Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection
Date: 2002-04-16
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: action programme, erosion, soil pollution, soil protection, sustainable development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 16.4.2002
COM(2002) 179 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 6

2. Definition, functions and distinctive features for policy development ............................. 7

2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

Definition ................................................................................................................... 7

Functions.................................................................................................................... 7

Distinctive features of soil relevant for policy making ................................................ 8

3. Main threats to soil in the EU and Candidate Countries .................................................. 9

3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

Erosion....................................................................................................................... 9

Decline in organic matter.......................................................................................... 10

Soil contamination.................................................................................................... 12

3.3.1.

Local soil contamination......................................................................................... 12

3.3.2. Diffuse soil contamination...................................................................................... 13

3.4.

3.5.

3.6.

3.7.

3.8.

3.9.

Soil sealing............................................................................................................... 15

Soil compaction........................................................................................................ 15

Decline in soil biodiversity ....................................................................................... 15

Salinisation............................................................................................................... 16

Floods and landslides................................................................................................ 17

The situation in Candidate Countries ........................................................................ 17

3.10.

Conclusions on soil threats ..................................................................................... 18

4.

The international dimension ......................................................................................... 18

5. Member States and Candidate Countries action ............................................................ 20

6. Community policy relevant for soil protection.............................................................. 21

6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

6.4.

6.5.

Environmental Policy ............................................................................................... 22

The Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) ................................................................... 23

Regional Policy: Structural and Cohesion Funds....................................................... 24

Transport Policy ....................................................................................................... 25

Research Policy ........................................................................................................ 25

7.

Existing soil data gathering systems ............................................................................. 26

7.1.

Soil surveys .............................................................................................................. 26

7.2. Monitoring systems .................................................................................................. 27

7.3.

Soil data networks .................................................................................................... 27

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7.4.

Soil data comparability ............................................................................................. 28

8.

The way forward: Building blocks of a thematic strategy on soil .................................. 28

8.1.

Actions in relation to the threats to soil ..................................................................... 29

8.1.1.

Environmental policy ............................................................................................. 29

8.1.2. Common agricultural policy ................................................................................... 31

8.1.3. Other Community policies...................................................................................... 31

8.2. Monitoring soil threats.............................................................................................. 32

8.3.

Future soil protection................................................................................................ 33

9.

The Work-Plan and Timetable for Building the Thematic Strategy ............................... 33

10. Conclusions.................................................................................................................. 35

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

SUMMARY

Soil is a vital and largely non-renewable resource increasingly under pressure. The
importance of soil protection is recognised both internationally and within the EU. At
the Rio summit, the participating states adopted a series of declarations of relevance
to soil protection. The aim of the 1994 United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification is to prevent and reduce land degradation, rehabilitate partly degraded
land and reclaim partly desertified land. The 6th Environmental Action Programme
published by the Commission in 2001 established the objective to protect soils
against erosion and pollution while the Sustainable Development Strategy, also
published in 2001, noted that soil loss and declining fertility are eroding the viability
of agricultural land.

The purpose of this Communication is to build on the political commitment to soil
protection in order that it be achieved more fully and systematically in coming years.
As it is the first communication addressing soil protection, it is both descriptive and
action orientated in order that a full picture of the complexity of the issue can be
fully understood and it can serve as a basis for future work. A distinction is made
between soil, which is the subject of this communication and land use, which will be
the subject of a separate communication addressing the territorial dimension to be
published in 2003.

Soil is generally defined as the upper layer of the earth’s crust. It performs a number
of key environmental, social and economic functions vital for life. Agriculture and
forestry are dependent on soil for the supply of water and nutrients and for root
fixation. Soil performs storage, filtering, buffering and transformation functions thus
playing a central role in water protection and the exchange of gases with the
atmosphere. It is also a habitat and gene pool, an element of the landscape and
cultural heritage and a provider of raw materials.

In order to perform its many functions, it is necessary to maintain soil condition.
However, there is evidence that soil may be increasingly threatened by a range of
human activities, which may degrade it. The final phase of the degradation process is
land desertification when soil loses its capacity to carry out its functions. Among the
threats to soil are erosion, a decline in organic matter,
local and diffuse
contamination, sealing, compaction, a decline in bio-diversity and salinisation. These
threats do not apply evenly across Europe but there is evidence that degradation
processes are getting worse. They apply in both current Member States and
Candidate Countries. It is likely that climate change will exacerbate them.

Many EU policy areas are of relevance to soil and some provide protection for the
soil although that is generally not their main focus. Among the policies of most
relevance are those relating to Environment, Agriculture, Regional Development,
Transport, Development and Research.

Knowledge of problems associated with soils is increasing in Europe based on soil
surveys, monitoring systems and data networks. This information is very useful but
often not comparable, which limits its value for policy development. Nevertheless,
available knowledge should be used now, but for the future, it will be necessary to
develop an EU wide monitoring system.

4

7.

8.

9.

The development of an EU soil protection policy will take time. It will require a
precautionary approach based on preventing soil degradation in the future as well as
action through the integration of soil protection aims into several policies both to
arrest current soil degradation processes and to deliver protection in the future. This
approach will have both a local and EU dimension. For the longer term, it will be
necessary to establish a legislative basis for soil monitoring so that a knowledge
based approach can be established aimed at delivering soil protection.

In order to ensure soil protection, the Commission intends to develop a thematic
strategy.

From 2002 onwards,
the Commission will propose a series of environmental
measures designed to prevent soil contamination, including legislation related to
mining waste, sewage sludge and compost, and, in addition, will pursue integration
of soil protection concerns in major EU policies. A progress report will be prepared
in mid 2004.

In addition, and working with Member States, Candidate Countries and relevant
stakeholders,
the Commission will prepare the ground for a proposal for soil
monitoring legislation to be made also in 2004. Furthermore, and also working with
relevant partners, it will prepare a communication dealing with erosion, the decline
in soil organic matter and soil contamination including recommendations for actions
to overcome them.

The measures to be presented in the communication and the monitoring proposal
outlined above together with the work emanating from them will comprise the
thematic strategy for soil protection, thus responding to the draft Council and
Parliament decision on the 6 EAP in relation to thematic strategies. The Commission
seeks the endorsement of both the European Parliament and Council for the approach
it has set out to ensure soil protection.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Soil is a vital resource increasingly under pressure. For sustainable development, it
needs to be protected.

the Rio summit,

The importance of soil protection is increasingly recognised internationally. In 1992,
at
the participating states adopted a series of declarations of
relevance to soil protection. In particular, the concept of sustainable development
was agreed and legally binding conventions on climate change, biological diversity
and later desertification adopted. The aim of the 1994 Convention to Combat
Desertification is to prevent and reduce land degradation, rehabilitate partly degraded
land and reclaim desertified land. This Convention recognises the interlinkage
between desertification, poverty, food security,
loss of biodiversity and climate
change. In May 2001, the Commission indicated soil loss and declining fertility as a
main threat to sustainable development as it erodes the viability of agricultural land1.

this background,

the Community’s 6th Environment Action Programme
Against
includes a thematic strategy on soil protection with particular attention to preventing
this
erosion, deterioration, contamination and desertification. The purpose of
Communication is to build on this political commitment in order that soil protection
be achieved more fully and systematically in coming years by setting out the way
towards developing this strategy. However, this Communication is also the first
occasion on which the Commission has addressed soil protection for its own sake
and therefore it is both broad and descriptive in approach. It addresses inter alia
erosion, the decline in soil organic matter and prevention of pollution. It aims in
particular to:

• describe the multiple functions of soils

• identify its characteristics relevant to policy development

• identify the main threats to soil

• present an overview of relevant Community policy

• present

the current situation regarding soil

information and monitoring and

identify gaps which need to be filled as a basis for soil protection policy

• establish the policy basis and outline the steps towards the presentation of a

thematic strategy on soil protection in 2004.

The Commission considers that soil protection at this stage can best be achieved
through a strategy based on

(1)

(2)

(3)

initiatives, now, in environmental policies,

integration in other policies,

soil monitoring, and

1

COM (2001) 264

6

(4)

the future development of new actions based on monitoring results.

Together, these actions form the basis for a thematic strategy on soil which relies in
the first instance on current knowledge as the basis for action and, in the future, on
developing more fully a knowledge basis for future actions.

2.

DEFINITION, FUNCTIONS AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT

2.1.

Definition

Soil is generally defined as the top layer of the earth’s crust. It is formed by mineral
particles, organic matter, water, air and living organisms2. Soil is the interface
between the earth (geosphere), the air (atmosphere) and the water (hydrosphere).

While soil is the physical upper layer of what is usually referred to as “land”, the
concept of “land” is much wider and includes territorial and spatial dimensions. It is
difficult to separate soil from its land context. However, this communication focuses
on the need to protect the soil layer as such, due to its unique variety of functions
vital to life. A separate Communication “Planning and Environment - the Territorial
Dimension”, is in preparation and will deal with rational land-use planning, as
addressed by the 6th Environment Action Programme.

2.2.

Functions

Soil performs a multitude of key environmental, economic, social and cultural
functions, vital for life.

• Food and other biomass production

Food and other agriculture production, essential for human survival, and forestry
are totally dependent on soil. Almost all vegetation including grassland, arable
crops and trees, need soil for the supply of water and nutrients and to fix their
roots.

