European business : facts and figures. Part 2, Distributive trades and repair (NACE Section G) : data 1990-2000 : 2002 edition.
Date: 2002-12-17
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, European undertaking, distributive trades, economic analysis, economic statistics, industrial statistics, maintenance, production statistics, trade statistics

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European
Business 
Facts and Figures
Part 2:
Distributive trades 
and repair
(NACE Section G)

Data 1990-2000

4THEME 4

Industry, trade
and services

E U R O P E A N
C O M M I S S I O N

 
 
 
 
 
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2002

ISBN 92-894-4082-1

© European Communities, 2002

European Business, 
Facts & Figures
This publication has been
produced by unit D2 of
Eurostat, responsible for
structural business statistics.
The opinions expressed are
those of the individual
authors alone and do not
necessarily reflect the 
position of the European
Commission.

Co-ordinator:
Jean Lienhardt
Eurostat D2
Statistical Office of the
European Communities,
Bâtiment Joseph Bech
Rue Alphonse Weicker, 5
L-2721 Luxembourg
jean.lienhardt@cec.eu.int

Production:
data processing, statistical
analysis, economic analysis,
design and desktop publishing
Informa sàrl 
Giovanni Albertone, Simon
Allen, Iain Christopher, Sabine
Joham, Andrew Redpath, 
Markus Voget, Daniel
Waterschoot
informa@informa.lu

Translation:
translation service of the
European Commission,
Luxembourg

Published by: 
Office for Official Publications 
of the European
Communities, 
Luxembourg

All data requests should be
addressed to one of the
(cid:9)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:12)(cid:15)(cid:17)(cid:5)
Eurostat Data Shops, listed 
on the Internet, at the 
following address:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/
eurostat/

A great deal of additional
information on the
European Union is available
on the Internet. It can be
accessed through the
Europa server at
http://europa.eu.int

GUIDE TO THE PUBLICATION

Contents of the publication

Guide to the statistics

Official data sources used in this publication

Glossary of terms

Abbreviations

OVERVIEW - THE EU BUSINESS ECONOMY

Structure of the EU's business economy

Globalisation and intangibles

The EU's manufacturing sector

Country specialisation in manufacturing

Trade developments

Statistical annex

SECTORAL ANALYSIS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Energy
1.1

Crude oil and natural gas

1.2

1.3

Electricity generation and distribution

Water supply and sewerage

Non-energy mining and quarrying

Food, beverages and tobacco
3.1

Meat

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Fish

Dairy products

Miscellaneous food products

Beverages

Tobacco

Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear
Clothing (including knitted articles)
4.1

4.2

Leather and footwear

Wood, paper, publishing and printing
5.1

Wood and wood products

5.2

Publishing and printing

Table of contents

7

7

8

9

17

19

23

24

26

28

31

32

34

43
47

50

53

73

81
87

90

91

93

96

100

107
112

115

123
129

130

3

Table of contents

4

6.

Chemicals, rubber and plastics
6.1

Basic industrial chemicals 

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

6.8

6.9

Agro-chemicals

Paints, varnishes and printing inks

Pharmaceuticals

Soaps, detergents and toiletries

Miscellaneous chemical products

Man-made fibres

Rubber

Plastics

Non-metallic mineral products
7.1

Glass

7.2

7.3

Ceramic and clay products

Concrete, plaster and cement

Basic metals
8.1

Ferrous metals

Fabricated metal products
Structural metal products
9.1

9.2

9.3

Boilers, metal containers and steam generators

Miscellaneous metal products

7.

8.

9.

10. Machinery and equipment

10.1

10.2

10.3

Power machinery

Industrial processing machinery

Agricultural machines and tractors

10.4 Weapons and ammunitions

11.

Electrical machinery and optical equipment
11.1 Manufacture of electrical machinery and equipment

11.2 Measuring, precision and process control equipment

11.3

11.4

11.5

11.6

11.7

Electronic components

Computer and office equipment

Telecommunications equipment

Consumer electronics

Domestic appliances

12.

Transport equipment
12.1 Motor vehicles

12.2 Motor vehicle parts and accessories

12.3

12.4

Shipbuilding

Aerospace equipment

13. Other manufacturing industries

13.1

Furniture

14.

Construction and real estate
14.1

Site preparation and constuction

14.2

14.3

Installation and completion

Real estate services

137
142

146

147

149

153

155

156

158

161

171
175

178

179

187
190

197
201

203

204

211
216

218

221

223

227
233

236

238

240

243

246

248

259
264

266

268

269

277
280

283
288

290

292

Table of contents

15. Distributive trades

15.1

15.2

15.3

Sale of motor vehicles 

Repair of motor vehicles

Retail sale of automotive fuel

15.4 Wholesale on a fee or contract basis

15.5 Wholesaling on own account

15.6

15.7

Retail trade of food items

Retail trade of non-food items

16.

Tourism
16.1

Accomodation services

16.2

16.3

16.4

Restaurants, bars and catering

Recreation parks

Travel agencies

17.

Transport services
17.1

Railway transport

17.2

Road transport

17.3 Water transport

17.4

17.5

Air transport

Auxiliary transport activities

18.

Financial services
18.1

Financial intermediation

18.2

18.3

Insurance and pension funds

Financial auxiliaries

19.

Business services
19.1

Renting and leasing

19.2

19.3

19.4

19.5

19.6

19.7

19.8

Research and development

Legal, accountancy and management services 

Architectural and engineering activities; technical, testing and analysis

Advertising and direct marketing

Labour recruitment and temporary work services

Security services

Industrial cleaning services

20.

Information and audio-visual services
20.1

Postal and courier services

20.2

20.3

20.4

20.5

Telecommunications’ services

Software and computing services

Film and video

Radio and television

20.6 Music recording

21.

Community, social and personal services

297
302

304

305

306

307

309

312

323
328

332

333

335

339
343

345

348

352

358

363
366

372

377

381
386

389

390

394

397

399

402

404

409
412

416

420

424

428

430

437

5

Guide to the publication

Guide to the publication

CONTENTS OF THE PUBLICATION 

European  Business  aims  to  provide  a  standard

3.  The  third  section  provides  a  sectoral  break-

The  compilation  of  industry  and  services  data

set  of  information  for  industrial  and  service

down of service activities into 7 separate chap-

has followed a different historical development,

activities within the European Union. The data

ters  (again  with  sub-chapters  and  a  statistical

and furthermore it is generally easier to compile

provided in European Business traces the major

annex usually based on structural business sta-

activity and product statistics about goods/mer-

developments  of  output,  employment  and

tistics or alternatively a functional database spe-

chandise than it is to collect information relat-

external  trade.  The  commentaries  concentrate

cific to the subject area).

largely on the 3-digit level of the NACE Rev. 1
classification of economic activities1.

ing  to  knowledge  or  information-based  ser-

vices.  Hence,  the  balance  of  this  publication

The  chapters  in  European  Business  are  struc-

reflects to some degree the information that is

tured largely on the basis of their NACE code,

currently  available  from  official  statistical

Publication format

starting  with  energy  and  the  extractive  indus-

sources. For this reason, a different form of pre-

The publication is available as a paper or elec-

tries  and  finishing  with  business  services,  the

sentation is employed for industrial and service

tronic  product  (CD-ROM).  The  paper  publica-

information  society  and  community  and  per-

chapters.

tion contains a descriptive text of the evolution

sonal services. Each chapter begins with a pre-

of the EU's business economy - it is available in

liminary  section  explaining  the  sectoral  cover-

It should be noted that there has already been

German, English and French versions. 

age of the data provided.

a rapid improvement in data availability for ser-

vices  during  the  last  few  years  and  most  EU

Structure of the publication

NACE is a hierarchical classification made up of

Member  States  now  compile  annual  statistics

European  Business  is  divided  into  three  main

Sections  (1-letter  codes),  Sub-sections  (2-letter

for the majority of the service activities covered

sections:

codes), Divisions (2-digit codes), Groups (3-digit

in this publication. Clearly it will take a number

1. The first provides a general overview of the

codes) and Classes (4-digit codes). NACE estab-

of years to build up robust time-series and con-

structure of the EU's business economy, looking

lishes a direct link between the European classi-

siderable work still needs to be done in the area

at  the  changes  in  output,  employment  and

fication and the internationally recognised ISIC

of  product  statistics  for  services.  The  (non-)

external trade.

Rev.3  developed  under  the  auspices  of  the

availability of services' data often renders it dif-

2. The second provides a sectoral breakdown of

United  Nations.  These  two  classifications  are

ficult  to  provide  a  standard  set  of  information

industrial  activities  into  14  separate  chapters,

directly compatible at the 2-digit level and the

and where this is the case, Eurostat's function-

each of which contains a number of sub-chap-

lower levels of ISIC Rev.3 can be calculated by

al  databases  have  been  used  to  complement

ters  usually  based  on  the  3-digit  level  of  the

aggregating the more detailed levels of NACE.

structural  business  statistics.  Non-official

NACE  classification.  Each  chapter  concludes

with a statistical annex based on structural busi-

ness statistics and external trade statistics.

(1) Published by Eurostat, ISBN 92-826-8767-8, 
available from the usual outlets for Commission 
publications.

sources have also been used more extensively in

several  services'  chapters  where  little  official

data exists.

7

Guide to the publication

Guide to the statistics

GUIDE TO THE STATISTICS 

Two main data sources should be distinguished

Exchange rates

when  using  this  publication:  those  originating

All  data  are  reported  in  ECU/EUR  terms,  with

from  official  sources  (collected  by  the  national

national  currencies  converted  using  average

statistical  institutes  in  each  Member  State  and

exchange rates prevailing for the year in ques-

harmonised by Eurostat) and those provided by

tion.  As  of  1  January  1999,  eleven  of  the

trade associations (representative organisations

Member  States  entered  into  an  economic  and

of  manufacturers  and  service  providers)  and

monetary union (EMU). These countries formed

other  non-official  bodies.  Non-official  sources

what  has  become  known  as  the  euro-zone.

are easily recognised as they always appear in a

Technically  data  available  prior  to  that  date

shaded  box,  as  does  background  information

should  continue  to  be  denominated  in  ECU

on Community legislation.

terms,  whilst  data  available  afterwards  should

Time frame

be denominated in euro (EUR). However, as the

conversion  rate  was  equal  to  1  ECU  =  1  EUR,

The data within this publication was extracted

for  practical  purposes  the  terms  may  be  used

from various Eurostat databases during October

interchangeably and this publication denotes all

2001. The accompanying text was written dur-

such  monetary  series  in  euro.  On  1  January

ing  the  fourth  quarter  of  2001  and  the  first

2001,  Greece  also  became  a  member  of  the

quarter of 2002.

euro-zone.

The time-series for industrial activities are ideal-

Whilst  the  conversion  of  data  expressed  in

ly  presented  for  the  EU  between  1990  and

national currencies to a common currency facil-

2000.  Individual  country  data  are  generally

itates comparison, large fluctuations in curren-

available up until 1997, 1998 or 1999 depend-

cy  markets  are  partially  responsible  for  move-

ing  upon  the  country  and  activity  in  question.

ments identified when looking at the evolution

EU totals have been estimated for 1998, 1999

of a series in EUR terms (especially at the level

and  2000  for  industrial  activities.  The  estima-

of an individual country).

tion  procedures  do  not  currently  extend  to

cover  services  (other  than  distributive  trades).

Geographical coverage

Services data are usually presented in the form

EU  totals  given  in  this  publication  cover  all  15

of a snapshot for the latest year available.

Member  States.  Footnotes  are  added  when  a

partial  total  is  created  from  an  incomplete  set

of country information.

Figures  for  Germany  are  on  a  post-unification

basis, unless otherwise stated.

Non-availability

The  colon  (:)  is  used  to  represent  data  that  is

not  available,  either  because  it  has  not  been

provided to Eurostat or because it is confiden-

tial.  In  figures  (charts),  missing  information  is

footnoted as not available.

8

Official data sources used in this publication

Guide to the publication

OFFICIAL DATA SOURCES USED IN 

THIS PUBLICATION

SBS

________________________________________________________________________________Table 1

Country

Belgium

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Year

Population covered

1985-1994

Enterprises with 20 employees or more

1995-1999

Enterprises with 1 person employed or more

1985-1998

Local kind-of-activity units employing 20 persons or more

1985-1999

Enterprises with 1 employee or more

1985-1999

Enterprises with 20 employees or more

1985-1999

Enterprises with 3 persons employed or more for NACE Divisions 10 to 41

Luxembourg

1985-1994

Kind-of-activity units with 20 persons employed or more

1995-1997

Kind-of-activity units with 1 person employed or more

Netherlands

1997-1998

Number of enterprises: data for this variable are rounded to multiples of 5; 

a “0” therefore means 2 or less enterprises

Austria

1985-1994

Establishments with 20 persons employed or more for NACE Divisions 10 to 37

Portugal

1985-1999

Enterprises with 1 person employed or more

Finland

1986-1994

Establishments with 5 persons employed or more

1995-1999

Enterprises with 1 person employed or more

The  bulk  of  the  information  contained  within

European  Business  is  derived  from  the  SBS

(Structural  Business  Statistics)  database.  This

data has been collected within the legal frame-
work  provided  by  the  SBS  Regulation2.  There
are three main collections of SBS data that have

been used in this publication. 

The  first  (see  table  1)  covers  long  time-series3
for  enterprises  with  20  or  more  persons

employed (often available from 1985 onwards).

These  series  are  only  published  for  industrial

activities  and  they  are  used  predominantly  in
the  second  section  of  this  publication4.
However, not all Member States have transmit-

ted data relating to the enterprise as the statis-

tical  unit  and  the  specified  size  threshold.  The

table  below  presents  the  main  discrepancies

with respect to these standards.

(2) Council Regulation (EC, EURATOM) No. 58/97 of
20 December 1996 concerning structural business
statistics.
(3) Public access is available via the Eurostat
Datashop network: NewCronos, theme 4, 
domain SBS, collection Enterpr, table Ent_L_MS.
(4) Except for energy (chapter 1) and construction
(chapter 14) where there is poor data availability for
EU-15 totals.

9

Guide to the publication

Official data sources used in this publication

The  second  collection  covers  all  enterprises5
and  these  series  have  been  used  for  services
activities6.  The  data  generally  start  in  1995
although  for  some  services  a  small  number  of

Member  States  have  provided  longer  time-

series.  However,  not  all  Member  States  have

transmitted data relating to this population. In

particular,  some  Member  States  can  only  pro-

vide  data  for  units  with  employment  above  a

certain size threshold. Table 2 presents the main

deviations from the standard population as laid

down in the SBS Regulation (enterprise with 1

person employed or more).

(5) Public access is available via the Eurostat
Datashop network: NewCronos, theme 4, 
domain SBS, collection Enterpr, table enter_ms.
(6) In addition, for industrial activities where 
small enterprises carry an important weight 
(e.g. textiles and clothing), figures from this database
are also cited.

Table 2 ________________________________________________________________________________

Country

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Statistical unit and size coverage used from 1995 onwards

Industry

Construction

Trade

Services

(NACE Sections C, D 
and E)

1995 to 1998 for NACE 
Sections C and D and 
1995 to 1997 for NACE 
Section E; data missing 
because it is only 
available for enterprises 
with 20 persons 
employed or more

(NACE Section F)

(NACE Section G)

(NACE Sections H to 
K)

No major deviations

No major deviations

1995 to 1998 data 
missing because it is 
only available for 
enterprises with 20 
persons employed or 
more

1995 to 1998 data 
missing because it is 
only available for 
enterprises with 10 
persons employed or 
more

1995 to 1998 data 
missing because it is 
only available for 
enterprises with 10 
persons employed or 
more

Enterprises with 1 
employee or more

Enterprises with 1 
employee or more

1995 data missing 
because it is only 
available for enterprises 
with 20 employees or 
more

1995 data missing 
because it is only 
available for enterprises 
with 20 employees or 
more

Enterprises with 3 
persons employed or 
more

1995 to 1999 data 
missing because it is 
only available for 
enterprises with 20 
persons employed or 
more

Enterprises with a 
turnover of 15 million 
GDR or more

Enterprises with a 
turnover of 15 million 
GDR or more

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

In transport activities 
NACE 61.2Z and 61.2B, 
enterprises with 6 
employees or more

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

1996 turnover from the 
principal activity at the 
NACE 4-digit level: this 
code is supplied only for 
enterprises with 200 
employees or more

Luxembourg

1996 onwards kind-of-
activity units with 1 
person employed or 
more

1996 onwards kind-of-
activity units with 1 
person employed or 
more

No major deviations

No major deviations

Netherlands

Number of enterprises: data for this variable are rounded to multiples of 
5; a “0” therefore means 2 or less enterprises

No major deviations

No major deviations

Survey on holdings 
(NACE Class 74.11): 
enterprises with 5 
employees or more

Enterprises with 20 
employees or more for 
NACE Section E; total 
intramural R&D 
expenditure and total 
number of R&D 
personnel refer to 
enterprises with 10 
employees or more

United Kingdom 1995 data missing 
because it is only 
available for enterprises 
with 20 persons 
employed or more

1995 data missing 
because it is only 
available for enterprises 
with 20 persons 
employed or more

No major deviations

No major deviations

10

Official data sources used in this publication

Guide to the publication

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 3

Country

Spain

France

Ireland

Netherlands

Portugal

Sweden

Industry

Construction

Trade

Services

Statistical unit coverage

(NACE Sections C, D and E)

(NACE Section F)

1995 onwards enterprises with 1 
employee or more

No major deviations

1995 enterprises with 20 employees or 
more
1995 onwards enterprises with 3 
persons employed or more

1995 enterprises with 20 employees or 
more
1995 onwards enterprises with 20 
persons employed or more

1995 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 250-499 has 
been approximated with size class 200-
499 employees

1995 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 250-499 has 
been approximated with size class 200-
499 employees

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 1-9 has been 
approximated with size class 0-9 
employees

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 1-9 has been 
approximated with size class 0-9 
employees

(NACE Section G)

No major deviations

(NACE Sections H to K and M to 0)

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 1 has been 
approximated with size class 0 
employee; size class 2-4 has been 
approximated with size class 1-4 
employees; size class 250-499 has 
been approximated with size class 200-
499 employees

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees; size class 1 has been 
approximated with size class 0 
employee; size class 2-4 has been 
approximated with size class 1-4 
employees; size class 250-499 has 
been approximated with size class 200-
499 employees

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees

1996 onwards employment size 
classes are defined in terms of 
employees

1996 employment size classes are 
defined in terms of employees; size 
class 1-9 has been approximated with 
size class 0-9 employees

No major deviations

No major deviations

No major deviations

United 
Kingdom

1995 enterprises with 20 persons 
employed or more

1995 enterprises with 20 persons 
employed or more

No major deviations

No major deviations

The third collection of SBS data covers informa-

tion  broken  down  by  employment  size  class.

These series cover enterprises of all size classes.

However, not all Member States have transmit-

ted data to Eurostat that relates to this statisti-

cal  unit  or  population.  In  particular  some

Member States can only provide data for units

with  employment  above  a  certain  size  thresh-

old.  Table  3  summarises  the  main  deviations

from  the  standard  statistical  unit  as  laid  down

in the SBS Regulation (an enterprise with 1 per-

son employed or more).

The series come from a combination of regular

or  ad  hoc  surveys  conducted  by  the  Member

States  and  administrative  sources.  Data  in  this

publication are generally available at the 3-digit

NACE level, whilst more detailed information is

available  within  the  SBS  Enter  table  covering 

4-digit activity codes. 

11

Guide to the publication

Official data sources used in this publication

The definitions are standardised, and so the fig-

Estimates

ures  are  largely  comparable  across  industries

EU-15  data  for  1998-2000  are  estimated.

and countries. Variable definitions do however

Estimates  are  made  using  individual  country

vary  somewhat  between  the  countries.  Until

information  and  short-term  indicators  such  as

the reference year 1994 inclusive, EU Member

indices  of  production,  output  prices  and

States transmitted the data to Eurostat accord-

employment.  The  individual  country  estimates

ing to either the previous legal basis for indus-

are not published and as a result the informa-

try or on a voluntary basis for services. As far as

tion by Member State is only available up until

possible Eurostat and Member States have con-

1997, 1998 or 1999 depending upon the coun-

verted these data in line with the variable defi-

try  in  question.  Estimates  are  only  made  for

nitions  as  implemented  in  the  SBS  Regulation.

series concerning 20 or more persons employed

However, the results of the conversion are not

(SBS  ent_l_ms).  As  such,  the  time-series  pre-

of the same quality as the data collected from

sented  for  industrial  activities  normally  under-

the  1995  reference  year  onwards.  For  France,

report absolute values. This can be particularly

this  conversion  is  applied  until  the  reference

important in industries where small and medi-

year 1995 inclusive. For Greece, this conversion

um-sized enterprises play an important role (for

is  applied  until  the  reference  year  1996  inclu-

example, textiles).

sive.  Table  4  presents  the  main  discrepancies

with the standard variable definitions.

Table 4 ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SBS ent_l_ms: enterprises employing 20 or more persons

Country
Denmark

Year
1990-1998 Value added at factor cost

Variable

Gross operating surplus

Spain

1985-1999 Gross investment in tangible goods

Ireland

1985-1999 Value added at factor cost

Italy
Finland

1992-1995 Number of persons employed
1986-1995 Value added at factor cost

Gross operating surplus

Gross operating surplus

Discrepancy
Value added at basic prices
Value added at basic prices
- personnel costs
Gross investment in land and gross investment in machinery and 
equipment
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.
Value added at market price excluding VAT - personnel costs
Number of employees
Value added at market price
Value added at market price - personnel costs

SBS enter_ms: Enterprises employing 1 or more persons

Country
Germany
Spain

Year
1999
1995-1998 Gross investment in tangible goods

Variable
Value added at factor cost for NACE Sections I to K

Ireland

1995-1999 Value added at factor cost

Finland

1998
1995

Personnel costs for NACE Sections H, I and K
Value added at factor cost
Gross operating surplus

Sweden

1995-1996 Number of persons employed: since self-employed are not included and 

since the variable collected for enterprises with less than 10 employees is 
the number of employees in full time equivalents then the number of 
persons employed and number of employees are very close

Discrepancy
Value added at factor cost BUT does not include subsidies
Gross investment in land and gross investment in machinery and 
equipment
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.
Wages and salaries
Value added at market price
Value added at market price
- personnel costs

United 
Kingdom

1996-1999 Gross investment in existing buildings and structures
1997

Turnover from trading and intermediary activities

Includes gross investment in land
Turnover from trading activities of purchase and resale

12

Official data sources used in this publication

Guide to the publication

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 4 (continued)

SBS sizclass/indus_ms - Industry (Sections C, D and E)

Country
Denmark
Ireland

Year
Variable
1995-1996 Number of employees
1995-1998 Value added at factor cost

Discrepancy
Employees in full-time equivalents
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.

Sweden

1996

Number of persons employed: since self-employed are not included and 
since the variable collected for enterprises with less than 10 employees is 
the number of employees full time equivalent, then the number of persons 
employed and number of employees are very close

SBS sizclass/const_ms - Construction (Section F)

Country
Denmark
Ireland

Year
Variable
1995-1996 Number of employees
1995-1998 Value added at factor cost

Country
Denmark
Ireland

Variable
Year
1995-1996 Number of employees
1996-1997 Value added at factor cost

Discrepancy
Employees in full-time equivalents
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.

SBS sizclass/trade_ms - Trade (Section G)

Discrepancy
Employees in full-time equivalents
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.

SBS sizclass/servi_ms - Services (Sections H to K and M to O)

Country
Ireland

Year
1995-1997 Value added at factor cost

Variable

Discrepancy
Irish value added is calculated at market prices excluding VAT; for sectors 
where other indirect taxes play an important role, for example where there 
are taxes on petroleum products, Irish value added is disproportionately 
large; this non-standard definition of value added influences the Irish 
manufacturing total (through aggregation of NACE), EU totals (through 
aggregation across countries) and ratios, notably labour productivity 
measures.

13

Guide to the publication

Official data sources used in this publication

PRODCOM

The particular physical units of the CN classifi-

One  variable  from  the  EBT  database  is  directly

The legal basis of the data is Council Regulation

cation have normally been adopted for record-

presented  in  this  publication,  namely  the

(EEC)  No  3924/91  on  the  establishment  of  a

ing  the  volume  of  production.  In  exceptional

domestic  output  price  index.  Output  price

Community  survey  of  industrial  production

cases  a  different  and/or  supplementary  unit  is

indices  report  the  short-term  changes  in  the

(Prodcom Regulation).

recorded.  All  units  belonging  to  the  individual

prices  of  commodities  produced  and  sold  in  a

Prodcom  headings  are  specifically  indicated  in

given  Member  State.  Converted  to  an  annual

This  Regulation  requires  that  production  be

the data set.

recorded according to the product headings of

series, this index has also been used to deflate

SBS turnover, production value and value added

the  Prodcom  list.  The  list  is  based  on  the

The Prodcom statistics normally cover all enter-

data, using appropriate activity indices to create

Community’s external trade nomenclature, the

prises/local  units  which  manufacture  products

series  in  constant  price  terms.  Production  and

Combined  Nomenclature  (CN).  The  list  does

contained in the Prodcom list. Among the rules

employment indices from the EBT database also

not,  however,  cover  all  products.  The  list  is

on representativeness the Regulation stipulates

provide  valuable  information  that  is  used  to

divided into Divisions corresponding to the (2-

that  all  enterprises  in  Sections  C,  D  and  E  of

“nowcast” structural business statistics for the

digit)  Divisions  of  NACE  Rev.  1.  Each  Prodcom

NACE  Rev.  1  employing  at  least  20  persons

latest years, extending time-series.

code  is  identified  by  an  eight-digit  code.  The

must be included. In addition, at least 90% of

first  six  digits  are  the  CPA  code  (Community

production  in  each  (4-digit)  Class  of  NACE

All  price-determining  characteristics  of  the

Classification  of  Products  by  Activity).  The  last

Rev. 1 must also be recorded.

products should be taken into account, includ-

two  digits  normally  provide  a  reference  to  the

Combined  Nomenclature  (CN),  although  there

External trade

ing  quantity  of  units  sold,  transport  provided,

rebates,  service  conditions,  guarantee  condi-

are exceptions to this rule.

EU  external  trade  statistics  are  available  in  the

tions and destination. The specification must be

Comext  database,  broken  down  according  to

such that in subsequent reference periods, the

The  physical  volume  and  the  value  of  produc-

the  product  classification  (CPA).  The  analysis

observation unit is able to identify the product

tion  are  normally  recorded  for  the  products  in

focuses  on  trade  data  for  the  period  between

and  to  provide  the  appropriate  price  per  unit.

the Prodcom list. Different production concepts

1990  and  2000.  No  estimates  are  made  for

The  appropriate  price  is  the  ex-factory  price

are used in the survey, namely: 

external  trade  statistics,  although  it  is  possible

that includes all duties and taxes on the goods

a) production sold during the survey period; 

that subsequent revisions may occur. The data

and  services  invoiced  by  the  unit  but  excludes

b)  actual  production  (total  production)  during

are  processed  by  summing  together  product

VAT  invoiced  by  the  unit  vis-à-vis  its  customer

the survey period. This includes any production

statistics (using a conversion table from CN to

and  similar  deductible  taxes  directly  linked  to

which is incorporated into the manufacture of

CPA). The data for EU-15 are reported in terms

turnover.

other  products.  Such  production  is  normally

of  trade  flows  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  in

taken to mean own products which are either

other  words  extra-EU  trade.  However,  for  the

Labour Force Survey

processed  into  another  product  or  fitted  into

individual Member States total trade flows are

The  methodological  basis  and  the  contents  of

another  product  in  the  reporting  unit  itself,  in

used  (in  other  words  intra-EU  and  extra-EU

this  survey  are  described  in  the  publication

another plant belonging to it, or under contract

trade).  All  trade  figures  are  given  in  current

“Labour  Force  Survey 

-  Methods  and

in another unit; 

ECU/EUR terms.

c) production during the survey period which is

intended for sale.

European Business Trends

The  value  of  production  sold/production

many economic actors. The European Business

Tracking the business cycle is indispensable for

Definitions”, 1998 edition. The main statistical

objective of the Labour Force Survey is to divide

the  population  of  working  age  (generally  15
years and above7) into three mutually exclusive
and  exhaustive  groups  -  persons  in  employ-

intended  for  sale  should  be  calculated  on  the

Trends (EBT) database provides politicians, gov-

ment,  unemployed  persons  and  inactive  per-

basis  of  the  ex-works  selling  price  obtained/-

ernment  agencies,  bankers,  business  owners,

sons - and to provide descriptive and explana-

obtainable  during  the  reporting  period.  It  also

consumers  and  trade  unionists  with  informa-

tory  data  on  each  of  these  categories.

includes  packaging  costs,  even  if  they  are

tion  that  is  crucial  when  making  decisions  on

Respondents  are  assigned  to  one  of  these

charged separately. However, the following are

whether  industries  grow,  stagnate  or  decline.

groups on the basis of the most objective infor-

not included: 

The legal base of the European system of quan-

mation  possible,  obtained  through  a  survey

any turnover tax and consumer tax charged; 

titative  Short  Term  Statistics  is  the  Council

questionnaire, which relates principally to their

separately charged freight costs; 

Regulation No. 1165/98 concerning short-term

actual activity within a defined reference week.

any discounts granted to customers. 

statistics,  which  was  adopted  on  19th  May

1998 and is in the process of being implement-

ed.

(7) For the classification of the labour force by 
educational attainment, use was made of the age
group 25-59.

