Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion
Date: 2001-10-10
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, EU publication, European Commission, European Social Fund, cooperation policy, economic and social cohesion, marginalisation, poverty, social integration

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 10.10.2001
COM(2001) 565 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion

Part I - The European Union ...................................................................................................... 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY........................................................................................................ 4

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9

1.

2.

3.

3.1

Major trends and challenges....................................................................................... 12

Strategic approaches and policy measures................................................................. 21

Identification of good practice and innovative approaches........................................ 25

Objective 1: To facilitate participation in employment and access by all to resources,
rights, goods and services .......................................................................................... 26

3.1.1

Facilitating participation in employment ................................................................... 26

3.1.2

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all ............................ 32

3.1.2.1 Social protection systems........................................................................................... 33

3.1.2.2 Housing ...................................................................................................................... 36

3.1.2.3 Healthcare .................................................................................................................. 39

3.1.2.4 Education, Justice and Culture................................................................................... 41

3.2

Objective 2: To prevent the risks of exclusion .......................................................... 47

3.2.1

Promoting eInclusion ................................................................................................. 48

3.2.2

Preventing over-indebtedness and homelessness....................................................... 50

3.2.3

Preserving family solidarity ....................................................................................... 53

3.3

Objective 3: To help the most vulnerable .................................................................. 54

3.3.1

Promoting the integration of people facing persistent poverty .................................. 54

3.3.2

Eliminating social exclusion among children ............................................................ 57

3.3.3

Promoting action in favour of areas marked by exclusion......................................... 58

3.4

Objective 4: To mobilise all relevant bodies.............................................................. 60

3.4.1

Promoting the participation and self-expression of people suffering exclusion ........ 61

3.4.2 Mainstreaming the fight against exclusion ................................................................ 61

3.4.3

Promoting dialogue and partnership .......................................................................... 64

4.

Promoting equality between women and men ........................................................... 65

2

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

5.

Gender sensitivity in the major challenges ................................................................ 65

Gender mainstreaming in the overall strategy ........................................................... 66

How gender issues are dealt with in the different objectives..................................... 67

Gender in the monitoring process, impact assessments and indicators ..................... 68

Use of Indicators in the NAPs/incl ............................................................................ 69

Part II - The Member States ..................................................................................................... 73

BELGIUM................................................................................................................................ 74

DENMARK.............................................................................................................................. 79

GERMANY.............................................................................................................................. 85

GREECE .................................................................................................................................. 91

SPAIN... ................................................................................................................................... 97

FRANCE ................................................................................................................................ 103

IRELAND .............................................................................................................................. 109

ITALY.................................................................................................................................... 115

LUXEMBOURG.................................................................................................................... 121

THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................... 126

AUSTRIA............................................................................................................................... 132

PORTUGAL........................................................................................................................... 138

FINLAND .............................................................................................................................. 145

SWEDEN ............................................................................................................................... 151

UNITED KINGDOM............................................................................................................. 157

Annex I : Indicators................................................................................................................ 164

ANNEX II : Examples of good practice indicated in the national action plans against poverty

and social exclusion ................................................................................................. 187

3

PART I - THE EUROPEAN UNION

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

It is the first time that the European Commission presents a policy document on poverty and
social exclusion. By documenting and analysing the situation across all Member States and by
identifying  the  key  challenges  for  the  future  this  draft  Joint  Report  on  Social  Inclusion
contributes  to  strengthening  the  European  social  model.  It  is  thus  a  significant  advance
towards  the  achievement  of  the  EU's  strategic  goal  of  greater  social  cohesion  in  the  Union
between 2001- 2010.

This  report  gives  a  concrete  reality  to  the  open  method  of  coordination  on  Social  Inclusion
agreed at the Lisbon Summit in March 2000. This new process is an important recognition of
the  key  role  that  social  policy  has  to  play  alongside  economic  and  employment  policies  in
reducing inequalities and promoting social cohesion, as well as of the need to ensure effective
links between these policies in the future. It is thus an important element in progressing the
European  Social  Agenda  agreed  in  Nice  and  complements  the  objectives  of  the  European
Employment Strategy.

This  report  marks  a  significant  advance  in  the  process  of  developing  common  indicators  to
measure  poverty  and  social  exclusion  across  and  within  all  Member  States.  It  shows  that
Member States and the Commission are actively engaged in this process. This will lead to a
much  more  rigorous  and  effective  monitoring  of  progress  in  tackling  poverty  and  social
exclusion in the  future.  It will also  contribute  to  better  evaluations  of  policies  and  a  clearer
assessment  of  their  effectiveness  and  value  for  money.  This  should  lead  to  better  policy
making in Member States in the future.

This  report  does  not  evaluate  the  effectiveness  of  the  systems  already  in  place  in  different
Member States.  Rather  it concentrates  on  analysing  the  different  approaches  that  have  been
adopted by Member States in their National Action Plans against poverty and social exclusion
(NAPs/incl) in response to the common objectives on poverty and social exclusion agreed by
the EU at  Nice  in  December 2000.  It  examines Member  States' NAPs/incl  focussing  on  the
quality of analysis, the clarity of objectives, goals and targets and the extent to which there is
a  strategic  and  integrated  approach.  In  doing  this  it  demonstrates  the  commitment  of  all
Member  States  to  use  the  new  social  inclusion  process  to  enhance  their  efforts  to  tackle
poverty and social inclusion.

This report documents a wide range of policies and initiatives in place or proposed in Member
States.  These  will  provide  a  good  basis  for  co-operation  and  exchange  of  learning  between
Member States in the future. However, it has not been possible to identify examples of good
practice as at present there is a general lack of rigorous evaluation of policies and programmes
in Member States. The report thus identifies that an important challenge for the next phase of
the  social  inclusion  process  will  be  to  introduce  more  thorough  analysis  of  the  cost
effectiveness and efficiency of policies to tackle poverty and social exclusion.

The new commitment - At the European Councils of  Lisbon (March 2000), Nice (December
2000)  and  Stockholm  (June  2001),  Member  States  made  a  commitment  to  promote
sustainable economic  growth  and quality employment which will reduce the risk  of poverty
and social exclusion as well as strengthen social cohesion in the Union between 2001 - 2010.
To underpin this commitment, the Council developed common objectives in the fight against

4

poverty and social exclusion. It also agreed that these objectives be taken forward by Member
States from 2001 onwards in  the  context of  two-year National Action  Plans  against  poverty
and social exclusion (NAPs/incl). Furthermore, the Council established a new open method of
coordination  which  encourages  Member  States  to  work  together  to  improve  the  impact  on
social  inclusion  of  policies  in  fields  such  as  social  protection,  employment,  health,  housing
and  education.  The  NAPs/incl  and  the  development  of  comparable  indicators  provide  the
framework for promoting exchange of good practice and mutual learning at Community level.
This  will  be  supported  from  2002  by  a  five  year  Community  action  programme  on  social
inclusion.

The  overall  context  –  The  new  open  method  of  co-ordination  should  contribute  to  a  better
integration  of  social  objectives  in  the  already  existing  processes  towards  achieving  the
ambitious strategic goal for the Union set out in Lisbon. In particular, it should contribute to
ensuring a positive and dynamic interaction of economic, employment and social policies and
to  mobilise  all  players  to  attain  such  a  strategic  objective.  The  present  report  is  fully
consistent with the aims of the European Social Agenda agreed at Nice, to the extent that it
recognises the dual role of social policy, both as a productive factor and as a key instrument to
reduce inequalities and promote social cohesion.  In this respect it puts due emphasis  on  the
key  role  of  participation  in  employment,  especially  by  groups  that  are  under-represented  or
disadvantaged  in  it,  in  line  with  the  objectives  of  the  European  Employment  Strategy.
Furthermore,  the  report  takes  into  account  the  achievements  of  the  European  Social  model,
characterised  by  systems  that  offer  a  high  level  of  social  protection,  by  the  importance  of
social dialogue and by services of general interest covering activities vital for social cohesion,
while reflecting the diversity of Member States' options and conditions.

Fulfilling  the  commitment  -  All  Member  States  have  demonstrated  their  commitment  to
implementing the Open Method of Coordination by completing National Plans by June 2001.
These set out their priorities in the fight against poverty and social exclusion for a period of 2
years  and  include  a  more  or  less  detailed  description  of  the  policy  measures  in  place  or
planned  in  order  to  meet  the  EU  common  objectives.  Most  also  include  examples  of  good
practice. The NAPs/incl provide a wealthy source of information from which the Commission
and Member States can further develop a process of exchange of good practice conducive to
more effective policies within Member States. This process should be enhanced in future by
more  extensive  evaluations  of  national  policies,  including  their  implications  for  public
indicators  and
finance,  and 
methodologies, at both national and EU levels.

the  development  of  a  comprehensive  set  of 

through 

The overall picture - Evidence from the NAPs/incl confirms that tackling poverty and social
exclusion continues to be an important challenge facing the European Union. The impact of
favourable economic and employment trends between 1995 and 2000 has helped to stabilise
the situation which had deteriorated in many Member States with economic recession in the
mid 1990s. However, it is clear from the analysis provided by Member States and comparable
EU  indicators  that  the  number  of  people  experiencing  high  exclusion  and  poverty  risk  in
society  remains  too  high.  The  most  recent  available  data  on  income  across  Member  States,
while  not  capturing  the  full  complexity  and  multi-dimensionality  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion,  shows  that  in  1997  18%  of  the  EU  population,  or  more  than  60  million  people,
were living in households where income was below 60% of the national equivalised median
income  and  that  about  half  had  been  living  below  this  relative  poverty  threshold  for  three
successive years.

The risk factors -  A  number  of  factors  which  significantly  increase  people's  risk  of  poverty
and social exclusion have been identified in the NAPs/incl. Unemployment, especially when

5

long-term,  is  by  far  the  most  frequently  mentioned  factor.  Other  important  factors  are:  low
income, low quality employment, homelessness, weak health, immigration, low qualifications
and  early  school  leaving,  gender  inequality,  discrimination  and  racism,  disability,  old  age,
family break-ups, drug abuse and alcoholism and living in an area of multiple disadvantage.
Some Member States stressed the  extent to which these risk factors interact and accumulate
over  time  hence  the  need  to  cut  through  the  recurring  cycle  of  poverty  and  to  prevent
intergenerational poverty.

The structural changes - Several NAPs/incl identify a number of structural changes occurring
across  the  EU  which  can  lead  to  new  risks  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  for  particularly
vulnerable  groups  unless  the  appropriate  policy  responses  are  developed.  These  are:  major
structural changes in the labour market resulting from a period of very rapid economic change
and globalisation; the very rapid growth of the knowledge-based society and Information and
Communication  Technologies;  the  increasing  number  of  people  living  longer  coupled  with
falling  birth  rates  resulting  in  growing  dependency  ratios;  a  growing  trend  towards  ethnic,
cultural  and  religious  diversity  fuelled  by  international  migration  and  increased  mobility
within the Union; increase in women's access to the labour market and changes in household
structures.

The  challenges  -  The  overarching  challenge  for  public  policy  that  emerges  from  the
NAPs/incl is to ensure that the main mechanisms which distribute opportunities and resources
–  the  labour  market,  the  tax  system,  the  systems  providing  social  protection,  education,
housing,  health  and  other  services  –  become  sufficiently  universal  to  address  the  needs  of
those  who  are  at  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  to  enable  them  to  access  their
fundamental rights. It is thus encouraging that the NAPs/incl highlight the need and confirm
the commitment of Member States both to enhance their employment policies and to further
modernise their social protection systems as well as other systems, such as education, health
and housing, and make them more responsive to individual needs and better able to cope with
traditional as well as new risks of poverty and social exclusion. While the scale and intensity
of  the  problems  vary  widely  across  Member  States  eight  core  challenges  can  be  identified
which  are  being  addressed  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  by  most  Member  States.  These  are:
developing an inclusive labour market and promoting employment as a right and opportunity
for  all;  guaranteeing  an  adequate  income  and  resources  to  live  in  human  dignity;  tackling
educational  disadvantage;  preserving  family  solidarity  and  protecting  the  rights  of  children;
ensuring  good  accommodation  for  all;  guaranteeing  equal  access  to  and  investing  in  high
quality services (health, transport, social, care, cultural, recreational and legal); improving the
delivery of services; and regenerating areas of multiple deprivation.

Different  points  of  departure  -  The  NAPs/incl  highlight  the  very  different  social  policy
systems across Member States. Member States with the most developed welfare systems and
with high per capita social expenditure levels tend to be most successful in ensuring access to
basic necessities and keeping the numbers at risk of poverty well below the EU average. Not
surprisingly  these  very  different  social  policy  systems  combined  with  the  widely  varying
levels  of  poverty  resulted  in  Member  States  adopting  quite  different  approaches  to  tackling
poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  the  NAPs/incl.  Some  used  the  opportunity  to  rethink  their
strategic  approach  to  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  including  the  co-ordination
between  different  levels  of  policy-making  and  delivery.  Others,  particularly  those  with  the
most  developed  welfare  systems  where  poverty  and  social  exclusion  tend  to  be  narrowed
down  to  a  number  of  very  particular  risk  factors,  took  the  key  contribution  their  universal
systems  make  as  read  and  concentrated  on  highlighting  new  and  more  specific  measures  in
their NAPs/incl. Another factor that influenced Member States' approach to their NAPs/incl
was  the  political  structure  of  the  country  and  how  the  responsibilities  in  the  fight  against

6

social exclusion are distributed between the central, regional and local authorities. However,
whatever the variation in this regard, most Member States recognised the need to complement
national plans with integrated approaches at regional and local levels.

Strategic and integrated approach - While all Member States have fulfilled the commitment
agreed in Nice, there are differences as regards the extent to which the NAPs/incl provide a
comprehensive analysis of key structural risks and challenges, frame their policies in a longer
term  strategic  perspective,  and  evolve  from  a  purely  sectoral  and  target-group  approach
towards an integrated approach. Only  a few have moved beyond general aspirations  and set
specific and quantified targets which provide a basis for monitoring progress. Gender issues
lack  visibility  in  most  NAPs/incl  and  their  mention  is  sporadic,  though  a  commitment  by
some to enhance gender mainstreaming over the next two years is very welcome. To a large
extent, the different emphasis in these aspects across NAPs/incl reflect the different points of
departure mentioned above.

Scope  for  innovation  -  In  terms  of  specific  actions  and  policies  most  Member  States  have
focused their efforts on improving co-ordination, refining and combining existing policies and
measures  and  promoting  partnership,  rather  than  launching  important  new  or  innovative
policy approaches. The relatively short time available to develop the first NAPs/incl has led
most  Member  States  to  limit  the  policy  measures  to  the  existing  budgetary  and  legal
frameworks and most did  not include any cost  estimates. Thus, while  most 2001 NAPs/incl
are an important starting point in the process, in order to make a decisive impact on poverty
and social exclusion further policy efforts will be needed in the coming years.

Interaction  with  the  Employment  Strategy  -  Participation  in  employment  is  emphasised  by
most Member States as the best safeguard against poverty and social exclusion. This reflects
adequately  the  emphasis  laid  on  employment  by  the  European  Council  at  Nice.  Two-way
links are established between the NAPs/incl and the NAPs/employment. On the one hand, the
Member States recognise the crucial role played by the Employment Guidelines in the fight
against exclusion by improving employability and creating new job opportunities, which are
an  essential  condition  for  making  the  labour  markets  more  inclusive.  At  the  same  time,  the
Employment Strategy is concerned mainly with raising employment rates towards the targets
set  in  Lisbon  and  Stockholm  in  the  most  effective  way.  On  the  other  hand,  by  focusing  on
actions  that  will  facilitate  participation  in  employment  for  those  individuals,  groups  and
communities who are most distant from the labour market, the NAPs/incl can play a positive
role towards increasing the  employment  rate. The trend towards  more  active and preventive
policies in most NAPs/incl reflects experience gained under the Luxembourg process.

Policy  design  -  Across  the  different  policy  strands  addressing  the  EU  common  objectives,
three general and complementary approaches emerge from the NAPs/incl. The first approach
involves enhancing the adequacy, access and affordability of mainline policies and provisions
so that there is improved coverage, uptake and effectiveness (i.e. promoting universality). The
second approach is to address specific disadvantages that can be overcome through the use of
appropriate policies (i.e. promoting a level playing field). The third approach is to compensate
for disadvantages that can only be partially (or not at all) overcome (i.e. ensuring solidarity).

Policy delivery - A key concern across all NAPs/incl is not only to design better policies but
also to improve their delivery so as to make services more inclusive and better integrated with
a greater focus on the needs and situations of the users. Some elements of best practice  can
begin  to  be  identified  on  the  basis  of  NAPs/incl.  This  involves:  designing  and  delivering
policies  as  close  to  people  as  possible;  ensuring  that  services  are  delivered  in  an  integrated
and  holistic  way;  ensuring  transparent  and  accountable  decision  making;  making  services

7

more user friendly, responsive and efficient; promoting partnership between different actors;
emphasising  equality,  rights  and  non  discrimination;  fostering  the  participation  of  those
affected by poverty and social exclusion; emphasising the autonomy and empowerment of the
users  of  services;  and  emphasising  a  process  of  continuous  improvement  and  the
sustainability of services.

Mobilisation  of  key  stakeholders  -  Most  Member  States  recognise  the  need  to  mobilise  and
involve  key  stakeholders,  including  those  experiencing  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  in  the
design and implementation of their NAPs/incl. Most consulted with NGOs and social partners
when preparing their NAPs/incl. However, in part due to the short time available, the extent
and impact of this consultation seems to have been limited in many cases. A key challenge for
the  future  will  be  to  develop  effective  mechanisms  for  their  ongoing  involvement  in
implementing  and  monitoring  National  Plans.  Some  Member  States  highlight  consultation
and stakeholder mechanisms that will help to ensure this.

Common indicators - The evidence from the first round of NAPs/incl is that we are still a long
way  from  achieving  a  common  approach  to  social  indicators  which  will  allow  policy
outcomes  to  be  compared  and  which  will  contribute  to  the  identification  of  good  practice.
Efforts are needed to improve this situation, both at the national level and the level of the EU.
The  majority  of  NAPs/incl  still  make  use  of  national  definitions  in  the  measurement  of
poverty and of levels of inadequacy in access to housing, health care or education and only a
few  make  appropriate  use  of  policy  indicators  in  their  NAPs/incl.  This  adds  urgency  to  the
current efforts to develop a set of common indicators on poverty and social inclusion which
can  be  agreed  by  the  European  Council  by  the  end  of  2001.  It  also  highlights  the  need  to
enhance the collection of comparable data across Member States.

8

INTRODUCTION

The present  report  aims  at  identifying  good  practice  and  innovative  approaches  of  common
interest to the Member States on the basis of the National Action Plans against poverty  and
social  exclusion  (NAPs/incl),  in  conformity  with  the  mandate  received  from  the  European
Council of Nice. It is presented as the draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion that the Council
will prepare together with the Commission for the European Council of Laeken.

The  adoption  of  this  report  is  in  itself  a  significant  achievement.  For  the  first  time  ever,  a
single  policy  document  assesses  common  challenges  to  prevent  and  eliminate  poverty  and
social exclusion and promote social inclusion from an EU perspective. It brings together the
strategies and major policy measures in place or envisaged by all EU Member States to fight
poverty  and  social  exclusion1.  It  is  a  key  step  towards  strengthening  policy  co-operation  in
this area, with a view to promoting mutual learning and EU-wide mobilisation towards greater
social inclusion, while safeguarding the Member States’ key responsibilities in policy making
and delivery.

Following the inclusion under Article 136 and 137 EC by the Amsterdam Treaty, of the fight
against exclusion among the social policy provisions, the European Council of Lisbon agreed
on the need to take steps to make a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty by 2010. It
has also agreed that Member States’ policies for combating social exclusion should be based
on  an  open  method  of  co-ordination  combining  common  objectives,  National  Action  Plans
and a programme presented by the Commission to encourage co-operation in this field.

The  new  open  method  of  co-ordination  should  contribute  to  a  better  integration  of  social
objectives in the already existing processes towards achieving the ambitious strategic goal for
the Union set out in Lisbon "to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based
economy in the world capable of sustained economic growth with more and better jobs and
greater social cohesion". In particular, it should contribute to ensuring a positive and dynamic
interaction of economic, employment and social policies and to mobilise all players to attain
such a strategic objective. The present report is fully consistent with the aims of the European
Social Agenda agreed at Nice, to the extent that it recognises the dual role of social  policy,
both as a productive factor and as a key instrument to reduce inequalities and promote social
cohesion. In this respect it puts due emphasis on the key role of participation in employment,
especially  by  groups  that  are  under-represented  or  disadvantaged  in  it,  in  line  with  the
objectives  of  the  European  Employment  Strategy.  Furthermore,  the  report  takes  in  full
account the achievements of the European Social model, characterised by systems that offer a
high level of social protection, by the importance of social dialogue and by services of general
interest covering activities vital for social cohesion, while reflecting the diversity of Member
States' options and conditions.

Given the multiple interaction with other existing processes of policy co-ordination, there is a
need  to  ensure  consistency  with  the  Employment  Guidelines,  on  one  hand,  and  the  Broad
Economic Policy Guidelines, on the other, to avoid overlapping and conflicting objectives. In
the  Synthesis  Report  submitted  to  the  European  Council  of  Stockholm,  the  Commission

1

Throughout this report the terms poverty and social exclusion refer to when people are prevented from
participating  fully  in  economic,  social  and  civil  life  and/or  when  their  access  to  income  and  other
resources  (personal,  family,  social  and  cultural)  is  so  inadequate  as  to  exclude  them  from  enjoying  a
standard of living and quality of life that is regarded as acceptable by the society in which they live. In
such situations people often are unable to fully access their fundamental rights.

9

                                                
started  to  translate  the  new  strategic  vision  of  the  Union  into  an  integrated  assessment  of
policy  strategies  and  outcomes  in  four  key  domains:  economic  reform,  information  society,
internal market and social cohesion. The present report aims at highlighting the role of social
policy  and  of  other  equally  important  policy  areas  for  social  cohesion  (education,  housing,
health)  in  the  forthcoming  Synthesis  Report  that  the  Commission  will  prepare  for  the
European Council in spring 2002.

All Member States have committed themselves in Nice to developing their policy priorities in
fighting poverty and social exclusion in the framework of four commonly agreed objectives:

(1) 

to  facilitate  participation  in  employment  and  access  by  all  to  the  resources,  rights,
goods and services;

(2) 

to prevent the risks of exclusion;

(3) 

to help the most vulnerable;

(4) 

to mobilise all relevant bodies.

The Member States also underlined the importance  of  mainstreaming equality  between men
and women in all actions aimed at achieving those objectives.

The NAPs/incl setting out the policy objectives and measures to tackle these objectives were
prepared  between  January  and  May  2001.  The  Commission  played  an  active  role  in
supporting  Member  States’  preparatory  efforts,  by  proposing  a  common  outline  and  a
working schedule for the NAPs/incl which were adopted by the Social Protection Committee.
Furthermore, the Commission proposed and took part actively in a series of bilateral seminars
with all Member  States, to  present the new  EU  strategy  and  to  discuss  the  country’s  policy
priorities in preparation of the NAPs/incl. In addition to the authorities responsible for the co-
ordination of the plans, several other government departments, as well as representatives from
regional  and  local  authorities,  non-governmental  organisations  and  the  social  partners,
participated in the seminars in varying degrees.

The  overall  picture  that  emerges  from  the  fifteen  NAPs/incl  confirms  that  tackling  poverty
and  social  exclusion  continues  to  be  an  important  challenge  facing  the  European  Union.  If
Member  States  are  to  achieve  the  goal  of  building  inclusive  societies  then  significant
improvements need to be made in the distribution of resources and opportunities in society so
as  to  ensure  the  social  integration  and  participation  of  all  people  and  their  ability  to  access
their  fundamental  rights.  However,  the  magnitude  of  the  challenge  varies  significantly  both
between and within Member States.

The  very  different  social  policy  systems  across  Member  States  led  to  quite  different
approaches  to  the  NAPs/incl  process.  Some  Member  States  saw  the  NAPs/incl  as  an
opportunity  to  rethink  or  make  fundamental  improvements  to  their  approach  to  tackling
poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Other  Member  States,  particularly  those  with  the  most
developed welfare systems, took the contribution their universal systems make to preventing
poverty and social exclusion as read and concentrated on highlighting new and more specific
measures in their NAPs/incl.

The  NAPs/incl  highlight  the  need  and  confirm  the  commitment  of  Member  States  both  to
enhance their employment policies and to further modernise their social protection systems as
well  as  other  systems,  such  as  education  and  housing,  and  make  them  more  responsive  to
individual needs and able to cope with traditional as well as new risks of poverty and social

10

exclusion. A key challenge here is to ensure that equal value is given to policies in these areas
alongside  employment  and  economic  policies.  The  struggle  against  poverty  and  social
exclusion needs to be appropriately mainstreamed across this large range of policy areas and
there  need  to  be  real  synergies  between  them.  There  is  also  recognition  in  many  Member
States that the picture is not static and that the rapid structural changes that are affecting all
countries need to be taken into account if new forms of social  exclusion are not to occur or
existing forms to intensify.

All  Member  States  are  committed  to  the  new  EU  process  of  policy  co-ordination  against
poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Without  exception,  the  NAPs/incl  set  out  Member  States’
priorities in the fight against poverty and social exclusion for a period of 2 years, taking into
account the four common objectives agreed by the European Council of Nice. All NAPs/incl
include a more or less detailed description of the policy measures in place or planned in order
to meet such objectives and the majority have included examples of good practice to facilitate
their identification. However, a number of Member States noted that the time allowed for the
preparation of their plans was too short to enable them to consider new important initiatives
and innovative approaches. As a result, most NAPs/incl tend to concentrate on existing policy
measures and programmes instead of setting out new policy approaches.As a general rule, the
NAPs/incl focus comparatively less on the public finance implications of proposed initiatives.
Existing initiatives will of course have been properly costed and budgeted for. But in terms of
designing the future strategy for promoting inclusion, it is essential to be aware  of  financial
constraints.  Commitments  to  increase  investment  in  education,  to  improve  the  adequacy  of
social  protection  or  to  extend  employability  initiatives  may  entail  significant  costs  and
therefore should also be seen in the context of national budgetary commitments as well as the
Broad  Economic  Guidelines  and  the  Stability  and  Growth  Pact.  Similarly,  regulatory
constraints should also be taken into account. For example, measures that might affect labour
costs or incentives  to  participate  in  the  labour  market  should  be  consistent  with  the  BEPGs
and the Employment Guidelines.

The next steps in the open method of co-ordination will be as follows:

– 

– 

– 

Step  1  (Oct  –  Dec  2001):  the  analysis  of  the  NAPincl  by  the  Commission  is
supplemented  by  the  Member  States  in  the  Social  Protection  Committee  and
subsequently in the Social Affairs Council. The European Parliament is expected to
contribute to the debate. A Joint Report will then be submitted to the EU Council in
Laeken-Brussels which is expected to  define the  priorities and  approaches  that will
guide efforts and cooperation at Community level during the implementation of the
first NAPs/incl.

Step  2  (Jan  –  May  2002):  attention  will  concentrate  on  organising  a  process  of
mutual  learning,  supported  by  the  new  Community  action  programme  which  is
planned to start in January 2002 and the set of commonly agreed indicators on social
inclusion which the Council is expected to agree on by the end of 2001

Step 3 (remainder of 2002): A dialogue between Member States and  Commission
will take place in the Social Protection Committee, building on the experience of the
first year of implementation. The aim is to draw conclusions towards the end of 2002
which make it possible in the run up to the second wave of NAPs/incl to consolidate
the objectives and to strengthen cooperation.

The  Göteborg  European  Council  invited  the  candidate  countries  to  translate  the  Union's
economic, social and  environmental  objectives into  their national  policies.  Promoting  social

11

inclusion is one of these objectives to be translated in national policies and the Commission
encourages  candidate  countries  to  make  use  to  this  end  of  the  Member  States'  experience
presented in this report.

1.

MAJOR TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

Key trends

Over the most recent years, the EU has lived through a period of sustained economic growth,
accompanied by significant job creation and a marked reduction in unemployment. Between
1995 and 2000, the 15 Member States enjoyed an average GDP growth rate of 2.6 %, which
together with a more employment-friendly policy approach, was responsible for the creation
of more than 10 million net jobs and an average employment growth rate of 1.3% per annum.
Over the same period, the employment rate increased from 60 % to 63.3 % overall, and for
women, the increase was even faster – from 49.7 % to 54 %. Unemployment is still high as it
affects currently 14.5 million individuals in the Union, but the rate has declined steadily since
1995-97, when it had been close to 11%, to reach more than 8% in 2000. Reflecting a more
active approach overall to labour market policy, long-term unemployment has declined even
faster, resulting in a reduction of the share in unemployment from 49 % to 44 % (Table 10).

In contrast with the generalised acceptance that the economic and employment situation has
improved,  the  perception  of  trends  in  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  quite  uneven  across
Member States. While some admit that the situation has worsened, or at least has not changed
significantly, in the latter part of the nineties, others suggest that it has improved, essentially
due  to  the  fall  in  unemployment.  In  many  Member  States  renewed  economic  growth  and
increased levels of employment have helped to largely stabilise, but still at too high a level,
the situation in relation to poverty and social exclusion which had deteriorated with economic
recession  in  the  mid  nineties.  However,  the  lack  of  a  commonly  accepted  analytical
framework makes it is difficult to come to definite conclusions.

Current  deficiencies  in  the  available  statistical  coverage,  including  the  measurement  of
changes  over  time,  compound  the  difficulties  in  getting  an  accurate  picture  of  recent
developments.  The  latest  year  for  which  income  data  are  known  across  Member  States  is
1997 (and not for all Member States). The relative poverty rate, defined as the proportion of
individuals  living  in  households  where  income  is  below  60%  of  the  national  equivalised
median income, was 18%2 in that  year, just about the same as in  1995. This  corresponds to
more than 60 million individuals in the EU of which about half were consistently living below
the relative poverty threshold for three successive years (1995-97).

The use of the relative poverty rate is also useful as an indicator of the overall impact of the
social protection system on the distribution of income. Relative poverty would have affected
26% of the EU population if social transfers other than old-age pensions had not been counted
as part of income, and 41% if old-age pensions had also not been considered (Table 6).

While the overall gender gaps in relative poverty rates is small3, it is very significant for some
groups:  people  living  alone  especially  older  women  (relative  poverty  rate  for  older  men  is

2

3

This  figure  is  based  on  harmonised  data  from  Eurostat's  European  Community  Household  Panel
(ECHP).
The measured gender gap in low-income does not match the current perception of gender differences in
the exposure to poverty and social exclusion. This can be partly explained by the fact that income data

12

                                                
15%, for older women 22%) and for single parents who are mostly women (40%) (Table 3a
and 3c).

Relative income poverty was substantially higher for the unemployed, particular age groups,
such as children and young people, and some types of households such as lone parent families
and couples with numerous children. The 60% relative poverty line is used in this report as
the best indicator which is currently available to draw comparisons on poverty across the EU.
However, it is  recognised that  a  purely  monetary  indicator,  while  important,  cannot  capture
the  full  complexity  and  multi-dimensionality  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Income  is
however  just  one  dimension  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Across  the  Union,  substantial
numbers  of  people  appeared  to  live  in  an  unfavourable  situation  with  respect  to  financial
problems,  basic  needs,  consumer  durables,  housing  conditions,  health,  social  contacts  and
overall satisfaction 4. One in every six persons in the EU (17%) faced multiple disadvantages
extending to two or even all three of the following areas – financial situation, basic needs and
housing.

While  persons  in  a  low-income  household  appeared  to  be  much  more  frequently
disadvantaged in non-monetary terms than the rest of the population, the relationship between
income  and  non-monetary  dimensions  of  poverty  is  by  no  means  simple.  A  substantial
number of people living above the relative poverty line may not be able to satisfy at least one
of the needs identified as basic. On the other hand, the actual living standards for those living
below the relative poverty line are strongly conditioned by such factors as house ownership,
health condition, security of work income, need of extra care for elderly or disabled members
of the household, etc. Account should also be taken of the fact that the relative poverty lines
are  national  and  that  they  vary  widely  across  Member  States.  The  monetary  value  of  the
relative poverty line varies between 11 400 PPS (or 12 060 euros) in Luxembourg5 and 3 800
PPS6 (or 2 870 euros) in Portugal.

It can also be useful to examine dispersion around the 60% relative poverty threshold. In this
regard it is worth noting that the figures for the number of people below 70%, 50% and 40%
of national equivalised median income were 25%, 12% and 7%  respectively in 1997 for the
Union as a whole.

There  is  a  fairly  clear  correlation  between  expenditure  in  social  protection  and  the  level  of
relative  poverty  (see  graphs  1  to  4  in  the  Statistical  Annex).  Member  States  with  the  most
developed welfare systems and with high per capita social expenditure levels (i.e. well above
the EU average of 5532 PPS in 1998), such as Luxembourg, Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden
and  Germany,  tend  to  be  most  successful  in  both  ensuring  access  to  basic  necessities  and
keeping the numbers falling below relative poverty lines well below the EU average. For such
countries  the  issue  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  while  important,  tends  to  be  narrowed
down to a number of very particular risk factors. The lowest relative poverty rates in the EU
in 1997 were found in Denmark (8%), Finland (9%), Luxembourg7 and Sweden (12%).

are  collected  at  the  level  of  the  household  and  the  assumption  that  there  is  an  equal  sharing  of  the
household income among all adult members.
For  a  detailed  analysis  of  non-monetary  poverty  indicators  based  on  the  1996  European  Community
Household  Panel,  see  "European  social  statistics  –  Income,  poverty  and  social  exclusion",  Eurostat
2000.
All data for Luxembourg refers to 1996.
PPS= Purchasing Power Standards a notional currency  which excludes the influence of differences in
price levels between countries; Source: Eurostat
All data for Luxembourg refers to 1996

4

5

6

7

13

                                                                                                                                                        
In  contrast,  in  Member  States  with  less  developed  welfare  systems,  which  historically  have
experienced  lower  levels  of  expenditure  on  social  protection  and  investment  in  public
services, partly as a result of a lower level of labour productivity, poverty and social exclusion
are likely to be a more widespread and fundamental problem. In these countries, the relative
poverty rate tends to be higher and especially so in Portugal (23%) the UK and Greece (22%)
8  –  see  Graph  1  in  Annex  I.  In  addition,  some  of  these  countries  are  experiencing  rapid
transition  from  a  rural  to  a  modern  society  and  see  evolving  forms  of  social  exclusion
coexisting alongside more traditional forms.