• Storing, filtering and transformation

Soil stores and partly transforms minerals, organic matter, water and energy, and
diverse chemical substances. It functions as a natural filter for groundwater, the
main source for drinking water, and releases CO2, methane and other gases in the
atmosphere.

• Habitat and gene pool

Soil is the habitat for a huge amount and variety of organisms living in and on the
soil, all with unique gene patterns. It therefore performs essential ecological
functions.

• Physical and cultural environment for mankind

Soil is the platform for human activity and is also an element of landscape and
cultural heritage.

2

As defined by International Standards Organisations (ISO) in ISO 11074-1 of 1.08.1996

7

• Source of raw materials

Soils provide raw materials such as clay, sands, minerals and peat.

The first four of these functions are generally interdependent and the extent to which
soils perform them is highly relevant to sustainability. When soil is used as a source
of raw materials or the land it occupies as support for human activities, its ability to
perform its functions may be reduced or changed leading to competition between the
functions.

2.3.

Distinctive features of soil relevant for policy making

Soil has a number of unique characteristics of particular relevance to policy
development:

• Soil is the product of complex interactions between climate, geology, vegetation,
biological activity, time and land use. The proportions of its different components,
mainly sand, silt and clay particles, organic matter, water and air, as well as the
way in which these components form together a stable structure, define a soil’s
character. Moreover each soil contains a variable number of successive layers,
each with a wide range of different physical, chemical and biological properties.
As a result soil is an extremely variable medium. Over 320 major soil types have
been identified in Europe, with remarkable differences in their chemical and
physical properties even at a local level. This diversity suggests a strong local
element needs to be built into soil protection policies.

• Soil is essentially a non-renewable resource with potentially rapid degradation
rates and extremely slow formation and regeneration processes. The amount of
land and thus soil available for food production per person is limited. Where
degradation of soil occurs,
to perform its functions is
the overall potential
reduced. Therefore prevention, precaution and sustainable soil management
should be at the core of soil protection policies.

• Soil has considerable storage and buffering capacity, closely related to its organic
matter content. This applies not only to water, minerals, and gases, but also to a
multitude of chemical substances. These include both natural and manmade
contaminants, which can build up in soil but whose subsequent release can follow
very divergent patterns. Certain contaminants can exceed irreversibility thresholds
for storage and buffering capacity unnoticed. Anticipatory policies based on
monitoring and early warning systems are essential to prevent damage to the
environment and risks to public health.

• Agricultural soil is a precious and limited resource, whose value has frequently
been built by man during decades or even centuries. Irreversible degradation of
this resource implies not only ruining the main asset of current farmers but also
reducing the farming opportunities of
soil
focus on sustainable use and
protection policies need to have a special
management of agricultural soils, with a view to safeguarding the fertility and
agronomic value of agricultural land.

future generations. Therefore,

• Soil is a living medium with an abundant biodiversity. This biological activity
contributes to the structure and fertility of soils and is, therefore, central to most of
its functions including food production. As little is known about how soil life

8

reacts to human activities, increased understanding is required while at the same
time policy needs to ensure the protection of soil biodiversity for precautionary
reasons.

• Unlike air and water, soil as a component of land is generally submitted to

property rights.

3.

MAIN THREATS TO SOIL IN THE EU AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES

Due to its wide range of vital functions, maintaining soil condition is essential for
sustainability. However soil is under increasing threat from a wide range of human
activities, which are undermining its long-term availability and viability.

The threats are complex and although unevenly spread across regions in the EU and
accession countries, their dimension is continental. For simplicity they are presented
separately below. In real terms, however, they are frequently inter-linked.

When multiple threats occur simultaneously,
their effects tend to increase.
Ultimately, if not countered, they can result in soil degradation, when soil loses its
capacity to carry out its functions. In the EU, an estimated 52 million hectares,
representing more than 16% of the total land area, are affected by some kind of
degradation process. In the accession countries this figure is 35% (World map of the
status of human induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD), 19903).

Soil degradation, when occurring in dry areas, is known as desertification. It is
caused by climatic conditions (droughts, aridity, irregular and intense precipitation
regimes) and human activity (deforestation, overgrazing, soil structure deterioration).
The affected land can no longer support vegetation. According to the World Atlas of
Desertification (UNEP, 19924 and EC, 19945) areas under desertification risk include
central and southeast Spain, central and southern Italy, southern France and Portugal
and extensive areas of Greece. World-wide desertification has extremely serious
socio-economic consequences and can ultimately cause the destabilisation of
societies and the migration of human populations.

Climate change presents an overarching but as yet uncertain factor linked to
degradation processes.

3.1.

Erosion

Erosion is a natural geological phenomenon resulting from the removal of soil
particles by water or wind, transporting them elsewhere. However, some human
activities can dramatically increase erosion rates. Serious erosion is generally
irreversible.

3

4

5

EEA data from: United Nations Environment Programme and International Soil Reference and
Information Centre, 1992. GLASOD project. World map of the status of human-induced soil degradation.
Winand Staring Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
United Nations Environment Programme, 1992. World Atlas of Desertification. Edward Arnold, London.
European Commission, 1994. Report on Desertification and Land degradation in the European
Mediterranean.

9

Erosion is triggered by a combination of factors such as steep slopes, climate (e.g.
long dry periods followed by heavy rainfall), inappropriate land use, land cover
patterns (e.g. sparse vegetation) and ecological disasters (e.g. forest fires). Moreover,
some intrinsic features of a soil can make it more prone to erosion (e.g. a thin layer
of topsoil, silty texture or low organic matter content).

The results of soil erosion are the loss of soil functions and ultimately the loss of soil
itself. In more than one third of the total land of the Mediterranean basin, average
yearly soil losses exceed 15 tons/ha6. Consequent damage to watercourses follows,
through the contamination of river and sea aquatic ecosystems by nutrients and
contaminants attached to the eroded soil, with additional other effects such as
damage to water reservoirs and ports.

Although the Mediterranean region is historically the most severely affected by
erosion - the first reports of soil erosion in the Mediterranean date from 3.000 years
ago - there is growing evidence of significant erosion occurring in other parts of
Europe (e.g. Austria, Czech Republic and the loess belt of Northern France and
Belgium). Soil erosion can therefore be considered, with different levels of severity,
an EU-wide problem.

According to expert estimates based on non-standardised data (World Map of the
Status of Human Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD), 1990), 26 million hectares in
the EU suffer from water erosion and 1 million hectares from wind erosion.
Furthermore predictive modelling on erosion risk is under development and has
contributed to maps assessing erosion risks for Europe (CORINE7 programme) and
more recently for Italy (JRC8) and Europe (JRC9). The output of this modelling is
still highly uncertain because it has not been validated sufficiently in field situations.

Although there are no comprehensive studies of the economic impact of erosion,
available data suggest this is a major challenge. In a 1991 study10 the direct cost
impact of erosion in Spain was estimated at ECU 280 m per year, including the loss
of agricultural production,
impairment of water reservoirs and damage due to
flooding. In addition the cost of attempts to fight erosion and restore the soil were
estimated at about ECU 3,000 m over a period of 15 to 20 years.

3.2.

Decline in organic matter

Soil organic matter is composed of organic material (plant root remains, leaves,
excrements), living organisms (bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other soil fauna) and
humus, the stable end-product of the decomposition of organic material in the soil by
the slow action of soil organisms. As such it is constantly built up and decomposed,
so that carbon is released to the atmosphere as CO2 and recaptured through the
process of photosynthesis.

6

7

8

9

10

Guidelines for erosion and desertification control management. United Nations Environment Programme,
2000.
Commission of the European Communities, 1991. CORINE-Soil erosion risk and land resources in the
southern regions of the European Community
Estimation of the erosion risk in Italy. European Soil Bureau, Joint Research Centre, 2000.
Soil Erosion Risk in Europe. European Soil Bureau, Joint Research Centre, 2001.
ICONA, 1991. Plan national de lutte contre l’érosion. Ministère de l`Agriculture, de la Pêche et de
l`Alimentation. Institut National pour la Conservation de la Nature, Madrid.

10

Organic matter plays a central role in maintaining key soil functions and is an
essential determinant of erosion resistance and soil fertility. It assures the binding
and buffering capacity of soil, thus contributing to limit diffusion of pollution from
soil to water.

Farming and forestry practices have an important impact on soil organic matter.
Despite the importance of maintaining the organic matter content of soil, there is
evidence that decomposing organic matter in the soil is frequently not sufficiently
replaced under arable cropping systems which are tending towards greater
specialisation and monoculture. Specialisation in farming has led to the separation of
livestock from arable production so that rotational practices restoring soil organic
matter content are often no longer a feature of farming.

The build-up of organic matter in soils is a slow process (much slower than the
decline in organic matter). This process is enhanced by positive farm management
techniques such as conservation tillage including no tillage cropping techniques,
organic farming, permanent grassland, cover crops, mulching, manuring with green
legumes, farmyard manure and compost, strip cropping and contour farming. Most of
these techniques have also proven effective in preventing erosion, increasing fertility
and enhancing soil biodiversity.