14

Official data sources used in this publication

Guide to the publication

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  information  is

___________________________________Table 5

The  sector  accounts  provide,  by  institutional

not collected from enterprises (as with the SBS

Sample thresholds for the publication of

sector, a systematic description of the different

database)  but  through  a  survey  addressed  to

LFS data (minimum sample size)

stages  of  the  economic  process:  production,

individual  households.  The  National  Statistical

Institutes are responsible for selecting the sam-

ple,  preparing  the  questionnaires,  conducting

the  interviews  and  forwarding  the  results  to

Eurostat in accordance with a common coding

scheme.  Eurostat  devises  the  programme  for

analysing the results and is responsible for pro-

cessing and disseminating the information.

The Community Labour Force Survey8, is based
upon  a  sample  of  the  population.  The  results

are therefore subject to the usual types of errors

associated  with  sampling  techniques.  Eurostat

implement  basic  guidelines  intended  to  avoid

the publication of figures which are statistically

unreliable.  Figures  below  these  thresholds  are

not published. A second threshold is applied to

EU-15

Belgium

Denmark

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Austria

Portugal

Finland

Sweden

A

63,500

2,500

2,500

8,000

2,500

2,500

3,500

2,500

3,500

500

4,500

2,000

7,500

2,500

9,000

data that may only be published with a warn-

United Kingdom

10,000

ing  concerning  its  reliability.  These  data  are

footnoted in the tables that use LFS data. In the

case that non-response (unknown) for a break-

A: threshold for publishing data.
B: threshold for reliable data.

B

-

4,500

4,500

-

4,500

5,000

8,500

4,500

7,500

1,500

10,000

-

15,000

4,500

-

-

generation  of  income,  distribution  of  income,

redistribution  of  income,  use  of  income  and

financial  and  non-financial  accumulation.  The

sector  accounts  also  include  balance  sheets  to

describe the stocks of assets, liabilities and net

worth  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the

accounting period.

The input-output framework and the accounts

by industry describe in more detail the produc-

tion process (cost structure, income generated

and employment) and the flows of goods and

services  (output,  imports,  exports,  final  con-

sumption, intermediate consumption and capi-

tal formation by product group).

Foreign Direct Investment

FDI is cross-border investment for which a direct

investor has the objective of a lasting interest in

an  enterprise  resident  in  another  economy

(direct  investment  enterprise).  Constitutional

down  characteristic  of  the  labour  force  (for

The  1995  ESA  is  fully  consistent  with  the

characteristics  for  a  direct  investment  are  the

example,  educational  attainment,  gender  or

revised  world-wide  guidelines  on  national

intention for a long-term relationship between

full-time/part-time)  exceeds  5%  of  the  total,

accounting,  the  System  of  National  Accounts

the direct investor and the enterprise, and a sig-

data have not been published.

(1993  SNA,  or  simply:  SNA;  these  guidelines

nificant  influence  in  the  management  of  the

have  been  produced  under  the  joint  responsi-

enterprise.  These  are  assumed  to  be  fulfilled

There  was  a  methodological  change  between

bility  of  the  United  Nations,  the  IMF,  the

when an investor owns ten per-cent or more of

1998  and  1999  in  the  collection  of  Belgian

Commission of the European Communities, the

ordinary shares or voting power in an incorpo-

Labour  Force  Survey  data.  As  such  there  may

OECD and the World Bank). However, the ESA

rated or unincorporated enterprise respectively

well be a rupture in the series in 1999.

is focused more on the circumstances and data

(OECD benchmark definition).

needs of the European Union. Like the SNA, the

National Accounts

ESA is harmonised with the concepts and clas-

Equity capital: includes equity in branches and

The European System of National and Regional

sifications  used  in  many  other,  social  and  eco-

ordinary shares in subsidiaries and associates.

Accounts  (1995  ESA,  or  simply:  ESA)  is  an

nomic statistics. Cases in point are statistics on

internationally  compatible  accounting  frame-

employment,  statistics  on  manufacturing  and

Other  capital:  covers  inter-company  debt

work for a systematic and detailed description

statistics on external trade. The ESA can there-

(including short-term loans such as trade cred-

of a total economy (that is a region, country or

fore  serve  as  the  central  framework  of  refer-

its)  between  direct  investors  and  subsidiaries,

group  of  countries),  its  components  and  its

ence  for  the  social  and  economic  statistics  of

branches and associates.

relations with other economies.

the European Union and its Member States.

Reinvested  earnings:  consist  of  the  direct

The 1995 ESA, replaces the European System of

The  ESA  framework  consists  of  two  main  sets

investor's  share  (in  proportion  to  direct  equity

Integrated  Economic  Accounts  published  in

of  tables:  (a)  the  sector  accounts  and  (b)  the

participation) of earnings not distributed as div-

1970  (1970  ESA;  a  second,  slightly  modified,

input-output  framework  and  the  accounts  by

idends  by  subsidiaries  or  associates  and  earn-

edition appeared in 1978).

industry.

ings  of  branches  not  remitted  to  the  direct

investor.

(8) Council Regulation (EC) No. 577/98 of 9 March
1998 on the organisation of a labour force sample
survey in the Community.

15

Guide to the publication

Official data sources used in this publication

Disinvestment: is formally defined as withdraw-

Community Innovation Survey

The Survey method

al  of  direct  investment  capital.  The  most  fre-

The  second  Community  Innovation  Survey

A  combination  of  sampling  and  census  has

quent cases are those where the direct investor

(CIS2) was launched in the EEA Member States

been used; census down to a certain threshold

sells participation (e.g. shares) it had invested in

in  1997/1998.  All  the  participating  countries

of  employees  depending  upon  the  country's

the direct investment enterprise or where inter-

have agreed on a common set of methodology

enterprise  population,  and  sampling  for  the

company debt (e.g. loans) is paid back.

and  a  core  questionnaire  aimed  at  providing

rest. The samples have been selected by using a

comparable,  harmonised  and  representative

simple  random  selection  in  each  stratum

Reporting economy: is the country or econom-

data  on  a  pan-European  scale.  The  survey  is

(defined  by  size  class  according  to  number  of

ic zone from whose view data are reported.

based  on  the  Oslo-manual.  In  general,  it  is

employees  and  economic  activity  based  on

Partner  economy:  is  the  country  or  economic

Ministry that is directly responsible for the sur-

was applied if the total number of enterprises in

zone that has a foreign direct investment rela-

vey at the national level.

the  frame  population  in  a  particular  stratum

tionship with the reporting economy.

was less than 5.

either  the  National  Statistical  Institute  or  a

NACE Rev. 1 at the 2-digit level). A full census

The  reference  year  for  the  survey  is  1996  for

FDI  flows  and  positions:  by  direct  investment

most of the countries. The data for Norway and

The results are based on answers from 39,500

flows  the  investor  builds  up  a  foreign  direct

Portugal refer to 1997. The results can deviate

enterprises.  In  total  the  response  rate  was

investment position, making part of his balance

from  national  published  results,  mainly  due  to

about 57%, nationally the response rate varies

sheet. The FDI position (referred to in this pub-

different target population.

from  24%  to  over  90%.  To  secure  an  accept-

lication as FDI stocks) differs from accumulated

flows because of revaluation (changes in prices

The target population

able response rate, at least two reminders were

made  to  the  enterprises.  If  the  response  rate

or exchange rates, and other adjustments such

The statistical unit is the enterprise.

was below 70% of the active enterprises in the

as  the  rescheduling  or  cancellation  of  loans,

sample  in  the  manufacturing  and  service  sec-

debt forgiveness or debt-equity swaps with dif-

The  following  economic  activities  have  been

tors  respectively,  a  non-response  analysis  was

fering values).

included in the target population:

performed.  The  non-response  analysis  was

made on the basis of a simple random sample

Research and Development

These  data  were  provided  by  the  OECD.  They

are intended to provide internationally compa-

(cid:1)

(cid:1)

(cid:1)

all manufacturing industries 

of the non-respondent population.

electricity, gas and water supply 

service sectors: wholesale trade, transport,

Quality of the data

rable indicators of resources devoted to R&D at

telecommunications, financial 

The results presented are grossed-up figures for

an industry level. The business enterprise sector

intermediation, computer and related 

the whole population, using weighting factors.

covers private and public enterprises and insti-

activities and engineering services. 

The  weighting  factors  are  based  on  shares

tutes serving such enterprises.

between  the  numbers  of  enterprises  in  the

In Spain and Italy the survey was only done for

realised sample and total number of enterprises

As from 1987, the classification is based on the

manufacturing  industry.  In  France  the  whole-

in each stratum of the frame population.

International  Standard  Industrial  Classification

sale sector was not surveyed.

(ISIC  Rev.  3).  The  breakdown  between  indus-

The  results  of  the  non-response  analysis  were

tries  is,  in  principle,  made  at  the  enterprise

The cut off point for inclusion in the target pop-

taken into account to adjust the weighting fac-

level,  although  some  countries  are  able  to

ulation  is  20  employees  in  the  manufacturing

tors  if  the  results  proved  to  be  different  from

break down R&D data for multi-product enter-

sector  and  10  employees  in  the  service  sector.

the original survey results.

prises  between  their  main  lines  of  business.

Some Member States used lower cut-off points,

National statistical regulations prevent publica-

but these enterprises are not included here. The

Whenever  possible  variables  have  been  cross-

tion of results where there are very few firms in

sampling  frames  are  business  registers  with  as

checked  to  verify  the  consistency  of  the

the given category, hence the many gaps in the

good quality as possible. Official statistical busi-

answers. In this process, a set of core variables

tables.

ness  register  have  been  used  whenever  avail-

has  been  considered  to  be  more  reliable  than

able.

others.

In case of item non-response the missing values

have  been  imputed.  Other  information  from

the  same  enterprise  or  the  enterprise's  NACE-

group  has  been  used  to  impute  the  missing

data.

16

Glossary of terms

Guide to the publication

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

There  follows  a  brief  list  of  the  main  terms

Employees:  are  defined  as  those  persons  who

Number of persons employed (employment): is

employed within this publication

work for an employer and who have a contract

defined  as  the  total  number  of  persons  who

of  employment  and  receive  compensation  in

work in the observation unit (inclusive of work-

Annual  average  growth  rate:  constant  rate  of

the  form  of  wages,  salaries,  fees,  gratuities,

ing  proprietors,  partners  working  regularly  in

growth that would be required in each year to

piecework  pay  or  remuneration  in  kind;

the unit and unpaid family workers), as well as

achieve  the  same  overall  growth  rate  as  that

employees include part-time workers, seasonal

persons who work outside the unit who belong

observed between two periods.

workers,  persons  on  strike  or  on  short-term

to  it  and  are  paid  by  it  (e.g.  sales  representa-

leave, but exclude those persons on long-term

tives,  delivery  personnel,  repair  and  mainte-

Apparent  labour  productivity:  value  added  at

leave and voluntary workers.

nance  teams);  it  includes  persons  absent  for  a

factor  cost/number  of  persons  employed

short period (e.g. sick leave, paid leave or spe-

(expressed 

in  thousand  EUR  per  person

Enterprise: an enterprise is the smallest combi-

cial  leave),  and  also  those  on  strike,  but  not

employed);  care  should  be  taken  in  the  inter-

nation  of  legal  units  that  is  an  organisational

those  absent  for  an  indefinite  period;  it  also

pretation of this ratio between different activi-

unit producing goods or services, which bene-

includes part-time workers who are regarded as

ties and countries because of the use of a sim-

fits from a certain degree of autonomy in deci-

such under the laws of the country concerned

ple head count for the labour input measure, as

sion-making, especially for the allocation of its

and who are on the pay-roll, as well as season-

a  proxy  for  the  volume  of  work  done;  values

current resources; an enterprise carries out one

al  workers,  apprentices  and  home  workers  on

may exceptionally be negative.

or more activities at one or more locations; an

the pay-roll.

enterprise may be a sole legal unit.

Average 

personnel 

costs: 

personnel 

Personnel costs: the total remuneration, in cash

costs/number of employees (expressed in thou-

Extra-EU exports: goods which leave the statis-

or  in  kind,  payable  by  an  employer  to  an

sand EUR per employee).

tical  territory  of  a  Member  State  bound  for  a

employee (regular and temporary employees as

Constant prices: data presented with the effect

non-Community country.

well as home workers) in return for work done

by  the  latter  during  the  reference  period;  per-

of  price  fluctuations  over  time  removed  from

Extra-EU imports: goods which enter the statis-

sonnel costs also include taxes and employees'

them  (deflated  series);  note  that,  as  these  are

tical  territory  of  a  Member  State  from  a  non-

social security contributions retained by the unit

expressed in EUR, time series are influenced by

Community country.

as well as the employer's compulsory and vol-

fluctuations in the exchange rate.

untary social contributions.

Gross operating surplus: is the surplus generat-

Cover  ratio:  exports/imports  (expressed  as  a

ed by operating activities after the labour factor

Production  specialisation:  relative  index  that

percentage).

input  has  been  recompensed;  it  can  be  calcu-

compares the production share of a given man-

lated from value added at factor cost less per-

ufacturing  activity  in  total  manufacturing  pro-

Current  prices:  data  presented  including  the

sonnel costs.

effects of price changes.

duction for a given country with the same ratio

for  the  EU  (expressed  as  a  percentage  -  if  a

Gross  operating 

rate:  gross  operating

country displays a ratio above 100 then it is rel-

Domestic  output price  index:  an  index  of  the

surplus/turnover 

(profitability  measure,

atively  more  specialised  than  the  average  for

prices of commodities produced and sold with-

expressed as a percentage).

the EU).

in any given country in national currency terms;

output  price  indices  are  often  used  to  deflate

production  and  value  added  data  (in  value)  in

order to obtain production and value added in

constant  price  terms;  this  index  shows  the

change in ex-works selling prices of all products

sold  on  domestic  markets,  excluding  VAT  and

similar deductible taxes.

Production  value:  measures  in  value  the

amount  actually  produced  by  the  unit,  based

on sales adjusted for changes in stocks and the

resale  of  goods  and  services;  the  production

value is defined as turnover, plus or minus the

changes in stocks of finished products, work in

progress and goods and services purchased for

resale,  minus  the  purchases  of  goods  and  ser-

vices for resale, plus capitalised production, plus

other operating income (excluding subsidies). 

17

Guide to the publication

Glossary of terms

Simple  wage  adjusted  labour  productivity:

value  added  at  factor  cost/personnel  costs  *

100 (expressed as a percentage).

Trade balance: exports - imports.

Turnover:  comprises  the  totals  invoiced  by  the

observation  unit  during  the  reference  period,

corresponding to market sales of goods or ser-

vices supplied to third parties; turnover includes

all  duties  and  taxes  on  the  goods  or  services

invoiced by the unit with the exception of the

VAT  invoiced  by  the  unit  vis-à-vis  its  customer

and  other  similar  deductible  taxes  directly

linked  to  turnover;  it  also  includes  all  other

charges  (transport,  packaging,  etc.)  passed  on

to the customer, even if these charges are listed

separately  in  the  invoice;  reductions  in  prices,

rebates  and  discounts  as  well  as  the  value  of

returned packing must be deducted.

Value  added  at  factor  cost:  can  be  calculated

from turnover, plus capitalised production, plus

other  operating  income,  plus  or  minus  the

changes  in  stocks,  minus  the  purchases  of

goods and services, minus other taxes on prod-

ucts  which  are  linked  to  turnover  but  not

deductible, minus the duties and taxes linked to

production;  alternatively  it  can  be  calculated

from gross operating surplus by adding person-

nel costs; income and expenditure classified as

financial or extra-ordinary in company accounts

is excluded from value added.

Wage  adjusted  labour  productivity:  (value

added at factor cost/personnel costs) * (number

of  employees/number  of  persons  employed)  *

100 (expressed as a percentage).

18

Abbreviations

Guide to the publication

ABBREVIATIONS

Countries

EU

European Union

Professional trade associations

ACEA

Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles

EU-15

Fifteen Member States of the European Union

(European Automobile manufacturers Association)

B

Belgium

ACEM

Association des Constructeurs Européens de Motocycles 

BENELUX

Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

AU

CA

CH

CIS

CN

CZ

EEA

EE

HK

HU

IS

JP

KR

MX

NO

PL

RO

RU

SG

SK

SI

TH

TR

US

Denmark

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

the Netherlands

Austria

Portugal

Finland

Sweden

ACI

AEA

(European Motorcycle manufacturers Association)

Airports Council International (European Region)

Association of European Airlines

AECMA

Association Européenne des Constructeurs de Matériel 

Aérospatial (European Association of Aerospace Industries)

AESGP

Association Européenne des Spécialités Pharmaceutiques 

Grand Public 

(Association of the European Self-Medication Industry)

AISE

Association Internationale de la Savonnerie, de la 

Détergence et des Produits d'Entretien 

(International Association of the Soap & Detergent industry)

APME

CAEF

Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe

Comité des Associations Européennes de Fonderie 

(Committee of European Foundry Associations)

the United Kingdom

CAOBISCO Association of the Chocolate, Confectionery, Biscuit 

Australia

Canada

Switzerland

industries of the EU

CBMC

Confédération des Brasseurs du Marché Commun 

(Trade Confederation of the Brewing Industry in 

the European Union)

Commonwealth of Independent States

CCBE

Conseil des Barreaux de la Communauté européenne 

China

Czech Republic

European Economic Area

Estonia

Hong Kong

Hungary

Iceland

Japan

South Korea

Mexico

Norway

Poland

Romania

Russia

Singapore

Slovakia

Slovenia

Thailand

Turkey

(Council of the Bars and Law Societies of the 

European Community)

CECCM

Confederation of European Community Cigarette 

Manufacturers

CEFIC

Conseil Européen de l'Industrie Chimique 

(European Chemical Industry Council)

CEI-BOIS

Confédération Européenne des Industries du Bois 

(European Confederation of Woodworking Industries)

Cembureau The European Cement Association

CEPI

CIETT

Confederation of European Paper Industries

Confédération Internationale des Entreprises de Travail 

Temporaire 

(International Confederation of Temporary Work Businesses)

CLEPA

Comité de Liaison des Fabricants d'Équipements et Pièces

Automobiles (Liaison Committee for Manufacturers of 

Car Equipment and Parts)

CLGE

Comité de Liaison des Géomètres Experts 

(The European Council of Geodetic Surveyors)

CONCAWE Conservation of Clean Air and Water in Europe - the oil 

United States (of America)

companies’ European Organization for  environmental and 

CPDP

CPIV

EAZA

EBMA

ECTAA

EDA

EFCA

health protection

Comité Professionnel du Pétrole (Association of oil refiners)

Comité Permanent de l'Industrie du Verre de la CEE 

(Standing Committee of the EU Glass industries)

European Association of Zoos and Aquaria

European Bicycle Manufacturers Association

Group of National Travel Agents' and Tour Operators' 

Associations within the EU

European Dairy Association

European Federation of Engineering Consultancy 

Associations

19

Guide to the publication

Abbreviations

EFCI

Fédération Européenne du Nettoyage Industriel 

UITP

Union International des Transports Publics 

(European Federation of Cleaning Industries)

(International Union of Public Transport)

ELCA

EMF

EPF

European Landscape Contractors Association

UNAFPA

Union des Associations de Fabricants de Pâtes Alimentaires 

European Mortgage Federation

European Panels Federation

de la Communauté Européene 

(Union of Organisations of Manufacturers of Pasta Products

ERMCO

European Ready-Mixed Concrete Association

in the European Community)

ESBG

European Savings Bank Group

UNESDA-

Union of EU Soft Drinks Associations

ESOMAR

European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research

ESTA

ESTA

ETRA

European Security Transport Association

European Steel Tube Association

European Tyre Recycling Association

EURATEX

European Apparel and Textile Organisation

CISDA

UNIFE

UPU

ZMP

Union des Industries Ferroviaires Européennes 

(Union of European Railway Industries)

Union postale universelle (Universal Postal Union)

Zentrale Markt- und Preisberichtstelle der Land- und 

EUROFINAS European Federation of Finance House Associations

Ernährungswirtschaft (German agricultural market watch)

EUROPIA

European Petroleum Industry Association

EUROSPACE Organisation of the European space industry

Other organisations

FBE

Fédération Bancaire Européenne 

CEESA

Centre européen d'Etudes pour la Santé Animale 

(European Banking Federation)

FEACO

Fédération Européenne des Associations de Conseil 

en Organisation (European Federation of Management 

Consulting Associations)

FEDIOL

FEDMA

FEE

EC Seed Crushers' and Oil Processors' Federation

Federation of European Direct Marketing

Fédération des Experts Comptables Européens 

(European Federation of Accountants)

FEFCO

Fédération européenne des Fabricants de Carton Ondulé 

(European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacterers)

FEFSI

Fédération Européenne des Fonds et Sociétés 

d'Investissement (European Federation of Investment Funds)

EIA

EITO

FAO

IEA

ILO

LME

UN

USGS

WNA

WTO

(European Animal Health Study Centre)

Energy Information Administration (US)

European Information Technology Observatory

Food and Agricultural Organization (of the United Nations)

International Energy Agency

International Labour Organization

The London Metal Exchange Limited

United Nations

US Geological Survey

World Nuclear Association

World Trade Organization

FEVE

Fédération Européenne du Verre d'Emballage 

Statistical abbreviations

(European Container Glass Federation)

CIS

Community Innovation Survey

FIBV

Fédération Internationale des Bourses de Valeurs 

COICOP

Classification Of Individual Consumption according 

(International Federation of Stock Exchanges)

to Purpose

FIEC

Fédération de l'Industrie Européenne de la Construction

(European Construction Industry Federation)

GEBC

Groupement Européen des Banques Coopératives 

(European Association of Cooperative Banks)

GISEMES/ Groupement International et Union Européenne des 

CPA

FATS

FDI

HBS

LFS

Classification of Products by Activity

Foreign Affiliates Trade Statistics

Foreign Direct Investment

Household Budget Survey

Labour Force Survey

UNESEM Sources d'Eaux Minérales Naturelles (European Union 

NACE

Nomenclature statistique des Activités économiques dans la

Mineral Water producers)

Communauté Européenne (Statistical Classification of 

IAAPA

International Association of Amusement Parks and 

economic activities in the European Community)

PRODCOM PRODucts of the European COMmunity

SBS

SME

Structural Business Statistics

Small and medium sized enterprises

IACA

IATA

ICAO

Attractions

International Air Carriers Association

International Air Transport Association

International Civil Aviation Organization, European and 

North Atlantic Office

IISI

International Iron and Steel Institute

IMACE

International Federation of Margarine Associations

IPC

International Post Corporation

Leaseurope European Federation of Leasing Company Associations

OETH

L'observatoire européen du textile et de l'habillement 

STD

UIC

(European Observatory for Textiles and Clothing)

Swedish Federation of Consulting Engineers and Architects 

(Svensk Teknik och Design)

Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer 

(International Union of Railways)

20

Abbreviations

Guide to the publication

Other abbreviations

ABS

AM

ATC

ATM

BSE

CAP

CFP

DVD

ECMT

ECSC

FMD

GDP

ICT

ISDN

IT

JIT

Antilock Braking System

After-Market

Agreement on Textiles and Clothing

Automatic Teller Machine

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad-cow disease)

Common Agriculture Policy

Common Fisheries Policy

Digital Versatile Disc

European Conference of the Ministers of Transport

European Coal and Steel Community

Foot and Mouth Disease

Gross Domestic Product

Information and Communications Technology

Integrated Services Digital Network

Information Technology

Just In Time

Weights and measures

AAGR

Average Annual Growth Rate

CGT

GW

Ha

Hl

Km

Kms

MW

PPS

RPK

TEU

TOE

tU

TW

Compensated Gross Tonnes
Gigawatt (106 kW)
Hectare (ten thousand square metres)

Hectolitre (hundred litres)

Kilometre

Kilometres
Megawatt (103 kW)
Purchasing Power Standard

Revenue Passenger Kilometres

Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit

Tonne of Oil Equivalent 

(41,868 kilojoules net calorific value per kilogram)

tonnes of contained Uranium
Terawatt (109 kW)

MDF

Medium Density Fibreboard

Currencies

MMSD

Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project 

of the International Institute for Environment and 

Development

NASDAQ

National Association of Securities Dealers' Quotation System

NYSE

OE

OEM

OJ

OPT

OSB

PBX

PC

PVC

R&D

SOHO

TENs

TV

VAT

VOC

New York Stock Exchange

Original Equipment

Original Equipment Manufacturer

Official Journal (of the European Communities)

Outward Processing Trade

Oriented StrandBoard

Private Branch eXchange

Personal Computer

Polyvinyl Chloride

Research and Development

Small Office/Home Office

Trans-European Networks

Television

Value Added Tax

Volatile Organic Compounds

EUR

BEF

DKK

DEM

GRD

ESP

FRF

IEP

ITL

LUF

NLG

ATS

PTE

FIM

SEK

GBP

JPY

USD

Euro

Belgian Franc

Danish Krone

German Mark

Greek Drachma

Spanish Peseta

French Franc

Irish Pound

Italian Lira

Luxembourg Franc

Dutch Guilder

Austrian Schilling

Portuguese Escudo

Finnish Markka

Swedish Krone

Pound sterling

Japanese Yen

US Dollar

Symbols

:

-

not available

not applicable

21

Overview - the EU's business economy

Overview - the EU's business economy

The  data  presented  in  this  overview  brings

Two  key  factors  play  an  important  role  in  the

__________________________________Figure 1

together  information  on  some  key  determi-

nants  of  the  EU's  competitive  performance.  It

examines factors such as the diffusion of infor-

development  of  GDP  per  inhabitant:  labour
productivity1 and the employment activity rate,
the  latter  being  determined  by  the  size  of  the

mation and communication technologies (ICT),

labour force and the level of employment (see

innovation  and  foreign  investment  and  links

table 1). During the 1990s the rapid growth of

these  to  the  structure  of  the  EU's  business

labour  productivity  was  often  more  pro-

economy and developments observed for value

nounced in economies that embraced ICT; with

added,  employment  and  productivity  between

the  diffusion  of  new  technologies  resulting  in

1990 and 2000.

productivity  gains  across  the  whole  economy,

not  just  in  ICT-producing  sectors.  Indeed,  in

One of the most widely used economic indica-

every Member State where ICT expenditure as a

tors  is  GDP  per  inhabitant,  which  measures

percentage of GDP was above the EU average

overall  living  standards.  For  the  purpose  of

during the period 1995-2000, apparent labour

comparison  this  ratio  is  best  adjusted  to

productivity also grew at a faster than average

account for different price levels through use of

pace. Lower than average levels of ICT expen-

a series expressed in PPS (see figure 1). During

diture were recorded in France, Spain, Belgium

the 1990s the gap between living standards in

and  Germany,  accompanied  by  relatively  low

the  US  and  the  EU  widened.  Ireland  and

apparent  labour  productivity  growth.  Data  for

Luxembourg  were  the  only  Member  States  to

Austria,  Greece  and  Italy  does  not  however

report that GDP per inhabitant was growing as

conform to this pattern, as labour productivity

fast  as  it  was  in  the  US  between  1991  and

grew at a higher than average pace, whilst ICT

2001.  Greece,  Portugal,  the  Netherlands  and

expenditure as a share of GDP remained below

Finland also reported relatively rapid growth of

the EU average. A similar analysis performed on

GDP  per  inhabitant,  whilst  Italy,  Germany,

the  relationship  between  employment  growth

Sweden,  France  and  Denmark  reported  rates

and levels of ICT expenditure reveals that in five

GDP per inhabitant, 2001 (EU-15=100) (1)

0

50

100

150

200

250

L

US

IRL

DK

NL

A

JP

B

D

I

UK

FIN

F

S

EU-15

E

P

EL

202.2

155.4

122.2

120.2

115.7

109.3

108.5

105.7

103.5

101.9

101.8

101.5

101.3

100.1

100.0

84.1

73.0

70.5

(1) At current market prices and PPS; forecasts,
except for D and US.
Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - ESA95 - 
aggregates (theme2/aggs)

below the EU average.

out of the seven countries where ICT expendi-

ture as a share of GDP was above the EU aver-

age,  employment  also  grew  at  a  faster  than
average pace2.

(1) Defined as value added per person employed.
(2) IRL, NL, P, FIN and UK.

23

Overview - the EU's business economy

Structure of the EU’s business economy

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  EU's

In most developed nations, the share of indus-

Table 1 ___________________________________

labour  force  increased  at  an  average  rate  of

try (NACE Sections C to E) in GDP and employ-

Average level of ICT expenditure as a

1.3% per annum between 1995 and 2000 (see

ment  peaked  in  either  the  1960s  or  1970s.

share of GDP and annual average growth

table  1).  The  fastest  growth  was  recorded  in

From the 1970s onwards, there has been a ten-

rates for labour productivity and 

Ireland and Luxembourg, whilst the number of

dency for the tertiary sector of the economy to

employment, 1995-2000 (%)

persons employed in Sweden, Germany, Austria

grow  faster  than  any  other  branch  and  this

and Greece grew on average by less than 1.0%

trend quickened during the 1990s. Indeed, the

per annum. Higher employment rates generate

only two branches to report that their share of

on  the  one  hand  more  revenue  for  govern-

GDP  rose  between  1991  and  2000  were  both

ment, whilst at the same time normally remov-

services branches: financial intermediation, real

ing some of the social security burden, as per-

estate,  renting  and  business  activities  (up  2.6

sons (re-)join the labour force. In 2000, the EU's

percentage  points);  distributive  trades,  hotels

activity  rate  (proportion  of  those  employed

and  restaurants,  transport,  storage  and  com-

between  the  ages  of  15  and  64)  averaged

munication (up 0.9 points). These two branch-

63.1%, ranging from 53.7% in Italy and Spain

es recorded the highest growth rates for value

IRL

L

E

NL

FIN

P

UK

to  76.3%  in  Denmark  (see  table  SA.15  in  the

added  in  constant  price  terms  between  1991

EU-15 (2)

statistical  annex  to  this  overview).  This  ratio

and 2000, gaining on average 3.3% and 2.6%

rose during the second half of the 1990s in the

per  annum  respectively.  In  the  remaining

EU from 59.9% in 1995.