The  relatively  wide  quantitative  variations  across  the  EU  as  regards  the  risk  of  relative
poverty illustrate the different starting points from which Member States had to develop their
policy priorities in the NAPs/incl.

Key structural changes

There  is  an  acknowledgement  in  the  NAPs/incl  of  four  major  structural  changes  that  are
occurring across the EU and which are likely to  have a  significant impact  over  the  next ten
years. In practice these are reflected more or less strongly in the different proposed strategies
depending largely on the extent to which Member States looked either at the past and present
or looked from the present to the future when drawing up their plans. These structural changes
are  both  creating  opportunities  for  enhancing  and  strengthening  social  cohesion  and  putting
new pressures on and posing new challenges for the main systems of inclusion. In some cases
they  are  leading  to  new  risks  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  for  particularly  vulnerable
groups. They are:

Labour  market  changes:  There  are  major  structural  changes  in  the  labour  market  resulting
from a period of very rapid economic change and globalisation. They are  creating both new
opportunities and new risks:

– 

– 

– 

– 

8

There is increasing demand  for new skills and higher levels  of  education.  This  can
create new job opportunities but also create  new barriers  for  those who  are lacking
the  skills  necessary  to  access  such  opportunities,  thus  creating  more  insecurity  for
those who are unable to adapt to the new demands.

There are also new job opportunities in services for people with low skills leading to
increased  income  into  households,  though  this  can  also  lead  to  the  danger  of
persistent low paid and precarious employment, especially for women and youths.

There  are  also  more  opportunities  for  part-time  and  new  forms  of  work  which  can
lead to new flexibility in balancing home and work responsibilities and to a pathway
into more stable employment, but also can result in more precarious employment.

These trends are often accompanied by a decline in some traditional industries and a
drift  of  economic  wealth  from  some  areas  to  others  thus  marginalising  some
communities  and  creating  problems  of  congestion  in  others.  This  problem  receives
particular  attention  in  the  NAPs/incl  of  Greece,  Portugal,  Ireland,  the  UK  and
Finland  and  is  also  evident  in  the  regional  differences  within  Spain,  Italy  and
Germany.

It should be noted that these figures do not fully take into account the equalising effect that widespread
owner-occupation  of  housing  and/or  income  received  in  kind  may  have  in  some  of  these  Member
States.

14

                                                
Overall,  these  structural  changes  in  labour  markets,  which  often  impact  on  the  weakest  in
society, have been recognised by all Member States.

eInclusion:  The  very  rapid  growth  of  the  knowledge-based  society  and  Information  and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) is leading to major structural changes in society both in
economic and employment terms and in terms of how people and communities relate to one
another.  These  changes  hold  out  both  important  opportunities  and  significant  risks.  On  the
positive side ICTs are creating new job opportunities and more flexible ways of working that
can both facilitate the reconciliation of work and family life and allow more flexibility about
where  people  work.  They  can  contribute  to  the  regeneration  of  isolated  and  marginal
communities.  They  can  be  used  to  improve  the  quality  of  key  public  services,  to  enhance
access to information and rights for everyone and to make participation easier for people with
particular disadvantages such as people with disabilities or people who are isolated and alone.
On  the  other  hand,  for  those  who  are  already  at  high  risk  of  exclusion,  ICTs  can  create
another layer of exclusion and widen the gap between rich and poor if some vulnerable  and
low income groups do not have equal access to them. The challenge facing Member States is
to  develop  coherent  and  proactive  policies  to  ensure  that  ICTs  do  not  create  a  new  under-
skilled and isolated group in society. Thus they must invest in ensuring equal access, training
and participation for all.

In  the  NAPs/incl,  the  eInclusion  issue  is  substantially  recognised  by  the  different  Member
States  on  the  basis  of  a  quite  developed  analysis  of  the  risks  and  current  national  gaps.
However,  the  scale  of  the  challenge  is  not  well  quantified  and  indicators  are  in  general  not
developed in the Plans.

Demographic  changes  and  increased  ethnic  diversity:  There  are  significant  demographic
changes taking place across Europe which see more people living longer and hence a greater
number of older people and particularly very old people, the majority of  whom are  women.
This is particularly highlighted by some Member States (Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Greece,
Austria)  but  is  generally  a  growing  issue.  The  old-age  dependency  ratio,  defined  as  the
proportion of people aged over 65 to working-age population (20-64) has increased from 25
%  to  27  %  between  1995  and  2000,  and  is  foreseen  to  increase  further  to  53  %  by  2050
(Source: Eurostat).

A reduction in birth rates in many countries is also contributing to an increase in dependency
ratios. This has important implications for poverty and social exclusion in several respects:

– 

– 

Tax/welfare  systems  are  being  challenged  to  fund  adequate  pensions  for  all  older
people,  particularly  for  those,  mainly  women,  whose  working  career  has  not  been
sufficiently long and/or continuous to accumulate satisfactory pension entitlements;

Whereas public services are being challenged to meet the needs of a growing elderly
population,  to  provide  care  and  support,  to  ensure  ongoing  opportunities  to
participate fully in society and to cope with increasing demands on health services.

Several  Member  States  recognise  in  their  NAPincl  a  trend  towards  growing  ethnic,  cultural
and  religious  diversity  in  society,  fuelled  by  international  migration  flows  and  increased
mobility within the Union. In a recent communication ( COM 2001 (387) ) the Commission
has  also  emphasised  that,  due  to  demographic  and  other  pressures,  there  will  be  a  need  for
increased  migration  of  both  skilled  and  unskilled  workers  in  the  EU.  This  has  important
implications for all policies which aim at promoting social inclusion and strengthening social
cohesion.  In  it's  communication,  the  Commission  has  stressed  that  "failure  to  develop  an

15

inclusive  and  tolerant  society  which  enables  different  ethnic  minorities  to  live  in  harmony
with the local population of which they form part leads to discrimination, social exclusion and
the rise of racism and xenophobia."

Changing  Household  structures  and  the  role  of  men  and  women:  In  addition  to  the  ageing
population  requiring  more  care,  households  are  changing  more  frequently  as  an  effect  of
growing rates of family break ups and the trend towards de-institutionalisation of family life9.
At  the  same  time  women's  access  to  the  labour  market  is  sharply  increasing.  Moreover,
women  were  traditionally,  and  still  often  are,  in  charge  of  unpaid  care  for  dependents.  The
interaction  between all  these trends  raises  the  crucial  issues  of  reconciling  work  and  family
life and providing adequate and affordable care for dependent family members.

This is acknowledged to various degrees by all Member States. The increased participation of
women  in  the  labour  market  is  seen  as  positive  in  terms  of  promoting  greater  equality
between men and women, generating higher household incomes to lift families out of poverty
and increasing opportunities for active participation in society. The main challenge is then for
services and systems to respond  in new  ways to support parents  combining  work  and home
responsibilities and in ensuring that those who are vulnerable are provided with adequate care
and support. This is particularly stressed by those Member States such as Greece, Spain, Italy
and  Portugal for  whom  the  family  and  community was  the  key  support  against  poverty  and
exclusion.

An  aspect  of  the  changing  household  structure  is  the  growing  number  of  one-parent
households.  These  households  tend  to  experience  higher  levels  of  poverty,  as  evidenced  by
the fact that 40% of the people living in such households were below the relative poverty line
in  1997  (the  same  percentage  as  in  1995)  (Table  3c).  Such  risks  are  particularly  acute  for
women who constitute the large majority of single parents. This is emphasised in a number of
NAPs/incl (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany. Spain, UK). However, it is noticeable how a
number of countries (in particular Finland, Denmark and Sweden) have much lower levels of
relative poverty among one-parent families.

Key risk factors

The NAPs/incl clearly identify a number of recurring risks or barriers that play a critical role
in limiting people's access to the main systems that facilitate inclusion in society. These risks
and barriers mean that some individuals, groups and communities are particularly at risk of or
vulnerable  to  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  are  also  likely  to  experience  difficulties  in
adjusting  to  the  structural  changes  taking  place.  They  also  serve  to  highlight  the
multidimensional nature of the problem, as it is usually due to a combination or accumulation
of these risks that people (both adults and children) are trapped in situations of poverty and
social  exclusion.  While  the  intensity  of  the  risks  varies  significantly  across  Member  States,
there is a fairly homogeneous perception of the importance of the following risks:

Long-term  dependence  on  low/inadequate  income:  A  number  of  Member  States  highlight
how the longer the length of time someone has to survive on a very low income the greater
the degree  of  deprivation  and  exclusion  from  social,  cultural  and  economic  activity  and  the
greater  the  risk  of  extreme  social  isolation.  1997  ECHP  data  on  people  living  in  persistent
poverty, that is people who have lived for three or more years in households below 60% of the
national median equivalised income, suggests that this is a particular problem for 15% of the

9

COM (2001) "The social situation in the European Union 2001.

16

                                                
population in Portugal, 11% in Ireland, France and Greece, and 10% in the UK (Table 7). The
issue of indebtedness associated with low income also features in a number of NAPs/incl.

Long-term unemployment: There is a clear correlation between long term unemployment and
low income. People who have been jobless for a long time tend to lose the skills and the self-
esteem  necessary  to  regain  a  foothold  in  the  labour  market,  unless  appropriate  and  timely
support is provided. For countries with high levels of long-term unemployment such as Spain,
Greece, Italy, Germany, Belgium or France, with rates exceeding the EU average of 3.6 % in
2000 (Table 9), this risk is considered as a major factor behind poverty and social exclusion.
However,  all  Member  States  highlight  the  risks  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  associated
with unemployment and especially long-term unemployment.

Low quality employment or absence of employment record: Being in employment is by far the
most effective way to secure oneself against the risk of poverty and social exclusion. This is
clearly  borne  out  by  evidence  drawn  from  the  ECHP  according  to  which  only  6%  of  the
employed population in the EU lived below the relative poverty line in 1997, as against 38%
of  the  unemployed  and  25%  of  the  inactive  (Table  3b).  However,  remaining  in  and  out  of
insecure, low paid, low quality and often part-time employment, can lead to persistent poverty
and weaker social and cultural relationships as well as leading to inadequate pensions in the
future.  While  the  proportion  of  the  “working  poor”  has  been  stable  in  1995-97,  the
phenomenon has been more noticeable in a few Member States (Greece and Portugal, with an
in-work relative poverty rate of 11%).

In addition, the absence of employment record is recognised as a key risk factor in particular
for women when combined with a family break up and for single elderly women in countries
where pension mainly depends on work record.

Low  level  of  education  and  illiteracy:  The  lack  of  basic  skills  and  qualifications  is  a  major
barrier to inclusion in  society and  this is even more the  case  in  an  increasingly  knowledge-
based  society.  There  is  thus  a  growing  danger  of  new  cleavages  in  society  being  created
between the haves  and have-nots  of skills and  qualifications.  This  is  well  acknowledged  by
most Member States.

While the total inability to read and write has now been largely eradicated in Europe, except
among a small number of the elderly, ethnic minorities and immigrants, the phenomenon of
functional  illiteracy  is  widespread.  This  is  recognised  by  several  Member  States,  notably
Greece,  Ireland,  Portugal  and  the  Netherlands,  who  highlight  the  particularly  severe
difficulties that people with literacy problems face in participating in society and integrating
into the labour market.

Many Member States  recognise  that  some  groups  have  particularly  high  risk  of  educational
disadvantage. For example, Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain and
Germany  identify  poorly  educated  young  people,  particularly  during  the  transition  from
school  to  work,  as  a  significant  group  at  risk  of  poverty.  Encouragingly  several  Member
States  specifically  recognise  the  challenge  of  integrating  children  with  disabilities  into
mainstream education provision if their very high risk of educational disadvantage and social
exclusion is to be countered. Some Member States such as the Netherlands also highlight the
problems  of  older  people  with  low  educational  qualifications  and  the  difficulties  they  face
both  in  accessing  the  labour  market  and  more  generally  participating  in  society.  The  high
levels  of  educational  disadvantage  experienced  by  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities  are
stressed by many Member States as are the language barriers that many of them face.

17

Growing up in a vulnerable family: Children growing up in households affected by divorce,
lone  parent  households,  poor  households  with  numerous  children,  jobless  households,  or
households in which there is domestic violence are perceived as being at great risk of poverty
and social exclusion. This is borne out by evidence from the ECHP showing that households
with  2  adults  and  3  or  more  children  and  households  with  a  single  parent  with  at  least  1
dependent  child  have  the  highest  relative  poverty  rates  of  all  household  types,respectively
35% in 1996, and 40% in 1997 (Table 3c). Indeed in most Member States, children (0-15) are
at a greater risk of relative poverty than adults, their average EU relative poverty rate standing
at  25%  in  1997,  as  against  13%  for  adults  (25-49)  (Table  3a).  Young  people  (16-24)  also
show a great vulnerability to relative poverty, as 23% of them live below the relative poverty
line.  There  is  much  evidence  that  children  growing  up  in  poverty  tend  to  do  less  well
educationally,  have  poorer  health,  enjoy  fewer  opportunities  to  participate  and  develop
socially, recreationally and culturally and are at greater risk of being involved in or affected
by  anti-social  behaviour  and  substance  abuse.  Some  NAPincl  have  particularly  emphasised
this risk, as is the case with Finland, Portugal and the UK.

Disability: The majority of Member States clearly identify people with disabilities as a group
potentially  at  risk  of  social  exclusion.  This  is  in  line  with  the  public  perceptions  on  the
importance of disability: 97% of EU  citizens think more should be done  to integrate people
with  disabilities  more  fully  into  society10.  It  also  ties  in  with  consistent  evidence  from  the
ECHP  of  the  high  risk  of  poverty  for  people  who  are  ill  or  disabled.  However,  the  lack  of
detailed data and common indicators for people with disabilities is striking. Only Italy, Spain,
Portugal, UK and France list clear indicators for people with disabilities, thereby attempting
to  gain  a  real  picture  of  the  situation.  It  will  be  of  fundamental  importance  to  improve  the
provision of indicators on social inclusion for people with disabilities

Poor  Health:  There  is  a  widespread  understanding  that  poor  health  is  both  a  cause  and  a
consequence of wider socio-economic difficulties. The overall health status of the population
tends to be weaker in lower income groups. The percentage of people claiming their health to
be (very) bad was significantly higher for the income poor than for the non-poor in the Union
as a whole (13% and 9% respectively11), as well as in all  Member States. Finland, Sweden,
Spain, Greece, the Netherlands, the  UK and  Ireland,  highlight in their  NAPs/incl  the  strong
correlation  between  poor  health  and  poverty  and  exclusion.  Particularly  vulnerable  groups
such as the Romaand Travellers have poor life expectancy and higher rates of infant mortality.
This correlation  depends  on  various factors  but  in particular on the  extent  to  which  adverse
social and environmental factors, which are experienced disproportionately by people on low
incomes, can make it difficult for individuals to make healthier choices.

Living  in  an  area  of  multiple  disadvantage:  Growing  up  or  living  in  an  area  of  multiple
deprivation  is  likely  to  intensify  the  exclusion  and  marginalisation  of  those  in  poverty  and
make  their  inclusion  back  into  the  mainstream  more  difficult.  Such  areas  often  tend  also  to
develop a culture of welfare dependency, experience high levels of crime, drug trafficking and
anti-social  behaviour  and  have  a  concentration  of  marginalised  groups  like  lone  parents,
immigrants,  ex-offenders  and  substance  abusers.  Regenerating  such  mainly  suburban  and
urban areas is seen as a significant challenge across the majority of Member States.

Precarious  housing  conditions  and  homelessness:  Lack  of  access  to  adequate  housing  or
accommodation is a significant factor in increasing isolation and exclusion and is perceived as

10

11

Results of a Eurobarometer survey conducted in 2000.
ECHP, 1996 as reported in the Social Situation in the European Union 2001.

18

                                                
a major problem in some Member States. Pressure on housing supply is particularly noted in
areas  of  rapid  growth  in  Sweden,  Finland,  and  Ireland  leading  to  significant  problems  of
congestion. Particular groups such as immigrants and ethnic minorities (notably the Roma and
Travellers)  can  also  face  greater  difficulties  in  securing  adequate  accommodation  and  thus
experience  greater  exclusion.  Many  Member  States,  notably  Austria,  Ireland,  Italy,
Netherlands,  the  UK  and  Finland,  highlight  serious  problems  of  homelessness,  and  some
attempt to estimate the numbers involved.

Immigration, Ethnicity, Racism and Discrimination: The majority of Member States, clearly
identify ethnic minorities and immigrants as being at high risk of social exclusion12. Several,
such as Denmark and Ireland, note the growing numbers of immigrants and the challenge of
developing  appropriate  services  and  supports  to  help  them  to  integrate  into  society  and  of
building a more multi-cultural and inclusive society13. This is likely to be a growing challenge
for many Member States over the next few years as the number of foreign workers and their
dependants will increase14. A  few countries point  to other  factors of discrimination, such as
sexual orientation (Germany).  In spite of the widespread recognition of such risks there is a
generalised  lack  of  data  and  common  indicators  for  people  from  these  vulnerable  groups.
Only Spain, Portugal, Italy, Netherlands and France list clear indicators thereby attempting to
gain a real picture of the situation and needs in their countries.

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty and Social Exclusion - A number of these risk factors as well
as being causes could equally well be seen as consequences or products of poverty and social
exclusion.  For  instance,  the  concentration  of  poverty  and  multiple  deprivation  in  certain
communities,  high  levels  of  physical  ill  health,  psychological  and  environmental  stress,
increases  in  crime  or  drug  and  alcohol  abuse  and  the  alienation  of  young  people  are  all
exacerbated by poverty and social exclusion. The point is that the causes and consequences of
poverty are often inextricably linked. Thus several Member States highlight the challenge of
breaking the cycle of poverty or intergenerational poverty if some individuals and groups of
people are not to become further marginalised and alienated from the rest of society.

Eight core challenges

The  overarching  challenge  for  public  policy  is  to  ensure  that  the  main  mechanisms  which
distribute  opportunities  and  resources  -  the  labour  market,  the  tax  system,  the  systems
providing  social  protection,  education,  housing,  health,  and  other  services  -  become
sufficiently  universal  in  the  context  of  structural  changes  to  address  the  needs  of  those
individuals, both men and women, who are most at risk of poverty and social exclusion and to
enable  them  to  access  their  fundamental  rights.  Eight  core  challenges  stand  out  from  the
NAPs/incl:

(1) 

Developing  an  inclusive  labour  market  and  promoting  employment  as  a  right  and
opportunity  for  all:  There  is  general  agreement  across  Member  States  of  the

12

13

14

The term ethnic minorities generally refers to national citizens of a different ethnic origin than that of
the majority of the population (e.g. the Innuits of Denmark). These  may include citizens from  former
colonies  (e.g.  the  black  African  Portugese).  Yet,  it  may  also  refer  to  groups  among  the  immigrant
population  with  an  ethnic  origin  which  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  majority  of  the  population  (e.g.
Turkish immigrants in Germany).
See also Council decision of 28 September 2000 establishing a European Refugee Fund where one of
the objectives is integration of certain categories of immigrants.
This  underlines  the  importance  of  ensuring  that  Community  immigration  policies  are  responsive  to
market  needs  –  see  communication  COM  2001  (387)  from  the  Commission  to  the  Council  and  the
European Parliament on an open co-ordination for the Community Immigration Policy.

19

                                                
importance of promoting access to employment not only as a key way out of poverty
and social exclusion but also as a means to prevent poverty and social exclusion. The
challenge  is  thus  to  develop  a  range  of  policies  that  promote  employability  and  are
tailored to individual needs. Such policies  should be accompanied  by the  creation of
appropriate  employment  opportunities  for  those  who  are  least  able  to  access  the
mainstream  labour  market  as  well  as  adequate  and  affordable  measures  to  reconcile
work and family responsibilities.

Guaranteeing  an  adequate  income  and  resources  to  live  in  human  dignity:  The
challenge is to  ensure  that  all  men,  women  and  children  have  a  sufficient  income  to
lead  life  with  dignity  and  to  participate  in  society  as  full  members.  For  several
Member States, it means reviewing the systems and policies operating a redistribution
of resources across society so that those unable to earn their living or who are retired
have  incomes  that  keep  pace  with  general  trends  in  living  standards  in  the  wider
society. It may also include the development of adequate policy approaches to prevent
and tackle problems of overindebtedness.

Tackling educational disadvantage: The challenge here is perceived by some Member
States  as  to  increase  investment  in  education  as  a  key  long-term  policy  to  prevent
poverty  and  social  exclusion.  In  accordance  with  Member  States'  priorities,  this
challenge  may  involve  working  to  prevent  educational  disadvantage  by  developing
effective  interventions  at  an  early  age  (including  adequate  and  comprehensive  child
care provision), adapting the education system so that schools successfully respond to
the needs and characteristics of children from disadvantaged backgrounds, preventing
young  people  from  dropping  out  of  school  (and  bringing  those  that  did  back  to
learning),  developing  and  extending  lifelong  learning  so  that  there  are  customised
education and training opportunities accessible to vulnerable groups, enhancing access
to  basic  skills  provision  or  tackling  (functional)  illiteracy.  It  also  may  involve
strengthening  the  role  of  education  and  training  establishments  in  promoting  norms
and values such as social cohesion, equal opportunities and active citizenship.

Preserving family solidarity and protecting the rights of children: For several Member
States, the challenge is to find new ways of supporting the family in all its forms as a
prevention  against  poverty  and  social  exclusion  that  take  into  account  the  changing
roles of men and women in society. In addition, giving particular support and guidance
to vulnerable families and protecting the rights of children is another key challenge in
a number of countries.

Ensuring  good  accommodation  for  all:  Access  to  good  quality  and  affordable
accommodation is a fundamental need and right. Ensuring that this need is met is still
a  significant  challenge  in  a  number  of  Member  States.  In  addition,  developing
appropriate integrated responses both to prevent and address homelessness is another
essential challenge for some countries.

Guaranteeing equal access to quality services (health, transport, social, care, cultural,
recreational,  legal):  A  major  policy  challenge,  particularly  for  those  Member  States
who have had a low investment in such services, is to develop policies that will ensure
equal access across this wide range of policy domains. In this context it is striking that
the legal, cultural, sporting and recreational dimensions remain undeveloped in many
NAPs/incl.

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

20

(7) 

Improving  delivery  of  services:  Delivery  of  social  services  is  not  limited  to  the
ministries of  social affairs but  involves  other actors, public  and  private, national  and
local.  Four  kinds  of  challenges  can  be  identified  from  a  large  number  of  NAPs/incl.
First, to overcome the fragmentation and compartmentalisation of policy making and
delivery  both  nationally  and  locally.  This  means  addressing  the  need  for  greater
integration between different policy domains and complementing national plans  with
integrated approaches at regional and local level. Secondly, to address the issue of the
links  between  the  national,  regional  and  local  levels,  particularly  in  those  Member
States  with  strong  regional  structures.  Thirdly,  to  overcome  the  problem  of  policies
and programmes that seem remote, inflexible, unresponsive and unaccountable and to
address the gap between democratic structures and those who are poor and excluded.
Fourthly, to mobilise all actors in the struggle against poverty and social exclusion and
to build greater public support for the policies and programmes necessary to shape an
inclusive society.

(8) 

Regenerating  areas  of  multiple  deprivation:  The  challenge  of  developing  effective
responses  to  the  problems  posed  by  areas  of  multiple  deprivation  (both  urban  and
rural)  so  that  they  are  reintegrated  into  the  mainstream  economy  and  society  is
recognised by Member States.

2.

STRATEGIC APPROACHES AND POLICY MEASURES

Promoting a strategic and integrated approach

The  Nice  objectives  were  set  in  a  political  framework  that  made  the  promotion  of  social
cohesion  an  essential  element  in  the  EU  global  strategy  for  the  next  ten  years.  The  2001
NAPs/incl  are  therefore  a  first  step  in  a  multi-annual  process  which  should  contribute  to
making a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty and social exclusion in the EU within
that horizon. Furthermore, poverty and social exclusion take complex and multi-dimensional
forms  that  require  the  mobilisation  of  a  wide  range  of  policies  as  part  of  an  integrated
approach. Member States were therefore encouraged to develop in their NAPs/incl a strategic
and integrated approach to fighting poverty and social exclusion.

The aim of the present chapter is to analyse the extent to which Member States have in their
NAPs/incl appropriately framed their policy measures in a strategic  and integrated approach
For this purpose, the NAPs/incl have been reviewed in respect of three key criteria:

1.  the  analysis  and  the  diagnosis  of  key  risks  and  challenges  to  be  addressed  by  the
NAPs/incl;

2.  the  extent  to  which  NAPs/incl  translate  the  common  objectives  into  clear  and  detailed
priorities and goals, in the light of national circumstances, and

3. the extent to which NAPs/incl overcome a purely  sectoral and  target-group  approach and
develop an integrated policy approach.

The  way  national  strategies  are  developed  in  the  NAPs/incl  reflect  underlying  differences
across Member States in terms of:

– 

the nature of the social protection system, the underlying level of public expenditure
in social protection, and its effectiveness;

21

– 

– 

– 

the  perceived  dimension  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  which  in  some  cases  is
assimilated  to  the  specific  problems  of  most  vulnerable  groups  in  society,  while  in
others it is considered as pervasive to the society as a whole;

the  extent  to  which  an  integrated  anti-poverty  strategy,  encompassing  a  broadly
agreed  analytical  framework,  a  set  of  priorities  and  a  monitoring  process,  already
exists in the country;

the political structure of the country, determining how the responsibilities in the fight
against poverty and social exclusion are distributed between the central, regional and
local authorities.

By  taking  into  account  the  three  above  mentioned  criteria,  the  following  typology  can  be
established, in order to highlight how NAPs/incl develop a strategic and integrated approach
to tackling poverty and social exclusion, without analysing the performance of every country.

– 

– 

– 

15

16

The  NAPs/incl  of  Denmark,  France  and  Netherlands  provide  a  comprehensive
analysis of important structural trends and their underlying causes  from which they
identify key  challenges with regard to poverty and social exclusion. The overriding
response  in  these  NAPs/incl  is  proactive,  set  in  a  framework  that  includes  time
horizons,  objectives  and  quantitative  targets  extending  beyond  200315.  Preventive
approaches also receive more attention as a result. A key characteristic of these three
NAPs/incl is their holistic approach aimed at supporting structural change. This also
leads  them  to  link  and  integrate  policies  in  a  more  consistent  way.  However,  there
are some areas which could have been developed further in these NAPs/incl such as
the gender dimension in the Netherlands, the labour market integration of immigrants
in Denmark, and  the development of  specific objectives and financial means in the
case of France, which have to be articulated in the light of the national programme to
combat social exclusion adopted later on.

The NAPs/incl of Portugal, Finland, Sweden and the UK are solidly underpinned
by  diagnoses  of  key  challenges  and  risks  and  set  out  reasonably  coherent  and
strategic approaches. The NAPs/incl of  Finland  and  Sweden  place  the  fight against
poverty  and social  exclusion  very much in the  context of their developed  universal
social  protection  systems  which  they  intend  to  improve  further  through  a  range  of
very specific measures. The NAPs/incl of Portugal and the UK are particularly strong
on diagnosis and set ambitious quantitative targets16. The Portuguese plan, however,
was less able to prioritise among  a very wide range of concrete objectives and it is
not  clear  how  resources  will  be  channelled  to  reach  the  set  targets.  The  UK  NAP
tends  to  focus  on  a  number  of  particular  issues  like  child  poverty,  problem
neighbourhoods, lone parents and teenage pregnancies for which it sets out policies
that are to be pursued as part of a comprehensive and integrated policy framework.

The NAPs/incl of Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy and Ireland contain elements of
a  national  strategy  that  is  being  improved  in  order  to  reflect  new  realities  or  made
more coherent.  The  NAPs/incl  of  the  first  four  Member  States  reflect  the  extent  to

The NL NAPincl, for example, includes targets to reduce illiteracy among adults by 10% in 2003,  to
reduce  problematic  debts  by  10%  in  2005,  to  reduce  early  school  leavers  by  half  in  2010,  and  to
guarantee full accessibility to city & regional transport and rail transport in 2010 and 2030 respectively.
The  Portuguese  NAPincl  commits  itself  to  eradicating  child  poverty  by  2010,  to  reduce  the  absolute
poverty rate by 50 % and its national poverty rate to the national EU average of 17 % before 2005.

22

                                                
which  responsibility  for  key  policies  (e.g.  health,  education  and  social  assistance,
etc.) is largely devolved to regional and local authorities. This has the advantage of
ensuring that strategies can better reflect local differences and be more responsive to
local  needs.  It  can  also  facilitate  the  mobilisation  and  participation  of  all  actors.
However, it also leads to particular challenges in terms of integrating local, regional
and  national  policies  and  in  combining  overall  national  and  regional  targets.  The
process of developing an overall plan under these conditions has also proved a more
complex  one  which  requires  a  more  lengthy  period  of  preparation.  None  of  these
NAPs/incl  have  either  set  overall  targets17  or  developed  a  comprehensive  set  of
regional  or  local  targets.  The  Belgian,  Italian  and  Spanish  NAPs/incl  have
particularly  strong  sections  on  diagnosis  and 
indicators,  which  provide  a
comprehensive overview and analysis, while the German NAP/incl makes reference
to a recent  national  poverty report..  Spain  has  pulled  together  relevant  policies  and
actors, at all levels, as a first step towards developing a more strategic approach and
several regions have now prepared regional plans. In addition to reviewing its overall
planning processes and its approach to social policy, Italy has also pulled together in
its  NAP/incl  a  range  of  recent  national,  sectoral  and  regional  initiatives  into  a
comprehensive  overview  and  all  regions  are  in  the  process  of  developing  social
plans.  The  Belgium  and  German  NAPs/incl  have  to  be  seen  in  the  context  of  the
efforts  currently  undertaken  by  these  countries  to  promote  a  more  inclusive  and
active Welfare State.

The  Irish  NAP/incl  documents  a  wide  range  of  anti-poverty  measures  already  in
place  in  the  framework  of  its  existing  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  (NAPs)  but
does not develop its analysis or update and refocus its overall strategy, priorities or
targets.  This  is  due  to  an  ongoing  review  of  the  NAPs  involving  widespread
consultations.18

The  NAPs/incl  of  Greece,  Luxemburg  and  Austria  basically  provide  a  snapshot
analysis  of  the  situation  on  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  the  policies  that  are
currently in place to address the key problems. The analysis of longer term structural
trends and their underlying causes is less developed and as a result these plans do not
present long-term quantified targets. The NAPs/incl of Austria and Luxembourg aim
at improving their comprehensive social protection systems by  adding or  extending
some measures but have chosen not to use the NAPs/incl to develop a more strategic
approach. The Greek NAP/incl, which in itself represents a significant step forward,
provides an analysis of the main challenges and problems and develops a pragmatic
approach  for  the  next  two  years  focusing  on  selected  target  groups  in  the  wider
context of economic, employment and social reforms.

– 

While  the  NAPs/incl  may  differ  in  terms  of  the  strategic  approach  which  they  have
developed,  all  share  a  range  of  fundamental  principles  and  objectives  underpinning  the
European social model, such as "solidarity", "social cohesion", "respect for human dignity and
fundamental  rights",  "integration  and  full  participation  in  society"  and  "high  level  of  social

17

18

Ireland mentions overall targets included in the current National Anti-Poverty Strategy (NAPS) which
will be revised soon.
As the  review  is  not  due  to  be  completed  until  the  end  of  2001  it  was  not  possible  to  incorporate  its
findings  into  the  NAP/incl.  However,  Ireland  is  committed  to  ensuring  that  the  current  review  of  the
NAPs  is  informed  by  the  Nice  objectives  and  the  NAPs/incl  process.  In  future  the  NAPs  and  the
NAPincl process will coalesce.

23

                                                
protection". At least two aspects are  worth  highlighting  among  those  strategic elements that
are common to most NAPs/incl.

Most NAPs/incl recognise the need for policies that invest in new starts. Building inclusive
and active societies goes beyond protecting people against major risks and drawbacks in life.
Initiatives  taken  in  the  NAPs/incl  with  regard,  for  instance  to  exclusion  from  the  labour
market, long-term unemployment, delinquency or addiction, skills redundancy, homelessness,
family  breakdown,  poor  or  inadequate  school  behaviour  and  intergenerational  poverty,
respond to the often complex needs and difficult conditions faced by those for whom they are
intended. They reflect a framework of rights and duties underpinning the goods, services and
other provisions made available to support new starts.

Most NAPs/incl tend to tackle risk and disadvantage no longer defensively, i.e. as a threat, but
to  develop  strategic  responses  that  turn  risk  and  disadvantage  into  opportunity.  Policies
and  actions  in  relation  to  disability,  migration,  and  deprived  areas,  for  example,  seek
increasingly  to  bring  out  and  develop  the  untapped  potential  of  immigrants,  people  with
disabilities,  lone  parents  and  older  people  as  well  as  lagging  regions  and  neighbourhoods.
However, while most Member States aspire to achieving as universal and inclusive systems as
possible which will support the integration and development of such individuals and areas and
underpin people's fundamental rights as citizens, in practice several Member States still tend
to concentrate on less universalist and more selective policies which are based on a sectoral
and target-group approach.

Promoting exchange of good practice and innovation

An important goal of the new European process is to promote the exchange of good practice
and  innovative  approaches,  in  order  to  facilitate  mutual  learning.  It  was  therefore  expected
that all NAPs/incl would set out in a structured manner a range of policy measures to tackle
the  priorities  defined  in  the  framework  of  the  Nice  objectives.  Two  issues  are  important  in
assessing how the different NAPs/incl have met such a requirement.

1. To what extent can the NAPs/incl be used as a primary source for identifying good practice
of common interest to Member States?

2. To what extent has the NAPs/incl exercise led to the formulation of new and/or innovative
policy measures and approaches?