Carbon is a major component of soil organic matter, which in turn plays a major role
in the global carbon cycle. Research11 indicates that approximately 2 gigatonnes
(Gt)12 of carbon is captured (sequestered) in soil organic matter annually. This
amount can be compared to the 8 Gt of anthropogenic carbon emitted to the
atmosphere annually underlining the importance of soil organic matter in relation to
climate change. There is however a limit to the amount of organic matter and hence
carbon that can be stored in soils. In addition a dedicated management approach is
needed to maintain or increase the soil organic matter content.

Soil organic matter decline is of particular concern in Mediterranean areas.
According to the European Soil Bureau, based on the limited data available, nearly
75% of the total area analysed in Southern Europe has a low (3.4%) or very low
(1.7%) soil organic matter content. Agronomists consider soils with less than 1.7%
organic matter to be in pre-desertification stage. The problem is however not
restricted to the Mediterranean. Figures for England and Wales show that
the
percentage of soils with less than 3.6% organic matter rose from 35% to 42% in the
period 1980-1995 probably due to changing management practices. In the same
period, in the Beauce region south of Paris, soil organic matter has decreased by half
for the same reason.

Because soil organic matter decline is a crosscutting issue which is affecting other
areas such as soil fertility and soil erosion, it is extremely difficult to estimate its
cost.

11

12

Lal, R., 2000. Soil conservation and restoration to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. III
International Congress European Society for Soil Conservation, Valencia.
1 gigatonne or Gt is 10 billion ton

11

3.3.

Soil contamination

The introduction of contaminants in the soil may result in damage to or loss of some
or several functions of soils and possible cross contamination of water. The
occurrence of contaminants in soils above certain levels entails multiple negative
consequences for the food chain and thus for human health, and for all types of
ecosystems and other natural resources. To assess the potential
impact of soil
contaminants, account needs to be taken not only of their concentration but also their
environmental behaviour and the exposure mechanism for human health.

A distinction is often made between soil contamination originating from clearly
confined sources (local or point source contamination) and that caused by diffuse
sources.

3.3.1.

Local soil contamination

Local (or point source) contamination is generally associated with mining, industrial
facilities, waste landfills and other facilities both in operation and after closure.
These activities can pose risks to both soil and water.

In mining the risk is associated with the storage or disposal of tailings, acid mine
drainage and the use of certain chemical reagents.

Industrial facilities both in operation and after closure can be a major source of local
contamination. Although the largest and most affected areas are concentrated around
the heavily industrialised regions in Northwest Europe, contaminated sites exist
everywhere throughout the continent.

Within the EU there are no important areas contaminated with artificial
radionuclides. Land contaminated with naturally occurring radioactivity is
considered for uranium and other mining tails, phosphogypsum dumps, metal
industry, etc.

Waste landfilling is another potentially contaminating activity of major relevance: on
average, 65% of municipal waste generated in the EU (190 million tonnes in 1995) is
still landfilled. In waste landfills leaching can be emitted to the surrounding soil and
soil parent material and subsequently enter groundwater and/or surface water. Of
particular concern are those that operate or have operated in the past, without
complying with the minimum set of technical requirements set by the Landfill
Directive13.

Estimates of the number of contaminated sites in the EU range from 300 000 to 1.5
million14. This wide range in estimations is due to the lack of a common definition
for contaminated sites and relates to different approaches to acceptable risk levels,
protection targets and exposure parameters.

Soil clean-up is a difficult operation with very high costs. Expenditure for
decontamination of contaminated sites greatly varies between Member States. In
2000 the Netherlands invested EUR 550 m in decontamination, Austria 67 and Spain

13

14

Council Directive 1999/31/EC
European Environment Agency, 1999. Management of contaminated sites in Western Europe.

12

14. Such disparities reflect different perceptions of the severity of the contamination,
remediation policies and targets, and different ways of estimating
different
expenditure. The European Environment Agency has estimated the total costs for the
clean-up of contaminated sites in Europe to be between EUR 59 and 109 billion15.

Knowledge sharing and targets for clean up are important paths to resolving
contamination issues today, but prevention of further contamination needs to be the
future objective.

3.3.2. Diffuse soil contamination

Diffuse pollution is generally associated with atmospheric deposition, certain
farming practices and inadequate waste and wastewater recycling and treatment.

Atmospheric deposition is due to emissions from industry, traffic and agriculture.
Deposition of airborne pollutants releases into soils acidifying contaminants (e.g.
SO2, NOx), heavy metals (e.g. cadmium, lead arsenic, mercury), and several organic
compounds (e.g. dioxins, PCBs, PAHs).

Acidifying contaminants gradually decrease the buffering capacity of soils leading
them in some instances to surpass their critical load resulting in a sudden massive
release of aluminium and other toxic metals into aquatic systems. In addition,
acidification favours the leaching out of nutrients with subsequent
loss of soil
fertility and possible eutrophication problems in water and excess of nitrates in
drinking water. Moreover it may damage beneficial soil micro-organisms, slowing
down biological activity.

Ammonia and other nitrogen deposition (resulting from emissions from agriculture,
traffic and industry) causes the unwanted enrichment of soils and subsequent decline
of biodiversity of forests and of high nature value pastures. In some European forests
the nitrogen input reaches extreme values of up to 60 kg N per hectare per year. Pre-
industrial deposition was below 5 kg16.

With regard to radioactive substances forest soils deserve particular attention. The
characteristic cycling of nutrients in a forest ecosystem implies that for many
radionuclides (e.g. caesium-134 and -137 as released by the Chernobyl accident)
there is no elimination of radioactive substances (except by radioactive decay). Thus
we are today still confronted with levels of radioactivity in forest produce above the
maximum permitted levels, especially in wild mushrooms.

A number of farming practices can also be considered as a source of diffuse soil
contamination, although their effects on water are better known than on soil.

Production systems where a balance between farm inputs and outputs is not achieved
in relation to soil and land availability, leads to nutrient imbalances in soil, which
frequently result in the contamination of ground- and surface water. The extent of
nitrate problems in Europe underlines the seriousness of this imbalance.

15

16

idem 13
United Nations Economic Commission and European Commission, 2000. Forest Condition in Europe.
2000 Executive Report.

13

An additional problem relates to heavy metals (e.g. cadmium, copper) in fertilisers
and animal feed. Their effects on soil and soil organisms are not clear, although
studies have shown the possible uptake of cadmium in the food chain. The effects on
soil of antibiotics contained in animal feed are unknown.

Pesticides are toxic compounds deliberately released into the environment to fight
plant pests and diseases. They can accumulate in the soil, leach to the groundwater
and evaporate into the air from which further deposition onto soil can take place.
They also may affect soil biodiversity and enter the food chain.

The current authorisation process of pesticides17 assesses inter alia the environmental
risks of individual pesticides in the soil, however information on the combined
effects remains limited. By this authorisation process pesticides with unacceptable
risks are being eliminated. The volume of pesticide active ingredients sold across the
15 EU Member States reached 321,386 tonnes in 199818.

While the use of pesticides is regulated, and they should be only applied following
Good Farming Practice, pesticides have been found to leach through the soil into
groundwater and to be eroded with soil into surface water. Accumulation in soil
occurs, in particular of those compounds now prohibited in the EU.

With regard to waste, sewage sludge,
the final product of the treatment of
wastewater, is also raising concern. It is potentially contaminated by a whole range
of pollutants, such as heavy metals and poorly biodegradable trace organic
compounds, what can result
in an increase of the soil concentrations of these
compounds. Some of them can be broken down to harmless molecules by soil micro-
organisms whereas others are persistent including heavy metals. This may result in
increasing levels in the soil with subsequent risk for soil micro-organisms, plants,
fauna and human beings. Potentially pathogenic organisms like viruses and bacteria
are also present. However sewage sludge contains organic matter and nutrients such
as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, of value to the soil and the options for its use
include application on agricultural land. Provided that contamination is prevented
and monitored at source, the careful and monitored use of sewage sludge on soil
should not cause a problem, and, indeed, on the contrary could be beneficial and
contribute to an increase of soil organic matter content. 6.5 million tonnes of sludge
(dry matter) are produced every year in the EU. It is estimated that by 2005 there will
be a 40% increase in the total quantity of sewage sludge available due to the
the Urban Wastewater Directive19. A recent
progressive implementation of
implementation report by the Commission20 on the latter indicates progress but also
major delays in the implementation of that Directive in most Member States.

The cost of diffuse soil contamination is not seen so much in soil itself, but in the
consequences of the breakdown of the buffering capacity of soil. Although the
precise cost has not been counted so far, the clean up of organic compounds,
pesticides, plant nutrients and heavy metals from water is known to be very costly.

17

18

19

20

Council Directive 91/414/EEC
Eurostat, 2001. NewCronos database, Theme 8: Environment and Energy, Domain Milieu: Environment
statistics, Collection: Agriculture, Table SAL_PEST: Sales of pesticides (tonnes of active ingredient)
Council Directive 91/271/EEC
COM (2001) 685

14

3.4.

Soil sealing

The covering of soil for housing, roads or other land developments is known as soil
sealing. When land is sealed, the area for soil to carry out its functions including the
absorption of rainwater for infiltration and filtering is reduced. In addition sealed
areas may have a great impact on surrounding soils by changing water flow patterns
and by increasing the fragmentation of biodiversity. Soil sealing is almost
irreversible.