STRUCTURE OF THE EU'S BUSINESS 
ECONOMY
For  the  purpose  of  this  publication  the  term

branches  of  the  EU  economy,  value  added

increased  by  between  1.5%  and  1.6%  per

annum, except in the construction sector where

average  growth  of  0.2%  per  annum  was

recorded (see figure 2 and table SA.4 of the sta-

business  is  used  to  cover  activities  classified

tistical annex to this overview).

F

B (3)

DK

I

S

D

A

EL

ICT 
expend-
iture

Labour 
product-
ivity (1)

Employ-
ment

5.5

:

5.1

6.0

5.6

5.6

6.5

5.3

5.1

5.0

5.6

4.4

7.0

4.8

4.7

4.7

5.3

5.1

3.5

4.1

4.2

4.3

5.1

3.9

3.1

3.0

4.9

4.0

4.2

3.5

4.7

5.8

5.7

4.2

2.9

2.6

2.3

1.7

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.1

1.0

1.0

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.4

within NACE Sections C to K, corresponding to

industry  and  (the  major  part  of)  services.

Industrial  activities  are  grouped  into  three  dif-

ferent Sections: mining and quarrying (C), man-

ufacturing (D), electricity, gas and water supply

(1) At current market prices and PPS.
(2) Includes NO and CH for ICT expenditure.
(3) Includes L for ICT expenditure.
Source: EITO, Eurostat, National Accounts - ESA95 -
aggregates (theme2/aggs) and Eurostat, Labour
Force Survey (theme3/lfs)

(E), whilst data for construction (F) is provided

Table 2 ________________________________________________________________________________

separately.  The  sub-set  of  services  covered  in

Breakdown of GDP in the EU, 2000 (%)

Agriculture; hunting & forestry (Sections A+B)

Mining & quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas & water supply (Sections C to E)

Construction (Section F)

Distributive trades; hotels & restaurants; transport, storage & comm. (Sections G to I)

Financial intermediation; real estate, renting & business activities (Sections J+K)

Public administration, community, social & personal services (Sections L to Q)

Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - Breakdowns by branch of activity (theme2/brkdowns)

2.1

22.8

5.4

21.3

26.9

21.5

this publication are classified within distributive

trades (G), hotels and restaurants (H), transport,

storage  and  communication  (I),  financial  inter-

mediation (J) and real estate, renting and busi-
ness activities (K)3.

A  breakdown  of  GDP  by  branch  in  2000  (see

Table 2 for the breakdown) shows that the two

branches generally not covered by this publica-

tion, namely, agriculture, hunting and forestry,

and  public  administration,  community,  social

and  personal  services,  accounted  together  for

23.6% of GDP.

(3) Selected parts of other community, social and
personal services (Section O) are also covered in this
publication. Agriculture, hunting and forestry; public
administration, defence, social security; education;
health and social work; private households with
employed persons; and extra-territorial organizations
are not considered as part of the business enterprise
population for this publication (although some of
them have market orientated enterprises).

24

Structure of the EU’s business economy

Overview - the EU's business economy

According  to  the  Labour  Force  Survey  (LFS),

there was a net increase of 10.4 million persons

in the EU's level of employment between 1995

There  are  a  number  of  theories  that  explain
why this trend has developed in recent years4.
Firstly, changes in the structure of the EU econ-

lower labour cost regions of the world (see for

example, chapter 4 on the manufacture of tex-

tiles and clothing). Finally, the demand for man-

and  2000.  Services  (NACE  Sections  G  to  Q)

omy  favour  the  service  sector,  as  efficient

ufactured  goods  is  affected  by  physiological

accounted for practically all of the net jobs cre-

organisation,  high-technological  know-how,

limits  to  further  consumption  (for  example,

ated, although there was also a net increase of

innovation, brand creation and customised ser-

food). As a result, many EU markets for manu-

485  thousand  in  the  EU's  construction  work-

vices  figure  amongst  sources  of  competitive

factured  goods  are  saturated,  presenting  little

force. Services registered a net gain of 11.3 mil-

advantage.  At  the  same  time,  the  EU's  manu-

opportunity  for  rapid  growth.  On  the  other

lion  persons  employed,  4.6  million  of  which

facturing  sector  has  been  restructured,  with

hand,  the  income  elasticity  of  demand  for

were  in  financial  intermediation,  real  estate,

high  wages  and  increasingly  free  trade  driving

immaterial sources of well-being is thought to

renting  and  business  activities.  On  the  other

out  price  sensitive  segments  of  production  to 

be  much  higher  and  so  as  disposable  income

hand the number of persons employed in agri-

culture; hunting and forestry fell by 870 thou-

sand  and  those  employed  in  the  industrial

branch by 388 thousand (see table 3).

As  such,  LFS  employment  data  supports  the

(4) For a more detailed explanation see, External 
services, structural change and industrial 
performance, Enterprise Papers, No 3 - 2001,
Enterprise Directorate-General of the European
Commission.

rises,  consumers  tend  to  devote  an  increasing

share of their expenditure to services.

trends observed for GDP, with a continued shift

_______________________________________________________________________________Figure 2

towards  the  service  sector  during  the  second

Breakdown of development of GDP in constant prices in the EU, 2000 (1991=100)

140

130

120

110

100

90

half  of  the  1990s.  It  is  important  to  note  that

rapid  structural  change  has  been  confined

largely to business, information and communi-

cation services.

The increasing importance of the service sector

may  in  part  be  attributed  to  industrial  manu-

facturers  switching  from  in-house  supply  to

demanding  external  services  from  specialist

suppliers (for example, management, financial,

information  and  technology  services,  training,

security, catering and cleaning), a phenomenon

that is often referred to as out-sourcing.

1991

1992

1996

1994

1993

1997

1995
Agriculture; hunting and forestry
Mining and quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas and water supply
Construction
Distributive trades; hotels and restaurants; transport, storage and communication
Financial intermediation; real estate, renting and business activities
Public administration, community, social and personal services

1999

1998

2000

Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - Breakdowns by branch of activity (theme2/brkdowns)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 3

Total

Agriculture; hunting and forestry

Mining and quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Distributive trades; hotels & restaurants; transport, storage & communication

Financial intermediation; real estate, renting and business activities

Public administration, community, social and personal services

Evolution of the labour force in the EU (millions)

1995

154.4

8.0

32.6

11.5

38.6

18.3

45.3

2000

164.8

7.1

32.2

11.9

41.9

22.9

48.6

     Share (%) Growth rate, 
2000/1995 (%)

1995 2000

Average 
annual 
growth rate, 
1995-2000 (%)

100.0

100.0

5.2

4.3

21.1

19.6

7.4

7.2

25.0

25.4

11.9

13.9

29.3

29.5

6.7

-10.9

-1.2

4.2

8.8

25.2

7.2

1.3

-2.3

-0.2

0.8

1.7

4.6

1.4

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (theme3/lfs)

25

Overview - the EU's business economy

Globalisation and intangibles

GLOBALISATION AND INTANGIBLES
The process of globalisation has had a consider-

Data on the levels of foreign direct investment

Traditional  economic  theories  are  based  upon

stocks within NACE Sections C to K is provided

the  exchange  of  tradable,  physical  goods  in  a

able impact on the location of production, with

in table 4. It is important to note that the data

one-to-one  relationship.  As  noted  above,  this

a  marked  expansion  in  the  level  of  economic

for the EU concerns only foreign  direct invest-

model  has  progressively  been  replaced  by  one

integration  within  the  EU.  Many  firms  have

ment  with  non-Community  countries,  where

where  consumer  demand  for  customisation

extended their operations beyond national bor-

manufacturing  was  the  most  important  sector

plays an increasing role in a world of saturated

ders in an attempt to (amongst other things) cir-

in terms of FDI stocks of both inward and out-

commodity  markets.  As  such,  intangibles

cumvent  trade  barriers,  increase  proximity  to

ward investment. On the other hand, the data

(“non-material factors that contribute to enter-

customers, reduce costs (labour, transportation

for the individual Member States includes both

prise  performance  in  the  production  of  goods

or other inputs), guarantee supply of materials

intra-EU and extra-EU stocks. With the inclusion

or the provision of services, or that are expect-

and avoid regulation. Globalisation encompass-

of  fellow  Member  States,  service  sectors

ed to generate future economic benefits to the

es a wide range of issues, such as the develop-

became  considerably  more  attractive  for  FDI,

ment  of  trade  in  goods,  international  financial

suggesting  that  the  Internal  Market  has  been

flows, various forms of linkages between busi-

successful in encouraging enterprises in the EU

entities or individuals that control their deploy-
ment”5) are thought to play an important role
in  determining  economic  performance.  The

nesses,  cross-border  operations  and  the  pene-

to  expand  into  service  sectors  beyond  their

exploitation  of  property  rights,  brands,  R&D,

tration of national economies. Groups of enter-

national boundaries.

prises  are  at  the  core  of  the  globalisation

process and may be seen as agents of cross-bor-

der transactions, as they control entities situat-

ed  in  different  countries  with  their  decisions,

information  flows  and  strategies.  The  qualita-

tive nature of information required to define a

group's perimeter can often make it difficult to

obtain  reliable  statistical  information  (such  as

the statistical system stands today). One of the

key  constraints  is  that  global  enterprises  make

their  decisions  against  a  worldwide  backdrop,

whilst  these  decisions  continue  to  be  analysed

using national data collections that are truncat-

ed by geographical borders.

know-how, skills and supply networks are some

of the key drivers of intangible wealth creation.

These  changes  in  business  structure,  conduct

and  performance  have  also  created  significant

challenges for national statistical systems.

(5) The Intangible Economy - Impact and Policy
Issues, Enterprise Directorate-General of the
European Commission.

Table 4 ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Foreign direct investment, stocks of investment abroad and in the reporting economies, 1999 (million EUR)

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

Abroad

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Distributive trades

Hotels and restaurants

Transport, storage & comm.

Financial intermediation

123,411

401,209

48,412

8,790

64,093

8,205

146,995

199,669

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

In the reporting economy

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Distributive trades

Hotels and restaurants

Transport, storage & comm.

Financial intermediation

21,290

257,435

11,263

2,663

77,892

8,153

24,179

147,268

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

I

:

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

:

1,539

248

149

:

: 98,120

37

3,209

: 20,520 18,860

:

8,899 103,976

201 16,032 91,251 20,867 51,941

: 111,132

4,844

3,132 26,066 69,255 224,607

9

1,757

: 11,373 46,479

: 12,977

118

1,187

217

1,429

1,455

3,706 41,369

98

3,308 10,119

249

577

2

1,054

5,277

3,703

7,088

1,605 14,454

6,870

:

:

:

:

:

:

633

1,437

138

399

318

134

:

:

1,635 17,703

2,920

4,319

:

7,251

: 23,569

2,559

-689

456

5,489 43,791

:

3,709

:

:

421

124

6

:

:

4,774

8,035

69

489

1,239

: 116,833

3,407 74,385

: 26,715 57,394

879 62,199

: 80,564

4,142

2,981

2,874

: 94,521

817

544

936

476

307

:

:

:

:

: 20,873

6,399

3,295

217

9,927 60,910

:

3,000

257

93

:

: 34,843

3,534 45,041

6,951 49,827 41,838 85,742 41,838

: 65,547

7,095

5,756

8,248 47,182 93,138

:

328

518

471

1

1,177

-229

646

2,336

186

6,727 24,947

1,425 11,147 12,714

360

644

1,263

1,876

355

8,694

1,555

3,224

2,557

1,345

:

:

:

:

:

2,194

:

:

:

1,412

808

32

81

294

400

:

:

5,723 15,787

1,401

909

8,450

: 31,366

5,290

4,446

3,164

8,526 37,552

:

:

1,660

202

3,077

: 10,133

1,444

491

623

:

460

:

6,379

: 75,773

4,343 26,898

215 14,389 25,725

3,610 35,707

: 47,872

2,234

4,333

4,392

3,153 76,722

Real estate, renting & business act.

168,102

: 15,825 155,884

1,165 10,919 36,410

Real estate, renting & business act.

131,468

: 10,201 182,223

: 29,334 65,565

:

:

: 20,908

6,658

5,566

529

7,358 17,262

(1) Extra-EU investment only.
Source: Eurostat, European Union Direct Investments (theme2/bop/fdi)

26

Globalisation and intangibles

Overview - the EU's business economy

Table 6 provides information on the character-

________________________________________________________________________________Table 5

istics  of  innovating  enterprises.  It  shows  that

there  were  large  differences  between  the

Member States in 1996 as regards the share of

enterprises  engaged  in  innovation.  The  differ-

ences may in part be explained by activity spe-

cialisation, whereby innovation is more likely in

research-driven  sectors  such  as  electrical

machinery  and  electronics.  Another  possible

reason is the average size of enterprises within

each Member State, as in certain activities scale

economies  result  in  larger  enterprises  being

more likely to innovate (table 10 provides infor-

mation  on  the  importance  of  micro  and  small

sized enterprises across different manufacturing

activities). Generally the lowest levels of innova-

tion  were  recorded  in  the  southern  Member

States.

EU-15

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

JP

US

Selected structural indicators relating to business enterprises, 2000

Business enterprise 
R&D expenditure as a 
share of GDP 
(%) (1)

Number of patent 
applications at the EPO per 
million inhabitants 
(units)

Venture capital investment 
as a share of GDP - 
early stage 
(%)

1.24

1.47

1.25

1.72

0.13

0.48

1.37

1.01

0.56

:

1.05

:

0.17

2.18

2.86

1.25

2.15

2.00

152.67

151.21

169.48

296.78

5.18

22.12

139.67

87.60

72.34

170.85

217.65

154.08

3.89

320.29

346.43

124.01

148.46

158.21

0.08

0.11

0.02

0.08

0.01

0.03

0.08

0.11

0.05

:

0.09

0.03

0.03

0.10

0.09

0.10

:

0.31

(1) UK, 2001; DK, I, P, FIN and S, 1999; NL, 1998; EL and IRL, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural indicators (theme1/strind)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 6

Innovation characteristics of EU enterprises within the manufacturing sector, 1996 (%)

Innovating enterprises

Innovating enterprises with unsuccessful or not yet completed projects

Innovating enterprises with products new to the market

Innovating enterprises with process innovations

Innovating enterprises with product innovations

Innovating enterprises having applied for a patent

B DK

D EL

34

14

14

22

31

23

71

40

27

51

57

27

69

34

24

53

65

31

:

:

:

:

:

:

E

29

:

11

25

24

:

F IRL

43

38

20

31

38

30

73

39

27

54

66

23

I

48

16

26

41

37

20

L NL

42

24

21

29

32

27

62

38

28

46

56

22

A

67

30

24

49

60

33

P FIN

S UK

26

8

7

23

15

11

36

32

18

25

29

41

54

39

25

38

48

36

59

29

19

37

52

19

Source: Eurostat, Survey on innovation in EU enterprises (theme9/innovat)

27

Overview - the EU's business economy

The EU’s manufacturing sector

THE EU'S MANUFACTURING SECTOR
Whilst the collection of official statistics relating

to some aspects of globalisation and the intan-

gible  economy  are  in  their  infancy,  Structural

Business  Statistics  (SBS)  for  manufacturing

activities have a long established tradition. This

section  is  based  upon  figures  from  the  SBS

database and traces the development of manu-

facturing value added and employment during

the 1990s.

The manufacturing sector (NACE Section D) of

the EU economy generated 1,322 billion EUR of

value added in 2000. Figure 3 shows that dur-

ing  the  first  half  of  the  1990s  constant  price

value  added  in  the  EU's  manufacturing  sector

Figure 3 _______________________________________________________________________________

Evolution of main indicators for manufacturing in the EU (1990=100)

140

120

100

80

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Value added in constant prices

Employment

Apparent labour productivity

Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

failed  to  rise  above  its  1990  level,  reaching  its

Table 7 ________________________________________________________________________________

cyclical  low  point  in  1993.  Manufacturing

Share of manufacturing value added in the EU, 2000 (%)

Chemicals, rubber and plastics

Electrical machinery and electronics

Transport equipment

Food, beverages and tobacco (1)

Machinery and equipment

Wood, paper, publishing and printing

Metal products

Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear

Non-metallic mineral products

Metals

Other manufacturing industries (1)

Coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel

Recycling

(1) Estimate.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

NACE

Share

Subsections DG and DH

Subsection DL

Subsection DM

Subsection DA

Division 29

Subsections DD and DE

Division 28

Subsections DB and DC

Division 26

Division 27

Division 36

Division 23

Division 37

16.2

13.7

12.0

11.3

10.5

10.4

7.6

4.5

4.4

4.2

2.9

2.2

0.1

employment declined at a faster pace between

1990 and 1994 and did not start to grow until

1997, resulting in apparent labour productivity

gains.  Between  1993  and  2000  EU  manufac-

turing value added in constant prices grew on

average by 3.5% per annum.

The structure of the EU's manufacturing sector

is provided in table 7; it is based upon the chap-

ter headings that are employed in section 2 of

this  publication.  The  fastest  growing  sector  in

the second half of the 1990s (as measured by

value  added  in  constant  prices)  was  electrical

machinery  and  electronics  (NACE  Subsection

DL), with average growth of 10.2% per annum

between  1995  and  2000.  Among  the  remain-

ing  sectors,  transport  equipment 

(NACE

Subsection  DM)  and  chemicals,  rubber  and

plastics (NACE Subsections DG and DH) record-

ed  the  highest  growth,  whilst  little  or  no

growth was recorded for textiles, clothing and

leather (NACE Subsections DB and DC). Table 8

provides information on the three most impor-

tant NACE Divisions within each of the Member

States; it is based on value added.

28

The EU’s manufacturing sector

Overview - the EU's business economy

________________________________________________________________________________Table 8

It  has  already  been  suggested  that  the  fastest

Three largest manufacturing sectors, 1999 (1)

growing areas of the EU's manufacturing econ-

Largest

Second largest

Third largest

EU-15 (2) Chemicals

B

Chemicals

Machinery and equipment

Food and beverages

Food and beverages

Motor vehicles

DK (3)

Food and beverages

Machinery and equipment

D

Machinery and equipment

Motor vehicles

Chemicals

Chemicals

EL (3)

Food and beverages

Chemicals

Non-metallic mineral products

E

F

Food and beverages

Metal products

Chemicals

Chemicals

Food and beverages

Motor vehicles

IRL (3)

Chemicals

Food and beverages

Publishing and printing

I (4)

L (5)

NL (6)

A (7)

P

FIN

S

Machinery and equipment

Chemicals

Metal products

Metals

Rubber and plastics

Non-metallic mineral products

Food and beverages

Chemicals

Publishing and printing

Machinery and equipment

Metal products

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear

Food and beverages

Non-metallic mineral products

Textiles

Radio, TV & communication equip. Pulp, paper and paper products

Machinery and equipment

Motor vehicles

Machinery and equipment

Chemicals

UK (5)

Food and beverages

Chemicals

Machinery and equipment

(1) Based on value added for NACE Divisions.
(2) 2000.
(3) Value added is net of VAT but not of other taxes on products; these are important in the chemicals and
food and beverages sectors and are likely to have inflated the importance of these sectors.
(4) 1998.
(5) 1997.
(6) Largest, 1997; second and third largest, 1998.
(7) Third largest, 1998.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

omy are likely to be those driven by marketing,

innovation  and  technology.  Looking  in  more

detail  at  the  activity  breakdown,  the  fastest

growing  sectors  in  the  EU  between  1994  and

1999  were  office  machinery  and  computers

(NACE  Group  30.0),  aircraft  and  spacecraft

(NACE  Group  35.3),  motor  vehicles  and  their

parts  and  accessories  (NACE  Groups  34.1  and

34.3)  and  pharmaceuticals  (NACE  Group
24.4)6. All of these sectors can be considered as
either  research-driven  with  a  high  degree  of

technological  innovation,  or  alternatively  mar-

keting-driven,  with  brand  image  playing  an

important role in differentiating products. Table

9 provides details of the importance of market-

ing  and  technology-driven  sectors  in  each  of

the Member States.

The  manufacturing  sectors  to  report  the

biggest percentage declines in output in the EU

between 1994 and 1999 included leather lug-

gage,  handbags  and  the  like  (NACE  Group

19.2),  knitted  and  crocheted  articles  (NACE

Group 17.7), clocks and watches (NACE Group

33.5)  and  the  tanning  and  dressing  of  leather

(NACE  Group  19.1).  All  of  these  industries

could be described as traditional or mainstream

industries,  characterised  by  a  high  degree  of

labour input.

(6) Analysis based on those activities where an EU
total is available for both reference years; according
to partial data (based on available country 
information) all three NACE Groups that form part of
radio, television and communication equipment
(NACE Division 32) also experienced high growth
rates.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 9

Importance of marketing-driven and technology-driven sectors, 1999 (% of manufacturing) (1)

EU-15

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Value added

Marketing-driven industries (2)

Technology-driven industries (3)

19.7

23.3

20.7

22.0

31.9

17.2

16.4

25.7

32.2

8.8

24.9

13.5

20.8

29.2

:

:

18.9

15.7

13.3

0.6

31.3

17.8

:

:

23.9

9.9

14.3

25.5

13.8

32.9

25.9

24.7

Employment

Marketing-driven industries (2)

Technology-driven industries (3)

20.9

18.2

24.9

16.4

32.7

12.1

18.5

22.5

33.1

27.1

7.6

9.0

22.7

22.9

30.2

27.3

18.0

14.4

20.1

1.3

:

:

20.1

10.6

25.5

5.1

20.9

15.4

16.7

23.4

24.1

18.9

(1) Estimates; DK, EL, IRL, I, A, P and S, 1998; EU-15, L, NL and UK, 1997.
(2) NACE 15+16+19+22+24.5+28.2+28.6+33.5+36.3+36.4+36.5+36.6.
(3) NACE 24.2+24.4+24.6+30+31.2+32+33.1+33.2+33.3+33.4+34.1+35.3.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

29

Overview - the EU's business economy

The EU’s manufacturing sector

Table 10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Share of micro and small enterprises in total value added, 1999 (%) (1)

NACE codes

B (2) DK (3)

D EL E (2) F (4) IRL (5)

I (2)

L NL (6) A (7) P (8)

FIN S (9) UK (10)

Mining & quarrying; manufacturing; 
electricity, gas & water supply

Sections C to E

Mining of metal ores

Other mining and quarrying

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear

Non-metallic mineral products

Metals

Metal products

Machinery and equipment

Other manufacturing industries

Division 13

Division 14

Division 23

Division 26

Division 27

Division 28

Division 29

Division 36

Electricity, gas, steam & hot water supply Division 40

Collection, purif. & distrbn. of water

Division 41

Food, beverages and tobacco

Subsection DA

:

:

:

:

22.9

3.6

47.1

22.1

:

:

11.4

27.8

Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear

Subsections DB and DC 30.5

Wood, paper, publishing and printing

Subsections DD and DE 40.6

Chemicals, rubber and plastics

Subsections DG and DH 9.1

Electrical machinery and electronics

Subsection DL

Transport equipment

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas and water supply

Subsection DM

Section D

Section E

12.2

5.8

20.7

:

:

:

:

:

24.6

14.8

47.6

23.5

:

:

:

12.7

41.7

34.6

12.8

20.8

18.8

24.2

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 30.9 22.0

: 38.6

:

: 15.0

: 81.2 51.2

:

:

:

:

:

:

2.5

: 11.3

: 32.7 16.6

21.7 42.3

: 12.5

: 63.1

:

:

: 19.9

: 68.5

: 42.2 27.0

23.8 36.5

:

:

: 40.8

4.6

: 13.1

2.2

6.1

: 65.7

:

3.5

: 18.0

: 32.8 33.8

8.2 45.7

: 56.2 36.3

: 48.6 39.0

: 54.7

: 49.8

: 20.1 12.1

3.4 26.5

: 21.2 15.6

3.9 35.4

:

6.8

8.4

14.1 10.8

: 33.7 23.9

8.7 42.3

:

5.4

2.5

:

4.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 18.4 30.2 16.3 18.6

17.1

:

63.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

32.2 21.9 27.4 20.3 19.5

4.6

2.7 14.8

3.0

4.0

49.8 34.9 61.3 54.8 50.2

37.5 17.1 45.8 21.5 18.4

55.4 45.6 65.7

: 31.7

3.8

3.8 11.3 14.8

: 39.5

8.6 29.7

:

:

17.2

: 29.5 18.3 15.4

42.5 23.8 35.0 35.5

:

34.0 27.6 40.3 12.2 23.4

12.4 12.3 23.8 16.8 12.4

16.2

9.7 12.2

5.1 10.8

18.9

3.7

9.2 16.1

4.6

25.5 19.9 32.6 16.0 17.6

3.2

5.5 10.9 16.5 27.4

:

:

4.8

18.5

12.8

49.5

25.5

38.2

:

:

7.7

28.7

30.1

12.6

16.7

6.9

20.0

3.9

(1) Enterprises with between 1 and 49 persons employed. (2) 1998. (3) 1998, except NACE 15+16, 1997. (4) NACE 13, 14 and 15+16, 1998. 
(5) 1998, except NACE 29, 30+31+32+33 and 34+35, 1997. (6) 1998, except NACE 17+18+19, 20+21+22 and 24+25, 1997. (7) NACE 30+31+32+33, 1998.
(8) NACE 36, 1997. (9) NACE 15+16, 1998. (10) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

Table 11____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Development of output prices in the EU (1995=100)

Mining and quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas and water supply

Sections C to E

100.0

100.4

101.3

100.7

100.4

105.3

NACE

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Mining of metal ores

Other mining and quarrying

Manufacturing

Food, beverages and tobacco

Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear

Wood, paper, publishing and printing

Division 13

Division 14

Section D

100.0

87.9

99.6

89.7

86.8

:

100.0

102.4

103.9

105.1

106.2

108.4

100.0

101.1

101.8

100.9

101.2

106.5

Subsection DA

100.0

102.1

103.3

103.0

102.2

103.8

Subsections DB and DC

100.0

101.4

102.4

103.3

103.2

104.6

Subsections DD and DE

100.0

99.4

98.8

99.6

99.4

103.0

Coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel

Division 23

100.0

112.3

117.2

101.0

115.0

170.3

Chemicals, rubber and plastics

Non-metallic mineral products

Metals

Metal products

Machinery and equipment

Electrical machinery and electronics

Transport equipment

Other manufacturing industries

Electricity, gas, steam and hot water supply

Collection, purification and distribution of water

Source: Eurostat, European Business Trends (theme4/ebt)

Subsections DG and DH

100.0

98.8

99.2

97.9

97.3

102.1

Division 26

Division 27

Division 28

Division 29

Subsection DL

Subsection DM

Division 36

Division 40

Division 41

100.0

100.8

101.7

102.7

104.0

106.0

100.0

95.2

95.4

95.4

90.1

98.7

100.0

101.5

102.0

102.9

103.5

105.1

100.0

102.6

104.0

105.1

106.0

107.1

100.0

99.3

98.2

96.7

95.2

95.1

100.0

101.9

102.1

103.1

103.6

103.8

100.0

102.8

103.8

105.0

106.3

107.8

100.0

98.1

100.1

97.7

93.5

99.8

100.0

104.9

108.8

111.9

114.1

114.7

30

Country specialisation in manufactoring

Overview - the EU's business economy

Whilst globalisation widens the horizon for pro-

duction-related decision making, it also increas-

es the speed with which information, technolo-

COUNTRY SPECIALISATION IN 
MANUFACTURING
Whilst the larger Member States may often be

gy and ultimately competition can be diffused.

slower at adapting the structure of their manu-

One  theory  put  forward  to  explain  this  shift  is

facturing  sectors,  this  does  not  prevent  them

that  smaller  economies  are  faster  at  adapting

from specialising in key activities. Smaller coun-

their  manufacturing  structure.  Taking  the

tries  will  generally  register  much  higher  (and

shares of each NACE Division in national man-

lower)  relative  specialisation  ratios  than  larger

ufacturing  and  summing  their  absolute  differ-

countries,  as  some  manufacturing  sectors  do

ences between two periods (1994 and 1999) it

not  exist  in  smaller  countries  (which  rely  on

is possible to create an indicator that measures

imports),  thus  magnifying  the  relative  impor-

adaptation.  Ireland  reported  the  most  rapid

tance  of  those  that  do.  In  addition,  specialisa-

change in the composition of its manufacturing

tion ratios, per se, provide no information as to

sector,  followed  by  Finland,  whilst  France,

whether  or  not  an  industry  accounts  for  an

Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom  were  the

important share of manufacturing value added.

slowest  economies  to  adapt.  This  shift  may

For  this  reason  the  data  presented  in  table  12

have been encouraged by some of the smaller

has been filtered so that only sectors account-

Member  States  successfully  concentrating  on

ing  for  more  than  0.5%  of  national  manufac-

certain high growth manufacturing sectors (for

turing  are  included.  France,  Germany,  Ireland,

example,  chemicals  and  computers  in  Ireland,

the  Netherlands,  Finland,  Sweden  and  the

telecommunications  equipment  in  Finland).

United Kingdom were all highly specialised in at

Alternatively  it  could  have  resulted  from  the

least  one  technology-driven  sector,  whilst  the

fact that some of the more recent countries to

southern  Member  States  tended  to  be  spe-

join  the  EU  were  at  an  earlier  stage  in  the

cialised in labour-intensive activities.

process  of  industrialisation  and  so  industrial

activities  in  these  countries  become  relatively

more important, whilst the tertiary sector grew

in other Member States. Finally, one should also

note  that  exchange  rate  fluctuations  may  also

contribute  to  shifts  in  the  structure  of  output

across the Member States.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 12

Manufacturing specialisation in the Member States, 1999 (1)

B

DK (2)

D

EL (2)

E

Made-up textile articles

Building & repairing of ships

Electricity distribn. & control app.

