the Millennium Development Goals.

The European context: EC development policy, the Cardiff process, the Member States and
Civil society

14

15

The Marrakech Declaration was adopted in November 2001 at the Seventh Conference of the Parties to
the UNFCCC. It recognises that the World Summit on Sustainable Development provides an important
opportunity for addressing the linkages between climate change and sustainable development. It puts a
particular emphasis on the need to maximise synergies between the UN Conventions on Climate
Change, Biological Diversity and Desertification and stresses the importance of capacity building as
well as of developing and disseminating innovative technologies in respect of key sectors of
development.
Despite not being formally on the agenda, climate change and the Kyoto Protocol moved rapidly up the
political agenda during the Summit with China, Poland and South Africa announcing their ratification.
In addition, Canada stated that it would ratify and Russia made a positive statement about its ongoing
ratification process.

6

                                                
The central objective of EC development policy is the reduction and eventual eradication of
poverty16.  This  entails  support  for  sustainable  development,  the  integration  of  developing
countries  into  the  world  economy  and  a  determination  to  combat  inequality,  as  stated  in
Article  177  of  the  EC  Treaty.  In  the  context  of  sustainable  development,  the  EU  has
established  a  strategy  for  sustainable  development  comprising  of  both  an  internal  EU
dimension17 and, following the request  of  the  Göteborg  European  Council  in  June  2001,  an
external dimension18 prepared in view of the WSSD in August 2002.

Environmental concerns form an integral part of this agenda since environmental degradation
undermines  partner  countries’  prospects  for  sustainable  economic  and  social  development,
and risks offsetting any short-term gains in poverty reduction. In the medium and long-term it
may  even  lead  to  more  poverty.  Climate  change  is  an  additional  stress  for  those  who  are
already vulnerable, in particular the LDCs, and is therefore likely to further aggravate poverty
and human deprivation.

In  accordance  with  Article  6  of  the  EC  Treaty,  a  process  intended  to  promote  the  concrete
integration  of  environment  into  all  Community  policy  areas19,  with  a  view  to  promoting
sustainable development, was launched at the Cardiff summit in 1998. In December 1998 the
Vienna  summit  extended  this  invitation  to  include  development  co-operation.  At  both  the
Cardiff and Vienna summits, Heads of State indeed highlighted the area of climate change as
the most obvious example  for the need for integration of environmental concerns into other
policy areas.

The  working  document  “EC  Economic  and  Development  Co-operation:  Responding  to  the
New  Challenges  of  Climate  Change”  from  November  1999,  was  a  first  attempt  to  address
how  climate  change  could  be  further  taken  into  consideration  and  served  as  an  input  to  the
Council under the Finnish Presidency in 1999. In its conclusions of 11 November 1999, the
Council reaffirmed that the problem of global climate change should be prioritised and invited
the Commission to report on the progress made in integrating climate change considerations
into  EC  economic  and  development  co-operation  policies  in  a  document  that  should  also
include an action programme.

International  negotiations  on  the  implementation  of  the  UNFCCC  and  the  Kyoto  Protocol
took  some  time,  however,  and  delayed  the  development  of  an  action  programme.  The
negotiations  finally  came  to  a  close  in  November  2001  at  the  seventh  session  of  the
Conference of the Parties (COP7 Marrakech). The  Commission reported  to  the  Council and
the European Parliament on past and on-going initiatives through the submission of the Third

16

17

18

19

“The European Community’s Development Policy” COM(2000) 212 final. In November 2000, the
Council and the Commission endorsed a Development Policy Declaration (Council document
13458/00) that identified six thematic priority themes which are: trade and development, regional
integration and co-operation, support to macro-economic policies linked to social sector programmes,
transport, sustainable rural development and food security and institutional capacity building, good
governance and rule of the law. Environment is a crosscutting issue, which needs to be integrated into
all six priority themes in order to make development sustainable.
“A sustainable Europe for a Better World: A European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development”
COM(2001) 264 final.
“Towards a global partnership for sustainable development” COM(2002) 82 final.
Article 6 of the EC Treaty, as amended by the Amsterdam Treaty, requires that environmental
protection is integrated into the definition and implementation of all Community policies and activities
referred to in Article 3, in particular with the view to promoting sustainable development. Furthermore,
the Sixth Environment Action Programme “Environment 2010: Our future, our Choice”, states that
climate change considerations need to be addressed and integrated into all Community sectoral policies.

7

                                                
national  Communication  from  the  European  Community  under  the  UNFCCC  in  November
200120. Climate change-related development activities have hitherto been financed either from
the European  Development  Fund  or  from  the  Community  budget21.  Up  to  now,  however,  it
has been difficult to distinguish projects that are conducive to climate change abatement and
adaptation  from  other  projects  (conservation,  energy  efficiency  projects,  etc).  This  is  a
consequence  of  the lack of specific markers  in  the  current  EC  information  retrieval  system.
Climate change relevant projects have also been financed from the research budget under the
Fifth Framework Programme (see Annex VI).

As  concerns  the  Member  States,  climate  change  related  development  activities  have  been
financed  both  on  a  bilateral  basis  and  by  contributions  to  the  Global  Environment  Facility
(GEF),  which  operates  the  financial  mechanism  of  the  UNFCCC,  or  by  other  multilateral
channels.  Furthermore,  civil  society  is  increasingly  taking  a  more  active  stance  towards  the
development aspects of climate change, in addition to its environmental effects, which  have
long been high on its agenda.

Thus, the present paper is the Commission’s response both to the request of the Council and
to  the  recent  evolution  the  climate  change  process  has  known  in  terms  of  scientific
knowledge,  institutional  frameworks  and  public  awareness.  By  making  the  link  between
poverty and climate change explicit, it proposes an integrated strategy for addressing climate
change and poverty reduction concerns, which in the case of the Community also strengthens
the on-going process of integrating environment into EC development co-operation22 and the
sustainability  dimension  of  EU  external  policies23.  Moreover,  the  Commission  invites  the
Member States, European Parliament, civil society and other stakeholders to contribute to the
formulation  and  the  implementation  of  a  coherent  and  co-ordinated  EU  climate  change
strategy  and  action  plan  for  support  to  partner  countries,  on  the  basis  of  the  objectives,
strategy and action plan proposed in the present paper.

3.

CURRENT  AND  PROJECTED  CHANGES  AND  IMPACTS  OF  CLIMATE  CHANGE  ON
PARTNER COUNTRIES

24

Rising  temperatures  and  sea-levels  and  more  irregular  precipitation  and  extreme  weather
events are already leading to adverse effects for developing countries. The projected effects of
climate change for the coming 100 years are even more severe. The impact of these effects on
the  environment  and  on  social  and  economic  development  is  expected  to  be  both  place-
specific and complex depending on the type, rate and magnitude of the climatic changes and
the extent to which the affected people and systems are vulnerable to those changes. Climate
vulnerability  is  a  function  both  of  how  sensitive  people  and  systems25  are  to  the  adverse
effects  of  climate  change,  involving  both  gradual  changes  in  climatic  conditions  and

20

21

22

23

24

25

Staff Working paper of 20.12.2001, SEC(2001) 2053.
MEDA, ALA, TACIS or CARDS budget lines and horizontal thematic budget lines such as the
Environment in Developing Countries and Tropical Forests budget line B7-6200.
An EC strategy for integrating the environment into EC economic and development co-operation was
finalised in April 2001. SEC(2001) 609: “Integrating the environment into EC economic and
development co-operation”.
Complementary contribution to the external dimension of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy
(COM (2002) 82 final) and the Strategy on environmental integration in the external policies of the
General Affairs Council. GAC meeting 11 march 2002, doc. 6927/02. .
When no other source is indicated, the principal source for section 3 is the Third Assessment Report of
the IPCC (2001).
Natural, human managed and human made systems.

8

                                                
extremes, and their ability to adapt to or cope with them. Socio-economic adaptive capacity
(or capacity to cope), is in turn determined by factors such as economic resources and other
assets, technology and information and the skills needed to use them, infrastructure and stable
and  effective  institutions.  Many  partner  countries  are  poorly  endowed  with  these  attributes
and  are  consequently  highly  vulnerable  to  climate  change.  The  enhancement  of  adaptive
capacity  is  therefore  likely  to  reduce  both  vulnerability  to  climate  change  and  promote
sustainable development.

It should be stressed that for developing countries, particularly the least developed countries,
climate vulnerability is likely to add to, interact with and reinforce existing problems such as
population  growth,  problems  related  to  health,  dependence  on  global  markets  and  resource
depletion and thereby further aggravate poverty and human deprivation.

3.1

Environmental and socio-economic effects of climate change

The linkage that exists between poverty and the environment implies that adverse effects on
ecosystems, natural resources and related economic sectors will affect poor people hardest.

3.1.1

Ecosystems and natural resources

Poor people, particularly the rural poor, depend heavily for their livelihoods on access to and
the quality of natural resources and ecosystems. Ecosystems provide essential goods such as
food,  shelter  and  fuel;  as  well  as  services  such  as  breakdown  of  wastes  and  pollutants,
purification of water and maintenance of soil fertility. Coastal ecosystems such as mangrove
forests  and  coral  reefs  protect  the  coastline  from  erosion.  However,  climate  change  is
expected to alter the functioning of ecosystems in complex and uncertain ways so they may
no  longer  be  able  to,  or  may  have  increasingly  reduced  capacity  to  perform  their  role  as
important  life  support  systems  and  render  vulnerable  those  who  depend  on  their  goods  and
services.  In  addition, a shift in temperature  zones  caused by  climate  change  could  seriously
affect biodiversity and lead to a geographic shift in the occurrence of different species and/or
the extinction of species in many locations as the world’s ecosystems will not able to adapt as
fast as the climate is changing26. Documenting ecosystem change is necessary both to assess
effects of climate change and to assess the effects of ecosystem change on climate; yet such
documentation is extremely difficult because many developing countries lack reliable baseline
information on ecosystem boundaries and ecosystem condition.

Changes  in  precipitation  and  more  irregular  precipitation  will  mean  that  water  resources  in
many regions will come under further stress. This will affect both drinking water supplies and
irrigation. Floods  are further expected to increase  water  degradation.  The  number  of  people
living in countries that are water-stressed may therefore increase massively, from 1.7 billion
people  (one-third  of  the  world’s  population)  to  around  5  billion  by  2025  (depending  on  the
rate of population growth).27

Moreover,  higher  maximum  temperatures  are  expected  over  nearly  all  land  areas.  Warm
seasons will become dryer in most mid-latitude continental interiors, increasing the frequency

26

27

CGIAR Annual Report 2000.
In Africa average water runoff will increase due to decreasing soil infiltration capacity and water
availability in general will decrease in Northern and Southern Africa, in Asia this will happen in arid
and semi-arid areas. This will exacerbate desertification in Southern, North and West Africa. In Latin
America, in addition to increases in the frequency of droughts, the loss and retreat of glaciers will
remove an important supply of fresh water. Third Assessment Report of the IPCC 2001.

9

                                                
of  droughts  and  land  degradation.  This  will  be  particularly  serious  for  areas  where  land
degradation, desertification and droughts are already  severe. Sea level rise  may  also  lead  to
the salinisation and loss of low-lying agricultural land. Major vegetation fires will increase in
magnitude and frequency in the Amazon basin and elsewhere in the tropics, presenting a real
threat to the sustainability of the world’s remaining humid tropical forests and the indigenous
peoples and other poor people who rely on them.

3.1.2

Economic sectors and food security

Thus climate change is expected to have a clear negative impact on agricultural and livestock
activities.  For  example,  yields  for  many  countries  in  Africa,  Asia  and  Latin  America  are
projected to decrease and even in regions where agricultural output is not directly affected by
climate  change,  natural  pest  control  may  become  increasingly  destabilised  as  predators  and
prey  in  local  ecosystems  are  decoupled.  In  Asia  and  in  Latin  America  agricultural
productivity is also projected to decrease due to more frequent tropical cyclones. In Asia, rice
production  may  be  substantially  affected  by  climate  change.  Moreover,  fish  stocks  are
expected to shift polewards  and  climate change induced destruction of mangrove forest and
coral  may  also  negatively  affect  fisheries  resources.  Inland  fisheries  in  Africa  may  also  be
adversely affected by fresh waters coming under additional stress.

There  is  consequently  a  real  risk  that  climate  change  will  worsen  food  security28  and
exacerbate  hunger.  In  the  short-term,  however,  the  greater  impact  on  food  security  could
come  from  the  projected  increases  and  severity  of  extreme  weather  events  rather  than  from
gradual  changes  in  the  climate.  In  the  longer  term,  increasingly  serious  shifts  in  food
production potential due to gradual climate change have been projected for the period 2050-
2080 in current food-insecure areas.29 Particularly vulnerable are food-deficient small African
countries that are dependent on food imports, as well as subsistence farmers in some regions
of Latin America. In addition, in areas where fish constitute a significant source of protein for
the poor, declining and shift of resources due to additional climate change stress may impact
on their food security. It should be kept in mind however that food security is a function of
several  interacting  factors,  of  which  food  production  potential  is  only  one.  Poverty  and  the
lack of food purchasing power probably have a more direct bearing on food security, but these
may in turn be exacerbated by other effects of climate change.

3.1.3

Human health, migration/displacement and infrastructure

Changes in temperatures and precipitation are also likely to increase the geographic range of
vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever and expose new populations to these
diseases. Furthermore, droughts and flooding may increase water-associated diseases such as
cholera and diarrhoea, particularly in areas with inadequate sanitary infrastructures. Prolonged
intense  heat  waves  coupled  with  humidity  may  also  increase  mortality  and  morbidity  rates,
particularly among the urban poor and the elderly. Extensive vegetation fires which are often
associated  with  climate  change  have  already  caused  widespread  respiratory  problems,
particularly in South East Asia.

The  loss  of  landmass  in  coastal  areas  is  likely  to  lead  to  increased  permanent  or  semi-
permanent displacement of populations. The most exposed regions in demographic terms are
South  and  Southeast  Asian  coastal  countries  and  African  coastal  countries.  In  Asia  the

28

29

The ensuring of food security while combating climate change is an integral part of the ultimate
objective of the Convention.
World agriculture: towards 2015/2030: A FAO perspective (2002).

10

                                                
number of people exposed to this threat is most significant in Bangladesh and Vietnam, and in
Africa  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  population  resides  within  100  km  of  the  coast.  Small
island  states  are  also  particularly  vulnerable  and  may  face  such  devastating  effects  from
climate  change  that  people  may  be  forced  to  abandon  their  island  homes  and  migrate
elsewhere. Moreover, food insecurity aggravated for example by severe drought may translate
into  famine  (particularly  in  rural  areas  in  sub-Saharan  Africa)  leading  to  migration  to  cities
that lack sanitary and other health related capacity to deal with such an influx.