Developments in soil sealing are largely determined by spatial planning strategies
where unfortunately the effects of irreplaceable soil losses are often not sufficiently
taken into account. A paramount example is the coastal areas in the Mediterranean
where the share of zones completely free from construction is in permanent decline.
In 1996, nearly 43% of the area in coastal zones in Italy, generally containing fertile
soils, was completely occupied by built-up areas and only 29% was completely free
from constructions.

As for other threats to soil, there is a lack of European-wide information: data on the
extent of built-up areas are only available for a limited number of countries, and
many of these data are not comparable since countries use different methodologies.

Equally, there is no information about the type of soil being sealed. A decrease in
some soil availability is inevitable, but if the sealed soil plays a valuable role in food
production, nature conservation, flood control or any other key function, then the
consequences of sealing are damaging to sustainable development.

3.5.

Soil compaction

Soil compaction occurs when soil is subject to mechanical pressure through the use
of heavy machinery or overgrazing, especially in wet soil conditions. In sensitive
areas, walking tourism and skiing also contribute to the problem. Compaction
reduces the pore space between soil particles and the soil partially or fully loses its
absorptive capacity. Compaction of deeper soil layers is very difficult to reverse.

The overall deterioration in soil structure caused by compaction restricts root growth,
water storage capacity, fertility, biological activity and stability. Moreover, when
heavy rainfall occurs, the water can no longer easily infiltrate the soil. Resultant large
volumes of run-off water increase erosion risks and are considered by some experts
to have contributed to some recent flooding events in Europe21.

It has been estimated that nearly 4% of soil
compaction22, but no precise data are available.

throughout Europe suffers from

3.6.

Decline in soil biodiversity

Soil is the habitat for a huge variety of living organisms. In addition the character of
all terrestrial ecosystems is heavily dependent on the soil type. Soil type determines
to a great extent the ecosystems found in an area, many of them of great ecological
value (wetlands, flood plains, peatlands). The largest quantity and variety of life is

21

22

European Environment Agency, 2001. Sustainable water use in Europe.
Idem 3

15

found in the soil itself. In a pasture, for each 1 to 1.5 tons of biomass living on the
soil (livestock and grass), about 25 tons of biomass (bacteria, earthworms and so on)
are in the first 30 cm of soil underneath.

Soil bacteria, fungi, protozoa and other small organisms play an essential role in
maintaining the physical and biochemical properties needed for soil fertility. Larger
organisms, worms, snails and small arthropods break up organic matter which is
further degraded by micro organisms, and both carry it to deeper layers of soil, where
is more stable. Furthermore soil organisms themselves serve as reservoirs of
it
nutrients, suppress external pathogens and break down pollutants into simpler, often
less harmful components.

Reductions in soil biodiversity make soils more vulnerable to other degradation
processes. Therefore soil biodiversity is often used as an overall indicator of the state
of soil health. One gram of soil in good condition can contain up to 600 million
bacteria belonging to 15,000 to 20,000 different species. In desert soils these
numbers decline to 1 million and 5,000 to 8,000 species respectively.

Although the complexity of soil biodiversity dynamics is not yet fully understood,
there is evidence that biological activity in soils is largely dependent on the
occurrence of appropriate levels of organic matter. The inappropriate use of
pesticides and in particular nematicides can have very negative effects because of
their poor selectivity. Some studies suggest
that some herbicides considerably
suppress soil bacteria and fungi activity. Moreover, excessive use of nutrients can
also seriously alter biological balances and thus reduce soil biodiversity.

Organic farming has been shown to be very effective preserving and enhancing
biodiversity. In a two-year study in Austrian soils, beetles were 94% more abundant
in organic fields than in the conventional ones. The number of beetle species was
16% higher. However,
is stressed that quantification of soil biodiversity is
extremely limited and confined to projects of local relevance.

it

As the main effects of loss of biodiversity are indirect, the estimation of its economic
costs is not possible at this stage.

3.7.

Salinisation

Salinisation is the accumulation in soils of soluble salts of sodium, magnesium, and
calcium to the extent that soil fertility is severely reduced.

This process is often associated with irrigation as irrigation water always contains
variable amounts of salts in particular
in regions where low rainfall, high
evapotranspiration rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the
salts which subsequently build-up in the soil surface layers. Irrigation with high salt
content waters dramatically worsens the problem. In coastal areas salinisation can
also be associated with groundwater overexploitation (caused by the demands of
growing urbanisation, industry and agriculture) leading to a lower water table and
triggering the intrusion of marine water. In nordic countries the winter maintenance
of roads with salts can lead to salinisation.

Soil salinisation affects an estimated 1 million hectares in the EU, mainly in the
Mediterranean countries and is a major cause of desertification. In Spain 3% of the

16

3.5 million hectares irrigated land is severely affected, significantly reducing its
agricultural potential, and another 15 % is under serious risk23. There is no estimation
on the total economic cost of this phenomenon.

3.8.

Floods and landslides

Floods and landslides are mainly natural hazards intimately related to soil and land
management. Floods and mass movements of soil cause erosion, pollution with
sediments and loss of soil resources with major impacts for human activities and
human lives, damage to buildings and infrastructures, and loss of agricultural land.

Floods and landslides are not a threat to soils in the same manner as the threats
already listed. However, floods can, in some cases, result in part from soil not
performing its role of controlling the water cycle due to compaction or sealing. They
may also be favoured by erosion often caused by deforestation or by abandonment of
land.

Such events are occurring more frequently in areas with highly erodible soils, steep
slopes and intense precipitation, such as the Alpine and the Mediterranean regions24.
In Italy more than 50% of the territory has been classified as having a high or very
high hydro-geological risk, affecting 60% of the population or 34 million inhabitants.
More than 15% of the territory and 26% of the population are subjected to a very
high risk25.

The impacts on population and the economic damage are relevant. In Italy in the last
20 years floods and landslides had an impact on more than 70 000 people and caused
economic damage of at least EUR 11 billion.

3.9.

The situation in Candidate Countries

Threats to soils in Candidate Countries are essentially similar to those described in
the EU.

The most recent expert assessment on the situation of soils in Central and Eastern
European Countries is the SOVEUR report26 by FAO. According to this report, the
situation in soil threats in some candidate countries can be summarised as follows.

Erosion is a major environmental issue, although there are significant differences
between countries regarding its extent and intensity. Areas affected range from 5% to
39% of the total surface.

Local contamination associated with the 3000 former military facilities constitutes a
major problem not yet fully evaluated.

23

24

25

26

Programa de Acción Nacional Contra la Desertificación (Borrador de Trabajo). Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente. Madrid, Marzo, 2001.
Down to earth: soil degradation and sustainable development in Europe. European Environment Agency
2000.
Ministry of the Environment. Classificazione dei Comuni italiani in base al livello di attenzione per il
rischio idrogeologico. Monography. Collana della Relazione sullo Stato dell’Ambiente, Italy, 2000
Van Lynden , G.W., 2000. Soil degradation in Central and Eastern Europe: The assessment of the status
of human-induced soil degradation. FAO-ISRIC, Rome

17

Several forms of diffuse contamination have been reported. Acidification is
affecting about 35% of Poland and Hungary, Latvia and Lithuania are also affected.
40% of Lithuania has high heavy metal concentrations, but this may be strongly
influenced by extremely high natural background concentrations.

Soil compaction is widespread particularly in Bulgaria.

In Hungary 8% of the territory is affected by salinisation, mostly of natural origin.
In the other candidates countries it does not appear to be a major problem.

There are no figures on soil sealing, organic matter, biodiversity and floods and
landslides.

No figures on the economic and environmental implications of soil degradation in
candidate countries are available.

3.10.

Conclusions on soil threats

A series of common threads link together many of the threats and some conclusions
can be drawn.

• Soil degradation processes are driven or exacerbated by human activity and are
to continue performing its broad variety of

damaging the capacity of soil
functions.

• Although they are not equally relevant in all countries, there is evidence that soil

degradation processes are currently taking place in the European Union.

• There is no evidence of significant reversal in negative trends in degradation
processes. On the contrary, the information available suggests that, over recent
decades, there has been an increase of some degradation processes.

• While there is no conclusive evidence on the effects of climate change on soil, it
appears likely that it will increase the potential of the threats. This in turn suggests
that soil protection will be of increasing importance in the future.

When linked together, the degradation processes described often undermine soil
sustainability. Although no overall estimate of degradation costs exist, it is clear that
the economic consequences of degradation and the cost of decontamination are
substantial. Information now available allows the design of some initiatives to stop
and revert soil degradation. However more detailed and comparable information on
the extent and significance of the degradation processes, as well as on the most
appropriate soil management practices and soil protection measures, is necessary to
improve the prevention of degradation processes for the future.

4.

THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION

Soil degradation processes are not confined to the European Union but constitute a
major worldwide problem with significant environmental, social and economic
consequences. As world population increases the need to protect soil as a vital
resource particularly for food production is increasing. Growing awareness in the

18

international community of the need for global responses has lead to an increasing
number of international initiatives.