Cement, lime & plaster

Ceramic tiles & flags

Other first processing of iron & steel Fish

Other textiles

Games & toys

Machine tools

Motor vehicles

Textile fibres

Fruit & vegetables

Stone

Oils & fats

F
Aircraft & spacecraft

IRL
Electronic components

I (2)
Ceramic tiles & flags

L (3)
Basic iron & steel (ECSC)

NL (2)
Audio-visual household goods

Processing of nuclear fuel

Medical & surgical equipment

Motorcycles & bicycles

Other textiles

Prepared animal feeds

Steam generators

Office machinery & computers

Tanning & dressing of leather

Rubber products

Oils & fats

A
Railway rolling stock

P
Footwear

FIN
Pulp, paper & paperboard

S
Pulp, paper & paperboard

UK (3)
Aircraft & spacecraft

Sawmilling & planing of wood

Knitted & crocheted fabrics

Sawmilling & planing of wood

Sawmilling & planing of wood

Office machinery & computers

Sports goods

Other wood products

Telecommunications equipment

Telecommunications equipment

Refined petroleum products

(1) Three most specialised manufacturing activities per country; based on NACE Groups and their specialisation ratios in terms of value added at factor cost; 
excluding recycling; only NACE Groups with a share >0.5% of national manufacturing are included; activities are ranked in alphabetical order.
(2) 1998.
(3) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

31

Overview - the EU's business economy

Trade developments

TRADE DEVELOPMENTS
As a result of the globalisation process and the

opening up of the Internal Market, the share of

output destined for domestic consumption has

generally declined at the expense of output for

export.  This  trend  has  generally  spread  from

manufactured  goods  to  trade  in  services.

Nevertheless, the value of goods exported from

the EU to non-Community countries was three

times  that  of  service  transactions  in  2000.

Travel,  transportation  and  other  business  ser-

vices  accounted  for  three-quarters  (74.6%)  of

the  EU's  external  transactions  in  services  in

2000.  The  United  Kingdom  had  the  largest

share of service transactions with both EU and

non-Community  countries,  with  just  under

one-fifth of total credits in 2000 (see table 13)

Table 14 _______________________________________________________________________________

EU-15 international trade in services with non-Community countries, 2000 (million EUR)

Services, of which

Transportation

Travel

Communication services

Construction services

Insurance services

Financial services

Computer and information services

Other business services

Personal, cultural and recreational services

Government services n.e.c.

Credit

298,196

76,381

74,658

5,571

9,268

9,095

18,692

9,370

71,696

3,249

6,946

Debit

Net balance

292,590

73,332

77,694

6,260

6,621

3,747

9,349

6,302

75,262

6,584

6,570

5,606

3,049

-3,036

-689

2,646

5,347

9,343

3,068

-3,566

-3,335

376

Source: Eurostat, International trade in services, foreign direct investment, balance of payments (theme2/bop)

and  was  particularly  specialised  in  insurance

Table 15 _______________________________________________________________________________

services,  financial  services  and  other  business

Extra and intra-EU trade for manufactured goods (CPA Section D), 2000 (million EUR)

services.

Exports

Share in 
total (%)

Imports

Share in 
total (%)

Trade balance  Cover ratio (%)

Table 13 __________________________________

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

859,793

182,478

47,044

551,932

9,987

114,812

331,792

75,151

249,456

8,811

203,654

65,959

25,818

49,069

88,313

-

8.1

2.1

24.4

0.4

5.1

14.7

3.3

11.0

0.4

9.0

2.9

1.1

2.2

3.9

804,889

157,827

44,716

447,473

26,354

143,306

323,473

49,714

214,721

11,009

186,274

71,960

37,711

30,658

67,052

-

7.4

2.1

21.0

1.2

6.7

15.2

2.3

10.1

0.5

8.7

3.4

1.8

1.4

3.1

259,156

11.4

317,617

14.9

54,904

24,651

2,329

104,459

-16,367

-28,494

8,320

25,437

34,735

-2,197

17,379

-6,002

-11,893

18,412

21,260

-58,461

106.8

115.6

105.2

123.3

37.9

80.1

102.6

151.2

116.2

80.0

109.3

91.7

68.5

160.1

131.7

81.6

International trade in services, 

2000 (million EUR)

EU-15 (1)

B/L

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Credit

298,196

47,425

22,440

91,158

20,990

58,227

88,472

18,327

60,796

58,727

32,808

9,168

6,819

22,019

127,402

Debit

292,590

41,991

19,932

145,555

12,257

34,011

67,707

31,392

60,806

57,644

31,761

7,214

9,604

25,437

103,347

(1) Trade with non-Community countries only.
Source: Eurostat, International trade in services, 
foreign direct investment, balance of payments
(theme2/bop)

32

(1) Trade with non-Community countries only.
Source: Eurostat, Comext

External trade statistics of manufacturing goods

are available within the Comext database, and

can be compiled according to the Classification

of  Products  by  Activity 

(CPA).  Germany

accounted  for  almost  one-quarter  (24.4%)  of

the manufactured goods that were exported by

Member  States  in  2000  and  recorded  the

largest trade surplus (104.5 billion EUR) includ-

ing  both  intra  and  extra-EU  trade.  However,

Finland, Ireland and Sweden all recorded high-

er cover ratios (exports divided by imports) - see

table 15. Ireland, Greece, Finland and Portugal

reported the quickest change in the structure of

their  exports  between  1990  and  2000,  whilst

Italy, Spain and Germany had the slowest adap-

tation rates.

Trade developments

Overview - the EU's business economy

Table 16 shows that external trade of electrical

_______________________________________________________________________________Table 16

machinery  and  electronic  products 

(CPA

Subsection DL) with non-Community countries

grew at a rapid pace between 1990 and 2000,

by  which  time  these  products  accounted  for

21.3%  of  the  EU's  manufactured  exports  and

30.8% of its imports. Using the chapter break-

downs  from  section  2  of  this  publication,  the

other  product  groups  to  report  that  exports

were growing at a faster pace than the manu-

facturing average were coke, refined petroleum

EU-15 external trade flows with non-Community countries 

Electrical machinery and electronics

Transport equipment

Chemicals, rubber and plastics

Machinery and equipment

(share of manufacturing total, %)
Exports
1990 2000

Imports
1990 2000

CPA

Subsection DL

Subsection DM

13.8

21.3

23.1

30.8

16.0

17.5

12.1

13.3

Subsections DG and DH

15.0

16.6

11.7

11.3

Division 29

18.5

14.5

8.5

8.2

Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear

Subsections DB and DC

Food, beverages and tobacco

Subsection DA

Division 27

products  and  nuclear  fuel  (CPA  Division  23),

Metals

chemicals, rubber and plastics (CPA Subsections

DG  and  DH)  and  transport  equipment  (CPA

Subsection DM). Electrical machinery and elec-

tronic  products  also  registered  the  fastest

growth  rates  for  imports,  followed  by  metal

products (CPA Division 28), non-metallic miner-

al  products  (CPA  Division  26),  other  manufac-

Wood, paper, publishing and printing

Subsections DD and DE

Other manufacturing industries

Metal products

Coke, refined petroleum & nuclear

Non-metallic mineral products

Division 36

Division 28

Division 23

Division 26

7.7

7.5

6.0

3.9

4.0

3.2

2.0

2.3

6.1

5.4

4.3

3.7

3.4

2.8

2.4

1.9

12.1

10.5

7.4

8.5

5.0

4.0

1.9

4.8

1.0

4.7

6.8

3.7

4.5

2.2

2.8

1.1

Source: Eurostat, Comext

tured  goods  (CPA  Division  36)  and  transport

_______________________________________________________________________________Figure 4

equipment.

Destination of EU manufacturing exports (CPA Section D)

The US accounted for 24.7% of the EU's man-

ufactured exports in 2000, which marked a 3.6

percentage  point  increase  on  1990.  Poland,

China,  the  Czech  Republic  and  Hungary  all

moved into the top ten export destinations for

EU  manufactured  goods  between  1990  and

2000,  whilst  the  relative  share  of  Turkey

(already in the top ten in 1990) also increased.

In 1990 approximately half of the EU's imports

of  manufactured  goods  came  from  just  three

countries;  the  US,  Japan  and  Switzerland.  By

2000  their  share  had  fallen  to  below  40%,  as

China  took  over  from  Switzerland  as  the  third

1990

Canada
2.6%

Yugo-
slavia
2.5%

United 
States
21.1%

2000

China
2.7%

Hungary
2.3%

United 
States
24.7%

Rest of 
the world
46.9%

Turkey
2.0%

Japan
6.3%

Norway
3.5%

Rest of 
the world
48.4%

Switzer-
land
11.5%

S. Union
3.5%

Turkey
3.2%
Japan
4.9%
Norway
2.7%

Switzer-
land
7.4%

Poland
3.6%

Source: Eurostat, Comext

most  important  origin  of  imports.  Chinese

_______________________________________________________________________________Figure 5

imports  had  accounted  for  3.3%  of  total  EU

imports  from  non-Community  countries  in

1990, a share that rose to 8.5% by 2000. Other

countries to report noticeable increases in their

relative share of EU manufactured imports dur-

ing the course of the 1990s included the Czech

Republic,  Hungary  and  Poland,  as  well  as

Indonesia, Malaysia and South Korea.

Origin of EU manufacturing imports (CPA Section D)

1990

Yugo-
slavia
2.5%

Canada
2.5%

Norway
3.1%

United 
States
23.7%

2000

Poland
2.7%

Czech 
Republic
2.6%

Hungary
2.6%

United 
States
21.9%

Rest of 
the world
30.7%

Rest of 
the world
36.0%

Japan
15.8%

S. Korea
2.3%

S. Union

Taiwan
3.1%

3.1%China
3.3%

Switzer-
land
9.9%

Japan
10.5%

Switzer-
land
6.6%

S. Korea
3.0%

Taiwan
3.2%

Russia
2.3%

China
8.5%

Source: Eurostat, Comext

33

Statistical annex

Statistical annex

There  follows  a  short  set  of  tables  giving  some  general  information  which  may  be  of  use  in  interpreting  the  data  that  follows  in  the  remaining 

chapters. This data is of a horizontal nature and may prove relevant for a number of chapters

Table SA.1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exchange rates, annual average rates (1 ECU/EUR=… national currency)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

BEF/LUF

42.4257

42.2233

41.5932

40.4713

39.6565

38.5519

39.2986

40.5332

40.6207

40.3399

40.3399

40.3399

DKK

DEM

GRD

ESP

FRF

IEP

ITL

NLG

ATS

PTE

FIM

SEK

GBP

JPY

USD

7.85652

7.90859

7.80925

7.59359

7.54328

7.32804

7.35934

7.48361

7.49930

7.43556

7.45382

7.45207

2.05209

2.05076

2.02031

1.93639

1.92453

1.87375

1.90954

1.96438

1.96913

1.95583

1.95583

1.95583

201.412

225.216

247.026

268.568

288.026

302.989

305.546

309.355

330.731

325.820

336.678

340.750

129.411

128.469

132.526

149.124

158.918

163.000

160.748

165.887

167.184

166.386

166.386

166.386

6.91412

6.97332

6.84839

6.63368

6.58262

6.52506

6.49300

6.61260

6.60141

6.55957

6.55957

6.55957

0.767768

0.767809

0.760718

0.799952

0.793618

0.815525

0.793448

0.747516

0.786245

0.787564

0.787564

0.787564

1,522.0

1,533.2

1,595.5

1,841.2

1,915.1

2,130.1

1,959.0

1,929.3

1,943.7

1,936.3

1,936.3

1,936.3

2.31212

2.31098

2.27482

2.17521

2.15827

2.09891

2.13973

2.21081

2.21967

2.20371

2.20371

2.20371

14.4399

14.4309

14.2169

13.6238

13.5396

13.1824

13.4345

13.8240

13.8545

13.7603

13.7603

13.7603

181.109

178.614

174.714

188.370

196.896

196.105

195.761

198.589

201.695

200.482

200.482

200.482

4.85496

5.00211

5.80703

6.69628

6.19077

5.70855

5.82817

5.88064

5.98251

5.94573

5.94573

5.94573

7.52051

7.47927

7.53295

9.12151

9.16308

9.33192

8.51472

8.65117

8.91593

8.80752

8.44519

9.25511

0.713851

0.701012

0.737650

0.779988

0.775903

0.828789

0.813798

0.692304

0.676434

0.658735

0.609478

0.621874

183.6600

166.4930

164.2230

130.1480

121.3220

123.0120

138.0840

137.0770

146.4150

121.3170

99.4748

108.6820

1.273430

1.239160

1.298100

1.171000

1.189520

1.308010

1.269750

1.134040

1.121090

1.065780

0.921937

0.895630

Source: Eurostat, Monetary and other financial statistics (theme2/mny)

Table SA.2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Population, as of 1 January (thousands)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000 (1)

EU-15

363,763

365,435

367,073

368,994

370,433

371,589

372,670

373,717

374,584

375,346

376,455

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

9,948

5,135

79,113

10,121

38,826

56,577

3,507

56,694

379

9,987

5,146

79,753

10,200

38,875

56,893

3,521

56,744

384

10,022

5,162

80,275

10,294

38,965

57,218

3,547

56,757

390

10,068

5,181

80,975

10,349

39,051

57,530

3,569

56,960

395

10,101

5,197

81,338

10,410

39,121

57,779

3,583

57,138

401

10,131

5,216

81,539

10,443

39,177

58,020

3,598

57,269

407

10,143

5,251

81,817

10,465

39,242

58,258

3,620

57,333

413

10,170

5,275

82,012

10,487

39,299

58,492

3,652

57,461

418

10,192

5,295

82,057

10,511

39,348

58,728

3,694

57,563

424

10,214

5,314

82,037

10,522

39,394

58,977

3,735

57,613

429

10,239

5,330

82,163

10,543

39,442

59,226

3,777

57,680

436

14,893

15,010

15,129

15,239

15,342

15,424

15,494

15,567

15,654

15,760

15,864

7,690

9,920

4,974

8,527

7,769

9,877

4,998

8,591

7,868

9,865

5,029

8,644

7,962

9,869

5,055

8,692

8,015

9,892

5,078

8,745

8,040

9,912

5,099

8,816

8,055

9,921

5,117

8,837

8,068

9,934

5,132

8,844

8,075

9,957

5,147

8,848

8,083

9,979

5,160

8,854

8,103

9,998

5,171

8,861

57,459

57,685

57,907

58,099

58,293

58,500

58,704

58,905

59,090

59,391

59,623

(1) E, F, IRL and L, estimates.
Source: Eurostat, Population and social conditions - demography (theme3/demo)

34

Statistical annex

Overview - the EU's business economy

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.3

Gross domestic product in constant prices, annual rate of change (%)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001 (1)

EU-15 (2)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

:

2.9

1.0

:

0.0

:

2.6

:

2.0

:

4.1

4.7

4.0

0.0

:

0.8

:

1.8

1.1

:

3.1

:

1.0

1.9

1.4

:

2.5

3.3

4.4

-6.3

:

-1.4

1.3

1.6

0.6

2.2

0.7

:

1.5

3.3

0.8

:

1.7

2.3

1.1

-3.3

:

0.2

-0.4

-1.5

0.0

-1.1

-1.6

:

-0.9

2.7

-0.9

:

0.9

0.4

-2.0

-1.1

:

2.5

2.8

2.8

5.5

2.3

2.0

:

2.1

5.8

2.2

:

2.6

2.6

1.0

4.0

4.1

4.7

2.4

2.6

2.8

1.7

2.1

2.9

1.7

10.0

2.9

:

2.9

1.6

4.3

3.8

3.7

2.9

1.6

1.2

2.5

0.8

2.4

2.4

1.1

7.8

1.1

3.6

3.0

2.0

3.7

4.0

1.1

2.6

2.5

3.6

3.0

1.4

3.5

4.0

1.9

10.8

2.0

9.1

3.8

1.6

3.8

6.3

2.1

3.4

2.9

2.2

2.8

2.0

3.0

4.3

3.4

8.6

1.8

5.9

4.3

3.5

3.8

5.3

3.6

3.0

2.6

3.0

2.1

1.8

3.4

4.1

2.9

3.3

4.0

3.2

3.0

4.3

4.1

3.1

10.8

11.5

1.6

5.7

3.7

2.8

3.3

4.0

4.1

2.1

2.9

9.5

3.5

3.0

3.3

5.7

3.6

2.9

2.7

3.0

2.1

2.2

4.4

3.2

2.9

7.5

2.5

5.6

3.4

2.5

2.6

4.0

2.7

2.7

(1) Forecasts.
(2) 1992 to 1995, estimates.
Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - ESA95 - aggregates (theme2/aggs)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.4

Gross domestic product in constant prices in the EU, annual rate of change (%)

Total

Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing

Industry

Construction

Distributive trades; hotels and restaurants; transport, storage & communication

Financial intermediation; real estate, renting and business activities

Public administration; education; health; other community, social and personal 
services; private households with employees

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

1.3

4.3

-0.6

1.5

1.4

1.5

2.6

-0.4

-0.6

-3.5

-4.1

0.1

1.6

1.3

3.0

-0.4

4.3

2.2

2.6

3.8

1.6

2.4

2.1

3.0

1.6

4.4

0.0

2.5

0.7

3.0

-0.2

-1.3

-1.1

2.3

3.4

1.5

1.5

3.7

1.7

3.4

3.7

1.0

2.9

1.1

2.8

0.8

3.9

4.1

1.5

2.5

2.1

0.8

2.3

4.4

3.7

1.2

3.5

0.1

4.2

2.0

4.1

4.5

1.6

Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - Breakdowns by branch of activity (theme2/brkdowns)

35

Overview - the EU's business economy

Statistical annex

Table SA.5 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Long-term interest rate for government bond yields following the Maastricht Treaty, annual average rates (%)

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990

11.1

10.0

10.7

8.7

:

14.6

9.9

10.1

12.1

8.6

8.9

8.7

15.1

:

13.2

11.0

1991

10.2

9.3

9.2

8.5

:

12.3

9.0

9.3

13.1

8.1

8.7

8.6

14.2

11.3

10.8

9.9

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

9.8

8.7

8.9

7.9

24.1

11.7

8.6

9.3

13.3

7.9

8.1

8.3

11.7

12.0

10.0

9.1

8.3

7.2

7.3

6.5

23.3

10.2

6.8

7.7

11.2

6.9

6.4

6.7

8.5

7.8

7.8

6.9

20.7

10.0

7.2

7.9

10.5

7.2

6.9

7.0

11.2

10.5

8.8

8.5

7.6

9.1

9.7

8.2

8.9

7.5

8.3

6.9

17.0

11.3

7.5

8.3

12.2

7.2

6.9

7.1

11.5

8.8

10.2

8.3

7.5

6.5

7.2

6.2

14.5

8.7

6.3

7.3

9.4

6.3

6.2

6.3

8.6

7.1

8.0

7.9

6.3

5.8

6.3

5.6

9.9

6.4

5.6

6.3

6.9

5.6

5.6

5.7

6.4

6.0

6.6

7.1

4.9

4.8

4.9

4.6

8.5

4.8

4.6

4.8

4.9

4.7

4.6

4.7

4.9

4.8

5.0

5.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.5

6.3

4.7

4.6

4.7

4.7

4.7

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.7

5.0

5.0

5.4

5.6

5.6

5.3

6.1

5.5

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.5

5.4

5.6

5.6

5.5

5.4

5.3

5.0

5.1

5.1

4.8

5.3

5.1

4.9

5.0

5.2

4.9

5.0

5.1

5.2

5.0

5.1

5.0

(1) Excluding EL and FIN, 1990; excluding EL, 1991.
Source: Eurostat, Monetary and other financial statistics (theme2/mny)

Table SA.6 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Harmonised consumer price indices, annual rate of change (%)

EU-15

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990 (1)

1991 (1)

1992 (1)

1993 (1)

1994 (1)

1995 (1)

1996 (2)

1997 (2)

1998

1999

2000

2001 (3)

5.3

:

2.5

:

:

:

:

:

6.2

:

2.4

2.8

13.3

5.8

10.2

7.0

5.2

:

2.2

:

:

:

3.4

:

6.2

:

3.2

3.1

11.4

4.5

8.7

7.5

4.0

2.3

1.9

:

:

:

2.4

:

5.0

:

2.8

3.5

8.9

3.3

1.3

4.2

3.4

2.5

0.9

:

:

4.9

2.2

:

4.5

:

1.6

3.2

5.9

3.3

4.8

2.5

2.8

2.4

1.8

:

:

4.6

1.7

:

4.2

:

2.1

2.7

5.0

1.6

2.9

2.0

2.8

1.3

2.0

:

:

4.6

1.8

:

5.4

:

1.4

1.6

4.0

0.4

2.7

2.7

2.4

1.8

2.1

1.2

7.9

3.6

2.1

2.2

4.0

1.2

1.4

1.8

2.9

1.1

0.8

2.5

1.7

1.5

1.9

1.5

5.4

1.9

1.3

1.2

1.9

1.4

1.9

1.2

1.9

1.2

1.8

1.8

1.3

0.9

1.3

0.6

4.5

1.8

0.7

2.1

2.0

1.0

1.8

0.8

2.2

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.2

1.1

2.1

0.6

2.1

2.2

0.6

2.5

1.7

1.0

2.0

0.5

2.2

1.3

0.6

1.3

2.1

2.7

2.7

2.1

2.9

3.5

1.8

5.3

2.6

3.8

2.3

2.0

2.8

3.0

1.3

0.8

2.4

2.4

2.3

2.4

3.7

3.7

1.8

4.0

2.7

2.4

5.1

2.3

4.4

2.7

2.7

1.2

(1) EU-15, B, DK, E, F, I, P, FIN, S and UK, estimates.
(2) EU-15 and IRL, estimates.
(3) EU-15, F, L and NL, provisional.
Source: Eurostat, Harmonized indices of consumer prices (theme2/price)

36

Statistical annex

Overview - the EU's business economy

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.7

Share in total mean consumption expenditure by households, 1999 (%)

EU-15 (1)

B DK

D

EL

E F (1)

IRL

I

L NL

A P (1)

FIN

S UK

Food and non-alcoholic beverages

16.1

13.3

13.1

11.1

16.6

18.3

16.2

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics

Clothing and footwear

2.8

6.9

2.3

5.4

4.2

5.5

2.8

5.7

3.5

8.6

2.7

7.4

2.7

5.6

Housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels

24.6

26.2

28.4

31.2

21.9

27.5

23.2

Furnishings, household equipment & maintenance

Health

Transport

Communication

Recreation and culture

Education

Restaurants and hotels

Miscellaneous goods and services

7.0

3.1

6.5

4.7

6.4

2.4

7.4

3.6

7.5

6.3

5.0

2.5

7.6

5.2

13.1

12.5

14.1

13.3

11.2

12.5

14.5

2.0

2.2

2.1

2.5

9.4

10.7

11.2

11.9

0.7

6.4

0.5

5.7

7.9

10.0

0.4

4.1

8.1

0.5

4.9

5.0

3.3

4.5

2.4

8.8

5.5

2.0

6.2

1.4

9.3

5.1

2.0

7.6

0.5

6.9

8.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

19.0

10.1

10.5

13.4

21.2

14.2

15.4

10.5

1.9

7.5

2.0

5.9

2.1

6.0

2.6

6.6

2.8

6.3

2.9

4.6

2.9

5.2

3.0

5.5

24.7

27.4

26.7

23.9

19.9

28.1

26.8

28.3

7.6

4.4

8.2

2.4

7.2

1.1

7.2

2.4

6.7

4.6

4.5

3.7

5.0

3.0

7.3

1.1

13.7

15.4

10.3

14.4

15.7

17.0

13.4

13.6

2.5

6.3

0.8

4.6

7.1

2.1

2.2

2.6

2.0

2.8

2.6

2.3

8.7

10.4

12.3

3.7

10.7

14.6

13.4

0.1

9.6

1.2

7.0

8.0

15.3

0.3

5.4

8.9

1.3

9.2

6.5

0.2

4.1

7.1

0.1

3.8

7.2

1.3

7.9

5.8

(1) 1994.
Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey (theme3/hbs)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.8

Consumer confidence (balance)

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990

-9.6

0.8

-6.8

-1.7

-26.2

-10.7

-15.3

-9.9

-9.8

:

6.2

:

-6.4

:

:

1991

-16.2

-6.5

-4.0

-10.8

-33.3

-13.4

-28.2

-23.8

-15.4

:

-5.3

:

-3.8

:

:

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

-19.3

-13.3

-2.4

-15.4

-37.0

-25.9

-27.3

-25.7

-21.9

:

-4.5

:

-25.7

-24.7

-2.6

-25.3

-31.1

-30.9

-29.9

-20.8

-31.9

:

-15.6

:

-13.5

-10.3

11.3

-10.9

-29.6

-16.3

-18.6

-10.3

-13.1

:

-2.3

:

-8.0

-8.6

14.3

-6.0

-37.3

-12.8

-13.8

-4.6

-5.3

:

7.2

:

-13.7

-33.2

-30.9

-22.8

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

-14.3

-13.1

8.0

-19.9

-27.3

-9.4

-29.8

-0.2

-12.0

:

7.9

-12.7

-25.1

12.0

-4.8

-5.5

-9.7

-12.8

14.0

-18.0

-29.9

-2.9

-21.5

11.7

-14.1

:

19.5

-9.2

-17.4

18.3

4.4

3.2

-3.9

1.7

10.3

-5.1

-34.8

0.1

-11.6

12.4

-7.7

:

23.2

-1.7

-14.8

18.2

10.0

-1.8

-2.9

2.6

4.3

-1.6

1.0

13.5

11.3

2.9

-27.0

-15.3

1.7

-8.7

14.0

-9.9

:

19.3

4.7

-13.8

17.4

12.4

-3.6

2.3

-2.8

12.5

-7.6

:

24.4

5.9

-17.9

19.7

21.8

-3.8

-4.3

0.6

9.2

-3.3

-26.6

-4.0

-11.1

-1.6

-2.8

:

3.8

3.0

-24.2

11.9

5.0

-4.6

-20.8

-17.3

-17.0

-17.8

-15.8

-10.4

(1) Average of available data.
Source: Eurostat, European and national short term indicators (theme1/euroind)

37

Overview - the EU's business economy

Statistical annex

Table SA.9 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP (%)

EU-15 (3)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999 (1)

2000 (1)

2001 (2)

:

21.4

18.7

:

:

24.4

21.1

19.3

20.8

:

21.7

22.9

22.3

25.9

:

18.1

21.1

20.1

17.9

22.9

:

24.2

20.5

17.6

20.7

:

21.3

23.6

22.0

22.5

:

16.8

20.8

20.2

17.4

23.4

:

22.9

19.9

17.1

20.2

:

21.1

23.2

22.8

19.4

:

16.7

19.7

19.9

16.8

22.6

:

21.0

18.8

15.8

18.2

:

20.2

22.9

22.0

16.3

14.4

16.3

19.7

19.3

17.1

23.0

:

21.0

18.7

16.7

17.8

:

20.1

23.4

22.3

15.3

14.7

16.3

19.8

19.9

18.6

22.4

18.6

22.0

18.8

17.2

18.3

21.7

20.3

23.3

22.4

16.3

15.5

16.3

19.9

19.9

18.9

22.1

19.7

21.9

18.6

18.6

18.8

21.4

20.9

23.3

23.0

17.0

16.1

16.7

20.0

20.5

20.3

21.9

21.5

22.1

18.2

19.8

18.8

22.4

21.5

23.4

25.4

17.9

15.6

17.2

20.6

20.9

21.3

22.1

22.6

23.2

18.9

21.0

19.3

21.7

21.5

23.4

26.6

18.6

16.3

19.0

21.1

21.0

21.2

22.6

23.4

24.3

19.5

21.6

19.8

24.6

22.3

23.1

27.5

18.4

16.9

18.7

21.3

20.7

22.6

22.5

24.6

24.6

20.0

20.8

20.5

21.8

22.4

23.6

28.0

18.3

17.1

19.1

21.6

20.9

22.4

22.5

26.0

24.9

20.7

20.7

20.7

21.8

22.5

23.6

28.5

18.4

17.6

19.2

(1) EU-15 and EL, estimates. 
(2) Estimates. 
(3) Average of available data.
Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - ESA95 - aggregates (theme2/aggs)

Table SA.10 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Business enterprise expenditure on R&D as a percentage of GDP (%)

EU-15 (1)

B (2)

DK (3)

D (4)

EL

E (5)

F (6)

IRL (1)

I (7)

L

NL

A

P (8)

FIN

S (9)

UK

1990

1.27

:

0.90

1.80

:

0.47

1.43

0.50

0.75

:

1.09

:

0.14

1.18

:

1.50

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

1.24

1.08

0.96

1.76

0.09

0.47

1.46

0.59

0.68

:

0.98

:

:

1.16

1.91

1.39

1.22

1.16

0.98

1.66

:

0.44

1.49

0.67

0.66

:

0.93

:

0.13

1.21

:

1.40

1.22

1.23

1.02

1.58

0.13

0.42

1.48

0.80

0.61

:

0.95

0.82

:

1.27

2.23

1.42

1.20

1.22

:

1.51

:

0.38

1.45

0.91

0.56

:

1.01

:

:

1.42

:

1.36

1.19

1.23

1.05

1.50

0.14

0.39

1.41

0.96

0.53

:

1.04

:

0.12

1.45

2.57

1.30

1.18

1.30

1.13

1.49

0.12

0.40

1.41

1.01

0.54

:

1.06

:

:

1.68

:

1.25

1.19

1.34

1.19

1.54

0.13

0.40

1.39

1.01

0.52

:

1.11

:

0.14

1.79

2.75

1.20

1.19

1.35

1.32

1.57

:

0.47

1.35

:

0.52

:

1.05

:

:

1.94

2.85

1.21

1.25

1.42

1.25

1.69

:

0.46

1.38

:

0.56

:

:

:

0.17

2.18

2.86

1.27

1.24

1.47

:

1.72

:

0.48

1.37

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

1.26

1.25

(1) Estimates. 
(2) 1992, estimate. 
(3) 1990, 1992, 1996 and 1999, estimates. 
(4) 1990, 1996 and 1998 to 2000, estimates. 
(5) 1996, estimate; 2000, provisional.
(6) 2000, estimate. 
(7) 1999, estimate. 
(8) 1990 and 1992, estimates. 
(9) 1991 and 1998, estimates.
Source: Eurostat, Research and Development - expenditure and personnel (theme9/rd_ex_p)

38

Statistical annex

Overview - the EU's business economy

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.11

Industrial confidence (balance)

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990

-3.4

-3.2

-3.9

8.4

-1.8

-13.5

-4.8

-0.3

-0.7

-2.9

-0.2

4.6

-4.9

:

:

1991

-13.2

-15.0

-7.8

0.7

-6.6

-21.8

-21.0

-8.8

-12.6

-24.1

-4.4

-8.8

-7.3

:

:

1992

1993

-18.4

-20.4

-7.3

-17.3

-3.7

-24.8

-21.2

-3.9

-15.4

-27.7

-6.3

-17.4

-11.8

:

:

-25.4

-28.8

-9.5

-33.3

-6.0

-34.8

-34.4

-12.8

-17.6

-25.0

-10.3

-27.2

-24.8

-4.5

:

-17.8

-31.8

-23.6

-10.9

1994

-5.4

-6.3

12.5

-14.8

-0.1

-8.7

-3.3

2.5

1.3

-7.7

-0.9

-7.5

-3.9

18.2

:

1.8

1995

1996

1997

1998

-0.9

-9.1

5.4

-5.9

3.8

-3.3

-2.3

7.1

6.4

9.7

1.5

-12.2

-3.9

7.8

:

2.6

-14.2

-17.8

-8.7

-21.2

-2.4

-14.4

-17.5

-1.1

-11.5

-22.0

-2.4

-23.9

-9.6

-11.3

-15.9

-5.1

-3.7

-2.9

5.5

-10.1

3.6

-1.4

-5.3

3.3

-0.3

4.2

2.5

-9.5

0.4

11.2

-0.9

-1.4

1999

-8.4

-8.6

-12.9

-14.4

1.3

-3.1

-2.2

5.0

-4.0

-11.0

-0.4

-13.8

-4.3

-3.8

-7.1

-3.0

-7.8

-0.8

-5.0

4.3

1.4

5.3

3.2

0.3

6.7

1.7

-8.6

2.2

2.0

3.1

-15.5

-14.3

2000

3.7

1.9

5.7

-2.3

8.8

3.2

11.8

9.8

11.7

5.3

4.1

-2.8

2.1

17.4

10.8

-6.6

2001

-9.4

-14.0

-1.7

-14.8

4.3

-4.2

-4.2

-7.7

-2.8

-15.5

-3.5

-13.3

-5.8

-6.8

-18.7

-15.6

(1) Average of available data.
Source: Eurostat, European and national short term indicators (theme1/euroind)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.12

Capacity utilisation rates for total industry (%)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

EU-15 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

84.9

81.1

82.3

89.2

77.0

80.0

88.7

76.7

79.9

83.3

86.0

:

80.6

:

:

82.9

79.4

81.0

88.2

77.2

77.6

86.0

75.5

77.3

82.1

84.6

:

79.1

:

:

81.1

77.4

79.7

84.8

78.3

76.6

84.3

77.1

76.3

79.8

83.5

:

77.4

:

:

83.9

79.2

78.5

78.1

74.8

77.7

78.8

76.0

72.8

81.4

73.6

74.4

80.1

81.0

:

73.9

82.3

:

80.0

79.3

77.6

81.8

80.2

74.5

74.5

80.4

74.9

75.2

81.3

82.4

:

77.3

86.9

:

82.8

82.8

80.9

83.4

84.6

76.6

78.4

85.4

79.9

78.1

82.9

84.4

:

79.7

87.7

:

84.4

81.0

79.5

81.7

82.2

75.6

77.1

83.5

77.6

76.5

79.0

83.9

80.2

78.9

83.2

85.0

82.5

81.6

81.4

83.3

83.2

74.4

78.3

82.3

75.9

76.4

82.4

84.4

82.0

80.9

87.2

85.8

83.8

83.1

82.7

85.5

85.5

75.8

80.3

83.8

76.6

78.5

88.0

85.3

83.7

81.4

88.9

85.0

83.7

81.6

80.9

82.2

84.0

75.7

79.7

85.3

75.9

76.0

84.9

84.0

81.9

80.8

86.1

85.8

79.4

83.4

84.0

82.5

85.9

78.1

80.6

87.5

78.6

78.8

87.8

84.7

84.5

81.2

86.8

87.5

81.3

82.7

82.3

82.8

85.1

77.6

79.6

87.6

78.4

78.9

88.7

84.6

83.1

81.7

85.7

83.6

79.7

(1) Average of available data.
Source: Eurostat, European and national short term indicators (theme1/euroind)

39

Overview - the EU's business economy

Statistical annex

Table SA.13 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Trade balance of goods at constant prices (million EUR) (1)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

:

-34,709

11,946

21,293

28,225

43,040

70,137

:

:

3,922

54,485

-7,994

-23,271

-10,344

3,142

924

:

:

-7,602

3,391

-155

:

:

-5,343

-6,350

:

:

:

:

1,674

4,135

15,405

-8,160

2,879

5,738

21,563

-8,939

5,039

6,672

35,171

-9,015

5,740

6,397

42,970

-9,556

-24,924

-23,304

-12,764

-12,426

1,857

5,434

2,414

9,523

-7,900

-7,274

2,915

5,216

6,349

6,927

28,236

14,482

-7,706

-6,806

5,342

6,442

6,719

7,844

29,865

15,739

-8,924

-6,788

6,339

8,059

7,297

5,093

48,814

-11,092

-14,046

8,417

10,359

33,680

16,862

-5,087

-6,860

9,443

6,848

6,077

54,737

-12,278

-12,818

11,784

12,391

47,796

16,007

-5,734

-7,120

8,856

12,301

14,660

6,909

4,741

62,097

-13,647

-11,838

23,728

16,472

41,412

20,663

-3,761

-8,709

10,136

16,067

1998

44,985

11,326

3,450

68,556

-12,364

-18,391

23,437

20,809

31,854

18,873

-3,268

1999

12,874

10,919

6,309

65,836

-16,901

-28,585

18,791

22,733

22,051

19,170

-3,376

2000

-53,541

10,636

7,862

61,762

-21,935

-35,642

1,717

27,698

11,773

21,046

-2,984

-10,852

-12,951

-15,319

11,157

15,180

11,453

15,806

14,896

16,460

EU-15

B/L

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

-26,349

-14,670

-17,765

-17,257

-13,959

-13,975

-16,862

-17,827

-32,247

-41,783

-49,846

(1) EU-15, trade with non-Community countries; Member States, trade with all partners (intra-EU and extra-EU).
Source: Eurostat, Balance of payments (theme2/bop)

Table SA.14 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Trade balance of services at constant prices (million EUR) (1)

EU-15

B/L

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

:

:

1,407

:

13,840

12,904

11,852

12,017

12,837

16,183

10,207

1,381

2,240

2,065

1,775

2,591

1,397

3,015

447

1,806

544

2,297

1,020

3,272

293

3,630

-502

1999

5,785

4,689

1,564

2000

5,606

5,434

2,508

-14,582

-18,208

-24,366

-28,878

-34,509

-35,012

-34,866

-36,445

-41,002

-48,669

-54,397

4,349

9,224

11,798

-980

-1,592

:

:

4,887

10,292

12,864

-945

-641

:

:

1,088

937

:

:

:

:

5,194

4,766

4,963

9,598

13,573

-2,354

-2,688

206

9,053

817

-1,896

-2,191

6,632

6,898

10,002

13,749

-2,526

706

587

8,471

1,198

-1,700

-657

6,885

7,892

12,515

15,622

-3,463

1,594

1,162

8,346

1,064

-1,189

-838

5,587

6,580

14,224

13,712

-4,808

1,301

1,690

3,527

1,234

-1,618

-1,136

8,440

7,012

16,100

12,821

-6,048

1,599

3,054

3,586

1,118

-987

-1,421

11,793

9,253

17,636

16,176

-7,945

1,772

3,737

870

1,292

-1,056

-2,179

18,096

6,073

19,532

16,837

6,852

21,524

17,930

8,733

24,216

20,765

-11,859

-10,688

-13,065

3,582

3,272

2,107

1,716

-930

-1,952

18,725

1,104

2,341

1,647

1,645

-1,574

-2,197

17,701

-10

1,083

1,047

1,953

-2,785

-3,419

24,055

(1) EU-15, trade with non-Community countries; Member States, trade with all partners (intra-EU and extra-EU).
Source: Eurostat, Balance of payments (theme2/bop)

40

Statistical annex

Overview - the EU's business economy

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.15

Labour force characteristics, 2000

EU-15

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands)

Total

Male 

Female

158,372

4,120

2,716 36,324

3,946 14,450 23,388

1,672 20,930

181

7,860

3,683

4,898

2,367

4,125 27,711

90,923

2,378

1,451 20,423

2,457

9,060 12,904

990 13,223

110

4,492

2,061

2,686

1,244

2,150 15,294

67,448

1,742

1,266 15,901

1,489

5,390 10,484

682

7,708

71

3,367

1,622

2,211

1,123

1,976 12,418

Activity rate (% share of persons employed aged 15-64)

Total

Male 

Female

63.1

72.4

53.8

61.3

70.3

52.2

76.3

80.5

72.0

65.0

71.9

57.8

55.4

69.0

41.8

53.7

67.3

40.1

60.5

66.9

54.2

66.2

78.1

54.1

53.7

67.8

39.5

62.2

74.2

49.7

73.0

82.3

63.5

67.2

74.7

59.6

72.1

80.7

63.9

68.4

71.1

65.6

72.5

74.4

70.6

71.1

77.7

64.4

Full-time and part-time work (% share of persons employed)

Part-time

Full-time

18.0

82.0

20.7

79.3

21.7

78.3

19.4

80.6

4.6

8.2

95.4

91.8

16.9

83.1

16.8

83.2

8.8

91.2

11.3

88.7

41.2

58.8

17.0

83.0

10.7

89.3

12.2

87.8

22.8

77.2

24.9

75.1

Educational attainment (% share of persons employed) (1)

Lower secondary education

Upper secondary education

Higher education degree

35.0

41.6

23.4

31.7

34.1

34.2

16.1

55.1

28.7

Unemployment rate (% share of labour force aged 15-64)

Total

Male 

Female

8.4

7.2

9.9

6.6

5.3

8.3

4.5

4.0

5.0

13.9

57.7

28.4

7.9

7.6

8.3

44.1

34.5

21.4

53.9

17.7

28.4

30.4

43.8

25.8

11.1

14.0

10.2

7.3

9.7

8.6

16.7

20.4

12.2

41.7

29.0

29.3

4.3

4.3

4.2

45.1

41.8

13.2

10.8

8.3

14.9

32.8

44.8

22.3

2.3

1.8

3.1

27.1

43.9

29.0

2.7

2.2

3.5

18.1

64.5

17.4

4.7

4.8

4.6

76.8

12.1

11.2

3.9

3.1

4.8

22.0

41.0

37.0

11.1

10.4

12.0

19.7

48.2

32.1

5.5

5.9

5.0

14.2

54.1

31.7

5.6

6.1

4.9

(1) EU-15 and IRL, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (theme3/lfs)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table SA.16

Labour cost indicators, 1999 (1)

EU-15

B

DK D (2)

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L (3)

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Industry and services (NACE Sections C to K)

Hourly labour cost (EUR)

21.5

26.2

27.0

26.8

Direct cost (%)

Direct remuneration (%)

Indirect cost (%)

Social security (%)

Industry (NACE Sections C to E)

Hourly labour cost (EUR)

Direct cost (%)

Direct remuneration (%)

Indirect cost (%)

Social security (%)

Services (NACE Sections G to K)

Hourly labour cost (EUR)

Direct cost (%)

Direct remuneration (%)

Indirect cost (%)

Social security (%)

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

68.3

90.4

74.7

57.5

75.9

63.2

31.7

29.9

9.6

6.4

25.3

23.1

:

:

:

:

:

15.3

23.8

16.2

18.8

22.7

21.7

27.2

7.0

20.8

25.8

19.3

74.0

67.1

84.0

65.5

84.1

75.6

70.4

76.2

75.9

67.4

87.3

73.8

57.8

73.8

60.7

71.8

65.9

61.2

69.9

64.5

60.4

74.8

26.0

32.9

16.0

34.5

15.9

24.4

29.6

23.8

24.1

32.6

12.7

24.4

28.6

13.4

32.7

14.5

22.1

25.3

20.4

21.8

29.8

12.6

27.4

25.4

28.4

9.5

16.2

23.7

15.6

17.9

22.8

24.4

25.1

6.2

20.9

25.6

19.2

68.3

92.2

74.6

69.8

73.3

66.7

83.7

65.0

56.4

77.7

63.1

57.6

73.2

57.4

73.4

59.3

31.8

29.8

7.8

6.3

25.4

30.2

26.7

33.3

16.3

35.0

23.6

27.1

25.4

29.2

13.4

32.8

:

:

:

:

74.5

70.4

75.0

75.5

67.2

86.5

64.7

61.2

68.8

64.2

:

73.7

25.6

29.6

25.1

24.5

32.8

13.5

23.2

25.3

20.9

22.2

30.0

13.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

25.4

75.1

63.8

24.9

22.0

:

:

:

:

:

14.8

74.4

74.0

25.7

23.8

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

21.2

24.7

20.1

66.4

83.5

76.2

63.5

71.4

66.9

33.7

16.5

23.8

32.5

14.3

21.4

:

:

:

:

:

8.3

20.6

36.3

77.6

71.1

22.4

19.9

:

:

:

:

67.5

60.5

32.5

29.7

:

:

:

:

:

(1) Direct costs are mainly direct remuneration, payments to employees saving schemes, payments for days not worked and benefits in kind; direct remuneration are
wages and salaries (in cash and in kind), irregular bonuses (before deduction of taxes and social security contributions payable by employees) and gratuities; indirect
costs include social security expenses the employer must pay, vocational training expenditure, taxes, etc.; for hourly labour cost - EL, F and P, 1998; for the breakdown of
costs - EL and P, 1998; I, 1997; B, DK, E, F, IRK, NL and UK, 1996.
(2) Excluding NACE Sections H, I, and K.
(3) Excluding NACE Sections I and K and Division 67.
Source: Eurostat, Statistics in Focus, EU labour costs, 1999 (Theme 3 - 3/2001)

41

Overview - the EU's business economy

Statistical annex

Table SA.17 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Average hours worked per week, 2001 (hours) (1)

Total (NACE Sections A to Q)

Agriculture, hunting & forestry

Fishing

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing

EU-15

B DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L NL

A

P

FIN

S UK

38.4

37.5

36.1

37.1

43.2

40.0

36.8

37.7

39.1

38.4

31.8

38.3

39.7

38.4

36.6

37.7

44.3

43.1

42.3

46.0

45.1

45.5

44.9

52.8

42.2

50.9

38.1

48.8

36.2

46.9

38.2

45.8

44.9

:

39.7

38.6

:

:

:

50.5

51.9

55.4

:

43.8

40.3

41.4

40.1

39.0

42.0

:

:

:

:

:

53.7

35.5

38.0

42.1

:

:

:

57.8

37.6

50.8

39.4

38.9

37.3

37.5

43.6

40.8

37.8

39.5

40.2

39.6

35.5

38.5

40.7

39.3

38.3

42.0

Electricity, gas & water supply

38.0

38.7

39.9

38.4

39.8

39.8

35.9

39.1

39.1

39.7

35.9

38.9

38.8

38.8

39.2

41.0

Construction

Distributive trades

Hotels and restaurants

40.8

40.5

39.7

40.2

43.1

41.1

39.4

42.1

41.6

40.5

38.7

39.4

41.8

41.5

40.1

44.1

39.9

39.6

34.0

35.9

45.9

41.5

37.8

35.4

42.1

39.2

30.5

36.4

42.7

37.4

37.2

34.4

41.9

42.5

31.8

40.0

50.0

43.8

41.1

34.3

42.4

45.6

25.1

39.6

48.6

36.6

36.0

30.3

Transport, storage & communication

39.6

40.1

38.7

39.6

46.8

42.3

37.2

40.2

40.2

39.5

34.7

39.8

42.4

39.7

37.1

43.1

Financial intermediation

38.1

38.3

37.5

37.8

40.4

39.5

37.2

37.8

38.6

39.5

35.0

36.8

37.2

38.4

37.5

38.7

Real estate, renting & business activities

38.2

38.3

37.4

36.9

43.2

38.1

37.8

38.1

39.2

38.0

33.5

36.1

39.0

37.2

37.2

38.9

Public admin. & defence; compulsory social security

36.7

35.6

37.1

37.0

39.6

37.9

36.8

37.2

35.8

37.1

34.3

38.5

37.3

37.5

37.4

38.3

Education

Health and social work

30.6

30.0

34.9

33.3

29.2

33.1

31.1

29.3

27.7

31.4

30.1

37.5

33.1

35.0

36.5

33.5

35.8

34.5

33.5

34.1

39.4

37.3

35.2

32.8

36.5

35.6

25.6

35.9

37.8

36.8

33.4

33.0

Other community, social, personal service activities

36.7

38.1

32.2

35.1

41.3

37.9

34.7

33.8

38.1

38.5

29.6

36.3

39.3

35.3

33.3

33.6

Private households with employed persons

27.1

21.1

25.2

19.5

37.1

27.6

25.4

27.8

30.9

23.7

Extra-territorial organizations and bodies

39.2

39.7

:

38.0

:

:

38.8

:

38.8

38.5

:

:

24.6

28.4

40.3

:

:

:

:

:

23.9

43.9

(1) DK, D, EL, L, NL, P, S and UK, 2000.
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (theme3/lfs)

Table SA.18 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Unemployment rate (% share of labour force aged 15-64)

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

EU-15

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

:

7.3

8.5

4.9

7.2

16.4

9.4

14.4

9.9

1.9

7.7

:

4.8

:

:

7.0

:

7.0

9.2

5.3

7.8

16.1

9.2

16.1

10.2

1.2

7.3

:

4.1

:

:

8.6

:

6.7

9.2

6.4

8.1

17.9

10.3

15.3

9.6

1.8

5.6

:

4.1

:

:

:

8.1

10.9

7.7

8.8

22.4

11.4

15.9

10.4

2.4

6.3

:

5.5

:

:

9.9

10.4

:

9.7

8.1

8.8

9.1

24.5

12.7

14.8

11.5

3.6

7.2

:

6.9

:

:

9.8

:

9.4

7.0

8.2

9.3

22.9

11.9

12.2

11.9

3.0

7.2

4.4

7.4

17.2

:

8.8

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (theme3/lfs)

1996

11.0

1997

10.9

1998

10.3

9.5

6.9

8.9

9.9

22.4

12.5

11.9

12.3

3.5

6.5

5.3

7.7

15.7

9.7

8.3

9.0

5.4

9.9

9.8

21.0

12.7

10.4

12.5

2.3

5.6

5.2

6.9

15.1

10.5

7.2

9.3

5.0

9.9

11.0

19.0

12.2

7.8

12.3

2.9

4.4

5.5

4.9

13.3

9.1

6.3

1999

2000

2001

9.5

8.7

5.2

8.9

12.0

15.8

12.1

5.8

11.8

2.2

3.6

4.7

4.9

11.8

7.7

6.1

8.4

6.6

4.5

8.0

11.3

14.1

10.3

4.3

11.0

2.3

2.7

4.7

4.1

11.2

5.5

5.6

9.4

6.2

:

:

:

13.0

8.4

3.7

9.7

:

:

4.0

:

10.4

:

:

42

Chapter 15: distributive trades

Distributive trades

Distribution  plays  a  pivotal  role  between  pro-

The NACE classification splits distribution into three main forms: motor trades (Division 50), whole-

ducers  and  consumers,  providing  an  interface

sale trade (Division 51) and retail trade (Division 52). Commission trade is included within whole-

through  which  consumer  views  can  be

sale trade. Repair is included under motor trades for motor vehicles and motorcycles and under

expressed.  This  sector  is  the  first  to  feel  the

retail trade for personal and household goods (although this latter activity is not treated in any of

impact of many consumers concerns, for exam-

the seven sub-chapters).

ple food safety, labelling and the environment.

The  performance  of  distribution  and  its

prospects  for  growth  are  very  much  linked  to

consumer confidence (see table SA.8 of the sta-

tistical  annex  to  the  overview  of  this  publica-

tion).

A traditional and still common model of distrib-

ution  involves  one  or  several  wholesalers  and

retailers intervening at various stages between

a product leaving the manufacturer and reach-

ing  the  final  consumer.  However,  some  large

manufacturers  undertake  their  own  wholesal-

ing and retailing and these enterprises may only

rely on traditional distributors for order process-

ing and/or delivery. Equally large retailers often

do their own wholesaling and some their own

manufacturing,  though  more  commonly  this

takes the form of sub-contracting.

A  small  proportion  of  economic  activity  that

receives a great deal of media exposure bypass-

es conventional retail channels as manufactur-

NACE
50:

sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; 
retail sale of automotive fuel;

50.1:sale of motor vehicles; 
50.2:maintenance and repair of motor vehicles;
50.3:sale of motor vehicle parts and accessories;
50.4:sale, maintenance and repair of motorcycles and related parts and accessories; 
50.5:retail sale of automotive fuel;
51: wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles;
51.1:wholesale on a fee or contract basis;
51.2:wholesale of agricultural raw materials and live animals; 
51.3:wholesale of food, beverages and tobacco;
51.4:wholesale of household goods; 
51.5:wholesale of non-agricultural intermediate products, waste and scrap; 
51.6:wholesale of machinery, equipment and supplies; 
51.7:other wholesale;
52: Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles; 

repair of personal and household goods;

52.1:retail sale in non-specialised stores; 
52.2:retail sale of food, beverages and  tobacco in specialised stores; 
52.3:retail sale of pharmaceuticals and medical goods, cosmetic and toilet articles; 
52.4:other retail sale of new goods in specialised stores; 
52.5:retail sale of second-hand goods in stores; 
52.6:retail sale not in stores;
52.7:repair of personal and household goods.

ers  sell  directly  to  consumers,  for  example  via

ing. Internationalisation has been another sus-

Distribution  is  undergoing  structural  change,

the Internet or through their own retail outlets

tained  trend,  first  towards  neighbouring  EU

partly  through  the  adoption  of  information

(for  example  factory  stores).  In  some  cases

Member  States,  then  to  Eastern  European

technologies, and this has an impact on part of

these  sales  still  rely  on  traditional  distribution

countries  and  more  recently  to  other  conti-

the workforce for whom technical skills require-

and  transport  enterprises  to  process  orders

nents,  not  always  with  success.  Recently  non-

ments  have  increased.  The  adoption  of  these

and/or  physically  distribute  and  deliver  mer-

EU  distributors  have  entered  the  EU  market,

technologies allows distributors to make use of

chandise.

notably  Wal-Mart  within  the  activity  of  retail

a  broader  range  of  distribution  channels  and

trade. This has often brought with it an increas-

supports their efforts to expand internationally.

Not only have larger retailers moved backward

ing  level  of  competition  putting  pressure  on

along the supply chain, they have also diversi-

local distributors.

fied,  expanding  their  product  mix  to  provide

other services such as travel, finance and cater-

297

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 50, 51 and 52

Distribution  is  a  very  large  sector,  accounting

No estimates for the EU are available at a more

Figure 15.1________________________________

National  Accounts  data  indicate  that  EU  value

food, beverages and tobacco (Groups 52.4 and

NL (2)

for  between  9.7%  (Luxembourg)  and  15.6%

(Portugal) of gross value added at basic prices in
2000,  according  to  National  Accounts1.  In
employment  terms  it  accounted  for  approxi-

detailed activity level, but using 1998 and 1999
data for the eleven Member States3 which did
provide  data,  the  wholesale  of  intermediate

products (Group 51.5) was the largest distribu-

mately 25.2 million persons across the EU, with

tion  activity  in  the  EU  in  terms  of  turnover

a share of total employment ranging between

(14%).  It  was  followed  by  non-specialised

12.4%  (Finland)  and  17.3%  (the  United

retailing  in  stores  (Group  52.1,  13%)  and  the

Kingdom).

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

sale  of  motor  vehicles  (Group  50.1,  11%).

These  three  Groups,  along  with  retail  sale

through specialised stores and the wholesale of

added in distribution was almost equal to 840
billion  EUR  in  20002.  Germany,  the  United
Kingdom, Italy and France collectively account-

51.3)  accounted  for  over  60%  of  distribution

turnover. The smallest Groups in turnover terms

were  the  retail  sale  of  second-hand  goods

ed  for  73.6%  of  this  total,  slightly  more  than

(Group 52.5, 0.2%) and the repair of personal

their  share  of  the  EU  population.  Comparing

and household goods (Group 52.7, 0.2%).

(3) D, EL, IRL and NL, incomplete data.

each Member States' share of EU value added

in  distribution  with  their  share  of  EU  value

added  in  all  branches,  the  most  specialised

countries  in  distribution  are  Portugal,  Greece

and Italy.

SBS estimates for 1999 reveal that, in turnover

terms,  wholesale  trade  accounted  for  54%  of

distribution, retail trade 30% and motor trades

the remaining 16%. Care has to be taken when

interpreting  turnover  data  in  the  distribution

sector.  Turnover  of  own  account  wholesalers

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

Share of services value added, 

2000 (%) (1)

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

39.7

27.8

27.6

27.2

26.6

26.2

24.4

24.1

23.2

23.2

22.3

22.0

20.7

15.3

P (2)

A (2)

EL

DK

I 

B 

E (3)

FIN

IRL (2)

UK

D

F (2)

L (2)

(1) S, not available.
(2) 1999.
(3) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - Breakdowns by
branch of activity (theme2/brkdowns)

and retailers is generally high as it includes the

Table 15.1 _____________________________________________________________________________

value of the goods resold, as well as the margin

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

on  these  goods.  Turnover  in  other  distribution

Value added, 2000

activities  may  be  relatively  lower:  wholesaling

on a commission basis refers mainly to the ser-

vice provided, as the goods sold are not actual-

ly bought by the wholesaler; turnover for repair

services are also largely made up of the value of

the repair service provided, although they may

also include the value of spare parts used. The

result  is  that  a  simple  comparison  using

turnover over-estimates the relative size of own

account  wholesalers  and  retailers  and  other

measures, such as value added, may provide a

better  indication  of  the  importance  of  each

activity in the economy.

(1) F, IRL, L, NL, A and P, 1999; E, 1998; 
S, not available.
(2) F, IRL, L, NL, A and P, 1999; E, 1998; 
S, not available.

B

DK

D

EL

E (2)

F (1)

IRL (1)

I

L (1)

NL (1)

A (1)

P (1)

FIN

S

UK

Value added
(billion EUR)

Share of services 
value added (%)

Share of total
 value added (%)

27.2

20.1

197.0

16.2

54.7

123.4

7.8

140.8

1.8

44.4

23.5

14.5

11.6

:

156.5

24.4

27.2

22.0

27.6

24.1

20.7

23.2

26.2

15.3

26.6

27.8

39.7

23.2

:

22.3

11.8

13.2

10.4

14.5

11.0

10.0

10.0

13.1

9.7

12.9

12.8

15.6

9.9

:

11.6

(1) 1999.
(2) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, National Accounts - Breakdowns by branch of activity (theme2/brkdowns)

298

NACE 50, 51 and 52

Chapter 15: distributive trades

SBS data provides a time series for turnover in
distribution  for  several  Member  States4 from
1995 to 1999 and in all of these countries the

sale  of  motor  vehicles  recorded  the  highest

growth rates amongst the three largest distrib-

ution sectors (as identified above).

The  distribution  sector  is  characterised  by  very

small  and  small  enterprises  (see  table  15.3).

Data  from  SBS  for  a  limited  selection  of
Member  States5 for  the  period  1997  to  1999
indicate  that  these  enterprises,  with  less  than

50  persons  employed,  accounted  for  59%  of

distribution turnover and 71% of employment.

In Italy, these smaller enterprises accounted for

73% of turnover and 88% of employment. At

the other end of the scale enterprises with less

than  50  persons  employed  accounted  for  less

than  half  of  turnover  in  Finland  (43%)  and

Austria (47%).

Looking  in  more  sectoral  detail,  motor  trades

tend to be particularly dominated by very small

and  small  enterprises  and  wholesale  trade  by

small  and  medium-sized  enterprises.  Retail

trade  is  more  complex,  with  very  small  enter-

prises  as  well  as  large  enterprises  accounting

for a large proportion of activity.

B

F

IRL

I

A

FIN

S

1998

1999

1997

1998

1999

1999

1998

_____________________________________________________________________________Table 15.3

Breakdown of enterprise size class data (according to number of persons employed)

for distributive trades 

Latest 
year

Micro 
(1-9)

Small 
(10-49)

Medium 
(50-249)

Large 
(250+)

Share of turnover by size class (%) 

B

F

IRL

I

A

FIN

S

1998

1999

1997

1998

1999

1999

1998

Sum of Member States (1)

Distribution

Motor trades

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

34.4

24.2

24.5

48.3

21.8

20.8

25.2

32.1

32.3

27.8

39.8

Share of persons employed by size class (%) 

46.9

35.1

39.0

72.6

27.4

32.0

38.7

49.9

54.1

41.0

54.6

Sum of Member States (1)

Distribution

Motor trades

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

28.2

28.3

30.6

24.9

25.5

22.1

26.0

26.8

29.9

31.1

17.3

25.8

25.1

27.5

15.3

23.4

22.6

24.2

21.3

27.6

28.1

14.9

17.3

19.5

24.9

11.9

26.2

17.6

21.6

17.6

20.1

21.2

9.8

10.3

15.1

12.9

5.0

18.8

13.5

15.4

11.1

11.6

17.0

7.0

20.1

28.1

19.9

14.9

26.5

39.5

27.3

23.5

17.7

20.0

33.0

17.0

24.7

20.6

7.1

30.4

31.9

21.7

17.8

6.6

13.9

23.4

(1) INFORMA estimates; geographical coverage is B, F, IRL, I, A, FIN and S; range of years from 1997 to 1999.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

(4) B, DK, L, A, FIN, S and UK.
(5) B, F, IRL, I, A, FIN and S.