Member  States  have  included  in  their  NAPs/incl  a  more  or  less  detailed  description  of  the
policy  measures  in  place  or  planned  in  order  to  meet  their  priorities.  Some  member  States,
particularly those with universal systems, opted to highlight new and more specific measures
while  taking  for  granted  knowledge  of  their  existing  systems.  The  large  majority  have
included examples of good practice to facilitate their identification. Therefore, in addition to
their political relevance, the NAPs/incl also constitute a wealthy source of information which
enables  the  Commission  and  the  Member  States  to  obtain  an  updated  and  comprehensive
overview of the major policies  in place.  However, the  examples of policies  given  under the
different chapters of this report are based on the information delivered in the NAPs/incl and
do not represent exhaustive lists of existing policies in this domain.

The lack of in-depth post evaluation analysis of the impact of current policies has limited the
possibility  of  identifying  which  measures,  approaches  or  initiatives  deserve  good  practice
status in the present report. Evaluation of policies (both ex ante and ex post) seems to be a key
area  for  future  development,  with  social  benefits  being  made  more  explicit.  Given  overall

24

constraints  on  resources,  it  is  essential  also  to  focus  on  the  costs  of  policies  and  to  look  at
whether other policies could achieve the same aims more efficiently. Also, in examining the
possibilities of dissemination of good practice, full account should be taken of the underlying
conditions in each Member State, and the extent to which they have conditioned success.

The  identification  of  good  practice  and  innovative  approaches  of  common  interest  has
therefore  to be seen as an ongoing process  of  which  the  present  report  is  just  the  first  step.
The  examples  from  the  member  States  highlighted  in  boxes  in  this  report  should  be
understood  in  this  light.  The  exchange  of  good  practice  between  Members  States  will  be
enhanced in the future by more  extensive evaluations of the impact  of  national policies and
through  the  development  of  a  comprehensive  set  of  indicators  and  methodologies,  at  both
national and EU level.

The relatively short time available to develop the first NAPs/incl has impaired the formulation
of  new  and/or  innovative  policy  measures  and  approaches.  The  measures  presented  in  all
NAPs/incl  have  basically  been  developed  in  the  context  of  existing  budgetary  and  legal
frameworks.  Most  Member  States  therefore  have  focused  their  efforts  on  improving  co-
ordination, refining and combining existing policies and measures and promoting partnership,
rather  than  launching  important  new  initiatives  or  policy  approaches.  These  goals  are
facilitated for Member States like Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Finland, which already
possess  highly  developed  universal  policies,  or  France,  where  the  policy  efforts  against
exclusion are being strengthened after last year's evaluation of the 1998 national law against
social  exclusion.  For  these  reasons,  the  NAPs/incl  of  these  countries  tend  to  be  relatively
more  forward-looking19.  Other  Member  States,  like  Portugal  and  Spain,  saw  in  the
preparation  of  the  NAPs/incl  an  opportunity  to  introduce  more  ambition  in  their  policies
against poverty and social exclusion, by setting targets or rationalising the policy framework.

3.

IDENTIFICATION OF GOOD PRACTICE AND INNOVATIVE APPROACHES

Policy  responses  in  the  NAPs/incl  generally  consist  of  a  mix  of  market-oriented  responses,
public policy provision and civil society action. Throughout the different policy strands it is
possible to identify three general goals which they seek to promote:

– 

– 

– 

19

Universality:  This  means  ensuring  increased  levels  of  Adequacy,  Access  and
Affordability  of  mainline  policies  and  provisions  with  the  view  to  improving  their
coverage, uptake and effectiveness.

A  level  playing  field:  This  means  addressing  specific  disadvantages  that  can  be
overcome by the use of appropriate policy (e.g. lack of skills);

Solidarity  for  human  dignity:  This  means  compensating  for  disadvantages  that  can
only be partially (or not at all) overcome (e.g. disabilities).

The Finnish NAP/incl,  while not including any  new  measure, refers to a range of policy issues  being
considered for further policy developments.

25

                                                
3.1

Objective  1:  To  facilitate  participation  in  employment  and  access  by  all  to
resources, rights, goods and services

3.1.1

Facilitating participation in employment

In the context of the European employment strategy, and the implementation of the guidelines in
particular:

(a) To promote access to stable and quality employment for all women and men who are capable of
working, in particular:

–  By  putting  in  place,  for  those  in  the  most  vulnerable  groups  in  society,  pathways  towards

employment and by mobilising training policies to that end;

–  By developing policies to promote the reconciliation of work and family life, including the issue

of child and dependent care;

–  By using the opportunities for integration and employment provided by the social economy.

(b) To prevent the exclusion of people from the world f work by improving employability, through
human resource management, organisation of work and lifelong learning.

All  Member  States  agree  that  promoting  participation  in  employment  is  a  key  way  of  both
preventing and  alleviating poverty and social exclusion. The right to work is a  fundamental
right and a key element of citizenship. Participation in the social community of a workplace
is, for most people, a key means of both ensuring an adequate income (both in the present and
when retired) and extending and developing social networks. This facilitates participation in
society and reduces the risk of marginalisation.

In  their  NAPs/incl  most  Member  States  make  links  with  the  NAPs/empl.  This  was  indeed
expected,  as  the  Employment  Guidelines  put  due  emphasis  on  the  creation  of  job
opportunities  and  the  improvement  of  employability,  which  are  essential  conditions  for
making  the  labour  market  more  open  and  inclusive.  Some  Member  States  recognise  the
important  role  that  the  European  Employment  Strategy  has  played  in  developing  a  more
effective policy approach to fighting unemployment based on individualisation, activation and
prevention.

Most  of  the  policy  areas  and  initiatives  mentioned  in  this  section  were  already  considered
under  the  Luxembourg  Process.  However,  while  the  Joint  Employment  Report  covers  the
whole range of policy actions which aim at improving the efficiency of the labour market and
increasing the employment levels towards the targets set in Lisbon, and must be evaluated as
such,  the  present  report  tends  to  focus  on  actions  that  will  facilitate  participation  in
employment  for  those  individuals,  groups  and  communities  who  are  most  distant  from  the
labour  market.  A  number  of  Member  States  have  rightly  noted  the  positive  role  that  such
actions can play towards more general employment goals, such as increasing the employment
rate. While all NAPs/incl prioritise employment there are differences in emphasis. These tend
to reflect differences in the employment situation across Member States. Countries with high
employment  and  low  unemployment  emphasise  the  need  to  increase  labour  participation  of
specific  groups,  such  as  older  people,  immigrants  or  people  with  disabilities  (Luxembourg,
Netherlands,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Ireland),  also  with  a  view  to  tackling  current  labour
shortages.  On  the  other  hand,  countries  where  unemployment  and  especially  long-term
unemployment  is  a  widespread  problem  concentrate  on  more  comprehensive  policies  to

26

encourage  job  creation  and  increase  the  employability  of  the  long  term  unemployed  and
young people (Spain, France, Belgium).

Many  Member  States,  while  emphasising  the  centrality  of  work,  also  stress  that  access  to
work  should  not  be  promoted  regardless  of  other  fundamental  rights  but  rather  should
complement  them.  Thus  access  to  work  should  not  be  at  the  expense  of  the  right  to  an
adequate minimum income, the right to participate fully in family, community and social life
or the right to good health.

Full  access  to  stable  and  quality  employment  for  all  women  and  men  who  are  capable  of
working is to be seen as a result of a complex process of transformation of labour markets. In
the Danish NAP/incl, the outcome  of  such transformation  is  defined  as  the  inclusive  labour
market,  where  more  persons  with  poor  qualifications  or  reduced  capacity  for  work  get  a
chance  to  use  their  skills  and  participate  in  working  life.  The  inclusive  labour  market  is  a
broad concept mainly expressing the expectations that workplaces should be open to persons
who  are  not  capable,  under  all  circumstance  and  at  all  times,  of  complying  with  prevailing
performance or norms.

Policies that increase the employability of the most hard-to-place individuals, through the use
of  active  policies,  and  in  particular  training,  as  well  as  policies  aiming  at  reconciliation  of
family  and  work  life  or  the  promotion  of  the  social  economy,  may  be  an  efficient  way  to
promote  social  inclusion.  But  an  essential  step  is  to  make  the  existing  labour  market  more
open and responsive to employing individuals and groups who are currently marginalised and
excluded.

Promoting a more open and responsive labour market

Measures to increase the openness and responsiveness of the existing labour market to people
who are currently excluded include:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

Introducing  social  clauses/chapters  in  collective  agreements  for  employing  and
retaining persons with reduced capacity for work in the labour market (Denmark) or
establishing  quotas  for  the  employment  of  particular  groups  such  as  people  with
disabilities (Germany, Austria);

reducing employers' costs in employing people with less skills or certain categories
of unemployed (Luxembourg, Greece, Sweden);

to  counter  prejudices  or
training  of  employers 
promoting  education  and 
discrimination against people from particular communities or particular backgrounds
and regular review and monitoring of recruitment procedures and outcomes;

ensuring that government agencies prepare action plans for the promotion of ethnic
diversity among employees (Sweden);

inserting social clauses into publicly awarded contracts requiring the employment of
people  who  are  long-term  unemployed  or  from  special  groups  or  from  local
disadvantaged  communities  or  the  introduction  of  a  policy  of  ethnic  equality
(Denmark);

expanding  "sheltered",  "near  market"  and  rehabilitative  job  opportunities  for
particularly vulnerable people (Denmark, Finland);

27

– 

– 

promoting  entrepreneurship  amongst  disadvantaged  groups  and  communities  and
provide  intensive  support  to  local  economic  development  initiatives  in  areas  of
multiple disadvantage;

focusing  economic 
investment  and  employment  development  policies  on
unemployment blackspots, particularly areas of multiple disadvantage (UK; see also
section 3.3.3);

Putting in place pathways towards employment

Developing and implementing pathways towards employment is widely recognised as  a  key
dimension of developing a more inclusive labour market. Pathways normally combine several
insertion  measures  like  counselling,  training,  subsidised  or  sheltered  employment,  with  the
activation of social assistance recipients. This is a crucial and sensitive aspect as often social
assistance  recipients  are  people  that  are  very  far  away  from  the  labour  market  who  require
extensive  and  personalised  aid.  The  majority  of  Member  States  reflect  clearly  in  their
NAPs/incl  a  change  in  philosophy  from  passive  income  support  to  active  support  to  assist
people  to  become  autonomous.  In  some  cases,  explicit  reference  is  made  to  the  experience
gained under the implementation of the NAPs/empl with a view to extend the same approach
in order to cover also those more distant from the labour market.

The link between the labour market situation and other elements of exclusion is recognised,
with  many  Member  States  quoting  as  an  objective  the  better  collaboration  between
employment and social services in order to better target individual needs (Austria, Germany,
UK, Finland, Luxembourg , Spain  and  Sweden). This  focus on  employability  has led  to  the
development of more tailor made supports for people and in several cases this has led to the
development  of  specific  social  insertion  contracts  such  as  in  Portugal  and  France  and
Luxembourg.

Developing  effective  insertion  and  activation  measures  is  complex  and  more  comparative
studies between Member States as to what works best for those who are most distant from the
labour market would be useful. Emerging best practice seems to suggest that measures should
be  developed  in  ways  that  are  seen  as  supportive  and  developmental  and  not  punitive.
Individualised  programmes  should  be  developed  in  consultation  and  mutually  agreed  after
careful assessment of people's needs and potential. For those  who are most distant from  the
labour  market  insertion  can  take  time  and  can  involve  preparatory  action  and  confidence
building.

It  is  clear  that  developing  more  effective  activation  programmes  requires  improvement  in
delivery mechanisms. A number of key improvements can be identified from the NAPs/incl.
These include: greater decentralisation and more integrated localised delivery of employment
and  social  services  and  supports  such  as  the  establishment  of  fifty  Employment  Promotion
Centres in Greece or the Social Activation Incentive Scheme in the Netherlands or efforts to
reduce and streamline bureaucratic procedures (Germany and France).

While  a  focus  on  prevention  and  thus  early  intervention  is  important  so  that  people  do  not
become too distant from the labour market it is also important that schemes do not cream off
those  who  are  most  easily  reintegrated  and  give  less  attention  to  those  who  are  less
productive. If not careful this could be one of the risks in setting  ambitious targets  or using
reintegration companies without setting sub targets for the most vulnerable groups.

28

As  well  as  developing  focused  activation  programmes  many  NAPs/incl  also  give  a  high
priority  to  their  training  and  education  policies  with  an  increased  emphasis  on  lifelong
learning  and  on  ensuring  that  vulnerable  groups  have  enhanced  access  to  this  provision
(Austria,  Germany,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Portugal,  Sweden)  and  better  access  to
apprenticeships such as Luxembourg's proposed apprenticeships for adults.

In developing a more active approach to increasing employability for long-term unemployed
and those who have been long-term dependent on welfare Member States also recognise the
particular challenges facing a number of especially vulnerable groups. Weakest groups in the
labour  market  are  identified  as  not  only  the  long-term  unemployed,  but  also  young  people,
older workers, the disabled20 and immigrants.

In line with the NAPs/empl, all Member States undertake to facilitate women's participation
in employment21 with a particular attention to those in more difficult situation such as the lone
parents  cited  by  most  Member  States,  the  disabled  (Germany)  and  those  with  low  skills
(Spain, France) or returning to the labour market (Ireland).

Young people: Many Member States prioritise problems that have arisen around the transition
from school  to  work,  in  particular  for  those  individuals  who  do  not  complete  their  cycle  of
education/vocational  training.  Some  countries  have  elaborated  specific  programmes  to  ease
young  people  into  employment  such  as  Belgium's  First  Job  Agreement,  Finland's
Rehabilitative  Job  Activities,  France's  Trace  programme,  Sweden's  Municipal  Youth
Programme and the  UK's  New  Deal  for Young  People of work related support  and training
which is  compulsory  for  young  people  after  six  months.  Other  countries  concentrate  on  the
development of the  vocational training system as  an  alternative  route  to basic qualifications
(for example  Italy is reforming the vocational training system following  the  example  of  the
dual  system  and  through  the  development  of  apprenticeship  and  internships  and  Greece  is
developing a system of Second Opportunity Schools aiming at reintegrating individuals over
18  in  the  educational  process  by  means  of  individualised  teaching).  In  countries  where  the
vocational  training  system  is  already  well  established  (Germany,  Austria,  Luxembourg)  the
emphasis is on facilitating job search and retention as well as on training, back-up assistance
and counselling to limit the number of drop-outs. In this context it is interesting to note also
the attention given to financial incentives to the trainee (subsidies to training).

TRACE: PERSONALISED PROGRAMME FOR YOUNG PEOPLE IN DIFFICULTY (FRANCE)

This programme is addressed to young people in difficulty. It offers each young person a tailor-made
programme and follow up for 18 months by professionals and aims at placing at least 50% of them in
durable employment. It is based on:

-  the  specific  engagement  of  one  young  person  with  one  social  assistant  with  the  signature  of  a
contract. Each social assistant follows 30 individuals, can get to know them personally , their previous
training and working experiences etc.;

- A piloting committee which coordinates and mobilises the existing activation measures which may
exist  at  national,  regional  or  local  level.  It  also  aims  at  eliminating  administrative  blockages  and  at
favouring the links with other policy areas (health, housing, training etc.)

20

21

Provisions to support the integration of disabled people in the labour market will be reviewed in section
3.3.1.
Provisions regarding the access of women in the labour market are dealt with under Chapter 4.

29

                                                
Older workers: The problem of older workers who lack the education or skills to access jobs
in  the  modern  labour  market  is  identified  by  many  Member  States.  For  this  reason  many
NAPs/incl emphasise the need for intensive skilling offensives and retraining of older workers
(Germany,  Finland,  Netherlands  and  the  UK).  Some  Member  States  also  highlight  the
importance of flexible arrangements for work towards the  end of a person's career (Finland,
Denmark and Sweden).

SPRING PROGRAMME: EXCHANGE HELP FOR A JOB (BELGIUM)

This  programme  is  aimed  at  long  term  unemployed  and  minimum  income  recipients.  It  combines
activation  measures  with  the  use  of  specific  contracts  of  the  temping  agencies.  Temping  agencies
receive  subsidies  for  24  months  both  to  decrease  the  wage  bill  and  to  train  the  beneficiaries.  The
objective  is  to  reduce  the  minimum  income  recipients  by  one  third  in  five  years  and  to  raise  the
number of beneficiaries of activation measures from 5% to 20%.

Ethnic  minorities  and  immigrants:  The  majority  of  Member  States  clearly  identify  ethnic
minorities and immigrants as often having particular problems in accessing the labour market
and many recognise the need to increase their employment levels. A few Member States set
out  specific  targets  in  their  NAPs/employment  with  that  aim  (Denmark,  Netherlands).  A
number of interesting measures in this field is mentioned in some NAPS/incl. For example in
Finland integration of immigrants is supported by an integration plan jointly drawn up by the
immigrant, the municipality and the employment authority. Denmark has initiated a facilitator
pilot scheme providing financial support by local authorities and employment services to buy
working  time  of  an  employee  in  private  companies.  Spain  provides  interesting  case  studies
developed by NGOs (La Huertecica and Asociacion Candelita).

30

PATHWAYS TO EMPLOYMENT FOR MINORITIES (NETHERLANDS)

In  June  2000  the  Dutch  government  negotiated  agreements  with  a  number  of  large  companies  on
additional  efforts  to  be  made  by  these  companies  in  the  areas  of  intercultural  management,  inflow,
transfer and retention of members of ethnic minorities. Intercultural management is an instrument for
fleshing  out  the  social  dimension  of  Socially  Responsible  Enterprise.  It  involves  the  optimum
utilisation  of  the  possibilities  for  cultural  diversity  in  the  workforce  (with  an  inward  focus)  and  an
acknowledgement  of  the  cultural  diversity  of  the  clients  (the  environment  in  which  the  company
operates). The government facilitates the preparation and implementation of this framework agreement
via  the  project  organisation  ‘Ruim  Baan  voor  Minderheden’  (‘Pathways  to  Employment  for
Minorities’).  The  tasks  of  the  project  group  are  to  provide  a  platform  for  the  exchange  of  best
practices, product development, to  implement  innovative trial  projects  and  to  eliminate  bureaucratic
bottlenecks.

.

FACILITATOR SCHEME FOR NON-DANISH ETHNIC MINORITIES (DENMARK)

The Government pilot scheme  enables  local  authorities  and  Public  Employment  Services to  provide
financial support to buy working time of an employee in a private company to function as a facilitator
or, in the case of small companies, to pay the fees of an external adviser facilitator. Facilitators and
advisers are to help introduce new employees with a non-Danish ethnic background to the company.
They inform the new employee of the norms and values in the company  and  facilitate  dialogue  and
social interaction between the new employee and other employees in the company.

The  target  group  for  the  scheme  is  unemployed  people  with  a  non-Danish  ethnic  background  who
claim cash benefits or unemployment benefits. The support scheme may be used when an unemployed
person is offered ordinary employment, or it may be used in connection with offers of (individual) job
training,  on-the-job  rehabilitation,  flexible  working  arrangements  and  sheltered  employment  with
wage subsidy.

Local authorities or the Public Employment  Services  can  also use some  of  the  funds to  disseminate
information about the facilitator scheme to companies or to arrange courses, establish networks etc.

Promoting the reconciliation of work and family life

Many  Member  States  recognise  that,  in  order  to  ensure  that  people  stay  or  move  into
employment,  it  is  important  to  help  them  to  overcome  barriers  which  may  hinder  their
participation. The main factor mentioned in NAPs/incl is child (and other dependent) care, but
other aspects are mentioned, such as a decent housing, good health, adequate transport.

As regards childcare, most Member States address it by increasing childcare facilities to help
women  access  the  labour  market  and  fewer  Member  States,  such  as  Sweden  and  Denmark,
widen  their  approach  to  the  various  possible  means  to  better  reconcile  work  and  family
responsibilities for men and women.

Some  Member  States  are  introducing  changes  to  legislation  in  order  to  increase  the
availability  of  parental  leave  for  both  parents,  while  others,  such  as  Sweden,  Italy  and
Portugal  others  are  taking  measures  to  increase  the  take  up  of  parental  leave  by  men.  In
Sweden,  the  maximum  period  of  parental  benefit  following  childbirth  has  recently  been
increased by 30 days up to 480 days, provided that both parents make use of at least 60 days
each.

31

Member States also develop incentives for employers to promote reconciliation between work
and  family  responsibilities.  Denmark  does  it  within  the  framework  of  corporate  social
responsibility.  Portugal  intends  to  develop  with  the  employers  a  social  gender  contract
encouraging men to take a larger part in domestic duties. In Austria a prize is given to family
friendly employers. Part time is also becoming an entitlement in more Member States.

The  proposed  improvements  in  childcare  facilities  mainly  concern  increases  of  available
places,  both  for  very  young  children  and  after  school  for  older  children.  Some  NAPs/incl
(Italy) also mention the issue of care for other dependants, and the need to develop outpatient
care to relieve household members of caring responsibilities. Few Member States address the
affordability  of  childcare  for  low  income  groups.  In  Denmark,  local  authorities  are
encouraged  to  guarantee  day-care  to  all  pre-school  children  regardless  of  their  parents
employment  status.  Some  Member  States  mention  specific  allowances  and/or  tax  reduction
(Austria,  Germany,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Italy)  or  are  improving  children's  allowances
(Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Sweden).

Making use of the potential of the social economy

The  social  economy  and  the  third  sector  provide  manifold  opportunities  for  integration  and
employment. Third sector organisations can be defined as private, autonomous organisations
that,  inter  alia,  pursue  social  and  economic  objectives  of  collective  interest,  place  limits  on
private,  individual  acquisition  of  profits  and  work  for  local  communities  or  for  groups  of
people from civil society sharing  common interests. They  also  tend to involve stakeholders,
including workers, volunteers and users, in their management.

If adequately supported, the social economy can make an effective contribution to expanding
the  labour  market  and  providing  new  opportunities  for  people  with  poor  qualifications  or
reduced capacity for work so that they can use their skills and participate in working life. The
NAPs/incl  provide  several  illustrations  of  how  the  potential  of  the  social  economy  is  being
exploited in that direction. Italy, France, Belgium and Sweden develop the third sector and the
social  economy  as  a  source  of  jobs  for  people  with  limited  skills  or  productive  potential
through  measures  such  as  the  simplification  of  the  legal  framework,  easier  access  to  public
procurement, and better networking with the public administrations.

3.1.2

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

(a) To organise social protection systems in such a way that they help, in particular, to:

–  Guarantee that everyone has the resources necessary to live in accordance with human dignity;

–  Overcome  obstacles  to  employment  by  ensuring  that  the  take-up  of  employment  results  in

increased income and by promoting employability;

(b) To implement policies which aim to provide access for all to decent and sanitary housing, as well
as  the  basic  services  necessary  to  live  normally  having  regard  to  local  circumstances  (electricity,
water, heating, etc.).

(c)  To  put  in  place  policies  which  aim  to  provide  access  for  all  to  healthcare  appropriate  to  their
situation, including situations of dependency.

(d) To develop, for  the  benefit  of  people  at  risk  of  exclusion,  services  and  accompanying  measures
which will allow them effective access to education, justice and other public and private services,
such as culture, sport and leisure.

32

3.1.2.1 Social protection systems

Thirteen  Member  States  have  developed  a  universal  social  assistance  policy  aimed  at
guaranteeing all legal residents a minimum income, although with limitations in certain cases.
In Austria the provision is restricted to EU citizens except in some Bundesländer where it is
accessible to all legal residents. In Spain there is no national scheme, but almost all regions
have  set  up  minimum  income  schemes  with  varying  benefits.  Italy  is  still  testing  the
introduction  of  a  universal  last-resort  safety  net  until  2002  (the  experimental  scheme  is
limited  to  about  230  communes  and  90  000  beneficiaries).  Greece  continues  to  provide  a
range  of  cash  benefits  for  particular  vulnerable  groups  as  well  as  an  income  guarantee  for
pensioners.

Improving adequacy

The majority  of NAPs/incl include  initiatives  to  improve the  adequacy of  minimum  income
schemes.  The  trend  in  reforms  is  both  to  make  minimum  incomes  sufficiently  adequate  to
ensure human dignity and to facilitate full participation in society and re-integration into the
labour market. To achieve this, several approaches stand out in the NAPs/incl:

– 

– 

– 

Increasing absolute levels: In a number of Member States minimum income levels
have not kept pace with increases in levels  of earnings and cost of  living. This  has
led  to  a  reduced  purchasing  power  of  minimum  income  levels  in  comparison  to
average purchasing power levels in society at large. Belgium announces the intention
to raise the guaranteed minimum income level as well as the level of income support
for pensioners (together with Greece).

Protecting  minimum  income  levels  against  seizure  and  skimming  off:  Several
Member States (Luxembourg, Finland, France,  Belgium) introduce  measures  which
prohibit or limit the seizure of minimum income resources, for example in situation
of debts,  bankruptcy  or  separation.  Others  make  provisions  for  a  more  friendly  tax
regime.

Making minimum income schemes more tuned to the needs of dependants: The
large majority of NAPs/incl include initiatives aimed at increasing and/or combining
minimum  incomes  with  other  resources  to  improve  the  living  conditions  of
dependants,  particularly  in  the  case  of  children  of  single  mothers.  Several  Member
States 
timely
(Netherlands,  France,  Belgium,  Austria,  Sweden)  guarantee 
maintenance  payments  and  provide  backup  arrangements  when  needed  (e.g.
advances), particularly to vulnerable lone parents with children.

GUARANTEED MINIMUM INCOME (PORTUGAL)

The Guaranteed Minimum Income (GMI) in Portugal is accessible to all legally resident individuals
and  families  suffering  from  serious  economic  distress  as  well  as  to  all  young  people  with  family
responsibilities and mothers or pregnant women below 18 years. The system is based on the principle
of  national  solidarity  and  its  key  objectives  are:  to  guarantee  access  to  a  minimum  income  and
integration conditions to all citizens and residents irrespective of their past contributions; to promote
integration  by  means  of  a  tailor-made  Insertion  Programme  developed  in  consultation  with  the
recipient;  to  guarantee  accompanying  support  measures  aimed  at  promoting  inclusion  and
participation  in  society  of  the  recipient;  empower  the  recipient  in  terms  of  both  rights  and
responsibilities,  underpinned  by  active  solidarity-based  policies.  The  GMI  is  implemented  in  close
partnership between the national and local government, civil society actors and the recipients on the
basis of a contract including clear commitments by all the parties.

33

Since the GMI system was generalised in July 1997, more than 700.000 people have benefited from
the system, of which 41% were children and young people (-18 years) and 7% older persons (+ 65
years). The majority of recipients have been women, single women as well as single parent women.
More  than  one  third  of  recipients  have  been  able  to  leave  the  GMI  system.  The  system  has  also
prompted  approximately  15.000  recipients  to  take  up  education  and  16.000  children  and  young
people to return to school in an attempt to curb early school leaving and child labour.

Improving accessibility

Many  NAPincl  feature initiatives aimed at  improving  accessibility  to  minimum  income  and
resource systems. The vision underlying these initiatives is a rights-based one.  Because it is
the last-resort safety net, the provision of minimum resources must not simply be offered but
guaranteed to all people who need it. Two approaches stand out when it comes to making last-
resort safety nets more inclusive.

– 

– 

Improving  uptake:  The  most  common  approaches  (Netherlands,  Spain,  Denmark,
Finland,  France,  Portugal,  Austria  and  Sweden)  in  this  field  are:  the  development
and/or  strengthening  of  'out-reach'  information,  awareness  and  delivery  systems;
devolving implementation on the basis of partnership arrangements with regional and
local levels; and promoting a rights-based approach.

Promoting universal coverage: In all Member States access to minimum incomes is
no longer reserved exclusively to own nationals. The general policy trend is to ensure
that  all  legal  residents  in  their  territory  have  equal  access  to  adequate  minimum
resources  when  needed22.  Belgium  goes  a  step  further  and  extends  access  to  a
minimum  level  of  resources  to  refugees,  asylum  seekers  and  illegal  immigrants.
While  the  adequacy  of  these  provisions  often  remains  weak,  the  principle  of
guaranteeing  to  all  persons  in  a  country  the  right  to  human  dignity,  irrespective  of
their  origin,  nationality  or  legal  status,  is  gaining  ground.  In  some  Member  States
(France, Luxembourg), access to minimum resources for young people is becoming
an issue. It is also important to underline that the principle of universal coverage in
Member States such as Denmark, Finland and Sweden is implemented on the basis
of individualised rights, whereas in the other Member States this is ensured by means
of derived rights, which are generally less gender sensitive.

22

With the exception of Austria, where this benefit is reserved to EU nationals.

34

                                                
INFORMATION AT HOME TO IMPROVE TAKE-UP OF SOCIAL ASSISTANCE AMONG
OLDER PERSONS (HEERENVEEN-NETHERLANDS)

Older  people  may  fail  to  take  full  advantage  of  financial  and  other  social  service  schemes  due  to
isolation,  ignorance,  fear  of  stigmatisation  etc  .  In  Heerenveen,  welfare  and  social  service
organisations work in partnership with older people to put in place a permanent and structured system
to inform over-70s at home about provisions and schemes in relation to housing, care and welfare to
which  they  have  a  right  but  which  they  are  currently  not  taking  up.  Secondary  objectives  are  to
identify  the  need  for  help,  care  and  services,  to  identify  bottlenecks  in  policy,  administration  and
implementation, and to enable older people to play an active part in the community. Special attention
is devoted to older people from ethnic minorities.

Making work pay and promoting employability

There is a general recognition among Member States that creating jobs that are accessible to
people  who  are  currently  excluded  from  the  labour  market  needs  to  be  complemented  by
measures that ensure that taking up those jobs guarantees a decent income. There should not
be  disincentives  which  discourage  people  from  moving  from  welfare  to  work.  While  no
Member State advocates cutting levels of welfare benefits as an across-the-board measure to
put  people  into  work,  there  is  a  widespread  concern  to  reduce  long-term  dependency
whenever this is avoidable and to promote activation of the recipients in order to make social
benefits a springboard for employment and not an obstacle.

To  minimise  misuse  and  the  risk  of  long-term  dependency,  policy  practice  with  regard  to
minimum income guarantees has often focussed on the 'last resort' dimension and, as a result,
has been fairly restrictive in terms of linking minimum incomes with other resources. There
seems  to  be  now  a  reversion  of  this  trend  in  most  Member  States.  They  envisage  the
possibility of combining minimum income with work-related earnings or other benefits, while
avoiding multiple layers of benefits, which can give rise to unfair treatment of  claimants. In
addition, many Member States link the delivery of minimum income provisions increasingly
with  the  provision  of  services  which  support  minimum  income  recipients  to  improve  their
employability,  such  as  counselling,  training,  voluntary  work  or  other  forms  of  activity  and
self-development. Measures proposed for making work pay include:

– 

– 

retaining  some  benefits  for  a  period  when  taking  up  employment  (Belgium,
Germany, Ireland);

reducing  tax  levels  on  low  paid  jobs  or  introducing  an  "employment  bonus"  in  the
form  of  a  tax  credit  to  benefit  those  engaged  in  paid  activity  (France,  Denmark,
Netherlands  and  UK)  sometimes  specifically  targeted  at  families  with  dependent
children (Belgium);

– 

combining social benefits and wages (France, Luxembourg and Sweden);

Moreover,  in  order  to  support  the  improvement  of  the  capacity  of  the  schemes  to  promote
upward  mobility  and  sustainable  exits,  several  Member  States  (Denmark,  Netherlands,
Sweden) are developing indicators which makes it possible to track the mobility of recipients
as  long  as  they  remain  within  the  scheme  as  well  as  for  some  time  after  they  have  left  the
scheme

35

Some NAPs/incl emphasise that a job does not necessarily lead out of poverty: in some cases
this  is  due  to  poor  productivity  'old  economy'  type  of  jobs,  in  particular  in  agriculture
(Portugal,  Greece),  in  others  it  appears  as  a  new  form  of  precariousness  (Belgium,  Italy,
France). On the other hand, even a low paid job which is a second income in a household can
help  lift  the  household  out  of  poverty.  A  number  of  measures  aim  at  making  jobs  more
attractive  and  at  offering  better  protection  to  people  with  a  precarious  link  to  the  labour
market:

– 

– 

– 

introducing  minimum  wage  legislation  (Ireland  and  UK)  and  ensuring  that  social
partners  pay  special  attention  to  minimum  wages  when  they  negotiate  collective
agreements (Austria);

topping  up  social  insurance  contributions  of  part-time  workers  or  ensuring  that
pension  rights  will  be  earned  for  parents  facing  loss  of  income  from  regular  work
(Austria, Germany, Sweden);

establishing social security protection for a-typical workers (Germany, Austria

INTEGRATION OF ATYPICAL WORKERS IN THE SOCIAL SYSTEM (AUSTRIA)

Until  recently  economically  active  persons  in  the  grey  area  between  employment  and  self-
employment and persons in certain forms of self-employment and persons on low-income (part-time
workers) were not obliged to take out social security insurance.

Today all economically active persons must have social security or be given the opportunity to join a
scheme  on  favourable  terms.  Some  are  covered  as  "independent  employees"  in  the  social  security
scheme for employees. Others are covered as "new self-employed" in the social security scheme for
the self-employed. Moreover, employers must now pay contributions for part-time workers (monthly
income of up to 296 €) into the sickness and pension insurance scheme and such workers may opt
into the self-insurance system (flat rate contribution) in these social security branches.

3.1.2.2 Housing

All  Member  States  recognise  the  importance  of  access  to  decent  quality  housing  in  their
NAPs/incl  as  a  key  condition  for  social  integration  and  participation  in  society.  Housing
markets in Member States differ greatly but generally function quite well. Most people in the
European  Union  live  in  a  decent  to  good  quality  house,  which  they  either  rent  or  own  and
have access to a reliable supply of water, electricity and heating.

When it comes to low-income sections of the population however the  market  is  performing
less  satisfactorily  in  most  Member  States,  and  increasingly  so.  The  declining  supply  of
reasonably priced houses at the lower end of the housing market tends to push a rising number
of  households  without  adequate  purchasing  power  into  the  residual  segment  of  the  market.
Housing quality in this residual segment is low and declining, often lacking basic provisions
and the trend in price and rents is generally upward as a result of rising demand pressure.

New precarious forms of accommodation include renting of furnished rooms or mattresses in
overcrowded  rooms,  squatting  in  buildings,  stations  and  other  public  spaces  and  living  in
informal dwellings such as caravans, shacks, boats and garages.

