Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament - 2003 Environment Policy Review - Consolidating the environmental pillar of sustainable development
Date: 2003-02-02
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU environmental policy, enlargement of the Union, sustainable development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels, 2.2.2004 
COM(2003) 745 final/2 

CORRIGENDUM 
Ajout de la foot note 4 en EN.et en FR. 
Ajout des foots notes 21, 101 et 104 en FR. 
Ajout des foots notes 21, 65, 102, 103 et 105 en DE. 
Corrections des fautes matérielles et/ou de traduction dans les trois versions. 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION  
TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 

2003 ENVIRONMENT POLICY REVIEW 

Consolidating the environmental pillar of sustainable development 

EN 

   EN 

 
 
 
  
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3 

A new political context ................................................................................................ 4 

Trends, challenges and policy responses ..................................................................... 8 

A renewed approach to environmental policy ........................................................... 20 

New member states – specific challenges of enlargement......................................... 37 

International dimension.............................................................................................. 41 

Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 46 

ANNEX.................................................................................................................................... 50 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  main  purpose  of  the  Review  is  to  report  on  developments  since  2001  and  highlight  priority 
issues for the year to come in EU and national environmental policies. The Review is also aimed at 
monitoring the implementation of the EU’s 6th Environment Action Programme (6th EAP).1 

This  Review  should  be  placed  within  the  context  of  the  Lisbon  Strategy  on  economic  and  social 
renewal launched in 2000. At Lisbon, EU leaders stated their objective of making the EU “the most 
competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic 
growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion” by 2010. The Lisbon Strategy was 
supplemented  by  a  third,  environmental,  pillar  following  the  adoption  of  the  EU  Sustainable 
Development Strategy at the Gothenburg European Council in 2001.2 

This  first  Review  of  the  European  Union  and  Member  States  environment  policies  also  follows 
from the 2003 Spring European Council, which noted “the Commission’s intention to carry out an 
annual stocktaking of the Cardiff process of environmental integration and a regular environment 
policy review and to report in time for the outcomes of these exercises to be taken into account in 
the preparation of its future Spring reports, starting in 2004.”3  

This Review first sets out the new political context of EU environmental policy since the adoption 
of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy in 2001. It then examines the most pressing threats to 
the  environment  and  policy  responses  at  EU  level  to  date.  It  continues  by  outlining  the 
environmental policy mix required to make sustainable development a reality: particular emphasis 
will need to be placed on the three cross-cutting objectives which underpin environmental policy – 
integration of environmental concerns into other policies, implementation and information. Finally, 
the Review considers the particular challenge of enlargement and developments at an international 
level. 

1 

2 
3 

Decision  1600/2002/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  laying  down  the  Sixth  Community 
Environment Action Programme, OJ L 242, 10 September 2002, p. 1-15. 
Paragraphs 19-32, Presidency Conclusions, Gothenburg European Council (15-16 June 2001). 
Paragraph 58, Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council (20-21 March 2003). 

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2. 

A NEW POLITICAL CONTEXT 

The  context  for  EU  environmental  policy  has  evolved  significantly  over  the  past  two  years,  both 
through  decisions  directly  affecting  the  environment  –  adoption  of  EU  and  national  sustainable 
development strategies, launch of the 6th Environment Action Programme, the Johannesburg World 
Summit  on  Sustainable  Development  –  and  through  changes  to  the  broader  policy  setting  –  the 
enlargement of the Union to ten new Member States in 2004, the debate on the Future of Europe, 
the current economic slowdown, increased security concerns.  

2.1. 

Sustainable development at the centre of the political debate 

Sustainable development: a priority at all levels of public governance, and increasing awareness in 
the private sector  

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Since  its  inclusion  in  the  Treaty  in  1997,  sustainable  development  is  recognised  as  an 
overarching goal of the EU. The adoption of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy 
in  June  2001  at  the  Gothenburg  European  Council  marked  a  turning  point:  the  need  to 
pursue  in  a  balanced  way  economic  growth,  social  improvements  and  environmental 
protection was translated into a set of detailed objectives and actions. The strategy seeks to 
promote  economic  growth  and  social  cohesion  without  impairing  environmental  quality. 
Conversely, it implies that environmental objectives will need to be weighed against their 
economic  and  social  impacts  and  ‘win-win’  solutions  devised  for  the  economy, 
employment  and  the  environment.  This  marks  a  major  shift  in  the  way  environmental 
policy has been conceived and designed thus far. 

In  2002,  the  Council  and  European  Parliament  adopted  the  6th  Environment  Action 
Programme,  setting  out  the  EU’s  environmental  roadmap  for  the  next  ten  years.  The  6th 
EAP  is  the  main vehicle  by which  to achieve the environmental goals of the  Sustainable 
Development Strategy. It sets ambitious, often quantified targets which highlight the long-
term commitments of the Union to environmental protection and consequently provides a 
predictable framework for public and private actors in Europe and the rest of the world.  

At  an  international  level,  the  second  World  Summit  on  Sustainable  Development 
(WSSD)  held  in  Johannesburg  in  September  2002  gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  global 
dimension of sustainable development ten years after Rio. 

At  a  national  level,  prior  to  2001,  only  a  handful  of  EU  Member  States  had  developed 
national  sustainable  development  strategies.  Today  a  majority  of  Member  States  and 
acceding  countries  have  adopted  such  strategies,  in  line  with  the  2005  target  date  of  the 
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. 

Many  public  authorities  throughout  Europe  have  been  active  in  elaborating  Local  and 
Regional Agendas 21, i.e. schemes for sustainable development at a local level. 

The private sector is showing an increasing interest in sustainable development, notably 
through the development of Corporate Social and environmental Responsibility strategies 
and  other  voluntary  initiatives,  including  specific  actions  to  improve  its  environmental 
performance.  

These developments indicate an increased awareness of the interdependencies of economic, social 
and environmental policy objectives and a long-term commitment towards policy coherence.  

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An evolving policy setting affecting the sustainable development agenda 

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The enlargement of the EU to ten new Member States as of May 2004 will bring a unique 
set  of  new  environmental  assets  –  including  rich  bio-diversity  and  vast  areas  of  relative 
wilderness – but also represents an important challenge for EU environmental policy given 
the  amplitude  of  capacity-building  and  financing  needs 
the 
implementation and enforcement of the acquis. 

the  context  of 

in 

Directly  linked  to  enlargement  is  the  current  debate  on  the  Future  of  Europe.  Building 
upon the work of the Convention, the Inter-Governmental Conference will decide upon the 
architecture of the enlarged Union, providing it with a Constitutional Treaty. This Treaty 
will  form  the  new  institutional  framework  within  which  to  advance  environmental 
protection and sustainable development. As the environment remains at the top of the list 
of EU citizens’ priority issues, the challenge is to ensure that the new Treaty will not only 
preserve the EU environmental acquis, but also contribute to enhancing it. 

The  deteriorating  economic  and  social  climate  prevailing  since  2001  has  moved  growth 
and employment towards the top of the political agenda. In line  with the overarching 
objective  of  sustainable  development,  present  efforts  to  address  growth  and  employment 
concerns  should  also  take  environmental  aspects  into  account.  Innovative  policies  to 
maximise  resource  efficiency  and  minimise  impacts  on  the  environment  need  to  be 
devised.  

The  11th  of  September  2001  terrorist  attacks  and  their  aftermath  –  including  the 
Afghanistan  and  Iraq  wars  -  have  given  rise  to  increased  security  concerns.  This  has 
implications  for  EU  environmental  policy.  Environmental  security  -i.e.  links  between 
scarce  resources  and  conflict,  consequences  of  war  for  the  environment,  etc-  and  civil 
protection  –  i.e.  preparedness  and  reaction  to  terrorist  attacks  with  environmental 
implications-  have  moved  up  the  policy  agenda,  yet  the  challenge  of  sustainable 
development  can  only  be  effectively  addressed  by  continuing  to  pursue  a  multilateral 
approach.  

This new political context creates a number of challenges that EU environmental policy has to meet 
in order to become fully integrated into the sustainable development approach. 

2.2. 

Challenges ahead for environmental policy 

EU environmental policy faces the following five main challenges: 

i. 

Fully integrate the environmental dimension into the Lisbon Strategy 

In  many  respects,  the  concept  of  sustainable  development  remains  elusive.  Policy-makers 
sometimes wrongly interpret it as a repackaging of environmental policy. They often fail to equate 
it with a balanced approach to the economic, social and environmental pillars, and with the need to 
place  the  three  dimensions  on  an  equal  footing.  This  is  true  at  EU  level:  the  emergence  of 
sustainable development at the centre of the political debate at EU level has resulted in the inclusion 
of  an  environmental  dimension  in  the  Spring  Report  since  2002.  Yet  to  many  actors  the 
environment still appeared as an add-on to the rest of the Report in 2002 and 2003.  

However, our long-term economic and social prospects very much depend on our ability to consider 
the environment as a key component of economic and social policy. Neglecting the environmental 
dimension has hidden costs - such as the health costs of poor air quality and the economic costs of 

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cleaning  up  pollution-  and  inherent  risks,  which  could  inhibit  the  ability  of  the  EU  to  attain  the 
Lisbon goals. Beyond the economic argument, there is a growing awareness that, if not tackled, the 
root causes of many long-term environmental problems pose significant risks to the quality of life 
of European citizens. 

ii. 

Develop ‘win-win’ solutions for the environment and the economy 

A  strong  environmental  pillar,  increasingly  relying  upon  market  instruments  and  based  on  cost-
effectiveness,  can  contribute  to  the  achievement  of  the  Lisbon  goals.  Addressing  in  a  balanced 
manner potential trade-offs4 between economic and environmental objectives can bring forth “win-
win”  solutions  and  enhance  sustainable  development.  Higher  environmental  standards  can  also 
generate  new  economic  opportunities,  notably  in  fostering  the  development  of  new  technologies. 
This can contribute to the core Lisbon objective of making the EU the locus of innovative activity 
and a knowledge-based society by 2010.  

The  EU  Environment  Technology  Action  Plan  (ETAP)  planned  for  the  end  of  2003  will  propose 
concrete steps and a comprehensive framework for enhancing the synergies between environmental 
protection, economic growth and social inclusion. 

iii. 

Better articulate efforts toward sustainable development at all levels of governance 

Sustainable  development  cannot  be  achieved  by  individual  countries  or  regions  acting  alone.  It 
requires action at all levels of governance, and that priorities at all levels be better articulated and 
activities harnessed to serve a common goal. 

In  this  context,  the  Open  Method  of  Co-ordination  (OMC),5  which  is  at  the  heart  of  the  Lisbon 
Strategy and has thus far not been used in the environmental field, could usefully be introduced. 

iv. 

Make a success of enlargement in the environmental field 

Both the EU Sustainable Development Strategy and the 6th EAP include enlargement in their scope 
and were designed for the enlarged Union. Acceding countries have already made great strides in 
improving  environmental  protection  and  complying  with  EU  environmental  legislation.  However, 
significant  institutional  and  financial  problems  have  to  be  overcome  in  order  to  implement  and 
enforce the adopted legislation.  

In  addition,  action  taken  to  improve  the  infrastructure  and  living  standards  in  acceding  countries, 
while meeting the legitimate expectations of citizens, could increase pressures on the environment.  

Addressing these challenges should continue to be a priority for the post-accession period. 

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See Section 4.1.1. – Improve policy making – Increase policy coherence (impact assessment). 
The  Lisbon  European  Council  (paragraph  37,  Presidency  Conclusions,  23-24  March  2000)  introduced  the 
Open  Method  of  Co-ordination,  defined  as  “the  means  of  spreading  best  practice  and  achieving  greater 
convergence  towards  the  main  EU  goals.  This  method,  which  is  designed  to  help  Member  States  to 
progressively develop their own policies, involves: 
Fixing guidelines for the Union combined with specific timetables for achieving the goals which they set; in the 
short, medium and long terms; 
Establishing,  where  appropriate,  quantitative  and  qualitative  indicators  and  benchmarks  against  the  best  in 
the  world  and  tailored  to  the  needs  of  different  Member  States  and  sectors  as  a  means  of  comparing  best 
practice; 
Translating  these  European  guidelines  into  national  and  regional  policies  by  setting  specific  targets  and 
adopting measures, taking into account national and regional differences; 
Periodic monitoring, evaluation, peer review organised as mutual learning processes.” 

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v. 

Build upon the international credibility gained by the EU in recent years 

EU  leadership  was  instrumental  in  achieving  a  successful  outcome  at  the  World  Summit  on 
Sustainable Development. Through its active role at the Summit, domestic action to meet its Kyoto 
target, and promotion of other key international environmental agreements and conventions, the EU 
has confirmed its recognised worldwide leadership on environmental matters. Although this brings 
wider benefits to the EU, it also induces an obligation to deliver. 

The credibility thus gained will increase the EU’s ability to persuade partners, notably developing 
countries,  to  better  take  into  account  environmental  concerns  when  defining  their  own  paths  to 
economic and social development. In this respect, the Greek Presidency’s initiative, endorsed by the 
Thessaloniki  European  Council,6  to  promote  the  establishment  of  European  diplomacy  on 
environment and sustainable development, could be a useful vehicle to better co-ordinate EU and 
national action. 

Meeting the above challenges will help, over time, to strike the right balance between the economic, 
social  and  environmental  pillars  of  sustainable  development.  The  worrying  environmental  trends 
observed at the time of the launch of the EU sustainable development strategy have continued and 
require redoubled efforts in the medium and long-term. They are a clear reminder of the urgent need 
to place renewed emphasis on implementation of the environmental chapter of the Union’s agenda 
for sustainable development. 

6 

Paragraphs 76-77, Presidency Conclusions, Thessaloniki European Council (19-20 June 2003). 

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3. 

TRENDS, CHALLENGES AND POLICY RESPONSES  

This section is structured around the four priority issues of the 6th EAP (climate change; nature and 
biodiversity; resource management; and environment and health). Each section briefly identifies the 
key trends and challenges, as well as detailing recent policy responses. 

3.1. 

Climate change 

The 1990s were the warmest decade for 150 years. The evidence suggests that climate change is not 
only  occurring  but  also  directly  affecting  the  EU.  Average  temperatures  are  projected  to  rise  still 
further with a 1.4 to 5.8° C increase over the next hundred years, increasing the risk of droughts and 
forest fires if climate change is not mitigated. It is expected that Eastern and Southern Europe will 
be  particularly  affected.  In  addition,  parts  of  Europe  may  experience  higher  and  more  intense 
rainfall, which will increase the risk and frequency of floods, similar to those that affected Europe 
in 2001 and 2002. 

The  EU  has  played  a  leading  role  in  developing  a  multilateral  response  to  the  climate  change.  It 
successfully rescued the Kyoto Protocol in 2001 together with partners around the world following 
the  U.S.  withdrawal.  In  ratifying  it  on  31  May  2002,  the  EU  committed  itself  to  reducing  its 
greenhouse gas emissions by 8% in 2008-2012 over 1990 levels. 

The latest data available show that in 2001 EU emissions were 2.3% below 1990, indicating that the 
EU has lost some of the gains that it made in 1999 and 2000, where emission levels had fallen to 
4% below 1990 levels (see figure 1 in Annex). If the EU is to deliver on its Kyoto target of an 8% 
reduction  by  2008-2012,  and  in  turn  retain  its  leadership  role  on  climate  change,  stringent 
implementation by the Member States of the relevant EU measures recently set in place is needed 
and additional action may be required.  

The causes of climate change, notably greenhouse gas emissions from the industrial, transport and 
energy  sectors  (see  figure  2  in  Annex),  are  deeply  rooted  in  the  structure  of  the  economy.  Thus, 
only an integrated set of measures, coupled with determined leadership and the engagement of all 
stakeholders,  can  tackle  the  issue.  In  this  context,  the  introduction  of  flexible  market-based 
instruments  is  intended  to  help  reduce  climate  change  at  a  lower  cost  for  industry. 
Additionally, the climate change issue will only be resolved if the environmental dimension is 
fully integrated into other policy areas, notably energy, transport and industry. 

Priorities 

3.1.1. 

Implement measures identified by the European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) 

The European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) was established in June 2000 as a cross-sectoral 
activity to identify the most cost effective measures required to meet EU Kyoto targets. It is based 
on a participatory process and fosters policy integration with particular focus on energy, transport, 
industry and research.  

The  ECCP  is  the  EU’s  main  instrument  in  identifying  emission  reduction  measures  and  it  has 
already  produced  several  important  measures.  In  October  2001  the  adoption  of  the  Commission's 
draft Directive on Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading was a landmark for environmental legislation. 

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The  Directive  entered  into  force  in  October  2003.7  The  EU  scheme  is  the  first  multi-national 
emissions trading scheme in the world. 

The Directive exemplifies the flexible approach chosen by the EU to fulfil Kyoto obligations in a 
cost-effective manner. The system of cost optimisation for the whole of the Union foreseen in the 
Directive will offer substantial economic benefits compared to a scenario in which separate national 
emission  trading  systems  would  have  been  set  in  place  or  more  traditional  regulatory  policy 
instruments would have been used.8 

In  addition,  the  Commission  recently  put  forward  an  ambitious  proposal  to  reduce  fluorinated 
greenhouse gas emissions by 25% by 2010. 

Despite these important steps, the results of the second Progress Report on the ECCP, released in 
April 2003,9 are unambiguous: the measures currently in place will not allow the EU to achieve its 
Kyoto  target.  This  is  a  strong  incentive  to  speed  up  the  pace  of  implementation  of  the  measures 
identified  in  the  ECCP  and  reinforce  them  with  a  strong  monitoring  and  review  process  in  those 
areas  where  action  is  most  needed.  A  number  of  key  measures  are  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
preparation,  notably  proposals  on  energy  services,  minimum  energy  efficiency  standards  for  end-
use equipment. 

3.1.2.  Enhance the integration of climate change concerns in other policies 

In 2000 energy industries were the source of 27% of total EU greenhouse gas emissions (see figure 
2 in Annex). Improving energy efficiency is a priority. Environmentally harmful energy subsidies 
will be analysed within the framework of the Commission’s Green Paper for the security of Energy 
Supply, taking into account economic, social, security and environmental impacts, with a view to 
progressively  phasing  them  out  in  line  with  the  objectives  of  the  EU  Sustainable  Development 
Strategy10 and the 6th EAP.11  

Positive  steps  have  been  taken  since  the  launch  of  the  ECCP.  Milestones  include  measures  for 
promoting  the  generation  of  electricity  from  renewable  energy  sources,12  the  improvement  of  the 
energy  performance  of  buildings13  and  promotion  of  co-production  of  heat  and  power.14  An 

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14 

Directive  2003/87  EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  of  13  October  2003,  OJ  L  275/32, 
25 October 2003. 
For more details of the Emissions Trading Directive, see Annex. 
Second ECCP Progress Report ‘Can we meet our Kyoto targets?,’ April 2003. 
http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/eccp.htm 
Communication from the Commission, A sustainable Europe for a better world: a European Union strategy for 
sustainable  development,  COM(2001)264final,  15  May  2001  (p.10):  “Phase  out  subsidies  to  fossil  fuel 
production and consumption by 2010.” 
Article  3,  4),  first  indent:  “encouraging  reforms  of  subsidies  that  have  considerable  negative  effects  on  the 
environment  and  are  incompatible  with  sustainable  development,  inter alia  by  establishing,  by  the  mid-term 
review,  a  list  of  criteria  allowing  such  environmentally  negative  subsidies  to  be  recorded,  with  a  view  to 
progressively eliminating them.” 
Member  States  are  currently  implementing  this  Directive.  The  Commission  is  actively  following  up  the 
measures  needed  for  achieving  the  22%  of  gross  electricity  consumption  from  renewable  energy  sources  by 
2010. The Commission will present a report to the Council and the European Parliament in May 2004. 
This  Directive,  in  force  since  January  2003,  is  estimated  to  have  a  potential  for  greenhouse  gas  emissions 
reduction of 35-45 Mt CO2eq, as mentioned in the second ECCP progress report (p.13).  
The greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential of this measure is estimated to be 65 Mt CO2/year. 