_________________________________Table 15.2

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

Turnover (billion EUR)

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

EU-15

B

DK

D (1)

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

11

:

122

66

:

:

742

4,578

:

:

5,400

196

201

216

98

:

:

:

1,027

1,008

995

999

1,010

226

121

:

443

875

:

:

13

:

127

:

76

157

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

81

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

760

774

820

34

40

:

546

575

618

12

:

119

96

63

139

792

12

:

122

101

68

143

946

12

:

125

117

72

145

967

1,034

(1) Excluding NACE Groups 50.2, 51.1 and 52.7.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

299

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 50, 51 and 52

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

Table 15.4 _____________________________________________________________________________

In 1999 the EU's stock of FDI in the distributive

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

trades sector in non-Community countries was

Foreign direct investment, 1999 (million EUR)

64.1 billion EUR, an increase of 81% compared

to 1995. Of this total, 38% of the EU's foreign

investment stock was in the US. Between 1995

and  1999  the  stock  of  FDI  in  non-Community

countries  reported  by  the  United  Kingdom

EU-15

more  than  tripled  and  as  a  consequence  in

1999  the  United  Kingdom  (31.0%  of  the  EU

total)  overtook  Germany  (30.3%)  as  the

Member State with the largest FDI stock abroad

in distributive trades.

The stock of inward foreign direct investment in

distributive  trades  in  the  EU  was  77.9  billion

EUR in1999. The US accounted for 48% of this

total.  The  UK  recorded  the  highest  inward

stocks of FDI from outside of the EU (30.7% of

the  EU  total),  followed  by  the  Netherlands

(20.1%).

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

According  to  National  Accounts  data,  EU

employment  in  distribution  in  1999  was  in

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

In the 
reporting 
economy

77,892

:

6,727

24,947

1,425

11,147

12,714

:

8,450

:

31,366

5,290

4,446

3,164

8,526

37,552

(% of investment abroad)

Abroad

Intra

64,093

:

3,706

41,369

98

3,308

10,119

:

7,251

:

23,569

2,559

-689

456

5,489

43,791

:

:

58.6

53.1

56.1

:

66.1

:

:

:

64.4

18.3

173.3

60.7

:

54.6

Extra

100.0

:

41.4

46.9

43.9

:

33.9

:

:

:

35.6

81.8

-73.3

39.3

:

45.4

JP 

3.6

:

0.6

4.3

:

:

0.1

:

0.6

:

0.2

:

0.0

:

:

US

37.5

:

3.2

17.0

-1.0

:

11.1

:

15.5

:

13.2

:

-7.7

:

:

0.5

20.8

Source: Eurostat, European Union Direct Investments (theme2/bop/fdi)

excess  of  25  million.  The  four  largest  EU

retail  and  wholesale  trade.  At  a  more  detailed

and  much  higher  than  the  28.4%  share  for

economies  accounted  for  70%  of  this  total,

slightly less than their share of value added. The

United Kingdom recorded the highest employ-

activity  level,  1998  and  1999  data  for  eleven
Member  States8 indicate  that  retail  sale
through specialised stores (Group 52.4) was the

manufacturing.  This  high  share  of  women  in

employment  is  concentrated  in  retail  trade

where  the  share  was  59.4%,  whilst  in  motor

ment  specialisation  rate  in  distribution  relative
to  the  EU6,  followed  by  the  Netherlands,
Denmark  and  Portugal.  Finland  and  Sweden

largest  Group  in  terms  of  employment  (23%)

trades it was even lower than in manufacturing,

followed  by  non-specialised  retailing  in  stores

at 18.1%. The share of women in employment

(Group  52.1,  15%).  The  smallest  Group  in

in distribution increased in total by 1.5 percent-

were the least specialised in distribution by this

employment  terms  was  the  retail  sale  of  sec-

age points between 1995 and 2000.

measure.

ond-hand  goods  (Group  52.5,  0.3%)  which

For  twelve  Member  States7 National  Accounts
provide information on employment in distribu-

was also the smallest in turnover terms. Group

The share of part-time employment is also high

52.7  which  covers  the  repair  of  personal  and

in  distribution  (22.8%),  again  due  to  a  high

household goods accounted for 1% of employ-

share  in  retailing  (30.7%).  Part-time  employ-

tion in 1995 as well as either 1999 or 2000. All

ment  in  distribution,  which  can  be  compared

ment  in  distribution  is  particularly  high  in  the

of  these  Member  States  recorded  overall

with a 0.2% share of distribution turnover.

Netherlands (43.7%) and the United Kingdom

employment growth during this period ranging

(38.2%).

from  just  under  1%  in  Belgium  to  just  over

The labour force in distribution has a number of

15% in Finland. Employment in the EU distrib-

characteristics that distinguish it from manufac-

Three-quarters  (76.7%)  of  the  persons  in

ution  branch  is  estimated  to  have  grown  by

turing  and  also  from  many  other  services:  a

employment  in  distributive  trades  were  paid

between 5% and 6% overall during the period

high  proportion  of  women  in  employment,  a

employees  in  2000  -  the  self-employed  and

1995 to 1999.

high share of part-time workers, a low propor-

family  workers  together  accounted  for  the

tion of paid employees and consequently a high

remainder (23.3%). The share of self-employed

SBS  estimates  for  1999  indicate  that,  in

proportion of self-employed.

and  family  workers  in  distribution  was  nearly

employment  terms,  retail  trade  accounted  for

three time higher than in manufacturing (8.2%)

52% of distribution, wholesale trade 34% and

According  to  the  LFS,  the  share  of  women  in

and  was  higher  than  the  average  for  services

motor trades 15%. Compared with the split of

employment  in  EU  distribution  in  2000  was

(NACE  Sections  G  to  K)  which  stood  at  just

turnover  this  is  a  reversal  in  the  positions  of

46.8%, 3.3 percentage points higher than the

under  20%.  Considerable  differences  can  be

average for all services (NACE Sections G to K)

seen in the share of employees in total employ-

(6) Calculated as the share of a country in the EU
employment total for distribution divided by the
share of the same country in EU employment for all
branches.
(7) E, IRL and S, not available.

(8) D, EL, IRL and UK, incomplete data.

ment  between  the  Member  States,  with  both

Italy  and  Greece  recording  a  share  of  48%,

showing that more than half of the persons in

employment  in  distribution  in  these  countries

300

NACE 50, 51 and 52

Chapter 15: distributive trades

were self-employed or family workers. This indi-

The same ten Member States report that aver-

age  personnel  costs  vary  greatly  between

cator  splits  the  remaining  EU  Member  States

age personnel costs per employee ranged from

Member States, but the activity with the high-

into  two  groups,  Portugal,  Belgium  and  Spain

24.0  thousand  EUR  in  Italy  to  33.2  thousand

est  average  personnel  costs  is  generally  NACE

where employees accounted for between 60%

EUR  in  Sweden,  with  Portugal  (10.7  thousand

Group  51.6  (wholesale  of  machinery,  equip-

and  70%  of  employment,  and  the  remaining

EUR)  and  Spain  (16.9  thousand  EUR)  falling

ment  and  supplies)  or  NACE  Group  51.1

Member States where employees accounted for

below this range. This ratio of average person-

(wholesale on a fee or contract basis).

between 80% and 90%.

nel  costs  is  influenced,  amongst  other  factors,

by  the  amount  of  part-time  employment.  The

The  proportion  of  persons  in  employment  in

distribution activities that have the lowest aver-

distribution having completed higher education

is  lower  than  in  manufacturing  and  consider-

_____________________________________________________________________________Table 15.5

ably lower than the services' average, but it has
risen in all Member States9 between 1995 and
2000, except for Denmark and Portugal.

Because  of  the  high  proportion  of  part-time

employment  and  the  large  number  of  self-

EU-15

employed and family workers, a simple calcula-

tion  of  labour  productivity  can  be  misleading.

Wage  adjusted  labour  productivity  tries  to

account for both of these characteristics of dis-

tribution - it is expressed as a percentage share

of  value  added  in  personnel  costs,  the  latter

being  adjusted  to  take  account  of  the  unpaid

persons  in  employment.  This  indicator  is  avail-
able for ten Member States10 for 1998 or 1999
and  all  of  them  report  a  value  in  excess  of

100%,  showing  that  value  added  was  greater

than adjusted personnel costs. The highest pro-

ductivity ratios according to this measure were

recorded  in  Luxembourg  (where  value  added

represented 165% of adjusted personnel costs),

Finland (154%) and Portugal (153%), whilst the

lowest  were  in  Belgium  and  Sweden  (both

124%) and Italy (114%). Looking in more activ-

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

Labour force characteristics (% of total employment)

Female
2000

1995

Part-time
2000

1995

Self-employed
1995
2000

Higher level of 
education
1995 2000 (1)

45.3

46.0

40.0

52.5

36.0

41.4

44.4

42.0

35.0

43.7

43.0

54.2

40.9

49.8

45.7

49.2

46.8

48.2

45.4

53.6

37.7

44.7

44.8

46.7

37.7

45.4

44.4

55.1

44.5

48.8

46.1

49.7

20.1

17.1

27.6

22.7

3.3

7.5

15.5

17.0

6.5

9.2

38.7

19.2

5.8

17.8

28.0

36.8

22.8

29.1

28.6

27.5

3.3

7.8

17.5

26.3

9.3

11.8

43.7

25.4

5.8

20.6

24.1

38.2

23.6

30.5

13.1

13.2

48.1

34.7

16.3

22.9

50.4

15.6

14.1

10.2

41.1

17.1

21.3

13.3

20.6

28.6

9.5

13.1

43.3

28.8

14.0

16.0

43.9

14.8

10.3

11.3

33.3

15.9

16.4

11.1

11.6

18.9

17.3

15.9

11.5

12.7

13.5

15.6

3.8

8.5

:

4.2

4.9

17.4

15.6

10.7

12.3

19.8

11.5

16.3

13.8

19.7

17.6

18.3

4.8

11.4

11.4

9.7

2.8

30.9

17.4

14.3

(1) EU-15 and IRL, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey

ity detail, the highest values for this productivi-

_____________________________________________________________________________Table 15.6

ty ratio tend to be in NACE Groups 51.5 (whole-

sale  of  non-agricultural  intermediate  products)

and  52.3  (retail  sale  of  pharmaceutical  and

medical goods) and the lowest in Groups 52.5,

52.6 and 52.7 (retail sale of second hand goods

in  stores,  retail  sale  not  in  stores  and  repair  of

personal and household goods).

(9) IRL and NL, not available.
(10) D, EL, IRL, NL and UK, not available.

Distributive trades (NACE Section G)

Labour productivity and personnel costs, 1999

Apparent labour 
productivity (thousand EUR 
per person employed)

Average personnel costs  
(thousand EUR per 
employee)

Wage adjusted labour 
productivity (%)

39.7

39.4

:

:

22.6

39.0

27.3

27.5

43.0

:

37.5

16.3

42.5

41.3

:

31.9

28.9

:

:

16.9

30.3

:

24.0

26.1

:

28.1

10.7

27.7

33.2

:

124.4

136.7

:

:

133.3

128.6

:

114.4

164.8

:

133.5

152.5

153.5

124.4

:

(1) 1997. (2) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

301

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL (1)

I (2)

L (2)

NL

A

P (2)

FIN

S

UK

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 50.1, 50.3 and 50.4

15.1: SALE OF MOTOR VEHICLES

These activities cover the wholesale, retail and

Box 15.1: the end of the block exemption __________________________________________________

commission sale of new and used motor vehi-

cles  (Group  50.1)  and  motorcycles  (Group

50.4), as well as parts and accessories (Group

The  European  Commission  is  currently  working  on  a  new  regulatory  framework  for  motor
trades11 The  roots  of  the  existing  framework  are  in  Commission  Regulation  (EEC)  No  123/85,
which contained a group (or block) exemption for motor trades based on the principle that the

50.3), including specialist vehicles, lorries, trail-

restrictive  agreements  in  this  sector  brought  about  overall  economic  advantages  which  out-

ers and caravans. In addition, this sub-chapter

weighed  the  disadvantages  for  competition.  This  Regulation  was  replaced  by  Commission

also  covers  the  maintenance  and  repair  of

Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to certain categories

motorcycles,  but  not  of  motor  vehicles  (see

of  motor  vehicle  distribution  and  servicing  agreements.  This  aimed  to  stimulate  competition,

next  sub-chapter).  The  renting  of  motor  vehi-

improve the functioning of the Single Market and to re-balance conflicting interests, in particular

cles is covered in chapter 19.

by  giving  dealers  greater  commercial  independence  from  manufacturers,  giving  independent

manufacturers  and  distributors  of  parts  easier  market  access  and  strengthening  the  position  of

consumers.  This  Regulation  will  expire  on  30  September  2002.  The  European  Commission  has

Looking at demand measures, there are clearly

already adopted a factual analysis of the framework under the current Regulation. The conclusion

two distinct markets for this sector, namely final

of the report was that the block exemption had not achieved all of the Commission's original aims

consumers  (households)  and  business  cus-

and in particular consumers do not seem to have fully benefited from the Single Market. A report

tomers,  although  many  of  the  latter  may  pur-

prepared for the Commission was released in December 2001 on the “impact of possible future

chase directly from manufacturers.

legislative scenarios for motor vehicle distribution on all parties concerned” and a decision on the

way forward is expected during 2002.

Figure 15.2 shows the number of new car reg-

istrations in the EU, which is a rough indicator

of  demand  for  new  cars.  This  indicates  that

There are large price differentials for consumers for motor vehicles across the EU12. These differ-
entials exist on the basis of pre- or post-tax evaluations. Differentials can be explained in part by

there  has  been  growth  in  this  market  from  a

different  specifications  (for  example  left  or  right  hand  drive  cars)  or  by  different  tax  regimes.

low in 1993 (11.2 million registrations) through

Indeed,  manufacturers  argue  that  their  pricing  policies  take  account  of  making  post-tax  prices

to 1999 (14.6 million registrations) with only a

affordable. Generally pre-tax prices are low in Finland, Denmark and Greece and are usually much

small fall (of less than 1%) between 1994 and

higher in Germany, Austria and the United Kingdom. Car price differentials in the second half of

1995.  New  car  registrations  peaked  in  1999

the 1990s have tended to be higher for small cars, which account for 75% of the EU motor vehi-

and  registrations  in  2000  were  2.2%  lower

cles market, than they have for large and luxury cars.

than the year before.

Figure 15.2________________________________

New car registrations in the EU (millions)

20.0

(11) Latest information is available from the Directorate-General for Competition
http://europa.eu.int/comm/competition/car_sector/distribution/
(12) Car price differentials within the European Union on 1 May 2001, Directorate-General for Competition,
available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/competition/car_sector/price_diffs/

14.6 14.3

13.9

Another measure of the demand for the prod-

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

ucts  of  this  sector  is  shown  by  household

This sub-chapter covers the distribution of new

expenditure.  The  Household  Budget  Survey

and used motor vehicles and related parts and

(HBS) provides information on a number of per-

sonal  transport  items  and  these  are  shown  in

table 15.7. Note that expenditure on the main-

accessories.  In  1999  these  sectors  generated
681 billion EUR of turnover in the EU13. In rel-
ative  terms  this  sector  represented  between

tenance  and  repair  of  motor  vehicles  is  also

63%  of  turnover  in  motor  trades  in  Italy  and

included  in  this  table,  although  these  services

87%  in  France.  The  United  Kingdom  had  the

are covered in the next sub-chapter.

largest sector in turnover terms (23% of the EU

total),  followed  by  Germany  (18%).  Between
1995 and 1999 all countries14 showed growth
in turnover, ranging from 12% over the period

in Germany to 93% in Denmark.

(13) FIN, 2000; I, NL and P, 1998; 
EL, not available; IRL, only available for NACE 50.1.
(14) B, DK, D, L, A, FIN, S and UK.

15.0

13.2

11.2 11.7 11.7

13.0

12.4

10.0

5.0

0.0

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Source: Eurostat, European Business Trends
(theme4/ebt)

302

NACE NACE 50.1, 50.3 and 50.4

Chapter 15: distributive trades

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.7

Household consumption expenditure (share of total consumption expenditure, %)

Purchase of motor cars

Purchase of motor cycles

Spare parts and accessories for 
personal transport equipment

Maintenance and repair of 
personal transport equipment

COICOP Year EU-15

B DK

07.1.1

07.1.2

07.2.1

07.2.3

1994

1999

1994

1999

1994

1999

1994

1999

4.9

:

0.2

:

0.4

:

1.4

:

4.2

4.5

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.4

1.5

1.5

6.0

5.8

0.2

0.3

0.7

0.7

1.7

1.6

D

6.0

5.7

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.5

1.5

EL

3.6

4.2

0.0

0.1

0.4

1.3

0.3

0.8

E

3.4

5.7

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

1.8

1.3

F

IRL

6.3

:

0.2

:

0.5

:

1.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

I

3.0

4.2

0.0

0.2

0.2

0.7

2.5

1.5

L

NL

7.3

8.3

0.4

0.3

2.5

1.0

0.0

2.1

2.9

3.8

0.5

0.1

0.4

0.4

1.0

0.9

A

7.6

6.4

0.3

0.2

0.6

0.7

1.8

1.7

P

FIN

S UK

7.1

:

0.3

:

0.9

:

2.4

:

5.4

8.7

0.1

0.3

0.7

0.7

1.0

0.7

4.5

5.8

0.1

0.1

0.9

0.6

1.5

0.9

4.1

5.8

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.9

Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey (theme3/hbs)

_______________________________ Figure 15.3

_____________________________________________________________________________Table 15.8

Sale of motor vehicles 

(NACE Groups 50.1, 50.3 and 50.4)

Number of persons employed, 

1999 (thousands) (1)

0

100

200

300

400

500

397

326

299

150

148

110

D

UK (2)

F

E

I (3)

NL (3)

P (3)

72

B

A

S

52

44

40

DK

36

FIN (4)

17

L (3)

4

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I (1)

L (1)

NL (1)

A

P (1)

FIN

S

UK (2)

Sale of motor vehicles (NACE Groups 50.1, 50.3 and 50.4)

Labour productivity and personnel costs, 1999

Apparent labour 
productivity (thousand EUR 
per person employed)

Average personnel costs  
(thousand EUR per 
employee)

Wage adjusted labour 
productivity (%)

46.1

42.4

:

:

33.3

38.5

:

38.9

47.3

36.7

46.4

21.7

52.3

47.8

:

35.4

31.1

:

:

20.7

30.9

:

26.0

28.6

28.6

31.2

12.3

30.9

35.1

22.5

130.3

136.6

:

:

160.9

124.6

:

149.3

165.1

128.3

148.5

176.9

169.4

136.2

:

(1) 1998.
(2) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

(1) EL and IRL, not available.
(2) Number of employees, 1997.
(3) 1998.
(4) 2000.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

Relative to other distributive trades, the sale of

The number of persons employed in the EU in
these sectors in 1999 was 1.7 million15. There
are  few  time  series  for  employment  in  these

motor  vehicles  typically  records  high  levels  of

wage adjusted labour productivity, comparable

to  those  found  in  own  account  wholesaling.

sectors but Germany, the largest employer, has

recorded slight reductions in employment levels

each  year 

from  403 

thousand  persons

Looking  at  data  for  1998  and  1999,  wage
adjusted  labour  productivity16 was  highest  in
Portugal  (value  added  was  177%  of  adjusted

employed in 1995 to 397 thousand in 1999.

personnel costs) and Finland (169%) and low-

(15) FIN, 2000; I, L, NL and P, 1998; UK, 1997; 
UK, number of employees; EL and IRL, not available.

est  in  the  Netherlands  (128%)  and  France

(125%).  The  high  wage  adjusted  labour  pro-

ductivity in Finland was influenced by a particu-

larly  high  apparent  labour  productivity  figure

(52.3  thousand  EUR  per  person  employed).

Portugal's  low  average  personnel  costs  (12.3

thousand  EUR  per  employee)  more  than  com-

pensated for having the lowest apparent labour

productivity (21.7 thousand EUR).

(16) D, EL, IRL and UK, not available.

303

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 50.2

15.2: REPAIR OF MOTOR VEHICLES

Maintenance  and  repair  of  motor  vehicles

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

Figure 15.4________________________________

includes all types of repairs (mechanical, body-

Excluding  Germany,  Greece  and 

Ireland,

Maintenance and repair of motor vehicles

work  and  electrical),  spraying  and  painting,

ordinary  servicing,  washing  and  polishing,  as

well  as  the  installation  of  replacement  parts

turnover in the EU in this sector was 70 billion
EUR in 199917. In relative terms this sector rep-
resented  between  2%  of  turnover  in  motor

(NACE Group 50.2)

Number of persons employed, 

1999 (thousands) (1)

and accessories (NACE Group 50.2). Equally it

trades  in  Luxembourg  and  17%  in  Finland.

covers tyre repair and fitting, towing, roadside

Germany  aside,  the  sector  was  largest  in

assistance  and  car  cleaning  services.  Many  of

turnover  terms  in  Italy  (18.5  billion  EUR  in

the services covered in this sub-chapter are also

1998)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (16.9  billion

subject  to  the  block  exemption  under

EUR  in  1999),  both  of  which  recorded  strong

Commission Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 - see

growth  since  1995.  Between  1995  and  1999

box 15.1 in sub-chapter 15.1.

Belgium recorded a large fall in turnover in this

I (2)

UK (3)

E

F

sector, from 5 to 3 billion EUR.

0

50

100

150

200

250

235

160

129

105

P (2)

48

A

B

S

DK

NL (2)

25

23

23

18

17

FIN (4)

11

L (2)

0

(1) D, EL and IRL, not available.
(2) 1998.
(3) Number of employees, 1997.
(4) 2000.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

There  are  a  large  number  of  generally  small,

EMPLOYMENT

independent repair shops that carry out repairs

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  1999  in

as  well  as  services.  These  enterprises  compete

amongst  themselves  and  with  motor  vehicle

dealerships  (classified  in  NACE  Group  50.1).

the  EU,  again  excluding  Germany,  Greece  and
Ireland, was 794 thousand18. The employment
figures for Belgium confirmed the fall in activi-

These  independents  face  challenges  posed  by

ty  in  this  sector  that  was  shown  above  for

the  growing  complexity  of  motor  vehicles  and

turnover,  with  employment  down  from  28.1

the need to invest in increasingly sophisticated

thousand  in  1995  to  23.0  thousand  in  1999.

equipment;  indeed,  access  to  technology  has

Employment  grew 

substantially 

in 

the

been  one  of  the  discussion  points  concerning

Netherlands,  from  15.8  thousand  in  1995  to

the development of the new regulatory frame-

17.4  thousand  in  1998,  and  also  in  Finland,

work for the sector.

from 10.1 thousand in 1995 to 11.3 thousand

in 2000.

(17) FIN, 2000; I, NL and P, 1998.
(18) FIN, 2000; I, L, NL and P, 1998; UK, 1997; 
UK, number of employees.

Also  competing  with  motor  sales  dealers  are

national  and  international  chains  replacing

parts that normally wear out once or more dur-

ing  the  lifetime  of  a  vehicle,  such  as  tyres,  fil-

ters, wiper blades, batteries and spark plugs. As

well as expanding their geographical coverage,

some of these motor vehicle replacement parts

enterprises have expanded the range of services

that  they  provide,  notably  into  regular  vehicle

servicing.  Motor  vehicle  manufacturers  have

also moved into this market too.

304

NACE 50.5

Chapter 15: distributive trades

15.3: RETAIL SALE OF 
AUTOMOTIVE FUEL

This  specialist  sector  covers  the  retail  sale  of

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

automotive fuel, lubricating and cooling prod-

ucts for motor vehicles and motorcycles (NACE

Group 50.5). It does not include the wholesale

Turnover in the EU in this sector was 99 billion
EUR in 199919. In relative terms this sector rep-
resented  between  4%  of  turnover  in  motor

_______________________________ Figure 15.5

Retail sale of automotive fuel (NACE

Group 50.5)

Number of persons employed, 

trade of automotive fuel, which is classified as

trades  in  France  and  33%  in  Luxembourg

1999 (thousands) (1)

part of Class 51.51 - the wholesale of all fuel

(where  fuel  is  generally  considerably  cheaper

products,  regardless  of  their  physical  state  or

than in the neighbouring countries of Belgium,

0.0

20.0

40.0

purpose.

Germany and France).

In 1998 there were 113 thousand outlets retail-

The role of service stations in the retailing net-

ing automotive fuels in the EU with combined

work has changed with a broader mix of goods

retail  motor  fuel  sales  of  238  million  m³,

and  services  being  offered  by  service  stations

according to EUROPIA. The largest retail outlets

and increased competition, normally from other

in  terms  of  average  sales  volume  were  in

retailers  such  as  supermarkets  and  hypermar-

Luxembourg (6.4 thousand m³ on average) and

kets.

the smallest were in Greece (0.9 thousand m³)

and Ireland (0.6 thousand m³).

As with the other motor trades sectors this sec-

tor supplies two distinct markets: namely, final

EMPLOYMENT

consumers  (households)  and  commercial  cus-

The number of persons employed in the EU in

tomers,  in  particular  the  transport  sector.  The

Household Budget Survey (HBS) provides aggre-

gated  information  for  household  expenditure

on  the  core  product  group  of  automotive  fuel

the  retail  sale  of  automotive  fuel  in  1999  was
301  thousand20.  Germany  and  Italy  had  the
highest  levels  of  employment  in  199521 but
both saw their employment levels fall, particu-

and lubricants (see table 15.9).

larly Germany, where employment halved from

78.9  thousand  in  1995  to  39.2  thousand  in

1999. Between 1995 and 1999 Finland (30%),

Belgium (14%) and Austria (11%) all reported

growth in employment in excess of 10% as did

the  Netherlands  (21%)  between  1995  and

1998.

(19) FIN, 2000; I, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(20) FIN, 2000; I, L, NL and P, 1998; IRL and UK,
1997; UK, number of employees; EL, not available.
(21) EL, E, F, P, S and UK, not available.

60.0

57.0

50.6

44.4

39.2

26.8

I (2)

UK (3)

E

D

F

P (2)

S

DK

NL (2)

A

IRL (4)

16.2

13.5

11.9

11.6

9.0

7.9

FIN (5)

6.5

B

5.4

L (2)

1.3

(1) EL, not available.
(2) 1998.
(3) Number of employees, 1997.
(4) 1997.
(5) 2000.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.9

Household consumption expenditure (share of total consumption expenditure, %)

Fuels and lubricants for personal 
transport equipment

COICOP Year EU-15

B DK

07.2.2

1994

1999

3.6

:

2.6

3.0

2.9

2.9

D

2.6

3.1

EL

3.4

2.8

E

3.6

4.0

F

IRL

3.6

:

:

:

I

5.5

5.4

L

2.2

2.4

NL

2.7

3.0

A

3.0

3.5

P

FIN

S UK

3.5

:

3.7

3.7

4.3

3.7

3.8

3.7

Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey (theme3/hbs)

305

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 51.1

15.4: WHOLESALE ON A FEE 
OR CONTRACT BASIS

This wholesale sector covers agents trading on

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

Figure 15.6________________________________

behalf  and  on  account  of  others,  those

The employment figures for this sector tend to

Wholesale on a fee or contract basis

involved in bringing sellers and buyers togeth-

be  relatively  high,  as  it  is  not  uncommon  for

(NACE Group 51.1)

er and those undertaking commercial transac-

wholesale  agents  or  brokers  to  carry  out  their

Number of persons employed, 

tions  on  behalf  of  a  principal  (NACE  Group

activity on a part-time basis. The sector is also

1999 (thousands) (1)

51.1).  It  does  not  include  financial  intermedi-

characterised in some countries by a very high

0

100

200

300

400

316

I (2)

E

F

66

65

UK (3)

44

P (2)

32

B

14

NL (2)

10

S

A

DK

FIN (4)

IRL (5)

L (2)

9

9

6

5

2

1

(1) D and EL, not available.
(2) 1998.
(3) Number of employees, 1997.
(4) 2000.
(5) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

aries  such  as  insurance  or  real  estate  agents,

proportion  of  self-employment  (and  family

nor any retail sale by agents.

workers), reaching 90% in Italy (1998), but this

is not universally the case.

These  enterprises  generally  make  up  a  dispro-

Excluding Germany and Greece, employment in

portionately  small  share  of  wholesaling  in

turnover  terms  as  this  measure  only  includes

their  commissions,  whereas  the  turnover  of

the  rest  of  the  EU  reached  580  thousand  in
199923.  Of  these,  316  thousand  were  in  Italy
alone,  reflecting  the  high-proportion  of  part-

own account wholesalers relates to the value of

time employment there.

the goods resold not just the margin on these

goods.

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

Looking  at  data  for  1998  and  1999,  wage
adjusted  labour  productivity24 was  highest  in
Luxembourg  (value  added  was  160.5%  of

In  1999  this  sector,  excluding  Germany  and

adjusted personnel costs). This ratio was below

100% 

in  Belgium 

(88.6%)  and  Austria

(99.8%),  indicating  that  adjusted  personnel

costs exceeded value added.