Given the importance of housing expenditure in the total household budget (on average 25%
in the EU) higher rents have particularly strong knock-on effects on residual incomes of lower
income households, often pulling them far below the poverty line. The use of indicators which

36

track the share of the net rent in disposable income as well as net disposable income after total
expenditure on housing, as proposed by Netherlands, is a welcome development.

The  thrust  of  initiatives  by  Member  States  in  their  NAPs/incl  is  geared  essentially  at
overcoming the deficiencies in their national housing markets in order to assure lower-income
sections  of  the  population  access  to  decent  and  affordable  housing.  Most  efforts  can  be
grouped under three key policy approaches:

– 

– 

– 

Increasing  the  supply  of  affordable  housing  and  accommodation:  measures  to
complement  and  stimulate  supply  of  low  cost  housing  and  to  renovate  existing
dilapidated  housing  stock.  This  includes  measures  targeted  at  disadvantaged  areas
and neighbourhoods.

Guaranteeing quality  and value  for  money  at  the  lower  end  of  the  housing  market:
measures  to  better  control  and  regulate  the  housing  market,  particularly  where  it
tends to act exploitatively or exclude.

Improving  access  and  protecting  vulnerable  consumers:  measures  to  strengthen  the
position of low-income and other particularly vulnerable consumers on the  housing
market.

Increasing the supply of affordable housing and accommodation

All NAPs/incl report weaknesses and deficiencies in the commercial supply of decent quality
housing which is affordable to low income households. In Ireland, Sweden, Finland, Portugal
and to some extent Belgium access is particularly constrained due to structural factors.

Member States make use of a range a measures to stimulate and increase the supply of decent
low  cost  housing.  These  include:  provision  of  social  housing  subsidies  in  the  majority  of
Member States, both  for  building  as  well  as  directly  to  individuals; investments to renovate
and enhance housing stock in disadvantaged urban areas (Denmark, Finland, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden  and  UK)  as  well  as  in  rural  areas  (Portugal  and  Spain);  incentives  for  developing
special housing, for example, small and affordable flats for  young people (Luxembourg  and
Spain),  accommodation  for  Travellers  (Ireland),  disability-friendly  housing  (Austria,
Denmark, Germany  and  UK)  and  housing  for  older  people  (Denmark  and  UK);  earmarking
land  for  low-cost  housing  (France  and  Portugal);  tax  and  other  incentives  for  renovation  of
old housing stock (Belgium, Germany, Finland, France, Portugal and UK); taxing and seizure
of vacant housing (Belgium and France).

Guaranteeing quality and value for money at the lower end of the housing market

Most  Member  States  recognise  the  need  for  measures  that  protect  and  empower  weaker
consumers in the housing market against possible misuses and exploitation in the commercial
housing  market.  The  following  four  measures  emerge  from  the  NAPincl  as  being  most
prominent:

– 

– 

Demolition  of  indecent  housing  and  housing  estates  (barracks,  bidonvilles  etc)  in
combination  with  rehousing  of  inhabitants  in  better  quality  accommodation
(Belgium, Spain and Portugal);

Better  protection  of  the  rights  of  low-income  renters  and  owners  by  improving
regulation  and  information  (Belgium,  Denmark,  Finland,  Ireland,  Luxemburg  and
Sweden);

37

– 

– 

Regulating, monitoring and controlling housing standards (Belgium and France);

Monitoring and controlling the link between rents and (minimum) housing standards
(Belgium, France and the Netherlands).

ACCESS TO SOCIAL HOUSING FOR PEOPLE LIVING IN SHACKS (PORTUGAL)

Improving access to housing features as a high priority in the Portuguese NAPincl. Most vulnerable
in this field are nearly 80.000 people living in more than 40.000 shacks in urban and sub-urban areas.
Since 1993 the  Government  has  pursued  an ambitious  programme  of  pulling  down  the  shacks  and
rehousing the inhabitants in social housing. Whereas the programme rehoused about 900 families per
annum  until  1998,  the  number  of  families  has  increased  to  about  7500  per  annum  since  1999
following protocols which were concluded with 170 town councils. This rhythm will be maintained
in order to guarantee to all inhabitants living in shacks access to social housing before 2005.

Improving access and protecting vulnerable consumers

Member States develop a wide variety of measures to address the growing precariousness at
the bottom end of their housing markets. These include:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

Efforts  aimed  at  better  mapping  and  understanding  'le  mal  du  logement'  (Finland,
France and Netherlands);

Public/Non-Profit/Cooperative  'facilitation  agencies'  which  render  information  and
broker  services  to  weak  consumers  in  the  housing  market  (Belgium,  Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain and Sweden);

Rental  subsidies  and/or  tax  advantages  for  low-income  groups  (Austria,  Belgium,
Denmark,  Finland,  France,  Germany,  Greece,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  Portugal
and Sweden);

Housing  assistance  to  young  people  (Denmark,  France,  Luxembourg,  Portugal  and
Spain);

Improving access to bank loans and bank guarantees (Luxembourg)

Several  Member  States  provide  shelters  for  particularly  vulnerable  groups  in  the  form  of
refuge  homes  for  women  and  children  who  are  victims  of  domestic  violence  (France,
Germany and Spain), special housing schemes for homeless people (Denmark, Luxembourg,
Greece,  Spain  and  Sweden),  preventing  cutting  utility  supplies  (France),  rehabilitation  of
accommodation of migrant workers (France), developing supported housing, i.e. housing plus
care and services (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands and UK), and housing assistance to single
mothers (Greece).

TO PROMOTE ACCESS TO HOUSING FOR YOUNG PERSONS – LOCA-PASS (FRANCE)

The aim of LOCA-PASS is to facilitate access to private or public rented accomodation to all young
people below 30 years who are employed or looking for employment in the private sector. LOCA-
PASS is managed and funded by the public organisations which collect 1% solidarity contributions to
housing by employers. They work in partnership with the 'Union économique et sociale du logement'
as well as with representatives of civil society. LOCA-PASS provides a guarantee and an advance to
future (young) tenants which enable them to meet the conditions of the housing rental contract. The
guarantee covers up to 18 months of rent including charges. The advance is granted at no cost and
can  either  be  paid  to  the  tenant  or  the  owner.  The  granting  of  the  LOCA-PASS  guarantee  and/or

38

advance is automatic when the applicant meets the conditions. The applicant submits a request to the
public  housing  collection  office  which  is  nearest  to  her/his  place  of  residence.  If  there  is  no  reply
within 8 days, the assistance is considered granted.

3.1.2.3 Healthcare

Three broad strategies arise from the NAPs/incl to provide better access to healthcare for all:

- developing disease prevention and promoting health education;

- improving adequacy, access and affordability of mainstream provisions;

- launching initiatives to address specific disadvantages.

These  three  strategies  are  combined  differently  in  the  NAPs/incl  according  to  national
situations and priorities.

Developing disease prevention and promoting health education

Preventive and education measures are not necessarily designed for the most vulnerable. Yet
they can be most effective at ensuring equal access to healthcare by reaching directly certain
groups at risk. They also play a key redistributive role to the extent that they help to overcome
financial and cultural obstacles. Developing prevention and education is thus considered as a
priority to tackle socio-economic health determinants. Among these policies three categories
are often mentioned in the NAPs/incl:

–  mother and child care providing for regular health screenings, including vaccination;

–  preventive care at school, including regular free consultations and health training as part of

the regular curriculum;

–  preventive care at work in accordance to health and safety at work legislation or, for those

unemployed, free regular health screenings offered by social or health services.

Innovative  approaches  are  to  be  found  in  Finland  (health  training  at  school)  and  Austria
(annual health screening).

Improving affordability, access and adequacy of mainline provisions

For those already suffering from poor health or most at risk, the need to reinforce coverage,
uptake and effectiveness of mainline provisions, thus ensuring universality, is crucial.

Promoting affordability requires in principle that full eligibility for all necessary services is
given free of charge to the lowest income group and that necessary services are provided for
those  outside  this  group  at  a  cost  they  can  afford.  This  can  be  achieved  through  different
policy  instruments  resulting  in  means-tested  (income-related)  exemptions  of  contributions.
When basic co-payment is seen as necessary, some Member States implement policies which
limit individual or household health expenditure to a certain ceiling (annual maximum health
bill).  Although  the  objective  of  affordability  is  shared  by  all  Member  States,  the  degree  of
coverage  and  the  quality  of  care  provided  under  the  different  systems  may  differ  widely
across countries. Considering  their respective national  contexts, innovative approaches  were
introduced in France (universal health coverage scheme) and Belgium (maximum health cost
bill).

39

IMPLEMENTING UNIVERSAL HEALTH COVERAGE (FRANCE)

The universal health coverage scheme was put in place on January 1 2000. It replaces previous social
assistance schemes in order to make it possible for everyone to join the social security system and,
for  the  poorest,  to  have  all  their  costs  paid  for.  In  particular,  it  aims  to  give  to  a  large  number  of
people, who could otherwise not afford it, access to a number of services previously only covered by
complementary  health  insurance.  More  than  5  million  people  are  now  covered  by  this  scheme.
Although  widely  considered as  a step  forward,  the  issues  of  the  level  of the  means  test  and  of  the
package  of  services  to  which  beneficiaries  are  entitled  are  still  under  discussion  and  further
adaptations may occur as a result of a soon-to-be produced evaluation.

In  addition  to  financial  obstacles,  access  to  healthcare  services  can  be  hindered  by
administrative,  institutional,  geographical  and/or  cultural  obstacles.  Hence  the  need  to
facilitate  access  of  users,  particularly  those  with  more  difficulties,  to  adequate  services.
Among these policies, three are most prominent in the NAPs/incl:

–  general  policy  aimed  at  achieving  a  more  balanced  geographical  distribution  of  health

services;

–  local or regional initiatives aimed at better coordination between social and health services;

–  nation-wide recognition of a Charter of user's rights, including the need to reduce waiting

lists.

Innovative approaches can be found in Sweden (policy and funding aimed at reducing waiting
lists)  and  Denmark  (funding  of  innovative  projects  promoting  greater  coordination  between
health and social services).

Beyond  affordability  and  accessibility,  mainstream  provisions  should  also  be  made  more
adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  most  vulnerable.  In  particular,  services  should  be  made
more  responsive  to  cases  of  emergency.  These  emergency  services  encompass  emergency
services  of  the  hospitals,  the  provision  of  accommodation/day-shelters  for  certain  groups  in
need and the existence of outreach services, possibly linked to a free phone line, coordinating
the relevant types of professionals.

An innovative approach to this problem can be found in Portugal (setting up of a free national
emergency phone line in coordination with local social services).

Launching initiatives to address groups with specific disadvantages

The adequacy of mainstream provisions is even more crucial for certain groups suffering from
specific disadvantages. A certain number of these groups are mentioned in the NAPs/incl: the
elderly;immigrants and ethnic minorities; people suffering from physical or mental disability;
homeless;  alcoholics;  drug  addicts;  HIV  positive;  ex-offenders;  prostitutes.  Each  of  these
groups require that certain policies and services be tailored to its specific needs.

In some countries, especially those where comprehensive social protection systems have been
put  in  place  more  recently,  the  elderly  may  be  vulnerable  to  social  exclusion  due  to
inadequate pension benefits. But in most countries, the most worrying concern is how to face
a  growing  number  of  situations  of  dependency,  given  the  limitations  of,  especially,  public
care services and the declining support role of families. To address this issue, different policy
instruments have been envisaged across the EU, ranging from the development of long-term
care facilities to the implementation of long-term care insurance schemes.

40

Equally important  for people in poverty  and social exclusion, the issue  of  mental  health  is
raised by a majority of NAPs/incl. Member States agree on the need to tackle mental health
problems through  various sets  of policy  measures, relying  in  particular  on  greater  local  and
regional  cooperation,  better  provision  of  outreach  and  emergency  accommodation  services
and specific training for health and social services' employees.

Considering  their  respective  national  contexts,  innovative  approaches  concerning  target
groups  can  be  found  in  Greece  and  in  Germany  (special  provisions  to  facilitate  access  to
healthcare of people from a migrant origin).

MEDICAL CARE FOR IMMIGRANTS (LOWER SAXONY,GERMANY)

The  aim  of  the  Ethno-Medical  Centre  (Ethno-Medizinisches  Zentrum  – EMZ)  is  to  provide  health
services  and  counselling  geared  to  the  needs  of  immigrants  by  removing  linguistic  and  cultural
barriers  to  communication,  thereby  facilitating  the  task  of  making  accurate  diagnoses,  particularly
with  regard  to  mental  or  psychosomatic  disorders  or  illnesses.  Basic  elements  of  this  work  are:
interpreting service for the social and healthcare services; further training for specialist staff, training
provision,  seminars/conferences;  cooperative  counselling  network  for  specialists  and  experts;
mother-tongue  awareness-raising  events  in  the  field  of  preventive  healthcare;  mother-tongue
booklets,  media,  documentation;  health-promotion  projects  (AIDS,  drugs,  oral  prophylaxis,  female
health  etc.);  working  groups,  self-help  groups  recruitment  of  volunteer  helpers;  production  of
specialist handbooks and publications.

3.1.2.4 Education, Justice and Culture

Education

Most Member States identify access to education as a fundamental right. They see it as both a
key means  of preventing the risks of poverty and social  exclusion  and  an  important  way  of
supporting the inclusion of the most vulnerable groups. There is an increasing recognition of
the importance of access to education for all citizens at all stages of the life cycle if people are
to  have  the  skills  and  qualifications  necessary  to  participate  fully  in  an  increasingly
knowledge-based society. Thus in most NAPs/incl there is a commitment to improving access
to  learning  and  the  development  of  open  learning  environments  in  which  learning  is  made
attractive, with low (if any) thresholds to entry.

As well as access most NAPs/incl are also concerned with equity in the outcome of education
and  training.  They  thus  develop  measures  to  level  the  playing  field  by  addressing  specific
disadvantages  or  barriers  to  educational  participation  and  to  compensating  those  who  have
missed  out  on  education  in  the  past  through  developing  customised  education  and  training
pathways.

In  the  NAPs/incl  there  is  a  broad  recognition  that  some  of  those  individuals  who  have  a
particularly high risk of poverty and social exclusion are in that position because lack of skills
and  qualifications  is  more  widespread  in  the  communities  or  areas  where  they  live.  Those
identified  include  immigrants,  ethnic  minorities  including  especially  Roma/Gypsy/Traveller
children, children living in and attending schools in areas of multiple disadvantage and young
lone parents. The educational as well as the training needs of the disabled as well as of older
unemployed workers, many of whom left school early with no or minimal qualifications, are
also  identified  in  the  context  of  adult  education  and  life  long  learning.  Improving  the  skills
and qualifications of these groups holds out the best prospect of neutralising and overcoming
social and ethno-cultural stratification.

41

There is an emerging consensus that effective interventions to address the different aspects of
educational  disadvantage  involve  more  than  just  educational  responses.  They  require
integrated  and  co-ordinated  action  by  a  range  of  actors  as  educational  disadvantage  can  be
adversely  affected  by  weak  home/family/community  supports,  poor  health,  lack  of  income,
poor housing and environment, poor health, inadequate diet, lack of transport. The UK's Sure
Start programme (see box) is a good example of such an approach.

Four strategic policy approaches can be identified which seem to hold out particularly hopeful
ways forward: early intervention to prevent educational disadvantage 23, removing barriers to
participation  for  vulnerable  groups,  developing  integrated  responses  to  early  school  leavers
and promoting lifelong learning and adult literacy.

Removing Barriers to Participation in Mainline Provision for Vulnerable Groups - There is a
recognition in several NAPs/incl, particularly Belgium, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands and
France  that  some  children  and  their  families  face  particular  barriers  to  participating  in
mainline educational provision. A number of interesting policy approaches are enumerated to
improve access. These include:

– 

– 

– 

removing  financial  barriers  to  participation  (Belgium,  Netherlands,  France  and  the
UK)

providing  free  canteens  and  improving  transport  or  providing  accommodation  for
children  from  remote  areas  (Greece),  addressing  language  and  cultural  barriers  of
ethnic  minorities  and  immigrants  (Denmark,  Luxembourg,  Sweden,  Germany),  and
providing  mentoring  and  supplementary  schooling  for  children  from  such
communities (the UK)

integrating children with disabilities into the mainstream education system (Austria,
Germany, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Spain, Italy and Greece)

SECURING EQUAL ACCESS TO EDUCATION (GREECE)

In Greece a series of measures promote the removal of obstacles to equal access to education and are
provided on the basis of socio-economic criteria to students or pupils. These include: Free student
canteens (11 Centres, 5,312 pupils of limited means); Accommodation (4,240 beneficiaries  –  331
pupils, mostly from mountainous and remote regions hosted in boarding houses in order to be able to
attend the nearest school); Transport All pupils living far from their schools are transported free of
charge  from  their  homes  to  school  on  the  Municipality’s  expense.  Operation  of  schools  within
hospitals  and  house  tutoring.  The  “Transitional  School  for  Adolescents”  of  the  “Strophe”  service
network educates adolescents undergoing a detoxification phase. Special arrangements for admission
of  candidates  of  special  categories  to  tertiary  education.  –  Greeks  from  abroad,  foreigners,  the
Muslim  minority  of  Thrace,  persons  suffering  from  serious  illnesses.  Transfers  of  special  category
students.  Arrangements  for  special  categories  in  Vocational  Educational  Centres.  E.g.  Repatriated
Greek  nationals,  free  attendance  for  ex-drug  users  etc.  Scholarships  –  from  the  State  Scholarship
Institute,  the  General  Secretariat  for  Youth)  etc.  Finally,  for  working  pupils  there  are  evening
lyceums and evening vocational schools.

INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANT CHILDREN INTO THE REGULAR EDUCATION

23

This  policy  approach  is  treated  in  detail  under  section  3.3.2.  (eliminating  social  exclusion  among
children).

42

                                                
SYSTEM (LUXEMBOURG)

Approximately  36  %  of  the  people  resident  in  Luxembourg  are  immigrants  of  which  13%  are
Portuguese  and  9  %  Italian  and  French.  The  compulsory  education  system  is  to  a  large  extent
German.  This  makes  it  more  difficult  for  children  of  immigrants  to  integrate  into  the  schooling
system  which,  in  turn,  also  impedes  their  social  and  cultural  integration  in  society.  Non-native
speaking children account for 13% of students in secondary education.

To  help  level  the  playing  field  in  the  education  system  for  non-native  children,  Luxembourg  has
decided  to  organise  'welcoming  classes'  in  French  in  nursery  and  pre-nursery  schools.  This  early
welcome is to help foster integration into Luxembourg society and, progressively, better equip non-
native children to confront and overcome the educational difficulties which they are likely to face as
a result of their weaker knowledge of German and Luxembourg national language.

Developing  Integrated  Responses  to  School  Drop  Out  -  Most  Member  States  are  very
concerned  with  the  problem  of  children  who  drop  out  of  school.  In  practice  this  can  be
divided  into  three  overlapping  groups.  First  there  are  those  under  school  leaving  age  still
attending  school  but  facing  difficulties  such  as  truancy,  declining  marks  and  behavioural
problems.  Secondly  there  are  those  of  school  age  who  have  actually  dropped  out.  A  third
group  are  those  early  school  leavers  who  have  formally  left  school  but  with  no  or  minimal
qualifications who face problems of transition from school to work (see section 3.1.1). A wide
range  of  policy  responses  are  described  for  the  first  two  groups  which  aim  both  to  prevent
drop  out  and  to  tackle  drop  out  when  it  occurs  and  promote  reintegration  into  the  school
system. Initiatives include both school focused initiatives and developments in the non formal
education sector. These include:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

more emphasis in the curriculum on life and social skills,

teacher training on issues related to poverty and social exclusion and on intercultural
education and the development of more innovative teaching methods ,

extra  resources  for  schools  in  disadvantaged  areas  or  with  large  numbers  of
disadvantaged pupils,

better student welfare and educational psychological services,

more special needs and literacy provision,

safer school environments, after school clubs, holiday programmes,

more focus on smoothing the transition from  primary  to  lower  secondary and  from
lower secondary to higher secondary, cutting down on school exclusions, addressing
high levels of truancy and better monitoring and tracking of drop outs or those at risk
of dropping out,

– 

better home-school-community liaison.

A  key  learning  point  that  emerges  from  these  different  initiatives  is  that  there  is  a  need  to
mobilise a range of actors at local level both within the formal and informal education sectors,
such  as  parents,  social  services,  police  and  probation  services,  employers,  unions  and
community  groups  if  the  problems  of  those  young  people  who  are  most  alienated  from  the
school system are to be addressed. Schools will need to work closely with these other actors
and to place m more emphasis on offering new chances which are tailor made and take into
account the root causes of why the person dropped out of school in the first place. There need

43

to be better pathways between formal and non formal and informal learning and new ways of
recognising  and  evaluating  all  competencies.  Interesting  pilot  projects  adopting  such  an
approach are provided by Italy and Germany.

YOUNG PEOPLE DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL (NORTH RHINE-WESTPHALIA, GERMANY)

There are many different approaches to helping this group, such as support measures for those who
are tired of education or have left school early, as well as reintegration measures for those "refusing"
an education. One of the most successful examples of a reduction in truancy is the "Rath model" in
Düsseldorf. Firstly launched in the Rath district, the model has in the meantime become a synonym
for reintegration measures for school drop-outs.

The  model  is  a  cooperative  venture  involving  municipal  authorities,  vocational  training  centres,
charitable organisations and local boards of education, upper elementary schools, schools providing
"educative assistance" and schools for children with learning difficulties. 27 young people tired of or
refusing an education are currently benefiting from the project.

The  objective  is  to  bring  together  school-specific  youth  welfare  work,  educational  assistance  in
schools and general support measures in the field of education. The project is worthwhile in that it
offers guidance and assistance to young people who have dropped out of education and also children
in  various  difficult  circumstances.  The  collaboration  between  various  schools  and  youth  welfare
organisations is considered to be particularly useful.

44

REINTEGRATION OF YOUNG EARLY SCHOOL LEAVERS IN SITUATIONS OF
EXCLUSION (ITALY)

Various initiatives have been taken in Italy to retrieve and assist young early school leavers.

– 

– 

The  municipality  of  Naples  has  launched  the  project  'Chance'  in  a  very  run  down
neighbourhood. The project, which has been replicated with success in a number of Italian
cities, aims at recuperating and assisting young people between 13 and 15 years who have
withdrawn completely from regular compulsory education. The project is innovative in that
it does not bring drop outs straight back to school but organises 'teachers in the street' who
approach the young people and offer them tailor-made activities and assistance. Ultimately
most of the young people are re-integrated into school.

The central authority in the north of the country has launched an initiative called 'Creativity
of Young People' which has benefited approximately 900 socially excluded youngsters (ex-
offenders, drug addicts, unemployed, people with a disability, school drop-outs etc). Social
interaction centres have been set up for these youngsters in 27 towns, supported by a public-
private partnership. The centres are managed by the youngsters, using their own skills and
creative abilities. The youngsters have been trained and coached to set up cooperatives. The
pilot experience has resulted in the setting up of 12 cooperatives which are self-supporting
and  which  have  also  started  to  network  between  each  other.  Approximately  60  %  of  the
youngsters have found a job as a result.

Promoting  Lifelong  Learning  and  Adult  Literacy  The  increasing  importance  of  lifelong
learning  in  raising  basic  skills  for  all  and  in  ensuring  people's  continued  participation  in
society is highlighted in several NAPs/incl, particularly in the context of rapid developments
in  ICT  (see  section  3.2.1  Promoting  eInclusion).  There  are  a  variety  of  general  approaches
aimed  at  increasing  the  overall  level  of  participation  in  adult  education  in  the  future.
Particularly  striking  is  the  growing  emphasis  on  territorial  approaches  which  aim  to
coordinate  provision  better  at  local  level  and  to  bring  learning  closer  to  home  in  order  to
better reach target groups and tailor learning opportunities. The Dutch "Kenniswijk" and the
Portuguese "Territorios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritaria" are interesting examples in this
regard.

A number of Member States, for instance in Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and
Ireland,  have  developed  more  targeted  approaches  aimed  at  particularly  vulnerable  groups.
These include initiatives like allowing the unemployed to participate in mainline educational
establishments in Denmark. Several NAPs/incl also address the issue of (ex) prisoners and are
increasingly  putting  in  place  projects  of  either  education  or  training  during  the  prison  term
and/or  afterwards  to  facilitate  transition  to  society.  The  Irish  NAPincl  gives  an  example  of
good practice in this regard, the Moyross Probation Project Céim ar Céim.

For  the  weakest  groups,  improving  basic  skills  means,  first  of  all,  increasing  literacy  and
numeracy.  Many  NAPs/incl,  for  instance  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Belgium,  Finland,  France,
Ireland and Portugal, recognise that ethnic minorities, asylum seekers and immigrants would
never  be  appropriately  integrated  into  society  unless  the  deficits  are  overcome  through
language teaching. Ireland has specifically targeted the issue of illiteracy and has committed a
major increase to its adult literacy budget.

Some  NAPs/incl  emphasise  that  as  part  of  life  long  learning  there  is  a  need  for  ongoing
training  and  education  for  those  involved  in  anti-poverty  work.  For  instance  Denmark
proposes specific training and education for "care workers". Ireland notes that local authority
personnel need to understand the nature and responses to poverty if they are to better develop

45

local  anti-poverty  initiatives  and  is  developing  a  Local  Government  Anti-Poverty  Learning
Network to address this need.

THE ADULT EDUCATION INITIATIVE (SWEDEN)

Since 1997, an initiative has been underway in Sweden within the framework of adult education, the
Adult  Education  Initiative.  The  overall  objective  of  this  initiative  is  to  reduce  unemployment,
develop adult education, reduce educational gaps, and increase the  prospects for  economic  growth.
During 2000, an estimated 223 000 persons have been given the opportunity to reinforce their skills
and their position in the labour market through the Adult Education Initiative. The proportion of men
who took part in upper secondary adult education increased between autumn 1999 and spring 2000
by  1.4  percentage  points  to  over  33  per  cent.  The  result  of  the  initiative  shows  that  a  third  of  the
students had increased their educational level corresponding to one year’s study at upper secondary
school  during  the  1997/98  school  year.  Evaluations  have  established  that  three-quarters  of  the
participants in the Adult Education Initiative had received employment or gone on to further studies.
Statistics Sweden presented in 2000 a study that showed that municipal adult education could have
positive effects both with regard to income and employment.

Justice

Perhaps surprisingly given the emphasis in the Nice objectives on access to rights, the issue of
access to  the  law  and  justice  only  features  in  a  few  NAPs/incl  (Germany,  Italy,  France  and
Netherlands). However, it is also implicitly included in a number of other NAPs/incl, such as
Belgium, Finland, Greece and  Ireland, in the context of equal status and non-discrimination
measures. In addition to an absence of clear objectives and targets, there is a general lack of
information  and  data  in  relation  to  the  access  that  people  living  in  poverty  and  social
exclusion have to the law.

Access  to  law  and  justice  is  a  fundamental  right.  Where  necessary  citizens  must  be  able  to
obtain the expert legal assistance they require in order to obtain their rights. The law is thus a
critical means of enforcing people's fundamental rights. For some vulnerable groups access to
the law can be particularly important but also problematic. Groups identified in the NAPs/incl
include  ethnic  minorities,  immigrants,  asylum  seekers,  victims  of  domestic  violence,  ex-
offenders, prostitutes and low income people living in rented housing.

Two key approaches to strengthening access to justice stand out from the NAPs/incl.

i. Improving access to legal services and justice: This includes measures such as subsidised
legal  assistance,  local  legal  advice  centres  for  people  on  low  incomes,  specialist  advice
centres  for  asylum  seekers,  the  establishment  of  a  comprehensive  network  of  regional
departmental  committees  on  access  to  the  law,  developing  alternative,  speedier  and  more
accessible means of resolving disputes and accessing justice for example through separation
and conflict resolution projects and small claims courts.

ii. Developing laws and mechanisms to promote equality and counter discrimination: A few
Member States (Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Ireland and Greece) clearly establish
a link between equal status and non-discrimination  measures and  acknowledge that equality
of opportunity and legal measures to combat discrimination are now an essential part of EU
social  policy  and  a  key  means  to  increase  social  inclusion.  The  establishment  of  new
mechanisms  and  procedures  to  enable  people  to  access  these  rights  is  a  key  part  of  this
development.

46

PROMOTING EQUALITY AND FIGHTING DISCRIMINATION THROUGH THE LAW (IRELAND)

Ireland is committed to promoting equal treatment policies through a series of measures encompassing
"The  Employment  Equality  Act,  1998"  and  "The  Equal  Status  Act  2000"  on  grounds  of  gender,
marital status, family status, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, race and membership of the
Traveller  community.  To  monitor  this  legislation,  two  offices  have  been  established:  "The  Equality
Authority" and the "Office of the Director of Equality Investigations".

The  Equality  Authority  is  currently  working  to  three  objectives:  to  promote  and  defend  the  rights
established  in  equality  legislation,  to  support  the  development  of  a  capacity  to  realise  equality
outcomes  in  the  workplace  and  in  the  provision  of  goods,  facilities,  services,  education  and
accommodation and to contribute to a focus on equality considerations within the private and public
sectors and across society.

The Office of the Director of Equality Investigations is an integral part of the equality infrastructure
which is designed to promote equality and eliminate discrimination. It contributes to the achievement
of  equality  by  investigating  or  mediating  complaints  of  discrimination  contrary  to  the  Employment
Equality Act, 1998 and the Equal Status Act, 2000.

The  feasibility  of  "equality  proofing",  which  is  a  process  whereby  policies  are  evaluated  for  any
possible adverse impact on groups protected by the equality legislation, is being tested by FÁS and the
Department of Education and Science.

Culture

Access  to  and  participation  in  cultural  activity  is  a  core  part  of  human  existence.  Such
participation  is  important  for  fostering  a  positive  sense  of  identity  and  encouraging  and
stimulating  creativity,  self-expression  and  self-confidence.  Involvement  in  the  arts  and
creative  activity  is  thus  a  very  important  tool  in  the  activation  and  reintegration  of  those
individuals and groups who are most distant from the labour market and who have the lowest
levels of participation in society. Community arts projects can also play an important role in
the regeneration of local communities and in the work of neighbourhood groups.

In general the NAPs/incl do not present coherent plans for fostering the participation of those
who are excluded in the creation of culture and in cultural activities. However, a few Member
States  list  interesting  actions.  Denmark's  three  year  integration  programme  for  new
immigrants  and  refugees  emphasises  opportunities  to  participate  in  cultural  as  well  as
economic,  social  and  political  aspects  of  society.  France  highlights  the  access  of  the  most
disadvantaged  to  Espaces  Culture  et  Multimédias.  Portugal  emphasises  increasing  access  to
culture  for  disadvantaged  groups  and  the  importance  of  increased  decentralisation  of
provision if this is to be achieved. Ireland highlights a programme and report which examined
how the arts can be used for the social integration of the long-term unemployed, Community
Arts for Everyone. However, it doesn't draw on the important report on Poverty, Access and
Participation in the  Arts  to  develop  a  coherent  overall  strategy.  The  Belgium  NAP  presents
clear  statistical  information  on  the  cultural  deficits  of  disadvantaged  groups  and  signals  the
intention to present more details on cultural measures in its 2003 NAP.

3.2

Objective 2: To prevent the risks of exclusion

(a)  To  exploit  fully  the  potential  of  the  knowledge-based  society  and  of  new  information  and
communication technologies and ensure that no-one is excluded, taking particular account of the needs
of people with disabilities.

47

(b)  To  put  in  place  policies  which  seek  to  prevent  life  crises  which  can  lead  to  situations  of  social
exclusion, such as indebtedness, exclusion from school and becoming homeless.

(c) To implement action to preserve family solidarity in all its forms.

3.2.1

Promoting eInclusion

impact  of 

The 
the  knowledge-based  society  and  Information  and  Communication
Technologies  (ICTs)  on  inclusion,  the  eInclusion  issue,  is  substantially  recognised  by  the
different Member States. However, the starting point varies greatly across Member States, as
some  of  them  (notably  the  Nordic  countries  and  the  Netherlands)  experience  much  higher
levels  of  diffusion  of  ICTs  (e.g.  in  terms  of  internet  penetration,  also  specifically  in  low-
income  groups)  and  of  use  of  the  possibilities  they  offer  for  social  inclusion.  The  activities
promoting eInclusion are therefore more evident in the countries showing greater lags in ICT
diffusion.

eInclusion is taken up at a strategic level in the NAPs/incl of Netherlands, Portugal and Spain
where  it  is  included  among  the  key  principles  of  the  strategy  against  poverty  and  social
exclusion.  The  most  comprehensive  policy  approach  to  eInclusion  is  provided  in  the
NAPs/incl  of  Netherlands,  Portugal  and  Ireland.  The  goal  is  twofold:  first,  tapping  the
potential of ICTs for inclusion, through new job opportunities or by improving or generating
new  services  for  disadvantaged  groups  and  areas  and,  secondly,  ensuring  that  no  one  is
excluded from taking economic and social advantage of  the new technologies, by  removing
the barriers to the new society.

As regards the first goal, the initiatives reported focus on training in ICT, showing a general
consistency  with  the  content  of  the  NAPs/empl.  The  initiatives  address  in  particular  the
unemployed and are often characterised by a broad scope, as is the case for France, where 1,2
million unemployed will receive ICT training by the end of 2002, Denmark with IT by now
compulsory  in  all  vocational  training  courses  and  Italy,  with  computer  training  for
unemployed in the Southern regions. In some cases training is combined with the provision of
ICT equipment, as in Belgium.

The development of online services represents another opportunity for increased integration
offered by the new technologies, an opportunity addressed by a series of initiatives, especially
concerning the electronic provision of all public services, and the creation of one single entry
portals, inter alia in Austria and Ireland, but also in the Netherlands, the setting up of thematic
non-stop "virtual desks". In some cases ICTs provide new channels for interaction, such as in
Finland with an e-democracy project aiming at stimulating the social participation of youth.