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additional positive step is the Directive on energy labelling of domestic appliances.15 The effects of 
these measures are still to come. 

Regarding  energy  taxation,  the  adoption  in  2003  of  a  Directive  on  energy  products  taxation,16 
following  a  Commission  proposal  from  1997,  is  a  positive  development.  The  new  Directive  will 
ensure that minimum rates of taxation on oil products, which continue to account for over 40% of 
the  EU's  gross  inland  energy  consumption  (see  figure  3  in  Annex),  will  be  brought  back  in  real 
terms  to  the  levels  of  1992.  It  also  introduces  minimum  rates  on  a  variety  of  substitute  energy 
products  whose  use  also  leads  to  emissions.  However,  the  directive  will  only  induce  limited 
increases  in  the  levels  of  energy  taxation  in  a  number  of  Member  States  so  that  the  impact  on 
energy efficiency and emissions is not likely to be strong.  

Further  efforts  will  be  needed  to  curb  unsustainable  trends  in  the  energy  sector.  While  the  EU’s 
total inland energy consumption has increased steadily, at approximately 1% per year, since 1985 
the share of renewable energy remains low at around 6% (see figure 3 in Annex). In the acceding 
countries  the  share  is  5%.17  Latest  projections  from  the  European  Environment  Agency  indicate 
that,  unless  additional  policy  measures  are  taken,  the  EU  will  fail  to  meet  its  indicative  target  of 
12% by 2010. It is also unlikely that the EU will be able to meet its indicative target of generating 
22% of gross electricity consumption from renewable sources by 2010 (see figure 4 in Annex). 

In 2000 transport not only accounted for approximately 21% of EU greenhouse gas emissions, but 
was the only sector where emissions were increasing (figure 5 in Annex). In addition, trends are not 
encouraging in acceding countries: there has been a sharp fall in rail and bus transport and higher 
growth rates in air and private car transport than in the EU.  

Positive steps have been taken in the framework of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, the 
6th Environment Action Programme and the White Paper on European Transport Policy to reduce 
greenhouse gas emissions from transport, including the biofuels Directive, with the envisaged target 
of  5.75%  market  share  of  alternative  fuels  by  2010;  the  proposal  for  a  modification  of  the 
Eurovignette  Directive;  measures  on  fuel  taxation;  and  the  above  mentioned  energy  products 
taxation Directive, which allows Member States to apply lower minimum tax rates for alternative 
fuels generating fewer CO2 emissions.  

The above measures, of which the effects are still to come, are important steps to achieve the set 
objective  of  bringing  about  a  modal  shift  from  road  and  air  transport  to  rail,  water  and  public 
passenger  transport;  and  to  ensure  that  the  environmental  costs  of  different  transport  modes  are 
better  captured  in  prices  charged  to  users,  and  in  turn  achieve  the  objective  of  decoupling  of  the 
environmentally harmful effects of transport growth and GDP growth. However, additional efforts 
will be needed if the EU is to meet its Kyoto commitments, and in view of future commitments.18  

15 

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17 

18 

Commission proposals for Directives 2002/31/EC and 2002/40/EC of 22 March 2002 implementing Council 
Directive  1992/75/EEC  with  regard  to  energy  labelling  of  domestic  air-conditioners  and  electric  ovens.  The 
aim of these Directives, which came into force in January 2003, is to influence the consumer’s behaviour by 
displaying a label, at the point of sale, showing the energy performance of the appliance. 
The Energy Products Tax Directive (2003/96/EC) is due to enter into force on 1 January 2004. 
However,  several  candidate  countries  register  a  high  share  of  renewable  energy  –  Latvia  (30%),  Estonia, 
Romania and Slovenia (11% each). 
See second ECCP Progress Report, p.14: “the limitation of greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector 
will require the development of new strategies and strengthened policies and measures in the future. This is 
necessary  to  preserve  the  overall  reductions  that  are  achieved  in  view  of  meeting  the  target  of  the  first 
commitment, and even more prominently, in view of future commitment periods.” 

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Agriculture, which in 2000 accounted for about 10% of total emissions, remains a major source of 
emissions of methane19 and nitrous oxide,20 two of the important greenhouse gases.21 The overhaul 
of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) agreed in 2003, introducing increased funding for rural 
development, is a positive step that could lead to emissions reductions in the agricultural sector.22 
The  mid-term  evaluation  of  rural  development  plans  in  2004  will  provide  a  useful  opportunity  to 
better articulate the agricultural and climate change policies. 

In  order  to  reduce  EU  greenhouse  gas  emissions  and  improve  policy  coherence  climate  change 
concerns  should  be  better  integrated  into  the  EU’s  Cohesion  policy  and  synergies  between 
environmental and cohesion policies further explored. In its recently adopted Revised Guidelines, 
the Commission has suggested to Member States to take particularly into account the objectives of 
promoting  energy  efficiency  measures  and  of  increasing  the  renewables’  share  of  electricity 
production to 22%, together with the target of 5.75% for the use of bio-fuels in transport. Local and 
regional authorities should take on board these Commission Guidelines while looking for the best 
use of the Structural Funds to boost regional economic development. 

3.2. 

Nature and biodiversity 

Biodiversity  reflects  the  complexity,  balance  and  status  of  the  various  ecosystems.  Not  only  does 
biodiversity  perform  essential  life  support  functions  but  it  also  provides  the  basis  for  important 
economic,  recreational  and  cultural  activities.  The  erosion  of  biodiversity23  is  therefore  of  great 
concern. At the UN WSSD at Johannesburg parties committed themselves to significantly reducing 
the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. The EU has gone even further by committing itself to halting 
the loss of biodiversity by 2010.24  

In  order  to  fulfil  these  objectives,  current  agricultural  and  fishing  practices,  which  place 
considerable  pressure  on  biodiversity,  need  to  be  made  more  sustainable  through  increased 
integration of environmental considerations. 

In parallel, the difficulties in protecting biodiversity, as illustrated by the problems in implementing 
Directives such as the Habitats and Birds Directive, and with financing the Natura 2000 network, 
need  to  be  addressed.  Solutions  must  be  found  to  current  implementation  difficulties  and 
pressures on the environment must be better evaluated through effective indicators. 

Priorities 

3.2.1.  Move towards a more sustainable agricultural policy 

Under the recently agreed reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), the vast majority of 
EU direct payments are to be decoupled from production: there is to be a single farm payment for 

19 
20 

21 

22 
23 

24 

CH4 - Methane emissions are generated principally by enteric fermentation and manure management. 
N20 - Nitrous oxide emissions are principally three-fold: (1) direct emissions from agricultural soils and from 
animal  production  systems;  (2)  indirect  emissions  which  take  place  after  nitrogen  is  lost  from  the  field  as 
nitrogen oxides (Nox) or Ammonia (NH3) or after leaching or runoff of nitrates; (3) emissions resulting from 
agricultural burning. 
In addition, decline in soil organic matter of cropland might add substantially to CO2 emissions but figures at 
European  level  are  very  uncertain.  The  quantification  of  biospheric  greenhouse  gas  emissions  has  therefore 
been targeted as a research priority within the EU’s 6th RTD Framework Programme.  
See 3.2 for further information regarding CAP reform. 
As  documented  by  IUCN's  Red  list  of  endangered  and  threatened  species  (IUCN  -  World  Conservation 
Union). 
See Paragraph 31, Presidency Conclusions, Gothenburg European Council (15-16 June 2001). 

11 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
EU  farmers,  independent  from  production.  Moreover,  this  payment  will  be  linked  to  respect  of 
environmental  and  food  safety  standards,  including  relevant  provisions  of  the  Birds  and  Habitats 
Directives,  and  the  obligation  to  keep  agricultural  land  in  good  agricultural  and  environmental 
condition.  The  introduction  of  this  decoupling  is  expected  to  reduce  the  incentives  for  intensive 
farming methods and encourage more sustainable farming. 

In addition, support for rural development is to be substantially increased through the transfer of the 
amounts  resulting  from  savings  made  through  a  reduction  in  the  direct  payments  made  to  farms 
receiving such payments beyond a certain threshold. This can allow new measures to be introduced 
to boost quality production and to promote environmental protection. This should help foster more 
environmentally benign farming practices, such as organic farming (see figure 6 in Annex). 

3.2.2.  Green the Common Fisheries Policy 

Despite  recent  measures  taken,  many  fish  stocks  in  European  waters  are  now  considered  to  be 
below their safe biological limits (see figure 7 in Annex). Further steps need to be taken to secure 
sustainable  exploitation  of  fish  resources  to  avoid  greater  long-term  economic  damage  to  fishing 
communities and to the marine environment. Counter-productive subsidies are being progressively 
removed and appropriate measures need to be taken to help fishing communities to adjust to a lower 
level  of  fishing  activity,  along  the  lines  of  the  CFP  Reform.  If  implemented,  the  ecosystem 
approach  to  fisheries,  multi-annual  plans  for  catches,  action  based  on  scientific  advice  and 
reductions  in  subsidies  put  forward  in  the  Commission  Proposals  would  enhance  the  prospect  of 
restoring EU fish populations.  

3.2.3.  Better protect soils and the marine environment 

In addition to providing the basis for agricultural production and fisheries, soils and oceans are also 
huge  reservoirs  of  biodiversity.  There  is  evidence  that  both  soils  and  oceans  are  under  increasing 
threat  from  a  series  of  human  activities,  causing,  in  the  case  of  soils,  problems  such  as  erosion, 
decline in organic matter and biodiversity, local and diffuse contamination, sealing, compaction and 
salinisation. In the case of oceans, problems range from decline in fishing resources, eutrophication 
to  impacts  on  biodiversity  of  the  introduction  of  non-indigenous  species  and  of  deliberate  or 
accidental  releases  of  oil  at  sea.  It  is  therefore  essential  to  better  protect  oceans  and  soils.  An 
integrated  approach  must  be  adopted  to  this  end  including  appropriate  co-financing  through 
Cohesion policy to adequately cover the territorial dimension.  

A  first  step  was  the  adoption  of  the  Communications  “Towards  a  strategy  to  protect  the  marine 
environment”25  and  “Towards  a  strategy 
in  2003.  These 
Communications provide the framework within which the necessary data to elaborate action plans 
will be collected, in co-operation with all stakeholders with a view to developing fully fledged soils 
and marine strategies.  

to  protect  European  soils”26 

3.2.4. 

Improve implementation in the field of nature protection 

The key to improving implementation of legislation, on nature and biodiversity and in other areas, 
is to take implementation issues into account right from the formulation stage - as in the case of the 
Water Framework Directive. In addition, the Commission needs to play an active role in providing 

25 

26 

Commission  Communication  –  Towards  a  Strategy  to  protect  and  conserve  the  marine  environment, 
COM(2002)539final, 2 October 2002. 
Commission  Communication  –  Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  for  Soil  Protection,  COM(2002)179final, 
16 April 2002. 

12 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
support and advice to Member States once legislation is in place – as is currently done to improve 
implementation of Birds and Habitats Directives.  

Implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives has been difficult. Infringements relating to 
the  two  Directives  account  for  over  a  quarter  of  instances  where  the  European  Commission  has 
taken  legal  action  (see  figure  8  in  Annex).  New  ways  of  working  with  Member  States  are  being 
developed to improve implementation of these two Directives, leading to important progress.  

The  pace  of  guidance  efforts  on  the  implementation  of  the  two  Directives  has  been  stepped  up 
since 2000. In 2000, an interpretation document was published on the management of Natura 2000, 
the “coherent European ecological network of special areas of conservation”, for which the Habitat 
Directive  provides.  Guidance  documents  on  hunting  and  forest  management  will  be  published 
shortly.  In  addition,  a  ‘Sustainable  Hunting  Initiative’  was  launched  in  2001  as  a  constructive 
dialogue with Member States and stakeholders on hunting and conservation issues. 

Regarding  funding  possibilities  for  Natura  2000  requirements,  existing  instruments  such  as  the 
LIFE-Nature  programme  and  Rural  Development  Plans  under  the  CAPalready  offer  important 
possibilities.  So  do  the  Structural  Funds  and  the  Cohesion  Fund  which  set  as  a  condition  of 
awarding financing the compliance with Natura 2000. The Commission is currently working on a 
Communication on possibilities for future specific EU funding for Natura 2000.  

With  respect  to  monitoring  progress  in  site  designation  under  Natura  2000,  the  Commission  is 
using  a  ‘distance  to  target’  barometer.  Once  designations  are  completed,  the  Commission  will 
develop  a  barometer  of  site  management  progress.  In  parallel,  the  Commission  has  proposed 
extending by two years the third phase of the LIFE programme notably to support the management 
of designated sites at national and regional levels, hence bridging the gap between the end of this 
third phase and the new financial perspectives. In addition, the Commission will develop indicators 
and  geographical  information  systems  to  assess  Member  States'  management  and  monitoring  of 
Natura 2000 sites.  

3.2.5.  Better highlight trends in the biodiversity area 

The  Commission  has  recently  launched  a  broad  consultative  review  of  EU  biodiversity  policy. 
This  review  will  assess  progress  at  EU  and  Member  State  level  in  implementation  of  the  EC 
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans, effectiveness of action taken in terms of impact on the rate 
of biodiversity loss, and appropriateness of the objectives and actions proposed within the context 
of the 2010 biodiversity target and of enlargement. On this basis, a Commission Communication, 
scheduled for June 2004, will make recommendations for a prioritised set of measures with actors, 
timeframes and resources identified.27  

Part of the process of raising awareness on biodiversity trends is the development of the monitoring 
and  reporting  framework  against  the  biodiversity  strategy  and  action  plans.  The  Commission  is 
actively  working  with  the  European  Environment  Agency  toward  the  establishment  of  a  set  of 
biodiversity  implementation  indicators,  building  upon  the  progress  achieved  on  the  means  to 
measure biodiversity, including standards for monitoring and surveillance of habitats and species of 
European interest. These standards along with continued research efforts to improve the knowledge-
base  will  give  the  EU  a  ‘finger  on  the  pulse’  of  European  biodiversity  crucial  to  monitor  and 
evaluate policy actions in this sector (see figure 9 in Annex). 

27 

This  exercise  follows  from  Chapter  IV  paragraph  12  of  the  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the 
Council  and  to  the  Parliament  on  a  European  Community  Biodiversity  Strategy  (COM  (1998)  42), 
4 February 1998.  

13 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
3.2.6. 

Strengthen biodiversity protection at international level 

The  Convention  on  Biological  Diversity  (CBD)  is  the  key  international  instrument  for  the 
conservation and sustainable use of bioresources. In order to improve the effectiveness of the CBD 
on the ground, the Commission has been actively supporting the set up of new instruments28 and a 
shift of focus from policy development to implementation. The Commission is also active in other 
international biodiversity agreements, such as the Convention on International Trade on Endangered 
Species (CITES).29  

The ability of international biodiversity agreements to lead to a substantial reduction of the loss of 
biodiversity also depends on effective implementation by all Parties to these agreements. Devising 
ways  of  promoting  implementation  of  these  agreements  in  developing  countries  is  therefore  a 
priority of the EU’s international environmental action.30 

An additional, important, EU initiative in the field of international biodiversity is the Commission 
Action Plan: forest law enforcement, governance31 adopted in May 2003 to combat illegal logging 
in  line  with  the  EU’s  Johannesburg  commitments.  Measures  set  out  in  the  Action  Plan  include 
support for improved governance in wood-producing countries, voluntary partnerships with wood-
producing  countries  to  ensure  only  legally  harvested  timber  enters  the  EU  market,  and  efforts  to 
develop international collaboration to combat the trade in illegally harvested timber.  

3.3. 

Resource management 

The Lisbon Strategy sets out the ambitious goal of achieving an economic growth rate of 3% per 
annum, which would roughly double GDP in 25 years. However, if we are to avoid additional social 
and environmental costs, such as continually growing volumes of waste, then we have to break the 
strong historical link between GDP growth and environmental pressure. Decoupling environmental 
degradation  from  economic  growth  is  a  central  theme  of  the  EU  Sustainable  Development 
Strtategy.32 One of the ways to achieve it is through a significant increase in resource efficiency. 

The efficiency of raw materials and energy use has been increasing in many EU countries. Much of 
this  improvement,  however,  has  been  achieved  because  the  economies  of  many  EU  countries 
shifted from manufacturing to service economies in the 1980s and 1990s (see figure 10 in Annex).  

To achieve decoupling, the  challenge  is to further promote sustainable patterns of production 
and  consumption  as  underscored  in  the  Johannesburg  Plan  of  Implementation.  By  successfully 
developing  a  ten-year  Programme  for  sustainable  production  and  consumption,  the  EU  would 
ensure  that  its  domestic  action  is  consistent  with,  and  underpins,  its  international  commitments, 
boosting EU leadership on sustainable development. 

28 

29 

30 
31 
32 

Such as the CBD Strategic Plan, the target to ‘significantly reduce the rate of loss of biodiversity by 2010’, and 
the development, thanks to Commission efforts, of a revised and comprehensive Work Programme on Forest 
and  of  Guidelines  on  Access  to  Genetic  Resources  and  Benefit-Sharing,  and  of  the  Guiding  Principles  on 
Invasive Alien Species. 
The Commission notably supports the listing under CITES of additional fish and timber species and is taking 
steps to implement these commitments in EC legislation.  
See Section 6 – International. 
COM(2003)251final, 21 May 2003. 
The  importance  of  decoupling  was  recognised  in  the  Commission’s  proposal  for  an  EU  sustainable 
development strategy which set out a headline objective to “break the links between economic growth, the use 
of  resources  and  the  generation  of  waste”.  It  was  reaffirmed  by  the  spring  2003  European  Council  (see 
paragraph 53, Presidency conclusions, Brussels European Council, 20-21 March 2003). 

14 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
Priorities  

3.3.1. 

Intensify efforts towards a more sustainable use of resources 

Decoupling  is  the  overarching  goal  to  which  the  Commission  Thematic  Strategy  on  Resource 
Management will contribute.33 As implementing new policies and adapting existing ones to achieve 
the  necessary  decoupling  of  resource-related  negative  environmental  impacts  from  economic 
growth will be a long-term process, the time scale of the strategy is 25 years.  