(23) FIN, 2000; I, L, NL and P, 1998; 
IRL and UK, 1997; UK, number of employees.
(24) D, EL, IRL, NL and UK, not available.

Greece,  generated  turnover  in  excess  of  126
billion EUR in the EU22. It represented between
1%  of  turnover  in  wholesale  trade  in  Ireland

and  14%  in  France.  This  sector  is  so  concen-

trated in France that turnover there was more

than three times higher than in Italy and more

than  four  times  higher  than  in  the  United

Kingdom.  These  three  countries  all  recorded

large  increases  in  turnover  during  the  second

half  of  the  1990s:  with  a  50%  increase  in

France  between  1996  and  1999  and  a  similar

rise in the United Kingdom between 1995 and

1999, whilst there was a 33% increase in Italy

between 1996 and 1998. There was also strong

growth  (28%)  in  Austria  between  1995  and

1999. Turnover in Finland was stable between

1995 and 1999, but figures for 2000 show that

there was a large increase. The remaining coun-

tries  for  which  a  time  series  is  available

(Belgium, Denmark; Luxembourg and Sweden)

all recorded a reduction in turnover of between

8% (Denmark) and 35% (Luxembourg).

(22) FIN, 2000; I, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997.

306

NACE 51.2 to 51.7

Chapter 15: distributive trades

15.5: WHOLESALING ON 
OWN ACCOUNT

These  activities  (NACE  Groups  51.2  to  51.7)

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

_______________________________ Figure 15.7

cover all wholesale trade except that undertak-

en  by  agents  and  that  concerning  motor

trades.  It  covers  resale  (sale  without  transfor-

In 1999 there were just over 790 thousand own
account wholesalers in the EU25, with average
size  in  turnover  terms  generally  ranging  from

Average turnover per enterprise for 

own account wholesalers, 1999 

(million EUR per enterprise) (1)

mation)  of  new  and  used  goods  to  retailers,

less  than  0.2  billion  EUR  per  enterprise  in

industrial, commercial, institutional and profes-

Portugal, Italy and Spain to over 0.5 billion EUR

sional users, as well as other wholesalers and is

per  enterprise  in  Austria,  with  Germany  well

also known as merchant wholesaling.

above  this  range,  with  average  turnover  close

Wholesaling  on  own  account  can  be  seen  as

“pushing” goods through the distribution net-

work from producers to the next users or alter-

natively as providing an interface, a two-direc-

tional link, between producers and users (retail-

ers  or  otherwise).  Either  way,  wholesaling  is

to  0.8  billion  EUR  per  enterprise  (see  figure

15.7).

In  1999  these  sectors  generated  turnover  of
2,695 billion EUR in the EU26. They accounted
for  around  94%  of  turnover  in  wholesale
trade27 - ranging from 86% in France to 99%
in Ireland - and around half of total turnover in

more  than  simply  a  case  of  handling  small

all  distributive  trades  -  ranging  from  44%  in

orders (break of bulk), it may also include ser-

Italy  to  59%  in  Denmark.  In  1999,  Germany

vices  such  as  assembling,  sorting  and  grading

maintained  its  position  as  having  the  largest

of  goods,  labelling,  coding,  repackaging,  bot-

own account wholesaling sector in the EU, with

tling, storage, refrigeration, delivery and instal-

turnover of 570.4 billion EUR. Turnover in this

lation.  As  wholesaling  has  become  more

sector  also  exceeded  500  billion  EUR  in  the

sophisticated there has been an increase in the

United Kingdom for the first time in 1999, hav-

range  of  services  offered  by  wholesalers,

ing  risen  from  392.5  billion  EUR  in  1995  to

notably  to  provide  expertise  in  quality  control

507.8 billion EUR. The Netherlands also record-

and  market  information,  as  well  as  providing

ed  high  growth  over  the  same  period  from

financing.

164.6 billion EUR to 215.1 billion EUR.

D

A

UK

DK

IRL

B

NL

F

FIN

L

S

E

I

P

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

793

517

489

463

423

396

393

335

332

271

225

183

172

157

(1) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs)

The  ability  and  willingness  of  final  consumers,

Like  other  distribution  sectors,  own  account

_______________________________ Figure 15.8

retailers and industrial and professional users to

wholesalers can be distinguished by the type of

Breakdown of own account 

order  directly 

from  manufacturers  has

products that they trade. Figure 15.8 shows the

wholesaling turnover, 1999 (1)

increased, notably through access to new forms

breakdown of own account wholesale trade by

of  sale.  This  has  increased  pressure  on  whole-

specialisation at the Group level of NACE. Own

salers to be more competitive, to provide other

account wholesalers of industrial goods (NACE

value added services and to raise productivity.

Groups 51.2, 51.5 and 51.6) together account-

ed  for  52.5%  of  the  turnover  in  this  sector  in

The primary distinction in this sector is between

1999,  while  own  account  wholesalers  of  con-

wholesalers  of  industrial  goods  and  those  of

sumer  goods  (NACE  Groups  51.3  and  51.4)

consumer goods, which are subject to different

accounted  for  42.6%;  the  remainder  (4.8%)

economic cycles as well as facing different pres-

was accounted for by other wholesaling, which

sures.

includes  wholesalers  specialised  in  other  prod-

ucts as well as unspecialised wholesalers.

Other
4.8%

Machin-
ery, equip-
ment and 
supplies
17.8%

Food, 
beverages 
& tobacco
21.3%

Agricult-
ural raw 
materials, 
animals
5.9%

House-
hold 
goods
21.3%

Non-
agricult-
ural inter-
mediate 
products
28.9%

(25) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(26) FIN, 2000; I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(27) FIN, 2000; I, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
D and EL, not available.

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; EL not available.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs)

307

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 51.2 to 51.7

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

Table 15.10 ____________________________________________________________________________

The number of persons employed in the EU in

Wholesale on own account (NACE Groups 51.2 to 51.7)

these sectors in 1999 was in excess of 6.2 mil-
lion28. German employment data in these sec-
tors  show  a  large  fall  in  absolute  and  relative

terms from 1.30 million in 1995 to 1.21 million

in  1999  (a  reduction  of  6.4%).  Amongst  the
eight  Member  States29 for  which  1998  and
1999  employment  data  are  available,  only

France (2.3%) and Belgium (2.2%) recorded an

increase in employment levels.

Own  account  wholesalers  of  industrial  goods

(NACE  Groups  51.2,  51.5  and  51.6)  together

accounted  for  49.6%  of  employment  in  this

sector in 1999, while own account wholesalers

of  consumer  goods  (NACE  Groups  51.3  and

51.4) accounted for 46.2% (see figure 15.10).

Compared  to  turnover  this  indicated  a  smaller

share of employment for wholesaling of indus-

trial goods and a larger share for wholesaling of

consumer goods.

Wage  adjusted  labour  productivity  is  generally

high in these sectors, ranging from 133.5% in
Sweden  to  184.4%  in  Portugal30.  In  all  coun-
tries for which data was available, productivity

Labour productivity and personnel costs, 1999

Apparent labour 
productivity (thousand EUR 
per person employed)

Average personnel costs  
(thousand EUR per 
employee)

Wage adjusted labour 
productivity (%)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL (1)

I (2)

L (2)

NL (2)

A

P (2)

FIN

S

UK (1)

58.4

56.0

:

:

30.5

50.3

50.9

44.4

59.5

53.7

52.6

25.0

58.7

54.6

:

42.2

38.8

:

:

19.9

37.3

:

28.3

33.8

31.8

37.1

13.5

35.4

40.9

28.5

138.5

144.4

:

:

153.6

134.8

:

156.7

175.9

168.8

141.5

184.4

165.9

133.5

:

(1) 1997.
(2) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Figure 15.9________________________________

Figure 15.10_______________________________

Wholesale on own account 

(NACE Groups 51.2 to 51.7)

Breakdown of own account 

wholesaling employment, 1999 (1)

Machin-
ery, equip-
ment and 
supplies
21.8%

Non-
agricult-
ural inter-
mediate 
products
22.8%

Other
4.2%

Food, 
beverages 
& tobacco
21.3%

Agricult-
ural raw 
materials, 
animals
5.0%

House-
hold 
goods
24.8%

(1) I, L, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; EL and UK, not
available.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs)

measured  in  this  way  was  higher  in  own

Number of persons employed, 

account  wholesaling  than  in  distribution  as  a

1999 (thousands) (1)

whole.

0

500

1,000

1,500

(28) FIN, 2000; I, L, NL and P, 1998; IRL and UK,
1997; UK, number of employees; EL, not available.
(29) B, DK, D, E, F, A, FIN and S.
(30) I, L, NL and P, 1998; 
D, EL, IRL and UK, not available.

1,213

1,027

906

813

699

D

UK (2)

F

E

I (3)

NL (3)

P (3)

B

S

A

DK

FIN (4)

75

IRL (5)

48

L (3)

12

421

234

207

205

184

169

(1) EL, not available.
(2) Number of employees, 1997.
(3) 1998.
(4) 2000.
(5) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

308

NACE 52.11 and 52.2

Chapter 15: distributive trades

15.6: RETAIL TRADE OF FOOD ITEMS

These activities cover the retail sale of food, bev-

erages and tobacco, either in specialised stores

(NACE Group 52.2) or in non-specialised stores

____________________________ Box 15.2: local shops in rural communities - not just food retailing
The  European  Commission  has  released  the  results  of  a  study31 on  “Best  European  practice
regarding local shops in disadvantaged rural areas”. It stresses the important role that local shops

which have a predominance of these products

play in rural communities that often face difficulties from a declining and ageing population. These

(NACE  Class  52.11).  In  this  sub-chapter  these

shops  supply  both  the  local  population  and  visitors  with  basic  goods  and  services,  particularly

activities are referred to as food retailing.

important for persons with reduced mobility. They contribute to the quality of local life, provide a

point  for  social  contact  and  are  a  prerequisite  for  the  development  of  other  activities  and  the

preservation of traditional activities.

By  definition  nearly  all  food  retailing  is  to  final

consumers  and  most  of  the  items  sold  by  this

In order to achieve viability, the business format often needs to be tailored to the local environ-

sector are essential goods of relatively low unit

ment  and  this  may  mean  diversification  from  a  food  dominating  non-specialised  store  into  a

value which tend to be less influenced by con-

provider of a broad range of services. Small businesses in rural areas are often faced with higher

sumer confidence than non-food items (see sub-

costs, due for example to low stock rotation because of the level of custom, low bargaining power

chapter  15.7).  The  high  proportion  of  house-

and higher distribution costs being charged by suppliers. Participation in co-operatives or associa-

hold expenditure accounted for by items typical-

tions may help to reduce some of these costs. Furthermore, the costs of acquiring and maintain-

ly  sold  by  this  sector  can  be  seen  from  the

ing  skills  levels  may  be  higher,  an  increasingly  important  issue  as  the  retail  industry  undergoes

Household Budget Survey (HBS) data presented

major changes, notably in the use of modern information technology.

in  table  15.11.  In  most  Member  States  the

expenditure  on  these  items  is  less  than  that

spent  on  housing,  water  and  fuels,  but  more

than that spent on transport goods and services.

(31) Available from the Commerce and distribution theme of the Enterprise Directorate-General's library at
http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/library.

Large  food  retailers  have  been  active  in  the

communities (see box 15.2). Large food retail-

growth  of  out-of-town  retail  centres  which

ers  have  seen  their  domestic  market  shares

have generally had a negative impact on retail-

grow,  and  most  have  attempted  to  expand

ing within town centres and has increased the

internationally, particularly in Eastern Europe.

problems already faced by small retailers in rural

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.11

Structure of household expenditure, 1999 (share of total consumption expenditure, %)

COICOP

B

DK

D

EL

E F (1)

IRL

I

L

NL

A P (1)

FIN

S

UK

Food, beverages and tobacco

01 + 02

15.6

17.3

13.9

20.1

21.0

18.9

Food

Bread and cereals

Meat

Fish and seafood

Milk, cheese and eggs

Oils and fats

Fruit

Vegetables

01.1

01.1.1

01.1.2

01.1.3

01.1.4

01.1.5

01.1.6

01.1.7

Sugar, jam, chocolate, confectionery 01.1.8

Food products n.e.c.

Non-alcoholic beverages

Coffee, tea and cocoa

Mineral waters, soft drinks, juices

Alcoholic beverages, tobacco

Spirits

Wine

Beer

Tobacco

01.1.9

01.2

01.2.1

01.2.2

02

02.1.1

02.1.2

02.1.3

02.2

12.1

11.6

2.4

3.6

0.8

1.6

0.3

0.9

1.2

0.9

0.4

1.3

0.3

1.0

2.3

0.2

0.9

0.4

0.9

2.2

2.8

0.6

1.9

0.4

0.7

1.3

1.5

0.3

1.5

0.6

0.9

4.2

0.4

1.0

0.8

1.9

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

2.8

:

:

:

:

15.7

17.3

15.2

2.0

4.0

1.3

2.5

1.5

1.4

1.9

1.0

0.1

0.9

0.3

0.6

3.5

0.2

0.2

0.2

2.9

2.8

5.2

2.5

2.5

0.7

1.4

1.4

0.6

0.2

1.0

0.4

0.6

2.7

0.1

0.4

0.2

1.9

2.8

4.5

1.0

2.2

0.4

1.1

1.8

0.8

0.6

1.0

0.3

0.7

2.7

0.5

1.2

0.0

1.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

20.9

12.1

12.6

16.0

24.0

17.1

18.3

13.5

17.4

3.3

4.7

1.6

2.8

0.9

1.8

1.7

0.7

0.2

1.6

0.6

1.0

1.9

0.1

0.6

0.2

1.0

9.1

1.6

2.7

0.5

1.3

0.3

0.8

0.9

0.6

0.3

1.0

0.3

0.7

2.0

0.2

0.8

0.2

0.8

9.5

1.8

2.2

0.3

1.6

0.3

0.8

1.3

0.7

0.6

1.0

0.4

0.7

2.1

0.3

0.6

0.4

0.8

12.0

20.5

12.9

2.2

2.9

0.3

1.8

0.5

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.3

1.3

0.5

0.9

2.6

0.1

0.5

0.4

1.5

3.2

6.2

3.2

2.5

1.2

1.6

2.0

0.5

0.1

0.7

0.3

0.4

2.8

0.2

1.0

0.2

1.5

2.4

2.7

0.5

2.5

0.4

1.0

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.3

0.5

0.7

2.9

0.5

0.5

0.8

1.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

2.9

:

:

:

1.0

9.5

2.0

2.4

0.4

1.3

0.2

0.7

1.5

0.7

0.4

0.9

0.3

0.6

3.0

0.3

0.7

0.4

1.5

(1) 1994.
Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey (theme3/hbs)

309

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 52.11and 52.2

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

Austria  and  Finland.  The  largest  fall  in  relative

In  1999  there  were  over  700  thousand  food

terms was in Denmark, where specialised food

States36. Collectively food items accounted for
39% of turnover by retailers. Tobacco products

retailing enterprises in the EU, with an average

retailers generated 16.1% of turnover in 1995

were  the  most  sold  item  through  specialised

size of just under 900 thousand EUR per enter-

(17.7% in 1996) and only 10.0% by 1999.

stores (37%) followed by meat and meat prod-

prise  (see  figure  15.11).  In  the  EU  there  were

around  20  food  retailing  enterprises  per  10
thousand inhabitants in 199932, ranging from
the most dense networks in Portugal and Spain

Table 15.12 provides a complementary view of

tion (8%) of the retail sales of bread, cakes and

the  sector,  showing  the  importance  of  certain

confectionery  products  were  made  in  spe-

categories  of  food  from  the  retailer's  perspec-

cialised bakeries and cake shops; the rest of the

ucts from butchers (25%). Only a small propor-

to the most sparse in Germany.

tive, as well as giving an indication of the extent

retail  sales  of  these  products  were  accounted

to which sales of these items are undertaken by

for by non-specialised retail stores or stores spe-

specialists.  The  table  provides  information  for

cialising in other product categories.

1997 and is based on data from nine Member

(36) DK, D, E, F, I, NL, P, S and UK.

In  1999,  food  retailing  generated  turnover  of
655  billion  EUR  in  the  EU33.  It  accounted  for
around 46% of retail turnover34, ranging from
34%  in  Austria  to  53%  in  France.  In  1999

France  maintained  its  position  of  having  the

largest  food  retailing  sector  in  the  EU,  with

turnover of 148.6 billion EUR.

Food  retailing  can  be  distinguished  between

retailers  specialised  in  a  particular  category  of

Figure 15.11 ___________________________________________________________________________

food  products  and  non-specialised  retailers

Food retailing network, 1999 (1)

with food predominating that sell a wide range

of food products. In the EU in 1999, specialised

food  retailers  accounted  for  15.6%  of  the

turnover generated by food retailers, this share

ranging  from  7.7%  in  France  to  35.7%  in
Spain.  Most  Member  States35 that  provide  a
time-series  report  that  the  share  of  specialised

food  retailers  in  the  food  retailing  sector  has

fallen  during  the  second  half  of  the  1990s,

although  there  are  some  exceptions,  such  as

(32) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(33) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(34) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
D, EL, E and NL, not available.
(35) Data available for 3 or more years from 1995 to
1999 for all countries except EL, E and NL.

P

E

I

l

n
o
i
t
a
u
p
o
p

0
0
0
,
0
1

r
e
p

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

f
o

r
e
b
m
u
N

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

IRL

EU-15

B

S

NL

A

FIN

DK

UK

L

F

D

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Average turnover per enterprise (million ECU)

(1) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997; EL, not available.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

Table 15.12 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Breakdown of retailers' sales of goods, 1997 (%) (1)

CPA 
heading

Share of these goods as a proportion of 
all retail sales of goods by retailers

Share of sales by specialists in these 
goods as a proportion of all sales of 
these goods by retailers

All retail goods sold by retailers

52

All food, beverages and tobacco sold by retailers

52.1 & 52.2

Fruit and vegetables

Meat and meat products

Fish and shell fish

Bread, cakes and confectionery

Beverages

Tobacco

Other food products

52.21

52.22

52.23

52.24

52.25

52.26

52.27

100.0

39.0

4.3

6.5

1.5

4.2

6.1

2.7

13.7

-

-

11.4

24.9

20.5

8.3

15.9

37.5

4.1

(1) INFORMA estimates; geographical coverage is DK, D, E, F, I, NL, P, S and UK; retailers are considered to be enterprises classified within NACE Division 52, except
NACE Group 52.7 excluded for D and NACE Classes 52.12, 52.31 and Group 52.5 excluded for NL; total retail sales of goods includes all goods retailed, regardless of
whether they are sold through specialised or unspecialised retailers, or through in-store or distance selling.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

310

 
 
 
 
 
NACE 52.11 and 52.2

Chapter 15: distributive trades

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

____________________________________________________________________________Table 15.13

Excluding Greece and the United Kingdom, the

Retail sale of food, beverages or tobacco (NACE Class 52.11 and Group 52.2)

Labour productivity and personnel costs, 1999

Apparent labour 
productivity (thousand EUR 
per person employed)

Average personnel costs  
(thousand EUR per 
employee)

Wage adjusted labour 
productivity (%)

27.2

22.0

:

:

15.4

31.5

17.0

20.1

31.5

15.0

23.6

9.5

32.4

28.3

:

22.8

17.1

:

:

11.9

23.5

:

21.5

19.2

10.0

19.0

8.2

22.0

24.5

:

119.1

128.6

:

:

128.6

134.0

:

93.4

164.2

150.4

124.3

115.7

147.1

115.4

:

(1) 1997.
(2) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

number of persons employed in the EU in food
retailing  in  1999  was  3.4  million37.  Wage
adjusted  labour  productivity  is  generally  lower

in  this  sector  than  in  distribution  as  a  whole,

but higher than in non-food retailing, although

several  countries  report  a  different  position,

notably  Portugal  where  non-food  retailing  has

higher  productivity  and  France  where  food

retailing  has  higher  productivity  than  distribu-

tion in general. The lowest level of wage adjust-

ed  productivity  was  recorded  in  Italy  (value

added representing 93.4% of adjusted person-
nel costs, 1998)38, which was the only country
to  report  a  level  below  100%  indicating  that

adjusted  personnel  costs  in  Italy  were  higher

than value added.

(37) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997.
(38) D, EL, IRL and UK, not available.

______________________________ Figure 15.12

Retail sale of food, beverages or tobacco

(NACE Class 52.11 and Group 52.2)

Number of persons employed, 

1999 (thousands) (1)

0

250

500

750

1,000

B

DK

D

EL

E (1)

F

IRL (1)

I (2)

L (2)

NL (2)

A

P (2)

FIN

S

UK

811

619

543

536

D (2)

F

I (2)

E (3)

NL (2)

251

P (2)

140

B

S

A

DK

111

94

80

80

IRL (3)

65

FIN

43

L (2)

5

(1) EL and UK, not available.
(2) 1998.
(3) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

311

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 52.12 and 52.3 to 52.6

15.7: RETAIL TRADE OF 
NON-FOOD ITEMS

These  activities  cover  retail  sale  other  than

By  definition  retailers  sell  to  final  consumers

As  well  as  being  cyclical,  non-food  retailing  is

food, beverages and tobacco. Retail sales may

although there is also a proportion of their sales

also  seasonal,  and  a  large  proportion  of  sales

be in the form of new goods from specialised

that go to intermediate consumers, for example

are made in the period leading up to Christmas,

stores  (Groups  52.3  and  52.4),  new  goods

smaller  enterprises  purchasing  office  furniture

whilst  a  relatively  low  proportion  of  sales  are

from non-specialised stores (Class 52.12), used

and supplies. Whilst some of the goods sold by

made in January, February and August.

or  second-hand  goods  in  stores  (Group  52.5)

this sector are small items purchased frequent-

or  sales  not  in  stores  (Group  52.6).  Note  that

ly, even daily, for example newspapers, many of

An  important  distinction  in  this  sector  is

the  retail  sale  of  motor  vehicles  and  automo-

the items can be regarded as semi-durables or

between  retail  trading  through  stores  and

tive fuels is excluded, as is all renting and hir-

durables.  The  sales  of  durable  items,  such  as

remote-selling.  The  former  consists  of  a  num-

ing  of  personal  and  household  goods  to  the

furniture and household appliances, are cyclical

ber of mature retail sectors with relatively slow

general public.

and are strongly influenced by consumer confi-

growth, normally but not always specialised in

dence and purchases of replacement items tend

the sale of a particular non-food product range.

to  be  postponed  when  confidence  is  low.  The

Remote-selling  is  much  smaller  than  trading

proportion  of  household  expenditure  account-

through  stores  and  covers  a  diverse  range  of

ed for by items typically sold by this sector can

trading forms, most notably direct sales such as

be  seen  from  the  Household  Budget  Survey

mail-order catalogues and television, radio and

(HBS) data presented in table 15.14.

Internet sales. In this respect it is important to

note  that  the  statistics  from  the  SBS  database

used  in  this  chapter  require  the  data  for  each

enterprise  to  be  included  only  in  its  largest

activity;  hence  enterprises  that  trade  through

stores  and  use  remote-selling  as  well  will  be

classified within their principal activity.

Table 15.14 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Structure of household expenditure, 1999 (share of total consumption expenditure, %)

COICOP

B DK

D EL

E F (1)

IRL

I

L NL

A P (1) FIN

S UK

Clothing

Footwear

03.1 except 03.1.4

03.2.1

4.3

1.0

4.4

1.0

4.5

1.0

6.4

2.0

5.9

1.5

4.6

0.9

Furnishings, household equip. & maintenance 
products, excl. repair & domestic services

05 except 05.1.3, 
05.3.3, 05.6.2

Furniture, furnishings, carpets, excluding repair 05.1.1 + 05.1.2

Household textiles

05.2

Household appliances, excluding repair

05.3.1 + 05.3.2

Tools and equipment for house and garden

Medical products, appliances and equipment

Telephone and telefax equipment

05.5

06.1

08.2

Recreation and culture, 
excluding repair and 
maintenance services

09.1 + 09.2 + 09.3 + 
09.5 except 09.1.5, 
09.2.3, 09.3.5

5.3

5.8

6.8

6.2

4.2

6.1

2.0

0.7

0.6

0.6

1.9

0.2

2.5

0.5

0.8

0.6

1.3

0.1

3.4

0.5

0.8

0.5

1.8

0.2

1.3

1.4

0.9

0.2

1.2

0.0

1.6

0.4

0.8

0.2

1.4

0.0

2.3

0.3

0.9

0.9

2.4

0.1

4.7

6.6

6.0

2.8

3.4

5.0

Audio-visual, photographic and information 
processing equipment, excluding repair

09.1 except 09.1.5

1.0

2.3

1.8

0.6

1.0

1.8

Newspapers, books and stationery

09.5

Personal care appliances and personal effects

12.1 + 12.3

1.6

1.4

1.7

1.6

1.7

3.1

1.4

1.3

1.5

1.2

1.5

1.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

5.4

1.4

4.9

0.9

4.9

1.0

5.1

1.5

4.8

1.5

3.8

0.8

4.1

1.1

4.4

1.0

6.5

7.1

6.2

6.8

5.5

4.2

4.9

6.8

2.8

0.4

0.5

0.2

2.4

0.0

3.5

0.7

0.8

0.7

1.1

0.5

2.8

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.1

3.3

0.7

1.0

0.4

1.2

0.2

2.5

0.7

0.9

0.1

2.1

0.0

1.7

0.3

0.9

0.5

1.8

0.3

1.8

0.5

0.8

0.6

1.1

0.2

3.4

0.5

0.9

0.7

0.7

0.1

3.5

5.0

6.5

5.4

2.5

6.6

7.0

6.0

0.8

1.4

2.1

1.5

1.0

1.8

2.2

1.9

1.5

2.0

1.3

2.3

1.9

1.4

1.6

1.8

0.9

1.2

2.1

1.2

2.3

1.3

1.7

1.3

(1) 1994.
Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey (theme3/hbs)

312

NACE 52.12 and 52.3 to 52.6

Chapter 15: distributive trades

_______ Box 15.3: opening hours in retail trade

STRUCTURAL PROFILE

Non-food  retailing  can  be  distinguished

In  1999 

the 

European  Commission's

Directorate-General for Economic and Financial

Affairs  conducted  a  labour  market  survey

In 1999 there were 1.8 million non-food retail
enterprises  in  the  EU39,  with  average  size  in
turnover terms generally ranging from less than

between retailers specialised in a particular cat-

egory  of  non-food  products  and  non-spe-

cialised retailers that sell a wide range of non-

which,  amongst  many  other  issues,  compiled

250 thousand EUR per enterprise in Spain and

food  products.  In  the  EU  in  1999,  specialised

information  on  opening  hours  in  retail  trade

Italy  to  over  1  million  EUR  in  the  United

retailers  accounted  for  90.5%  of  non-food

(including  food  retailing).  Comparative  infor-

Kingdom  (see  figure  15.14).  There  were

retailing,  this  share  ranging  from  70.8%  in

mation is available for most EU Member States

approximately  50  non-food  retail  enterprises

Finland  to  98.9%  in  Portugal.  Their  share  of

for  1994.  Figure  15.13  shows  that  average

per 10 thousand inhabitants in the EU in 1999,

opening  hours  have  increased  between  1994

ranging  from  the  most  dense  networks  of

and  1999  in  7  of  the  10  Member  States  for

Spain,  Italy  and  Portugal  to  the  least  dense  in

non-food  retailing  remained  relatively  stable
between 1995 and 199942, except in Denmark
(14.2 percentage point increase), Belgium (12.3

which  the  comparison  can  be  made  and  it  is

Germany and the United Kingdom.

points) and Finland (7.6 points).

estimated that shops in the EU are open for 56

hours per week on average.

______________________________ Figure 15.13

Average opening hours per week, 

retail trade (units) (1)

0

20

40

60

80

B

F

IRL

EL

UK

NL

D

S

I

DK

P

E

A

1994 (2)

1999

(1) L and FIN, not available.
(2) IRL, A and S, not available.
Source: European Economy, Supplement B, Business
and Consumer Survey results, No. 5 - May 2000

In 1999 non-food retailing generated turnover
in  excess  of  795  billion  EUR  in  the  EU40.  This
sector accounted for 53% of turnover in retail
trade41, ranging from 46% in France to 65% in
Austria.  Germany  had  the  largest  non-food

retailing sector in the EU, although its turnover

Table  15.15  shows  the  importance  of  certain

non-food categories for retailers as well as giv-

ing an indication of the extent to which sales of

these items are undertaken by specialists; data
is for 1997 and covers nine Member States43.
Collectively non-food items accounted for 61%

fell from 208.2 billion EUR in 1995 to 193.9 bil-

of  turnover  by  all  retailers.  For  most  of  the

lion  by  1999.  Since  1995,  Ireland  (43.7%  to

product  categories  considered,  the  proportion

1997)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (42.4%  to

sold  through  specialised  stores was high, gen-

1999)  recorded  the  highest  growth  rates  for

erally higher than for food products. The high-

turnover.  Looking  at  the  latest  growth  rates,

est proportions were recorded for pharmaceuti-

between  1998  and  1999,  all  Member  States

cal goods (93%) whose sale is generally regu-

that reported data for both periods experienced

lated. The lowest rates were recorded for cos-

growth, notably Sweden where 1999 turnover

metic and toiletries (29%) and textiles (27%).

was more than 10% higher.

(39) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997; 
EL, not available.
(40) D, I, L and P 1998; E and IRL, 1997; 
EL and NL, not available.
(41) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; 
D, EL, E and NL, not available.

(42) Data available for 3 or more years from 1995 to
1999 for all countries except EL, E and NL.
(43) DK, D, E, F, I, NL, P, S and UK.