New  technologies  and  online  services  are  also  used  to  foster  local  communities,  as  the
Portuguese  initiative  "Com  as  Minorias”  ("With  minorities")  for  immigrants  from  Africa
living in the Lisbon area and the Spanish "Omnia" project in Catalonia show. The key role of
local communities and associations is recognised and supported also in Ireland with the CAIT
initiative,  funding  community  and  voluntary  sector  projects  using  the  new  technologies  for
social development and Spain, where a plan aims at guaranteeing access to ICTs to the NGOs
running social inclusion programmes.

Raising awareness on the potentiality of new technologies and services constitutes the first
barrier  to  be  tackled  for  an  inclusive  knowledge-based  society,  especially  in  countries  with
low rates of internet penetration. The NAPs/incl report some initiatives in this respect, such as
the German "Internet fuer alle" ("Internet for all") campaign.

48

Those actions are often strictly linked with initiatives for ICT basic literacy, to support the
wider population, and the disadvantaged groups in particular, in their first step in the use of
Internet and online services. In this respect, it is evident that there is a need for different scale
initiatives in the different Members States. On the one hand, the objective to ensure access for
all to the knowledge-based society is transposed in some countries with low rates of internet
penetration in wide ranging programmes (Spain - "Internet para todos", involving 1 million
people - and Portugal, with a target of 2 million people with an ICT diploma by 2006). On the
other hand, in countries with more than 50% of people online, programmes can focus just on
disadvantaged groups (e.g.  homeless  and elderly people)  and  neighbourhoods, as in  Finland
and in the Netherlands.

ICTs, THE ELDERLY AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION: INTERNET IN HOUSING CENTRES
(NETHERLANDS)

In The Netherlands, Internet cafés were set up in 48 combined housing and care centres for the elderly
to enable older people to become acquainted with  computers and  the  Internet.  In  addition,  all  1,355
centres received a guide to help them to set up an Internet café with relatively limited resources. The
cafés are also PC learning centres and are open to local residents, thus becoming a community meeting
place and providing new communication options for older people.

The issue of availability of ICTs is mainly addressed from the perspective of public access,
whereas  ongoing  initiatives  providing  financial  support  for  the  purchase  of  equipment  are
almost not mentioned. The development of public access, through the so-called public internet
access points (PIAPs), is particularly  highlighted  in  France, with a  target  of 7000 PIAPs by
end of 2003 (2500 of which offer ICT literacy support), including cultural multimedia spaces
in  the  structures  of  the  Youth  Information  Network  ("réseau  Information  Jeunesse"),  and
Luxembourg with the "communal information points" ("point information communal"). Greece
pays a particular attention to internet information centres in remote areas and islands whereas
in  the  United  Kingdom  the  "UK  online"  centres  (6000  by  spring  2002,  particularly  in
disadvantaged  communities)  match  access  to  the  internet  with  other  learning  opportunities.
PIAPs are or are being installed in the libraries of all countries.

The  recent  Eurobarometer  shows  sharp  differences  in  most  Member  States  to  the
disadvantage of women in ICT training and access to Internet. However, only three Member
States  indicate  positive  measures  to  reduce  the  gaps.  Austria  presents  several  initiatives  to
facilitate  women's  access  to  technical  professions  and  computer  courses.  Germany  fixes  a
target  of  40%  of  women  in  IT  and  media  job  training  courses  by  2005.  Portugal  plans  to
promote equal gender participation in life long learning with at least 50% of ICT content.

In line with the emphasis in the Nice objective on "taking particular account of the needs of
people  with  disabilities"  the  majority  of  Member  States  have  included  measures  to  favour
access  of  people  with  disabilities  to  ICT  (Austria,  Finland,  Denmark,  Germany,  Greece,
Portugal,  Netherlands,  Ireland  and  Sweden).  Some  Member  States  (Belgium,  France,
Luxembourg,  Spain  and  the  UK)  have  not  adequately  addressed  this  objective  in  their
NAPs/incl.  Innovative  approaches  are  evident  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  where  universal
design standards will be used to increase access to ICT products. Sweden will review relevant
legislation  and  guidelines  to  bring  them  into  conformity  with  the  principle  of  accessibility.
Other measures include the improvement of  ICT skills for people  with disabilities (Sweden,
Portugal). For example, ICT will be used as an obligatory teaching tool in all special training
courses for people with disabilities in Portugal.

ICT FOR THE DISABLED (SWEDEN)

49

During  the  period  1998-2001  the  Swedish  Handicap  Institute  has  been  conducting  a  programme  of
development  and  practical  tests  of  ICT  systems  for  disabled  persons  with  a  view  to  using  ICT  to
increase their participation and equality. So far grants have been made to more than 60 projects and
preliminary  studies  run  by  organizations  for  the  disabled  and  county  council  and  local  authority
departments and involving disabled people’s organizations and individual users. A plan for evaluation
and dissemination of information is drawn up for each project. In 2000 an evaluation was also made
for the first time by an external consultant. There are four integrated components to the programme: an
application programme, an information campaign, a programme designed to improve disabled users’
ICT skills, and a study of the social and economic consequences of ICT measures. The objective of the
programme is, in the three years, to have acquired documented experience of the use of ICT in new
areas and for disadvantaged groups, produced new ICT-based products and services that are adapted to
or  developed for  use  by  disabled  people  and  developed  methods for  the  testing,  training  and  use  of
ICT aids and services. About MSEK 30 will be allocated out of the Swedish Inheritance Fund over the
three years.

People  with  disabilities  face  a  wide  range  of  barriers  in  terms  of  access  to  the  Internet.  As
government  services  and  important  public  information  are  becoming  increasingly  available
on-line, ensuring access to public websites for all citizens is as important as ensuring access to
public  buildings.  Thus,  several  Member  States  have  included  measures  to  promote  the
accessibility  of  the  Internet  for  people  with  disabilities  (Denmark,  Germany,  Netherlands,
Ireland,  Greece  and  Sweden).  Greece,  Ireland  and  Denmark  have  also  adopted  Web
Accessibility Guidelines for Public Websites.

3.2.2

Preventing over-indebtedness and homelessness24

Over-indebtedness

The  issue  of  over-indebtedness  is  identified  by  a  majority  of  NAPs/incl  as  a  cause  of
persistent poverty and social exclusion (Germany, Belgium, Finland, Austria, France, Ireland,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal). Situations of over-indebtedness occur as a result of
various  factors,  such  as  unemployment,  low  income,  problems  of  household  budgeting  and
misuse of credit. Hence the need to have recourse to both preventive and  curative  measures
involving all the services concerned.

Among preventive measures, training and counselling on money management and budgeting
for  families  at  risk  is  seen  as  a  key  policy  measure  which  should  be  reinforced  by  the
development of relevant services (Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal). Moreover, as is
planned in Germany, bank and financial institutions may also contribute to supporting these
training and counselling schemes.

Among  curative  measures,  most  Member  States  have  designed  policies  facilitating  the
reimbursement  of  debts  by  tailoring  the  conditions  and  length  of  the  reimbursement  to  the
financial capacities of the debtors, envisaging in particular the possibility of a moratorium or
debt cancellations (Germany, Austria, France). Beyond financial arrangements, there is a wide
recognition that overall social guidance remains necessary and that access to basic goods and
resources  should  be  preserved.  In  that  respect  it  is  considered  as  crucial  to  promote  greater
cooperation between social and legal services, as well as with private financial institutions.

24

The  issue  of  preventing  exclusion  from  school  is  treated  at  length  both  under  obective  1.2  (ensuring
access to education) and 3 (eliminating social exclusion among children).

50

                                                
POLICIES TO COMBAT OVER-INDEBTEDNESS (GERMANY)

The  number  of  over-indebted  households  in  Germany  is  estimated  at  around  2.77  million  (1999).
Regarding  preventive  measures,  counselling  for  debtors  is  currently  provided  by  around  1 160
independently run debt counselling agencies throughout Germany. These are financed by the Länder,
municipal  authorities  or  the  service  provider  and  offer  help  to  debtors  free  of  charge.  Further
initiatives are planned for 2001–2003 as the German Government has launched a poverty prevention
programme  aimed  at  encouraging  sections  of  society  to  focus  more  on  training  and  counselling  in
money  matters  for  children,  teenagers  and  adults  and  especially  on  households  in  a  precarious
financial  position.  Additionally,  efforts  are  being  made  at  regional  level  to  get  banks,  financial
institutions  and  the  insurance  sector  involved  in  funding  debt  counselling.  For  this  purpose,  the
organisations providing debt counselling services will be taking the initiative in setting up "regional
negotiating tables".

As regards curative measures, individuals in a hopeless financial position have, since 1 January 1999,
had the opportunity to make a new start after completion of a procedure to deal with insolvency and
pay of residual debts. This offers the chance to have any outstanding debts written off after a period
of six years. In the event of over-indebtedness, limits are placed on the amounts which may be seized
in order to ensure that families can afford the necessities of life. The German Government intends to
pass legislation in 2001 which will increase the income level beyond which sums may be seized to
pay off debts. Changes to insolvency law are also planned: for example, it is intended that provision
will be made for administrative costs to be deferred so that totally insolvent debtors will have access
to  insolvency  procedures  and  thus  be  eligible  to  benefit  from  a  possible  discharge  from  their
remaining debts.

Homelessness

Homelessness  is  perhaps  the  most  extreme  form  of  social  exclusion.  The  information  on
homelessness in the NAPs/incl however is generally poor. Moreover, whenever indicators are
available,  they  often  reflect  administrative  concerns  and  outputs  (people  dealt  with  by
homelessness services) instead of focusing on outcomes. Most Member States admit that they
know (too) little about both the magnitude and the nature of the problem, which also prevents
them from developing more strategic and preventive measures against homelessness.

A  few  Member  States  provide  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  homeless:  Denmark  (4500),
Austria (20000 of which 3000 are sleeping rough and the remainder is in supported housing),
Finland  (10000  single  persons  and  800  families)  and  the  Netherlands  (20000-30000),  Italy
(17000).  Some  Member  States  (Luxembourg,  Ireland,  Spain,  France,  Denmark,  Belgium)
recognise that homelessness may be increasing, but this perception is not shared by all. The
UK asserts that the numbers of people sleeping rough have fallen significantly  over the last
few  years.  There  are  indications  that  homeless  populations  comprise  rising  proportions  of
women, young people, people of foreign origin, persons with mental health and/or addiction
problems.

Five  Member  States  (Belgium,  France,  Netherlands,  the  UK  and  Finland)  indicate  in  their
NAPs/incl  a  commitment  to  strengthen  indicators  and  their  information  systems  on
homelessness.  The  suggestion  by  Belgium  to  improve  methodologies  as  well  as  to  promote
more harmonised data collection through European cooperation is particularly welcome.

The  most  interesting  features  among  national  policy  approaches  to  homelessness  in  the
NAPs/incl can be summarised as follows:

– 

Austria  provides  special  shelter  and  housing  arrangements  at 
comprehensive approach (housing + counselling + other services).

local 

level;

51

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

Denmark: National plan (July 2000); local and regional authorities in charge; prevent
rent  arrears;  obligation  to  provide  temporary  housing  to  families  in  need;
comprehensive  package:  housing  +  social,  health  and  educational  services;  special
budget  DK  200  million  2000  –  2003;  project  on  the  homeless  and  ICT.  DK  60
million 1999-2003 for a pilot arrangement to adapt housebuilding to the needs of the
homeless.

Finland:  Special  programme  for  reducing  homelessness  by  2004  including:  1000-
1200 new dwellings for homeless (through priority allocation); supporting services;
partnership approach 'cooperative bodies'.

France: Improved use of emergency telephone number 115; strong partnership with
associations;  aims  at  increasing  shelter  capacity  and  improve  quality  of  existing
capacity; policy to prevent/deal with rent arrears.

Germany:  Focus  is  placed  on  preventing  rent  arrears  (main  cause  of  eviction);
Länder in charge.

Greece: Comprehensive special assistance has been provided to earthquake victims.

Ireland:  Homeless  strategy  (May  2000)  sets  out  a  comprehensive  and  preventative
approach;  substantial  budget  allocations  and  increases  over  next  5  years;  strong
partnership  with  NGO's  and  local  authorities;  shelter  capacity  being  increased;
special care provisions (alcohol and drug users); special homeless agency for Dublin;
3 year local action plans in preparation.

Luxembourg:  Strengthening  of  existing  care,  counselling  and  shelter  provisions;
development  of  supported  housing;  working/reflection  group  at  national  level  to
modernise law on emergency shelter provisions and to develop proposals to improve
housing conditions of homeless persons.

Netherlands:  Comprehensive  strategy  and  approach  with  the  aim  of  preventing
expulsion  and  rent  arrears;  integrated  approach  at  local  level;  comprehensive
registration and data base for all homeless in centres by 2006.

Portugal: New national emergency telephone line will be put in place; commitment
by local social action centres to reach out to all homeless within one year.

Sweden: Parliament involved in preparing special package of measures since 1999;
special  budget  for  combating  homelessness  (10  million  SKR/year  from  2002  –
2004).

UK:  Strategic  approach  and  commitment  to  reduce  rough  sleeping  by  2002  by  at
least  2/3  (England),  to  zero  by  2003  (Scotland);  also  in  Wales.  Special  task
forces/units prepare and oversee measures. Considerable efforts aimed at improving
understanding  and  monitoring  homelessness  situation.  'Scotland's  Rough  Sleepers
Initiative'; 'England's Safer Communities Supported Housing Fund'.

RESPONDING TO HOMELESSNESS (FINLAND)

The objective of Finland's programme for the reduction of homelessness for the period 2001-03 is to
stem the increase in homelessness and to bring about a downturn in the number of homeless people
by 2004. It is aimed to produce 1000-1200 new dwellings for the homeless. It is proposed to develop

52

the selection of tenants in such a way that the homeless and other people in especially urgent need of
housing  are  given  priority  in  tenant  selection  by  all  types  of  owners.  The  programme  will  also
ascertain  the  extra  need  for  serviced  accommodation,  and  it  will  develop  supporting  services  for
homeless  people  and  other  special  groups.  In  order  to  enhance  the  effectiveness  of  services,  it  is
proposed that co-operative bodies consisting of representatives of municipalities, service providers,
the Third Sector and owners of rental apartment buildings should be established in centres of growth.

3.2.3

Preserving family solidarity

There  are  many  measures  in  the  different  NAPs/incl  that  contribute  to  preserving  family
solidarity.  These  include  both  mainline  policy  areas  such  as  employment,  income  support,
housing,  health,  education  and  gender  equality  and  more  targeted  policies  to  support
particularly  vulnerable  groups  such  as  children,  the  elderly  and  people  with  disabilities.
However, it is striking that only some Member States specifically prioritise the preservation
of  family  solidarity  as  a  key  policy  domain  in  promoting  social  inclusion.  Essentially  these
are  those  Member  States  that  have  traditionally  seen  the  family  as  being  at  the  heart  of
national strategies  to  promote  cohesion,  notably  Portugal,  Spain,  Greece,  Germany,  Ireland,
Italy and Austria. They particularly emphasise the continuing role that the family has to play
in the social inclusion of children, the elderly and people with disabilities.

All  recognise  the  rapid  structural  changes  that  are  affecting  the  nature  of  the  family  (see
chapter 1) and recognise that if the family in all its diverse forms is to continue to play a key
role  in  preventing  the  risks  of  exclusion  then  policies  need  to  respond  to  these  changing
situations.

Policy responses cover both general measures to support all families and specific measures to
prevent families facing particular difficulties or crises (such as family break down or domestic
violence)  falling  into  poverty  and  social  isolation.  They  can  also  be  divided  into  policies
which  essentially  aim  to  avoid  families  falling  into  poverty  or  rescue  those  that  have  and
policies  which  strengthen  the  capacity  of  families  to  promote  the  inclusion  of  the  old,  the
young and the disabled.

In  general  a  mix  of  policy  approaches  seem  to  hold  out  the  best  hope  of  preserving  family
solidarity. These cover the following main areas:

-  ensuring  economic  stability  and  better  living  conditions  through  favourable  treatment  for
families in tax and welfare systems(Austria, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg), recognition of
different  family  types  including  same  sex  couples  (Germany),  assistance  to  jobless  and
vulnerable  families  to  find  employment  (France)  and  maintaining  family  allowances  to  the
parents of children in care in order to allow their return into the family (Belgium);

- ensuring support at a time of family breakdown and divorce so that this does not lead to new
poverty,  precariousness  and  isolation  and  more  children  being  taken  into  care  (France).
Measures include mediation and counselling services to assist with separation, special support
and  assistance  to  victims  of  domestic  violence,  strengthening  general  financial  supports  to
lone parent families, improving provisions in regard to maintenance payments (Austria) and
measures  to  ensure  that  both  parents  are  involved  in  the  upbringing  and  care  of  children
(Sweden and France);

- enhancing information, training, support and counselling services which will help families
to cope with and reduce conflict, will improve parenting skills and lead to better support for
children  and  a  recognition  of  their  rights  in  vulnerable  families  (Finland,  France,  Germany,
Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal) and will help to maintain the family unit in difficult situations

53

and  keep  children  in  stable  family  situations  rather  than  taking  them  into  care  within
institutions (Italy and Portugal);

-  promoting  locally  based  initiatives  for  vulnerable  families  in  disadvantaged  communities
such  as  support  in  Spain  to  Non  Governmental  Organisations  to  develop  local  integrated
support systems and the development of community based family services centres in Ireland;

- promoting measures to reconcile work and family life such as enhanced day care provision
and flexible working arrangements (see chapters 3.1.1. and 4 for more details);

- assisting and encouraging families  to  care  for  sick,  disabled  and  elderly  at  home  through
enhancing  support  systems  in  the  community,  providing  help  at  home  and  training  on
providing  care  (Austria,  Greece,  Spain,  Sweden,  Italy  and  Ireland)  and  assistance  with
financial costs arising from forgoing work to provide care such as a carers allowance (Ireland)
and insurance reliefs (Austria).

IMPLEMENTING THE FAMILY SERVICES PILOT PROJECT (IRELAND)

Community  involvement  is  the  key  to  successfully  delivering  the  support  that  families  need  from
time to time. The aim of these pilot projects is to provide enhanced access to information services for
families  in  their  own  locations  through  development  of  the  one  stop  shop  concept.  Thus  they
emphasise  an  inter-agency  approach  and  close  working  between  government  organisations  and
voluntary agencies. An enhanced programme of support is available to a small group of families with
complex  needs,  e.g.  very  young  lone  mothers,  other  lone  parents,  and  dependent  spouses  in
households depending on social welfare. The projects involve working with people on an individual
basis  to  enhance  their  capacity  to  improve  their  personal  and  family  circumstances  and  to  access
opportunities for education and employment. They are underway in three local offices:- Waterford,
Cork and Finglas in  Dublin. The projects  have  been subject  to  an  ongoing  evaluation  and  a recent
report  recommends,  inter-alia,  mainstreaming  of  the  pilots.  The  government  have  provided
€15.24million  (IR£12million)  in  the  National  Development  Plan  for  the  development  of  the
successful  aspects  of  the  pilot  project  over  the  years  2000  –  2006.  Total  funding  for  the  Family
Service Project for 2001 is €1.27million (IR£1million).

3.3

Objective 3: To help the most vulnerable

(a)  To  promote  the  social  integration  of  women  and  men  at  risk  of  facing  persistent  poverty,  for
example  because  they  have  a  disability  or  belong  to  a  group  experiencing  particular  integration
problems.

(b)  To  move  towards  the  elimination  of  social  exclusion  among  children  and  give  them  every
opportunity for social integration.

c) To develop comprehensive actions in favour of areas marked by exclusion.

These  objectives  may  be  pursued  by  incorporating  them  in  all  the  other  objectives  and/or  through
specific policies or actions.

3.3.1

Promoting the integration of people facing persistent poverty

It is increasingly recognised by  most Member  States  that  people  with  a  disability  or  people
experiencing particular integration problems such as  the homeless, mentally  ill people,  drug
and  alcohol  misusers,  ex-prisoners  and  prostitutes  are  at  especially  high  risk  of  persistent
poverty. While many of their needs can best be met by improving access to mainline services
even  in  the  most  developed  and  comprehensive  systems,  mainline  provision  is  often  not

54

sufficient.  This  is  confirmed  by  figures  showing  low  take  up  of  some  mainline  services  by
such groups.

For those people facing particular integration problems there is thus a need to develop special
social  services  which  will  help  them  to  help  themselves  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  and
assist them to participate actively in society. Measures for these groups include personal help
schemes, special housing and day shelters and particular attention is given to the development
of tailored and integrated packages of support to assist their integration.

In the case of people with disabilities the majority of Member States clearly identify them as a
group potentially at risk of social exclusion and set out a more or less coherent strategy for for
their  inclusion.  France  and  Luxembourg  have  presented  their  policies  in  respect  of  the
disabled in separate policy documents, which are simply referred to in their NAPs/incl.

A positive development is that a few Member States have set national targets to increase the
social  inclusion  of  people  with  disabilities  (Sweden,  Netherlands  and  Portugal).  Other
Member  States  have  repeated  the  targets  to  raise  the  employment  levels  of  people  with
disabilities  included  in  their  NAPs/empl  2001  (Sweden,  Ireland,  Portugal,  Austria,  United
Kingdom and Germany). However, no new significant policy initiatives on employment  are
presented in the NAPs/incl.

There  is  a  recognition  by  some  Member  States  that  people  with  disabilities  have  lower
educational attainment which in turn affects their future employability. Data from the ECHP
in  1996  shows  that  people  with  disabilities  have  less  chance  to  reach  the  highest  level  of
education  and  more  chance  to  stop  studying  prematurely  (9%  of  severely  disabled  people
reached third level of education, compared to 18% of non-disabled people.It is a particularly
welcome  development  that  an  increasing  number  of  Member  States  are  recognising  the
importance of integrating children with disabilities into the mainstream education system:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

Austria  plans  to  extend  the  integration  of  school  children  with  special  needs  to  the
ninth school year from 2001-2.

In United Kingdom, the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act has now been extended
to education.

In the Netherlands, following the introduction in August 2000 of the Individual Pupil
Funding Scheme, parents now have a choice of placing children with disabilities in a
special school or mainstream schools, with a sum of money available for the school
to make special adaptations for the child.

In  Germany  and  Italy,  disabled  pupils  are  integrated  in  ordinary  school  with
education for all to enable them to reach their full potential. Depending on the kind
and degree of disability, special pedagogic support is provided.

Spain  provides  additional  support  services  in  education.  Plans  to  extend  support
programmes  for  deaf  people  and  people  with  a  hearing  impairment  at  all  levels  of
education have been developed.

Despite growing evidence that people with disabilities who are integrated into the mainstream
education system are more likely to develop the social and vocational skills that are required
by  the  labour  market,  segregated  education  for  people  with  disabilities  persists  in  some
Member  States.  For  instance,  in  Belgium,  the  number  of  children  in  special  education  has

55

increased. Belgium has however launched a project to integrate 60 pupils with disabilities into
mainstream schools until 2003.

Disproportionate  numbers  of  people  with  disabilities  are  considered  ineligible  for  training
because  their  educational  levels  are  too  low.  Less  restrictive  eligibility  criteria  need  to  be
considered to make training and skills updating more accessible. A few innovative measures
were identified in:

– 

– 

– 

Sweden,  where  disabled  persons  who  lack  basic  upper  secondary  education  are
eligible for training within the framework of mainstream labour market programmes;

Finland,  where  the  reform  of  the  rehabilitation  Allowances  Act  in  1999  made  it
possible for youths over 16 to be paid rehabilitation allowances rather than disability
pensions,  in  order  to  allow  them  access  to  vocational  training.  This  allowance  has
been extended from 2001 for youths up to age 20;

Austria, where special support is available during the transition from school to work.
Teams will be set up to help to promote the vocational integration of school leavers
with disabilities.

Many  disabled  people  are  economically  inactive  and  dependent  on  receiving  disability
benefits  for  often  long  periods  of  time.  In  some  countries  (e.g.  Netherlands)  their  numbers
have  tended  to  increase,  which  has  led  national  authorities  to  develop  alternatives  for  the
inactive disabled population and set out new measures to improve their employability. Some
Member States have provided in their NAPs/incl examples of such measures:

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

Sweden has recently proposed changes to the current system of disability pensions.
These  will  be  replaced  by  sickness  benefits  and  will  be  integrated  into  the  health
insurance system instead of the old-age pension system. A new "Activity Allowance"
is proposed for people under 30 to encourage them to undertake activities according
to their capacity without risk to their financial security.

Finland reformed the National Pensions Act in 1999 to enable disability pensions to
remain dormant during periods of employment to help people with disabilities enter
the labour market.

Austria  presented  vocational  integration  subsidies  with  a  temporary  payment  of
wages  as  an  incentive  to  recruit  young  people  with  disabilities;  invalidity  pensions
will be paired with activating measures to prevent the drift into social exclusion.

Denmark  has  in  place  schemes  of  flexible  working  arrangements  and  sheltered
employment with wage subsidy for disabled persons:

Luxembourg has recently proposed changes to its current system of employment and
payment of persons with disabilities in order to better support their autonomy.

Some  Member  States  have  a  more  inclusive  approach  for  people  with  disabilities,  taking
account  of  their  needs  when  designing  policies,  under  the  "Design  for  All"  concept.  In
Greece,  a  Design  For  All  programme  is  being  developed,  including  the  removal  of
architectural obstacles  aiming at  designing  cities that are  friendly  to  people  with disabilities
(pavements, squares, pedestrian crossings). The most proactive approach is evident in Austria
which goes one step further than Design For All and promotes disabled-friendly environment.
Disabled-friendly  accommodation  is  an  essential  prerequisite  for  integrating  people  with

56

disabilities  in  the  primary  labour  market.  Therefore,  Austria  will  put  into  place  additional
in
measures  on  disabled-friendly  furnishings, 
workplaces.  Denmark  is  implementing  legislation  to  ensure  equal  oppurtunites  for  persons
with disabilities and access to buildings used by Government institutions are being improved
during 2001

job-design  and 

installations 

technical 

Accessible transport is crucial to the social inclusion of people with disabilities. Initiatives in
relation  to  the  accessibility  of  public  transport  have  been  taken  by  some  Member  States
(Netherlands,  Spain,  Ireland  and  Greece).  The  most  ambitious  measures  are  evident  in  the
Dutch  NAP:  in  order  to  make  rail  and  regional  bus  transport  100%  accessible  in  2010  and
2030 respectively, the Government is pursuing accessibility measures relating to rolling stock,
stations,  platforms,  bus  stops,  timetables,  ticket  offices  and  automatic  ticket  machines.  In
addition,  the  Passenger  Transport  Act  2000,  stipulates  that  when  awarding  public  transport
contracts, the Government must include accessibility as part of the Programme requirements.

Several Member States have acknowledged that people with disabilities have the right to live
independently. In Netherlands, the temporary 'Home and Care Incentive Scheme' came into
effect came into effect in October 2000. It promotes innovative combinations of housing and
care service provision to enable people with disabilities to live independently  for as long as
possible. Greece is gradually integrating people with disabilities living in closed institutions
into  special  independent  and  semi-independent  living  arrangements,  while  at  the  same  time
having the possibility to participate in training or daily occupational programmes. In Denmark
special funds have been allocated to build housing for people with physical disabilities under
60.  Nursing  homes  and  special  hospitals  for  the  intellectually  disabled  have  almost  been
phased out in Sweden and more than 6 000 people have moved to group residential housing or
to  homes  of  their  own.  In  the  UK,  "care  and  repair"  programmes  help  with  funding  of
improvements to people's homes to help them stay longer in their local community rather than
move into hospital or residential care. In Scotland, this is supported by a target of increasing
the  proportion  of  people  with  learning  disabilities  able  to  live  at  home  or  in  a  "homely"
environment.

3.3.2

Eliminating social exclusion among children

There  is  a  considerable  body  of  international  research  which  demonstrates  that  subsequent
performance in education is strongly influenced by early developmental experiences and that
well-targeted  investment  at  an  early  stage  is  one  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  countering
educational  disadvantage  and  literacy  problems.  Children  from  poor  backgrounds  and
vulnerable groups are often particularly at risk of missing out in this regard.

In the context of their own system, there is an emphasis in several Member States  (Finland,
Ireland,  Greece,  Portugal,  Sweden,  Spain  and  the  UK)  on  developing  more  universal  high
quality early childhood education and support systems with particular emphasis on issues of
access,  adequacy  and  affordability  for  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and
vulnerable groups. Portugal envisages the  eradication of child poverty by 2010 as one of its
key targets in the NAP/incl. and will ensure that all socially excluded children and youths will
be  individually  approached  by  the  local  social  services  within  three  months  with  a  view  to
their re-integration in school. The UK  also reconfirms its target of eradicating  child poverty
within twenty years.

There is also an emphasis in several Member States, for example Greece, Netherlands and the
UK, on the early identification of children with particular learning, speech and development
difficulties and the development of tailor made supports. The Netherlands' emphasis on better

57

identification  of  disadvantage  and  the  offer  of  intensive  language  and  general  development
programmes at play-school and during the first two years of primary school for these children
is part of a comprehensive approach to educational disadvantage. Greece's plans to develop a
mechanism  for  the  early  detection  of  learning  and  speech  difficulties  is  an  interesting
initiative.

THE 'SURE START' PROGRAMME (UK)

Sure Start is a cornerstone of the UK Government's drive to tackle child poverty and social exclusion.
It  aims  to  make  a  major  difference  to  life  for  under-4s  living  in  poverty.  Its  four  objectives  cover
improving social and emotional development, improving health, improving children's ability to learn
and strengthening families and communities.

Sure Start works towards its objectives by: setting up local programmes in neighbourhoods where a
high  proportion  of  children  are  living  in  poverty  in  order  to  improve  services  for  families  with
children under four; spreading good practice learned from local programmes to everyone involved in
providing services for young children; and by ensuring that each local programme works towards a
set of national objectives and targets.

While local programmes vary according to local needs  all include provision  of  outreach and  home
visiting,  support  for  families  and  parents,  good  quality  play,  learning  and  childcare  experiences;
primary  and  community  health  care.  Distinctive  features  of  the  programme  include  partnership
working, working closely with parents and local communities and a preventative approach.

By March 2004, there will be at least 500 Sure Start local programmes in England reaching a third of
children aged under 4 living in poverty and backed by Government funding rising to £499 million in
2003/4.  There  are  similar  commitments  by  the  devolved  administrations  in  Scotland  and  Northern
Ireland.

3.3.3

Promoting action in favour of areas marked by exclusion

The  majority  of  Member  States  tackle  the  territorial  dimension  of  social  exclusion  in  their
NAPs/incl. Three main challenges emerge clearly:

– 

– 

– 

Italy and Germany, and to some extent also Spain and Finland, stress the importance
of overcoming regional inequalities as a key issue. The Belgian NAPincl refers to a
significant increase  in  the  variation of employment  rates  across  regions  and  France
raises the issue of its overseas territories.

Portugal,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Finland,  the  Netherlands,  the  UK  and  France  take
action to assist deprived areas and neighbourhoods and to stop economic and social
segregation, especially in urban areas.

Netherlands,  Austria,  Greece,  Ireland,  Portugal  and  Spain  raise  the  issue  of  the
growing comparative disadvantage of traditional rural areas.

Member  States  follow  basically  two  policy  approaches  in  their  NAPs/incl  when  addressing
these  problems.  A  significant  number  of  actions  can  be  classified  as  fairness  and
compensatory  policies.  They  aim  at  offering  some  form  of  compensation  for  the  relative
disadvantage  experienced  by  the  area.  A  second  more  pro-active  set  of  measures  aims  at
capitalising the strengths and opportunities in disadvantaged areas.

Examples of fairness and compensatory policies were identified in the NAPs/incl, such as:

58

–  Special income support for low-income households in deprived and mountainous areas, in

Greece and Portugal;

–  Alignment of minimum income (RMI) and lone parent (API) levels in the DOM to those

applicable in metropolitan France

–  Debt rescheduling for farmers who have become involuntarily impoverished, in Austria.

Numerous interesting examples of pro-active policies can be provided:

–  Integrated  housing  strategy  aimed  at  stimulating  demand  for  existing  housing  stock  in

regions with shrinking populations ('Pidot' Report) in Finland.

–  The  Urban  Committee  in  Denmark  formulates  urban,  housing  and  cultural  strategies  for
exposed urban and housing areas with a concentration of social, traffic-related, cultural and
employment problems;

–  The  'Asterias  Programme'  in  Greece  promotes  networking  between  local  authorities  in
order to strengthen services to citizens; and the 'Hippocrates Programme' improves access
to health care services on small islands;

–  Special assistance is provided in Sweden (4 billion SEK from 1999 - 2003) to 24 housing
districts hard hit by economic crisis and housing large proportion of immigrants, based on
local development agreements with metropolitan authorities;

–  A  Special  Fund  was  created  in  France  for  the  economic  revitalisation  of  751  dilapidated

urban neighbourhoods in combination with special youth employment measures;

–  The Integrated 'Large Cities Policy 2000' (Grotestedenbleid) was conceived in Netherlands
for  deprived  urban  neighbourhoods  (in  30  medium  cities)  on  the  basis  of  measurable
objectives;

–  The  Programme  'Die  soziale  Stadt'  in  Germany  aims  at  promoting  an  integrated  policy
approach in deprived urban neighbourhoods – supplementary resources and measures  are
targeted at disadvantaged people;

–  The  Local  Development/Social  Inclusion  Programme  in  Ireland  (with  a  budget  of  280
million € for 2000 – 2003) is based on a partnership approach and is targeted at areas with
high  concentration  of  unemployed,  young  people  at  risk,  lone  parents,  Travellers  and
asylum seekers;

–  50 "Urban social development contracts" will be developed in Portugal over the next two
years with the aim of creating inclusive towns and managed in partnership with local and
national, private and public actors;

–  In the UK, a National Strategy Action Plan for Neighbourhood Renewal (with a budget of
approx.  £  1  billion)  will  focus  mainline  programmes  more  specifically  on  most  deprived
areas; the ultimate goal is to eradicate spatial inequalities and disadvantages within 10 – 20
years.

NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR NEIGHBOURHOOD RENEWAL (UK)

The UK government has launched a comprehensive, carefully researched strategy to narrow the gap

59

between deprived areas and the rest of England, so that within 10-20 years no one should be seriously
disadvantaged by where they live The Strategy will attack the core problems of deprived areas stuck in
a  spiral  of  decline,  such  as  high  levels  of  worklessness  and  crime  and  improve  health,  education,
housing  and  the  physical  environment.  The  Strategy  is  a  comprehensive  approach  to  tackling  area-
based  deprivation,  bringing  together  actors  at  local,  regional  and  national  level.  The  approach
emphasises  the  establishment  of  local  strategic  partnerships  involving  the  public,  private,  voluntary
and  community  sectors  and  neighbourhood  management.  The  programme  will  bend  mainstream
budgets  to  focus  on  the  most  deprived  areas  and  there  will  be  minimum  floor  targets  to  meet.  The
Neighbourhood Renewal Unit which is spearheading the strategy will make sure that the Government
delivers on 105 commitments it has made. It will monitor its success and an independent evaluation of
the Strategy will be commissioned. This will be supported by the development of the Neighbourhood
Statistics Service. The Strategy is backed by significant resources - £900m Neighbourhood Renewal
Fund targeted at the 88  most  deprived  areas,  a  £36m  Community  Empowerment  Fund  and  £45m  at
Neighbourhood Management pilots.

3.4

Objective 4: To mobilise all relevant bodies

(a)  To  promote,  according  to  national  practice,  the  participation  and  self-expression  of  people
suffering exclusion, in particular in regard to their situation and the policies and measures affecting
them.

(b) To mainstream the fight against exclusion into overall policy, in particular:

–  by  mobilising  the  public  authorities  at  national,  regional  and  local  level,  according  to  their

respective areas of competence;

–  by developing appropriate coordination procedures and structures;

–  by  adapting  administrative  and  social  services  to  the  needs  of  people  suffering  exclusion  and

ensuring that front-line staff are sensitive to these needs.

(c)  To  promote  dialogue  and  partnership  between  all  relevant  bodies,  public  and  private,  for
example:

–  by  involving  the  social  partners,  NGOs  and  social  service  providers,  according  to  their

respective areas of competence, in the fight against the various forms of exclusion;

–  by encouraging the social responsibility and active engagement of all citizens in the fight against

social exclusion;

–  by fostering the social responsibility of business.

The  mobilisation  of  all  relevant  stakeholders  according  to  their  respective  areas  of
competence  is  a key component of an integrated  and participative  strategy  to  combat  social
exclusion  and  poverty:  Member  States'  administrations,  local  and  regional  authorities,  the
agencies in charge of combating social exclusion, the social partners, organisations providing
social  services,  non-governmental  organisations  all  have  a  responsibility  for  fighting
exclusion.  Although  often  overlooked,  other  relevant  actors  also  have  an  important  role  to
play: universities and research institutes, national statistical offices, the media and, above all,
actual victims of exclusion.

Such  mobilisation  is  essential  on  grounds  of  both  legitimacy  and  efficiency.  First,  the
multidimensional  nature  of  social  exclusion  requires  the  development  of  policy  approaches
which  cut  across  several  institutional  and  policy  domains.  Secondly,  it  is  a  matter  of
administrative  efficiency  that  policy  measures  should  be  designed  and  implemented  by  the

60

relevant authority at the right level. This mobilisation is necessary at every stage of the policy
cycle: from planning through implementation and delivery, to monitoring and evaluation.

3.4.1

Promoting the participation and self-expression of people suffering exclusion

The need for an integrated strategy to promote the participation of those experiencing poverty
and social exclusion is widely recognised. Yet this objective is not clearly and systematically
reflected in concrete policy measures in the NAPs/incl, despite evidence indicating that failure
to involve excluded communities is a major weakness in policy delivery. At national level, the
participation and self-expression of people suffering exclusion are ensured indirectly through
networks of NGOs. At local level only some Member States and/or local authorities have put
in  place  institutional  mechanisms  and  appropriate  arrangements  which  give  room  for  self-
expression of the most vulnerable.

Two  sets  of  innovative  approaches  to  participation  deserve  particular  attention.  At  national
level,  in  the  Netherlands,  an  'Alliance  for  Social  Justice',  composed  of  benefit  claimants,
churches  and  trade  unions,  has  been  established  and  holds  twice-yearly  talks  on  combating
poverty  and  social  exclusion  with  the  government  and  administrators  of  municipalities  and
provinces.  At  local  level,  interesting  initiatives  such  as  the  development  of  Local  Strategic
Partnerships in the UK or Local Development Programmes together  with  the  EU Peace  and
Reconciliation  Programme  in  Ireland  and  Northern  Ireland,  have  been  taken  to  involve
beneficiaries directly in the setting up, overseeing or evaluation of local initiatives.

3.4.2 Mainstreaming the fight against exclusion

Institutional settings differ to a large extent among Member States in relation to their political
and  social  protection  systems.  While  the  local  authorities  are  in  charge  of  the  delivery  of
policy  measures,  design  and  overall  political  responsibility  often  lie  with  regional  and/or
national authorities according to the policy area. Hence the need to mobilise public authorities
and  to  develop  appropriate  coordination  procedures  at  every  level  so  as  to  ensure  proper
delivery of services and policy measures.

Mobilising authorities and developing appropriate coordination procedures at national
level

In all Member States, the NAPs/incl were drawn up by the central government under the co-
ordination  of  the  Ministry  for  Social  Affairs.  The  mobilisation  of  the  different  public
authorities  has  taken  place  in  the  framework  of  existing  consultation  or  coordination
structures.

Belgium,  France, 
the  UK,  Italy  and  Ireland  had  already  developed  systems  of
interdepartmental  coordination  in  the  field  of  social  exclusion  through  the  setting  up  of  a
specific  inter-ministerial  committee  bringing  together  the  Ministers  in  charge  of  different
policy  areas.  In  these  Member  States,  as  well  as  in  Finland  and  Netherlands,  a  specific
coordination  structure  at  working  level  had  been  set  up,  gathering  representatives  from
administrative  bodies,  and  in  some  cases  also  of  NGOs,  social  partners  and  social  service
providers, in order to monitor the policy process in this field. Other Member States, such as
Portugal, Austria, Greece and Spain, seized the opportunity of the first NAPs/incl to announce
similar coordination and/or consultation structures.

Beyond the setting up of adequate institutions, additional efforts are needed to mainstream the
issue of poverty and social exclusion in other policy domains than merely social protection or

61

social assistance. One innovative way of keeping this issue high on the political agenda  has
been developed in Ireland for a few years. It aims at setting up poverty proofing processes by
which, particularly  at  the  design  stage,  all  areas  of  central  government  have  to  consider  the
impact of their policies on those in poverty. A similar mechanism has been used in the UK in
Northern Ireland known as New Targeting Social Need. There are proposals to extend this to
local level in Ireland and to develop a similar process in Portugal.

Mobilisation and coordination at local and regional level

Member  States  where  social  policy  is  traditionally  decentralised  and  developed  on  a  strong
partnership  basis  (Denmark,  Sweden,  Netherlands,  Finland),  as  well  as  States  with  federal
(Germany,  Austria,  Belgium)  or  regionalised  structures  (Spain,  Italy  and  the  UK)  made  an
effort to integrate the contributions of their  regional or local entities. However, the plans do
not contain sufficient evidence to assess the magnitude or the outcome of such efforts in terms
of  effective  mobilisation.  This  is  an  important  issue  which  will  merit  more  detailed
development in future NAPS.

At the local level, the diversity of actors requires efficient coordination. In particular, the need
to better coordinate employment and social services is widely recognised in order to develop
more active social policy linking income transfers and social guidance. Innovative approaches
have  been  implemented  in  Germany,  Italy  and  Finland  with  that  purpose.  More  structured
coordination can take the form of local coordination committees or local plans for inclusion
and  employment,  as  in  Denmark  and  France.  In  Denmark,  these  committees  gather
representatives  of  the  social  partners,  the  organisations  of  disabled  people  and  the  local
authorities to advise the latter on the social effort aimed at the labour market and to contribute
to the support of the most vulnerable groups through employment, including efforts aimed at
the  corporate  sector.  Social  and  healthcare  services  at  local  level,  such  as  the  primary  or
community  social  action  centres  existing  in  Belgium  and  France,  can  also  contribute  to
coordination at local level.

Coordination  between  the  different  levels  of  competence  is  essential  to  ensure  that  national
strategy  is  properly  delivered  on  the  ground.  Depending  on  their  political  systems,  and  in
particular  on  the  competences  of  the  regional  entities,  Member  States  may  rely  on  existing
decentralised  structures  (as  in  Finland,  Germany,  Austria),  on  more  ad  hoc  cooperation
agreements (as in Belgium, Greece) or on the interaction of national, regional and local plans
to combat social exclusion (as in Italy, the UK, Ireland, Denmark and France). An interesting
development  is  expected  in  Spain  where  all  the  Autonomous  Communities,  as  well  as  the
biggest municipalities, will develop action  plans to combat  social exclusion by 2003  in  line
with the overall strategy developed in the national action plan. An example can be found in
the Autonomous Community of Navarra.

REGIONAL ACTION PLANS TO COMBAT SOCIAL EXCLUSION–

(NAVARRA, SPAIN, 1998-2005)

The Autonomous Community of Navarra adopted a regional plan to combat social exclusion in 1998.
This plan stems from a thorough analysis of the regional situation concerning  social  exclusion and
coordinates  the  efforts  of  the  different  regional  stakeholders:  regional  administration  of  the
autonomous  community  of  Navarra,  the  social  department  of  the  University  of  Navarra,  social
service providers, Navarra's network against poverty and social exclusion and the regional delegation
of central government. The aim is to tackle the following issues by 2005: minimum resources system,
training  and  employment,  access  to  housing,  education  and  heath  and  improved  delivery  of  social
services.

62

Adapting administrative and social services

All  Member  States  have  recognised  in  their  NAPs/incl  the  need  to  improve  the  delivery  of
policies. In particular, most plans recognise that developing more inclusive policies  requires
giving a central place to the needs and situation of the users, particularly the most vulnerable
ones. A significant number of measures in the NAPs/incl aim therefore at improving outputs
and  impact  of  policies  on  people  for  whom  they  are  intended.  This  applies  to  universal
policies such as health, education and employment which are designed to work for all people,
as well as more targeted policies which aim to tackle particular risks.

Most  initiatives  are  in  relation  to  social  services  where  there  is  a  need  to  link  and  deliver
services in an integrated manner. There is a significant trend as well to devolve authority to
regional and local levels so that services can be tuned and delivered closer to the citizen.

In  assessing  how  Member  States  are  moving  forward  in  improving  the  delivery  of  services
and  policies,  it  is  useful  to  consider  a  set  of  ten  broad  principles  for  good  practice.  Such
principles are to be seen as a benchmark that is to be reached gradually, taking into account
the  different  starting  situations  in  the  Member  States.  The  indications  obtained  from  the
NAPs/incl  are  encouraging  in  so  far  as  they  suggest  that  initiatives  taken  by  most  Member
States to improve delivery systems tend to follow similar directions and reflect many of these
principles.

DELIVERING POLICY AS GOOD AS IT NEEDS TO BE:

10 KEY PRINCIPLES FOR INCLUSIVE SERVICES AND POLICIES

Subsidiarity: policies and services become more inclusive when designed and delivered as close
to  people  as  possible;  while  this  principle  is  applied  to  improve  mainline  policies,  it  is  even
more vital when it comes to promoting a level playing field and reaching particularly vulnerable
people;

Holistic  Approach:  policies  should  be  developed  and  services  delivered  in  an  integrated  way
which  responds  to  the  totality  of  people's  needs  rather  than  according  to  organisational
demarcation;

Transparency and Accountability: beneficiaries of policies, including users of services, should
be guaranteed clarity and openness about how decisions are made as well as clear procedures to
challenge or appeal decisions (e.g. ombudsperson, Charter of rights);

User-Friendly: services become more inclusive by making them open, accessible, flexible and
responsive to users (e.g. one-stop shops);

Efficiency: inclusive services respond quickly and speedily to people's needs with the minimum
of bureaucracy, with an emphasis on early intervention and a sense for cost-effective solutions;

Solidarity and Partnership: inclusive policies and services tend to be developed and promoted
in ways which enhance solidarity and cohesion within society and promote partnership and co-
responsibility between all actors;

Human  Dignity  and  Rights:  inclusive  policies  and  services  recognise  and  promote  the  human
dignity and fundamental rights of all through promoting equality and opposing discrimination;

Participation: inclusive policies and services tend to be designed, delivered and monitored with

63

the participation of those affected by poverty and social exclusion;

Empowerment  and  personal  development:  inclusive  policies  and  services  aim  to  reduce
dependence and  support  the  empowerment,  autonomy  and  self  reliance  of  people;  they  foster
opportunities for progression and personal growth and development;

Continuous  improvement  and  sustainability:  policies  and  services  can  always  be  made  more
inclusive  and  the  effect  on  inclusion  can  always  be  made  more  sustainable,  hence  a  growing
trend  in  MS  towards  regular  monitoring  of  'outcomes'  of  policies  and  services  as  well  as
consultation with and feedback from users.

3.4.3

Promoting dialogue and partnership

Involving stakeholders

Formal consultation of the social partners  and  representatives of  NGOs active  in  combating
poverty  and  social  exclusion  has  taken  place  in  most  countries.  However,  it  is  difficult  to
assess  just  on  the  basis  of  the  information  provided  to  what  extent  their  contributions  have
been adequately reflected in the NAPs/incl.

Social partners have been consulted about or associated with the preparation of the NAPs/incl
in  the  majority  of  the  Member  States.  However,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  their  intervention
seems  to  have  been  limited.  This  consultation  was  undertaken  through  already  existing
nation-wide  consultation  settings  (Luxembourg,  Finland,  Spain,  Denmark)  or  through  more
specific  committees  set  up  under  existing  strategies  to  combat  social  exclusion  (Ireland).  In
some  countries  (Spain,  Portugal)  the  preparation  of  the  NAPs/incl  has  been  seized  as  an
opportunity to establish or to consolidate institutional consultation in this area integrating the
social partners.

Member  States  generally  recognise  the  valuable  experience  and  knowledge  of  non-
governmental  organisations,  encompassing  voluntary  and  other  associations,  both  as
advocates  for  socially  excluded  people  and  as  major  social  service  providers  in  several
countries.  Most  NAPs/incl  identify  the  need  to  involve  the  non-governmental  sector  in  the
NAPs/incl  process,  by  developing  and/or  strengthening  effective  and  comprehensive
consultation  and  stakeholder  mechanisms.  Some  Member  States  (Belgium,  France,  Finland,
the Netherlands, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg) have made more progress in this respect. While
information  and  formal  consultation  of  the  non-governmental  sector  was  ensured  by  all
Member States, inter alia through the bilateral seminars held with the European Commission,
few  NAPs/incl  describe  to  what  extent  contributions  made  by  the  non-governmental  sector
have been taken on board. Most Member States mention the relatively short time to prepare
the first NAPs/incl, which has constrained the process of involving the sector.

New  commitments  have  been  taken,  most  notably  in  Spain,  Finland,  the  Netherlands  and
Sweden,  to  gather  and  report  on  good  practices  or  innovative  local  projects  led  by  NGOs,
with a view to further dissemination nation-wide. Belgium, Finland, France, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Portugal and Spain also mention the need to further develop collaboration with
national observatories, universities and research institutes active on the issue of poverty and
social exclusion.

Encouraging social responsibility of all citizens

The NAPs/incl focus on two types of actions in order to encourage social responsibility and
active engagement of all citizens. First, some Member States commit themselves to launching

64

nation-wide awareness-raising campaigns in the media (e.g. Spain, France). Secondly, there is
a  clear  recognition  that  voluntary  or  other  socially  useful  activity  should  be  promoted
(Netherlands, Ireland, Denmark, Germany, Spain). Voluntary activities are not only essential
to the  work  of  NGOs  but  they  can  also  be  considered  as  effective  pathways  to  sheltered  or
regular-types of employment, as in Denmark and the Netherlands.

Fostering the social responsibility of business

Although there is  no  unique  definition  of  corporate  social  responsibility,  Member  States,  in
particular Denmark, the Netherlands, Ireland and Portugal, acknowledge the need to support
schemes whereby companies integrate social concerns in their business operations and in their
interaction  with  their  stakeholders  on  a  voluntary  basis.  In  that  respect,  corporate  social
responsibility  should  be  considered  as  a  way  of  managing  change  and  of  reconciling  social
development with improved competitiveness. This could be achieved for instance through the
setting-up  of  a  national  network  of  businesses  and  the  increasing  use  of  a  social  clause  in
public procurements. The most comprehensive achievement is to be found in Denmark.

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (DENMARK)

In  order  to  boost  social  commitment  in  the  corporate  sector,  a  national  network  of  15  business
executives  from  companies  representing  more  than  85.000  employees  as  well  as  five  regional
networks  of  Business  Executives  have  been  established  with  support  from  the  Danish  Ministry  of
Social  Affairs.  Further,  the  Copenhagen  Centre  was  established  by  government  to  accelerate
international  exchange  of  experience  concerning  social  responsibility  of  the  corporate  sector.  In
addition, a Social Index was introduced by the Ministry of Social Affairs in 2000 to allow companies
to benchmark themselves against other companies. The social index is calculated using a grid scoring
the  company  on  a  number  of  parameters  such  as  health  policy,  family  policy  and  policies  for
recruiting minority groups. The Index follows the development of Socio-Ethical accounts that may be
used by companies that want to display key figures regarding their social responsibility.

4.

PROMOTING EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN

The Nice European Council underlines the importance of mainstreaming equality between
men and women in all actions aimed at achieving the commonly agreed objectives. The
NAPs/incl  give  most  Member  States  a  unique  opportunity  to  combine,  in  an  integrated
approach,  the  fight  against  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  the  promotion  of  equality
between  men  and  women.  Unfortunately,  whilst  all  Member  States  mention  some  gender
issues, very few mainstream equality between men and women consistently across their Plans
- from the identification of the challenges, through the overall strategy, to the designing and
monitoring of  detailed  measures.  Nonetheless  several  Member  States  indicate  that  they  will
enhance gender mainstreaming during the next 2 years.

4.1

Gender sensitivity in the major challenges

Gender  analysis  across  all  the  fields  involved  in  combating  poverty  and  exclusion  is  a
fundamental first step. It not only covers the identification of significant gender gaps in data
and statistics and of gender specific patterns in the risks of social exclusion but also includes a
gender impact analysis of the possible effects of existing and planned policies. Although the
NAPs/incl  include  some  very  relevant  examples,  a  comprehensive  analysis  is  absent  in  all
cases.  Several Member  States  cite  the lack  of  data  as  a  reason  for  this  and  plan  to  improve
their data during the next 2 years.

65

Gender analysis is strongest under objective 1.1 (cf. chapter 1.1). This reflects the work done
within the Employment NAPs: women's long term unemployment rates, low pay and atypical
employment  leading  to  weaker  social  protection  rights  (lower  pensions  or  even  no  pension
due to not satisfying minimum requirements). Many Member States go further than the labour
market in answer to the common objectives but are still far from covering the full range.

There  is  a  consensus  amongst  Member  States  on  the  factors  connected  with  increased
vunerability to poverty amongst women. The most commonly mentioned are:

- in first place, single parents: where women form the major part, a high proportion of whom
are dependent of social benefits

- second, pensioner status on a slim or non-existant employment record: women represent two
thirds of the pensioners over 75 years of age and are particularly at risk of poverty.

- third, domestic violence cited by ten Member States.

Other  factors  of  vulnerability  among  women  mentioned  by  fewer  Member  States  are
disabilities, long term sickness, depression, illiteracy, prostitution and trafficking.

For men, vulnerabilities are a lot less explicitly expressed:

- most Member States mention homelessness but few report that men comprise the majority

- the same applies to (ex-)offenders;

- early school leaver figures are rarely categorised by gender either;

-  men  are  also  often  disadvantaged  in  the  few  existing  data  on  health  (life  expectancy,
coronary diseases, suicide, smoking, alcohol/drug abuse).

4.2

Gender mainstreaming in the overall strategy

Gender  mainstreaming  in  the  overall  strategy  can  be  supported  by  legal  measures,  political
commitments  and  appropriate  structures  involved  in  the  designing  of  the  strategy.  Few
Member  States  (Denmark,  Finland,  Sweden,  Ireland  and  Northern  Ireland  in  the  UK)
explicitly  refer  to  statutory  commitments  for  their  public  authorities  to  promote  equality
between  men  and  women  across  the  fields.  In  Denmark,  Finland  and  Sweden  the  social
systems  are  based  on  individualised  rights  which  enhance  gender  equality.  Greece,  France,
Luxembourg, Portugal, and Spain commit themselves to mainstream gender in their strategy
during  the  next  two  years.  In  the  other  NAPs/incl  the  gender  conscious  strategy  is  patchy
and/or  weak.  The  involvement  of  Equality  structures/committees  in  the  designing  of  the
NAPs/incl merely exists, with explicit mention only in a few NAPs/incl.

The  general  trend  of  developing  anti-poverty  measures  tailored  to  individual  needs  should
contribute  to  improve  gender  awareness.  However,  some  gender  imbalances  require  a  more
in-depth review of the gender assumptions underlying social systems. A striking example is
the  dilemma  of  insufficient  pension  for  single  elderly  women  with  low  or  no  employment
record.  Eurostat  figures  show  that  the  gap  in  low  income  rates  between  elderly  men  and
elderly  women  are  significantly  smaller  in  Member  States  where  social  policy  systems  are
based on individual rights. The  NAPs/incl  could  have  been  an  opportunity  to  initiate  an  in-
depth review in this area.

66

4.3

How gender issues are dealt with in the different objectives

Only  when  the  problems  have  been  properly  identified,  is  it  possible  to  make  sure  that  the
measures do not create gender discrimination and to decide if positive action is required, e.g.,
specific  targets.  Considering  the  lack  of  comprehensive  gender  analysis,  the  treatment  of
gender issues in the various objectives often appears patchy.

Objective 1.1 presents by far the most thought-through gender mainstreaming, reflecting the
on-going  processes  of  the  Employment  NAPs.  Women's  disadvantages  are  treated  in
accessing the labour market but often without clearly focusing on low income groups. There
are imbalances in reconciling work and  family responsibilities where measures are aimed  at
mothers with few at fathers. Furthermore the  emphasis is more on increasing the number of
childcare places but few Member States address the affordability of  childcare  for parents of
low income groups (cf. Chapter 3.1).

Some Member States address labour market gender gaps with multidimensional programmes,
such as the Spanish Action Plan for Equality between men and women, the British New Deals
for  lone  parents  and  for  partners  and  the  Irish  Family  Services  Project  for  families  with
complex needs.

Lone parents' specific needs are to a certain extent mainstreamed by most Member States in
the objectives 1.1 and 1.2 when presenting their measures on access to employment, training,
education, social benefits, housing and services. The approaches could be seen as precursors
of lone parent impact assessments of policies. Only four Member States have also mentioned
them among the most vulnerable under objective 3 (Belgium, Denmark, the United Kingdom,
Ireland).

Objective 1.2: the main field investigated is social protection, with special attention to old age
pensions  and  social  assistance  schemes  (cf.  chapter  3.1.2-a).  Although  most  Member  States
indicate  a  high  risk  of  poverty  among  elderly  women  with  low,  atypical  or  no  employment
records,  only  a  few  of  them  refer  to  a  review  of  their  pension  systems.  Gender  is  partially
addressed in the ongoing reform of the Irish pension and social insurance systems. Germany
gives the possibility to accumulate pension rights to people with a broken employment record
because of caring  responsibilities  and  Luxembourg  and Sweden will  give pension rights  for
the  years  spent  with  children.  The  UK's  pension  reform  and  in  particular  the  Second  State
pension should improve the situation for women who have suffered in the past from broken
work records. In measures on access to housing, the approach is almost not engendered. Apart
from  homelessness  (see  below),  France  and  Spain  report  new  solutions  in  social  and
emergency  housing  for  victims  of  domestic  violence  and  Greece  for  single  mothers  (cf.
Chapter 3.1.2-b).

The  scarcity  of  the  gender  analysis  has  meant  that  gender  is  hardly  considered  in  access  to
healthcare.  Concerning  men:  France  intends  to  improve  mental  care  for  homeless  people.
Concerning women: Belgium, plans to create an ambulant mental health care system to help
reducing the high rate of depressions; the UK intends to reduce teenage pregnancy and Spain
is developing an information health programme for prostitutes.

Concerning  education,  gender  issues  are  barely  visible.  Early  school  leavers  and  truancy
which affect more boys than girls are treated by several Member States  without mentioning
their gender  aspects (cf. chapter 3.1.2-d). Concerning adult education, Austria announces an
action plan 2003 to promote access to school and adult education among women facing high
risk of poverty and Spain present the "ALBA" plan to combat illiteracy among women.

67

As services are often part of multi-dimensional measures under objective 2 or 3, there is not
much on gender in access to services under 1.2.

Objective 2: the recent Eurobarometer survey shows sharp gender gaps to the disadvantage of
women in most Member States in ICT training and access to Internet but only three Member
States  indicate  positive  measures  to  reduce  the  gaps  (Austria,  Germany  and  Portugal;  cf.
chapter  3.2.1).  Other  initiatives  under  objective  2  relate  to  the  prevention  of  family
breakdown  in  Ireland,  Belgium  and  Austria.  The  UK  National  strategy  for  carers  is  also
reported under objective 2.

Objective 3: Surprisingly two wide ranging initiatives for women are presented as support for
the  most  vulnerable,  the  Irish  NDP25  Equality  for  Women  Measure  and  the  fourth  Spanish
Action Plan for Equality between men and women.

Homelessness,  where  men  form  the  major  part,  is  dealt  with  under  various  objectives:
objective  1.2  for  emergency  housing  measures  or  health  (France,  the  United  Kingdom);
objective  2  for  prevention  in  Denmark,  Greece  and  an  integrated  strategy  in  Ireland  (cf.
chapter 3.2.2); and objective 3 as most vulnerable group for Denmark, Germany and the UK.

Austria,  Germany,  Finland,  France,  Ireland,  Italy  and  Spain  report  initiatives  to  reduce
domestic violence and support the victims in objective 3 but also in objectives 1.2 or 2. Italy
has adopted a law against domestic violence. It also develops initiatives to support victims of
trafficking.  Austria  has  installed  legal  protection  against  domestic  violence  and  Germany  is
also  discussing  legal  protection  provisions,  on  top  of  the  existing  network  of  women's
shelters.  In  Ireland,  a  national  steering  committee  co-ordinates  several  initiatives  of  support
and  prevention.  The  Spanish  National  Action  Plan  against  Domestic  Violence  (2001-2004)
addresses in a balanced way support to victims, measures for perpetrators and training of law
enforcement staff.

"OLTRE LA STRADA" (EMILIA ROMAGNA, ITALY)

To  combat  and  prevent  trafficking  in  women  and  children  requires  a  comprehensive  and
multidisciplinary  approach  involving  all  the  relevant  actors  both  in  the  countries  of  origin  and
destination. Recently Italy has adapted its law on immigration to grant temporary residence permits to
victims of trafficking as a first step in their social rehabilitation. The regional project "Oltre la strada"
in  Emilia  Romagna  involves  local  authorities,  NGOs  and  social  workers  in  local  networks  and
develops co-operation with the victims' countries of origin. Activities include a help line, legal advice
and  protection,  shelters,  rehabilitation  programmes,  vocational  training  and  work  in  a  female-run
enterprise.  It  also  assists  in  preventing  trafficking  by  disseminating  information  on  the  subject  and
training social workers and other relevant actors in both Italy and countries of origin.

Objective  4:  gender  balanced  representation  is  completely  ignored  in  all  Member  States.  Denmark
indicates measures by the National Association of Local Authorities to mainstream gender.

4.4

Gender in the monitoring process, impact assessments and indicators

Just as changes to policy and new measures are preceded by gender diagnosis, they should be
followed by gender impact assessment, backed up by appropriate indicators broken down by
sex.  Gender  impact  assessment  is  explicitly  planned  for  in  Ireland  on  a  pilot  basis  for
employment, training and education programmes. Monitoring committees at national level are

25

National Development Plan.

68

                                                
mentioned  by  Denmark  and  Ireland.  In  the  other  Member  States,  explicit  monitoring  is
limited to specific measures.

The indicators broken down by sex are mainly those of the Employment NAPs. Other data are
patchy,  with  a  little  in  social  protection,  education,  health  and  participation  in  voluntary
organisations.  Several  Member  States  indicate  their  intention  to  improve  gender  breakdown
during the NAP period.

5.

USE OF INDICATORS IN THE NAPS/INCL

In  order  to  monitor  the  policies  set  out  in  the  NAPs/incl,  Member  States  were  invited  to
develop, at national level, indicators and other monitoring mechanisms capable of measuring
progress in regard to each of the objectives defined therein.

In the present context, it is useful to distinguish between performance and policy indicators.
Performance indicators measure the characteristics of the phenomena, reflecting the outcome
of policies and the progress achieved in tackling key social problems effectively (for example,
poverty  rate,  number  of  school  dropouts);  policy  indicators  refer  to  the  policy  effort  (for
example, expenditure on social assistance; number of homeless assisted). To these one must
add  context  indicators,  which  are  used  to  place  policies  in  the  more  general  economic  and
social  context  (for  example,  the  share  of  social  protection  expenditure  in  GDP).  While  it  is
more relevant to consider  changes  through time  rather  than  levels,  as the  primary  goal  is to
monitor  progress  over  time,  initial  levels  should  also  be  taken  into  account,  in  view  of  the
significant differences in the starting positions of Member States.

Most  Member  States  used  performance  indicators  for  explaining  the  initial  situation  and
identifying the main challenges. However, not all Member States  have placed  the  necessary
emphasis  on  such  a  task:  Some  Member  States  have  included  a  relevant  analytical  section
(Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Greece,  Spain)  while  others  have  simply  referred  back  to  existing
material,  for  example  from  national  observatories  (Germany).  Some  member  States  have  in
addition calculated the different indicators which they intend to use (Belgium, Italy, Finland
and the UK).

Some Member States have set specific targets on the basis of the analysis. Two categories of
targets can be distinguished:

–  Some Member States focused on a single overall target: reducing poverty levels (Ireland),
halving  the  number  of  welfare  recipients  (Sweden),  increasing  the  number  of  people  in
employment (Denmark). The Danish target of increasing employment by 100.000 people
by 2010 has to be seen in the context of a country which has the highest employment rate
in the EU, already above the European target of 70%. In this context, getting these  extra
people into work implies tackling the problems of the people furthest away from the labour
market.

–  Other Member States set themselves a series of specific targets, whether "administrative"
(Netherlands) or on specific outcomes (UK) or a mixture of the two (Portugal). In the latter
case,  the  NAP/incl  pledges  that,  within  a  year,  all  socially  excluded  people  should  have
been  personally  assisted  by  social  services  and  proposed  a  social  insertion  contract.  In
terms of target- setting, the approach of Portugal seems to be the most ambitious with both
general and specific targets.

69

Most  other  member  States,  while  not  setting  specific  targets,  have  identified  implicitly
throughout  the  analysis  the  indicators  that  will  be  used  for  monitoring.  Only  Austria  and
Germany (apart from the reference to the recent Government report on poverty and wealth) do
not specifically mention indicators.

In the absence of commonly defined and agreed indicators at EU level, Member States tend to
use different definitions for measuring and characterising current levels of poverty and social
exclusion. While most Member States refer to the key indicator of the relative poverty rate,
some  countries  refer  also  to  national  indicators  of  absolute  poverty  (Italy,  Portugal,  UK)  –
although the meaning of 'absolute poverty' varies 26. The relative poverty line is calculated at
different thresholds (50% or 60% of median income), and in the cases of Ireland and Austria,
it  is  adjusted  on  the  basis  of  supplementary  information.  Greece  and  Italy  define  relative
poverty on the basis of income and consumption, and justify the use of  consumption by the
high proportion of self employed, as well as the importance of house ownership, also among
poor households.

The  relative  poverty  rate  is  not  recognised  as  a  key  indicator  by  some  Member  States
(Sweden,  Denmark,  Netherlands),  which  stress  the  importance  of  other  factors  for  social
inclusion, such as health, education and social participation, or prefer to take indicators based
on  administrative  sources.  The  Netherlands  develop  a  financial  poverty  index  which  takes
into  account  the  share  of  households  receiving  minimum  income  with  the  trend  in  the  real
disposable income of the recipients.

While there is no ambition to arrive at commonly agreed definitions of policy indicators for
the  Union  as  a  whole,  there  is  clearly  a  need  to  include  in  the  NAPs/incl  appropriate
indicators and monitoring mechanisms in order to monitor progress over time, as required by
the  Nice  objectives.  Some  Member  States  make  a  wide  use  of  policy  indicators  in  their
NAPs/incl  (Spain,  France,  Portugal,  Denmark).  Ideally,  present  levels  of  policy  indicators
should be given in the NAPs/incl in order to make them effective policy monitoring tools, but
only Denmark has consistently adopted this more ambitious approach. Some Member States
(Italy, UK), have explicitly decided not to consider policy indicators and to focus exclusively
on performance indicators.

A  number  of  specific  approaches  are  interesting  to  note.  The  UK  NAP/incl  separates
indicators that focus on current aspects of poverty and social exclusion (such as the poverty
rate)  from  indicators  that  capture  factors  that  increase  the  risk  of  experiencing  poverty  and
social  exclusion  (such  as  truancy  at  school  or  teenage  pregnancies).  The  Italian  NAP/incl
identifies specific indicators for vulnerable groups (for example, disabled living in dwellings
with  architectural  barriers,  older  people  living  alone  and  with  no  living  relative).  It  is  also
interesting to note that some countries specifically use subjective indicators, advocating that
the perceptions of the individuals involved can be just as important as their objective situation
(Italy, Belgium).

The  importance  that  some  Member  States  give  to  the  territorial  dimension  should  not  be
underestimated.  For  some  countries,  (Spain,  Italy,  Belgium,  Germany)  the  regional
differences  are  striking  and  it  is  important  that  all  information  is  available  with  a  regional
breakdown. Other countries stress the territorial dimension, but more in the sense of deprived

26

It  refers  to  the  affordability  of  a  basket  of  goods  in  Italy,  and  to  the  relative  poverty  line  fixed  at  a
moment in time for the UK. No clear definition is given of absolute or child poverty by Portugal in its
NAPincl.

70

                                                
city  areas,  and  propose  indicators  to  monitor  specifically  these  areas  (UK,  Netherlands,
France).