A  comprehensive  strategy  will  be  proposed  in  2004  based  on  an  open  and  collaborative  process 
involving the Community institutions and stakeholders.  

Priority will be given to three strategic elements throughout the development of the strategy. In a 
first  stage,  the  strategy  will  focus  on  knowledge  gathering  to  determine  which  resources  are  of 
biggest concern in terms of the environmental impacts associated with their use, taking into account 
technological possibilities and socio-economic considerations. A key objective will be to fill current 
gaps as to pathways taken by resources in the economic cycle and their impacts on the environment. 
Based on this  knowledge, the  strategy will assess how far policy choices are compatible with the 
overall decoupling objective. It will eventually propose actions to better take into account resource 
use considerations when devising policy in other sectors.  

This  Strategy  will  be  underpinned  by  an  Integrated  Product  Policy,34  combined  with  a  Thematic 
Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste.35 Based on an extensive  consultative process 
with all stakeholders concerned, these initiatives will look at the environmental impacts across the 
life  cycle  of  products,  so  as  to  reduce  pollution,  facilitate  recycling  whenever  economically 
justified, and reduce the costs of waste disposal.  

EU  resources  policy  is  supported  by  important  research  efforts  under  the  6th  Research  and 
Technological  Development  Framework  (RTD)  Programme  in  the  field  of  sustainable  production 
and consumption.  

EU  resources  policy  must  be  flexible  enough  to  allow  for  smooth  adaptation  within  the  private 
sector. The whole range of market-based instruments (as well as voluntary agreements36 whenever 
appropriate and cost-effective) must therefore be drawn upon in the pursuit of eco-efficiency.  

3.3.2.  Ensure proper implementation of existing waste legislation 

In  addition  to  preventing  waste  generation  by  modifying  our  patterns  of  production  and 
consumption, we need to limit the environmental impacts of the use of resources. This requires that 
existing waste legislation be properly implemented.  

Member States have made some progress in recent years in developing and putting into practice the 
waste  management  plans  required  under  Community  legislation.  However,  increased  efforts  are 
needed to fully transpose and apply the existing legislation and, in turn, reduce waste disposal. In 

33 

34 
35 

36 

Commission  Communication  Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Sustainable  Use  of  Natural  Resources, 
COM(2003)572 final, 1 October 2003. 
Commission Communication on Integrated Product Policy, 12 June 2003. 
Commission  Communication  Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Prevention  and  Recycling  of  Waste, 
COM(2003)301 final, 27 May 2003.  
COM(2002)412 final, 17 July 2002. 

15 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
addition, progress is also needed to minimise waste generation from production processes through 
better use of environmental technologies. 

A particular effort is needed in acceding countries to shift from heavy reliance on landfilling – over 
90% of municipal waste in most countries- to a more sustainable system of waste management. 

3.4. 

Environment & Health 

The protection of public health has been a constant priority of EU environmental policy. However, 
existing standards have used a ‘one size fits all’ approach, without taking into account the need to 
protect  the  most  vulnerable  groups  in  society,  such  as  children.  There  has  never  been  a 
comprehensive  assessment  of  the  overall  impact  on  human  health  of  the  combined  effects  of  the 
various  toxic  agents  in  our  environment.  A  new,  integrated  approach  needs  to  be  developed  to 
efficiently  address  environment  and  health  challenges  as  well  as  existing  information  and 
knowledge  gaps  regarding  the  environment  and  health  impacts  of  specific  pollutants  and 
product groups.  

Priorities 

3.4.1.  Develop an integrated approach to environment & health issues 

There is a strong link between environmental problems and poor health. Around 60,000 deaths per 
year  in  large  European  cities  are  caused  by  long-term  exposure  to  air  pollution.  Furthermore,  in 
Europe, asthma affects one child in seven. Compared to just 30 years ago, the number of children 
suffering from asthma and other allergies has increased dramatically. 

To reduce diseases caused by environmental factors in Europe, it is necessary to step up research to 
better  understand  the  cause-effect  relationships  between  environmental  threats  and  adverse  health 
impacts.  This  is  the  core  objective  of  the  EU  Environment  &  Health  Strategy  adopted  in  June 
2003.37 

The strategy outlines the integrated approach required to address complex environment and health 
interactions and their impacts on more vulnerable groups such as children. On this basis, an Action 
Plan  for  the  period  2004-2010  is  under  preparation.  It  will  constitute  the  Commission’s  main 
contribution to the 4th World Health Organisation Ministerial Conference on Environment & Health 
to be held in Budapest in 2004. Areas of action under consideration include establishing an EU bio-
monitoring framework; launching pilot projects on integrated monitoring of dioxins, heavy metals 
and endocrine disrupters; and developing harmonised environment and health indicators. During a 
first  cycle,  work  will  focus  on  three  priority  groups  of  diseases:  childhood  cancers,  respiratory 
diseases and neuro-developmental disorders. 

3.4.2.  Reduce air pollution 

Although much progress has been made over the past few decades in improving air quality, serious 
problems remain. Studies38 are showing that existing levels of air pollution pose a significant risk to 
human  health,  particularly  as  regards  particulate  matter  and  ground-level  ozone.  There  is  a  real 

37 

38 

Commission  Communication  –  A  European  Environment  and  Health  Strategy,  COM(2003)338final, 
11 June 2003. 
See  Report  on  a  WHO  Working  Group,  Health  aspects  of  air  pollution  with  particulate  matter,  ozone  and 
nitrogen dioxide (Bonn, 13-15 January 2003), http://www.euro.who.int/document/e79097.pdf. 

16 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
danger that the downward trend in concentrations of these pollutants might be reversed, e.g. due to 
growing traffic, if further action is not taken. 

In  order  to  address  this  problem  the  Commission  launched  the  Clean  Air  for  Europe  (CAFE) 
programme to gather scientific evidence, assess the likely evolution of pollution levels between now 
and 2020 and identify the most cost-effective measures to improve the situation. This programme is 
well  underway  and  will  lead  to  a  thematic  strategy  on  air  pollution  in  mid  2005.  In  this  context 
sound  implementation  of  the  existing  legislation  is  crucial,  but  further  legislative  and  other 
measures  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  achieve  levels  of  air  pollution  that  do  not  give  rise  to 
significant negative impacts on health and the environment, as set out in the 6th EAP. 

3.4.3.  Reform chemicals policy 

The  use  of  synthetic  chemicals  is  widespread in  industry  and  households  –  400  million  tonnes  of 
chemicals are sold worldwide each year. 

The chemicals industry plays a very important economic role, supplying materials to manufacturing 
industry, as well as stimulating innovation and supplying products needed to sustain and improve 
the  quality  of  life.  The  EU  is  the  largest  chemicals  producing  area  in  the  world.  Maintaining  a 
competitive and innovative chemicals industry in Europe is therefore a major goal.  

At  the  social  level,  improving  the  health  and  safety  of  workers  and  the  general  public  is  a  key 
political objective of the Community chemicals policy. Maintaining high levels of employment is 
also a priority. 

In  relation  to  the  environment,  the  avoidance  of  chemical  contamination  of  air,  water,  soil  and 
buildings, as well as preventing damage to biodiversity are also major goals. Improved control of 
persistent,  bioaccumulative  and  toxic  substances  is  of  particular  importance  in  this  respect.  The 
potential impacts on the environment and human health of synthetic chemicals use and disposal are 
increasingly a cause of concern. Although research and data gathering increasingly point to a cause-
effect relationship between the exposure to certain chemicals and adverse health or environmental 
effects,  scientific  evidence  is  not  always  conclusive.  Improving  knowledge  of  chemicals  and 
management of risks from chemicals is therefore a priority.  

In line with the above objectives, the Commission presented in October 200339 a proposal for a new 
EU regulatory framework for chemicals. The aims of the proposed new regulation are to improve 
the  protection  of  human  health  and  the  environment  while  maintaining  the  competitiveness  and 
enhancing the innovative capability of the EU chemicals industry. It establishes the new REACH 
(Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) system aiming to: 

– 

– 

Require  companies  that  produce  and  import  chemicals  to  provide  information  on  the 
properties of substances produced or imported in the EU, in particular the 30,000 existing 
substances for which little or no information is available, and for higher volume substances 
to assess the environmental and health risks arising from their use and take the necessary 
measures to manage any risks they identify;  

Ensure  that  the  resulting  information  is  made  available  to  downstream  industries,  public 
authorities, civil society and to the general public; 

39 

COM(2003)644, 29 October 2003. 

17 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
– 

– 

Permit  public  authorities  to  take  more  speedy  action  in  cases  where  risk  reduction 
measures are needed; 

Other  guiding  principles  of  the  REACH  approach  include  precaution  whenever  there  are 
information  gaps  prevention  of  environmental  and  health  hazards  arising  from  chemicals 
use;  and  the  promotion  of  the  substitution  of  dangerous  chemicals  by  safer  ones,  where 
possible. 

In addition to domestic action, the EU has been active internationally in promoting better health and 
environment,  notably  in  developing  countries,  through  the  negotiation  and  conclusion  of  the 
Rotterdam  Convention  on  the  Prior  Informed  Consent  (PIC)  procedure  for  certain  hazardous 
chemicals  in  international  trade;  and  the  Stockholm  Convention  on  Persistent  Organic  Pollutants 
(POPs).40  

3.4.4. 

Implement the EU regulatory framework on biotechnology 

Technological  progress  is  one  of  the  major  driving  forces  behind  economic  growth.  Increasingly, 
innovation  is  associated  with  the  commercial  exploitation  of  research  and  development  results  in 
rapidly growing areas of knowledge, such as biotechnology. In order for the EU to be able to fully 
exploit the potential benefits of biotechnology, while taking a careful approach to managing risks to 
human health and the environment, proper authorisation mechanisms have been established at EU 
level. 

The  EU  regulatory  framework  in  the  field  of  GMO-related  biotechnology  is  now  complete. 
Measures set in place on the contained use and deliberate release of GMOs into the environment,41 
as well as on full traceability and labelling for GMOs and processed products for food and feed use 
will ensure an appropriate level of human health and environmental protection. EU implementation 
of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety regulating the transboundary movements of GMOs, which 
entered in force in June, will further increase health and environment protection in third countries 
by  controlling  movements  of  GMOs.  It  is  hoped  that  the  implementation  of  these  measures  will 
contribute to re-establishing public confidence and demonstrate that the Community authorisation 
procedure for the release of GMOs works as designed. 

However,  Member  States  often  lag  behind  with  transposition  and  implementation  of  Community 
legislation  in  the  field  of  GMOs.  Yet,  a  timely  and  proper  implementation  of  the  EU  regulatory 
framework is essential to demonstrate that technological progress and free trade are compatible with 
high standards of environment and health protection.  

40 

41 

The  Rotterdam  Convention,  adopted  and  opened  for  signature  by  a  Conference  of  Plenipotentiaries  on 
10 September  1998,  establishes  a  first  line  of  defence  against  possible  problems  by  enabling  importing 
countries,  particularly  developing  countries,  to  decide  which  chemicals  included  in  the  PIC  procedure  they 
want to receive and those to exclude when they cannot manage them safely. The objective of the Stockholm 
Convention, adopted on 22 May 2001, is the elimination of intentionally produced POPs and the continuous 
minimisation,  or  where  feasible  ultimate  elimination,  of  those  POPs  that  are  unintentional  by-products.  The 
Stockholm  Convention  on  Persistent  Organic  Pollutants  provides  a  framework,  based  on  the  precautionary 
principle,  to  ensure  the  safe elimination/continuous  minimisation  of  the  initial  12  priority  Persistent  Organic 
Pollutants.  In  future  it  will  also  enable  Parties  to  identify  other  candidates  for  international  action  using 
established criteria so as to prevent and minimise their harmful impact on human health and the environment. 
Directives 98/81 and 2001/18.  

18 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
3.4.5.  Develop a strategy on the sustainable use of pesticides 

Agricultural  over-production  combined  with  increasing  evidence  that  even  low-level  exposure  to 
pesticide  residues  in  food  may  contribute  to  health  problems  have  led  to  a  reassessment  of  EU 
policy in this sector. Steps will continue to be taken to minimise the health and environment risks of 
pesticides; improve controls on the use and distribution of pesticides; reduce the levels of harmful 
active substances including through substituting the most dangerous ones with safer, including non-
chemicals,  alternatives;  encourage  low-input  or  pesticide-free  crop  farming  methods.  Measures 
addressing these specific objectives will be covered by the Commission Thematic Strategy on the 
Sustainable use of Pesticides, 42 which is currently under preparation.43  

42 

43 

Commission  Communication  Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Sustainable  Use  of  Pesticides, 
COM(2002)349 final, 1 July 2002. 
These measures will also be covered in the context of revisions to the plant protection acquis. 

19 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
4. 

A RENEWED APPROACH TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 

EU policy responses to reverse environmentally unsustainable trends will only be effective if placed 
within  a  further  renewed  approach  to  environmental  policy  that  focuses  on  integration, 
implementation  and  information.  The  effectiveness  of  the  EU  in  enhancing  the  environmental 
component under the Lisbon strategy depends on its ability to: 

–  Promote  an  integrated  approach  to  policy-making  and  give  a  boost  to  the  integration  of  the 

environmental dimension into all other policy areas at EU and national levels;  

–  Develop  a  new  approach  to  implementation  ensuring,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  EU  body  of 
legislation  is  properly  complied  with,  to  bring  maximum  benefits  to  the  environment,  while 
modernising,  on  the  other  hand,  the  environmental  regulatory  framework,  by,  wherever 
appropriate,  moving  toward  a  more  flexible,  market-friendly,  approach,  fixing  long  term 
environmental targets, and making increasing use of market-based instruments.  

–  Base environmental policy on sound knowledge and information to increase its efficiency; and 
make  information  on  environmental  impacts  widely  available  to  the  public  to  foster  the 
behavioural changes necessary to achieve sustainable development.  

4.1. 

Integration 

4.1.1. 

Improve environmental policy-making 

Develop an integrated approach to environmental policy-making 

Environmental  legislation  in  Europe  has  traditionally  focused  on  tackling  single  pollutants  and 
protecting  single  environmental  compartments,  often  presenting  ‘end  of  pipe’  solutions  to 
environmental  problems  rather  than  addressing  the  source  of  those  problems  or  the  combined 
effects of pollution on different environmental media and the interdependency between these media. 

Curbing current unsustainable environmental trends requires developing an integrated approach to 
policy  making.  Environmental  policy  should  not  only  focus  on  remedying  the  environmental 
impacts but also on addressing the most prominent environmental stressors.  

The 6th EAP exemplifies this new approach notably through the EU Strategy on Environment and 
Health44 and the use of Thematic Strategies. The latter, which are to be presented by 2005, aim to 
address in an integrated way seven central issues.45 At the end of 2003, each strategy will have been 
the  subject  of  a  Communication  focusing  on  problem  definition.  These  Communications  will  be 
presented to stakeholders for a wide consultation. In a second stage, the strategies as such will be 
developed.  They  will  include  clear  sustainable  objectives  and  targets,  to  be  met  through  a  set  of 
cost-effective measures accompanied by a timetable and their own specific objectives.  

44 
45 

See Section 3.4. – Environment & health. 
The seven thematic strategies cover: soil protection; marine environment; sustainable use of pesticides; urban 
environment; sustainable use and management of resources; waste recycling and air quality. 

20 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
FIGURE A: PROGRESS MADE TOWARD DEVELOPING THEMATIC STRATEGIES  

1. Air quality  

The Clean Air For Europe (CAFE) programme: Towards a Thematic Strategy for 
air quality – COM(2001) 245 final, 4 May 2001 

Objective 

There is increasing scientific evidence that existing policies are not sufficient to protect 
human health and ecosystems from the harmful effects of air pollution. The Strategy 
will therefore propose an integrated set of cost-effective measures to achieve levels of 
pollution  that  do  not  give  rise  to  unacceptable  impacts  on  human  health  or  the 
environment  

2. Soil protection 

Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  for  soil  protection  -  COM(2002)  179  final,  16  April 
2002  

Objective 

Soil is a vital resource that is essential of the proper functioning of the environment for 
life supporting  function  and as providing the  basis for many economic  activities. The 
aim  of  the  strategy  is  to  protect  and  conserve  the  ecological,  chemical  and  physical 
status of soil resources in Europe 

3.  Sustainable  use  of 
pesticides 

Towards a Thematic Strategy on the sustainable use of pesticides - COM(2002) 
349 final, 1 July 2002 

Objective 

4.  Protection 
and 
conservation  of  the 
marine environment 

Objective 

Growing  concerns  regarding  the  effects  of  pesticides  on  human  health  and  the 
environment need to be addressed. The strategy will define the set of policy measures 
and instruments to achieve a more sustainable use of pesticides and to decrease the 
risks associated with their use 

Towards  a  Strategy  to  protect  and  conserve  the  marine  environment  – 
COM(2002) 539 final, 2 October 2002 

The  marine  environment  is  subject  to  a  wide  diversity  of  threats  and  pressures.  An 
integrated  and  holistic  approach  is  needed  to  ensure  that  the  sum  of  the  different 
actions  achieves  the  necessary  level  of  environmental  protection  to  protect  and 
conserve the ecological, chemical and physical status of the marine environment 

5.  Waste  prevention 
and recycling 

Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  on  waste  prevention  and  recycling  -  COM(2003) 
301 final, 27 May 2003 

Objective 

6.  Sustainable  use 
and  management  of 
resources  

Objective 

Waste generation is still increasing as waste prevention is not sufficiently considered 
a  priority.  There  is  therefore  a  need  to  explore  ways  to  improve  the  EU  approach  to 
waste  management  within  the  framework  of  sustainable  resource  management.  The 
objective  is  to  reduce  the  environmental  impact  of  resource  use  through  waste 
prevention  and  recycling.  An  important  additional  aim  is  to  simplify  and  improve 
implementation of existing waste legislation  

Towards  a  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  sustainable  use  of  natural  resources  – 
COM(2003) 572 final, 1 October 2003 

Due  to  pervasive  demand  for  natural  resources,  many  different  policies  affect  their 
use  and  the  associated  environmental  impacts.  These  policies  are  not  co-ordinated 
towards  coherent  goals  regarding  quantities  used  or  environmental 
impacts 
generated.  This  issue  needs  to  be  addressed.  The  overarching  objective  is  to 
decouple negative environmental impacts associated to the use of natural resources 
from economic growth.  

7. Urban environment  Towards a Thematic Strategy on the urban environment – expected end 2003 

Objective 

Cities, home to 80% of EU citizens, generally suffer from poor air quality, noise, traffic 
congestion  and  a  lack  of  sustainable  planning.  The  Communication  will  propose  a 
framework  for  local,  regional,  and  national  actions  to  promote  sustainable  urban 
transport,  urban  management  and  design  with  a  view  to  improve  the  environmental 
performance  and  quality  of  urban  areas  and  secure  a  healthy  living  environment  for 
urban citizens 

21 

 
 
  
 
 
Increase policy coherence 

Many  of  the  current  environmentally  unsustainable  trends  stem  from  a  lack  of  attention  to  inter-
linkages between sectors, leading to policies in different areas working against one another rather 
than being mutually supportive. This lack of policy coherence renders policies both more costly and 
less effective and thus hinders progress towards sustainable development.  