More severe storms and increased sea-level rise are expected to ravage low-lying coastal areas
in  many  parts  of  the  globe  leading  to  loss  of  life  and  infrastructure  damage.  Harbours,
offshore  infrastructure,  coastal  urban  areas  and  tourist  infrastructure  are  particularly  at  risk,
but extreme weather events may also damage inland road, rail, and air infrastructure, thereby
disrupting vital transportation systems.

3.1.4 Macro-economic impacts of climate change

Apart from having direct economic effects on already vulnerable livelihoods in terms of lost
endowments  and  entitlements,  the  above  projected  impacts  are  also  likely  to  have  major
macro-economic  implications  for  developing  countries,  in  both  the  short  and  the  long-term
perspective.  In  Ecuador  in  1997-98,  El  Niño  is  believed  to  have  cost  US$  2  billion  in
economic losses, which is more than 12 % of the country’s GNP. This may have increased the
incidence  of  poverty  in  affected  areas  by  more  than  10  percentage  points.  In  Honduras  in
1998, hurricane Mitch caused an estimated 7 % decline in agricultural output.30

Since  climate  change  has  multi-sectoral  and  economy-wide  impacts,  output  in  the
manufacturing industry (due to e.g. decreasing availability of water and energy) and revenues
from tourism may  also decrease. Moreover, chronic food insecurity  and deteriorating  health
conditions will put more pressure on national budgets and costs related to potential conflicts
due to increasing water scarcity or mass migration may also be expected.

Existing  poverty  and  lagging  development  will  amplify  the  adverse  effects  of  both  gradual
changes  in  climatic  conditions  and  extreme  weather  events,  leading  to  economic  losses,
including costs for relief and reconstruction efforts, that may consume a significant proportion
of partner countries’ GDP. Diverting funds away from programmes for poverty reduction and
sustainable development will further complete the vicious circle of depleting capital reserves,
foreign indebtedness and loss of foreign investor confidence, leading in turn to more poverty
and vulnerability.

3.2

Meeting the challenge of climate change by means of adaptation and mitigation

What  are  the  options  for  partner  countries  challenged  by  the  threat  of  climate  change?
Simplifying, current responses to climate change can be said to be of two types. One aims at
adaptation  to  climatic  change;  the  other  at  mitigating  its  cause,  GHG  emissions,  both  by
reduction at source level and by sequestration by so called ‘sinks’, e.g. forests.

Given that climate change is already taking place, adaptation to its adverse effects becomes a
necessity. Adaptation refers to all those responses that may be used to reduce vulnerability to

30

World Development Report 2000/2001.

11

                                                
climate  change31.  Areas  for  adaptation  to  climate  change  include  natural  resources
management  (e.g.  land/soil,  water,  forest  and  coastal  resources),  related  economic  sectors
(agriculture, forestry, fisheries), infrastructure, human settlements and human health.

Some generic objectives for adapting to climate change are: (i) improving the robust design of
infrastructure and long-term investments; (ii) increasing the flexibility of vulnerable managed
systems  (e.g.  changing  activity  or  location);  (iii) enhancing  the  adaptability  of  vulnerable
natural  systems  (e.g.  reducing  non-climatic  stresses);  (iv) reversing  trends  that  increase
vulnerability (e.g. slowing development in  vulnerable areas such as flood-plains  and  coastal
zones); and (v) improving the preparedness and awareness of society. (See Annex VII for  a
summary on adaptation needs and options).

Mitigation  is  usually  defined  as  an  intervention  to  reduce  anthropogenic  emissions  of
greenhouse gases. Measures aiming at the reduction at source level include energy efficiency
measures,  renewable  energy  sources  and  new  and  cleaner  energies.  Natural  resources
management  options  such  as  land  use,  land  use  change  and  forestry  (LULUCF)  may  also
serve mitigation purposes since they offer significant carbon  conservation  and  sequestration
potential, especially in the tropics32. (See Annex VIII for a summary on mitigation needs and
options).

Measures  for  adaptation,  including  natural  resources  management,  and  mitigation  should
however  not be  seen  as  mutually exclusive.  On  the  contrary,  certain  options can  offer  great
synergies between these different objectives and their maximisation is often very beneficial to
reducing  poverty.  For  example,  a  renewable  energy  programme  for  decentralised  electricity
(off-grid systems) could include a package of solar water pumping systems for domestic use
and forest conservation/sustainable management in remote areas.

4.

PROPOSAL  FOR  AN  EU  CLIMATE  CHANGE  STRATEGY  FOR  SUPPORT  TO  PARTNER
COUNTRIES

4.1

Overall objective and guiding principles

The  overall  objective  of  this  strategy  is  to  assist  EU  partner  countries33  in  meeting  the
challenges posed by climate change, in particular by  supporting them in the implementation
of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

Given  the  multiple  ways  climate  change  affects  societies  and  interacts  with  place-specific
vulnerabilities,  it  is  however  important  that  any  response  to  climate  change  is  conceived

31

32

33

Adaptation involves individual and collective coping and risk management strategies including
adjustment in practices, processes or structures of systems (natural, human managed and human made).
Adaptation can be autonomous or planned, reactive or anticipatory.
For example, conservation of threatened carbon pools may help to avoid emissions, if leakage can be
prevented, but are only sustainable if the socio-economic drivers for deforestation and other losses of
carbon pools can be addressed. In agriculture, methane and nitrous oxide emissions can be reduced, e.g.
from livestock enteric fermentation, rice paddies, nitrogen fertiliser use and animal wastes and have
direct benefits in terms of increased incomes and also improve food-grain production and availability.
Conservation and sequestration of carbon may allow time for other options to be further developed and
implemented.
For the Community this means the ACP, ALA, MEDA, CARDS and TACIS countries. However, this
paper will not cover Croatia, Russia and Ukraine as they have emission targets under the Kyoto
Protocol.

12

                                                
within and in coherence with existing development frameworks, rather than in isolation from
them.

This means that the stated objective should be achieved as an integral part of mainstream EU
development co-operation activities and in complete coherence with the overarching objective
of  poverty  reduction.  That  is,  climate  change  concerns  needs  to  be  fully  mainstreamed  into
EU  development  co-operation  and  development  staff  made  aware  of  the  disproportionate
impact climate change is likely to have on the poorest countries and on the poorest people in
all developing countries.

The EU will in the implementation of this strategy be guided by the following principles:

–  Contribution  to  the  overarching  objective  of  poverty  reduction  as  stated  in  the  EC

development policy and, where appropriate, its six core areas.34

–  Contribution to the Millennium Development Goals35 and the outcome of WSSD.

–  Coherence, both internally and externally, and on the following levels: (i) coherence with
other  EC  and  MS  policies,36  (ii)  coherence  with  other  development  sector/thematic
policies/strategies,37  (iii)  and  coherence/synergies  with  support  actions  for  other
Multilateral Environmental Agreements.38

–  Co-ordination  and  complementarity  between  the  Community,  Member  States  and  other
donors. The complementarity should be viewed from the political, financial, geographical
and type of expertise point of view.

–  Primacy of national ownership of development strategies and processes.

–  Broad stakeholder participation in the implementation process.

4.2

Strategic priorities

Guided  by  the  above-mentioned  principles,  the  Commission  proposes  that  EU  development
co-operation should focus on the following four strategic priorities39:

(i) Raising the policy profile of climate change,

34

35

36

37

38

39

(i) Trade and development, (ii) Regional integration and co-operation, (iii) Macro-economic reform and
social sector programmes, (iv) Transport, (v) Food security and rural development, and (vi) institutional
capacity strengthening.
(i) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, (ii) Achieve Primary Universal Education, (iii) Promote
gender equality and empower women, (iv) Reduce child mortality, (v) Improve maternal health, (vi)
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, (vii) Ensure environmental sustainability, (viii) Build a
global partnership for development.
For example, environment, trade, agriculture, research, transport.
For example, energy, water, transport, rural development, forests, health, education, and gender.
For example support actions for the MEAs on desertification, biodiversity and forests, which
contributes to poverty alleviation and at the same time addresses climate change concerns.
It should be kept in mind that these priorities are abstract constructs, which in practice both may overlap
and interact, including on different levels. They should therefore be seen as useful crosscutting
organisational and guiding aids rather than as independent separate areas.

13

                                                
(ii) Support for adaptation to climate change,

(iii) Support for mitigation of climate change, and

(iv) Capacity development.

4.2.1

Raising the policy profile of climate change, both in dialogue and co-operation  (a)
with partner countries and (b) within the Community

(a)  with  partner  countries:  The  EU  subscribes  entirely  to  the  principle  that  development
strategies  and  processes  should  be  country-owned  and  driven  and  that  partner  countries
themselves are primarily responsible for identifying and responding to environmental issues.
However,  climate  change  concerns  are  in  almost  all  cases  absent  from  partner  countries
development  strategies  such  as  PRSPs  and  CSPs,  in  full  contradiction  to  their  increasing
claims for capacity building and financial resources in international negotiations. Closing that
gap is essential and means that actions to enhance the policy profile of climate change must
first concentrate on the national/implementation level.

One way  of  raising  the  policy  profile  of  climate  change  in  partner  countries  is  to  clarify  or
make  the  link  with  other  EU  and  international  agenda  topics  which  already  receive  high
political attention such as the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development
(i.e. making it a  full component of social  and economic development).  In this context, links
will  be  made  with  the  political  and  action-oriented  recommendations  of  the  Johannesburg
Summit.

A second and complementary way of raising the policy profile, raising awareness, and placing
the issue of climate change on partner countries’ national agendas is the strengthening of the
environmental dialogue between the EU and individual partner countries, but also within each
partner  country.  High level political dialogue  can  play  a  crucial  role  in  encouraging  partner
countries  to  address  climate  change  and  other  environmental  concerns,  in  particular  by
highlighting that economic development goals in developing countries can be achieved while
contributing  to  climate  protection.  Also  other  types  of  policy  dialogue  can  further  this
purpose, e.g. consultations with partner countries in the development and review of CSPs.

The  EU  will  therefore  take  advantage  of  existing  institutional  frameworks,  such  as  the
Cotonou  Agreement  (with  the  ACP),  Partnership  and  Co-operation  Agreements  (with  the
NIS)  and  the  Barcelona  process  (Euro-Mediterranean  Partnership)  or  other  bilateral
agreements,  and  its  extensive  network  of  delegations  and  representations  (Commission  and
MS), in order to increase the dialogue on climate change as part of both political dialogue and
regular  country  policy  dialogue  to  better  identify  country-specific  needs  with  the  view  to
better responding to them.

Increasing the specific dialogue will also help identifying and implementing EU initiatives to
support  the  preparation  of  national  strategies  for  sustainable  development  (nssds)  including
climate change as a horizontal component, particularly in countries where EU involvement is
already  strong.  The  EU  can  also  play  a  key  role  in  promoting  regional  co-operation  among
partner countries.

With regards to the intra-country dialogue, increased support will be given to Ministries and
other national authorities that are responsible for climate change, in order to help them make
their voices heard. This could be done through the institutional support component of the EC
development  Policy.  For  example,  support  should  be  given  for  the  setting  up  of  inter-

14

ministerial and multi-stakeholders committees. In this context, the key role of civil society is
fully recognised and must be supported.

This paper should be instrumental in providing an incentive for dialogue between the EU, in
particular  the  Commission  delegations/MS  representations,  and  its  partner  countries,
discussing  how  the  EU  can  best  support  their  efforts  of  addressing  the  problem  of  climate
change  while,  at  the  same  time,  aiming  at  sustainable  development  (including  poverty
alleviation and social and economic development).

(b)  within  the  Community:  Up  to  now,  climate  change  concerns  have  in  almost  all  cases
been  absent  from  EC  development  strategies.  On  an  in-house  basis  and  in  line  with  the
Commission  Staff  Working  Paper  adopted  in  200140,  the  Commission  will  mainstream
climate  change  concerns  into  all  strategic  programmes  and  sectors  of  EC  development  co-
operation41  and  into  other  EC  internal  and  external  policies  having  possible  impacts  on
partner  countries  .  This  will  be  done  by  providing  in-house  training  to  strengthen  the
awareness  and  knowledge  of  Commission  staff  in  relation  to  the  linkages  between  poverty
reduction  and  climate  change,  including  for  effective  political  and  policy  dialogue  with
partner countries; by giving practical advice on how to integrate climate change into Country
and  Regional  Strategy  Papers  (CSPs/RSPs)  by  the  annual  and  mid-term  reviews  of  those
papers;  by  the  setting  up  of  a  thematic  network  addressing  environmental  issues  involving
Commission headquarters and Delegations, and ensuring that they are appropriately staffed.

The  Commission  will  ensure  the  co-ordination  between  the  initiatives  resulting  from  the
WSSD, in particular the EU Energy Initiative and the Coalition of the Willing on renewables,
as well as development co-operation programmes and other Community programmes related
to energy co-operation  with third countries  to ensure that  they  work  in  synergy.  It  will  also
draw  on  these  various  programmes  in  its  political  dialogue  on  climate  change  with  partner
countries.

In addition, the Commission will expand the on-going dialogue with the EIB and the EBRD
in  order  to  ensure  that  they  take  climate  change  into  consideration,  in  an  explicit  and
systematic  way,  when  programming  their  activities  that  are  climate  change  relevant,  in
particular those related to the energy, transport and water sectors.

This paper should be a catalyst for Commission in-house awareness raising on climate change
issues.

4.2.2

Support for adaptation to climate change

Ecological,  social  and  economic  effects  of  climate  change  are  projected  to  be  both  place-
specific  and  interrelated.  Options  for  adaptation  will  therefore  have  to  accommodate  such
complexities in order to be effective. Moreover, adaptation will have to address both gradual
changes in average climatic conditions and climate variability and extremes.

Many  of  the  countries  or  groups  within  the  countries  which  are  most  vulnerable  to  climate
change  are  already  under  stress  with  respect  to  current  climate  variability.  Addressing
vulnerability  to  the  current  climate  is  therefore  a  logical  first  step  in  adaptation  to  climate
change.  The  EU  will  support  adaptation  measures  to  current  climate  and  its  variability,

40

41

SEC(2001)609 : Integrating the environment into EC economic and development co-operation.
The use of the Environment in developing countries and Tropical Forests budget line could be helpful
in this context. See priority actions 10-12 in the strategic guidelines for the budget line.