The 1972 Council of Europe's Soil Charter called on states to promote a soil
conservation policy. The World Soil Charter (FAO 1982) and the World Soils Policy
(UNEP 1982) sought to encourage international co-operation in the rational use of
soil resources. The UNEP Environmental Guidelines for the Formulation of National
Soil Policies set out a procedure for preparing national policy with a built-in
sustainable land use element.

At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the international community agreed
on a global partnership for sustainable development and established the Agenda 21
framework. As a result of that several conventions were launched.

The 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change (CCC) recognises the role and
importance of terrestrial ecosystems as sinks of greenhouse gases and that land
degradation problems and changes in land use can exacerbate the emission of gases
to the atmosphere. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol promotes sustainable development and
calls on each Party to implement policies and measures to protect and enhance sinks
and reservoirs of greenhouse gases. In March 2000 the Commission adopted a
communication on EU policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
“Towards a European Climate Change Programme” (ECCP)27. The ECCP activity
covers several areas including now soils as sinks. The report on work in this area will
be completed during 2002.

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aims to conserve biological
diversity, encourage the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. Fundamental
to the CBD is the concern that biological diversity is being significantly reduced by
human activities, including soil and land management. In several Conferences of the
Parties of the Convention, decisions28have been taken aiming at the protection of soil
biodiversity and reduction of the negative effect on it of certain agricultural practices
including the excessive use of inputs.

The European Community Biodiversity Strategy29 and its recently adopted Action
Plans set out the framework for developing Community policies and instruments in
order to ensure Community compliance with commitments given under the CBD. In
particular, the Action Plan for the Conservation of Natural Resources includes an
action establishing an information base on soil erosion, organic matter and heavy
metals and monitoring urbanisation in relation to biodiversity.

The 1994 Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)30 acknowledges that arid,
semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas together account for a significant proportion of
the earth’s land area and represent the habitat and source of livelihood for a large
segment of its population. The objective of the CCD is to prevent and reduce land
degradation, rehabilitate partly degraded land and reclaim desertified land through
effective actions supported by international co-operation and agreements.

27

28

29

30

COM (2000) 88
For instance Decisions III/11 and V/5
COM(1998) 42
http://www.unccd.int

19

the Northern Mediterranean (relevant

The CCD contains five regional annexes covering Africa, Asia, Latin-America and
for four Member States:
the Caribbean,
Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain) and Central and Eastern Europe (relevant for most
Candidate Countries). The elaboration and implementation of Regional Action
Programmes and National Action Programmes, form valuable policy instruments to
combat desertification and soil degradation phenomena in the affected areas.31
Furthermore, the Committee of Science and Technology, a subsidiary body within
the Convention produces a significant amount of information and advice on scientific
and technological matters relating to land degradation worldwide.

In 1999, following a joint initiative of the Commission and some Member States
(Bonn Memorandum on Soil Protection Policies in Europe, 1998) the European Soil
Forum (ESF) was created. Its membership includes EU, EFTA and Accession
Countries, the Commission and the EEA. Its role is to provide a better understanding
of soil protection issues and to promote the exchange of information among
participating countries. It aims to bring the discussion on soil protection from the
scientific and technical level to the administrative and policy area.

5.

ACTION TAKEN BY MEMBER STATES AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES

Individual Member States have taken different initiatives on soil protection aimed at
those soil degradation processes they considered as priorities.

In central and northern Europe efforts focus on soil contamination and sealing, while
in the southern countries initiatives concentrate on erosion and desertification in the
context of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UN-CCD). Portugal,
to combat
Greece,
desertification, in which they analyse the desertification process and identify actions
to be undertaken.

Italy and Spain have adopted National Action Plans

The Spanish plan has concluded that 31% of Spain is under serious threat of
desertification. The plan has launched actions regarding sustainable management of
water resources, forest fire prevention and experimental stations on desertification.

The Greek National Action Plan describes the desertification problem in Greece and
proposes measures for its prevention and control. The Portuguese plan focuses on
soil and water conservation. It targets measures for the recovery of degraded areas to
ensure that the population remains in the more depopulated areas.

The Italian plan focuses on reducing the risk of floods and landslides. It relates to the
regulation of water use and the co-ordination of the sectoral policies that have an
impact on the water cycle. High risk areas for floods and landslides have been
defined.

the
Some Member States have developed a comprehensive approach aiming at
protection of soil functions. In Germany, a soil protection act is in place that aims at
the protection and restoration of sustainable soil functions. It obliges all parties to

31

European Commission,September 2000. Addressing desertification and land degradation. The activities
of the European Community in the context of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

20

prevent hazards, to avoid soil sealing and to take precautions against harmful soil
changes.

In the UK, England is developing an overall soil strategy. The consultation paper
considers several types of pressure on soil and lists sustainable responses. It sets out
a new set of key soil indicators and targets, and addresses the relation between soil
and land-use planning.

In Denmark and Sweden soil protection is considered an integral part of general
environmental protection. In Sweden a monitoring programme on ecosystems
includes several soil parameters.

In France a national action plan on soil management and protection has been agreed
that emphasises on the prevention of future pollution. It contains inter alia a new soil
monitoring network based on a 16 km to 16 km grid, the completion of the national
soil map and maps on erosion risks and soil organic matter. Austria has developed a
soil information system with Internet access.

In the Netherlands policy
Other Member States focus on particular
including groundwater.
concentrates on various types of soil contamination,
Regulations on diffuse contamination define acceptable inputs and losses of
agricultural nutrients. In Belgium, Flanders has established a legal framework for a
liability regime concerning both historically and newly contaminated sites.

threats.

Among the Candidate Countries Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary,
Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria, Cyprus and Malta are also signatories to the UN
Convention to Combat Desertification (UN-CCD) and are preparing national action
programs in this context.

In Slovenia soil protection is part of the National Environmental Action Programme
that deals with the cleaning up of degraded soils and the implementation of
sustainable use of agricultural land. The programme is prepared on the basis of
detailed existing soil data, accessible through the internet.

In Hungary soil protection is driven by the general environmental protection
legislation, as well as by specific legislation on the protection of arable land, the
protection of soil, land and groundwater and the redemption of contaminated sites.

6.

COMMUNITY POLICY RELEVANT FOR SOIL PROTECTION

Although an explicit Community policy focused on soil protection does not exist at
this stage, a broad range of Community instruments influence soil protection. Due to
the multifunctional role of soil and its universal presence, many policies are
involved, and, in addition, state aid is permitted for the rehabilitation of contaminated
soils. The effect of these policies on the state of soils has so far not been
systematically assessed. Most prominent among these are the Environmental,
Agricultural and Regional Policies, but the Transport and Research Policies also
affect soil.

21

6.1.

Environmental Policy

The close link between soil and the other major compartments water and air, is
reflected in specific environmental legislation, targeted at them, but in turn generally
contributing to the protection of soil. The relationship between soil protection and
legislation on waste and land use policy is equally obvious.

(Nitrates Directive32 and Water Framework
Community legislation on water
Directive33) sets standards to prevent the contamination of surface and groundwater
by the leakage of hazardous substances or excessive nutrients from soils. The
Nitrates Directive places emphasis on the establishment of good farming practice in
all areas and on action programmes in nitrate vulnerable zones. It includes provisions
to improve soil condition, such as winter cover crops and adjusted soil management
in areas with steep slopes. The Water Framework Directive aims to secure the
ecological, quantitative and qualitative functions of water. It requires that all impacts
on water will have to be analysed and actions will have to be taken within river basin
management plans. Wherever contaminated soils, erosion or excessively fertilised
soil contribute to surface or groundwater contamination, the necessary remedial
action will in many cases lead to improved soil protection.

Contaminants in polluted air most
likely to reach the soil directly or with
precipitation are heavy metals and materials contributing to acidification and
eutrophication. Legislation aiming to reduce and monitor air pollution (Air Quality
Framework and Daughter Directives34 and Directive on National Emissions
Ceilings35) therefore impacts on soil protection. Further developments will be
achieved through the forthcoming thematic strategy for air quality CAFE (Clean Air
for Europe).

Waste management is one key element to prevent soil contamination. Most directly
linked is the Sewage Sludge Directive36 that regulates the use of sewage sludge in
agriculture in such a way as to prevent harmful effects on soil. In more general terms
the Waste Framework Directive37 requires that waste is to be disposed without
endangering the soil. Further specific waste legislation such as the Landfill
Directive38, the Incineration Directive39 and the Urban Wastewater Directive 40may
contribute to the prevention of soil contamination.