To  further  avoid  that  differing  objectives  between  policy  areas  lead  to  policy  inconsistency,  a 
unified  system  for  ex-ante  impact  assessment  of all  major  policy  proposals  was  introduced  in  the 
Commission  in  200246  following  a  request  from  the  European  Council.47  By  allowing  the 
Commission to base its decisions on sound analysis of economic, social and environmental effects, 
impact  assessment  enables  informed  political  judgements  and  sensible  trade-offs  to  be  made  in 
achieving competing objectives.  

Impact  assessment  by  itself  is  not  sufficient:  trade-offs  and  spill-overs  need  not  only  to  be 
identified. They also need to be systematically taken into account up stream by sectoral policies.  

4.1.2.  Enhance sectoral integration 

Environmental policy alone cannot address the challenges of environmentally unsustainable trends. 
The changes required to reverse current trends in fisheries, agriculture, energy, transport and other 
areas where environmental pressures are particularly high can only be achieved through a process of 
environmental policy integration in these sectors, and by also ensuring that the specific economic 
and social considerations applicable to these sectors are taken into account.  

At EU level the importance of environmental integration is recognised in Article 6 of the Treaty. In 
June 1998 the European Council took an important step to give practical application to Article 6 - 
known as the ‘Cardiff Process’: it requested different Council formations to prepare strategies and 
programmes  aimed  at  integrating  environmental  into  their  policy  areas,  starting  with  energy, 
transport and agriculture. The process now embraces nine sectors.48  

The  Cardiff  process  has  produced  positive  results.  It  has  contributed  to  raising  the  profile  of 
environmental integration, now regularly discussed at the highest political level. It has also led to 
concrete results for integration in some sectors - the historic reform of CAP achieved in June 2003 
is a case in point. However, the consistency and implementation of existing strategies needs to be 
improved  as  underscored  by  the  Spring  European  Council  in  March  2003.49  To  this  end,  the 
Commission intends to carry out a stocktaking of integration to date. It will examine which priority 
actions are required to revitalise the Cardiff process and, in particular, whether:  

–  Sufficient  emphasis  is  placed  on  strategy  implementation  to  ensure  that  Council  formations 
deliver  on  promises  made.  Obviously  the  strategies  need  to  be  given  time  to  ripen  and  be 
implemented. One should remain vigilant however that they do not remain mere declarations of 
intent. 

46 
47 
48 

49 

Commission Communication on Impact Assessment, COM(2002)276 final, 5 June 2002. 
See paragraph 24, Presidency Conclusions, Gothenburg European Council (15-16 June 2001). 
In addition to the transport, agriculture and energy sectors, the Cardiff process covers industry, internal market, 
development, fisheries, General Affairs and economic and financial affairs. 
See paragraph 57, Presidency Conclusions to the European Council (Brussels, 20-21 March 2003). 

22 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
–  Strategy monitoring needs to be strengthened: progress needs to be made on the development of 

integration indicators and sector-specific decoupling objectives.50 

–  Adequate  updating  and  review  mechanisms  have  been  foreseen  to  allow  for  adjustments  and 

relevant policy developments to be taken into account in implementation. 

The specificities of each strategy’s institutional and policy contexts will be taken into account in the 
future development of the Cardiff process. In any case, efforts to improve environmental integration 
at EU level need to be backed by commitments at national level to reach their full potential. 

4.1.3.  Enhancing integration in Member States 

The national level 

The  majority  of  EU  Member  States  and  acceding  countries  have  now  developed  sustainable 
development strategies. EU and national sustainable development strategies are interdependent as, 
on the one hand, some environment-related policy objectives are established at the EU level - e.g. 
air quality norms, total allowed fish catches; and some policy instruments operate at the EU level – 
e.g. agricultural subsidies, internal market rules, state aids, etc. On the other hand, in line with the 
subsidiarity principle, Member States and regional authorities remain responsible for other areas of 
environmental  policy  making.  Against  this  backdrop,  it  is  essential  to  ensure  coherence  and 
maximise synergies between strategies at EU and national levels. 

National strategies are at different stages of development. However, the structure and approach are 
clear enough to lend themselves to a preliminary comparative analysis. Such an analysis should be 
considered  a  first  step  toward  fostering  further  convergence  and  consistency  between  the 
environmental  objectives  of  the  strategies;  and  toward  identifying  good  practices  with  a  view  to 
facilitating their dissemination.  

A first overview of existing strategies shows that they are highly diverse reflecting specific national 
contexts. The environmental dimension is a predominant theme in many strategies. However, some 
strategies  address  sustainable  development  in  its  three  dimensions  and  include  explicit  social  and 
economic  objectives.  Geographical  focus  also  varies  widely  from  one  strategy  to  the  next,  with 
some focusing primarily or exclusively on domestic priorities, and others considering global issues 
as well; and with some giving prominence to the territorial dimension while others do not. Finally 
some strategies are based upon a sectoral approach -e.g. transport, agriculture, fisheries etc- while 
others  are  organised  around  priority  issues  -e.g.  climate  change,  biodiversity  protection,  resource 
use, etc. 

Exchanges of experiences may eventually help to identify common elements whose inclusion into 
the strategies would be conducive to progress irrespective of the national context, and which may 
therefore usefully be disseminated. 

Priority should be given to exploring how key sustainable development issues are being addressed 
in Member States. On that basis, the most effective solutions devised could be highlighted with a 
view to spreading them elsewhere whenever relevant and feasible. 

50 

This  was  underlined  in  the  Presidency  Conclusions  to  the  Spring  European  Council  (20-21  March  2003), 
paragraph 57. 

23 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
A measure of success of a strategy is how effectively it tackles the problem of resolving trade-offs 
between  the  different  pillars  of  sustainable  development.  Comparing  institutional  mechanisms  in 
place for this, examining the principles on which they operate as well as instruments set in place, 
and  how  effective  they  are,  would  therefore  be  useful  to  determine  which  successful  experiences 
may be followed.  

A strategy is of little value unless it is properly implemented. Indicators and review procedures are 
also  key  to  ensuring  that  there  is  proper  follow-up.  In  this  context,  it  is  valuable  to  compare  the 
steps that have been taken to assess the impact and effectiveness of the strategy. Measures should 
focus not only on impacts through outcome indicators, but also on processes to ensure coherence. 

The local and regional levels  

Local authorities play a key role in constructing, operating, and maintaining economic, social, and 
environmental  infrastructures.  They  are  responsible  for  setting  local  environmental  policies  and 
regulations,  and  assist  in  implementing  national  and  EU  environmental  policies.  They  are 
particularly  active  in  areas  such  as  land  use,  waste  management,  mobility  plans,  or  control  of 
industrial  nuisances.  Due  to  these  broad  responsibilities  and  to  the  particular  acuteness  of 
environmental issues at the local level – e.g. air  pollution in  urban areas,  EU  and  national efforts 
towards sustainable development need to be complemented by appropriate measures at the regional 
and local levels.  

An  important  tool  to  achieve  sustainable  development  at  a  local  and  regional  level  is  the  Local 
Agenda 21 process, launched at the Rio Summit in 1992. This Local Agenda 21 process has been 
particularly well supported in Europe since 1992. 

Complementary  initiatives  such  as  the  1994  Aalborg  Charter  of  'European  Cities  and  Towns 
towards  Sustainable  Development'  and  the  Commission  supported  'European  Sustainable  Towns 
and Cities Campaign' have helped make Europe the global leader in Local Agenda 21. Nearly 2,000 
European towns and cities have voluntarily signed the Aalborg Charter committing themselves to 
developing long-term action plans for sustainability, a key step towards sustainable development at 
the local level. 

The  European  Commission’s  forthcoming  Thematic  Strategy  on  the  Urban  Environment51  will 
propose a framework which local, regional national and European authorities will be invited to use 
when addressing the issues of sustainable urban transport as well as urban management, design and 
construction.52 

The  Commission’s  main  instrument  to  foster  the  further  development  of  regional  and  local 
sustainable development strategies is the Cohesion Policy. Advancing integration of environmental 
–alongside  economic  and  social-  considerations  into  this  policy  area  is  thus  the  best  avenue  to 
promote sustainable development at local and regional levels. It may also help in facilitating further 
the transposition and implementation of EU environmental legislation. 

51 
52 

http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/urban/home_en.htm 
The priority themes for the Thematic Strategy are urban management, urban transport, construction and urban 
design.  Promoting  integration  between  these  and  other  themes  will  be  an  important  part  of  the  Thematic 
Strategy. 

24 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
4.2. 

Implementation 

During the last thirty years, the European Community has developed an extensive body of European 
environmental law. Approximately 200 pieces of EC environmental legislation, including more than 
140 directives, are currently in force, covering almost all areas of environmental policy.  

When  adequately  implemented  in  the  Member  States,  Community  environmental  legislation  has 
contributed to substantial progress – e.g. regarding the quality of waters or the treatment of waste. 
Ensuring the proper implementation of existing environmental legislation remains a priority. 

Newly adopted Directives often replace and streamline older legislative initiatives.53 In this context, 
renewed attention must be paid to the need to avoid generating policy inconsistencies and to ensure 
that cross-cutting issues are addressed satisfactorily. 

Only a combined effort from government and society at large will make it possible to move towards 
sustainable development. It is therefore important that ongoing efforts to modernise environmental 
legislation  be  pursued  in  parallel  to  ensuring  the  proper  implementation  of  EU  environmental 
legislation. 

4.2.1.  Confront the shortcomings of implementation 

Implementation  of  existing  legislation  is  an  area  that  poses  increasing  challenges  for  both  the 
Commission  and  Member  States  –  present  and  future  -  and  where  improvements  are  urgently 
needed. 

The current infringement difficulties  

The environment sector alone represents over a third of all infringement cases concerning instances 
of non-compliance with Community law investigated by the Commission. However, these figures 
need  to  be  put  into  perspective,  as  they  reflect  the  whole  spectrum  of  implementation  problems, 
ranging  from  where  Member  States  have  failed  to  transpose  a  Directive  through  to  cases  where 
while having successfully transposed a Directive the Member Sates has failed to communicate this 
to the Commission. Figure B depicts the current situation. 

53 

For  instance,  Directive  2000/76/EC  on  incineration  of  waste  replaces  three  older  Directives  and  Water 
Framework Directive 2000/60/EC replaces seven Directives. 

25 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
FIGURE B: OPEN INFRINGEMENTS PER MEMBER STATES AS OF 04.11.2003 

s
t
n
e
m
e
g
n
i
r
f
n

i

n
e
p
o
f
o

.

o
N

80

60

40

20

0

42

39

36

30

13

15

16

8

20

22

79

70

61

52

54

DK

SE

FI

LU

AT

NL

PT

BE

DE

EL

UK

FR

IE

IT

ES

The  graph  illustrates  the  wide  range  in  the  number  of  open  infringements  among  Member  States,  as  of  4 
November 2003. 

Source: European Commission 

Among the many factors causing the acute implementation gap, four play a particularly determinant 
role: 

–  Member  States  do  not  always  give  themselves  the  means  to  transpose  and  implement 
environmental  legislation  properly,  as  illustrated  in  certain  cases  by  a  lack  of  human  and 
financial  resources  devoted  to  implementation.  Implicitly  opting  for  short-term  avoidance  of 
immediate costs signals a lack of political will to tackle longer-term issues.  

–  EU  environmental  legislation  can  sometimes  be  complex  to  implement.  Several  Directives 
require that far-reaching environmental assessment obligations be taken into account in planning 
and authorising a specific project.54 This complicates decision-making, involving a wide range of 
policy  sectors  at  different  levels  of  governance.  In  addition,  environmental  rules  must  be 
regularly  adjusted  to  take  into  account  changing  technical  and  scientific  standards.  These 
conditions can act as a brake to effective implementation. 

–  Environmental  legislation  may  be  costly:  it  can  require  significant  economic  investments  from 

national authorities and society at large whose financing can be problematic.  

–  Infringements may be more widely reported than in other sectors: environmental issues attract a 
great  deal  of  public  attention  and  involve  many  stakeholders,  which  multiplies  possibilities  to 
bring instances of non-compliance to the attention of the Commission. 

These factors have received specific attention as implementation has been identified as a priority in 
the 6th EAP:55 

54 

55 

See  for  instance  Directive  92/43/EEC  on  the  conservation  of  natural  habitats  and  wild  flora  and  fauna  (OJ 
L206,  22  July  1992,  p.7)  and  Directive  85/337/EEC  on  the  assessment  of  the  effects  of  certain  public  and 
private projects on the environment (OJ L175, 5 July 1985, p.40) as modified by Directive 97/11/EC (OJ L73, 
14 March 1997, p.5). 
The  Commission  publishes  regular  surveys  on  the  implementation  and  enforcement  of  Community 
environment  law.  The  latest  survey,  covering  the  year  2002,  was  published  in  July  2003  –  SEC(2003)804 

26 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
–  In  the  framework  of  its  commitment  to  update  and  simplify  Community  legislation,56  the 
Commission  will  screen  in  2004  waste  and  air  quality  legislation  with  a  view  to  identifying 
specific  legislative  acts  as  candidates  for  simplification.  Legal  acts  identified  as  candidates  for 
possible  simplification  will  be  examined  in  detail  and  concrete  simplification  proposals  be 
developed – such proposals will be made in 2004 for waste legislation.57 This better regulation 
process  will  be  continued  in  the  future  and  will  allow  the  Commission  to  better  assess  the 
consistency, clarity and effectiveness of EC environmental legislation. 

–  New  working  methods  with  Member  States  are  being  developed  to  sort  out  up-stream  any 

potential implementation difficulties;  

–  Steps are  being  taken  to address  the financial burden of  implementation and improve the cost-
effectiveness  of  legislation,  and  to  rely  more  systematically  on  the  ‘best  available  scientific 
evidence’ when devising new legislation;  

–  Efforts are being made to offer citizens alternatives to complaint and infringement procedures.  

Develop new working methods with Member States 

It is crucial to involve Member States and regional authorities starting from the policy formulation 
stage.  Insufficient  co-operation  with  Member  States  in  the  past  has  in  some  cases  resulted  in 
legislation which is too prescriptive, too costly, or not in phase with the national context.  

There is now growing awareness that environmental legislation should continue to be increasingly 
performance-based  and  flexible  as  to  means  to  be  used  to  reach  targets.  The  Water  Framework 
Directive  adopted  in  2000,  which  is  flanked  by  a  detailed  implementation  strategy  involving 
Member States, stakeholders, NGOs and acceding countries, is a good illustration of how this new, 
framework  approach  can  be  made  operational.  The  Directive  is  ambitious  in  its  scope  –  the 
objective is to achieve good ecological and chemical status in all inland and coastal water by 2015 – 
but not overly prescriptive in its tools. 

Increased co-operation between the Commission and Member States is of utmost importance prior 
to  adoption.  It  is  also  essential  once  legislation  has  entered  into  force  to  sort  out  concrete 
implementation difficulties on the ground. Several important mechanisms have been set in place at 
EU level to bolster post-adoption co-operation.  

–  The  informal  EU  Network  for  the  Implementation  and  Enforcement  of  Environmental  Law 
(IMPEL), a regular gathering between the Commission, Member States and acceding countries,58 
provides  an  opportunity  for  exchanging  information  and  best  practice  and  for  injecting  greater 
consistency  to  implementation,  application  and  enforcement  of  environmental  legislation.  A 
major boost to IMPEL was the introduction, in 2001, of a scheme under which Member States 

Commission  Staff  Working  Paper.  This  latest  survey  provides  up-to-date  information  on  the  state  of 
application of Community environmental law. It also describes Commission efforts to smooth the progress of 
implementation  in  the  framework  of  the  European  Network  for  the  Implementation  and  Enforcement  of 
Community Environmental Law (IMPEL).  
COM(2003) 71. 
See Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – The Commission’s 
legislative work programme for 2004, COM(2003)645, 29 October 2003. 
There  previously  existed  a  similar  network  to  IMPEL  specifically  dealing  with  acceding  countries  –  AC 
IMPEL. The two bodies have now merged.  

56 
57 

58 

27 

 
 
  
 
                                                                                                                                                                  
report  and  offer  advice  on  inspectorates  and  inspection  procedures  on  implementation.59  This 
mechanism  has  contributed  to  drawing  up  minimum  qualifications  criteria  and  training 
programmes for inspectors; as well as to strengthening cross-border co-operation of inspections 
and in turn preventing illegal cross-border environmental practices. 

–  Interpretative guidance documents are regularly published to advise Member States on concrete 
aspects of implementation, e.g. efforts to provide clarifications on the implementation of nature 
and biodiversity legislation,60 and recent Commission document aimed at helping Member States 
transpose the ‘Strategic Environmental Assessment’ Directive.61  

–  Ad hoc seminars with Member States on implementation of particularly complex directives are 

regularly organised with a view to prevent instances of bad application.  

–  Capacity-building and training efforts are carried out to facilitate implementation, e.g. training 
for  the  authorities  responsible  for  dealing  with  individual  Environment  Impact  Assessments  in 
the framework of the Environment Impact Assessment Directive. 

–  In 2001 the Commission launched “Name, Fame & Shame” seminars to examine publicly with 
Member States a policy field or a defined piece of legislation, to highlight good and bad practice. 
the  effects  of  poor 
These  seminars  contribute 
implementation.  

to  sensitising  Member  States  about 

–  Effective reporting from Member States on implementation of environmental legislation is key 
to  monitoring  the  implementation  process. In  accordance with the 6th  EAP,  the  Commission  is 
committed to set in place a more coherent and effective system for environmental reporting. 

Address the financing burden of implementation 

Cohesion policy, which represents one third of the EU budget, makes a significant contribution to 
implementing  environmental  legislation.  Taking  further  steps  towards  establishing  sustainable 
development  as  an  overarching  objective  of  cohesion  would  usefully  extend  possibilities  for 
structural funds’ contributions to environmental policy – alongside economic and social priorities- 
notably  in  relation  to  implementation  –  the  Habitat  Directive  is  an  obvious  candidate  as  the 
Community is required under it to co-fund the Natura 2000 network.62 

The use of structural funds requires compliance with Community policies and instruments including 
those  for  environment  and  sustainable  development.  In  this  way,  structural  funds  constitute  an 
important lever for the implementation of environmental legislation.  

In parallel, the LIFE programme, which provides funding to projects aimed at demonstrating how 
new  policies  can  be  implemented  in  practice,  continues  to  support  the  implementation  of 
environmental legislation. 

59 

60 
61 

62 

Recommendation  of  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  Minimum  Criteria  for  Environmental 
Inspections (2001/331/EC), OJ L 118, 27 April 2001, p.41. 
See Section 3.2.4 - Improve implementation in the field of nature protection. 
The Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive is due to be transposed by 21 July 2004. This document has 
been  drawn  up  to  provide  guidance  for  Member  States  to  ensure  from  an  early  stage  as  consistent 
implementation and application of the SEA Directive as possible across the whole Community. The document 
is available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/030923_sea_guidance.pdf 
See Section 3.2. – Nature and biodiversity. 