15

                                                
including  extreme  events,  in  view  of  strengthening  knowledge  and  adaptive  capacity  in
partner countries to deal with future changes in the climate. Present-day climate vulnerability
can  for  example  be  reduced  by  feasible  cost-effective  adaptation  in  the  form  of  no-regrets
measures that are measures that have benefits also for non-climatic stresses. The identification
of such options in relevant sectors will be supported. In this context, the EU will also continue
its  support  for  ecosystem  conservation  and  environmentally  sound  natural  resources
management  in  partner  countries  with  a  view  to  taking  advantage  of  possible  synergies
between sustainable ecological, social and economic development and adaptation concerns42.

Secondly,  specific  adaptation  measures  are  more  likely  to  be  implemented  if  they  are
consistent  with  or  integrated  in  frameworks  that  address  non-climatic  stresses.  The  EU  will
support  and  promote  mainstreaming  of  adaptation  concerns  and  national  action  plans  for
climate  change  reported  in  national  communications  or  national  adaptation  programmes  of
action  (NAPAs),  where  they  exist,  into  strategic  frameworks  such  as  national  strategies  for
sustainable development (nssds) and PRSPs. Support will also be given for the development
of  tools  and  capacities  for  the  integration  of  climate  risk  management/adaptation  concerns
into  national  and  sectoral  planning.  Furthermore,  wide  stakeholder  involvement  will  be
supported  in  order  to  ensure  that  formal  interventions  are  compatible  with  informal
‘traditional’  responses  to  risks  posed  by  changes  in  the  climate,  thereby  contributing  to  the
development  of  strategies  combining  the  joint  strengths  of  strategic  oversight  and  local
knowledge/decision-making.

The  EU  will  also  ensure  coherence  and/or  complementarity,  where  appropriate,  between
actions aimed  at  adaptation  and actions linked to relevant development  co-operation  sectors
(e.g. water, forests, agriculture, fisheries, rural development, health and education) in order to
avoid  interventions  that  may  increase  vulnerability  (maladaptation).  Since  people  and  all
types of systems are generally more vulnerable to sudden disruptive changes than to gradual
ones, adaptation options should also take into account disaster preparedness and prevention.

Finally,  planned  anticipatory  adaptation  has  the  potential  to  reduce  vulnerability  to  climate
change.  Climate  change  impact  and  vulnerability  assessments43  provide  the  basis  for,  and
sometimes  integrate  the  identification  and  assessment  of  possible  options  for  anticipatory
adaptation44.  However,  even  though  significant  advances  have  been  made  in  these  areas,
further research and methodological work are still required to narrow the gap between current
knowledge and policymaking needs.

Scientific and technological knowledge of direct relevance to developing countries to support
their  transition  to  sustainability  is  scarce  and  incomplete  and  should  be  urgently  reinforced
through the joint mobilisation of scientific communities in the EU and DCs. Climate change
is  one  of  the  priorities  in  the  6th  Framework  Programme  (FP6)  for  research  (2002-2006)45.
Research  and  scientific  and  technological  co-operation  with  developing  countries  are
therefore  key  instruments  that  the  EU  has  at  its  disposal  for  the  implementation  of  this
strategy  and  the  FP6  is  a  vehicle  for  partner  countries  to  develop  knowledge,  tools  and
methodologies that are relevant for the issue of climate change and planned adaptation (both

42

43

44

45

Ecosystem conservation and environmentally sound natural resources management may also serve
mitigation purposes in terms of carbon conservation and sequestration.
Climate change impact assessments are often based on quantitative models analysing the relationship
between climatic variables and selected impact sectors.
Any option for adaptation will usually involve trade-offs that need to be thoroughly evaluated.
The specific programme on Global Change and Ecosystems will have a budget of € 700 million, a
substantial part being dedicated to climate change.

16

                                                
reactive  and  anticipatory).  To  be  effective,  scientific  and  technological  co-operation  must
necessarily  target  the  ecological,  socio-cultural  and  economic  conditions  in  developing
countries.

Universities and research institutions of partner countries will therefore be encouraged to join
their European counterparts and form research consortia that contribute to the development of
adaptation  strategies  and  the  understanding  of  scientific  processes  under  the  specific
conditions of developing countries, as well as the corresponding monitoring activities. .

4.2.3

Support for mitigation

Partner  countries  will  need  support  in  reconciling  their  legitimate  needs  for  economic
development with the protection of the environment and sustainable use of energy and natural
resources. Even though mitigation options can be explored in all sectors of the economy, as
far  as  developing  countries  are  concerned  the  greater  potential  for  emission  reductions
through  mitigation  activities,  with  good  ancillary  benefits  in  terms  of  sustainable
development, exist primarily in the areas of energy supply, energy use and transport. The EU
will therefore continue and strengthen its support to actions having both explicit and implicit
potential  (direct  and  indirect  impacts)  for  the  mitigation  of  GHG  emissions,  emphasising
these three areas. However, mitigation concerns need to be mainstreamed into all aspects of
existing  EU  development  assistance  in  order  to  achieve  a  less  carbon  intensive  economic
growth than otherwise would have happened, for the benefit of all countries.

Taking  also  into  account  the  Commission  Communication  on  Energy  co-operation  with
Developing Countries46 and the Energy  Initiative  proposed by the EU in view of the World
Summit  on  Sustainable  Development  the  EU  will  employ  the  full  menu  of  technical  and
institutional  options  including  energy  efficiency  and  renewable  energies.  This  will  be
achieved through the establishment of partnerships with developing country governments for
providing assistance for the development of sustainable energy policies as well as advice on
financing opportunities  from  various  sources  (donor  aid  to  be  complemented  by  bank  loans
and equity investments from governments and the private sector). The partnerships may also
lead to the creation of national or regional energy capacity building initiatives that will work
on the development and implementation of national and regional energy policies.

In  the  context  of  climate  change,  the  EU  will,  when  it  is  the  best  option  for  sustainable
development,  promote  renewable  energies  and  energy  efficiency  technologies.  The  EU  will
also,  drawing  on  its  experience  of  scientific  and  technological  co-operation  with  partner
countries  in  areas  of  direct  relevance  to  climate  change,  support  research  into  alternative
fuels: bio-fuels, natural gas; ensure wide dissemination of results; and promote  North-South
research co-operation.

Transport investment contributes to economic growth, facilitates trade and reduces poverty by
facilitating the mobility of people and goods. When supporting partner countries developing
their  transport  policies,  strategies,  and  transport  services  and  infrastructure,  the  EU  will
encourage  and  assist  the  evaluation  of  the  long-term  consequences  of  greenhouse  gas
emissions  of  the  different  transport  modes.  For  example,  whether  it  would  be  feasible  and
sustainable for goods transport to use lower greenhouse gas emitting modes such as railways
or inland waterways.  Urban  public  transport  is  a  major  source  of  greenhouse  gas  emissions
and needs tackling on several fronts. The EU will promote such measures as the use of non-

46

COM(2002)408 final.

17

                                                
the 

motorised  transport,  the  development  of  clean  and  efficient  public  transport  means  and  the
provision  of  appropriate  infrastructure,  the  enforcement  of  national  regulations  governing
vehicular  road-worthiness, 
timely
maintenance  of  infrastructure,  particularly  roads.  These  “no-regrets”  measures  benefit  both
transport users and climate change concerns and could, where feasible, be complemented by
the  introduction  of  mass  transit  systems.  The  gradual  introduction  of  basic  economic
instruments,  such  as  charges  for  infrastructure  use  and  energy  taxation,  would  help  to  steer
demand towards the less energy intensive modes of transport and provide an additional source
of funds for transport investment in those modes.

traffic  management  and 

improvement 

the 

in 

Sustainable  energy  systems  and  sustainable  surface  transport  are  priorities  in  the  6th
Framework  Programme  for  Research  (2002-2006),  including  renewable  energy  sources,
energy savings and efficiency, alternative motor fuels and environmentally friendly transport
systems.

The EIB will consider in its future support to energy and transport in developing countries the
more sustainable energy and transport modes.

The EU will contribute to the identification and removal of key barriers to the implementation
of  mitigation  measures.  Examples  of  barriers  are  the  lack  of  available  capital  and  lack  of
finance  at low interest rates,  the information  gap  hindering  proper  technology  selection,  the
lack of access to the state of the art technology, and the small scale of many projects.

The above mentioned barriers are definitely also relevant for the implementation of projects
that  may  be  eligible  under  the  Clean  Development  Mechanism  (CDM).  This  project-based
mechanism  was  established  by  the  Kyoto  Protocol  and  has  the  two-fold  objective  of
contributing to the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC and  assisting  developing  countries in
achieving  sustainable  development.  In  practice  it  allows  developed  countries  with  GHG
reduction  targets  to  earn  emission  reduction  credits  through  investing  in  GHG  reduction  in
developing countries, i.e. to take advantage of lower abatement costs in developing countries.
They can thereafter use the credits earned to partly meet their own emission reduction targets.
In  effect,  this  makes  the  CDM  an  economic  incentive  for  the  greening  of  Foreign  Direct
Investment. The CDM is primarily to be driven by the private sector and is expected to be a
good vehicle for the transfer of clean and modern technologies in developing countries while
delivering real development benefits.

The  CDM  is  a  market-driven  instrument  and  the  Marrakech  Accords  stipulate  that  CDM
activities should not result in a diversion of Official Development Assistance (ODA). As the
private sector is driving the CDM, it is likely that CDM activities will first be proposed in the
more  advanced  developing  countries  where  least  cost  greenhouse  gas  mitigation  potential
exists and where there is a comparative advantage for the private sector with less uncertainties
or  fewer  non-commercial  risks.  In  this  context,  it  is  predictable  that  equity  as  well  as
development and social dimensions will not be targeted as priority objectives by the private
sector. Consequently, some public funding may be necessary  to ensure  that  these  issues  are
addressed  and  that  a  balanced  geographical  distribution  of  CDM  projects  is  safeguarded.
Using  ODA  for  project  preparation  activities,  including  capacity  building  of  the  host
developing  country, could be  an important step in that direction. To  stimulate  CDM project
development in LDCs where the public sector has a comparative advantage over the private
sector  and  where  additional  social  benefits  are  to  be  expected  from  the  CDM  project,
particularly in the form of poverty reduction, ODA could also be used to finance the costs of a

18

CDM  project.47  In  any  case,  ODA  shall  not  be  used  for  financing  the  acquisition  of  CDM
credits48.

4.2.4

Capacity development

In view of partner countries’ vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate change and their
growing  greenhouse  gas  emissions,  it  is  essential  to  develop  their  capacity  for  the
implementation  of  both  the  UNFCCC  and  the  Kyoto  Protocol  if  global  efforts  to  combat
climate change are to be meaningful. Their full participation in the international negotiations
is also essential, particularly with regard to future negotiations on possible DC commitments
under the Kyoto Protocol.

Capacity  development  is  about  improving  overall  organisation  performance  and  function
capabilities as well as ability to adapt. Both the public and the private sectors, including the
civil society, will be targeted by capacity development initiatives in order to raise awareness
about the challenge of climate change, the opportunities offered by the UNFCCC and Kyoto
frameworks in terms of financial and technical assistance, technology transfer and investment
potential  through  CDM  activities  in  order  to  assist  partner  countries  in  meeting  their
obligations.  Capacity  development  activities  undertaken  within  this  framework  should  also
maximize synergies between the UNFCCC and other multilateral environmental agreements,
as appropriate.

In  particular  attention  will  be  given  to  reinforcing  scientific  and  technological  capacity  in
developing countries through the synergistic and complementary use of research instruments
such  as  the  mobility  component  of  the  6th  RTD  Framework  Programme  and  the  capacity
building  supported  through  external  relations  instruments  such  as  the  EDF,  MEDA  and  the
ALA Regulation.

4.3

Indicative strategic responses for EU partner countries

Even though the  formulation  of development priorities should  be country-driven in order to
further  national  ownership  of  the  development  process,  there  are  several  advantages  with
identifying indicative response strategies to climate change for EU partner countries. Firstly,
they  may be  a  useful point of departure  for  any  discussion  with  partner  countries  regarding
their particular needs for coping with climate change. Secondly, they may provide a tool for
identifying  opportunities  for  exploiting  synergies  with  ongoing  projects/programmes  in
related  sectors  such  as  forest  conservation/sustainable  natural  resources  management,
transport, energy and rural development. Thirdly, they may provide guidance for the selection
of  projects  to  be  financed  from  horizontal/thematic  budget  lines  such  as  the  Community
budget line “Environment in developing countries and Tropical Forests”. Fourthly, they could
further  enhance  co-operation/complementarity  between  the  Community’s,  Member  States’
and  other  donors’  actions.  Fifthly,  they  could  identify  countries  for  which  an  integrated
climate  approach,  i.e.  linking  adaptation  responses  with  mitigation  and/or  conservation
responses, might be relevant.

47

48

An EU Code of Conduct for the use of ODA for funding CDM activities should be developed. Such a
Code should clearly indicate that the value accruing from the part of the CDM credits that was
generated through an ODA supported CDM project, should either be ‘re-invested’ in the same project
(to maintain the additional social benefits) or given to the host country.
Environment Council conclusions, 6 October 1998, Development Council conclusions 11 November
1999.

19

                                                
A first attempt to identify such possible response strategies for EU partner countries has been
made in Annex  II.  This indicative exercise  has  been  done in  two stages. The first stage has
been  aiming  to  identify  indicators  expressing  countries’  vulnerability  to  climate  change  as
well as their relative contribution to, and mitigation of, the problem. The following indicators
have  been  selected:  (a)  socio-economic  ability  to  adapt,  (b, c)  physical  ability  to  adapt,  (d)
projected adverse effects on crop yields, (e) particularly disaster prone countries, (f) countries
affected by desertification/land degradation, (g) emissions of CO2, (h) emissions of CO2 per
capita, (i) amount of forest area in km2, and (g) voluntary interest for emission target or other
obligation.

In the second stage, these indicators have formed the basis for an indicative selection of the
following response strategies (i) adaptation, (ii) mitigation, and (iii) conservation/sustainable
management  of  ecosystems.  This second  stage has  been  guided  by  a  concern  of  prioritising
countries’ vulnerability to climate change, placing a higher emphasis on indicators expressing
such vulnerability (a-f) and thereby adaptation. (See Annex II for details on the indicators and
the selection process).