Indications for future developments at EU level

It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  we  are  still  a  long  way  from  a  common  approach  to  social
indicators allowing policy outcomes to be monitored and facilitating the identification of good
practice. Efforts are needed to improve this situation, both at the national level and at the level
of the EU.

At national level, it is clear that there are big gaps in data availability in many countries. This
is true in particular for the identification of vulnerable groups, where a number of NAPs/incl
lack basic quantitative information or policy monitoring data concerning groups which cannot
be identified through surveys, such as alcohol abusers, drug addicts, homeless people, ethnic
minorities, etc.. There is a need to develop the national statistical base to be able to monitor
the  social  inclusion  strategy  effectively.  A  greater  effort  seems  justified  in  order  to  tap
administrative sources more effectively. On many issues of interest for social inclusion, such
as  housing,  health,  justice,  most  disadvantaged  groups,  etc.,  administrative  sources  can
provide useful information in addition to household surveys. Some Member States intend to
use the NAPs/incl to launch an effort to improve their national statistical capability (Greece,
Belgium).

At European level, the priority lies not only in improving the current European databases, but
also in ensuring their acceptance by all Member States, which is not yet the case at present.
Most  of  the  statistical  information  underpinning  social  indicators  at  European  level  is
provided by two household surveys coordinated by Eurostat – the Labour Force Survey (LFS)
and the European Community Household Panel (ECHP). A new instrument is presently being
developed to replace the ECHP after 2004 - the Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
(EU-SILC).  This  is  expected  to  become  the  reference  source  for  analysis  in  the  field  of
income  and  social  exclusion,  as  well  as  for  monitoring  progress  reached  through  the
implementation  of  the  inclusion  strategies.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  instrument  is
accepted  by  all  national  statistical  services  and  is  treated  as  a  national  source,  delivering
timely data of good quality.

It  must  however  also  be  recognised  that  European  level  indicators  should  not  be  limited  to
income and employment, but should also cover other key areas for social inclusion, such as
health, housing, education, social participation and the situation of specific vulnerable groups.
In the field of health, a comprehensive health information system will be established as part of
the Community's action programme in the field of public health (cf. COM (2000) 285 final of
16.5.2000) which will cover the collection analysis and dissemination of data on health status,
health  systems  and  health  determinants.  As  for  health,  the  development  of  good  quality
national  sources  based  on  administrative  data  could  be  a  first  step  towards  a  more
comprehensive coverage, but in most areas it is insufficient as comparability will tend to be
poor.

An  expert  group  on  indicators  was  created  by  the  Social  Protection  Committee  in  January
2001  with  the  task  of  improving  indicators  in  the  field  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,
including  indicators  to  be  used  to  assess  trends  and  to  monitor  policy  developments  in  the
framework  of  the  NAPs/incl,  and  developing  indicators  capable  of  illustrating  the  role  of
social protection and supporting the process of modernising systems. A report from the group
is  expected  towards  the  end  of  2001,  with  a  view  of  defining  a  list  of  commonly  agreed

71

indicators  in  the  field  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  in  time  for  the  European  Council  of
Laeken.

While at the present stage it looks appropriate to use the existing national data in those fields
(e.g. housing) where a commonly agreed battery of indicators is still lacking, the experience
drawn from the current NAPs/incl, where only a minority of Member States provided detailed
and relevant indicators, suggests that this approach is not sufficient if the aim is to make real
progress in comparability.

For this reason, the development of  commonly agreed indicators should remain the priority.
Some  of  the  indicators  used  by  the  Member  States  in  their  NAPs/incl  should  be  taken  into
consideration  in  further  work  by  the  expert  group  on  indicators.  In  the  Statistical  Annex,  a
selection of the indicators used in the NAPs/incl which could be developed at European level
indicators is presented.

72

PART II - THE MEMBER STATES

73

BELGIUM

Conclusions

Situation  and  key  trends  Since  1997  the  Belgian  economy  has  continued  to  experience  a
favourable evolution. However, long-term unemployment and the share of the population living in
jobless households remain important. In 1997 15% of the population live in relative poverty (income
below 60% of the median income), the EU average being 18%. The difference between this rate and
the rate before transfers (28%) illustrates the well-developed social protection system in Belgium.
Children  from  low-income  households  are  disadvantaged  with  regard  to  education,  and  under-
represented in further training and education. The healthcare insurance system covers 99 % of the
population  and  is  being  strengthened  in  respect  of  exceptional  health  risks.  The  offer  of  social
housing does not match the demand and rents have increased significantly over the last 15 years.

Strategic approach The Belgian NAP gives an extensive overview of  all social  policy  initiatives
taken by the different Belgian authorities in the framework of the 'active welfare state' approach, but
could better articulate key priorities. The NAPincl focuses only on recent policy measures without
referring to the existing comprehensive social policy system. It provides a wide-ranging overview of
these  measures,  without  however  making  a  systematic  assessment  of  their  impact  on  social
inclusion.  Integration  in  the  labour  market  is  considered  a  key  element,  in  combination  with
improved social protection schemes. Improvements in other major policy fields (housing, education
and healthcare) should help prevent social exclusion. The synergy between policies of the various
regional  and  community  governments  could  be  reinforced  and  local  authorities  could  be  further
involved in the development of the NAP. The involvement of the stakeholders was limited, but the
NAP  ensures  increased  implication  in  the  implementation,  the  follow-up  and  the  assessment  of
actions.

Policy  measures  The  first  two  of  the  Nice-objectives  are  equipped  with  a  large  number  of
measures, some of which contain quantified targets and time horizons. A number of these measures
are innovative, such as the refundable tax credit, a programme with regard to the minimum income
guarantee  system  and  the introduction  of  a  maximum  health  bill.  Under  Objective  3  the  NAPincl
focuses on vulnerable groups such as the disabled, migrants and single parents. The involvement of
stakeholders will be further reinforced, inter alia through the Resource Centre for the fight against
poverty.

Challenges ahead The impact of general policy measures on the situation of  the  most  vulnerable
groups  will  need  close  examination  and  follow-up.  The  further  development  of  an  active  welfare
state  as  part  of  a  coherent  approach  tackling  social  exclusion  from  different  angles  (income,
education and training, labour market participation, housing) is identified as an important challenge.
Given the complex federal structure of Belgium, continued co-ordination between all levels remains
essential.  The  Belgian  NAP  contains  a  strong  section  on  indicators  and  aims  at  facilitating
comparability by using community sources. The further development of such indicators, including a
breakdown by gender, in order monitor and assess the impact of policy measures is identified as a
key challenge. The implication of stakeholders should be enhanced.

1. 

MAJOR TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

Since  1997  the  Belgian  economy  has  continued  to  experience  a  favourable  evolution.  The
employment growth rate was 1.8% in 2000 and the employment rate increased from 56.3% in
1996  to  60.5%  in  2000.  The  employment  rate  of  women  (51.5%  in  2000)  grew  by  6
percentage  points  since  1996.  Unemployment  decreased  substantially  in  the  last  few  years
(from  9.7%  in  1996  to  7%  in  2000)  but  the  share  of  long-term  unemployment  is  still
important.  According  to  national  data,  the  percentage  of  the  population  living  in  jobless

74

households  remains  high  (14%)  and  2%  of  the  working  population  can  be  considered  as
'working poor', with the household composition being the main influencing factor.

Belgium spent 27.5% of GDP on social welfare in 1998, which is broadly in line with the EU
average.  Although  Belgium  has  a  well-developed  social  protection  system,  15%  of  the
population lived in relative poverty in 1997 (on an income below the threshold of 60% of the
median income). Half of this group is confronted with persistent relative poverty. Especially
social welfare recipients and the unemployed run a high risk to get in this situation. Since the
mid-80s, social benefits have lagged behind wage development.

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the  degree  of
satisfaction of basic needs.

Education  and  training  are  key  factors  for  the  integration  in  the  labour  market.  Children
from  low-income  households  are  disadvantaged  with  regard  to  education,  and  are  under-
represented  in  further  training  and  education  programs.  The  healthcare  insurance  system
covers 99% of the population, although specific  groups  requiring  a  great deal  of  care suffer
particular hardship. The supply of social housing is small compared to other West-European
countries and does not match demand. Rents have increased by 46% above inflation over the
last 15 years, and especially rents in the lower segment of the market.

The NAPincl identifies the future challenges in broad terms, but three aspects are underlined
by  the  Belgian  authorities.  First,  the  'active  welfare  state'  approach  is  used  as  a
multidimensional strategy to tackle social  exclusion. Employment  is  considered  as  a  crucial
factor for social inclusion, with particular attention for groups at risk. The impact of the new
activation policies on the integration of disadvantaged groups becomes visible: since a peak in
1998,  the  number  of  minimum  income  recipients  is  decreasing.  Second,  given  the  complex
federal  structure  of  Belgium,  better  co-ordination  of  social  inclusion  policy  between  the
federal,  regional  and  community  governments  is  to  be  achieved.  The  Belgian  authorities
tackled this challenge by a co-operation agreement concluded in 1998 and which contributed
to  keep  poverty  permanently  on  the  policy  agenda.  Third,  the  Belgian  authorities  have  put
considerable effort in the elaboration and calculation of indicators that are comparable at EU
level.  The  further  development  of  such  indicators  should  allow  for  a  close  monitoring  and
assessment  of  the  impact  of  policy  measures  on  social  inclusion.  It  is  the  government's
intention  to  contribute  to  the  European  commitment  towards  developing  a  set  of  common
indicators which will support the development of future NAPs incl.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND KEY OBJECTIVES

The present NAPincl provides a wide-ranging overview of social policy  measures that have
been taken in recent years, but does not systematically assess their specific impact on social
inclusion. The strategic approach in the NAP embraces the 4 objectives and covers the major
policy fields.

Labour  market  integration  should  be  facilitated  by  a  preventive  approach  focused  on
activation,  mainly  through  investments  in  education,  training  and  guidance  and  by  tackling
the  unemployment  traps.  For  those  remaining  dependent  on  benefits,  adjustments  in  social
protection  schemes  and  both  general  and  selective  increases  in  benefit  levels  are  foreseen.

75

Access  to  education  will  be  improved  by  reducing  education-related  costs  and  increased
funding for priority schools/areas.

The  strategic  approach  also  aims  to  improve  the  social  housing  sector  and  to  facilitate  the
access to the private renting sector. In the field of healthcare, policies will be strengthened to
cover exceptional health risks and to reinforce preventive and first line healthcare.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The  approach  covers  most  of  the  major  challenges  although  relying  much  on  general
measures.  The  targeting  towards  the  most  vulnerable  groups  remains  underrated.  The
NAPincl is precise on additional budgets allocated to policy measures, but quantified targets
and  time  horizons  with  regard  to  poverty  and  social  inclusion  are  set  only  for  a  limited
number of policy measures in the field of integration in the labour market.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

This first NAP on social inclusion is focused on recent policy measures without referring to
the  existing  comprehensive  social  policy  system.  Most  of  the  measures  described  are  of  a
recent date and  constitute new policy lines in the framework  of  the  'active  welfare  state'.  A
number  of  initiatives  with  respect  to  income  and  social  protection,  integration  in  the  labour
market and healthcare, are innovative. For education and housing, the innovative  element is
more limited.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The  income  and  social  protection  policy  is  integrated  with  the  vocational  training  and
employment  policy.  Within  the  field  of  employment,  the  question  of  the  integration  of
instruments  and  the  collaboration  between  the  different  authorities  is  not  addressed  in  the
NAP.  For  education  and  housing,  the  strategies  and  measures  of  the  different  competent
authorities  put  different  emphases.  In  the  field  of  healthcare,  the  central  role  of  the  Federal
authorities  in  the  health  insurance  system  aims  at  a  more  co-ordinated  and  integrated
approach But overall, the NAP lacks  a coherent approach,  due to  the difficulty of matching
the different federated entities contributions.

Given the singularities of the Belgian federal structure, the elaboration of a strategic approach
on  social  inclusion  necessitates  a  close  co-ordination  between  the  federal,  regional  and
community governments. The NAP has been elaborated in a broad forum: the working group
on  social  affairs  of  the  Belgian  Intergovernmental  Conference  (which  brings  together  the
ministers  of  the  Federal  government  and  ministers  of  the  federalised  governments  in  the
follow  up  of  the  Lisbon  process).  The  involvement  of  the  stakeholders,  including  the
Resource  Centre  for  the  fight  against  poverty,  precariousness  and  social  exclusion,  was
limited due to time constraints, but the NAPincl states that they will be prominently involved
in the implementation, the follow-up and the assessment of the actions.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  the  National  Action
Plan/empl

The  section  on  employment  policy  in  the  NAP  inclusion  is  consistent  with  the  NAP
employment. The emphasis on active labour market policies, with particular attention to the
integration  of  young  people,  long  term  unemployed,  low-skilled  workers  and  socially
excluded groups and the measures to tackle the unemployment traps are found in both NAPs.

76

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment  and access  to  resources, rights, goods
and services for all

A  whole  range  of  actions  is  listed  to  improve  access  by  all  to  the  labour  market  through
activation,  the  promotion  of  social  economy,  lifelong  learning  schemes,  pathways  to
integration for  young people,  ICT programmes. Other initiatives aim at improving access to
reasonable  income,  to  decent  housing,  to  health  facilities  and  to  education.  The  NAP
determines that  families with very low  income cannot  fully  benefit  of  the  tax  deduction  for
dependent  children  because  their  tax  bill  is  too  low.  This  shortcoming  in  the  tax  system
concerns  more  than  10%  of  all  families.  Therefore,  a  refundable  tax  credit  for  dependent
children  will  be  introduced  as  from  the  fiscal  year  2001,  as  an  instrument  to  improve  the
income  situation  and  to  tackle  the  unemployment  trap.  Despite  the  recent  positive
employment development, Over the past ten years the number of people depending on social
assistance has increased significantly, due to exclusion from the labour market as well as the
erosion of mainstream social security benefits. The Spring Programme aims at tackling these
structural  causes  by  activation  measures  and  increasing  minimum  benefit  levels.  The
programme  is  not  yet  fully  implemented.  It  sets  ambitious  quantitative  targets  and  a  time
horizon: the overall number of minimum income recipients should be reduced by one third in
five years time, the number of activated beneficiaries should be raised from 5% to 20%. There
is no comprehensive strategy on ICT, but some good initiatives on ICT training are included.

3.2. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

Prevention is an important aspect of the Belgian policy against poverty and social exclusion.
The Belgian healthcare can be used as an example. The health insurance system covers fixed
amounts for medical services, the balance being born by the patient. Although certain social
categories are eligible for reduced personal contributions, households with low income and/or
facing serious health problems need a better coverage. Previous measures already foresaw in
reimbursements above certain levels of expenditure for some categories. The maximum health
bill  extends  and  simplifies  these  measures,  allowing  immediate  reimbursement  of  expenses
above given ceilings by the national health  insurance fund.  These ceilings are  related to the
household's  income  tax  declaration.  This  measure  prevents  the  risks  of  exclusion  due  to
severe  health  problems  (objective  2)  and  improves  the  accessibility  of  healthcare  (objective
1).

3.3. 

To help the most vulnerable

The Belgian NAPincl focuses on vulnerable groups such as the long-tem unemployed people
with disabilities, migrants, , excluded groups in the health sector, single parents. A territorial
approach  is  implemented  through  plans  to  promote  a  co-ordinated  and  integrated  action
against  social  exclusion  in  selected  municipalities  (with  a  partnership  between  public  and
private stakeholders).

3.4. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The  structural  involvement  of  the  stakeholders  will  be  assured  through  several  bodies
including  the  Resource  Centre  for  the  fight  against  poverty,  precariousness  and  social
exclusion. This centre was created in 1999, in order to ensure a permanent dialogue with all
stakeholders as well as ongoing evaluation of anti-poverty policy on all levels. It has a solid
legal  structure  and  includes  in  its  steering  group  representatives  of  the  associations  of  the

77

poor,  the  social  partners,  the  (local)  public  agencies  and  the  health  insurance  organisations.
The involvement of this platform in developing the NAP has been limited.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The  gender  dimension  in  the  NAPincl  is  taken  on  board  but  with  limited  visibility.  The
indicators  are  often  lacking  a  gender  perspective,  and  most  of  the  gender  related  strategies
concern  the  overall  population  and  do  not  as  such  address  the  issues  of  poverty  and  social
exclusion. The main gender related elements raised in the NAPincl concern the provision of
childcare  facilities  to  facilitate  women's  participation  into  employment.  Useful  initiatives  in
the field of employment, training and support services are presented to improve the situation
of single parents.

The  government  expresses  its  concern  about  the  under-representation  of  women  in  ICT.  In
order to establish a clear link between women and new technologies, an action plan for equal
access  for  women  to  new  technologies  was  developed  within  the  framework  of  the  Inter-
ministerial Conference on Equality. In the field of health, the NAP installs new measures to
tackle gender specific health problems that have been identified.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Each of the Belgian ESF Objective 1 and 3 programmes (a total financial allocation of €929
million)  contains  specific  priorities  or  measures  on  social  inclusion.  The  proposed  ESF
actions  target  all  categories  of  people  at  risk  of  being  deprived,  and  the  multidimensional
aspects of social exclusion are being addressed by an integrated approach. On the basis of the
programmes approved in 2000, it can be stated that the different Belgian governments intend
to spend €378.5 million on social inclusion (40% of the total envelope).

The  EQUAL  programme,  with  an  allocation  of  €74.1  million,  will  also  concentrate  on  the
integration of those who are excluded from the labour market. Despite the importance of the
ESF  and  EQUAL,  the  NAPincl  does  not  refer  to  their  possible  impact  on  the  policy  to
promote social inclusion in Belgium.

78

DENMARK

Conclusions

Situation and key trends The Danish social policy system is based on the principle of universality:
all residents are guaranteed certain fundamental rights if they should encounter social problems. The
effectiveness of the system is confirmed by the fact that Denmark has the lowest relative poverty rate
in the EU in 1997.

The  positive  trends  in  the  Danish  economy,  with  the  highest  employment  rate  in  the  EU  and  low
unemployment , form a good basis for reinforcing policies for building a more inclusive and cohesive
society. According to the harmonised ECHP data, 8% of the Danish population lived on an income of
less than 60% of the median national income and the rate of persons living in poverty continuously for
the 3 years 1995-1997 was 3%.

Strategic  approach  The  Danish  approach  to  social  inclusion  focuses  on  developing  the  inclusive
labour market, allowing more people to gain or retain a stable affiliation with the labour market. This
is seen as the best way to integration and also the best defence against poverty and exclusion. Other
objectives  are  to  ensure  the  individual  person  financial  support  for  a  reasonably  decent  life  and  to
improve  living  conditions  for  the  most  vulnerable  groups,  those  unable  to  participate  in  the  labour
market. The strategy is furthermore based on a willingness to involve all relevant stakeholders in the
development of social policy.

Policy measures Denmark is responding to all four objectives but with a strong focus on the social
dimension of the activation approach. The range of related measures is comprehensive. There is free
access for all to education and to  healthcare,  and  there  are  also care  provisions  for  children  and  the
elderly. Prevention has also for many years been an important feature of the policy against poverty and
social exclusion,  of  which  eInclusion is  now  a  part.  For  the  most  vulnerable  groups  the  focus  is  on
initiatives such as the promotion of legal protection and individual action plans. Within the culture of
"partnership"  the  Social  council,  local  co-ordination  committees  and  networks  on  corporate  social
responsibility  have  been  established.  A  new  Equal  Opportunities  Act  was  adopted  in  2000,
establishing statutory gender mainstreaming.

Challenges ahead The major challenge ahead is making a success of the inclusive labour market. This
has  to  be  seen  in  the  context  of  an  ageing  workforce  and  the  overall  long-term  target  to  increase
employment  by  100  000  persons.  Another  challenge  is  to  ensure  the  social,  linguistic,  cultural  and
occupational  integration  of  refugees  and  immigrants.  People  with  multiple  social/health  problems,
who make up a large proportion of those people ending up homeless, is also an issue of concern.

79

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

The employment rate in 2000, at 76.3 %, continues to be the highest in the EU. Moreover the
unemployment rate is low at 4.7% and long-term unemployment is now just 1%. The rate of
GDP growth was 2.9% in 2000.

According to the ESSPROS data from EUROSTAT, Denmark spends 30% of GDP on social
protection compared to the EU15 average of 27.7% (1998 data). Measured as expenditure per
capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS), the Danish expenditure on social protection is at
7098 PPS considerably above the EU15 average of 5532 PPS.

The  effectiveness  of  the  Danish  social  policy  model  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  Denmark
has  the  lowest  relative  poverty  rate  in  the  EU.  According  to  the  harmonised  ECHP  data
(1997),  8%  of  the  Danish  population  lived  on  an  income  of  less  than  60%  of  the  median
national income. The rate of persons living in poverty continuously for the 3 years 1995-1997
was 3% (ECHP data).

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the  degree  of
satisfaction of basic needs.

Developing  the  inclusive  labour  market,  allowing  more  people  to  gain  or  retain  a  stable
affiliation with the labour market, is the major overall goal. For the vast majority of people,
quality of life is closely connected to an active working life where employment is not only a
goal in itself, but also reduces the risk of social marginalisation. To reach this overall goal, the
following challenges are present:

– 

– 

– 

Despite  the  substantial  fall  in  unemployment  and  the  increase  in  employment  the
number  of  long-term  claimants  of  maintenance  allowances  –  i.e.  persons
receiving  cash  assistance,  activation  or  rehabilitation  for  at  least  10  months  during
the calendar year – increased from 115 000 in 1994-1998 to almost 122 000 in 1999.
As a rough estimate, about 70% thereof (85 000 persons) have problems other than
unemployment.

Promoting and building inclusive  societies have  a growing  ethnic dimension. It is
important  to  open  and  adapt  policies  in  ways,  which  will  ensure  that  increasing
ethnic diversity in society is turned into a strength and does not become a factor of
exclusion  and  social  divide.  Immigrants  comprise  a  rising  percentage  of  the  long-
term recipients of cash assistance (34% in 1999 against 24% in 1994).

Another  concern  is  people  with  special  social  problems.  An  estimated  50  000
people  are  socially  marginalised  (e.g.  drug  misusers  at  about  14  000,  homeless
people  at  about  4,500  and  mentally  ill  people  requiring  special  social  initiatives  at
about  30  000).  It  is  estimated  that  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  alcohol  misusers
falls into the group of socially marginalised people.

The positive trends in the Danish economy form a good basis for reinforcing measures to
address these challenges and building a more inclusive and cohesive society. Over the next 10
years the Government  aims to  increase  employment  by 100  000.  This  has  to  be  seen  in  the

80

context of an ageing overall workforce that is falling in numbers and that is foreseen to fall by
as many as 40 000 by 2010.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  Danish  social  policy  system  is  based  on  the  principle  of  universality:  all  residents  are
guaranteed  certain  fundamental  rights  in  case  they  encounter  social  problems  such  as
unemployment, sickness or dependency. The Danish approach to social inclusion focuses on
giving people an active life. The strategy is to ensure that people in need should be helped to
achieve the highest possible degree of self-support.

The key objectives in coming years relate to increasing employment and the inclusive labour
market,  aiming  at  reducing  the  number  of  retirees  and  long-term  unemployed  but  also  by
reducing  the  numbers  of  people  of  working  age  who  are  on  transfer  income.  The  aim  is  to
meet the needs of the increased number of older people without reducing pension levels and
services  or  increasing  taxation.  However,  most  important  is  to  make  sure  that  people  enter
into meaningful  working relationships,  seen  as the best  way to  integration  and also the best
defence  against  poverty  and  exclusion.  Other  issues  are  to  ensure  the  individual  person
financial support for  a  reasonably  decent  life  and  to  improve  living  conditions  for  the  most
vulnerable, those unable to participate in the labour market.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The complexity inherent in the effort to assist vulnerable groups to (re-)gain a foothold in the
labour  market  is  matched  by  a  comprehensive  approach  directed  to  all  levels  of  policy
formulation  and  implementation.  The  approach  also  recognises  the  necessity  to  create  both
economic incentives for individuals and employers and a common understanding of the need
for everybody to contribute to social cohesion.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  comprehensive  character  of  social  policy  is  directed  to  the  creation  of  an  active  and
cohesive society.

Taking  the  working  place  as  the  point  of  departure  for  prevention  of  social  exclusion  and
marginalisation, the measures supporting the responsibility of social partners, the Social Index
and  the  Socio-Ethical  accounts  represent  new  ways  to  create  positive  incentives  for
companies  to  take  on  social  responsibility.  Another  innovative  element  is  the  Methodology
development programme and particularly the component that entails the preparation of local
action plans relating to the inclusive labour market.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The  strategy  involves  a  high  degree  of  co-operation  between  the  different  levels  of
government as well as between public authorities, NGOs and social partners both at national
and local levels.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  the  National  Action
Plan/empl

The social policy approach in the NAPincl is interlinked with other policy fields in a common
drive  to  strengthen  social  cohesion.  Both  the  NAPempl  and  the  NAPincl  focus  on  ensuring

81

that as many people  as possible participate  in  working life.  The  NAPempl  focuses  more  on
those in the labour  force  (in  particular persons insured  against  unemployment),  whereas  the
NAPincl focuses more on the creation of the inclusive labour market. In both NAPs there are
only a few details about offers to the uninsured unemployed (people with unemployment as
the only problem) receiving cash benefits. The NAPincl also includes policies aimed at those
who are not able to participate in the labour market.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

Much emphasis is put on facilitating participation in employment and the active social policy
is  targeted  at  persons  who  for  some  reason  find  it  difficult  to  stay  in  or  enter  the  labour
market.  The  policy  aims  at  giving  each  individual  a  chance  to  participate  by  developing
her/his  skills and  at  the  same  time  creating  more  job  opportunities  for  individuals  with  less
than full working capacity.

The active social policy includes a range of measures with the overall objective of  enabling
individual  persons  to  support  themselves  and  their  families.  Such  measures  include
rehabilitation  benefits,  flexible  working  arrangements  and  sheltered  employment  with  wage
subsidy, protected employment and day shelters. Social chapters have also been introduced in
almost  all  collective  agreements,  establishing  a  framework  for  employing  and  retraining
persons  with  reduced  capacity  for  work.  Social  clauses  are  another  instrument  available  to
public authorities wishing to contribute to the inclusive labour market. As part of the effort to
strengthen  the  active  social  policy,  the  anticipatory  pension  scheme  reform  will  be
implemented from 2001 to 2003. Such amendment implies operating with a new criterion of
"working  capacity"  which  focuses  on  the  individual's  resources  and  development  potential
rather  than  his  or  her  limitations.  This  criterion  is  in  accordance  with  the  criteria  used  in
relation to other schemes.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

Denmark ensures access for all to education as well as to housing and healthcare. All persons
also have a right to some form of benefit if they cannot support themselves and from the age
of 65 all Danish citizens have the right to receive a public old-age pension. Access to housing
is  ensured  by  means  of  publicly  subsidised  housing  and  by  individual  housing  benefits  for
low-income  groups.  The  Danish  care  provisions  for  children,  the  elderly  and  other  persons
who can not look after themselves are also comprehensive. In 2000, 76% of local authorities
provided a child care guarantee for children between the ages of 0 and 5. For older people and
others  in  need  of  assistance  local  authorities  are  obliged  to  provide  personal  and  practical
assistance.  Building  regulations  on  accessibility  for  disabled  persons  are  based  on  the  UN
Standard  Rules  on  the  Equalisation  of  Opportunities  for  Persons  with  Disabilities.  The
NAPincl does not address issues related to the access to justice, culture, sport and leisure.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

Prevention has for many years been an important feature of the Danish policy against poverty
and social exclusion, which does not mean that there are no further areas which may benefit
from  more  preventive  attention.  Further  development  can  be  seen  in  the  public  health
programme  where  one  of  the  general  objectives  is  to  improve  the  health  of  the  most
disadvantaged  groups.  Another issue is the  improvement  of  deprived  urban  neighbourhoods

82

by  using  a  holistic  approach  focusing  on  local  resources  and  physical,  cultural  and  social
improvements.

For  persons  at  risk  of  marginalisation  and  with  dependants,  special  support  is  put  in  place
concerning their economic, housing and health situation. Denmark is taking steps to meet the
challenge of integrating immigrants and ethnic minorities. For newly arrived immigrants and
refugees,  there  has  been  since  1999  a  three  year  integration  programme  aimed  at  ensuring
them  equal  access  to  society  and  to  the  labour  market.  More  recently  a  number  of  other
initiatives  in  relation  to  ethnic  minorities  are  being  taken  including  projects  for  mentally  ill
and  homeless  people,  the  collection  of  more  information  about  ethnic  minorities,  more
support  for  parents,  initiatives  for  families  with  disabled  and  more  day-care  places  for
bilingual children. While  a  comprehensive strategy on eInclusion is not presented, the Plan
mentions initiatives in different areas: ICT and the disabled, with a specific  IT Action Plan,
and ICT and the elderly.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Helping  the  most  vulnerable  has  high  priority  and  efforts  are  being  strengthened  to  prevent
the  aggravation  of  problems,  while  aiming  at  ensuring  a  decent  life  for  each  individual.
Denmark appears to have a balanced approach based both on structural policies alleviating the
risks of exclusion and tailor made measures for individuals at risk. The focus is on initiatives
to promote legal protection, individual action plans, user involvement, qualified counselling,
cohesion and equality.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The Danish model is based to a large extent on a culture of "partnership" characterised by the
involvement  of  the  social  partners,  the  local  authorities  and  other  relevant  organisations,
including  user  organisations,  at  all  levels.  The  implementation  of  social  legislation  is
decentralised  and  primarily  the  responsibility  of  the  local  authorities.  Legal  protection  is
ensured  by  the  possibility  of  appealing  against  decisions  on  social  issues  to  administrative
appeals committees and finally to the courts.

A  Social  council  has  been  established  at  national  level,  gathering  inter  alia  representatives
from  the  social  partners,  the  local  authorities  and  the  Danish  Council  of  Organisations  of
Disabled People. The same scope of representation can be found at local level, with the local
co-ordination committees. Another example of the partnership approach is the campaign on
corporate social responsibility where a national network, as well as five regional networks
of  Business  Executives,  have  been  established  with  support  from  the  Ministry  of  Social
Affairs  to  promote  social  commitment  in  the  corporate  sector.  The  Copenhagen  Centre  is
also  playing  an  important  role  in  this  field.  Social  Index  and  Socio-Ethical  Accounts  are
being  introduced  to  allow  companies  to  benchmark  themselves  against  other  companies  on
social parameters.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

Denmark's  universal  system,  giving  equal  rights  to  all,  in  itself  enhances  equality.  The
employment  rate  for  women  is  high  and  women's  participation  in  the  labour  market  is
supported  by  a  comprehensive  offer  of  public  day-care  facilities  for  children.  A  new  Equal
Opportunities  Act  was  adopted  in  2000,  making  it  compulsory  for  all  public  authorities  to
include  gender  equality  in  their  planning  and  administration.  A  steering  group  will  oversee

83

and  manage  the  mainstreaming  process.  Parents  are  entitled  to  parental  leave  for  up  to  one
year for children under 9 years old. The outcome of the leave scheme is not gender balanced,
as  approximately  90%  of  parents  on  leave  are  women.  While  only  a  few  of  the  social
indicators  presented  in  the  NAPincl  are  broken  down  by  sex,  significant  gender  related
differences emerge. In order to further analyse such differences and to monitor progress, more
information would be needed.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

The ESF allocation to the Objective 3 SPD is €379 million corresponding to 50% of the total
amount.  The  SPD  includes  a  priority  aiming  at  promoting  equal  opportunities  for  all  in
accessing  the  labour  market  and  support  will  also  be  available  at  a  local  level  to  provide
disadvantaged groups, such as ethnic minorities, with employment and training opportunities
(ESF  allocation  €105  million  representing  27%  of  the  budget).  Another  programme  is  the
EQUAL  programme  with  an  ESF  allocation  of  €29.9  million  corresponding  to  50%  of  the
total amount. Approximately 58% thereof will be concentrated on actions to integrate people
who  are  currently  suffering  some  form  of  exclusion  from  the  labour  market.  Despite  the
existence of the above programmes, their potential has not been referred to in the NAPincl.

84

GERMANY

Conclusions

Situation and key trends Germany has an employment centred system of social protection, which is
based on various social insurance schemes, providing insurance against the major life risks - old age,
illness, invalidity, the need for long-term care and unemployment - and, as a last resort safety net, on
the right for residents in Germany to social assistance. This guarantees to people who do not have an
adequate  income  the  basic  resources  for  meeting  their  economic,  social  and  cultural  needs.  Despite
favourable economic development in recent years (GDP growth in 2000: 3%), and an increase in the
number  of  employed  persons of  about  1.1  million  between  1998  and  2000,  Germany  is  confronted,
especially in the Eastern Länder, with persistent high levels of unemployment. The harmonised ECHP
data reveal that in 1997 14% of the German population lived in relative poverty (i.e. with an income
less  than  60%  of  the  national  median).  8%  of  Germans  were  in  this  situation  for  (at  least)  three
consecutive years.

Strategic  approach  The  NAP  adheres  explicitly  to  the  concept  of  a  'socially  fair  society'  and
combines the emerging ‘knowledge based society’ with the need of strengthening social cohesion. At
the same time the welfare state has to activate and to promote ('fördern und fordern'). Each person has
to be more responsible for him or her self and at the same time his or her participation in social life has
to be secured. The NAP especially emphasises the intention to avoid poverty cycles. The participation
of non-governmental actors is seen as a very important condition for solving social problems.

The publication of the first governmental Report on Poverty and Wealth in April 2001, emphasising
the multidimensionality of the phenomenon of social exclusion, was an important step towards a more
substantiated  public  discussion.  The  NAP/employment  is  considered  to  play  a  significant  role  in
tackling poverty and social excluison.

Policy  measures  The  NAP  focuses  on  four  priorities  in  fighting  poverty  and  social  exclusion:
integration into the labour market and qualifications, reconciliation of work and family life, assistance
for  the  most  vulnerable  groups  and  improved  efficiency  of  the  assistance  schemes  by  making  them
more targeted. The NAP provides an overview of the German system of social protection and refers to
many  existing  and  recently  introduced  as  well  as  some  planned  individual  measures  and  good
practices to implement these objectives. A full panoply of policy areas and risk groups is mentioned,
as well as specific help for them, but no explanations are given for most of the general commitments
on  how  more  inclusive  policies  will  be  translated  into  new  operational  arrangements.  Quantified
targets and monitoring mechanism capable of measuring progress are generally missing. No references
are made in the context of the 10 years perspective highlighted at the Lisbon summit to a longer term
strategic plan.