28 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
Offer alternatives to complaint and infringement procedures 

The number of complaints in the environment sector alone has more than tripled between 1996 and 
2000.  In  2002,  almost  600  new  complaints  on  environmental  issues  were  lodged  with  the 
Commission.  

The complaint and infringement procedures set out in the Treaty cannot be the sole instruments in 
dealing  with  the  growing  public  awareness  and  response  to  environmental  issues  in  individual 
cases. In many cases, complainants can obtain satisfaction more quickly by using means of redress 
under national law. 

Improving access to information and justice on environmental matters and harmonising complaints 
procedures in Member States are key to reducing infringement cases at EU level while enhancing 
citizens’  rights.  In  this  respect,  the  implementation  at  EU  level  of  the  Aarhus  Convention63  is 
particularly important as it will enhance the mechanisms to get access to environmental information 
and create a more efficient access to justice at Member State level. 

4.2.2.  Adapt environmental policy to the challenges of sustainable development 

To progress on the way towards sustainable development, potential synergies between environment 
and the other two dimensions– economic and social- must be fully exploited.  

Environment and the social dimension 

–  Environment and job creation 

Economic  activities  linked  to  the  protection  of  the  environment  are  on  a  rising  trend.  The  rising 
demand  for  better  environment  quality  is  already  reflected  in  an  expanding  supply  of 
environmentally  friendly  products  and  services,  as  well  as  in  more  investments  in  eco-efficient 
technologies.  Current  market  developments  in  the  eco-industry  sector,  as  defined  by  the  OECD, 
provide  clear  evidence  of  these  trends.  Both  total  turnover  and  employment  creation  in  a  sector 
which presently accounts for over 2.5 million jobs have constantly been above average over the last 
decade64. Against this background, the challenge for the EU is to fully exploit this market potential, 
and  turn  the  ideas  of  decoupling  and  sustainable  development  into  a  driving  force  for  growth  by 
placing  the  focus  on  measures  which  combine  productivity  and  resources  efficiency  through 
innovation,  new  technology  and  job  creating  investment.  In  line  with  the  European  Initiative  for 
Growth, this will be the main thrust of the Environmental Technology Action Plan.  

–  Environment and job quality  

Environmental  policies  can  affect  the  quality  of  employment.  For  example,  the  increased  use  of 
environmental  technology  has  in  several  instances  led  to  some  high-tech  cleaner  technology  jobs 
replacing  low-tech  waste  management  jobs.  The  evolution  of  environmental  policies  away  from 
end-of-pipe  solutions  towards  integrated  solutions  that  tend  to  require  more  skilled  workers  will 
contribute  to  that  trend.  Such  shifts  need  to  be  accompanied  by  retraining  that  allows  workers  to 

63 

64 

The Aarhus Convention deals with Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access 
to Justice in Environmental Matters. See Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 28 January 2003 on public access to environmental information. 
COM(2002) 122 final of 13.3.2002, Report from the Commission: Environmental technology for sustainable 
development 

29 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
adapt  to  their  new  jobs.  This  retraining  can  in  turn  be  an  important  vehicle  to  raise  awareness  of 
environmental challenges within the framework of sustainable development. 

Workers are often also subject to high levels of exposure to environmental hazards, and this needs 
to be addressed by environmental policies. For example, it has been estimated that around 35,000 
workers lose their lives each year due to exposure to carcinogenic chemicals at their workplaces.65  

–  Environment policy and the fight against poverty and exclusion 

Environmental policies can contribute to the fight against poverty and exclusion. The people who 
gain  most  from  environmental  policies  are  often  society’s  poorest,  who  tend  to  occupy  areas  that 
suffer the most from air quality problems or blighted landscapes. Tackling a degraded environment 
can therefore have positive distributional impacts. 

Environment and the economic dimension 

While there can be a need to make trade-offs between a high standard of environmental protection 
on the one hand, and economic growth and competitiveness on the other, there are also a number of 
potential ‘win-win’ areas: 

–  A  number  of  private  sector  activities  depend  directly  on  the  quality  of  natural  resources. 
Tourism  and  the  agri-food  industry  are  obvious  examples.  In  specific  cases  of  commercially 
exploited  resources  like  fish-stocks,  current  unsustainable  trends  threaten  not  only  the 
environment but also the industry itself and thus the livelihoods of those in the industry. In these 
conditions,  it  is  crucial  that  there  be  clear  limits  to  the  pressure  on  natural  resources  to  ensure 
that the resource has time to renew itself and maintain its long term productivity.  

–  In  the  fast  moving  economy  in  which  the  private  sector  operates,  innovation,  knowledge  and 
responsiveness to public perceptions are precious assets to be ‘quicker to market and closer to 
customer.’  In  this  context,  businesses  can  no  longer  succeed  based  on  low  cost  strategies  in 
which the environment is seen as a cheap resource to exploit. The environment becomes a source 
of  value  and  a  vehicle  for  competitiveness  opportunely  contributing  to  boosting  industry’s 
dynamism and image.  

–  Environmental quality may be a means for attracting skilled workers and foreign investors. An 
illustration  of  this  trend  can  be  found  in  the  high-tech  research  park  movement  where  ‘green’ 
locations are considered to be key assets, alongside highly qualified resources and the proximity 
to knowledge-base centres. 

Synergies  between  enterprise  and  the  environment  need  to  be  fully  exploited  to  foster  economic 
growth  that  brings  broader  benefits  while  minimising  environmental  damage.  To  this  end,  in 
addition  to  legislation,  the  environmental  policy  mix  needs  to  include  innovative  instruments  that 
may reconcile the business sector including industry with environmental protection. 

On the one hand, a balanced approach to regulation based on a combination of flexibility, incentives 
and  predictability  needs  to  be  taken  to  engage  actively  with  industry  and  social  partners.  In  this 
context, the Commission will, whenever appropriate and applicable, increasingly rely upon market-
based  instruments  to  improve  cost-effectiveness.  On  the  other  hand,  industry  needs  to  be 
encouraged  to  further  embrace  sustainable  development  through  a  greater  sense  of  environmental 

65 

“Assessment of the Impact of the New Chemicals Policy on Occupational Health”, RPA, 2003 

30 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
responsibility and accountability. In cases where industry fails to act responsibly and causes damage 
to the environment, a sanctioning system, in the form of a liability scheme, must be in place.  

Further develop synergies between environment and the private sector  

–  Promoting the development of environmental technologies 

New  and  innovative  technologies  will  be  instrumental  in  achieving  the  shift  to  the  model  of  a 
knowledge-based  society  the  EU  embraced  in  the  Lisbon  Strategy.  These  technologies  are  a 
powerful engine for economic growth, competitiveness and improved environmental protection and 
quality of life. They can contribute to reducing the costs of environmental protection by allowing 
users to meet environmental targets at a lower cost.  

Environmental  technologies  can  free  up  resources  for  use  elsewhere  in  the  economy.  This 
decoupling of economic growth from environmental damage and resources use is precisely what is 
required to move towards sustainable development. Environmental technologies constitute therefore 
a natural bridge between the economic and environmental pillars of the Lisbon Strategy. 

However,  much  of  their  potential  remains  unrealised  due  to  market  and  institutional  barriers 
hindering  their  use.  Action  is  therefore  required  on  several  fronts  crucial  if  the  full  potential  of 
environmental technologies is to be realised. Further efforts need to be made to raise awareness and 
fill information deficits when it comes to the potential of these technologies - the LIFE programme 
makes  a  valuable  contribution  in  this  respect.  In  addition,  removing  market  obstacles,  especially 
many implicit and direct subsidies for more polluting technologies, is crucial. 

Promoting  the  development  of  environmental  technologies  is  a  Commission  priority.  The 
Commission  is  working  on  an  Action  Plan  to  establish  the  adequate  framework  to  boost 
environmental  technologies.  This  Action  Plan  will  build  upon  the  Commission  Report  on 
environmental technologies of 200266 and the Commission Communication ‘Developing an action 
plan for environmental technology’ of 2003.67 

–  Favour flexible market-based solutions  

Provided  that  they  are  designed  appropriately,  flexible  market-based  mechanisms  such  as  taxes, 
charges,  reduction  of  environmentally  harmful  subsidies,  promotion  of  trading  mechanisms  and 
voluntary  environmental  agreements  are  doubly  attractive  for  environment  policy:  they  can  help 
achieve  maximum  efficiency  in  implementation  while  ensuring  wider  acceptance  by  industry  by 
limiting costs. They can also contribute to making the EU economy more competitive by achieving 
more efficient use of natural resources. This potential is increasingly recognised by policy makers.  

Important  progress  has  been  made  at  EU  level  in  the  use  of  market-based  instruments  in  recent 
years as illustrated by the adoption of the Directive on Emissions Trading.68 Action at EU level is of 
particular importance to avoid distortions in the single market and risks of a loss of competitiveness 
for industry stemming from national initiatives to ‘green the market.’  

66 
67 

68 

COM(2002)122, 13 March 2002. 
Commission  Communication  –  Developing 
COM(2003)0131final, 25 March 2003. 
See Section 3.1. - Climate Change. 

31 

an 

action  plan 

for 

environmental 

technology, 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
The  Commission  approach  on  the  use  of  market-based  instruments  in  the  framework  of 
environmental policy will be outlined in a Communication foreseen for 2004. 

–  Provide a predictable regulatory environment 

Increasing  reliance  on  flexible  regulation  and  voluntary  initiatives  does  not  mean  that  more 
stringent regulation and binding instruments have lost relevance. Mandatory schemes continue to be 
necessary  to  lay  down  environmental  standards.  They  must  remain  an  integral  part  of  the 
environmental policy mix.  

Binding  instruments  can  generate  costs  for  industry  and  other  economic  actors.  It  is  therefore 
imperative  to  set  long-term  targets  to  be  reached  gradually  to  allow  those  economic  actors  and 
industry to anticipate changes and to adjust their business plans to them. The more predictable our 
regulatory  environment,  the  easier  its  incorporation  into  the  normal  investment  cycle  of  business 
will be. 

Foster new business approaches to the environment 

–  Promote responsibility and accountability 

Government efforts to make the regulatory framework more flexible need to be backed by industry 
commitments.  

This can best be achieved by the development of company Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 
strategies which explicitly cover the environment. CSR implies voluntarily taking on commitments 
that go beyond the regulatory framework in place to raise the standards of environmental protection 
and  social  development  with  a  view  to  promoting  sustainable  development.69  CSR  is  thus  an 
important business contribution to sustainable development.  

An  increasing  number  of  European  companies  have  developed  CSR  strategies  in  recent  years. 
These  strategies  are  conceived  in  the  first  place  as  assets  in  competition,  based  on  the  increased 
profitability that can arise from an improvement in social and environmental performance. They are 
also seen as a marketing tool, based on the  assumption  that being perceived  as  ‘doing  well while 
doing good’ is likely to attract new customers. 

Communication  by  companies  of  the  efforts  that  they  are  making  is  an  important  contribution  to 
maximising the external impact of CSR. Raising awareness of CSR through the exchange of best 
practice between businesses and within sectors as well as benchmarking business initiatives are also 
important means of encouraging CSR. The European Multistakeholder Forum on CSR is one step 
towards achieving this. The two following tools, already supported by the Commission, can make 
an important contribution to operationalising CSR: 

•  Publication of rigorous and independently verified environmental reports by companies. The 6th 
EAP  encourages  the  publication  of  such  reports.  This  is  particularly  applicable  to  larger 
companies. The number of companies established in the EU that regularly publish environment 
reports is steadily increasing but is still not large enough. For these reports to realise their full 
potential,  they  should  be  based  on  common  sets  of  indicators,  thus  allowing  for  sector-based 
benchmarking.  

69 

See Communication from the Commission concerning Corporate Social Responsibility: a business contribution 
to sustainable development, COM(2002)347, 2 July 2002.  

32 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
•  EU  Eco-Management  and  Audit  Scheme  (EMAS).  Introduced  in  1993,  the  EMAS  scheme  is 
aimed at promoting continuous environmental performance improvements of industrial activities 
by committing organisations to evaluate and improve their own environmental performance and 
provide  information  to  the  public.  Since  2001,  the  scope  of  EMAS  has  been  extended  to  all 
sectors of the economy including public authorities70 and efforts have been made to adapt it to 
the  particular  context  of  SMEs.  EMAS  registrations  have  increased  steadily  since  1993  but 
remain too unequally distributed throughout the Union. 

Introduce an EU liability framework  

Liability  is  the  necessary  corollary  to  business  environmental  responsibility.  By  acting  as  a 
disincentive  to  unsustainable  practices,  liability  contributes  to  bolstering  responsible  behaviour 
from industry.  

The draft Directive on Environmental Liability71 establishes an environmental liability framework 
at EU level based on the polluter pays principle. Under the draft Directive, operators are required to 
take preventive action where there is an imminent threat of damage and remedial action - at their 
own expense - when damage occurs. 

Political agreement on the Liability Directive was reached in the June Environment Council, paving 
the  way  for  legislative  adoption  in  2004,  consistent  with  the  spring  2003  European  Council 
Conclusions.72 

Protect the environment through criminal law in cases of severe non-observance of Community law  

Not  all  Member  States  provide  for  criminal  sanctions  against  the  most  serious  breaches  of 
Community  law  protecting  the  environment.  Therefore,  the  Commission  presented  in  2001  a 
proposal  for  a  Directive  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  the  protection  of  the 
environment through criminal law.73 As the Council adopted instead a Framework-Decision74 under 
the third pillar of the Treaty on the European Union, the Commission brought an action before the 
Court of Justice, in order to obtain clarifications as to whether provisions on penal sanctions belong 
to the first or third pillar of the Treaty on the European Union.75  

In addition, after the accident of the Prestige tanker off  the Spanish coast in November 2002, the 
Commission  promptly  adopted  two  new  instruments  introducing  criminal  sanctions  in  order  to 
prevent new oil spills on the European coastline.76 

70 

71 

72 
73 
74 
75 

76 

See Regulation 761/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 March 2001 allowing voluntary 
participation  by  organisations  in  a  Community  eco-management  and  audit  scheme  (EMAS),  OJ  L  114/1, 
24 April 2001. 
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on environmental liability with regard to 
the prevention and remedying of environmental damage, COM(2002)17 final, 23 January 2002. 
Paragraph 58, Presidency Conclusions, European Council, Brussels, 20-21 March 2003.  
COM (2001) 139 Final – OJ, 26 June 2001, C180/238. 
OJ, 5 February 2003, L029/55. 
See press release of the Commission, IP/03/461 and summary of the case 176/03, published in OJ C 135 dated 
7 April 2003, p.1. 
A  proposal  for  a  Directive  on  ship-source  pollution  and  on  the  introduction  of  sanctions,  including  criminal 
sanctions,  for  pollution  offences  (COM(2003)92,  5  March  2003).  The  content  of  this  proposal  is  twofold.  It 
incorporates  the  existing  international  discharge  rules  for  ship-source  pollution  into  Community  law 
(MARPOL 73/78 standards) and provides that violations for these discharge rules shall be qualified as criminal 
offences. 
In  order  to  complement  the  proposal  for  a  Directive,  the  Commission  adopted  a  proposal  for  a  Council 

33 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
4.3. 

Information and knowledge 

The contribution of knowledge and information to environmental policy-making is twofold: 

– 

– 

Firstly,  they  empower  decision-makers  to  make  better  policies.  In  the  context  of 
sustainable development increased knowledge is needed to allow decision-makers to assess 
whether  action  is  required,  to  manage  risks  in  situations  of  uncertainty  and  weigh  the 
potential benefits and costs of policies in all three dimensions. It is therefore necessary to 
improve  knowledge  of  environmental  issues  and  their  interactions  to  ensure  that  policies 
are based on the best available scientific knowledge and information. 

Secondly, making environmental information widely available to the public and increasing 
participation  of  stakeholders  in  environment  policy-making  are  key  to  improving 
governance and in turn the quality of policy initiatives. 

4.3.1.  Base our actions on sound knowledge 

The 6th EAP strongly reaffirms that environmental policies should be based on knowledge and the 
best  available  scientific  evidence.  The  information  that  forms  the  knowledge  base  (i.e.  data, 
statistics, indicators, or best practice of either a scientific, technical or economic nature) comes from 
a variety of sources and stakeholders, notably Member States, the European Environment Agency 
(EEA),  Eurostat,  the  Community’s  6th  RTD  Framework  Programme  and  the  various  national 
research  programmes  and  organisations.  A  better  communication  between  the  various  networks 
involved is necessary to improve mutual co-ordination, increase information flows and make better 
use of the information that is currently available. 

Knowledge as a driver for environmental policy  

In addition to helping to raise public awareness of the status and trends of various  environmental 
issues, information plays a number of key roles in the environmental policy process. The first is as a 
driver for environmental policy. By monitoring the driving forces, the pressures and changes in the 
state of the environment, problems can be identified as they arise. Secondly, information is key to 
creating the most suitable policy responses to an identified problem. Due to the complex nature of 
many environmental issues, knowledge of the inter-linkages and overlaps is essential to create the 
most  appropriate  policy  response  without  adversely  affecting  other  policy  areas.  Thirdly, 
environmental  information  helps  decision-makers  measure  the  implementation  of  environmental 
policies.  Policies  can  only  be  effective  if  they  are  implemented  correctly  and  consistently. 
Information feedback can ensure that new policies benefit from the lessons learned from previous 
experiences.  And  lastly,  information  helps  to  evaluate  the  effectiveness  of  policies  -  in  short,  to 
ascertain whether the problem has been solved.  

Setting in place a suitable framework 

Environmental  information  is  often  compared  unfavourably,  in  terms  of  quality,  coverage  and 
timeliness,  to  data  from  other  sectors,  notably  economic  data.  While  these  criticisms  have  some 
justification  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  resources  allocated  to  obtaining  this 
information. 

Framework-decision  to  strengthen  the  criminal  law  framework  for  the  enforcement  of  the  law  against  ship-
source  pollution  (COM(2003)227final,  2  May  2003).  This  proposal  relates  in  particular  to  harmonisation  of 
penalties by setting thresholds of prison sentences and level of fines that Member States may impose. 

34 

 
 
  
 
                                                                                                                                                                  
However, improving environmental information is not purely a matter of increasing resources but 
also  of  adopting  a  better  co-ordinated  approach  to  data  collection.  In  that  area,  the  co-operation 
between  the  EEA  and  Eurostat  networks  and  other  existing  networks  supported  under  the 
Commission  Research  Framework  programme  should  be  improved.  The  Commission  committed 
itself in the 6th EAP to providing a more coherent and effective framework for reporting and thus 
ease the burden on Member States. It will come forward with proposals to that effect in 2005.  