However, it should be stressed that since these indicative response strategies are only to serve
guiding purposes; they certainly do not exclude any country from identifying any  additional
priority and obtaining development assistance for it. The indicative response strategies should
be  regularly  reviewed,  in  particular  following  the  results  of  future  negotiations  for  the  2nd
period.
commitment 

20

Annexes

ANNEX I: ACTION PLAN

The  four  strategic  priorities  identified  in  the  preceding  strategy  are  here  translated  into  actions
indicating the entities concerned.

I. Raising the policy profile of climate change, both in dialogue and co-operation

Actions:

–  Climate change is regularly put on all high level political meetings’ agendas dealing with

development (COM-Partner countries-MS-NGOs)

–  A Joint Paper on climate change within the development context is elaborated with other interested

donor agencies (COM)

a) with partner countries

Actions:

–  This Communication is put on future agendas of the ACP Council, Joint Parliamentary Assembly
and  other  high  level  consultations  within  other  EC  co-operation  agreements  for  presentation  and
monitoring of the Action Plan (MS-COM)

–  The  environment  dialogue  between  the  EU,  in  particular  the  Commission  delegations/MS
representations,  and  partner  countries  is  strengthened,  using  this  Staff  Working  Paper  and  its
Action Plan as a basis (MS-COM-Partner countries)

–  When  implementing  the  recommendations  of  the  Johannesburg  Summit  (WSSD),  in  particular
those  related  to  water  and  the  EU  Energy  initiative,  as  well  as  the  Coalition  of  the  Willing  on
renewables, full consistency with this Action Plan is ensured (MS-COM)

–  The mainstreaming of climate change concerns (in  particular  with  regard  to  adaptation), national
action  plans  for  climate  change,  and  national  adaptation  programmes  of  action  (NAPAs),  where
they exist, into strategic frameworks such as national strategies for sustainable development (nssd)
and PRSPs is supported (Partner countries-MS-Multilateral donors-COM)

–  Climate  change  issues  are  integrated  into  CSP  and  RSP  reviews,  in  particular  new  initiatives  by
partner  countries  for  specific  intervention  in  the  context  of  climate  change  (Partner  countries-
COM)

–  Climate change issues are integrated into NIPs/RIPs reviews (Partner countries-COM)

–  The  establishment  of  a  multi-stakeholders  committee  for  taking  stock  of  on-going  activities  and
identifying priorities for action is supported in each partner country and region (Partner countries-
MS-COM)

–  The target audience of the finalised EC Environmental Integration Manual is extended in order to

make it usable by partner countries (COM)

–  Regional  initiatives  to  identify  key  implementing  issues  for  the  regions/countries,  to  develop
country/regional strategies, and to exchange experience and develop methodologies are supported
(e.g. through workshops) (MS-COM)

21

b) within the Community

(cid:1)  Mainstreaming and integration of climate change in strategic frameworks

Actions:

–  Climate change concerns are better integrated into other EC and MS external policies and internal

policies having possible external impacts on partner countries (MS-COM)

–  Climate  change  concerns  are  better  integrated  into  other  sector  policies  of  development  co-
operation  (energy,  transport,  research  and  technology,  water  management,  rural  development,
trade, civil society involvement, institutional support, health, gender, education, forests, fisheries,
private sector development) (MS-COM)

–  Concrete  checklists  to  facilitate  the  consistency  of  projects  with  climate  change  goals  are

elaborated. (COM)

–  A  user  friendly  screening  tool  to  identify  GHG  potential  of  projects  at  operational  level  is
developed (COM) and is made available, within the framework of the use and implementation of
the finalised Environment Integration Manual, to all Delegations and Services (COM)

–  The draft Environmental Integration Manual is finalised and made operational (COM)

–  The Environmental Integration Manual is effectively used (MS-COM)

–  Specific training to projects’ and programmes’ managers is provided, on the basis of this paper and

the Environmental Integration Manual (COM)

–  An Environmental Help Desk to assist Commission Headquarters and Delegations and Planners is

set up (COM)

–  A  network  of  expertise  on  climate  change/MEAs/environment  in  Commission  Headquarters  and

Delegations is established (COM)

–  A  paper  summarising  UNFCCC  and  Kyoto  Protocol  and  other  Multilateral  Environmental
Agreements’  (MEAs)  obligations  is  developed  and  distributed  to  all  Delegations  and  within
Headquarters (COM)

–  The  dialogue  between  the  EC  and  the  EIB  is  reinforced  through  the  establishment  of  a  working
group on climate change in order to ensure that climate change is taken into consideration in the
EIB’s  funding  instruments  and  in  the  programming  and  implementation  of  its  activities,  in
particular those related to the energy, transport and water sectors (COM-EIB)

–  The implementation of this Action Plan is monitored (MS-COM)

–  Sufficient  resources  are  allocated  within  current  budgetary  and  human  resources  frameworks  at
Commission (HQ & Delegations) level to ensure the full implementation of the actions assigned to
the Commission in this action plan (COM)

–  A specific marker system for the identification of climate change related projects based on the

OECD/DAC marker system for MEAs, is introduced in the Commission Development database to
facilitate the fulfilment of reporting obligations and to increase the visibility of Community actions
in all international fora and partner countries (COM)

22

(cid:1)  Co-ordination and coherence

Actions:

–  A Clearing house mechanism on climate change activities is set up at EU level for the studying and
dissemination  of  information  on  the  wide  range  of  support  provided  by  the  Community  and
Member States to Partner Countries, with a view to improving co-ordination between projects and
programmes which contribute to the implementation of the Framework Convention and the Kyoto
Protocol and providing a basis for enhanced capacity building in developing countries (MS-COM-
EEA)

–  The  planning  of  climate  change  related  programmes  and  activities  in  the  development  context  is
co-ordinated at Community level (from the political, technical, geographical and financial point of
view) (MS-COM)

–  MS and multi-stakeholder Experts Groups’ meetings for the co-ordination and implementation of
the  recommendations  contained  in  this  Action  Plan  are  regularly  organised  (COM-MS-Partner
countries-Stakeholders)

–  Feedback from bilateral and multilateral climate-related discussions with partner countries, is to be
taken into account in the implementation of this Action Plan, to further enhance the EU's position
in climate change negotiations (COM)

–  Co-ordination  between  the  EC  and  other  multilateral  donors  through  a  better  exchange  of
information on programmes and an increased number of co-operative activities is improved (COM-
Multilateral donors)

–  Synergies at EC level between various development related action plans under the different MEAs
and other international initiatives (Desertification, Biodiversity, Forests, Water, etc) are examined
(COM)

II. Support for adaptation

(cid:1)  Research on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation

Actions:

–  Research  on  impact,  vulnerability  and  risk  assessment,  including  sector  specific  and  integrated
assessments49,with  particular  emphasis  on  changes  in  the  range  of  climatic  variation  and  the
frequency and severity of extreme climate events is supported (MS-COM)

–  The  improvement  of  tools  for  integrated  assessment,  including  risk  assessment,  to  investigate
interactions between components of natural and human systems and the consequences of different
policy decisions is supported (MS-COM)

–  Research for the development and assessment of adaptation strategies and measures, estimation of
the effectiveness and costs of adaptation options, and identification of differences in opportunities
for  and  obstacles  to  adaptation  in  different  regions,  countries  and  populations,  including
methodologies to these ends, is supported (MS-COM)

49

For example land use, land use change and forestry sectors. An integrated assessment of water
resources would look into water use in a number of sectors, and how these interact.

23

                                                
–  The  assessment  of  opportunities  to  include  scientific  information  on  impacts,  vulnerability  and
adaptation in decision-making processes, risk management and sustainable development initiatives
is supported (MS-COM)

–  Universities and research institutions of partner countries are encouraged to join European research
consortia to contribute to monitoring activities, to the understanding of scientific processes and to
the development of adaptation strategies (MS-COM)

(cid:1)  Integration of adaptation concerns into strategic frameworks and national and sectoral

planning

Actions:

–  The coherence  or  complementarity  of  adaptation  measures  with  measures  within  relevant  sectors
(water, agriculture, forests, fisheries, rural development, health, education) is promoted in order to
avoid  actions  of  maladaptation  (action  that  increase  vulnerability)  to  climate  change  (Partner
countries-MS-COM)

–  The  linking  of  adaptation  measures,  where  appropriate,  to  relief,  rehabilitation  and  development

(LRRD) and disaster preparedness (DP) concerns is supported (Partner countries-MS-COM)

–  The  integration  of  climate  risk  management  into  the  planning  process  for  all  national
entities/agencies  with  responsibilities  for  long-term  investments,  e.g.  infrastructure  is  supported
(MS-COM-EIB)

–  The  establishment  of  a  mechanism  for  greater  collaboration  among  national  entities/agencies

responsible for planning in partner countries is supported (Partner countries-MS-COM)

–  Good governance and human and institutional capacity  building  are supported in  order to  ensure
stable  and  effective  institutions  and  thereby  strengthen  partner  countries’  adaptive  capacity  and
reduce their vulnerability to climate change (COM)

(cid:1)  Adaptation policies/strategies and measures linked (directly or indirectly) to current climate
and  its  variability,  including  extreme  events,  are  improved  and  supported  in  order  to
strengthen knowledge and adaptive capacity in partner countries to deal with future changes
in the climate

Actions:

–  Adaptation  options  to  reduce  current  climate  vulnerability,  particularly  no-regrets  options50,  are

identified (COM-MS)

–  The  setting  up  of  adaptation  pilot  projects  is  promoted  and  supported  in  dialogue  with  partner

countries following their own adaptation concerns and priorities (MS-COM)

–  Increased  surveillance  of  vector  borne  diseases  is  supported  (MS-Partner  countries-COM-

Multilateral donors-NGOs)

–  The  development/improvement  of  codes  and  standards  for  buildings,  residences  and  other

infrastructures, including roads, bridges, etc. is supported (MS-COM)

–  Capacity building and training for monitoring, assessment and data gathering are supported at all
relevant levels, including for the use of data and methodologies developed by relevant international
programmes such as the JRC’s Global Land Cover 2000 network is supported (MS-COM)

50

Measures that have benefits also for non-climatic stresses.

24

                                                
–  Capacity  building  for  development  and  maintenance  of  environmental  observing  and  forecasting
infrastructures, networks and competencies, in coherence with the foreseen European contribution
to the global climate change observation systems and the EC/ESA GMES initiatives is supported
(COM-MS)

–  Training and awareness raising activities on adaptation are supported in order to improve skills and
raise public awareness on adaptation and thereby strengthen public adaptive capacity (MS-COM)

–  The creation of local stakeholder groups is promoted in order to ensure that formal  interventions
for the management of risks posed by climate change support existing informal interventions in that
area,  thereby  contributing  to  the  development  of  strategies  combining  the  joint  strengths  of
strategic oversight and local knowledge/decision-making (MS-COM-Partner countries-NGOs)

–  Capacity building for the elaboration and implementation of national and/or regional programmes

concerned with adaptation to climate change is supported (Partner countries-MS-COM)

–  The  elaboration/update  of  National  Adaptation  Programmes  of  Action  (NAPAs)  by  LDCs  is

supported (Partner countries-MS-COM)

(cid:1)  Continued  support  for  adaptation  through  forest  conservation  and/or  sustainable

management of ecosystems and natural resources in partner countries

Actions:

–  The  development  of  policies/strategies,  and  supporting  databases,  for  forest  conservation  and/or
sustainable management of forests, water and coastal ecosystems as well as land use and biological
diversity  which  fully  integrate  climate  change  considerations  is  supported  in  order  to  take
advantage  of  synergies  between  sustainable  ecological,  social  and  economic  development  and
adaptation  concerns  or,  as  a  minimum,  avoid  actions  that  run  counter  to  adaptation  concerns
(maladaptation) (MS-Multilateral donors-COM)

–  The development of measures to minimise greenhouse gas emissions from land use are designed in

conjunction with measures to minimise adverse climate impacts (MS-COM)

III. Support for mitigation

(cid:1)  Mainstreaming

Actions:

–  Partner  countries  are  encouraged  to  develop  a  strategy  with  regard  to  mitigation  measures,  in

particular in the energy (including at energy use level) and transport sectors (MS-COM)

–  For  the  partner  countries/regions  which  so  desire,  financial  assistance  for  the  formulation  and
implementation of energy policies is concentrated on twinning operations. Funds are also devoted
to promote the networking of EU energy agencies and equivalent centres (already in existence or to
be set up) in the developing countries (COM)

–  A strategic impact assessment/environmental impact assessment, which include a specific climate
change  component,  is  systematically  conducted  for  programmes  and  projects,  including  the
development of tools for such assessments (MS-COM)

–  A  systematic  screening  of  projects is  made  in  order  to  identify  additional  project  components  or
investments, which would provide additional benefits with respect to climate change (MS-COM)

–  Energy  efficiency  objectives  are  systematically  included  in  development  aid  programmes  and

projects in the energy sector (COM)

25

–  Within the framework of CSPs and NIPs, particular attention is given to support where possible the
identification and implementation of no regrets measures such as expansion of mass transit systems
(road  to  rail),  vehicle  efficiency  improvement  through  maintenance  and  inspection  programmes,
improved  traffic  management,  paving  of  roads,  fuel  pipeline  installation,  infrastructure  provision
for non-motorised transport, increased use of biomass ethanol and natural  gas  (MS-COM-partner
countries)

–  Appropriate  internal  procedures  and  tools  are  developed  to  ensure  that  the  opportunities  where
renewable  energy  is  an  economically  attractive  option  on  a  life  cycle  basis  are  fully  captured
(COM-MS)

–  Integrate climate change concerns within Sustainability Impact Assessments (MS-COM)

–  Support  the  greening  of  export  credits  by,  inter  alia,  the  implementation  of  the  OECD
Recommendation on Common Approaches on environment and officially supported export credits.
Explore ways of strengthening the climate dimension of export agencies' activities and foster  the
contribution of export credits to the CDM implementation (MS-COM)

(cid:1)  CDM activities in partner countries are supported by public funding, particularly in LDCs,
where there is no comparative advantage for the private sector and where additional social
benefits are expected, through:

Actions:

–  The development of a set of indicators, based on the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI), to
identify the partner countries concerned and the ancillary benefits expected (poverty reduction in
the sustainable development perspective) (COM)

–  The  development  of  an  EU  Code  of  Conduct  for  the  use  of  ODA  for  funding  CDM  activities  is
supported. Such a Code should clearly indicate that the value accruing from the part of the CDM
credits that was generated through an ODA supported CDM project, should either be ‘re-invested’
in the same project (to maintain the additional social benefits) or given to the host country. (MS-
COM)

–  Raise awareness  and  develop capacity  of  the  private sector  in partner  countries  in  order  to  build

investment partnerships with EU investors for CDM activities (MS-COM)

–  The  creation  of  an  enabling  environment  for  CDM  implementation  (awareness  raising,  link  to  a
national climate change strategy or to the national strategy for Sustainable Development, regulatory
framework and administrative procedures for the selection/approval of CDM projects including the
appointment of a CDM focal point, technology information dissemination for further replication…)
is supported (MS-COM)

(cid:1)  Technology transfer and research

Actions:

–  Research  for  the  demonstration  of  innovative  and  clean  technologies  responding  to  partner

countries needs and contributing to mitigation efforts is promoted (MS-COM)

–  Research related  to  the  development  and  an  enhanced  use  of  alternative  fuels  is  supported  (MS-

COM)

–  The development of national-regional energy capacity building initiatives is supported (MS-COM)

–  Capacity building on environmentally friendly technologies and goods is supported (MS-COM)

26

–  The  flow  of  information  on  technical  parameters,  economic  and  environmental  aspects  of
environmentally sound technologies between the different stakeholders to enhance the development
and transfer of environmentally sound technologies is facilitated (COM-MS-NGOs)

–  The identification of barriers to technology transfer and measures to address these barriers through

sectoral analyses is supported (COM-MS-Partner countries)

–  Negotiate  with  partner  countries  in  the  context  of  the  Doha  Development  Agenda  and  regional
trade agreements the reduction/elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers to environmental goods
and services (COM-MS-Partner countries)

–  A  systematic  screening  of  results  of  EU  research  and  technology  development,  with  particular
emphasis  on  EU-developing  countries  joint  research  activities,  with  a  view  to,  where  feasible,
disseminating  them  and  testing  pilot  technologies,  methodologies  and  concepts  in  non-Annex  I
countries is supported (MS-COM-Partner countries)

–  Universities and research institutions of partner countries are encouraged to join European research
consortia to contribute to monitoring activities, to the understanding of scientific processes and to
the development of mitigation strategies (MS-COM-partner countries)

IV. Capacity development

Specific actions for capacity development related to the preceding strategic priorities are listed
under the relevant section.