Land use policy can play an important role in protecting soil resources, by limiting
soil sealing and ensuring that soil characteristics (e.g. soil erosion risk) are taken into
land. A separate
account
Communication on “Planning and Environment - the territorial dimension” is under
preparation and will take a number of soil-related aspects into account. It will
address inter alia the sealing of greenfields and the appropriate re-use of brownfields.

in decisions concerning allocation and use of

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

Council Directive 91/676
Directive 2000/60EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
Council Directives 96/92/EC, 1999/30/EC and 2000/69/EC
Directive 2001/81/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
Council Directive 86/278/EEC
Council Directive 75/442/EEC
Council Directive 1999/31/EC
Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and the Council
Council Directive 91/271/EEC

22

It will make the case for rational land use planning that takes the soil’s capacities into
account.

legislation also has an impact on soil protection. The
General environmental
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive41
requires industry and
intensive livestock farms exceeding well-defined sizes to prevent emissions of
pollutants to air, water and land, to avoid waste production and dispose of waste in a
safe way, and to return disused industrial sites to a satisfactory state. The Strategic
Environmental Assessment Directive42 requires an environmental assessment to be
carried out for certain plans and programmes including the area of land use, which
should have a beneficial result for soil protection. The Environmental Impact
Assessment Directive43 requires an environmental assessment for certain private and
public projects. Inter alia the likely impact on soils has to be examined. Under the
chemicals legislation risk assessments and risk reduction strategies are produced for
a considerable number of substances. The risk assessments carried out under the
Existing Substances Regulation44, address the risks related to emissions of the
substances to the soil compartment. Comparable legislation exists for the assessment
of new chemicals45, of plant protection products46 and of biocidal products47. The
Habitats Directive48 is of particular relevance since it defines a number of terrestrial
lands,
habitats that depend on specific soil characteristics, such as dunes, peat
calcareous grasslands and wet meadows.

The financial instrument LIFE supports innovative solutions for some of the soil
threats as well as for sustainable use of soil.

6.2.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

As agricultural production is so dependant on soil and 77 % of land in the EU is used
for agriculture and forestry, agricultural policy has by definition a huge impact on
soil. The reform of the Common Agricultural Policy in the context of Agenda 2000,
building on measures introduced in the 1992 reform, established the importance of
rural development policies as the second pillar of the CAP. In 2000 new rural
development plans were approved including a definition of Good Farming Practice
(GFP), based on verifiable standards where soil protection received considerable
attention.

GFP constitutes a core element of the new rural development policy: the granting of
compensatory allowances in less favoured areas is conditional on the respect of GFP
and agri-environmental measures provide compensation for undertakings going
beyond this baseline. Good Farming Practice is defined as the standard of farming
which a reasonable farmer would follow in the region concerned. It entails in any
case compliance with general mandatory requirements including environmental

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

Council Directive 96/61/EC
Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
Council Directive 97/11/EC
Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93
Commission Directive 93/67/EEC
Council Directive 91/414/EC
Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
Council Directive 92/43/EEC

23

legislation but Member States may establish additional requirements associated with
good practice.

Within the rural development plans, some Member States facing erosion risks
included practices such as tillage following contour lines, while some with low soil
organic matter have banned the burning of cereal stubble. Maximum livestock
carrying capacities have been defined by several Member States to avoid soil
degradation through overgrazing.

Agri-environmental measures aimed at soil protection range from overall farm
management systems such as organic farming (including maximum stocking rates)
and integrated crop management (ICM) to specific measures such as no-tillage or
conservation practices, grassland strips, winter covers, use of compost and the
maintenance of terraces. Measures aiming at a reduced use of pesticides, such as
integrated pest management
(IPM) or promoting balanced rotations can also
contribute to improve the condition of agricultural soils.

Within the market pillar of the CAP, the Agenda 2000 reform introduced new
environmental protection requirements, whereby Member States shall
take the
environmental measures they consider to be appropriate in view of the situation of
the agricultural land used or the production concerned and which reflect the potential
environmental effect. These measures may include support
in return for agri-
environmental commitments, general mandatory environmental requirements or
specific environmental requirements constituting condition for direct payments.
Member States shall decide on penalties
for non-respect of environmental
requirements, which may include a reduction or the cancellation of the market
support.

A number of measures within the individual market regimes offer opportunities for
soil protection. These include set-aside in the arable sector, the extensification
premium in the beef sector and the possibilities within national envelopes in the
dairy, beef and sheep sector.

An increased level of integration of environmental concerns into the CAP is to be
envisaged in future: the further shift of resources to rural development foreseen in the
Commission Communication on Sustainable Development49 will provide new
opportunities for agricultural techniques protecting soils.

6.3.

Regional Policy and Structural Funds

Regional and agricultural structural fund programmes have as a general and
compulsory objective to contribute to sustainable development. Measures in these
programmes contribute directly or indirectly to the improvement and protection of
soil. Examples are erosion and flood prevention, rehabilitation of derelict and
polluted land and measures for sustainable tourism and leisure. For all large planned
investment measures an environmental impact analysis study is to be performed.

The Community’s strategy for Sustainable Development also makes reference to the
need to put the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) into action,
including the implementation of an observatory network to analyse the regional

49

COM (2001) 264 (page 6)

24

impact of Community policies. The European Spatial Planning Observatory Network
(ESPON) programme includes several measures relevant to efficient land protection.

6.4.

Transport Policy

The range of potential effects of transport on soil is very broad. Most important are
the land take by transport
infrastructure and fragmentation of ecosystems and
habitats through transport networks. Soil quality is affected by water runoff from
roads and airport runways, use of persistent herbicides on railroads, emission of NOx
from motor vehicles, disturbance of groundwater flows due to construction work and
contamination risks associated with the transport of dangerous goods.

It sets out

The White Paper on a Common Transport Policy50 describes the current transport
policy.
into sustainable
development. It lists packages of measures aimed at shifting the balance between
modes of transport, in particular from road and aviation to the more environmentally
friendly modes of rail and waterway transport.

the integration of transport

the need for

The indicator system TERM provides a monitoring system aimed at assessing the
environmental performance of the transport sector. It includes indicators for land
take and fragmentation.

6.5.

Research Policy

In the context of various Community research programmes, a number of soil
protection problems are addressed. In the current 5th Research Framework the
programmes “Environment and Sustainable Development” and “Quality of Life" are
supporting soil-related research.

In the key action “Sustainable management and quality of water” a number of
research activities are dedicated to assess and minimise pollution originating from
industrial activities, from contaminated land, waste disposal sites and sediments or
diffuse pollution originating from land-use practices. The interactions between soil
and water are also being studied in the context of integrated water management.
Ongoing RTD activities are addressing sustainable, risk-based management of
contaminated land and groundwater. The Contaminated Land Rehabilitation Network
for Environmental Technologies, CLARINET, is a policy-orientated expert network
on the management of contaminated land.

In the Environmental Applications domain of the “Information Society Technologies
Programme” several research projects are carried out which are relevant
for
improved management of soils.

The key action “Global change, climate and biodiversity” studies vulnerable
ecosystems, of which soils are principal components, in relation to climate and
global change. Particular attention is given to the driving forces in land degradation
and desertification in the fragile ecosystems of Europe. Research effort is also put on
assessment of impacts of policies and practices.

50

COM (2001) 370

25

In the “Quality of Life programme” research is carried out on new farming systems
reducing negative impact on environment and soils. Prevention and control of
erosion and salinisation form also part of research activities promoting sustainable
use of the soil. For instance, the PESERA research project will assess soil erosion
risk all over Europe.

In addition, the European Soil Bureau, a specific project of the Commission’s Joint
Research Centre (JRC), is a network of soil science institutions. It is carrying out
scientific and technical work programmes in order to collect, harmonise and
distribute soil information from countries all over Europe relevant to Community and
national policies.

The proposed 6th Research Framework supports soil related research in the priority
“Sustainable Development, Global Change and Ecosystems”. It will focus on large
scale integrated assessment of land/soil degradation and desertification in Europe and
related prevention and mitigation strategies. Furthermore, it will address soil aspects
in relation to the water cycle. Other priorities aim at a better understanding of
terrestrial biodiversity and on the role of soil as a carbon sink. In addition under the
priority “Specific activities covering a wider field of research”, the 6th framework
programme will support research underpinning the formulation and implementation
of Community
including
policies
environmental assessment
including the effects of chemical
substances). The JRC programme will continue to support the European Soil Bureau
as a network of soil science institutions providing policy relevant soil information to
the Commission services.

(6th Environment Action Programme),
(soil and water,

7.

EXISTING SOIL DATA GATHERING SYSTEMS

7.1.

Soil surveys

Soil surveys collect data on the physical and geological properties of soils, in order to
define soil types and to draw up soil maps. This information is static based on the
assumption that soil and soil properties only change over extremely long periods.

Most of the national soil survey organisations in Europe were established almost 50
years ago in response to the need to ensure food self-sufficiency. Land Capability
Classification, principally in relation to agriculture, was developed in the UK,
Germany and other countries at that stage.

Soil data sets from different countries were generally established using different
nomenclatures and measuring techniques, thereby creating comparability problems.
The related soil maps based on the data are also extremely variable in Europe.
Differences of national coverage and scale are common and only Belgium and The
Netherlands have soil maps at scales of 1:50.000 covering their whole national
territory.

In 1985 a first soil map of the European Community countries was finalised under
the Commission’s initiative. This 1:1.000.000 scale map was based on the soil
classification system adopted by FAO/UNESCO and indicated different soil types.

The European Soil Information System (EUSIS), which is the only homogeneous
soil information available at EU scale, was developed by the Joint Research Centre

26

of the European Commission and the National Soil Surveys. It currently extends to
the EU, EFTA and the Central and Eastern European countries and in the future will
include all Mediterranean basin countries. EUSIS provides soil maps at 1:1.000.000
scale.
It also provides a number of interpretative models for more complex
information of environmental interest such as soil erosion risk, soil organic carbon
content and soil compaction risk.