___________________________________________________________________________ Figure 15.14

Non-food retailing network, 1999 (1)

l

n
o
i
t
a
u
p
o
p

0
0
0
,
0
1

r
e
p

s
e
s
i
r
p
r
e
t
n
e

f
o

r
e
b
m
u
N

100

75

50

25

0

0.0

E

P

I

B
EU-15

S

F

L

IRL

FIN

A

D

DK

UK

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Average turnover per enterprise (million ECU)

(1) D, I, L and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997; EL and NL, no or incomplete data available.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

313

 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 52.12 and 52.3 to 52.6

Table 15.15 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Breakdown of retailers' sales of goods, 1997 (%) (1)

CPA 
heading

Share of these goods as a proportion of 
all retail sales of goods by retailers

Share of sales by specialists in these 
goods as a proportion of all sales of 
these goods by retailers

All retail goods sold by retailers

52

All retail goods excluding food, beverages & tobacco

52.3-52.7

Pharmaceutical goods

Medical and orthopaedic goods

Cosmetic and toilet articles

Textiles

Clothing

Footwear and leather goods

52.31

52.32

52.33

52.41

52.42

52.43

Furniture, lighting equip. & other household articles

52.44

Electrical household appliances, radios and televisions 52.45

Hardware, paint and glass

Books, newspapers and stationery

Other new goods

Second hand goods

52.46

52.47

52.48

52.5

100.0

61.0

6.0

0.5

3.3

2.0

10.6

2.7

7.6

5.2

4.7

3.1

15.0

0.3

-

-

92.6

38.5

29.0

26.6

72.8

68.9

62.8

60.0

69.4

54.7

58.0

61.3

(1) INFORMA estimates; geographical coverage is DK, D, E, F, I, NL, P, S and UK; retailers are considered to be enterprises classified within NACE Division 52, except
NACE Group 52.7 excluded for D and NACE Classes 52.12, 52.31 and Group 52.5 excluded for NL; total retail sales of goods includes all goods retailed, regardless of
whether they are sold through specialised or unspecialised retailers, or through in-store or distance selling.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs)

Figure 15.15_______________________________

Table 15.16 ____________________________________________________________________________

Retail sale of non-food items (NACE 

Retail sale of non-food items (NACE Class 52.12 and Groups 52.3 to 52.6)

Class 52.12 and Groups 52.3 to 52.6)

Labour productivity and personnel costs, 1999

Number of persons employed, 

1999 (thousands) (1)

Apparent labour 
productivity (thousand EUR 
per person employed)

Average personnel costs  
(thousand EUR per 
employee)

Wage adjusted labour 
productivity (%)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

1,764

1,016

858

832

D (2)

I (2)

F

E (3)

NL (2)

405

P (2)

270

A

B

S

185

172

137

DK

114

FIN

69

IRL (3)

66

L (2)

12

(1) EL and UK, not available.
(2) 1998.
(3) 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics
(theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

B

DK

D

EL

E (1)

F

IRL (1)

I (2)

L (2)

NL

A

P (2)

FIN

S

25.2

28.3

:

:

17.9

33.2

19.7

20.4

29.4

:

27.7

12.6

31.5

30.3

21.5

22.2

:

:

13.9

26.7

:

20.9

20.8

:

22.1

8.7

21.9

27.4

UK
(1) 1997.
(2) 1998.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

:

:

117.2

127.8

:

:

129.6

124.5

:

97.5

141.4

:

125.2

144.4

144.1

110.7

:

LABOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY

Wage  adjusted  labour  productivity  is  generally

Excluding Greece and the United Kingdom, the

lower  in  this  sector  than  in  distribution  as  a

number of persons employed in the EU in non-
food  retailing  in  1999  was  5.9  million44. 

whole.  Like  food  retailing,  only  Italy  (97.5%,
1998) recorded a level below 100%45.

(44) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997.

(45) D, EL, IRL, NL and UK, not available.

314

NACE 50.1, 50.2 and 50.3

Chapter 15: distributive trades

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.17

Sale of motor vehicles (NACE Group 50.1)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

6,923

2,250 21,523

: 11,457 28,910

984 13,342

379 13,610

1,942

4,227

1,486

3,760 29,761

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

39.5

28.9

304.2

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

31,799 13,697 101,973

: 48,139 87,273

5,623 66,176 1,552 38,787 12,847 16,488

7,872 17,067 133,584

29,966 10,184 83,366

: 45,692 79,490

5,186 65,035 1,102 31,473 11,354 15,545

7,182 15,669 118,471

1,881

1,225

1,113

842

:

:

332

210

1,811

2.4

2.8

47.6

42.3

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

3,814

8,701

484

3,704

166

3,310

1,555

1,213

586

1,455 15,807

2,120

6,634

:

1,855

88

2,082

958

609

320

985

6,482

103.3

223.6

10.8

85.7

3.3

91.4

32.3

46.3

10.1

30.1

214.9

917

1,330

35

474

:

695

179

564

146

448

1,864

3.5

2.4

:

2.8

6.2

3.2

4.7

3.7

3.5

2.8

7.0

36.9

38.9

45.0

43.2

50.3

36.2

48.2

26.2

60.0

48.4

168.5

125.6

:

160.3 179.9

125.1

152.3

192.3

179.0

138.8

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

134.0

137.6

(1) I, 1997; I, NL and P, 1998; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.18

Maintenance and repair of motor vehicles (NACE Group 50.2)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I 

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of enterprises (units)

Turnover (million EUR) (2)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

8,298

4,878

2,959

2,264

2,344

1,689

638

348

618

354

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

23.0

17.5

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

186

54

9.8

11.6

27.7

35.2

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

104.2

129.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 43,691 34,615

: 99,638

126

3,390

3,111 14,908

4,849 10,195 26,089

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

6,975 11,048

: 18,512

60

1,325

3,046

1,788

2,267

2,831 16,875

4,988

8,044

: 14,145

49

548

2,249

1,337

1,815

2,130 10,988

2,099

3,056

1,407

2,255

128.9

104.9

402

358

9.9

7.2

16.3

29.1

104.3

112.3

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

4,557

2,124

18

9

562

342

782

529

458

310

396

232

737

5,668

486

2,931

234.8

0.5

17.4

24.7

47.6

11.3

23.0

160.5

606

:

70

119

146

91

143

592

13.1

13.0

16.6

8.3

8.3

7.6

8.9

16.2

19.4

35.4

32.4

31.6

9.6

34.0

32.0

100.2 152.9

130.8

131.8

113.4

128.7

108.8

:

:

(1) I, NL and P, 1998; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) FIN, 2000. (3) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. 
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.19

Sale of motor vehicle parts and accessories (NACE Group 50.3)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

10.3

2,014

558

6,956

3,789

1,207 18,347

3,406

939 12,923

444

285

269

189

6.1

:

:

84.2

77

32

316

4.2

6.6

43.3

43.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

7,192

6,209

: 10,978

112

2,150

827

2,873

1,428

1,742

7,630

6,067 11,680

5,198

9,309

1,017

2,374

629

1,899

40.0

62.1

152

228

6.4

4.1

25.4

38.2

141.7

122.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

9,509

152

4,666

2,249

2,002

1,504

2,601 17,613

8,186

123

3,721

1,824

1,745

1,236

2,217 13,978

1,573

658

24

20

615

381

412

279

264

173

41.5

0.7

15.8

10.0

17.7

275

168

6.5

393

3,533

271

1,972

8.2

99.3

142

:

74

61

78

27

37

310

9.6

2.5

5.0

5.9

4.6

7.1

4.7

8.9

37.9

33.6

38.8

41.2

15.0

41.7

47.9

151.8 103.8

142.8

136.5

145.9

153.5

130.7

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

120.3

133.8

(1) I, NL and P, 1998; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

315

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 50.4, 50.5 and 51.1

Table 15.20 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sale, maintenance and repair of motorcycles and related (NACE Group 50.4)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

911

593

119

1,857

187

2,557

543

139

2,115

59

21

2.0

17

19

13

0.5

:

:

8.9

1

49

6.4

3.0

30.3

34.3

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

125.3

112.1

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

2,296

4,647

1,218

3,671

1,123

3,310

145

69

6.4

446

317

13.4

27

43

6.2

3.5

22.9

33.4

151.9

117.7

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

L

12

19

17

2

1

NL

705

814

A

P

FIN

S

UK

251

2,938

366

713

181

178

698

2,077

483

2,527

664

314

632

143

433

2,160

100

51

2.4

52

30

1.2

83

44

8.0

17

8

0.4

52

31

305

194

1.5

12.2

9,464

5,024

4,869

456

171

20.3

0.0

53

:

8

3

27

2

9

34

5.7

6.0

6.1

6.2

5.5

5.5

4.5

4.4

22.5

44.5

41.6

43.3

10.4

40.0

35.3

104.5 193.1

161.5

143.7

137.3

165.7

116.9

:

:

(1) I, NL and P, 1998; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.21 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Retail sale of automotive fuel (NACE Group 50.5)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

2,175

922

6,839

3,481

2,793

5,218

3,286

2,604

4,271

190

64

5.4

227

144

:

:

11.9

39.2

54

43

151

3.6

3.0

35.4

19.0

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

154.6

147.3

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

4,958

6,507

1,255 25,668

207

1,630

1,951

2,008

1,217

2,105

6,741

9,211

4,872

1,311 28,138

886

5,619

1,684

4,358

1,406

5,401 24,718

8,021

4,214

1,176 26,983

818

5,049

1,412

4,182

1,166

4,964 22,945

1,097

728

668

575

140

1,253

:

367

60

23

334

205

44.4

26.8

7.9

57.0

1.3

11.6

265

143

9.0

179

135

16.2

187

125

6.5

529

1,683

362

819

13.5

50.6

268

58

12

64

:

23

29

59

23

287

229

4.0

1.9

:

3.1

4.2

2.3

7.2

1.0

4.6

3.1

3.5

24.7

25.0

17.7

22.0

44.7

28.8

29.3

11.1

28.3

39.3

143.0

107.7

:

116.8 213.4

149.6

145.3

128.2

140.0

137.8

:

:

(1) IRL, 1997; I, NL and P, 1998; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.22 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Wholesale on a fee or contract basis (NACE Group 51.1)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

:

:

:

:

:

:

Number of enterprises (units)

Turnover (million EUR) (2)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

13.7

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

99

38

10.1

7.9

43.2

53.9

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

88.6

145.3

8,851

1,421

3,521

1,782

2,926

1,499

591

236

346

206

6.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

: 47,055 39,093

510 248,530

479

4,060

3,998 15,071

4,274

3,511 16,204

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

2,833 68,924

102 21,004

259

2,950

772

5,238

809

2,732 15,502

949 63,385

40 12,072

282

1,884

3,899

61

9,327

551

2,602

:

925

37

13

:

:

:

66.0

64.7

1.9

316.4

0.6

10.1

153

451

47.0

1.9

2

:

1,528

:

40.0

7.6

28.5

60.2

31.6

29.5

60.4

120.8

142.9

:

106.3 160.5

:

:

:

:

426

4,689

319

2,294 11,693

340

192

8.8

553

258

31.9

240

134

5.3

493

3,838

285

1,589

9.2

44.4

22

91

28

49

383

19.2

5.6

19.1

7.6

14.5

38.7

17.3

43.0

53.4

99.8

134.2

136.3

136.5

:

:

(1) IRL, 1997; I and P, 1998; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) FIN, 2000. (3) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

316

NACE 51.2, 51.3 and 51.4

Chapter 15: distributive trades

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.23

Wholesale of agricultural raw materials, live animals (NACE Group 51.2)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

3,110

789

6,441

: 11,149

7,784

200

9,682

103

4,880

949

2,415

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

315

S

UK

937

2,976

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

5,458

5,413 30,207

: 14,661 46,571

850 10,639

218 22,035

5,209

3,016

1,339

2,896

9,701

5,213

4,878 28,701

: 14,063 44,106

754

9,874

184 20,384

4,665

2,854

1,200

2,671

8,437

262

115

7.4

522

340

:

:

10.3

51.0

91

101

325

2.7

3.4

35.5

50.9

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

936

2,689

105

1,043

20

1,450

437

1,829

:

319

9

833

530

428

37.2

56.1

1.6

26.6

0.4

32.5

16.6

152

81

9.8

83

58

2.1

250

1,214

214

6.7

496

21.4

250

597

16

189

:

323

88

36

7

47

166

3.4

1.8

:

6.8

5.2

2.8

1.9

2.3

1.9

1.2

7.4

25.2

48.0

65.2

39.1

50.4

44.6

32.0

15.5

41.6

37.6

159.2

140.3

:

159.4 164.2

146.5

116.8

156.5

135.7

108.0

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

124.2

143.6

(1) IRL, 1997; I and P, 1998; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.24

Wholesale of food, beverages and tobacco (NACE Group 51.3)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

6,306

2,029 11,619

: 41,502 20,293

1,016 38,825

332

6,380

1,469

8,134

1,126

3,871 15,134

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

36.8

22.1

221.1

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

22,535 14,468 115,392

: 66,805 96,919

5,468 67,340 2,055 42,006 12,336 13,804

4,511 16,126 94,962

21,187 13,092 101,961

: 61,725 88,965

5,008 62,601 1,765 37,428

9,490 12,939

3,978 15,069 80,063

1,480

1,081

897

700

:

:

339

199

1,076

2.6

2.6

40.2

49.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

6,147

7,838

485

5,379

164

3,097

1,688

1,085

372

1,208 10,759

3,986

5,614

:

2,423

68

1,647

1,004

558

284.3

175.2

11.0

161.1

2.6

66.9

35.6

56.2

216

7.1

851

5,267

25.9

185.1

1,529

933

66

1,098

:

522

244

252

60

210

1,360

3.2

2.3

:

4.4

5.0

3.6

5.5

3.8

3.6

2.2

5.8

21.6

44.7

43.9

33.4

62.7

46.3

47.4

19.3

51.0

46.7

137.9

137.5

:

145.0 222.4

171.2

161.8

181.9

167.8

130.6

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

129.5

146.6

(1) IRL, 1997; I and P, 1998; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.25

Wholesale of household goods (NACE Group 51.4)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

9,381

4,344 20,954

: 31,435 36,213

850 50,686

559 14,755

4,099

9,661

3,658 12,030 27,840

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

55.5

36.2

316.3

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

30,681 14,286 120,731

: 55,921 77,206

3,067 69,712

747 42,537 16,301 15,059

5,618 20,218 103,273

27,700 12,505 90,890

: 50,309 67,589

2,600 61,614

558 33,782 13,950 13,252

4,541 17,693 84,838

3,345

2,027

1,950

1,261

:

:

379

223

1,058

4.5

5.4

60.2

56.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

6,639

9,884

508

9,351

103

5,345

2,443

1,909

804

2,826 17,813

3,886

7,063

:

4,272

48

2,716

1,655

941

478

1,896

8,304

192.5

185.0

9.6

217.9

1.8

92.8

45.5

68.0

14.7

53.1

249.0

999

693

46

1,220

:

643

219

265

68

317

1,701

4.9

3.7

:

7.3

8.4

6.7

4.8

6.4

6.1

4.6

9.2

34.5

53.4

52.8

42.9

56.1

57.6

53.7

28.1

53.3

53.2

154.2

137.7

:

152.0 177.2

179.4

138.7

192.1

161.2

130.2

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

139.8

151.0

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

317

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 51.5, 51.6 and 51.7

Table 15.26 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Wholesale of non-agricultural intermediate products, waste and scrap (NACE Group 51.5)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

6,463

2,599 17,552

: 25,359 17,426

766 31,820

509

8,190

2,804

5,930

2,672 10,435 17,383

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

44.7

36.9

338.9

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

48,136 18,756 194,965

: 64,304 87,899

5,280 82,593 2,839 41,529 22,586 10,819 12,280 24,683 163,607

43,217 14,632 156,479

: 58,573 77,800

4,712 69,566 2,328 34,055 17,853

8,690

9,866 21,796 133,994

3,054

2,307

1,642

1,331

:

:

622

396

2,831

2.9

5.2

68.3

62.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

5,254 10,086

593

8,564

217

4,485

2,290

1,218

1,141

3,186 15,972

3,060

7,251

:

3,317

92

2,542

1,521

541

549

1,922

7,259

159.6

200.4

10.0

159.9

3.0

77.5

41.1

41.9

15.2

54.2

239.3

1,505

1,112

125

1,517

:

633

352

391

164

486

1,795

3.4

3.2

:

6.4

4.9

5.0

3.4

6.3

5.4

5.1

5.3

32.9

50.3

59.2

53.5

72.2

57.9

55.7

29.1

69.7

58.8

155.7

138.0

:

183.7 215.1

167.6

144.4

213.6

203.9

151.9

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

157.8

168.4

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.27 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Wholesale of machinery, equipment and supplies (NACE Group 51.6)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

7,066

4,592 13,204

: 19,556 34,294

813 16,227

688 11,470

3,946

4,402

3,921 10,175 15,216

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

55.6

58.3

201.2

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

22,148 17,188 68,318

: 35,041 96,598

2,943 29,012 1,380 59,725 13,042

7,012 11,332 21,185 95,337

18,634 14,024 50,751

: 30,151 82,263

2,421 24,805 1,031 43,278 10,576

6,076

8,333 17,862 75,269

3,639

3,252

2,392

2,470

:

:

533

360

840

5.6

4.5

65.5

55.8

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

5,510 14,785

565

4,706

188

7,191

2,590

1,034

1,734

3,675 20,005

2,941 11,338

:

2,330

127

4,099

1,782

605

1,096

2,734 11,472

129.8

281.6

11.0

90.0

3.5

128.8

42.1

38.0

28.1

63.9

237.2

634

1,172

42

679

:

726

299

216

210

722

2,266

7.3

3.6

:

8.2

4.9

6.1

6.2

6.1

6.4

4.4

9.0

42.4

52.5

51.2

52.3

53.6

55.9

61.5

27.2

61.3

57.5

173.1

129.1

:

148.9 134.0

165.9

136.5

166.5

155.0

126.2

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

132.3

127.9

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.28 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Other wholesale (NACE Group 51.7)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (4)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (5)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

1,001

1,124

1,583

2,941

1,606 40,801

2,661

1,278 35,325

299

180

6.7

295

187

5.5

:

:

85.0

66

38

408

4.0

6.8

44.9

53.7

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

140.3

143.8

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

477

S

UK

462 25,219

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

1,874

5,770

759 12,103

283

4,565

540

3,695

2,280

3,006

1,023 14,838

201

7,220

1,922

4,033

8,926

333 40,885

1,990

2,730

837 13,219

119

6,110

1,803

3,646

8,601

276 35,894

336

184

10.0

301

233

7.6

200

1,984

:

880

15

12

547

1,060

119

4.9

43.3

0.5

22.7

453

265

20.4

411

277

8.1

65

47

5,032

2,738

1.7

95.0

80

2.9

42

34

20

253

:

151

15

90

199

8

537

6.7

2.3

:

7.4

2.3

7.2

2.0

4.6

1.6

5.5

5.6

33.6

39.6

40.9

45.9

27.8

46.7

41.5

22.2

49.2

38.2

169.1

122.3

:

147.1

93.2

177.8

131.7

159.0

147.1

119.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) FIN, 2000; UK, number of employees, 1997. (5) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

318

NACE 52.11, 52.12 and 52.2

Chapter 15: distributive trades

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.29

Retail sale in non-specialized stores with food, beverages or tobacco predominating (NACE Class 52.11)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units)

7,080

3,144 27,147

: 36,202 31,565

5,700 80,099

225

3,975

3,944 19,821

4,353

6,547 25,864

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands)

78.9

66.6

646.2

Turnover (million EUR)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (2)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

17,059 10,993 100,424

: 33,832 137,191

6,053 60,972

926 18,923

8,995

8,251

9,268 15,363 124,555

14,707

9,615 80,028

: 29,874 120,253

5,174 54,012

809 16,094

7,627

7,774

8,146 13,399 101,640

2,381

1,461

1,713

1,091

:

:

348

171

1,526

3.9

3.4

30.2

22.0

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

5,077 16,795

938

7,488

116

2,820

1,303

962

1,235

2,160 21,502

2,806 11,766

:

4,867

67

1,858

1,062

557

797

1,801 12,284

257.6

523.3

55.3

338.6

3.8

194.5

61.3

81.8

38.8

74.9

:

1,544

2,593

185

1,633

:

554

216

390

241

335

5,893

6.7

3.7

:

4.3

5.3

5.1

2.7

4.9

4.7

2.3

7.4

19.7

32.1

17.0

22.1

30.7

14.5

21.3

11.8

31.8

28.9

150.0

138.2

:

100.3 162.6

149.1

114.7

132.8

146.0

115.2

:

:

(1) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997. (2) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

124.9

127.2

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.30

Other retail sale in non-specialized stores (NACE Class 52.12)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

Number of enterprises (units)

Turnover (million EUR)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (2)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

444

15

3,192

943

2,988 20,555

774

2,514 13,158

160

122

5.8

535

406

:

:

22.8

182.5

31

34

520

4.0

4.3

27.8

23.5

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

116.5

131.9

3,188

1,234

95

2,460

6,097

4,678

811

7,483

4,731

3,603

638

5,711

1,488

1,149

971

747

181

1,882

:

878

L

32

96

3

15

22

NL

205

:

:

:

:

56.8

27.1

8.2

40.5

1.1

39.8

188

191

74

726

:

5.6

4.8

:

13.4

-7.4

26.2

35.8

22.1

46.5

14.2

123.1

128.0

:

194.1

66.3

:

:

:

:

A

549

735

P

781

FIN

150

S

UK

175 12,677

222

3,351

867 26,887

577

195

2,958

695 19,939

147

126

6.0

29

19

574

395

173

6,545

123

3,977

3.0

17.9

5.1

:

32

9

128

11

1,029

2.8

4.6

5.3

5.9

9.5

24.3

9.7

32.1

33.9

106.8

125.0

144.8

138.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

(1) D, I, L, NL and P, 1998; E and IRL, 1997. (2) D, 1997. 
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.31

Retail sale of food, beverages, tobacco in specialized stores (NACE Group 52.2)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

12,686

3,649 32,945

: 138,875 46,190

2,856 121,908

315 13,005

4,732 30,730

1,368

7,021 47,307

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

31.9

13.4

152.5

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (4)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

117.0

138.4

3,556

1,220 12,503

: 17,423 11,453

842 17,550

235

4,778

3,022

3,389

1,197

3,367 19,765

2,907

955

8,845

: 14,441

8,717

678 14,363

178

3,760

2,429

3,020

700

2,910 15,602

630

269

294

159

:

:

164

21

279

10.2

11.0

19.8

21.9

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

3,075

2,685

167

3,421

1,127

1,666

:

616

56

32

949

455

595

301

369

212

248.2

95.7

9.7

204.8

1.7

56.6

19.1

58.1

152

489

3,954

83

4.1

306

2,033

18.8

:

206

422

18

578

:

162

45

99

13

69

399

11.2

8.9

:

16.0

10.5

10.5

9.7

4.6

8.4

5.4

9.7

12.4

28.1

17.2

16.7

33.3

16.8

31.2

6.4

38.3

26.1

118.1

109.7

:

93.3 167.3

150.1

150.0

91.8

154.8

119.4

:

:

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

319

:

:

:

:

:

:

Chapter 15: distributive trades

NACE 52.3, 52.4 and 52.5

Table 15.32 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Retail sale of pharmaceutical, medical goods, cosmetic (NACE Group 52.3)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

5,489

677 24,714

: 29,533 29,118

1,132 34,166

132

3,615

1,932

4,120

1,189

962

7,255

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

3,964

1,409 32,979

: 10,622 25,840

755 16,096

284

5,673

3,080

2,366

1,453

3,177 12,073

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (4)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

21.1

8.0

269.0

3,190

1,138 20,947

763

350

302

233

:

:

145

18

379

10.4

4.9

36.1

37.5

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

8,303 19,509

590 13,451

137

4,035

2,319

1,925

1,094

2,676

9,824

2,437

6,293

173

3,145

867

3,508

:

1,010

38

19

1,114

593

782

463

439

214

86.8

145.7

7.1

94.2

0.9

38.0

22.9

18.8

304

159

7.7

505

2,246

409

1,356

13.1

:

230

461

14

302

:

:

59

51

20

40

239

14.8

10.8

:

13.3

11.0

10.2

10.4

9.5

10.5

3.0

7.4

28.1

43.2

24.4

33.4

43.1

29.3

34.2

23.4

40.7

38.5

188.4

157.1

:

152.5 169.8

174.0

155.0

185.9

169.8

117.4

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

154.2

120.5

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.33 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Other retail sale of new goods in specialized stores (NACE Group 52.4)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

46,679 14,501 149,952

: 257,189 172,475 9,502 356,880 1,872 45,050 19,586 66,732 14,079 33,594 100,079

B

DK

D EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

132.0

79.6 1,090.6

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (4)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

20,145 10,077 111,675

: 47,652 83,699 4,644 80,890 1,313 31,812 17,557 17,908

6,912 15,528 112,725

17,120

7,953 68,942

: 38,186 65,142 3,819 70,131 1,016 23,060 13,750 15,100

5,257 12,514 85,759

3,164

2,342

1,642

1,540

:

:

1,016

236

2,515

7.6

8.0

24.0

29.4

: 10,457 18,772

894 13,795

274

6,645

3,921

2,868

1,221

3,260 25,260

:

:

:

:

:

:

5,458 13,319

:

4,861

156

3,733

2,808

1,650

749

2,381 15,939

655.8

586.6

48.4

735.2

9.1

295.4

146.8

238.1

41.6

108.4

:

1,586

2,921

116

2,183

:

1,060

461

661

114

403

4,568

10.5

6.5

:

11.0

9.2

9.8

6.3

6.8

7.4

5.7

8.3

15.9

32.0

18.5

18.8

30.3

22.5

26.7

12.0

29.9

30.1

118.4

121.9

:

92.9 148.8

145.3

121.8

143.9

140.3

113.4

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

114.2

129.5

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

Table 15.34 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Retail sale of second-hand goods in stores (NACE Group 52.5)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

2,138

406

3,265

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (4)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

231

198

36

12

3.0

20

66

50

17

6

509

208

:

:

0.9

7.2

2

28

10.3

16.1

11.9

18.3

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

68.7

105.4

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

2,107 14,069

412

3,240

36

2,995

127

1,711

95

1,406

34

20

370

212

47

33

13

:

330

248

72

22

4

3

1

0

:

:

:

:

A

983

125

89

39

18

P

FIN

S

UK

503

775

1,646

6,236

53

45

9

7

55

42

12

5

90

2,931

76

2,149

17

7

1.8

723

213

:

3.4

13.6

1.0

4.7

0.1

6.6

1.9

1.1

0.6

2

52

11.1

9.2

2

:

9

:

15.1

15.5

10.2

27.1

13.9

15.4

19.6

80.2

92.8

:

78.8 132.4

:

:

:

:

5

2

2

4

71

16.4

3.5

13.0

11.3

17.4

19.9

7.7

16.4

9.3

106.8

89.9

101.7

48.9

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

(1) I, NL and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

320

NACE 52.6 and 52.7

Chapter 15: distributive trades

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.35

Retail sale not in stores (NACE Group 52.6)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

Number of enterprises (units) (2)

4,940

738 39,218

: 49,468 68,026

141 107,911

170 18,790

1,596

6,858

899

3,729 12,037

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

Turnover (million EUR) (3)

1,417

310 30,891

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR) (2)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (3)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR) (4)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

1,207

283 19,614

203

85

9.6

37

26

:

:

2.6

166.5

88

6

580

8.3

3.4

21.0

13.8

:

:

:

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

93.8

65.6

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

4,085 12,683

133 10,552

55

2,651

1,369

448

347

1,326 15,347

3,237 10,606

107

8,813

45

2,358

1,131

397

301

1,141 11,524

931

2,097

29

1,849

321

1,616

:

360

10

5

619

193

75.1

85.2

0.9

141.5

0.5

25.0

226

145

7.0

56

26

9.3

53

32

1.6

204

3,615

177

1,991

8.9

:

204

238

14.9

3.8

2

:

423

:

78

28

8

7

27

331

14.1

8.6

14.4

5.9

6.8

6.2

2.0

10.6

12.4

24.6

32.6

13.1

21.9

24.8

32.4

6.1

29.4

22.9

104.8

89.4

:

58.0 111.7

172.1

120.3

57.7

129.1

72.7

:

:

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) D, 1998. (3) FIN, 2000. (4) D, 1997.
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table 15.36

Repair of personal and household goods (NACE Group 52.7)

Main indicators in the EU, 1999 (1)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

: 15,834 17,274

815 26,798

783

1,624

54

1,667

421

891

30

1,175

369

199

728

523

25

:

511

132

L

76

10

2

6

4

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

3,520

1,181

6,273

1,540

3,576

5,371

341

113

209

120

418

1,312

:

:

:

56

149

78

273

632

56

34

61

36

50

25

1.7

151

105

6.3

658

365

:

29.5

29.4

1.5

40.4

0.2

5.9

2.6

10.4

Number of enterprises (units)

Turnover (million EUR) (2)

Purchases of goods and 
services (million EUR)

Value added (million EUR)

Personnel costs (million EUR)

Number of persons employed (thousands) (2)

Gross investment in tangible 
goods (million EUR)

Gross operating rate (%)

App. labour productivity 
(thous. EUR/pers. emp.)

2,049

1,385

150

236

101

131

54

27

3.2

102

55

3.2

21

10

18.0

20.2

16.8

32.1

Wage adjusted labour productivity (%)

70.4

109.3

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

34

56

21.7

12.6

1

:

88

:

22.7

27.9

12.5

24.8

16.2

12.6

30.6

89.2

86.0

:

71.3 141.9

:

:

:

:

3

10

6

12

72

19.6

11.9

19.8

10.8

22.4

21.6

5.8

25.8

23.9

92.5

72.8

111.6

79.3

:

:

(1) I and P, 1998; IRL, 1997; L and NL, 1998, except for turnover. (2) FIN, 2000. 
Source: Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics (theme4/sbs/enterpr/enter_ms)

321