(cid:1)  Raising public awareness in partner countries through:

Actions:

–  The  development  and  implementation  of  educational  and  public  awareness  raising  programmes
(e.g. work-shops, training courses) and/or information campaigns on climate change and its effect,
are supported (MS-COM)

–  The  provision  of information  on  measures  for  mitigation  and  adaptation  and  technical  advice  on

how to improve energy efficiency at supply and consumption levels is supported (MS-COM)

–  Making databases describing ecosystem condition and change widely available through the media

and where appropriate the world wide web (MS-COM-EEA-NGOs)

(cid:1)  Development of human and institutional capacities in partner countries for the

implementation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol through:

Actions:

–  The  development  and  implementation  of  awareness  raising  programmes  for  national  officials  on
challenges  and  opportunities  arising  from  UNFCCC  and  the  Kyoto  protocol  are  supported  (MS-
COM)

–  The identification of country and regional specific needs for the implementation of the UNFCCC

and the Kyoto Protocol is supported (MS-COM)

–  The preparation of National Communications, including inventories, mitigation activities, methods
for  data  systematisation  and  statistics,  particularly  in  view  of  negotiations  for  the  second
commitment period, is supported (MS-COM)

–  The  development  of  negotiation  skills  for  participation  in  the  international  UNFCCC/Kyoto

Protocol process is supported (MS-COM)

27

–  The  maximisation  of  synergies  between  the  UNFCCC  and  Kyoto  Protocol  and  other  MEAs,  in
particular  the  UN  Conventions  on  Desertification  and  Biological  Diversity,  is  promoted  (MS-
COM)

–  The  strengthening  (from  the  political  and  technical  point  of  view)  of  the  Climate  Change  Focal
(MS-COM)

supported 

country 

partner 

point 

each 

in 

is 

28

ANNEX II: INDICATIVE STRATEGIC RESPONSES FOR EU PARTNER
COUNTRIES

Type of EU
cooperatio
n

GDP per
Capita (PPP
US$ 1999)51

Total fossil fuel
Carbon Dioxide
Emissions

(in million metric
tons CO2) 52

Per Capita
Carbon
Dioxide
Emissions

(in metric
tons per
person)53

Forest Area
(Square
kilometres)54

Adaptation,
mitigation
or
conservati
on needs55

Indicative EU
response strategies

Adaptat
ion

Mitig
ation

Con-
serva
tion

Afghanistan

ALA

N/A

Albania

CARDS

3,189

N/A

1.47

Algeria

Angola

Antigua and
Barbuda

MEDA

5,063

68.19

ACP

ACP

3,179

N/A

4.81

N/A

Argentina

ALA

12,277

142.74

Armenia

TACIS

2,215

Azerbaijan

TACIS

2,850

Bangladesh

ALA

1,483

Belarus

TACIS

6,876

Belize

Benin

Bhutan

Bolivia

Bosnia and
Herzegovina

Botswana

Brazil

Burkina Faso

ACP

ACP

ALA

ALA

4,959

933

1,341

2,355

CARDS

N/A

ACP

ALA

ACP

6,872

7,037

965

2.96

33.19

26.33

57.05

N/A

1.18

N/A

9.84

5.32

N/A

305.55

N/A

N/A

13,510

A,D

0.5

2.3

0.4

9,910

C,E,F

21,450

C,D,F

697,560

A,C,D,F,I

N/A

90

B,E,F

3.9

0.8

4.2

0.2

5.6

N/A

0.2

N/A

1.2

1.4

N/A

1.8

N/A

346,480

F,G,H,I,J

3,510

10,940

F

F,H

13,340

A,C*,F

94,020

13,480

F,H

E

26,500

A,C,D,F

A

F,I

30,160

530,680

22,730

124,270

D,F

5,324,810

F,G,I

70,890

A,D,F

51

52

53

54

55

Source: UNDP’s Human Development Indicators: http://www.undp.org/hdr2001/back.pdf. For
Suriname, Lebanon, Armenia, Maldives and the Democratic Republic of Congo data refer to a year
other than that specified. For Tajikistan, Myanmar, Djibouti, Sudan data refer to a year or period other
than that specified, differ from the standard definition or refer to only part of a country, Aten, Heston
and Summers 2001.
Source: IEA: http://www.wri.org Figures are for 1999.
Idem.
Source: FAO, The state of the World’s forests 2001:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y0900e/y0900e00.htm Figures are for 2000.
See description of indicators and sources at the end of the table.

29

                                                
Burundi

Cambodia

Cameroon

Cape Verde

Central 
Republic

Chad

Chile

China

Colombia

Comoros

ACP

ALA

ACP

ACP

578

1,361

1,573

4,490

African

ACP

1,166

ACP

850

ALA

ALA

ALA

ACP

ACP

8,652

3,617

5,749

1,429

801

Democratic
Republic 
Congo

of 

the

Republic 
Congo

of 

the

ACP

727

Cook Islands

Costa Rica

Côte d’Ivoire

Cuba

Djibouti

Dominica

ACP

ALA

ACP

ALA

ACP

ACP

N/A

8,860

1,654

N/A

2,377

N/A

Dominican Republic ACP

5,507

East Timor

Ecuador

ALA

ALA

N/A

2,994

N/A

N/A

2.58

N/A

N/A

N/A

58.95

3051.11

56.50

N/A

2.45

0.37

N/A

4.70

4.69

28.35

N/A

N/A

17.79

N/A

19.33

Egypt

MEDA

3,420

110.26

El Salvador

ALA

4,344

Equatorial Guinea

ACP

4,676

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Fiji

Gabon

Gambia

ACP

ACP

ACP

ACP

ACP

880

628

4,799

6,024

1,580

Georgia

TACIS

2,431

5.31

N/A

0.62

2.93

N/A

1.49

N/A

5.25

N/A

N/A

0.2

N/A

N/A

940

A,D,F

93,350

A,C*,E,F

238,580

C,I

850

A,B,F

229,070

A,D,F,I

N/A

126,920

A,D,F

3.9

2.5

1.4

N/A

0

155,360

F,H

1,634,800

C,E,F,G,I

496,010

C,F,I

80

A,B,F

1,352,070

A,C,F,I

0.1

220,600

C,D,F,I

N/A

N/A

B

C,F

C,F

B,F

A,C,D,E,F

B,F

F

C*

F

19,680

71,170

23,480

60

460

13,760

N/A

105,570

710

C,D,F

1,210

F

17,520

A,C,D

15,850

A,C,D,E,F

45,930

A,D,E,F

8,150

B

218,260

C,D,F,I

4,810

A,C,D,F

29,880

C,F

1.2

0.3

2.5

N/A

N/A

2.2

N/A

1.6

1.7

0.9

N/A

0.2

0

N/A

1.2

N/A

1.0

30

Ghana

Guatemala

Guinea

ACP

ALA

ACP

1,881

3,674

1,934

Guinea Bissau

ACP

678

Guyana

Grenada

Haiti

Honduras

India

Indonesia

ACP

ACP

ACP

ALA

ALA

ALA

3,640

N/A

1,464

2,340

2,248

2,857

Jamaica

ACP

3,561

Jordan

MEDA

3,955

4.39

8.32

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

1.38

4.31

903.82

244.92

10.05

13.38

Kazakhstan

TACIS

4,951

114.45

Kenya

Kiribati

ACP

ACP

1,022

N/A

Kyrgyzstan

TACIS

2,573

Laos

ALA

1,471

7.65

N/A

4.73

N/A

Lebanon

MEDA

4,705

15.59

Lesotho

Liberia

Macao

ACP

ACP

ALA

1,854

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

F.Y.R. Macedonia

CARDS

4,651

10.03

Madagascar

Malawi

Malaysia

Maldives

Mali

ACP

ACP

ALA

ALA

ACP

Marshall Islands

ACP

Mauritania

Mauritius

Mexico

Micronesia
(federation)

ACP

ACP

ALA

ACP

799

586

8,209

4,423

753

N/A

1,609

9,107

8,297

N/A

N/A

N/A

101.27

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

358.21

N/A

0.2

0.8

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

0.2

0.7

0.9

1.2

3.9

2.8

7.0

0.3

N/A

1.0

N/A

4.5

N/A

N/A

N/A

5.0

N/A

N/A

4.6

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

3.7

N/A

31

63,350

28,500

C,F

C,F

69,290

A,C,D,F

21,870

A,B,C,D,F

168,790

50

880

B,E

B,F

A,B,F

53,820

C,F

641,130

C*,D,F,G,I

1,049,860

C*,G,I

3,250

B,C,F,H

860

D,F

121,480

F,J,H

170,960

280

10,030

C,F

A,B

F

125,610

A,F

360

140

C,D,F,H

A,F

34,810

A,C,D

N/A

9,060

C*

H

117,270

A,D,F

26,010

A,D,E,F

192,760

C*,G,H

10

A,B

131,860

A,D,F

N/A

B

3,170

A,C,D,F

160

B

552,050

C,D,F,G,I

N/A

B

Moldova

TACIS

2,037

Mongolia

TACIS

1,711

6.56

N/A

Morocco

MEDA

3,419

28.02

1.07

9.02

2.22

N/A

3.01

3.39

N/A

38.39

N/A

214.33

N/A

N/A

92.16

4.81

3.99

21.15

66.32

N/A

N/A

N/A

Mozambique

Myanmar

Namibia

Nauru

Nepal

Nicaragua

Niger

Nigeria

Niue

North Korea

Palau

ACP

ALA

ACP

ACP

ALA

ALA

ACP

ACP

ACP

ALA

ACP

861

1,027

5,468

N/A

1,237

2,279

753

853

N/A

N/A

N/A

Papua New Guinea ACP

2,367

ALA

ALA

ALA

ALA

ALA

ACP

ACP

1,834

5,875

4,384

4,622

3,805

885

4,047

and

ACP

N/A

Pakistan

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

Philippines

Rwanda

Samoa

Tome 

Sao 
Principe

Senegal

Seychelles

Sierra Leone

ACP

ACP

ACP

Solomon Islands

ACP

Somalia

South Africa

Sri Lanka

ACP

ACP

ALA

St. Kitts and Nevis

ACP

St. Lucia

ACP

1,419

3.28

N/A

448

N/A

N/A

8,908

3,279

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

346.31

9.61

N/A

N/A

3,250

F

106,450

E,F

30,250

C,D,F

306,010

A,C,D,F,I

344,190

A,C*,F,I

80,400

C,D,F

N/A

39,000

32,780

B,

A,F

C,F

13,280

A,D,F

135,170

C,F

N/A

N/A

350

306,010

B

C,G,H

B,F

B,I

25,050

C*,D,F

28,760

C,F

233,720

652,150

57,890

3,070

1,050

270

F,I

F,I

C*,E

A,D

A,B,E

A,B,F

62,050

A,C,F

300

B

10,550

A,C,D

25,360

A,B

75,150

A,C,D

89,170

C,F,G,H

19,390

C*,F

40

90

B

B,F

1.5

N/A

1.0

0.1

0.2

1.3

N/A

0.1

0.7

N/A

0.3

N/A

9.7

N/A

N/A

0.7

1.7

0.7

0.8

0.9

N/A

N/A

N/A

0.4

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

8.1

0.5

N/A

N/A

32

St.  Vincent  and  the
Grenadines

ACP

Sudan

Suriname

Swaziland

ACP

ACP

ACP

N/A

664

4,178

3,987

N/A

5.39

N/A

N/A

Syria

MEDA

4,454

48.06

Tajikistan

TACIS

1,031

Tanzania

Thailand

Togo

Tonga

ACP

ALA

ACP

ACP

501

6,132

1,410

N/A

Trinidad & Tobago

ACP

8,176

Tunisia

MEDA

5,957

Turkmenistan

TACIS

3,347

Tuvalu

Uganda

Uruguay

ACP

ACP

ALA

N/A

1,167

8,879

5.71

2.20

155.82

0.88

N/A

15.62

16.71

33.85

N/A

N/A

6.78

Uzbekistan

TACIS

2,251

117.52

Vanuatu

ACP

N/A

N/A

Venezuela

Vietnam

ALA

ALA

5,495

1,860

West  Bank 
Gaza Strip

and

MEDA

N/A

Yemen

ALA

806

Yugoslavia,  Federal
Republic of

CARDS

N/A

Zambia

Zanzibar

Zimbabwe

ACP

ACP

ACP

756

N/A

120.03

36.56

N/A

8.58

N/A

1.89

N/A

2,876

13.65

N/A

60

B,F

616,270

A,C,D,F,I

141,130

5,220

4,680

4,000

B,F

E,F

C,D,F

F

388,110

A,C,D,F,I

147,620

C*,F,G

5,100

A,C,D,F

40

2,590

5,100

37,550

N/A

B

B,F,H

C,D,F

F,H

A, B

41,900

A,D,F

12,920

F

19,690

F,G,H

4,470

A,B

495,060

C,F,G,H,I

98,190

N/A

C*,F

C,D

4,490

A,D,F

28,870

C,H

312,460

A,F,I

N/A

C

190,400

E,F

0.2

N/A

N/A

3.0

0.9

0.1

2.5

0.2

N/A

12.1

1.8

7.3

N/A

N/A

2.0

4.8

N/A

5.1

0.5

N/A

0.5

4.0

0.2

N/A

1.1

33

Indicators for adaptation, mitigation and conservation needs

A: Low socio-economic ability to adapt (LDC) (Source: UNCTAD
http://www.unctad.org/en/pub/ldcprofiles2001.en.htm)

B: Low physical ability to adapt: Member of AOSIS (Source: SIDSnet http://www.sidsnet.org/aosis/)

C:  Major adverse  effects of  sea-level  rise  other  than  SIDS  (c*  extremely  adverse)  (Source:  CGIAR
Annual Report 2000, p. 14).