However,  sufficient  resources  need  to  be  made  available  for  monitoring  and  reporting  in  policy 
design.  This  may  later  have  important  consequences  on  the  monitoring  of  implementation  of 
environmental  legislation  and  on  the  information  of  the  public.  For  instance,  comparability  of 
information between Member States may be hampered if there is too wide a variety in the number 
or location of monitoring sites, as this was the case in the field of air quality. 

Improving the knowledge base 

Many of the forthcoming thematic strategies will include provisions, such as indicators, to monitor 
their effectiveness. Work is continuing to improve environmental indicators, notably in areas where 
gaps exist, such as biodiversity and chemicals.77 In this respect, the priority on scientific support to 
policies  introduced  within  the  EU’s  6th  RTD  Framework  Programme,  which  offers  research 
assistance  to  environmental  policy  initiatives  at  the  different  stages  of  the  policy  making  cycle  – 
conception, development and monitoring of implementation, is a useful tool.  

Progress is however complicated by the fact that the scale of a problem in the environmental field 
can  be  difficult  to  assess.  Nevertheless  several  initiatives  are  underway  to  identify  and  develop 
environment  related  ‘integration’  indicators,  such  as  TERM78  for  transport,  and  IRENA79  for 
agriculture. In addition a multinational task force has been set up by Eurostat at the request of the 
European  Statistical  Committee  to  develop  Sustainable  Development  Indicators  that  can  measure 
the overlap and trade-offs between the various dimensions.  

A further Commission initiative aims to create a common Infrastructure for Spatial Information in 
Europe (INSPIRE), in order to ensure coherence between the public sources of spatial information 
thus allowing economies of scale and interoperability. Closely associated is the Global Monitoring 
for  Environment  and  Security  (GMES)  initiative  which  seeks  to  develop  monitoring  services  to 
support  environment  and  security  related  policies.  GALILEO  and  ESPON  are  additional  relevant 
instruments.  Among  its  many  applications,  GALILEO,  the  European  Programme  for  Global 
Navigation  Services,  could  contribute 
the 
determination  of  the  extent  of  polluted  areas  and  tracking  of  pollution  sources.  ESPON,  the 
European Spatial Planning Observatory Network, will help to define a set of territorial indicators to 
analyse the regional impacts of Community policies.  

to  ocean  and  cryosphere  mapping, 

including 

The  aim  is  to  deploy  a  broad  range  of  instruments  at  the  disposal  of  the  Commission  and  the 
European Space Agency (ESA) in order to establish a European capacity for monitoring by 2008. 
The Commission will endeavour to improve the synergies between these different initiatives. The 
ultimate aim is to make full use of the potential of existing and new technologies for data collection 
and  analysis  to  streamline  and  lighten  the  burden of  reporting,  to  facilitate  the  implementation  of 

77 

78 
79 

BIO-IMPS (biodiversity implementation indicators) for biodiversity and REACH (Registration, Evaluation and 
Authorisation of Chemicals) for chemicals. 
Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism. 
Development of agri-environmental indicators. 

35 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
environmental  policies  and  to  foster  the  integration  of  the  environmental  dimension  into  other 
policies. 

Managing risk 

There will always be limits to knowledge no matter how much effort is made to increase it, due to 
insufficient scientific expertise. These knowledge gaps cannot be an excuse for inaction. There is a 
need  to  apply  an  approach  to  risk  management  based  on  the  precautionary  principle,80  the 
prevention at source principle and the polluter pays principle. The environment liability Directive 
will ensure that the financial means are available to redress any environmental damage that might 
arise.  An  essential  part  of  such  an  approach  is  ensuring  that  the  nature  and  extent  of  risks  are 
communicated to the public.  

4.3.2. 

Improved access to information and participation in policy-making 

Ensuring public access to environmental information not only increases government accountability 
and  transparency,  but  also  improves  governance.  In  turn  increased  public  participation  in  the 
environment  policy-making  ensures  that  all  stakeholders  are  consulted,  improving  not  only  the 
quality of the policy outcomes but also the chances of their successful implementation. Given the 
potential  impact  of  the  measures  proposed  on  a  wide  range  of  groups,  article  10  of  the  6th  EAP 
stresses the importance of extensive stakeholder consultation at all stages of the policy process and 
of  strengthening  participation  by  environmental  NGOs.  In  relation  to  this  latter  aspect,  the 
Community has engaged in a programme81 to support environmental NGOs, including those from 
acceding and candidate countries, for the period 2002-2006. 

Further  public  access  to  environmental  information  and  participation  in  the  environment  policy-
making at EU level will be achieved through the implementation of the Aarhus Convention,82 which 
also covers the right to environmental justice. Aarhus can be viewed as a means of democratising 
the environment and engaging with the public. The Commission adopted in October 2003 a package 
of proposals aimed at ratifying the Aarhus Convention.83 

80 

81 

82 

83 

from 

final, 

the  Commission  on 

the  precautionary  principle,  COM(2000)1 

See  Communication 
2 February 2000. 
Decision  No.  466/2002/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  1  March  2002  laying  down  a 
Community  action  programme  promoting  environmental  NGOs  primarily  active  in  the  field  of  the 
environment (OJ L 75, 16 March 2002, p. 1-6).  
The  UNECE  Convention  on  Access  to  Information,  Public  Participation  in  Decision-making  and  Access  to 
Justice in Environmental Matters. 
The legislative package, adopted on 24 October 2003, consists of three proposals: a proposal for a Directive of 
the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  access  to  justice  in  environmental  matters  (COM(2003)624);  a 
proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the application of the provisions of 
the Aarhus Convention on access to information, public participation in decision making and access to justice 
in environmental matters to EC institutions and bodies (COM(2003)622); a proposal for Council Decision on 
the  conclusion,  on  behalf  of  the  European  Community,  of  the  Convention  on  access  to  information,  public 
participation in decision making and access to justice regarding environmental matters (COM(2003)625). 

36 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
5. 

NEW MEMBER STATES – SPECIFIC CHALLENGES OF ENLARGEMENT  

The conclusion of enlargement negotiations, the  signature of Accession Treaties with Cyprus, the 
Czech  Republic,  Estonia,  Hungary,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Malta,  Poland,  the  Slovak  Republic,  and 
Slovenia, and the completion of the ratification process in these countries, have paved the way for 
an historic enlargement of the EU to ten new members in 2004.  

Under  EU  guidance  and  monitoring,  acceding  countries  have  made  significant  efforts  on  the 
environmental  front  over  the  past  ten  years.  Alignment  with  EU  standards  is  getting  closer  – 
Around  90%  of  the  acquis  has  been  transposed  on  average;  in  certain  sectors  such  as  horizontal 
legislation, air and waste transposition is nearing completion. In parallel, important steps have been 
taken on implementation, notably through administrative- capacity reinforcement.  

On the eve of enlargement, the acceding countries are for the most part well on track to be able to 
implement  the  acquis  from  accession.  The  Comprehensive  Monitoring  Reports  on  the  state  of 
preparedness for EU membership84 adopted in November 2003 have not identified issues of serious 
concern  in  the  environmental  field.  However,  the  Reports  drew  attention  to  a  number  of  issues 
where acceding countries still need to enhance their efforts to meet the obligations of membership: 
the main concern remains for most countries the implementation of the Natura 2000 legislation and 
for some countries waste management and industrial pollution. 

Accession negotiations continue with Romania and Bulgaria although the environment chapter has 
been provisionally closed with the latter.85 The Regular Reports adopted by the Commission at the 
same  time  as  the  Comprehensive  Monitoring  Reports  for  the  acceding  countries  conclude  that 
Bulgaria has reached a good level of alignment of the environmental acquis and needs to maintain 
and reinforce its implementation efforts in particular the strengthening of administrative capacities. 
The report on Romania concludes that while a considerable amount of legislation has been adopted 
administrative capacity and financial resources dedicated to the sector remain inadequate.  

The  above  efforts  are  beginning  to  pay  off.  The  state  of  the  environment  has  improved  in  recent 
years  in  acceding  and  candidate  countries,  with  substantial  reduction  of  air  and  water  pollution 
achieved.86 

The  Commission  is  taking  every  step  to  respond  to  the  post-accession  environmental  challenges, 
giving  priority  to  capacity-building  and  financing  where  further  progress  is  required;  and  to 
integration which has suffered from the almost exclusive focus on implementation in the last decade 
and where the situation is deteriorating. 

84 

85 

86 

Comprehensive  monitoring  reports  of  the  European  Commission  on  the  state  of  preparedness  for  EU 
membership of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and 
Slovakia,  COM(2003)  675  final;  SEC(2003) 1200;  SEC(2003) 1201;  SEC(2003) 1202;  SEC(2003) 1203; 
SEC(2003) 1204; SEC(2003) 1205; SEC(2003) 1206; SEC(2003) 1207; SEC(2003) 1208; SEC(2003) 1209. 
Transitional arrangements until 2011 for the sulphur content of liquid fuels, until 2009 for emissions of volatile 
organic  compounds  from  the  storage  and  distribution  of  petrol,  until  2011  for  the  recovery  and  recycling  of 
packaging  waste,  until  2014  for  the  landfilling  of  certain  liquid  wastes,  until  2009  for  certain  shipments  of 
waste, until 2011 for IPPC (in respect of certain existing installations), until 2014 for urban waste water, and 
until 2014 for large combustion plants have been agreed. 
See  Europe’s  environment:  the  third  assessment,  European  Environment  Agency,  Environmental  assessment 
report N°10, 2003. 

37 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
5.1. 

Implementation of the environment acquis – the institutional dimension 

Accession  will  bring  to  environmental  administrations  in  the  acceding  countries  increased 
requirements  and  additional  tasks  in  relation  to  monitoring,  inspections,  permit  emitting  and 
reporting,  which  present  them  with  a  challenge.  Difficulties  of  environmental  authorities  in 
obtaining  adequate  funding  and  staffing  as  well  as  a  persistent  shortage  of  co-ordination  between 
policy sectors have unfortunately hampered the progress made to date. 

On  the  positive  side,  a  majority  of  acceding  countries  allocate  increasing  human  resources  to  the 
implementation  of  environmental  legislation.  In  addition,  exchange  programmes  with  Member 
States  administrations  have  been  set  up  under  bilateral  programmes  and  have  been  included  into 
‘twinning  projects.’  In  parallel,  inspection  offices  are  being  strengthened,  environmental  agencies 
established and monitoring systems for air and water quality extended. However, these steps alone 
remain  insufficient.  Member  States  should  be  encouraged  to  continue  technical  assistance  and 
twinning type action after accession. The Transition Facility can assist in this process.  

5.2. 

Implementation of the environment acquis – the financial dimension 

The financial challenge is as significant as the institutional challenge. The cost of compliance with 
the investment-heavy environmental acquis for the ten acceding countries is estimated to amount to 
approximately  €50-80  billion.  To  this  can  be  added  a  further  €30  billion  for  Bulgaria  and 
Romania.87  The  Urban  Waste  Water  Treatment  Directive  alone  will  require  major  investments  of 
around €15 billion. To achieve full implementation the new Member States will have to spend on 
average  between  2%  and  3%  of  GDP  on  environment  in  the  coming  years.  However,  current 
expenditure is generally well below this target.  

Noticeable progress has been made in recent years:  

–  Environmental infrastructure has been developed and improved: the rates of connection to waste 
water treatment plants, which remain well below the EU average level, have nonetheless doubled 
since  the  early  1990s.  Since  2000  the  pre-accession  instruments  ISPA,  PHARE  and  SAPARD 
have supported the improvement of environmental infrastructure. 

–  Implementation plans accompanied by financing strategies have been prepared for a number of 

investment-heavy pieces of legislation.  

Waste plans have now been adopted in most of the acceding countries and air quality assessments 
have  been  undertaken.  However,  more  needs  to  be  done.  Environmental  financing  in  the  pre-
accession period has proved to be a particularly problematic task, especially in the water and urban 
waste management sectors, notably due to administrative shortcomings in a number of countries. It 
is  paramount  to  secure  adequate  financing  resources  to  achieve  effective  implementation  of  EU 
legislation.  In  parallel,  institutional  capacities  need  to  be  strengthened  to  ensure  that  financial 
resources aimed at funding environmental infrastructure are efficiently used. 

Against this background, priority actions should focus on: 

– 

87 

Ensuring that structural and cohesion funds as well as the rural development programmes 
are used to help the new Member States achieve full compliance with the acquis, by the 

These figures only cover the investment-heavy environmental acquis (urban waste water, waste water supply 
and air [IPPC]). See Commission Communication (2001)304 final. 

38 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
– 

– 

– 

end  of  the  negotiated  transition  periods,  and  in  particular  for  the  investment-heavy 
directives for waste management, water supply and urban wastewater.  

In the current period, ensuring that a significant part of the main Structural Funds be used 
for financing environment infrastructure and capacity-building. 

Ensuring  that  EU  grant  assistance  leverages  financing  from  other  sources  including  the 
European  Investment  Bank  (EIB),  bilateral  grants  and  credit  schemes,  commercial  bank 
loans,  foreign  direct  investment,  and  revenue  generated  from  consumer  charges,  fees  or 
taxes 

Encouraging  acceding  countries  to  secure  sufficient  resources  for  implementation  in 
national budgets. The binding nature of the targets and clear final deadlines for directives 
for  which  transition  periods  were  awarded  (for  which  detailed  implementation  including 
financial strategies are foreseen) justify reserving adequate financial and human resources 
for implementation at national level. 

5.3. 

Enhance integration  

The  focus  placed  by  environment  policy-makers  in  acceding  countries  on  compliance  with  the 
acquis, as well as the general shortage of resources have hindered progress on integration. Efforts 
on the integration front need to be enhanced in the post-accession period. 

Economic  growth  prospects  in  acceding  countries  over  the  coming  years  will  generate  steady 
increases  in  transport  and  electricity  demand  which  could  jeopardise  the  climate  change 
performances of some of these countries. Principally due to economic decline and restructuring in 
the first half of the nineties, acceding countries are well on track to meet their Kyoto target. Total 
greenhouse gas emissions in these countries declined by 32% between 1990 and 1999.88 To ensure 
that growth will not be coupled with increases in greenhouse gas emissions, long term infrastructure 
investments in the acceding countries will have to be sustainable.  

Further integration of climate change policies in the Structural Funds, under which many transport 
and energy investments will be funded, should therefore be seen as a priority in a long term post-
Kyoto  perspective.  In  addition,  a  particular  focus  needs  to  be  placed  on  transport  and  energy 
integration: 

Transport:  Acceding  countries  continue  to  perform  substantially  better  than  current  EU  Members 
when  it  comes  to  modal  split  or  energy  consumption  for  transport  and  Nox  emissions.  However, 
indicators  are  starting  to  point  in  the  wrong  direction  with  declines  in  rail  transport  for  freight,  a 
62% increase in motorway lengths and a 73% increase in car ownership.  

Community  financial  assistance,  in  particular  the  transport  programmes,  should  therefore  give 
priority to sustainable transport projects, with a special emphasis on the renovation of urban public 
transport systems where acceding countries are lagging behind, and on modal shift. 

Energy:  Energy  efficiency  has  improved  in  the  acceding  countries  due  to  positive  measures 
undertaken  but  also  due  to  economic  restructuring.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  well  below  EU15 
average and the intensity of energy consumption per unit of production is still much higher than in 
EU15.  

88 

See  Report  from  the  Commission  under  Council  Decision  93/389/EEC  for  a  monitoring  mechanism  of 
Community greenhouse gas emissions, COM(2002)702 final, 9 December 2002. 

39 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
The  existing  potential  for  win-win  solutions  in  energy  saving  needs  to  be  fully  exploited  in  the 
context of investments made for power generation and business sectors. Any Community support in 
those sectors should include whenever appropriate an in-built energy saving component. 

As regards renewable energy, acceding countries have adopted targets in the frame of the Directive 
on electricity from renewable energy sources.89 The total EU25 target for renewable electricity for 
the year 2010 has now become 21%, instead of 22% for EU15. 

89 

Directive 2001/77. This Directive will be transposed by new Member States in May 2004. 

40 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
6. 

INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION 

As the environment knows no borders, the environmental pillar of sustainable development cannot 
be  promoted  by  individual  countries  or  regions  acting  alone.  The  EU  is  therefore  committed  to 
promoting  environmental  protection  externally.90  The  challenges  of  environmental  policy  in  an 
international setting require the formulation of specific responses which the EU is developing. 

6.1. 

International challenges for environmental policy  

The EU faces four main challenges to advance the global sustainable development agenda: 

Promote multinational and multilateral solutions to environmental issues 

As  many  of  the  most  critical  environmental  challenges  are  international  in  essence,  effective 
responses can only come through a multilateral and multinational approach. Promoting international 
environmental co-operation at bilateral and multilateral levels, in the face of short-term economic 
and political pressures and at a time when the temptation to resort to unilateral action is strong, is a 
complex task.  

Curb negative environmental spill-over effects on third countries. 

Many  of  the  EU’s  internal  policies  –  notably  agriculture  and  fisheries-  have  spill-over  effects  on 
third, often developing, countries. In addition, production  and  consumption  trends in Europe bear 
environmental  consequences  for  third  countries  and  contribute  to  global  environmental  problems. 
Although there is no conclusive evidence, there is concern that high environmental standards may 
lead to the migration of polluting industries to poorer countries with less stringent standards in what 
is often termed the ‘race to the bottom.’ While industrialisation and economic development in third 
countries should be encouraged, the EU must ensure that in doing so third countries do not end up 
bearing the EU’s social and environmental costs. One means of mitigating the transfer of costs is 
through the transfer of cleaner technologies, for instance by using the Kyoto flexible mechanisms.  

Address the link between poverty and environmental degradation. 

There are now 1.2 billion people around the globe who live on less than 1 dollar a day. Such levels 
of  poverty  and  the  struggle  for  survival  leave  too  few  means  for  investing  in  environmental 
protection.  Yet  sustainable  management  of  local  natural  resources  is  an  absolute  necessity  for 
developing countries as the economies of many of these countries rely heavily upon these resources. 
As  poverty  and  environmental  degradation  are  inextricably  linked,  international  efforts  are 
necessary  to  create  the  conditions  for  environmental  protection  and  sustainable  development  by 
alleviating poverty. 

Consider the relationship between environment and security. 

There is a strong link between environmental and security issues. Scarce resources can represent a 
potential for conflict, as illustrated by recurrent tensions over water resources in some parts of the 
world.  In  addition,  conflicts  can  lead  to  substantial  environmental  degradation  that  may  hamper 
economic  and  social  development,  engender  migration  movements  and  in  turn,  nurture  domestic 

90 

Commission  Communication,  Towards  a  Global  Partnership  for  Sustainable  Development,  COM(82)final, 
13 February 2002. 

41 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
and regional tensions. More positively, low-profile environmental issues can be used as catalysts to 
facilitate co-operation and build confidence between neighbouring countries. 

These  interlinkages  between  environment  and  security  need  to  be  explored  more  systematically. 
This  implies  that  security  concerns  be  taken  into  account  in  the  way  environmental  policy  is 
conducted.  Similarly,  the  formulation  of  foreign  policy  needs  to  better  integrate  environmental 
concerns. 

6.2. 