EUSIS however has limitations. Firstly, the comparability of physical and chemical
information is limited since it is based on data collected over a long period by
National Soil Surveys using different methodologies. Secondly,
it delivers
information at a very coarse scale for environmental protection purposes.
Furthermore, it lacks integration with other soil databases. However, its most serious
constraint is that it delivers static information without any indication on changes and
trends.

7.2.

Monitoring systems

Based on systematic sampling and analysis, soil monitoring systems aim to deliver
information on changing soil parameters,
important for soil functions, such as
nutrient status, organic matter, biodiversity and heavy metal contamination.

Monitoring systems already operate in Austria, France, Finland, The Netherlands,
Sweden and the UK with a periodicity ranging from 5 to 10 years. A recent initiative
in France, RMQS (Réseau de Mesures de la Qualité des Sols), based on the
monitoring system for forest soils, has established a nation-wide soil quality
monitoring network based on a 16 by 16 km grid with 2,000 sampling plots. Every 5
years it will measure a number of environmental parameters such as diffuse pollution
and organic matter.

The only monitoring system in Europe covering a number of soil aspects was
developed as a part of large-scale scheme monitoring the health of forests in the
context of Council Regulation 3528/86 on the Protection of Forests against
Atmospheric Pollution. This monitoring system is restricted to forests. It was
designed for purposes other than soil protection and only addresses a number of soil
parameters, e.g. organic carbon, heavy metals, soil acidity and buffer capacity.

The measurement of these parameters was completed only once in 1992 based on
partial harmonisation of sampling and analytical methods. Further work on
harmonisation is ongoing.

7.3.

Soil data networks

In a wider environmental context, the European Environmental Information and
Observation Network (EIONET) was
established to assist The European
Environment Agency (EEA) in producing policy-relevant information on Europe’s
environment through the delivery of relevant national data. It is a network of national
environmental information networks, of centres of expertise (currently for soil,
contaminated sites and land cover) and European Topic Centres (ETCs) as EEA
contractors coordinating activities in their thematic areas. There are ETCs for air,
water, nature, waste and terrestrial environment.

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The European Topic Centre on Terrestrial Environment
(ETC/TE) technically
supports the EEA in the implementation of the soil monitoring and assessment
framework through the maintenance and further development of databases and
information for use in indicator development and reporting on soil and land issues. In
particular, it carries out assessments of past trends, current state and prospective
development of soil quality and degradation. A core set of soil related indicators are
being developed in the domains of soil sealing, soil erosion,
local and diffuse
contamination as main soil issues.

In addition the land use/cover statistical survey LUCAS is a pilot survey developed
by Eurostat and carried out throughout Europe during 2001. It aims at the collection
of data on land use, land cover and environmental features such as erosion and
natural hazards. Information on erosion includes the registration of the number of
rills, gullies and accumulation zones. The survey will again be carried out in 2003.

7.4.

Soil data comparability

To reach a common understanding throughout Europe of soil degradation processes,
it is important to ensure data comparability. To this end, sampling procedures and
soil analytical methods have to be harmonised in the future.

Experience has shown that the major bottleneck for the assessment of soil condition
in Europe based on already existing data still
is the lack of harmonised
methodologies for monitoring and data transfer, leading to a lack of comparability of
the data.

The elaboration of internationally accepted standards takes place in international
for
such
standardisation
Standardisation) and ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation).

as CEN (European Committee

organisations

8.

THE WAY FORWARD: BUILDING BLOCKS OF A THEMATIC STRATEGY ON SOIL

The principle of sustainable development is at the core of Community policy. The
achievement of this objective will require policies delivering appropriate levels of
soil protection.

To date, despite the delivery of some soil protection through several existing policy
areas, a comprehensive Community approach to soil protection does not exist. Soil
protection is more the result of the crosscutting nature of soil than the outcome of an
explicit intention to tackle soil problems. A thematic strategy is needed to underpin
an integrated and targeted effort for a sustainable management of soil in the EU.

Soil protection requires an integrated approach based on existing knowledge and the
adjustment and improvement of existing policies. However, it also requires the
development of a more long-term approach whereby protection is based on a more
complete knowledge both of the direct and indirect impacts of human activities and
of the best practices and measures to address soil protection problems. This
knowledge also includes awareness of the probable increasing threat due to climate
change.

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Historically, national, regional and local authorities have dealt with soil issues. Such
an approach was justified by the geographical variability of soil, which requires soil
policies to have a strong in-built local element.

On the other hand, there is substantial evidence that soil problems have not only a
local dimension but also wider and indeed global consequences including for food
security, poverty reduction, water protection and biodiversity. Hence concerted
approaches are more likely to be effective in providing solutions. Therefore the
Community has a role in soil protection policy, where it can deliver added value vis-
à-vis action carried out
individually by Member States. Moreover Community
initiatives should take account of relevant international conventions, most notably the
UN-CCD.

The distinctive characteristics of soil for policy development were described earlier
in this Communication. Soil protection policy will have to focus on the principles of
prevention, precaution and anticipation. It needs to ensure the protection of soil
biodiversity and organic matter which are central to soil functions. It should use
monitoring as an indispensable tool and take environmental liability into account.

In developing its thematic strategy for soil protection the Commission is aware of
both the threats described, the relevant policy features and the need for integration.

8.1.

Actions in relation to the threats to soil

Based on the existing knowledge, a number of initiatives to stop and revert soil
degradation processes will be taken through individual Community policy
instruments. However as degradation processes are closely linked, the combined
effect of actions to address particular threats will be beneficial to overall soil
protection.

8.1.1.

Environmental policy

Environmental policy provides the opportunity to address most
threats, and in
particular those relating to contamination, soil organic matter, biodiversity and
sealing.

Full implementation of existing legislation, including the Nitrates Directive, the
Water Framework Directive, the Air Quality Directives, the Landfill Directive, the
Habitats Directive and other, more general environmental legislation, will make a
significant contribution to the prevention of contamination and the protection of
biodiversity. The implementation of
the Strategic Environmental Assessment
Directive will be relevant to address soil sealing, since it will lay a strong emphasis
on soil issues covering all projects supported by the Structural and Cohesion Funds
beyond a certain sealed area threshold.

New legislation will be proposed in the following areas.

During 2002 the 4th Daughter Directive under the Air Quality Framework Directive
will be proposed relating to heavy metals and PAH.

During 2002 a directive on mining waste will be proposed and by 2004 a document
established on the best available techniques for the management of mining waste.

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During 2003 the Commission will undertake a revision of the Sewage Sludge
Directive entailing a reduction in maximum permitted levels of contaminants in
sludge, and possibly its extension to all land where sludge is applied and to other
sludges.

By the end of 2004 a directive on compost and other biowaste will be prepared with
the aim to control potential contamination and to encourage the use of certified
compost.

The fact that Regulation (EEC) No 2158/92 on protection of the Community's forests
against fire will expire on 31.12. 2002 will not prevent the Commission from paying
special attention to the development of the Community forest-fire information
system. This will enable the effectiveness of the protection measures against fires to
be better assessed, which will be relevant in the framework of erosion prevention.

To protect soil biodiversity, the Commission could consider the extension of the
annexes of the Habitats Directive to complete the so far limited list of soil-based
habitats requiring special protection should it be shown that existing designation is
insufficient. Complementarily, the importance of soil in the management plans for
designated Natura 2000 sites will be increased. A considerable amount of research
will be required to establish more completely the biodiversity aspects of soil and the
areas which might merit such designation.

land-use planning and taking into account

In addition to the legislative initiatives, during 2003 the Commission will present a
Communication on “Planning and Environment – the territorial dimension”,
addressing rational
the need for
sustainable management of soil resources. Geographic Information systems (GIS),
which should be a major tool in the planning process, will be instrumental in
providing the necessary support to an appropriate common policy for sustainable
land, and hence soil use. Where erosion, salinisation, floods and landslides are
problematic, restrictions in land use will have to be considered. More positively, the
communication will also address the need to protect land (and thus soils) of prime
agricultural value for long term food production.

The Commission will also develop a strategy on the sustainable use of pesticides (i.e.
plant production products and biocides) as outlined in the 6th Environment Action
Programme.

In the context of the Climate Change Convention, the Commission is also aware of
the desirability to sequester carbon. It will examine ways in which soil organic
matter can be increased,
in this way responding to the challenge of carbon
sequestration, while at the same time delivering at least partial solutions to several of
the other threats on soil, in particular erosion and loss of biodiversity. The result of
this examination may lead to particular proposals in the context of the main EU
policies.

Furthermore, soil will be included within the main themes of the Commission’s
public awareness campaigns in the environmental area.

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8.1.2. Common agricultural policy

The overwhelming importance of soil
for agriculture and forestry has been
highlighted. Agriculture and forestry soils are subject to threats originating in other
sectors, but in addition some farming practices can result in soil degradation, while
others can be beneficial to soil protection.

The Common Agricultural Policy already provides opportunities for soil protection.
A number of agri-environmental measures offer opportunities for the build-up of soil
organic matter, the enhancement of soil biodiversity, the reduction of erosion, diffuse
contamination and soil compaction. These measures include support
to organic
farming, conservation tillage,
the protection and maintenance of terraces, safer
pesticide use, integrated crop management, management of low-intensity pasture
systems, lowering stock density and the use of certified compost. In line with the
integration approach these measures can be developed further to enhance beneficial
practices.