D: Major adverse crop yield effects due to climate change (Source: CGIAR Annual Report 2000, p.
12).

E: 15 cooperation countries most affected by natural disasters since 1990 (calculation made based on
data from EM-DAT, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium and the World Bank). These 15 countries
are  the  ones  with  a  higher  ratio  between  the  cumulative  number  of  population  affected  by  natural
disasters from 1990-2001 and the total population.

F:  Affected  country  parties  which  have  submitted  reports  to  the  Committee  for  the  Review  of  the
implementation of the Convention (CRIC) to combat desertification.

G: 15 cooperation countries with the largest emissions of CO2.

H: 15 cooperation countries with the largest per capita emissions of CO2.

I: Countries with more than 200,000 square kilometres of forest area.

J: Countries interested in inclusion in Annex I or other obligation

Identification of indicative strategic responses

Adaptation:  Given  partner  countries’  higher  vulnerability  to  the  adverse  effects  of  climate  change,
priority has been  given  to this  response  strategy.  This is reflected  in that  all the  countries  having  at
least one of the indicators expressing vulnerability to climate change (A,B,C,D,E) have been identified
for adaptation. Naturally, vulnerability to climate change differs from one country to another and the
indicators selected attempt to reflect this reality.

Mitigation:  Partner  countries  being  major  emitters  of  CO2,  having  relatively  high  per  capita  CO2
emissions or having expressed an interest in taking on voluntary emission and/or other commitments
have been identified  for  mitigation.  For  some  of  these  countries  an  integrated climate  approach,  i.e.
linking mitigation responses with adaptation responses, might also be relevant.

Conservation/sustainable  management  of  ecosystems:  Partner  countries  having  high  levels  of
carbon storage in forests have been selected for conservation/sustainable management of ecosystems.
For some of these countries an integrated climate approach, i.e. linking conservation responses with
adaptation responses, might also be relevant.

Special emphasis on an integrated climate approach could possibly be placed on countries identified
for  all  three  response  strategies.  These  countries  are  Argentina,  Brazil,  China,  India,  Indonesia,
Mexico and Venezuela.

However, it should be stressed that since these indicative response strategies are only to serve guiding
purposes;  they  certainly  do  not  exclude  any  country  from  identifying  any  additional  priority  and
obtaining  development  assistance  for  it.  The  indicative  response  strategies  should  be  regularly
reviewed, in particular following the results of future negotiations for the 2nd commitment period.

34

ANNEX III: INFORMATION ON THE SCIENCE AND PROJECTED IMPACTS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE56

Past trends

(cid:1)  The atmosphere concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by 31% since 1750, from 280 parts
per million (ppm) to 367 ppm today. The present CO2 concentration has not been exceeded during
the past 420,000 years and is likely not have been exceeded during the past 20 million years.

(cid:1)  The global average temperature has increased by 0.6 °C since 1861. It is very likely that the 1990s
were the warmest decade, and 1998 the warmest year, since 1861. Data from tree-rings, coral reefs,
ice cores and historical records indicate that the increase in temperature in the 20th century is likely
to  have  been  the  largest  of  any  century  during  the  past  1000  years.  There  is  new  and  stronger
evidence in the IPCC 3rd Assessment report that most  of  the  warming  observed  over  the  last 50
years is attributed to human activities.

(cid:1)  Average sea levels have risen by 10 to 20 cm. Snow cover has decreased by about 10% since the
late  1960s  in  the  mid-  and  high-latitudes  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  It  is  also  very  likely  that
annual duration of lake- and river-ice cover has shortened by about two weeks over the 20th century
and that Arctic sea-ice thickness during late summer to early autumn has declined by about 40% in
recent decades.

(cid:1)  An  increase  in  precipitation  of  ½-1%  per  decade  has  been  measured  over  most  mid-  and  high
latitude  areas  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  continents.  In  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  the  frequency
and intensity of droughts seems to have already worsened.

Future trends57

(cid:1)  The global average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4–5.8 °C from 1990 to 2100, if

action is not taken to reduce emissions.

(cid:1)  Sea levels are projected to rise by between 9 and 88 cm from 1990 levels by 2100.

(cid:1)  Climate change will result in economic losses due to more frequent tropical cyclones, loss of land

as a result of rising sea levels and damage to fishing stocks, agriculture and water supplies.

(cid:1)  It will also worsen food security in Africa. A general reduction in potential crop yields is predicted
in  most  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions  making  developing  countries  even  more  vulnerable  to
famine and social unrest (or political instability).

56

57

Third Assessment Report of the IPCC (2001).
These projected changes are not taking into consideration the possibility described by the IPCC of
further large-scale and irreversible impacts (further climate destabilisation, temperature changes and
sea-level rises of much larger magnitude) due to the release of terrestrial carbon from permafrost
regions, methane from hydrates in coastal sediments or the disintegration of major ice sheets, for which
the likelihood is difficult to assess.

35

                                                
(cid:1)  The number of people living in countries that are water-stressed will increase massively, from 1.7
billion people (one-third of the world’s population) to around 5 billion by 2025 (depending on the
rate of population growth). This will affect drinking water supplies and irrigation for agriculture.

(cid:1)  There will be an increase in the geographic spread of potential transmission of malaria and dengue

fever, which already impinge on 40-50 % of the world’s population.

36

ANNEX IV: SUMMARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE
PROCESS

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established under UN auspices in 1988
in  order  to  provide  a  scientific  assessment  on  climate  change.  Its  findings,  published  in  its  first
assessment  report  in  1990,  prompted  the  negotiations  of  what  would  become  the  United  Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The  UNFCCC  was  signed  by  154  countries  at  the  Earth  Summit  in  Rio  in  June  1992.  It  came  into
effect on 21 March 1994 and it represents a concerted effort to tackle global warming occurring as a
result of human-induced (anthropogenic) climate change (CC).

Its ultimate objective is the “stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should
be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to
ensure  that  food  production  is  not  threatened  and  to  enable  economic  development  to  proceed  in  a
sustainable manner”58.

Under  the  Convention,  both  developed  and  developing  countries  agree  to  develop  and  submit
inventories on greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by “sinks” (such as forests which
absorb carbon dioxide) and report on measures taken to implement the convention. Parties should also
adopt national CC mitigation programmes and adaptation strategies; promote technology transfer; co-
operate on scientific and technical research; and promote public awareness, education and training.

The  Convention  makes  several  references  to  the  special  situation  of  developing  countries.  In  its
guiding  principles  it  employs  the  concept  of  common  but  differentiated  responsibilities  and
capabilities,  requiring  developed  countries  to  take  the  lead  in  combating  CC.  Other  principles  deal
with the special needs of developing countries in their aspirations for economic development and the
importance of encouraging sustainable development. Furthermore, the precautionary principle should
be applied, meaning that Parties should not abstain from implementing measures to prevent, mitigate
or adapt to climate change in the absence of full scientific certainty if the possible damage is serious or
irreversible.

Although  both  developed  and  developing  countries  undertake  a  number  of  general  commitments,
specific commitments regarding greenhouse gas emission  reduction are  only  delegated  to  developed
countries.  These  should,  individually  or  jointly,  aim  to  returning  to  1990  greenhouse  gas  emission
levels  by  2000.  Moreover,  under  the  Convention  developed  countries  are  to  promote  and  finance
technology transfer to DCs and assist those which are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change in meeting the costs for adapting  accordingly,  in  particular  Small  Island  Developing
States (SIDS) and LDCs.

Financial mechanism of the UNFCCC: Article 11 of the Convention defines a mechanism for the provision of
financial  resources  to  developing  countries  on  a  grant  or  concessional  basis,  including  for  the  transfer  of
technology.  In  1998,  the  Conference  of  the  Parties  to  the  UNFCCC  designated  the  Global  Environmental
Facility  (GEF)  which  also  assists  developing  countries  in  the  areas  of  biological  diversity,  ozone  and  water
management, as the operating entity of the financial mechanism. For climate change, the GEF meets the agreed
full  costs  associated  with  monitoring  and  reporting  obligations  like  for  the  preparation  of  National
Communications, but it also meets the incremental costs of investment projects which have additional benefits
for  climate  change,  i.e.  mitigation  and  sequestration.  At  COP  7,  Parties  adopted  a  decision  that  expands  the
scope  of  activities  eligible  for  funding  under  the  GEF,  including  those  related  to  adaptation  and  capacity-
building (in particular for disaster preparedness).

58

Article 2 of the UNFCCC.

37

                                                
Furthermore, according to  Article  4 so-called  Annex  II  Parties59  (developed countries)  shall  provide
new and additional financial resources to cover (i) the full costs related to DCs inventory and reporting
obligations and (ii) the agreed full incremental costs incurred by DCs in the implementation of their
other commitments. For this purpose, the Convention establishes a financial mechanism, which is to
be operated by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) which is jointly managed by the World Bank,
the UNDP and the UNEP.

It  should  be  noted  that,  in  addition  to  the  original  funding  mechanism,  two  new  Funds  have  been
established  under  the  UNFCCC  as  a  result  of  recent  negotiations  –  these  are  the  Special  Climate
Change Fund and the Least Developed Country Fund. Furthermore, a political declaration was made
by the EU+60 group at the resumed sixth session of the Conference of the Parties in Bonn in July 2001
in which the group pledged € 450 million per year by 2005 in climate change funding for DCs.

Other  UNFCCC  Funds:  At  the  resumed  session  of  the  Sixth  Conference  of  the  Parties  to  the
UNFCCC (COP6bis, Bonn, July 2001), Parties agreed that predictable and adequate levels of funding
should be made available to developing countries and recognise the need for funding that is new and
additional  to  existing  financial  resources.  As  a  result,  parties  agreed  upon  the  creation  of  two  new
funds under the UNFCCC, in addition to the original financial mechanism:

A  special  climate  change  fund  (SCCF)  to  finance  activities  in  the  following  areas:  adaptation  to
climate  change;  technology  transfer;  energy,  transport,  industry,  agriculture,  forestry  and  waste
management;  and  activities  to  assist  fossil-fuel  dependent  developing  countries  to  diversify  their
economies61.

A  least  developed  countries  fund  (LDCF)  to  support  a  work  programme  for  these  countries,  which
shall include inter alia National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs).

Both the SCCF and the LDCF will be operated by the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

Kyoto Protocol (KP)

The  Kyoto  Protocol  (KP)  to  the  UNFCCC  was  adopted  in  December  1997  at  the  3rd  session  of  the
Conference  of  the  Parties  (COP)  in  Kyoto,  Japan,  but  has  not  yet  entered  into  force.  To  date,  76
countries plus the EC and its Member States have already ratified it.

The  KP  represents  a  strengthening  of  the  existing  commitments  laid  down  in  the  UNFCCC,
particularly for the developed countries given their greater historical and current share of greenhouse
gas emissions. As a matter of fact, it outlines binding quantified emission reduction targets that pertain
solely  to  developed  country  Parties  or  so-called  Annex  I  Parties62.  These  countries  are  required  to
reduce their collective emissions of six greenhouse gases (GHGs)63 by 5% in relation to the 1990 level
for the period 2008-2012 (the first commitment period). The EU Member States adopted in June 1998

59

60

61

62

63

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the UK, and the US.
Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the UK.
The fund shall be financed by contributions from Annex II countries and other countries in a position to
contribute.
Essentially the countries listed in Annex II and countries with economies in transition.
The GHGs of concern are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, which are naturally occurring
gases, and three industrially produced fluorocarbons.

38

                                                
the  “burden-sharing  agreement”  in  which  they  agreed  to  internally  distribute  the  collective  EU
reduction obligation of 8 %.

In  order  to  encourage  and  facilitate  the  implementation  of  their  emission  reduction  commitments,
Annex I Parties have at their disposal so-called flexible mechanisms, created with a view to promoting
the  achievement  of  emissions  reductions  in  a  cost-effective  way.  These  flexible  mechanisms  are:
Emissions Trading (ET), Joint Implementation (JI), and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Emissions Trading will allow Annex I countries or enterprises within these countries to trade emission
allowances  between  themselves  in  order  to  meet  their  national  targets.  Under  Joint  Implementation
Annex I countries can gain Emission Reduction Units by investing in emissions-reducing projects in
other  developed  countries.  The  aim  of  the  Clean  Development  Mechanism  is  to  further  sustainable
development in DCs while at the same time assist developed countries in meeting their commitments
under the Protocol. The CDM will allow developed countries to gain Certified Emission Reductions
by financing emissions-reducing projects in developing countries. The Certified Emission Reductions
will  then  in  turn  help  the  developed  countries  in  meeting  their  own  emission  reduction  targets.
Consequently,  the  Clean  Development  Mechanism  is  of  particular  relevance  with  respect  to
developed-developing country relations and co-operation.

Financing  of  projects  through  the  Kyoto  project-based  mechanisms,  in  particular  the  Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM)64: The Kyoto Protocol allows developed countries to use emission
credits generated through the so called Kyoto project-based mechanisms, namely Joint Implementation
(JI, for projects taking place in developed countries) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM,
for projects in developing countries), to partly meet their emission reduction targets. Emission credits
can only accrue if the emission reductions achieved through the project are additional to what would
have happened in the absence of the activity (environmental additionality). JI and CDM projects are
primarily to be driven by the private sector. The CDM has the two-fold goal of both contributing to the
ultimate  objective  of  the  UNFCCC  and  assisting  developing  countries  in  achieving  sustainable
development. The CDM will be supervised by an Executive Board, which was established at COP7.