EU responses 

To  effectively  respond  to  these  challenges,  the  EU  has  given  priority  to  the  four  following 
orientations.  

6.2.1.  Place sustainable development at the centre of the international agenda 

Based  on  its  belief  that  a  multilateral  and  multinational  approach  is  the  only  effective  way  to 
address global environmental issues, the EU has been at the forefront in setting up and advancing 
the international environmental agenda in recent years. This is illustrated both by its commitment 
to,  and  leadership  in,  multilateral  environmental  processes  and  by  its  active  engagement  with 
partners on environmental issues. Most of the necessary international agreements having been put 
into  place,  the  next  task  is  to  ensure  their  effective  implementation  in  developed  and  developing 
countries. 

EU Leadership at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development 

The  successful  outcome  of  the  Johannesburg  Summit  owes  much  to  the  EU’s  determination  and 
leadership.  The  Johannesburg  Plan  of  Implementation  not  only  set  new  targets  in  important  areas 
such  as  access  to  sanitation,  biodiversity  protection,  protection  of  fish-stocks  and  regulation  of 
chemicals;  it  also  launched  more  than  two  hundred  voluntary  partnerships  for  sustainable 
development,  including  two  important  EU  partnerships  on  water  and  energy.  There  is  also  a 
commitment  by  all  countries,  with  developed  countries  taking  the  lead,  to  change  unsustainable 
patterns  of  production  and  consumption  so  as  to  decouple  economic  growth  from  environmental 
degradation. 

The EU is determined to translate the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation into concrete results. 
The  EU  Sustainable  Development  Strategy  is  the  main  vehicle  to  achieve  this.  The  review  of  the 
Sustainable Development Strategy planned for 2004 will provide an opportunity to further integrate 
the internal and international dimensions. 

As regards concrete action, the further development of the EU Water Initiative – which has raised 
high  expectations  in  particular  in  Africa-  notably  through  the  establishment  of  the  proposed  EU 
Water Facility, will be key. Equally important will be to set up targets for renewable energy through 
the Johannesburg Coalition on Renewable Energy (JREC) launched thanks to EU efforts; and to 
successfully implement the EU Initiative for Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Development 
(EU Energy Initiative). The June 2004 World Renewable Energy Conference will be an opportunity 
to present and achieve progress on both initiatives.  

Engaging partners on environmental issues  

The fast-approaching enlargement of the EU will bring ten new Member States to the EU in 2004 
but also new neighbours to the East, and closer links with the Southern Mediterranean rim through 
the  accession  of  Cyprus  and  Malta,  resulting  in  an  unprecedented  widening  of  the  EU’s  strategic 
interests. In this context, enhancing relations with Western Balkan countries, Russia and the New 

42 

 
 
  
 
Independent States as well as the Mediterranean Basin will be of key importance, including in the 
environmental  field,  to  promote  sustainable  development  in  the  countries  covered  by  the  Wider 
Europe policy initiative.91 In the context of this initiative, the Commission is due to adopt a Wider 
Europe Package including a strategy paper, an action plan and country reports which will cover the 
environmental dimension.  

The EU is also committed to advancing environmental co-operation with key partners outside the 
broader  European  region,  whether  in  the  developed  or  developing  world  and  co-operation  is 
currently ongoing with a number of countries.  

As the world’s largest economies, the EU and the U.S. should provide leadership and commitment 
to the sustainable development agenda. Common actions in the past have led to important successes 
such  as,  the  establishment  of  the  Regional  Environmental  Centre  for  Central  Europe  and  Eastern 
Europe.  The  EU  remains  firmly  committed  to  continuing  to  engage  actively  with  the  U.S.  at 
bilateral and multilateral level with a view to deepening co-operation.  

6.2.2. 

Strengthen policy consistency 

The  EU’s  credibility  and  effectiveness  in  promoting  sustainable  development  at  an  international 
level depends, amongst other things, on its ability to ensure more coherence between its internal and 
external action and to further integrate environmental concerns into its own external policies 

Ensure coherence between EU internal and external policies  

At  Johannesburg  it  was  recognised  that  internal  policies  have  spill-over  effects  on  third  countries 
that need urgently to be tackled. In this framework the EU and other developed countries committed 
themselves  to  developing  a  Ten-year  Framework  of  Programmes  on  Sustainable  Production 
and Consumption.92 

In addition, in order to reduce the EU’s environmental footprint, ensuring coherence between our 
internal  and  external  policies  will  be  key,  in  particular  in  the  fisheries  and  agricultural  sectors. 
Pursuing  the  incorporation  of  commitments  made  at  Johannesburg  into  internal  policies  is 
fundamental if the EU is to live up to its international obligations. 

Further integrate environmental concerns into EU external policies  

Integration efforts into development co-operation, foreign and trade policies are underway, in line 
with  the  Development  and  General  Affairs  Councils’  environmental  integration  strategies 
adopted respectively in 2001 and 2002. These efforts need to be pursued, since, as with the other 
Cardiff  integration  strategies,  these  should  not  be  one-off  exercises  but  rather  effective 
commitments to deliver through permanent processes. 

In implementing the strategy, particular attention is attached to two objectives: promoting synergies 
between  development  and  environment  objectives  especially  in  the  follow-up  to  the  WSSD  in 
developing  countries  and  ensuring  that  appropriate  procedures  are  in  place  to  assess  the 
environmental  impacts  of  all  development  co-operation  programmes.  Reciprocally  when  devising 
environmental policy it is also necessary to ensure that the consequences on developing countries 
are duly considered. 

91 
92 

See Commission Communication on Wider Europe, COM(2003)104 final of 11 March 2003. 
For  further  information  relating  to  sustainable  production  and  consumption,  see  section  3.3.  –  Resources 
management. 

43 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
In  the  field  of  trade  policy,  the  Sustainability  Impact  Assessment  (SIA)  programme,  first 
developed  in  1999,  continues  to  be  refined  with  a  view  to  informing  trade  negotiators  of  the 
possible social, environmental, and economic consequences of a trade agreement. The objective is 
to  integrate,  where  possible,  the  results  of  SIA  into  the  trade  negotiations  and  to  design,  where 
needed, possible flanking, complementary, measures to maximise positive impacts while reducing 
any  negative  ones.93  In  addition,  the  EU  endeavours  to  integrate  and  discuss  sustainable 
development in the context of bilateral and regional trade negotiations. 

6.2.3.  Contribute to creating the conditions for global sustainable development 

As the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation is an essential contribution to the poverty alleviation 
agenda,  the  EU  is  committed  to  fulfilling  its  objectives.  In  addition,  the  EU  continues  to  play  a 
leading  role  in  furthering  other  ongoing  multilateral  efforts  aimed  at  ensuring  that  the  benefits  of 
globalisation are more widely shared and poverty reduced, and at increasing the resources available 
for  sustainable  development  in  developing  countries.  In  the  EU’s  view,  the  Johannesburg  Plan  of 
Implementation,  the  Official  Development  Aid  (ODA)  commitments  agreed  at  the  Monterrey 
Conference  on  Financing  Development  (2002)  and  the  WTO  negotiations  under  the  Doha 
Development  Agenda  (2001)  form  three  complementary  pillars  necessary  to  achieve  sustainable 
development at a global level. 

In  this  context,  concrete  steps  need  to  be  taken  to  make  available  the  increased  levels  of  ODA 
committed in Monterrey with a view to contributing to the Millenium Development Goal of halving 
the  number  of  people  living  in  poverty  by  2015.  Efforts  towards  the  timely  conclusions  of  the 
current WTO negotiations in the context of the ‘Doha Development Agenda’ need to be pursued in 
spite of the disappointing outcome of the 5th WTO ministerial meeting in Cancún, bearing in mind 
that  the  sustainability  agenda  constitutes  the  necessary  balancing  element  without  which  the  free-
trading  system  promoted  by  the  WTO  cannot  foster  a  more  equitable  share  of  the  benefits  of 
globalisation.  In  this  context,  adequate  supporting  measures  –  e.g.  enhancing  corporate 
responsibility,  sustainable  and  fair  trade  as  well  as  export  credits  consistent  with  sustainable 
development - need to be encouraged. 

In the meantime, the EU will continue to play a pivotal role in advancing Multilateral Environment 
Agreements  (MEAs)  -notably  the  Kyoto  Protocol  but  also  others,  such  as  the  Convention  on 
Biological  Diversity94-  and  in  seeking  new  financial  means  to  facilitate  the  implementation  of  all 
the  key  MEAs  as  well  as  environmental  protection  in  developing  countries.  The  EU  will  also 
continue  to  actively  support  the  strengthening  of  the  United  Nations  Environment  Programme 
(UNEP) both financially and institutionally in order to enhance global environmental governance.  

6.2.4.  Enhance the EU’s voice in the international environmental debate  

An  increasing  awareness  of  global  environmental  problems  in  recent  decades  and  the  subsequent 
adoption  of  numerous  multilateral  environmental  agreements,  as  well  as  the  many  interlinkages 
existing  between  environment  and  security  issues,  call  for  an  improved  framework  for 
environmental  diplomacy  at  EU  level.  The  European  Security  Strategy  due  to  be  adopted  by  the 
European  Council  this  December  provides  an  opportunity  to  make  progress  in  addressing  joint 
environment and security concerns. 

93 

94 

SIAs of the EU-Chile Association Agreement as well as of certain aspects of the Doha Development Agenda 
have  already  been  concluded.  SIAs  for  ACP,  Gulf  Co-operation  Council  and  the  Euro-Mediterranean  Free 
Trade Area are ongoing or about to be launched. 
See Section 3.2. – Nature & biodiversity. 

44 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
At  the  Thessaloniki  European  Council,  European  heads  of  state  and  government  endorsed  a 
proposal  from  the  Greek  presidency  of  the  Union  to  create  a  ‘network  of  experts’  to  lead  a 
European  Green  Diplomacy Initiative.95 This initiative, conceived in a  first  stage as  a  network, is 
aimed at allowing appointed experts or diplomats to communicate regularly in view of exchanging 
information  and  ideas  on  cross-cutting  environmental  and  sustainable  development  issues  in  the 
framework  of  bilateral  and  multilateral  negotiations.  This  is  an  important  development  in  the 
implementation  of  the  General  Affairs  Council’s  environmental  integration  strategy  and  could 
provide  a  useful  vehicle  to  enhance  the  EU’s  voice  and  influence  on  international  environmental 
issues.  The  Commission  is  therefore  exploring  the  potential  of  this  initiative  as  well  as  its 
implications for and possible articulations with existing co-ordination mechanisms. 

95 

See Section 2.2. - Challenges ahead for environmental policy. 

45 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
7. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This  Review  has  made  the  case  for  speeding  up  the  pace  of  reforms  to  improve  the  state  of  the 
environment  in  the  EU  and  internationally,  notably  by  achieving  a  decoupling  between 
environmental pressures and economic growth in line with the objectives set out in the 6th EAP and 
in the EU Sustainable Development Strategy. 

The Review’s conclusions point to the need for further efforts to deliver on the EU commitments on 
environment  and  sustainable  development.  These  efforts  should  focus  on  ensuring  the  timely 
implementation  of  existing  environmental  legislation;  strengthening  policy  coherence  and 
integration;  continuing  to  promote  sustainable  development  internally  and  on  a  global  scale;  and 
making a success of enlargement and establishing sound bases for future environment policies.  

The 2003 Spring European Council pointed out that “economic and social development will not be 
sustainable  in  the  long  run  without  taking  action  to  curb  environmental  pressures  and  preserve 
natural  resources  within  the  framework  of  the  comprehensive  sustainable  development  strategy 
launched at Gothenburg. This must include action aimed at decoupling environmental degradation 
and resource use from economic growth.”96  

The challenge of the years to come is therefore to develop balanced policies to stimulate growth and 
employment  which  also  protect  the  environment  and  public  health  from  increasing  pressures  and 
threats so as to preserve our quality of life and that of future generations.  

(1) 

Implementation 

Implementation  of  existing  EU  environmental  legislation  and  environmentally relevant legislation 
in other sectors is key to improving the status of the environment. Efforts towards that goal should 
be pursued and more emphasis should be placed on workability when devising new legislation.  

In the context of enlargement, the Commission will give priority to securing appropriate funding to 
finance the investment needed to meet the transitional periods agreed in the Acts of Accession for 
the implementation of the environmental acquis.  

To translate legislation into concrete results for the environment, it is important that Member States: 

• 

• 

• 

96 

Complete  their  National  Allocation  Plans  under  the  Directive  on  Emissions  Trading, 
due for submission to the Commission by March 2004; and increase their efforts to meet 
their  burden-sharing  targets  under  the  Kyoto  Protocol  by  developing  and  implementing 
national climate change strategies. 

Transpose and implement the completed EU regulatory framework on biotechnology to 
ensure  an  appropriate  level  of  health  and  environment  protection  while  stimulating 
innovation and safeguarding the competitiveness of the EU industry. 

Fully  transpose  and  apply  the  existing  waste  legislation  and,  in  turn,  reduce  waste 
disposal. 

Paragraph 53, Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council (20-21 March 2003). 

46 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
• 

Take all necessary steps to timely implement the Water Framework Directive based on 
Joint  Implementation  Strategy,  and  other  water  directives,  to  adequately  preserve  water 
resources. 

(2) 

Integration 

Environmental policy alone cannot reverse trends in policy areas where environmental pressures are 
particularly  high.  The  integration  of  environmental  protection  requirements  into  all  Community 
policies and actions should therefore continue to be promoted. In particular: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Efforts  to  better  capture  the  environmental  costs  of  different  transport  modes  in  prices 
charged  to  users  should  be  pursued  to  reach  full  internalisation.  Through  a  progressive 
approach, the pricing of transport infrastructure must better reflect – and help internalise- 
the external costs.  

Environmental integration efforts need to be pursued in the agricultural sector, in line with 
the reform of the CAP decided in June 2003, to meet the objectives set at the WSSD and in 
the 6th EAP. To this end: 

– 

– 

Reform of the Common Market Organisations should be continued, with a view 
to  further  decoupling  producer  support  from  production  subsidies  through  the 
introduction of the single farm payment. 

The mid-term evaluation of rural development plans is an opportunity to further 
strengthen  the  contribution  of  rural  development  plans  to  environmental  policy 
objectives,  in  particular  as  regards  climate  change  and  protection  of  Natura  2000 
sites. 

Building  upon  the  recently  achieved  reform  of  the  Common  Fisheries  Policy, 
environmental integration efforts need to continue in the fisheries sector as set out in the 
Commission Action Plan for environmental integration of the CFP.97 

Cohesion policy should continue to contribute to environmental policy objectives. 

In parallel to these efforts, environmental policy integration needs to be reinvigorated. In particular: 

– 

– 

– 

Integration indicators should be further developed, building upon work in progress in 
transport – TERM, agriculture – IRENA, and energy – ERM. 

Sector-specific  decoupling  objectives  against  which  progress  towards  sustainable 
development can be measured should be set. 

Updating  and  review  mechanisms  should  be  included  in  Council  integration 
strategies so as to ensure that the objectives are translated into visible action. 

In  line  with  the  Presidency  Conclusions  to  the  March  2003  European  Council,98  the 
Commission will carry out an annual stocktaking of environmental integration. 

Communication  from  the  Commission  setting  out  a  Community  Action  Plan  to  integrate  environmental 
protection requirements into the CFP, COM(2002)186, 28 May 2002. 
Paragraph 58, Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council (20-21 March 2003). 

47 

• 

97 

98 

 
 
  
 
                                                 
(3) 

The environmental dimension of sustainable development 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

All  necessary  steps  will  be  taken  to  achieve  a  high  level  of  economic  growth  and  social 
cohesion in the Union while ensuring decoupling from environmental degradation. 

Further  convergence  between  the  EU  and  national  environmental  policies  should  be 
fostered. To this end, the Commission will support benchmarking and peer review between 
Member States and the identification and exchange of good practice on the environmental 
dimension of their national sustainable development strategies. 

Headline  environment  indicators  and  sustainable  development  indicators  should 
continue  to  be  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  Task  Force  set  up  by  Eurostat  and  in  close 
collaboration with Member States and the European Environment Agency. 

The  Review  of  the  Sustainable  Development  Strategy  planned  for  2004,  provides  an 
opportunity to assess progress made thus far, to consider the linkages between the EU and 
national  sustainable  development  strategies  and  identify  priority  actions  needed  to  speed 
up  the  pace  of  reform.  In  addition,  it  will  help  to  clarify  the  links  between  Gothenburg, 
Lisbon and Cardiff and to better integrate the internal and external pillars of the Strategy. 

The  Environmental  Technology  Action  Plan  (ETAP),  planned  for  the  end  of  2003, 
should propose concrete measures at EU and national level. The Commission will further 
examine,  jointly  with  the  EIB  Group,  relevant  instruments  to  support  increased  equity 
investment in environmental technologies. 

The environmental regulatory framework will be modernised by increasingly using, where 
appropriate, market based instruments to promote environmental protection, building upon 
recommendations in that sense in the Broad Economic Policy Guidelines since 2001. The 
Communication on the use of market-based instruments for environmental policy in 
the  internal  market  planned  for  2004  will  clarify  the  interrelations  between  the  new 
instruments that have been recently introduced at EU level -e.g. emissions trading, energy 
taxation, state aid environmental guidelines.  

Swift adoption by the Council of the Commission’s proposal for a new chemicals policy is 
a priority, so as to allow the timely entry into force of the REACH system. 

Adoption of the Environmental Liability Directive should be completed speedily to allow 
for  the  establishment  of  an  EU  environmental  liability  framework  based  on  the  polluter 
pays principle. 

(4) 

International dimension 

In  order  to  ensure  the  timely  and  successful  implementation  of  the  EU  initiatives  launched  at  the 
WSSD, the EU will need to: 

• 

• 

Take forward the EU Water Initiative by moving to action on the ground in concert with 
all major stakeholders. A significant boost would be given to this initiative if Council can 
agree to an additional €1 billion  Water  Facility for implementation in ACP  countries as 
proposed by the Commission.  

Take  a  leadership  role  in  the  preparation  of  the  June  2004  World  Renewable  Energy 
Conference to be held in Bonn. 

48 

 
 
  
 
• 

Take forward the EU Initiative for Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Development and 
Johannesburg  Coalition  on  Renewable  Energy,  notably  by  agreeing  upon  targets  for 
renewable energy. 

49 

 
 
  
 
ANNEX 

Facts and figures illustrating environmental trends in greater detail 

COMPLEMENTARY INFORMATION REGARDING THE EMISSIONS TRADING DIRECTIVE  

The Directive provides for an introductory phase of trading in the power and heat generation 
sector  and  energy-intensive  industry  from  2005  onwards  as  a  preface  to  the  start  of 
international emission trading under the Kyoto Protocol in 2008. The Commission will assess 
the coverage of the scheme in 2004 and 2006 with a view to its possible extension to other 
sectors, such as transport, chemicals or aluminium.  