The Commission recalls the importance of Article 3 of Regulation 1259/99 in so far
as the protection of soil in the context of Good Farming Practice is concerned. It
encourages Member States to make use of this provision, in particular where soil
degradation problems related to poor farming practices are widespread.

The Commission is committed to expanding the financial commitment to Rural
Development in the review of the CAP. The Commission is reflecting on possibilities
to strengthen measures in both agriculture and forestry delivering increased soil
protection.

More attention will be paid to forestry and afforestation so that they provide long-
term environmental benefits including through the prevention of soil erosion.
Member States will have in particular the possibility to introduce or reinforce forest
fire prevention measures in their Rural Development programming documents from
2003 onwards.

In addition, in line with the proactive approach required for soil protection, the
include soil protection issues in the discussion on the future
Commission will
evolution of good agricultural practices as a policy tool.

8.1.3. Other Community policies

Infrastructural developments and transport tend to pose problems to soil related to
sealing, local and diffuse contamination and erosion. Particular support programmes
of the Structural Funds have as a crosscutting objective the improvement and
protection of soil in order to mitigate this.

As the extent of environmental
legislation covering aspects of soil protection
increases, the Commission will consider how to integrate it further into Regional and
Cohesion planning. It may be necessary in the next programming period to address
the issues of sealing and contamination together with other issues relating to soil and
land to be addressed in the Communication on Planning and Environment.

In Transport Policy, the problems of soil sealing and diffuse contamination will be
addressed.

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functions are both complex and crucial

Since soil and soil
long-term
sustainability, a stronger emphasis of research policy on soil is required. Further
study of the impact of human activities on soil functions at
the appropriate
geographical
level will be promoted through the Sixth Research Framework
Programme. Particular attention should be paid to a better understanding of the soil
ecosystem and how to manage it in a sustainable way. Other research issues are the
potential
impact of a decline in soil biodiversity, development of effective
monitoring schemes for soil threats and the effect of climate change on soil threats.

for

In the context of the enlargement process,
the Community will pay particular
attention to soil protection issues by ensuring that potential negative effects on soil
from infrastructure works supported by the Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-
accession (ISPA) are avoided.

In Candidate Countries the Special Accession programme for Agriculture and Rural
Development (SAPARD)51 provides certain opportunities for soil protection. Agri-
environmental pilot actions in this framework can include actions to combat soil
erosion, improve soil quality and soil tillage practices, organic farming or extensive
grazing.

At the international level, while continuing to honour its commitments in the UN
Conventions, the Community will have to ensure that a soil protection dimension is
included in EC development co-operation policy in those regions facing severe soil
problems.

8.2.

Monitoring soil threats

The actions to be taken in the near future to address soil protection are based on
existing information, which is recognised as incomplete. For the long-term protection
of soils it will be necessary to ensure the development of a more complete
information basis, monitoring and indicators to establish the prevailing soil
conditions, and to evaluate the impact of diverse policies and practices.

The specifications of a Community information and monitoring system on soil
threats will be the subject of an appropriate proposal for a soil monitoring legislation.
It will aim to ensure that a number of measurements on the identified threats in the
relevant areas are carried out in a harmonised and coherent way and that its results
are relevant to and accessible for policy makers and for early warning purposes. As
regards contaminants, the monitoring will give priority to those substances that can
be transferred from soil to food or have potential health implications in any other
way.

The monitoring system to be established should in so far as possible be based on
existing information systems, databases and know-how. The principle of cost-
effectiveness will be taken into account. Such system should be designed in such a
the data can be integrated into more comprehensive/multi-layered
way that
monitoring and reporting programmes, for example the Commission’s Infrastructure
for Spatial Information in Europe initiative. The consultation process should be
completed to allow a formal proposal to be made by mid 2004.

51

Council Regulation (EC) No 1268/1999

32

During 2002 the Commission will reflect on the future replacement of Council
Regulation 3528/86 on the Protection of Forests against Atmospheric Pollution so
that it can contribute more fully to general soil monitoring and in particular to
localised problems related to the environment.

Together with a basic monitoring of soil conditions throughout Europe,
this
legislation would provide the necessary flexibility to focus, where necessary, on
more locally relevant threats and degradation processes and their driving forces.
Such threats include problems of contamination related to particular industries or
transport with a local dimension, but of Community relevance. In this way soil
monitoring can be used not just to ensure soil protection itself, but as a measure of
the effectiveness of other protection policies and as a tool for their improvement
where necessary.

8.3.

Future soil protection

The Commission emphasises the need for the establishment of a comprehensive
monitoring system to form the knowledge base for coherent actions in the future.

General monitoring will give information on the extent and the evolution of existing
widespread threats and will provide the basis for policy development to respond
more fully and accurately to them. In this way monitoring can become a driving
force for policy adjustment and revision for the benefit of soil protection.

Specific monitoring will focus on local scale threats and their driving forces and lead
to action in sectors which are the original source of soil degradation, thus focusing on
the elimination particularly of contamination at source. An example could be focused
soil monitoring close to industrial plants or highways. At present the soil is the
recipient of many contaminating emissions. When some contaminants accumulate in
soil, they provide a threat not just to soil functions, but more widely via leakage to
water and bio-accumulation to plant, animal and human health.

Over an extended period, priorities particularly for specific monitoring will change
as actions are carried out so leading to a programme of work to deliver not just soil
protection, but also, where necessary, improved regulation of activities in sectors
which may be contributing to soil degradation.

9.

THE WORK-PLAN AND TIMETABLE FOR BUILDING THE THEMATIC STRATEGY

A thematic strategy on soil will build on the actions indicated in Chapter 8 which
will contribute to an improved protection of soils. To prepare additional measures,
the Commission will establish an inter-service group on soils in order to ensure an
integrated approach to soil protection across the different policy areas. This group
will follow the development of the initiatives enumerated in section 8.1 as well as
identifying other opportunities for promoting soil protection. The Commission will
publish a report by June 2004 on the technical measures and legislative and policy
initiatives which it has taken to promote soil protection.

In order to address the challenging task of developing better instruments for soil
protection, the Commission will work together with Member States, Candidate
countries, the EEA, academia and other stakeholders. The Commission will provide
the leadership and co-ordination but this will be a collective effort with the burden of

33

work being shared among all participants on the basis of a detailed work-plan. The
objective of the work will be to assist the Commission in developing:

• a proposal for soil monitoring;

• a Communication on soil erosion,

contamination including detailed recommendations for
actions.

soil organic matter decline and soil
future measures and

The proposal for soil monitoring will be finalised by June 2004. In preparing this
proposal, the Commission will be guided by various current initiatives. To this end,
work is already underway to identify best approaches to monitoring and this will be
both intensified and linked to particular issues including erosion, the decline in
organic matter and contamination.

With regard to the Communication:

• A more complete picture of the extent of contamination within the current and
future enlarged EU is needed. In order to achieve this, the Commission will rely
the
heavily on the work of Member States, Candidate Countries and of
CLARINET expert network. Best practice in the management and remediation of
contaminated sites will be identified and priorities for future remedial action
indicated.

• The Commission is fully aware of the significance of soil erosion in the
Mediterranean Region in particular, although evidence strongly suggests that
erosion is taking place in many regions of the EU. The Commission intends to
organise a conference on soil erosion and the related issue of the decline in
organic matter during 2003. This conference should bring together all
stakeholders both from the EU and candidate countries and also other
Mediterranean countries. Several countries are developing or have developed
plans in order to fulfil commitments in relation to the UNCCD and this
conference should provide an opportunity to describe progress and problems in
tackling soil erosion thus contributing to the Commission’s reflections for the
Communication.

• The conference will also examine the situation in relation to organic matter
including measures which could be taken to redress the decline and increase soil
organic matter levels.

Building on the actions to be taken until then, the measures to be presented in the
Communication together with the proposal for soil monitoring will establish the
thematic strategy on soil protection. It is incremental in approach addressing issues
now to the extent possible and setting the basis for more solid work to ensure soil
protection in the medium term and future. The Communication, in particular, will
place emphasis on actions to be taken to address identified problems and so will
ensure that soil protection is treated as a major issue to be tackled both within and
outside the EU.

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10.

CONCLUSIONS

In presenting this Communication on soil protection, the Commission is placing soil
alongside water and air as environmental media to be protected for the future. Soil is
both essential to human existence and subject to human activities.

In developing a soil protection strategy the Commission has taken a pragmatic
approach directed in the first instance towards the adjustment of existing policies
relevant to soil taking both a preventative approach through the development of new
environmental legislation and an integrational approach for sectoral policies of
particular relevance for soil. This integrational approach is fully in line with the
Cardiff process and sustainable development.

In addition the Commission has established the need to provide a more solid base
through monitoring for actions in the future. These actions will be beneficial not only
to soil, but will also contribute to reducing water and food contamination by
hazardous pollutants and will therefore contribute to the limitation of environmental
impact on human health.

Soil protection has both a national and community-wide dimension and requires that
Member States implement national and community relevant policy.

The Commission requests the Council and the European Parliament to endorse the
approach it has established in this Communication.

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