Already now, before the Kyoto protocol enters into force, project-based activities can be eligible under
the CDM and generate credits. These credits will have a value since governments can purchase them
to  meet  their  Kyoto  targets  or  entities  can  use  them  to  fulfil  their  domestic  obligation  to  reduce
emissions at lower cost. This makes the CDM providing an economic incentive for greening Foreign
Direct Investment. As such, and taking account the environmental additionality requirement laid down
by the Kyoto Protocol, the CDM is expected to be a good vehicle for the transfer of clean and modern
technologies in developing countries while delivering real development benefits.

Finally, the Protocol reiterates the obligation to provide new and additional financial resources. As a
result of recent negotiations, a new Fund entitled the Adaptation Fund65 has been established under the
KP and most recently at the COP-7 in Marrakech (29 October - 10 November 2001), decisions were
taken  on  the  operational  structure  of  the  mechanisms  that  will  allow  the  immediate  start  for  CDM
projects and the start of JI projects and ET from 2008.

At the Seventh Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC held in Marrakech (November 2001) Parties
also adopted the Marrakech Ministerial Declaration recognising that the World Summit on Sustainable
Development provides an important opportunity for addressing the linkages between climate change
and sustainable development. The Marrakech Declaration puts a particular emphasis on the need to

64

65

At COP-7 in Marrakech (29 October - 10 November 2001), decisions were taken on the operational
structure of the mechanisms that will allow the immediate start for CDM projects and the start of JI
projects from 2008.
This Fund is to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes, but only in DCs that are Parties to
the Protocol, with a special attention given to LDCs and SIDS. The UN agencies will implement the
projects. The fund shall receive its financing from the share of proceeds of the CDM (2% of CDM
credits generated by each CDM project) and from other sources.

39

                                                
maximise synergies between the UN Conventions on Climate Change, Biological Diversity and
Desertification and stresses the importance of capacity building as well as of developing and
disseminating innovative technologies in respect of key sectors of development.

40

ANNEX V: OTHER INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES RELATING TO CLIMATE

Vienna Convention: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was formulated as
a  framework  Convention  to  address  the  problem  of  ozone  depletion.  It  was  negotiated  under  the
auspices of the UNEP, was signed in 1985, and entered into force in 1988.

The  Convention  establishes  a  framework  for  the  adoption  of  necessary  measures  to  “protect  human
health and environment against adverse effects resulting from human activities which  modify  or  are
likely to modify the Ozone Layer”66.

Although the Convention does not elaborate specific measures, target-substances or time frames it acts
as a thrust in encouraging research, co-operation among countries and exchange of information in the
context of ozone protection.

Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed in
1987  and  came  into  effect  in  1989.  There  are  183  Parties  to  the  Protocol  including  the  European
Community.  Not  all  Parties  have  yet  adopted  the  successive  amendments  which  have  tightened  the
provisions  of  the  Protocol.  The  agreement  sets  out  specific  legal  obligations  for  the  progressive
reduction and ultimate elimination of the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS), or so-called controlled substances67. Timetables for their phase out were initially established
for developed countries and for countries with economies in transition.

Furthermore, the Protocol sets out measures to control trade in controlled substances and discourages
trade  in  the  technology  associated  with  their  production  and  use.  The  Protocol  has  thus  far  been
modified five times68, and its provisions progressively strengthened.

Under  the  Montreal  Protocol  certain  developing  countries69  were  initially  given  less  stringent
compliance criteria. For example, DCs having an annual consumption of controlled substances inferior
to  0.3  kg  per  capita  (later  reduced  to  0.2  kg)  were  allowed  to  delay  compliance  for  ten  years.  The
expiry of the grace period and the successful phasing out of many of the ODS in developed countries
means  that  the  accent  will  increasingly  be  on  developing  countries  in  future  implementation  of  the
Protocol.

DCs  are  the  beneficiaries  of  a  mechanism  for  the  provision  of  financial  and  technical  co-operation,
including  the  transfer  of  technologies.  The  financial  mechanism  is  intended  to  meet  the  agreed
incremental  costs  required  for  implementation  and  compliance  by  DCs.  The  mechanism  includes  a
Multilateral Fund that  is financed  by  contributions  from  the  developed  countries  and  governed  by  a
board where developing and developed countries have equal voting rights.

Convention on Biological Diversity: The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at
the  Earth  Summit  in  1992  and  came  into  force  in  1993.  It  currently  has  183  Parties  including  the
European Community.

The  concept  of  biological  diversity  covers  both  the  variety  of  plants,  animals  and  micro-organisms
(approximately 1.75 million species have thus far been identified out of an estimated 3 to 100 million)
as  well  as  genetic  differences  within  each  species.  The  variety  between  and  within  different
ecosystems is yet another aspect of biodiversity.

66

67

68

69

Article 2 of the Vienna Convention.
In particular chlorine atoms originating from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which destroy ozone
molecules. Subsequent amendments to the Protocol have added additional CFCs, carbon tetrachoride,
methylchloroform, methyl bromide, hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs used to be a substitute for CFCs).
London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999).
Those developing countries operating under Article 5.1.

41

                                                
The  Convention  combines  the  twin  concerns for  biodiversity  conservation  and  human  development,
recognising that biological diversity is largely seen as a resource for humans and that it therefore needs
to be conserved and used in a sustainable manner.

The Convention has three main objectives: the conservation of biodiversity; the sustainable use of its
components; and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from commercial and other utilisation of
genetic resources. It recognises that states have sovereign  rights  over  their  own  biological  resources
and states that access to such resources shall only be granted on mutually agreed terms and subject to
prior informed consent of the country providing the resources. This is of a particular importance for
DCs having diverse biological resources and rich indigenous knowledge of how to conserve and use
biodiversity in a sustainable way.

Under the Convention, all Parties agree to develop National Biodiversity Strategies or Action Plans,
identify and monitor components of biological diversity and implement  measures  and incentives  for
their conservation and sustainable use; co-operate in technical and scientific research and information
dissemination;  enhance  education  and  public  awareness;  and  prepare  national  reports  on  efforts  to
implement the commitments of the Convention.

The  special  situation  of  developing  countries  is  clearly  recognised  in  the  Convention  and  there  are
specific references to the provision  of  new and  additional financial resources  and access to relevant
technologies,  so  as  to  enable  DCs  to  meet  the  agreed  full  incremental  costs  of  implementing  their
commitments.  In  fact,  effective  implementation  in  DCs  is  stated  as  being  contingent  upon  the
provision by developed country Parties of necessary financial resources and technology transfer. The
Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the body charged with the operation of the financial mechanism
that makes available financial resources to developing countries.

The  Commission  adopted  a  Community  Biodiversity  Strategy  in  February  1998  and  this  has
subsequently  been  reinforced  through  four  sectoral  Action  Plans  covering  Agriculture,  Fisheries,
Nature Protection within the EU as well as Economic and Development Cooperation These have all
been  endorsed  by  relevant  Councils.  The  Development  Action  Plan  (text  at  http:/biodiversity-
chm.eea.eu.int).provides  a  blue  print  for  mainstreaming  biodiversity  objectives  into  Community
development  strategies  and  policy  dialogue.  It  takes  account  of  guiding  principles  and  guidelines
adopted under the Convention. The Development Council adopted Conclusions on 8 November 2001
welcoming the Action Plan and pointing  to the  links  between  biodiversity  conservation  and  poverty
reduction.

United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF): Due to the political sensitivity surrounding issues such
as national sovereignty and land tenure, as well as the fact that sustainable forest management has to
be  adapted  to  local  circumstances  there  is,  as  yet,  no  global  Convention  on  forests.  Instead,  the
international consensus on the protection and sustainable management of forests was first set out in the
context  of  the  United  Nations  Conference  on  Environment  and  Development  (UNCED)  notably  in
Agenda  21  (Chapter  11),  and  the  "Forest  Principles”70,  as  well  as  in  the  forest  elements  of  the
Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In the wake of the UNCED the intergovernmental process on forest policy dialogue did however pick
up speed. In April 1995 the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development established the
Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Forests  (IPF)  which  by  the  end  of  its  two-year  mandate  had  negotiated
over  100  Proposals  for  Action  on  issues  related  to  sustainable  forest  management.  The  IPF  was
succeeded in 1997 by a further two-year process, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF). This
was to promote and facilitate the implementation of the IPF proposals, consider matters pending from
the IPF process (issues related to finance and technology transfer, trade and environment), and debate
the question of institutions and legal instruments.

70

Complete title: “Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on
the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests”.

42

                                                
The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) was established at the fourth session of the IFF in 2000
as  a  subsidiary  body  to  the  UN  Economic  and  Social  Council  (ECOSOC).  It  is  very  much  an
international environmental process designed to build confidence and consensus rather than a legally
binding MEA. Its objective is to promote “the management, conservation and sustainable development
of all types of forests, and to strengthen long-term political commitment to this end”71. To achieve this
aim the UNFF is to promote and facilitate the implementation of the IPF/IFF Proposals for Action and
mobilise  the  financial,  technical  and  scientific  resources  needed  to  this  end.  Through  its  role  as  an
arena for continued policy development and dialogue the UNFF is also expected to enhance and foster
co-operation  efforts,  monitor  and  assess  progress  in  implementing  the  Proposals  and  strengthen
political commitment to sustainable forest management.

The UNFF will reconsider the contentious issue of the need and potential scope for a legally binding
instrument on forests during its fifth session which is scheduled for 2005 and will also then review its
own effectiveness.

United  Nations  Convention  to  Combat  Desertification  (UNCCD):  The  Convention  to  Combat
Desertification was opened for signature in October 1994 and came into effect in December 1996. It
currently has 179 Parties including the European Community. The Convention defines desertification
as  “land  degradation  in  arid,  semi-arid  and  dry  sub-humid  areas  resulting  from  various  factors,
including  climatic  variations  and  human  activities”72.  Despite  having  initially  been  perceived  as  a
regional  problem,  the  global  dimension  of  desertification  is  increasingly  being  acknowledged.  The
Convention  develops  a  bottom  up  approach,  especially  in  its  provisions  for  the  National  Action
Programmes  (NAPs),  in  which  it  seeks  to  combine  traditional  and  innovative  methods  to  combat
desertification while involving all relevant stakeholders (local populations, NGOs, resource users such
as farmers and pastoralists) in the formulation, decision-making, implementation and review process.
Successive  Conferences  of  the  Parties  of  the  UNCDD  have  increasingly  recognised  the  need  to
integrate  NAPs into  broader  national  strategies  for  sustainable  development and  to  ensure  enhanced
co-ordination and synergies with other relevant MEAs and activities such as CBD, UNFCCC, UNFF.

The two main objectives of the UNCCD are (i) to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of
drought, and (ii) to achieve sustainable development in affected areas. This is to be achieved by way
of  an  integrated  approach  which  addresses  the  physical,  biological  and  socio-economic  aspects  of
desertification as well as strategies for poverty eradication.

The  general  obligations  of  all  Parties  to  the  Convention  include  promoting  and  strengthening  co-
operation  at  all levels73;  promoting  the  integrated  approach  and  the  integration  of  poverty  reduction
strategies  into efforts to  combat  desertification  and  efforts  to  mitigate  the  effects  of  drought,  giving
due attention to the situation of affected DC; and promoting the use of existing multi- and bi-lateral
financing mechanisms that mobilise and channel significant financial resources to affected DC Parties
in combating desertification.

The Convention is the only MEA to have a well developed regional dimension. All countries affected
by desertification are grouped into five Annexes. While priority is given to African countries74 (Annex
I),  other  affected  countries  are  grouped  into  four  additional  Annexes:  Asia;  Latin  America  and  the
Caribbean; Northern Mediterranean; Eastern Europe. Four  EU  Member  states,  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy
and Greece are members of the northern Mediterranean Annex and several of the candidate countries
are  potential  members  of  the  new  Eastern  European  Annex.  Members  of  different  Annexes  have
agreed specific provisions in addition to the basic Convention text amongst themselves and efforts are
made by the Secretariat and others to promote regional and sub-regional implementation.

71

72

73

74

UN ECOSOC Resolution E/2000/35, contained in E/2000/INF/2/Add.3.
Article 1 a of the UNCCD.
At sub-regional, regional, international and inter-governmental levels.
Art 7 of the Convention

43

                                                
Under  the  Convention  there  are  additional  obligations  for  Parties  depending  on  whether  they  are
classified  as  “affected”  or  “developed”  country  Parties.  Affected  Parties  are  required  primarily  to
strengthen  their  legal  framework  (establish  new  laws  when  appropriate);  develop  and  implement
strategies  and  National  Action  Programmes  to  combat  desertification  and  mitigate  the  effects  of
drought; promote awareness and facilitate broad local participation; and give due priority to combating
desertification including in the allocation of resources.

The  additional  obligations  of  developed  country  Parties  pertain  entirely  to  relations  with  DCs,  in
particular  with  respect  to  the  provision  of  financial  resources  and  the  mobilisation  of  new  and
additional  funding  (including  from  the  private  sector)  to  support  and  assist  DCs  in  implementation.
Furthermore, developed country Parties are to promote access by DCs to technology, knowledge and
know-how.

Although  there  is  currently  no  dedicated  financing  source  for  the  Convention75,  there  is  a  fund-
raising/clearinghouse facility called the Global Mechanism, which is housed by the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD). Its operation is carried out by a Facilitation Committee, which
is  composed  of  representatives  of  IFAD,  UNCCD  Secretariat,  World  Bank,  UNDP,  UNEP,  GEF
Secretariat, FAO and regional development banks76.

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal: During the 1970s the export of hazardous wastes (i.e. toxic, poisonous, explosive, corrosive,
flammable,  eco-toxic  or  infectious  wastes)  to  developing  countries  increased  as  some  developed
countries  preferred  to  dispose  of  their  waste  outside  their  borders.  However,  many  developing
countries  lacked  adequate  disposal  facilities  or  the  knowledge  and  capacity  to  manage  hazardous
wastes  safely.  In  response  to  the  lobbying  of  some  developing  countries  and  growing  international
concerns  the  Basel  Convention  on  the  Control  of  Transboundary  Movements  of  Hazardous  Wastes
and their Disposal was adopted in 1989 and came into effect in 1992. It now has 150 Parties including
the European Community.