Member  States  and  Acceding  Countries  are  pressing  ahead  with  implementation  of  the 
Directive.  An  important  task  is  for  governments  to  draw  up  a  National  Allocation  Plan  by 
spring 2004 outlining their methodology for setting greenhouse gas limits, and the resulting 
number of allowances for each installation covered by the Directive. 

The Commission will be adopting guidelines for the monitoring and reporting of emissions on 
company level later in the year. The adoption of a Regulation for a standardised and secured 
system  of  registers  to  record  issuing,  transfer  and  cancellation  of  the  tradable  allowances  is 
also foreseen.  

The  emissions  trading  Directive  was  complemented  in  July  2003  by  a  new  Commission 
proposal  aimed  at  allowing  European  companies  to  carry  out  emissions-curbing  projects 
world-wide  and  converting  the  credits  earned  into  emissions  allowances  under  the  EU 
emissions trading scheme (Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament 
and of the Council amending the Directive establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission 
allowance  trading  within  the  Community,  in  respect  of  the  Kyoto  Protocol’s  project 
mechanisms, COM(2003)403 final, 23 July 2003).  

This  proposal  builds  on  the  market-based,  flexible  mechanisms  “Joint  Implementation”  and 
“Clean Development Mechanism” envisaged by the Kyoto Protocol. These two schemes were 
devised  to  enable  governments  to  meet  part  of  their  national  greenhouse  gas  reduction 
commitments by developing emissions reduction projects in other countries. The objective is 
to contribute to reaching the global emissions reduction targets in a cost-effective way with 
the added benefit of transferring advanced technology to other industrialised and developing 
countries. While “Joint Implementation” projects are to be undertaken in countries for which 
emissions  reduction  targets  are  foreseen,  i.e.  industrialised  countries,  “Clean  Development 
Mechanism”  projects  are  to  be  hosted  by  countries  for  which  no  quantitative  targets  are 
foreseen, i.e. developing countries. 

50 

 
 
  
 
FIGURE 1: TOTAL GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSIONS (IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS) AS A PERCENTAGE OF 1990 LEVELS 
WITH KYOTO PROTOCOL / BURDEN SHARING AGREEMENT TARGETS

99 

1999

2000

2001

Target 2008-2012

GLOBAL

MEMBER STATES

Increasing emissions

)
0
=
0
9
9
1
(

e
g
n
a
h
c

e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
P

50

40

30

20

10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

Decreasing emissions

USA

Japan

EU 15

AC (10)

LU DE DK AT UK BE IT NL FR FI SE IE ES EL PT

The graph illustrates GHG emissions in 1999, 2000 and 2001 as a percentage of 1990 levels, which is the base 
year for the Kyoto Protocol. The left-hand area of the graph provides a global level comparison of emissions to 
Kyoto Protocol targets for 2008-2012. The target for the ten acceding countries100 - AC(10) - is purely indicative. 
While 6 of the 10 acceding countries have a Kyoto reduction target of 8%, the reduction target for Slovenia and 
Poland is 6%, while Cyprus and Malta do not have any targets. 

In 2001 EU emissions were 2.3% below 1990 baseline levels but significantly short from the EU's Kyoto target of 
an 8% reduction by 2008-2012.  

The  right  hand  area  illustrates  existing  Member  States'  GHG  emissions  relative  to  their  Burden  Sharing 
Agreement targets101. While Member States still have 7-11 years to meet the agreed targets only five countries 
are currently close to doing so (Luxembourg, Germany, United Kingdom, France and Sweden). A number of other 
countries (Austria, Belgium, Italy and the Netherlands) have still not turned the corner. Despite having reduction 
targets  of  between  13-6%  their  emission  are  not  only  above  their  1990  levels  but  showing  a  year  on  year 
increase,  which  is  taking  them  further  away  from  their  targets.  Most  worrying  is  the  trend  in  Ireland,  Spain  and 
Portugal.  Although  the  Burden  Sharing  Agreement  allow  these  countries  to  increase  their  emission  by  between 
13-27% over 1990 levels these have already been exceeded. 

Sources:  European  Environment  Agency,  European  Topic  Centre  on  Air  and  Climate  Change,  United  Nations  Framework 
Convention  on  Climate  Change,  U.S.  Climate  Action  Report  2002,  Japan's  Third  Communication  (May  2002),  National 
Authorities. 

99 

100 

101 

Total GHG emissions consist of the Kyoto basket of 6 greenhouse gases; CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs 
and  SF6.  Emissions  and  removals  from  land  use  change  and  forestry  (LUCF)  have  been  excluded. 
Emission for US and Japan in 2000 are based on Eurostat estimates. 
The  ten  acceding  countries  included  are  those  due  to  join  the  EU  on  the  1  May  2004.  This  does  not 
include Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey. 
The  EU’s  and  Member  States’  greenhouse  gas  reduction  targets  were  adopted  by  the  Council  of 
4 March 2002 in a legally binding Decision on the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The Council’s 
Decision  included  the  Council  conclusions  of  16  June  1998,  which  set  out  each  Member  States 
contribution to the EU’s 8% reduction, often called the ‘Burden Sharing Agreement.’ 

51 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
FIGURE 2: TOTAL EU GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY SECTOR AS AN INDEX OF 1990 LEVELS (LEFT) AND IN 
ABSOLUTE AMOUNTS (RIGHT) 

Transport (T)

Energy (E)

Industry (I) Agriculture (A) Waste (W) Other (O)

0
0
1

=

0
9
9
1

x
e
d
n

I

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

Increasing emissions

T

19%

18%

4%

10%

3%

10%

23%

21%

28%

27%

E
A

O
I

W

Decreasing emissions

17%

21%

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

1990

2000

4.5

4

3.5

3

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

t
n
e
l
a
v
i

u
q
e

2

O
C

f
o
s
m
a
r
g
a
g

i

g
f
o
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

M

The line graph illustrates changes of GHG emissions, expressed as an index of 1990 emissions, by the various 
sectors.  Between  1990  and  2000  all  sectors  reduced  their  emissions  with  the  exception  of  transport,  which 
increased its emissions by approximately 20% over 1990 levels.  

The  bar  graph  on  the  right  represents  total  EU  GHG  emissions  in  real  terms  as  well  as  each  sector's  relative 
contribution (in %). All sectors decreased their relative share with the exception of transport, which saw its share 
of total EU GHG emission rise from 17% to 21% between 1990 to 2000. 

In 2000 the energy sector was the greatest contributor, accounting for 27% of total EU GHG emissions. Transport 
and industry both accounted for 21% each, meaning that these three sectors accounted for approximately 70% of 
all EU GHG emissions. 

Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) , European Environment Agency 

52 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
FIGURE 3: EU'S GROSS INLAND ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY FUEL (MILLION OF TONNES OIL EQUIVALENT) 1985-
2001 

t
n
e
l
a
v
i
u
q
e
l
i

o
f
o
s
e
n
n
o
t

f
o
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

M

1,600,000

1,400,000

1,200,000

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

0

Solid Fuels Oil Gas Other

Nuclear Energy Renewable energies

5.4%

11.9%

15.9%

5.0%

13.8%

16.8%

5.4%

14.8%

20.0%

6.0%

15.3%

23.1%

6.2%

15.5%

23.1%

41.1%

41.2%

42.2%

40.4%

40.3%

25.6%

22.9%

1985

1990

17.4%

1995

14.8%

2000

14.6%

2001

While the EU's total inland energy consumption has increased steadily at approximately 1% per year since 1985, 
the  relative  shares  have  changed  significantly.  Most  notable  are  the  decline  of  solid  fuels  -  such  as  coal  and 
lignite  -  and  the  rise  in  natural  gas,  due  to  changes  in  their  economic  viability.  Oil  continues  to  dominate  and 
accounts for over 40% of the total gross inland consumption.  

While the contribution of renewable energies has increased in absolute terms, renewable energies have, for the 
time being, failed to significantly increase their share of the total energy consumption over the last 16 years.  

The 'other' category includes derived heat and industrial  wastes. In total these  make up less than 0.5% for any 
particular year. Values for renewable energies, and hence also the total inland energy consumption, in 2001 are 
provisional values. 

Source: Eurostat, New Cronos  

53 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
FIGURE  4:  SHARE  OF  ELECTRICITY  PRODUCED  FROM  RENEWABLE  ENERGY  SOURCES  A  AS  PERCENTAGE  OF 
GROSS ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION IN 2000. 

All other renewables

Industrial and municipal waste

Large hydropower

Indicative targets

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

AT

SE

PT

FI

DK

IT

ES

FR

EL

DE

IE

NL

LU

UK

BE

EU 15

Electricity accounted for approximately 20% of the total final energy consumption in the EU in 2000. During the 
last decade the average annual growth rate for electricity was almost twice that of the total energy consumption, 
resulting in electricity increasing its relative share. The liberalisation of European energy markets may result in a 
reduction of electricity prices, which in turn, may accentuate the increase in the use of electricity.  

The  consumption  of  electricity  is  particularly  significant  from  the  environmental  perspective  as  electricity  is 
predominately  produced  from  fossil  fuels  at  an  efficiency  rate  of  between  30%-50%,  meaning  that  it  takes 
between  2-3  units  of  fossil  fuels  to  produce  one  unit  of  electricity.  Increasing  the  share  of  electricity  from 
renewable sources can therefore greatly help to reduce the associated environmental costs of fossil fuel use.  

Only  2  Member  States  (Denmark  and  Finland)  have  more  than  10%  of  electricity  generated  by  renewable 
technologies other than hydropower, such as solar, wind etc. (included in the ‘other renewables’ category). 

The targets depicted represent the reference values given in the Annex of the EU renewable electricity Directive 
(2001/77/EC).  These  reference  values  will  be  used  to  set  national  indicative  targets  for  the  next  ten  years.  It 
should be noted that the Directive’s definition of biomass only includes the biodegradable fraction of industrial and 
municipal waste. However data collection does not differentiate between the biodegradable or non-biodegradable 
industrial  and  municipal  waste.  In  certain  cases  this  may  lead  to  an  overestimation  of  the  amount  of  electricity 
produced from renewable sources. However it is unlikely that this overestimation significantly affects the overall 
picture. 

Source: European Environmental Agency 

54 

 
 
  
 
FIGURE  5:  VOLUME  OF  EU  15  PASSENGER  (TOP)  AND  FREIGHT  TRANSPORT  (LOWER)  BY  MODE  1970-2000 
WITH PROJECTIONS FOR 2010. 

Car

Bus and coach Rail

Tram and metro Air

s
n
o

i
l
l
i

b

.
s
m
K
/
r
e
g
a
s
s
a
P

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Road

Sea intra-EU Rail Waterways

Pipeline

s
n
o

i
l
l
i

b

.
s
m
k
/
e
n
n
o
T

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

The  top  graph  shows  that  cars  continue  to  be  the  dominant  mode  of  passenger  transport,  accounting  for 
approximately  80%  of  total  passenger  travel  in  the  EU.  The  fastest  growing  passenger  mode  is  air  transport, 
which  has  on  average  doubled  every  decade  since  1970.  By  2000  it  made  up  6%  of  the  total  EU  passenger 
transport.  Meanwhile  the  relative  shares  of  the  more  environmentally  benign  modes102  have  declined  every 
decade since 1970. 

The lower graph shows that the two dominant forms of freight transport are road (44% in 2000) and sea (41% in 
2000). Rail, which is considered a more environmental benign mode of transport not only lost relative share in 
every decade since 1970 but also declined in absolute terms.  

However it should be noted that each mode of transport has a different environmental impact. Moreover many 
means of transport have considerably reduced their environmental impact over time.  

The projections for 2010 have been calculated by applying the rate of increase experienced by each mode of 
transport between 1990-2000 to the period 2000-2010.  

Source: Eurostat, New Cronos 

102 

Rail, bus and coach, tram and metro. 

55 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
  
                                                 
FIGURE 6: ORGANIC FARMING AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL AGRICULTURAL AREA.  

1998

1999

2000

e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
P

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

AT

IT

FI

DK

SE

UK

DE

NL

BE

ES

FR

PT

LU

EL

IE

EU 15

The percentage of agricultural land used for organic farming continues to rise year on year in almost all Member 
States. However there is a wide variation among Member states in terms of both the rate of increase and the total 
percentage of area that is farmed organically, which ranges from 0.6% to 8% of the total agricultural area. In 2000 
the  EU  average  was  3  %  of  total  agricultural  area,  while  in  accession  countries  the  average  was  significantly 
lower at approximately 0.35%.  
Note: the high rate of increase in the UK can be attributed to the conversion of extensive holdings in Scotland.  

Source: European Environment Agency, Eurostat, Farm Structure Survey 2000 

56 

 
 
  
 
  
FIGURE 7:  PERCENTAGE  OF 2001  CATCHES  IN EU  WATERS  CONSIDERED  TO  BE  OUTSIDE 'SAFE  BIOLOGICAL 
LIMITS' (SBL) AND TOTAL CATCHES IN TONNES  

% of EU catches outside SBL % of EU catches within SBL % of total EU catch in 2001

e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
P

100

80

60

40

20

0

63.2%

5.5%

18.8%

0.1%

20.4%

Benthic

Demersal

Diadromous

Industrial

Pelagic

All

Benthic 
Demersal 
Diadromous 
Industrial 
Pelagic 

Prawns, flatfish, anglerfish 
Cod, haddock, whiting, hake and other roundfish 
Salmon, sea trout 
Sprat, sand eel, Norwegian pout 
Herring, anchovy, sardine, horse mackerel, redfish 

40% of all EU catches are taken from stocks that are considered to be outside safe biological limits. For certain 
types of fish, notably demersal and diadromous fish, the percentage is as high as 60%. The situation for certain 
species, such as cod and hake, is even more acute. The graph gives the percentage for each of the fish types of 
the total EU catch in 2001.  

The  data  is  based  on  ICES  2001-2002  ACFM  reports  and  covers  all  ICES  stocks  that  the  EU  manages,  either 
solely  or  jointly.  Data  includes  any  catches  taken  by  third  countries.  In  general  terms  stocks  are  judged  to  be 
within safe biological limits if the fishing pressure (catches)  and other causes of mortality (predation  etc) do not 
exceed the rate of recruitment and growth of the stock. If this does occur, then this will cause the spawning stock 
biomass (SSB) to fall below what are considered 'safe' limits. 

Source: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 

57 

 
 
  
 
 
FIGURE 8: NATURA 2000 NETWORK: SUFFICIENCY OF MEMBER STATE PROPOSALS (AS OF 30.06.2003) 

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

NL

LU

DK

IE

BE

IT

EL

ES UK

FI

PT

AT

SE

FR

DE

The  Natura  2000  network  requires  Member  States  to  propose  sites  for  the  protection  of  a  list  of  species  and 
habitats determined to be of Community interest. The graph shows the percentage of species and habitats, as of 
the 30 June 2003, for which Member States proposals have been determined as sufficient for the creation of the 
network103.  

While the overall picture is moderately positive, ensuring that all necessary species and habitats are protected is 
an important step in halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010.  

N.B The Commission has recently received a significant set of proposals from Germany which are not included in 
the graph. These proposals have doubled the number of proposed sites in Germany and are likely to significantly 
reduce the gap identified.  

While indicators on protected areas illustrate the policy response and level of implementation they do not inform 
us  if  the  loss  of  biodiversity  has  been  halted.  The  European  Environment  Agency  continues  to  work  on  a 
biodiversity index which is expected at the end of 2004.  

Source: European Topic Centre / European Environment Agency 
For more details please see http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/nature/barometer/barometer.htm  

103 

The criteria for deciding which species and habitats should be protected are contained in Annex 3 of the 
Habitats  Directive.  The  final  list  of  species  and  habitats  that  meet  these  criteria  is  drawn  up  for  each 
Member State in consultation with Member States and stakeholders. The process ensures that protected 
areas  cover  all  six  of  the  major  biogeographic  zones  of  the  EU  (Macaronesian;  Alpine;  Atlantic; 
Mediterranean; Boreal; and Continental). 

58 

 
 
  
 
 
 
                                                 
FIGURE 9: PAN-EUROPEAN INDICATOR OF POPULATIONS OF SELECTED FARMLAND AND WOODLAND BIRDS  

)
0
0
1
=
0
8
9
1
(

x
e
d
n

i

n
o
i
t
a
l
u
p
o
P

110

100

90

80

70

60

Woodland birds

Farmland birds

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

          Royal Society for the Protection of Birds/European Bird Census Council/BirdLife International

The  indicator  is  the  first  covering  European  birds104  populations.  There  has  been  a  marked  decline  of  common 
and widespread farmland bird species since the 1980s and which presently are at only 71% of their 1980 levels. 
This is highly significant given the EU objective of halting biodiversity loss by 2010. This decline can be attributed 
in large part to changes in agricultural practices, including a shift to more intensive practices. 

Birds  are  considered  good  proxies  for  biodiversity  as  they  are  high  in  the  food  chain  -  and  so  able  to  reflect 
changes in ecosystems - have large European ranges, and are abundant enough to be monitored accurately  

The index is based on data for 23 common farmland and 24 common woodland bird species from 18 European 
countries, which includes 11 Members States and 5 acceding countries. 

Source: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds / European Bird Census Council / BirdLife International. 

104 

EU countries include: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, 
Sweden  and  UK.  Acceding  countries  include  Estonia,  Latvia,  Poland,  Czech  Republic,  and  Hungary. 
EFTA countries include: Norway and Switzerland. 

59 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
FIGURE 10: ENERGY INTENSITY OF THE ECONOMY 

US

Japan

EU 15

AC (10)

1100

1000

.

P
D
G

f
o
R
U
E
0
0
0
1
r
e
p
t
n
e
l
a
v
i
u
q
e
l
i

o
f
o
s
m
a
r
g
o

l
i

K

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

The graph shows the energy intensity of the economies of current EU Members States compared to the acceding 
countries,  the  United  States  of  America  and  Japan.  There  are  a  number  of  notable  trends.  Firstly,  acceding 
countries,  whose  energy  intensity  was  five  times  less  efficient  than  that  the  EU  in  the  1990s,  have  significantly 
improved during the last decade. However in 2000 acceding countries105 were still, on average, three times less 
energy efficient than Member States.  

Secondly  the  EU’s  energy  efficiency  has  improved  slowly  but  steadily  between  1985-2000  by,  on  average,  just 
over 1% per annum. And thirdly, the EU is significantly more energy efficient than the United States of America, 
but less so than Japan. However its is important to realise that changes in energy efficiency are not only due to 
the  introduction  of  more  energy  efficient  technologies  and  processes  but  may  also  be  due  to  changes  in  the 
structure  if  the  economy,  such  as  a  shift  from  manufacturing  industry  to  services.  Energy  intensity  may  also  be 
influenced by the geographical size of a country.  

Source: Eurostat, New Cronos 

105 

There is a wide variance between the various acceding countries’ energy intensity. For example in 2000 
Cyprus had a value of 236 Kgoe per €1000 GDP while that for Latvia was 1316 Kgoe per €1000 GDP. 
The variance among Member States was significantly smaller. The most energy efficient was Denmark 
with a value of 124 Kgoe per €1000 GDP and the least was Greece with 264 Kgoe per €1000 GDP. 

60