The Convention does not prohibit the transfer of hazardous wastes, but aims instead to regulate it by
way of a strict operational control system which applies to all transboundary movements of hazardous
wastes. The system is based on a prior written notification procedure on the part of the exporting state
and  the  requirement  of  prior  written  consent  from  the  state  of  import  before  any  transboundary
movement  of  hazardous  wastes  can  take  place.  Furthermore,  Parties  under  the  Convention  are  to
ensure  that  hazardous  wastes  are  managed  and  disposed  of  in  an  environmentally  sound  manner.
Hazardous wastes may not be exported to or imported from a non-party country.

Under the Convention, Parties are required to reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes
to a minimum, treat and dispose of such wastes as close as possible to the source of generation, and
reduce and minimise waste generation at source. The Convention also provides for co-operation in the
monitoring  and  prevention  of  illegal  traffic;  the  provision  of  assistance,  particularly  to  developing
countries; for the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes and in the development of
technical Guidelines and/or Codes of Practice. Furthermore, Parties should establish regional or sub-
regional  centres for training  and technology  transfer  and  decide  on  the  establishment  of  appropriate
voluntary  funding  mechanisms.  The  Convention  itself  predates  the  establishment  of  the  Global
Environment Facility and does not have its own financial mechanism.

75

76

The possibility of providing funds for land degradation related projects through the GEF is one of the
topics to be discussed at the GEF Assembly in October 2002.
These are: the African Development Bank (AfDB), the Asian Development Bank (AsDB), and the
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB).

44

                                                
A  ban  on  all  forms  of  hazardous  wastes  exports  intended  for  recovery,  recycling  and  final  disposal
from OECD to all non-OECD countries was agreed at COP-277  in  1994 and  was  integrated into  the
Convention as an Amendment78 the following year at COP-3. The ban has not yet entered into force79.

A Protocol on Liability and Compensations for Damage Resulting from Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Waste and its Disposal was adopted at COP-5 in 1999 but has not yet entered into force.
The Protocol establishes strict liability on the notifier (i.e. liability without the need to establish fault)
liability.
and 

obligation 

against 

insure 

this 

an 

to 

77

78

79

Decision II/12
Decision III/1.
So far only 30 of the necessary 62 instruments of ratification have been deposited

45

                                                
ANNEX VI: CLIMATE CHANGE RELEVANT PROJECTS FINANCED UNDER
THE FIFTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME FOR RESEARCH

A. Climate change prediction and scenarios

1. Development of a European multi-model ensemble system for seasonal to interannual prediction

2. Detection of changing radiative forcing over the recent decades

3. European project on cloud systems in climate models

4. Metrics of climate change

5. Parameterisation of the aerosol indirect climatic effect

6. Mechanisms and predictability of decadal fluctuations in Atlantic-European climate

7.Predictability and variability of monsoons, and the agricultural and hydrological impacts of climate
change

8. Solar influences on climate and the environment

9. Arctic ice cover simulation experiment

10. High-resolution continental paleoclimate record from lake Baikal: A key-site for Eurasian
teleconnections to the North Atlantic Ocean and monsoonal system

11. Greenland sea convection mechanisms and their climatic implications

12. European project for ice coring in Antarctica

13. Late holocene shallow marine environments of Europe

14. Pole-ocean-pole: global stratigraphy for millennial climate variability

15. Tracer and circulation in the nordic seas region

16. Cirrus microphysical properties and their effect on radiation: Survey and integration into climate
models using combined satellite observations

17. Climatological database for the world's oceans 1750-1850

18. Development of European pilot network of stations for observing cloud profiles

19. A forty-year European re-analysis of the global atmosphere

20. European component of gewex surface radiation budget

21. Evaluation of the climatic impact of dimethyl sulphide

22. System for observation of greenhouse gases in Europe

B. Impacts and Vulnerability

1. Assessing climate change effects on land use and ecosystems: from regional analysis to the
European scale

46

2. Vulnerability assessment of shrubland ecosystems in Europe under climatic changes

3. The future of the tropical forest carbon sink

4. The European dimension of the global observation research initiative in alpine environments - a
contribution to gtos

5. Biogenic volatile organic compound (bvoc) emission of European forests under future CO2 levels:
influence on compound composition and source strength

6. European project on stratospheric processes and their impact on climate and the environment

7. Interhemispheric differences in cirrus properties from anthropogenic emissions

8. Influence of stratosphere-troposphere exchange in a changing climate on atmospheric transport and
oxidation capacity

9. Aircraft emissions: contribution of different climate components to changes in radiative forcing-
trade-off to reduce atmospheric impact

1. Climate change and adaptation strategies for human health in Europe

C. Mitigation and Adaptation

2. Dynamic and interactive assessment of national, regional and global vulnerability of coastal zones
to climate change and sea-level rise

3. Greenhouse gas emission control strategies

4. Implementing the Kyoto mechanisms - contributions by financial institutions

5. Institutional interaction - how to prevent conflicts and enhance synergies between international and
EU environmental institutions

6. Procedures for accounting and baselines for projects under joint implementation and the clean
development mechanism

7. Strategic integrated assessment of dynamic carbon emission reduction policies

8. Response strategies to climatic change in management of European forests

9. Climate change policy and global trade

11. Procedures for accounting and baselines for projects under joint implementation and the clean
development mechanism

12. Regional assessment and modelling of the carbon balance within Europe

13. Mitigation of climate induced natural hazards

14. Systems analysis for progress innovation in energy technologies

15. Assessing climate response options: policy simulations – insights from using national and
international models

16. Greenhouse gas emission control strategies

47

17. New econometric model for environment and strategies implementation for sustainable
development

48

ANNEX VII: ADAPTATION NEEDS AND OPTIONS

Adaptation refers to all those responses that may be used to reduce vulnerability to climate change. It
involves  individual  and  collective  coping  and  risk  management  strategies  including  adjustment  in
practices, processes or structures of systems (natural, human managed and human made). Adaptation
can be autonomous or planned, reactive or anticipatory.

Vulnerability is the combination of the sensitivity of people and systems (natural, human managed and
human made) to adverse environmental and socio-economic effects of climate change, involving both
gradual changes in climatic conditions and extremes, and their ability to cope with them.

Vulnerability involves risk and attendant exposure. Enhancing security means reducing vulnerability
by reducing or mitigating risks, i.e. by risk management.

Climate change impact and vulnerability assessments80 provide a basis for, or sometimes integrate, the
identification and assessment of possible options for planned adaptation. Given that ecological, social
and  economic  effects  of  climate  change  are  projected  to  be  both  place-specific  and  interrelated,
adaptation  to  climate  change  will  have  to  accommodate  these  complexities  in  order  to  be  effective.
Moreover,  adaptation  will  have  to  address  both  gradual  changes  in  average  climatic  conditions  and
climate variability and extremes. Both people and all types of systems are generally more vulnerable
to sudden disruptive changes than to gradual ones; therefore adaptation options should also take into
account disaster preparedness and prevention.

Vulnerability is also linked to socio-economic adaptive capacity (or capacity to cope), which in turn is
determined by factors such as economic resources and other assets, technology and information and
the  skills  needed  to  use  them,  infrastructure  and  stable  and  effective  institutions.  Many  partner
countries are however poorly endowed with these attributes and are consequently highly vulnerable to
climate change.

Some  generic  objectives  for  adapting  to  climate  change  are:  (i)  improving  the  robust  design  of
infrastructure and long-term investments; (ii) increasing the flexibility of vulnerable managed systems
(e.g. changing activity or location); (iii) enhancing the adaptability of vulnerable natural systems (e.g.
reducing  non-climatic  stresses);  (iv)  reversing  trends  that  increase  vulnerability  (e.g.  slowing
development  in  vulnerable  areas  such  as  flood-plains  and  coastal  zones);  and  (v)  improving  the
preparedness and awareness of society.

Some  areas  for  adaptation  to  climate  change  are  natural  resources  management  (water  resources,
coastal  resources,  forest  resources),  related  productive  sectors  (agriculture,  forestry,  fisheries),
infrastructures  and  human  settlements,  and  human  health.  Below  follows  some  possible  options  for
adaptation in four specific sectors.

Water resources: Supply adaptation: (i) modification of existing physical infrastructure; (ii)
construction of new infrastructure; and (iii) alternative management of the existing water supply
systems. Demand adaptation: (i) conservation and improved efficiency; (ii) technological change; and
(iii) market/price-driven transfers to other activities.

Coastal zones (in response to sea level rise): (i) strategic retreat from or prevention of future major
developments in coastal areas that may be affected by sea level rise; (ii) continued but altered usage of
the land, including adaptive responses such as elevation of buildings, modification of drainage
systems, and land-use changes; (iii) defensive measures seeking to maintain shorelines in their present
position either by building or strengthening protective structures or by artificially nourishing or
maintaining beaches and dunes.

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Climate change impact assessments are often based on quantitative models analysing the relationship
between climatic variables and selected impact sectors.

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Agriculture: (i) altered choice of crops (quicker/slower maturing varieties, drought/heat resistant
crops, pest resistant crops, mix of crops); (ii) altered tillage, timing of operations and crop husbandry
(row and plant spacing, intercropping); (iii) alteration of inputs (irrigation, fertilisers, chemical
control).

Forests: (i) change the species or varieties planted and harvested (drought/heat resistant tree
cultivars); (ii) increased investment in fire prevention; (iii) control of the spread of new diseases.

Source: UNEP/IVM (1998) Handbook on Methods for Climate Change Impact Assessment and
Adaptation Strategies.

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ANNEX VIII: MITIGATION NEEDS AND OPTIONS

Mitigation  is  usually  defined  as  an  intervention  to  reduce  anthropogenic  emissions  of  greenhouse
gases. The type, magnitude, timing and costs of mitigation depend on different national circumstances,
socio-economic  and technological  development  paths,  and  the  desired  level  of  GHGs.  Development
paths  leading  to  low  emissions  depend  on  a  wide  range  of  policy  choices  and  require  major  policy
changes  in  areas  other  than  climate  change.  National  responses  to  climate  change  can  be  more
effective if deployed as a portfolio of policy instruments to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Such  portfolio  may  include  -  emissions/carbon/energy  taxes,  provision  and/or  removal  of  subsidies,
deposit/refund systems, technology or performance standards, energy mix requirements, product bans,
voluntary agreements, government spending and investment.

Running counter to the technological and economic potential for GHG emissions reduction are rapid
economic development and accelerating change in some socio-economic and behavioural trends that
are  increasing  total  energy  use  in  developing  countries.  The  average  annual  energy  use  growth  rate
between 1990 to 1998 in developing countries was 2.3 – 5.5%.

Options  for  mitigation  technology  adoption  in  developing  countries  lie  in  price  rationalisation,
increased  access  to  data  and  information,  availability  of  advanced  technologies,  financial  resources,
and training and capacity building. Opportunities for any given country might be found in the removal
of any combination of barriers.

Mitigation options can be explored in all sectors of the economy. As far as developing countries are
concerned, the greater potential emission reductions through mitigation activities with good ancillary
benefits in terms of sustainable development primarily exist in the areas of energy supply, energy use
and transport.

Energy:  At  least  up  to  202081,  energy  supply  and  conversion  will  remain  dominated  by  relatively
cheap and abundant fossil fuels. However, new and clean technologies should be promoted already in
order to anticipate the long-term effect of climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced
through fuel switching (from coal to gas for example), conversion efficiency improvement, greater use
of combined cycle and/or co-generation plants, and the promotion of renewable energy sources (wind,
solar, geothermy…). Low-carbon energy supply systems can make an important contribution through
sustainable  biomass  from  forestry  and  agricultural  by-products,  municipal  and  industrial  waste  to
energy, reuse of methane from landfills, wind energy and hydropower. For the energy sector, almost
all  greenhouse  gas  mitigation  and  concentration  stabilisation  scenarios  are  characterised  by  the
introduction of efficient technologies for both energy use and supply, and of low- or no-carbon energy.
Transfer  of  technologies  between  countries  and  regions  will  widen  the  choice  of  options  at  the
regional level and economies of scale and learning will lower the costs of their adoption.

Since the late 1980s, energy use and related CO2 emissions from buildings in the developing countries
have  grown  about  five  times  as  fast  as  the  global  average.  Energy  use  per  capita  is  higher  in  the
residential sector than  in the  commercial  sector in  all regions.  In  developing  countries, cooking  and
water  heating  dominate  residential  energy  use,  followed  by  lighting,  small  appliances  and
refrigerators. Intensity of electrical appliance use is increasing. Continued reduction or stabilisation in
retail energy prices throughout large portions of the world reduces incentives for the efficient use of
energy or the purchase of energy efficient technologies in all sectors.

Transport:  CO2  from  combustion  of  fossil  fuels  is  the  predominant  GHG  produced  by  transport,
accounting for over 95% of the annual global warming potential produced by the sector. On a modal
basis, road transport accounts for almost 80% of transport energy use. A radical change is also needed
in  the  public  transport.  New  transport  technology  lead-  and  life-  times,  imply  that  sudden,  massive
changes in the trends and outlooks described above can be achieved only with determined effort. ‘No

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IPCC Special report on Mitigation, 2001.

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regrets’  operational  and  infrastructure  measures  include:  expansion  of  mass  transit  systems  (road  to
rail),  vehicle  efficiency  improvement  through  maintenance  and  inspection  programmes,  improved
traffic management, paving roads, fuel pipeline installation, infrastructure provision for non-motorised
transport, increased use of biomass ethanol and natural gas.

Finally, land use, land use change and forestry options (forests, agricultural lands, and other terrestrial
ecosystems) offer significant carbon conservation and sequestration potential, especially in the tropics.
Conservation and  sequestration  of  carbon  may  allow  time  for  other  options  to  be  further  developed
and  implemented.  Biological  mitigation  can  occur  by  three  strategies:  (a)  conservation  of  existing
carbon  pools,  (b)  sequestration  by  increasing  the  size  of  carbon  pools,  and  (c)  substitution  of
sustainable  produced  biological  products,  e.g.  wood  for  energy  intensive  construction  products  and
biomass  for  fossil  fuels.  Conservation  of  threatened  carbon  pools  may  help  to  avoid  emissions,  if
leakage can be prevented, but are only sustainable if the socio-economic drivers for deforestation and
other losses of carbon pools can be addressed. In agriculture, methane and nitrous oxide emissions can
be  reduced,  e.g.  from  livestock  enteric  fermentation,  rice  paddies,  nitrogen  fertiliser  use  and  animal
wastes.

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