Challenges  ahead  The  major  challenges  ahead  are  the  fostering  of  integrated  inclusion  policies
related to people with problems entering into the labour market which will address this as a structural
rather than as a mere target group issue. In fighting poverty and social exclusion common efforts from
all  the  relevant  partners  in  the  fields  of  education,  vocational  training  and  lifelong  learning  are
essential. Particular attention has to be paid to the higher unemployment rate in the Eastern Länder and
its effects on poverty and social exclusion.

It is necessary to involve the regional and local level better in the development and implementation of
the  social  inclusion  process  in  order  to  enable  a  discussion  the  targets  and  initiatives  at  the  levels
appropriate to the German federal system.

85

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

Economic and employment growth in 2000 was (at 3% and 1.5% respectively) the highest in
10  years.  Unemployment  continued  to  fall  to  7.9%,  ,  but  the  long-term  unemployment  rate
(4.0%),  while  slowly  decreasing,  remained  above  the  EU  average.  The  groups  with  the
Unemployment  affects  in  particular  people  without  certified  education/vocational  training;
older  workers;  people  with  a  disability;  immigrants  –  especially  female  immigrants;  and
women  with  young  children  or  living  as  single  parents.  There  is  a  significant  gap  in  the
provision of childcare facilities both for children up to three years of age and for school age
children  in  the  Western  Länder.  Employment  growth  and  unemployment  decline  are
concentrated  in  Western  Germany,  where  certain  regions  show  nearly  full  employment,
whereas  in  many  regions  of  the  Eastern  Länder  job  growth  is  stagnant  and  unemployment
remains high.

According  to  the  ESSPROS  data,  Germany  spends  29.3%  of  its  GDP  on  social  protection
compared to the EU15 average of 27.7% (1998 data). Measured as expenditure per capita in
Purchasing  Power  Standards  (PPS),  the  German  expenditure  on  social  protection,  at  6459
PPS, is significantly above the EU15 average of 5532 PPS.

The  comprehensive  social  protection  system  in  Germany  explains  to  a  large  extent  why
relative poverty has been kept low despite the labour market problems. According to ECHP
(European  Community  Household  Panel)  data,  in  1997  14%  of  the  population  lived  on  an
income below 60% of the national income median, a lower rate than the EU average of 18%.
The  persistent  relative  poverty  rate  was  8%.  According  to  the  1998  wave  of  the  national
German  panel  survey  (SOEP),  in  the  western  German  Länder  13.0%  of  the  German,  but
25.4%  of  the  non-German  citizens,  lived  in  relative  poverty.  These  income  disparities
increased during the 1990's.

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the  degree  of
satisfaction of basic needs.

Some of the key challenges are the following:

– 

– 

– 

Half of all non-Germans (compared to one quarter of German citizens) do not have
any certificated vocational qualification or education. The gaps for those between 20
and 29 years old widens to one in three of the non-Germans compared to ‘only’ one
in twelve German citizens.

There  are  still  regional  income  disparities  between  the  old  and  the  new  German
Länder.  The  1998  German  Income  and  Consumption  Survey  (EVS)  of  the
Statistische Bundesamt reveals a rate of persons in households with an income below
60% of the national median threshold of 11.0% in the 'old' Länder, but of 18.7% in
the 'new' Länder (12.5% overall at the national level).

In addition, Eastern Germany is characterised by specific challenges such as the high
structural  unemployment  and  the  need  for  well  established  public  and  private
infrastructures.

86

– 

In December 1998, 3.5% of the population and 4.0% of households received social
assistance, in other word 'regular assistance towards living expenses'. More than one
in four single parent households (28 %) rely on social assistance.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

On the basis of an activating and promoting welfare state, the NAP focuses on four priorities
in fighting poverty and social exclusion: integration into the labour market and qualification,
reconciliation  of  work  and  family  life,  assistance  for  the  most  vulnerable  groups  and
improved  efficiency  of  the  assistance  schemes  by  making  them  more  targeted.  Due  to  the
federal structure, both the federal and the Länder level have been consulted in the elaboration
of  the  NAP.  The  Länder,  and  within  them  the  municipalities,  are  responsible  for  tackling
poverty  and  social  exclusion.  The  federal  level  is  mainly  responsible  for  promoting
participation  and  access  for  all  to  the  labour  market,  with  the  Public  Employment  Service
responsible for managing/implementing unemployment and assistance legislation.

The Länder are responsible for education, culture as well as for financing and implementation
of social assistance  and also, to some  extent,  for  vocational  training  ,  lifelong  learning,  and
housing. This leads to differing strategies regionally and locally.

In  this  context  and  at  this  stage  the  Bundesrat,  the  Chamber  of  the  German  Länder,  has
adopted a resolution calling for the respect of the share of competencies as defined in the EU
Treaty and expressing scepticism towards the setting up of quantified national targets or sub-
targets in the NAP. As a result of time constraints, the NAP reports predominantly on policies
and  measures  for  more  activation  and  better  integrated  approaches,  which  were  already
implemented or which are on their way. Only a few commitments are genuinely related to the
NAP/incl itself.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The  first  official  report  on  poverty  and  wealth  underlines  the  poverty  risks  linked  with  the
situation  in  respect  of  employment,  education  and  family  .  Therefore,  the  groups  most
vulnerable  to  social  exclusion  are  the  unemployed,  people  with  low  qualifications,  single
parents and families with three and more children, as well as immigrants including re-settlers.
However,  the  NAP  could  have  focused  more  on  initiatives  to  tackle  non-integrated
departmental  policies  and  foster  coherent  territorial  approaches.  A  strategy  for  the  specific
problems of the Eastern Länder in terms of poverty and social exclusion needs to be further
developed.  Explanations  are  lacking  in  the  general  commitments  on  how  more  inclusive
policies  will  be  translated  into  new  operational  arrangements.  The  implementation  of
strategies  to  provide  more  and  better  childcare  facilities  remains  unclear.  Few  new
commitments  beyond  the  two  years  perspective  of  the  current  NAP  have  been  done  (e.g.
pension  reform,  part  time  legislation,  Labour  Market  activation)  and  proposals  on  the  mid-
term strategy for integrated approaches are only at their very beginning. Reference to the 10
years perspective highlighted at the Lisbon summit is not sufficiently pronounced.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  NAP  reports  predominantly  on  policies  and  measures  for  more  activation  and  better
integrated approaches, which were already implemented in the present and partly also in the
coming  year.  Many  new  initiatives  are  pilot  measures  in  limited  test  regions  or  in  one
municipality.

87

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The need for better co-ordination of departmental policies has been debated for years between
the stakeholders and it is also widely recognised in the NAP. But due to the federal structure,
the  consultation  process  between  the  national,  regional  and  local  authorities  and  the  other
partners takes place within the framework and the procedures foreseen by Germany's federal
structure. This issue is related to the rather complex debate on the division public expenditure
and  receipts  between  the  federal  level  and  the  Länder  as  well  as  the  latter's  political
autonomy.

2.4. 

Compatibility of strategic approaches in relation to National Action Plan/empl

The NAPincl intends to complement the NAPempl in promoting 'access to stable and quality
employment for all women and men who are capable of working' in particular for long-term
unemployed  persons  in  receipt  of  social  assistance,  people  with  low  qualifications,  people
with  disabilities  and  immigrants.  As  regards  the  participation  of  (in  particular  young)
immigrants in education and training measures, the NAPincl specifies that their share should
be raised to their respective share of all unemployed. Examples are mentioned on four local
pilot  projects  for  initiatives  targeted  on  youth  in  the  period  2001  –  2003,  but  generally,  no
quantified sub-targets are given the implementation of the objective of equal participation of
immigrants  in  training  and  qualification  measures.  This  should  be  addressed  in  the
implementation of the NAPempl 2002.

Quantified  sub-targets  on  measures  to  reconcile  work  and  family  life  are  lacking  in  both
NAPs.

Synergies between the two NAPs could be expected in the fields of continuous training and
lifelong learning, where the NAPincl stands for a more integrated approach to reaching people
with poor qualifications and other groups with the greatest needs.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

The  NAP  focuses  on  improving  co-operation  between  the  PES  and  the  social  assistance
administration  aiming  at  more  efficient  assistance  to  help  people  integrate  into  the  labour
market  and  simpler  bureaucratic  procedures.  The  contribution  of  education  and  life  long
learning  policies  to  this  goal  remains,  however,  unclear.  For  those  with  low  qualification
levels or lacking key basic and IT skills, and who experience the tension between the aim of
lifelong  employment  and  the  reality  of  numerous  breaks  in  their  individual  labour  market
careers,  the  answer  seems  still  to  lie  in  partly  supplementary  and  only  partly  connected
measures – the risk of the "Learning Divide" remains high. There is also a major initiative to
foster the integration of persons with a disability into the labour market ('50.000 new jobs for
the disabled'). Schemes providing tailor-made services for disabled persons by means of 'job
assistance' ('Arbeitsassistenz') are intended to be mainstreamed to the whole of Germany.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

The government has formulated the aim of a need-oriented basic income, which will improve
the existing system of  'cost  of  living assistance' and intends  to  achieve it  step  by step. As a
first  step  the  recent  reform  of  the  pension  system  includes  provisions,  which  have  made
access  to  financial  assistance  easier  for  elderly  people  in  need.  A  housing  benefit  reform

88

intends  to  make  the  scheme  more  family-friendly.  Attention  is  given  towards  structural
improvements of health-care provision for immigrants (Ethnomedical Centre Hannover).

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

Apart  from  specific  measures  for  people  with  disabilities,  only  few  proposals  are  made  on
how other disadvantaged groups can be reached by the ICT promotion campaigns launched in
1999  and  2000.  On  preventing  homelessness,  the  NAP  reports  on  the  possibility  to
temporarily  pay  rent  of  tenants  in  difficulties.  In  order  to  increase  the  quality  of  advice
provided  by  debt  counselling  agencies,  quality  standards  for  further  training  in  debt
counselling are being drawn up which will apply throughout the country. However, it seems
important to ensure the necessary financial support for these information centres.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Objective  3  focuses  on  disabled  persons,  immigrants  and  persons  with  particular  social
problems. More commitments beyond the two years perspective of the current NAP should be
made  in  order  to  support  integrated  approaches  and  structural  reforms.  There  is  a  lack  of
information on some fields of problems and individuals at risk, e.g. the whole area of people
with addictions to legal or illegal drugs.

The large scale programme 'The Social City' ('Soziale Stadt') goes in the direction of a better
integrated territorial approach to fighting social exclusion in an urban context.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The NAP process included repeated consultations of the relevant partners from the federal and
regional administrations with representatives of the social partners, civil society and  experts
from the academic world. Thus it continued the co-operation established by the consultative
board  for  the  'Report  on  Poverty  and  Wealth'.  The  challenge  ahead  is  to  organise  this
collaboration  in  such  a  way  as  to  fostering  integrated  and  innovative  approaches  in
implementing the Nice objectives.

4. 

ASSESSMENT OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The NAP emphasises the general objectives for increasing female labour market participation
and for reconciling work and family life. However, it does not contain specific information on
how it is intended to increase female labour market participation and how the specific needs
of  people  threatened  by  exclusion  will  be  taken  into  account  in  the  promotion  of  part-time
work,  affordable  and  quality  (full  day)  childcare  facilities  or  long-term  health  and  care
services for family members.

The  NAP  refers  explicitly  to  gender  mainstreaming  only  in  the  context  of  the  initiative
‘Soziale  Stadt’  ('The  Social  City')  within  the  territorial  approach  of  combating  social
exclusion.  But  in  most  cases,  specific  measures  to  overcome  barriers  for  disadvantaged
women  are  missing.  Gender  aspects  will  be  taken  into  account  in  the  implementation  of
measures for people with a disability, in the context of child and youth welfare, education and
regarding  immigrants.  However,  in  promoting  ICT  qualifications  the  40%  target  for  female
participation in all ICT fields should be broken down by occupational categories.

A new law intends to further reduce the housing problems of victims of domestic violence.

89

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

The total ESF intervention by the federal and Länder level amounts to € 10.809 billion under
Objective 3 and € 8.805  billion  under  Objective  1.  Objective  1  interventions  closely  follow
the  structure  and  thrust  of  the  objective  3  SPD.  Under  policy  field  b  ('a  society  without
exclusion')  the  ESF  support  amounts  to  19.9%  (€  2.107  billion  and  22.1%  (€  1.29  billion)
respectively, which is concentrated on fighting long-term unemployment and to improve the
job chances for vulnerable groups on the labour market. In addition, a proportion of the 10%
of  the  total  ESF  allocation  in  policy  field  e  ('to  improve  opportunities  for  women')  will  be
earmarked for social inclusion objectives.

The Community Initiative EQUAL, with a total budget in Germany of € 979 million aims at
new  solutions  for  the  further  development  of  employment  and  vocational  training  schemes,
actions and practice, focusing on inclusive and  preventive actions to  combat discrimination,
inequality and exclusion in relation to the labour market. Not only gender mainstreaming, but
also the fight against racism and xenophobia is regarded as horizontal issues to be integrated
in all nine thematic fields.

Despite  the  existence  of  the  above  programmes,  the  NAP  refers  only  to  three  measures  co-
financed by the ESF and to one HORIZON project from the last ESF programming period but
does not give an overview on the support from the ESF.

90

GREECE

Conclusions

Situation and key trends In Greece a safety net of social and welfare provisions based on uniform
principles is in the process of gradually evolving. Social policy has been dominated by non-targeted
cash benefits, but this is changing as a result of recent steps. As regards facilities and programmes for
open  social  care  and  protection,  there  is  still  room  for  improvement  in  relation  to  planning,
implementation structures and delivery services. The harmonised ECHP data show that in 1997, 22%
of the Greek population had an income less than 60% of the national median, while the percentage of
persons living in relative poverty continuously throughout 1995-97 was 11%.

Despite successfully joining the EMU and continuous good economic performance, Greece continues
to exhibit a low employment rate and high levels of unemployment. As a result of the problems in the
labour market, and of structural developments - such as the change from a rural to an urban society,
the ageing of the population, the weakening of family support mechanisms and the strong immigration
flows, poverty and social exclusion continue to represent a serious challenge.

Strategic  approach  The  NAPincl  is  structured  along  three  strands:  General  policies,  Specialised
policies  and  Administrative  interventions.  In  this  context,  three  policy  responses  are  proposed
addressing: a) the needs (i.e. the demand) for social policy raised by existing and emerging problems
that are linked to unemployment and the transition to new economic conditions, b) the delivery (i.e.
the  supply)  of  social  policy  through  the  adaptation  of the  administrative  structures to serve  the  new
role  of  social  policy,  and  c)  new  ways  of  information  handling  (both  statistical  indicators  and
administrative information). This framework, although effectively identifies the key challenges, could
benefit from clearer and specific strategic objectives and targets.

Policy measures The Greek NAPincl includes a great number of policy measures, distributed across
the  four  common  objectives.  Particular  emphasis  has  been  put  on  measures  serving  Objective  1.1,
most of which are already included in the Greek NAPempl, and on a great variety of social assistance
schemes ("cash" benefits), which go some way towards meeting the goals of Objective 1.2. The reach
of measures under this heading is extended by three new measures to be implemented in January 2002.
The  measures  presented  under  objectives  2  and  3  appear  to  be  fragmented,  while  those  under
Objective 4 focus on establishing the preconditions for involving all actors. The effort to promote e-
inclusion is reflected in certain measures of broad scope, which nevertheless should be mainstreamed.
Overall, some measures contain innovative elements, while the gender mainstreaming approach does
not  run  through  all  the  measures  of  the  NAPincl,  the  exception  being  those  under  Objective  1.1.
Furthermore,  the  dispersion  of  policy  measures  within  different  policy  areas,  although  reflecting  an
effort to move towards an integrated approach, requires the development of appropriate mechanisms
and  the  mobilisation  of  all  stakeholders  in  the  social  policy  area  to  ensure  such  an  approach  is
achieved, areas in which the necessity for action is foreseen.

Challenges ahead The major challenge lying ahead is to elaborate and implement specific policies to
improve the interventions in the social protection area in favour of all those citizens at risk of social
exclusion  and  poverty,  thereby  promoting  their  social  inclusion.  Other  major  challenges  are  to
promote the employment prospects of the most vulnerable population groups, given the link between
unemployment  and  situations  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  and  the  need  for  a  major  pensions
reform to safeguard pensions adequacy and sustainability in the long term.

91

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

According to the data presented in the Greek NAPincl27, the relative poverty rate was 17% in
1988,  18.4%  in  1994  and  17.3%  in  1999.  This  suggests  that  relative  poverty  has  been  kept
stable despite fast structural change in the economy and in society. According to ECHP data,
however, the relative poverty rate was 22% both in 1995 and in 1997.

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the  degree  of
satisfaction of basic needs.

Greece  continues  to  exhibit  a  low  employment  rate  and  high  levels  of  unemployment.
Unemployment in Greece is still higher than the EU -15 average (2000: 11,1% versus 8,2%)
and it continues to be an issue which particularly affects women and the young people.

The existing forms of public provision of social, welfare and support services in Greece have
to be adapted  to meet the increasing  and multidimensional needs in  this  field. According to
the  ESSPROS  data  from  Eurostat,  Greece  has  increased  social  protection  expenditure  and
spent  24.5%  of  GDP  on  social  protection  in  1998  (EU-15  average  of  27.7%).  Measured  as
expenditure per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS), expenditure on social protection
in Greece, at 3139 PPS, is below the EU-15 average of 5532 PPS, due to its lower levels of
productive  capacity.  More  than  half  of  social  expenditures  are  devoted  to  old  age  and
survivors pensions (52.6 % in comparison to 45.7% in EU-15), thereby leaving comparatively
less resources for funding other social transfers.

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

The  main  challenge  lying  ahead,  especially  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  the  Greek
family's  role  of  solidarity  is  tending  to  retreat,  is  to  preserve  social  cohesion  by
pursuing specific policies in the social protection area in favour of all those citizens
at risk of social exclusion and poverty. This is clearly stated in the Greek NAPincl as
being both the major challenge and policy priority.

Another challenge which is acknowledged by the NAPincl, is to further increase the
range  and  quality  of  Social  Welfare  services,  which  is  likely  to  lead  to  further
increases in their importance as a percentage of GDP.

The NAPincl places great emphasis on the activating and preventing policy measures
already  planned  or  being  implemented  under  the  Greek  NAP  for  Employment.
Therefore, fighting unemployment and  promoting  employment  is  a  major  challenge
of the Greek NAPincl.

Despite  the  good  economic  performance  that  the  country  continues  to  show  since
1996, Greece continues to face the challenge of addressing geographical inequalities,
in order to reinforce social cohesion.

Early school-leaving (especially young persons with “physical”, “mental” or “social”
disabilities), while it has fallen in recent years, remains a challenge given its strong
intra-generational poverty links.

27

Data derived from National Household Expenditure Survey, using disposable income and the poverty
line as 60% of the national median.

92

                                                
– 

– 

Improvement  of  housing  conditions  of  some  low  income  households  continues  to
need special attention.

Another area of concern, is the need for a major pensions reform. The reorganisation
of  the  social  security  system  is  of  major  importance,  as,  given  both  the  current
financial situation and the future challenges of an ageing population, it is necessary
for  safeguarding  continued  pension  adequacy  in  the  long  termPromoting  a
multicultural society through smooth integration of immigrants is a challenge and a
priority of the NAPincl.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  strategic  framework  in  the  NAPincl  aiming  at  preserving  social  cohesion  is  structured
along three strands: General policies, with strong influences on social magnitudes and social
relations,  Specialised  policies,  with  particular  objectives  and  separate  instruments  and
Administrative  interventions  so  as  to  broaden  the  range  of  choices.  In  this  context,  three
policy  adjustments  are  proposed:  a)  to  the  needs  (the  demand)  for  social  policy  to  address
mainly  new  problems  which  are  linked  to  unemployment,  the  transition  to  new  economic
conditions and to global realignments, b) at the delivery (the supply) of social policy through
the adaptation of the administrative structures to serve the new role of the social policy, and c)
to  obtain  new  ways  of  information  handling  (both  statistical  indicators  and  administrative
information).Overall, the NAPincl moves along four strategic directions: (1) continued macro
economic  expansion,  (2)  employment  policy  aimed  against  unemployment  and  in  favour  of
flexibility  in  the  labour  market  (aiding  women  and  low  income  groups),  (3)  a  series  of
reforms  in  areas  linked  to  exclusion  (Health,  Welfare,  Education,  social  security,  public
administration,  decentralisation),  (4)  and  three  new  targeted  initiatives  to  be  introduced  in
January 2002.

The  NAPincl  focuses  on  selected  target  groups,  due  to  an  assessment  that,  given  current
constraints, swifter progress towards the goal of a safety net should be achieved in this way.
This  approach  could  be  aided  by  a  clearer  identification  of  groups  at  greatest  risk  of  social
exclusion  (regarding  size,  composition,  employment,  housing  conditions,  etc)  and  of
geographical  areas  at  risk  –  which  is  lacking.  There  is  therefore  scope  for  further
improvements in this respect.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

Although  efforts  are  made  to  reshape  and  elaborate  policies  so  as  to  address  emerging
problems  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  the  NAPincl  does  not  provide  any  quantified
objective. The insufficient quantitative information in the NAP undermines the elaboration of
a more comprehensive and better-structured action plan. Consequently, there is a strong need
for the acquisition of hard evidence through better statistical data and analysis, a need which
is acknowledged in chapter IV of the NAPincl. These are essential to ensure the follow up and
evaluation of the policy measures of the NAPincl.

Pensions make up the bulk of social transfers. Other social  transfers  contribute significantly
less to the alleviation of relative income poverty. The newly introduced measures of income
transfers to poor households  (i.e.  those  living in  mountainous  areas,  with  children  at  school
and,  the  long-term  unemployed)  may  contribute  to  improve  this  situation.  .  Besides,  in
considering  the  criteria  for  the  extent  of  coverage  of  the  various  functions  of  the  welfare

93

system, two parameters are considered crucial: the level of the benefits and the number of the
beneficiaries. For these reasons, the evaluation of the impact of the measures is essential.

Overall, the NAPincl makes it clear that, Greece has neither adopted an official definition of a
poverty line nor a universal minimum guaranteed income. This explains the co-existence of a
great  variety  of  income  transfer  schemes  to  certain  population  groups  (e.g.  persons  with
disabilities,  unemployed  people,  ex-prisoners,  uninsured  women,  etc.).  The  unification  and
application of uniform criteria to the disparate benefits remains a task for the future.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  NAPincl  contains  a  few  new  targeted  initiatives  to  be  implemented  in  January  2002:
income support to households living in mountainous and less favoured areas, cash benefits to
the long-term unemployed aged 45-65 and benefits to families with children of ages up to 16
years  at  school.  Also  certain  measures  presented  mainly  under  Objectives  2  and  3  are
characterised by innovative elements and approaches. One should highlight in particular  the
drawing  up  of  a  map  for  the  supply  and  demand  of  social  care  services  at  the  regional  and
local levels, which will be linked with the integrated geographical information system to be
developed for both health and social care.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The establishment of the mechanisms and arrangements required to ensure co-ordinated and
integrated approaches is a priority. The government has made a commitment to set up those
mechanisms. In addition, bottom-up and user-oriented approaches and adequate participation
in the decision making processes still need to be further developed.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

The Greek NAPincl includes a great number of policy measures, which are distributed across
the  four  common  objectives  and  include  various  forms  such  as:  actions,  legislative  acts,
planned  reforms  in  various  policy  areas,  extension  of  existing  measures,  financial  benefits,
etc.

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

Particular emphasis is placed by the NAPincl on measures  and  actions  that serve Objective
1.1  “Facilitating  participation  in  employment”,  the  vast  majority  of  which  are  measures
included already in the Greek NAPempl 2001. However, while the NAPincl contains a series
of  targeted  actions  that  can  contribute  to  greater  access  to  the  labour  market  for  particular
targeted  groups  given  the  scale  of  unemployment  problem,  a  crucial  factor  for  their  likely
effectiveness  would  be  the  progress  of  the  large  scale  restructuring  of  OAED  which  is
underway  and  the  establishment  of  a  well  organised  system  of  identifying,  reporting,  and
monitoring the flows into and out of unemployment.  In  addition,  particular  attention should
be  paid  to  measures  aiming  to  provide  guidance  and  social  support  tailored  to  individual
needs.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

Under  Objective  1.2  "Facilitating  access  to  resources,  rights,  goods  and  services"  the
NAPincl  also  places  emphasis  on  a  wide  range  of  social  assistance  schemes  (benefits  “in
cash”), which serve only partially this objective.  In  addition, there is no  general scheme for

94

long-term unemployment compensation in Greece, while there is a danger that some  groups
experiencing poverty may not be eligible for income support. As to the rest of this objective’s
measures (rights, goods and services) these are based mainly on planned  general  reforms of
systems  e.g.  education,  health,  social  protection,  etc.  which  are  designed  to  improve,  inter-
alia, equal access. One question is whether these kinds of reforms are able to meet the special
needs of the disadvantaged persons or population groups. It is worth noting that there are no
evident links between Objectives 1.1. and 1.2.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

As  regards  the  measures  presented  under  Objective  2,  “To  prevent  the  risks  of  exclusion”,
although  they  cover  most  population  groups  at  risk,  they  appear  to  be  fragmented  and  not
linked to any measures presented under the rest of the Objectives. Some of the programmes
presented  such  as  the  "Social  Support  and  Training  Centres  for  disabled  individuals",  the
"Development  and  expansion  of  the  "Psychargos"  Mental  Health  programme"  and  the
"Integrated urban development interventions" include innovative elements especially by being
based  on  an  integrated  approach.  As  to  the  actions  promoting  eInclusion,  these  are  mainly
focusing on education and training.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Under  Objective  3,  “To  help  the  most  vulnerable”,  a  number  of  measures  are  proposed,
mainly through the provision of support in intercultural educational problems, while there is
no  evident  link  between  the  actions  foreseen  and  the  accompanying  social  support  services
that are needed for the specific groups. The policy pursued is based more on a target group.
However, structural reforms will also be important if social cohesion is to be prevented. Most
of  the  measures  are  targeted  at  specific  population  groups.  Here  again,  there  are  some
measures  which  can  be  characterised  as  innovative,  being  underpinned  by  an  integrated
approach,  such  as  the  Integrated  Action  Plan  for  ROM  (gypsies)  which  combines
infrastructural investment with investment in human and social capital.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The measures presented under Objective 4 “To mobilise all relevant bodies”,  include plans
necessary  for  the  monitoring  and  implementation  of  the  NAPincl,  as  well  as  measures
improving  Governance  and  administrative  capacity.  Hence  those  measures  relevance  to  this
objective is  indirect. For  some of them  there  is no immediate  link  with  this  objective  while
some  others  seem  to  take  a  long  time  before  are  put  into  effect.  The  rest  of  the  measures
referring to the strengthening of voluntary activities under a planning process. The intention
to set up a Network of Support Services to vulnerable population groups at the Municipality
level is promising.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

While  the  intention  to  adopt  a  gender  mainstreaming  approach  is  clearly  expressed,  the
NAPincl lacks a comprehensive strategy based on a systematic analysis of the problems faced
by  women  in  Greece  as  well  as  a  monitoring  of  the  changes  that  are  taking  place.  In  this
respect little is added to the gender mainstreaming actions announced in the NAP/empl. Some
measures are presented in favour of the most vulnerable groups such as the post-release care
programmes for female ex-prisoners.

95

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Throughout the NAPincl only a few general references are made to the Greek CSF 2000-2006
and  to  the  EQUAL  Community  Initiative,  and  no  figures  are  provided  at  the  level  of
objectives  or  measures  regarding  the  contribution  of  the  Structural  Funds  or  of  the  ESF  in
particular. However, a large number of measures especially those under Nice Objectives 1.1,
2, 3 and less so under Objective 4, implicitly entail an ESF contribution.

The ESF is active in Greece in the area of social inclusion mainly through the strengthening
of employability and integration of vulnerable groups, including facilitation of  access to the
education and health systems. The ESF's support is reflected mainly in the co-financing of the
Operational  Programmes  “Employment  and  Vocational  Training”,  “Education  and  Initial
Training”  and  "Health  and  Welfare".  Support  is  also  provided  by  the  ERDF  for  related
infrastructure and equipment.

In  addition,  the  EQUAL  OP  for  Greece  aimed  at  promoting  and  testing  new  ways  of
combating the discrimination and inequalities faced by the most disadvantaged in the labour
market  (young  people,  women,  those  without  educational  qualifications,  ethnic  minorities,
people with disabilities, older workers, refugees, ex-offenders, drugs and alcohol abusers and
asylum seekers) relies heavily on the ESF's support.

96

SPAIN

Conclusions

Situation  and  key  trends  The  Spanish  welfare  state  has  improved  very  significantly  over  the  past  20
years. The rapid  growth of  social protection  expenditure (at  a  faster rate than  GDP  and  the  total  public
expenditure) has allowed Spain to build up a social protection system based on access to education, health
and social benefits, in particular pensions for the elderly. The traditional tax-paid occupational protection
system has moved towards a mixed system that also provides publicly funded social assistance benefits. In
the past ten years, social protection has broadened its scope to cover the most vulnerable persons with the
progressive implementation of social assistance schemes as a final safety net. The unemployment rate in
Spain,  despite  steady  improvements  over  the  last  5  years,  remains  high  at  14,1%.  According  to  the
harmonised  ECHP  data  (1997),  19%  of  the  Spanish  population  lived  on  an  income  below  60%  of  the
median income. The recent trends show that homeless people, immigrants, their children and single-parent
households are the socially most vulnerable groups, and that the major cause of exclusion is the lack of
employment.

Strategic  approach  The  Spanish  authorities  consider  exclusion  to  be  a  multidimensional  phenomenon,
which  makes  the  mobilisation  of stakeholders  much  more  difficult and  can  therefore,  make  it  harder  to
implement  a  consistent  inclusion  policy.  In  that  context,  the  current  Plan  presents  a  catalogue  of  the
different existing measures and planned improvements that are designed to deal with inclusion. The key
strategic  priority  of  this  Plan  is  the  mobilisation  of  the  public  authorities  at  different  levels,  the  social
partners  and  the  NGOs.  This  achievement  should  open  the  way  in  the  future  to  present  a  Plan  where
measures will be much more integrated than in the present Plan.

Policy  measures  Spain  addresses  the  four  Objectives.  The  Spanish  response  to  the  social  inclusion
challenges focuses  mainly  on  the employment  component  of  social  protection, in  particular through  the
pension  systems  for  retired  workers  and  people  with  disabilities.  This  is  aimed  to  ensure  an  acceptable
level of protection for the elderly and the most vulnerable groups of the population. The other important
strand  of  social  protection  concerns  the  minimum  income  as  the  last  safety  net  for  those  people,  in
particular young people and older unemployed persons below pension age, who should be integrated into
the  labour  market.  Traditionally  the  Spanish  Authorities  have  a  targeted  approach  based  on  strong
specialised  public  institutes  rather than an integrated  approach.  Access to  new  technologies,  in  order  to
avoid exclusion from the information society, is also developed in the Plan.

Challenges  ahead  Co-ordination  and  co-operation  between  the  different  administrative  levels  will  be
required  to  define  a  minimum  standard  of  measures  in  order  to  tackle  the  inclusion  issue  in  a  more
homogenous  way  throughout  the  national  territory.  The  Central  and  Autonomous  Administrations  are
committed to all of the Autonomous Communities elaborating their own regional Plans, as is already the
case in several regions and in particular in Navarra. Another important challenge is to respond to severe
forms  of  poverty.  Relatively  recent  forms  of  exclusion  such  as  those  experienced  by  adult  and  child
immigrants, the homeless and the mentally ill deserve special attention. Finally, the improvement of the
indicators related to exclusion, and the implementation of regional plans against exclusion, should in the
near future be further developed.

97

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

Over  the  past  20  years,  the  Spanish  social  protection  system  has  experienced  changes  that
represent a move from the traditional tax-paid occupational protection system, towards  a mixed
system that also provides publicly funded social assistance benefits. This social protection system
refers  mainly  to  the  minimum  income  benefit,  health  protection,  unemployment  and  old-age
benefits and labour market integration and is tending to become universal in scope. It is important
to note that the minimum income guarantee is not based on a homogeneous national scheme as
there are different regional systems that provide different levels of benefits.

The  Spanish  economic  situation  has  improved  in  2000  with  GDP  growing  by  4,1%.  This  has
contributed in particular to an increased employment rate and reduced unemployment. Although
the employment rate increased from 47,1% in 1996 to 55% in 2000, it remains well below the EU
average of 63%. Despite the significant increase in female employment, there is still a 30 percent
gender  gap.  Despite  steady  improvements  over  the  last  5  years,  the  unemployment  rate  is,  at
14,1%,  still  the  highest  in  the  EU.  Again  there  is  an  important  gender  gap  as  the  female
unemployment  rate  is  double  the  male  rate.  Other  specific  issues  in  Spain  are  the  high  youth
unemployment rate and the long-term unemployment rate, at 11,4% and 5,9% respectively.

According to the ESSPROS data from Eurostat, Spain spends 21,6% of GDP in social protection
compared with  the  EU  15  average  of  27,7%  (1998  data).  Expenditure  per  capita  in  Purchasing
Power Standards (PPS) is at 3224 PPS in Spain, compared with the EU15 average of 5532 PPS.
According  to  the  harmonised  ECHP  data  (1997),  19%  of  the  Spanish  population  lived  on  an
income  below  60%  of  the  median  income  (relative  poverty  rate).  The  rate  of  persons  living  in
poverty continuously for the 3 years 1995-1997 was 8% (ECHP data).

However,  low  income  is  just  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty,  and  in  order  to  measure  and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant aspects such access to employment, housing, healthcare and the degree of satisfaction of
basic needs.

Some of the key challenges are the following:

– 

– 

– 

– 

To ensure a minimum standardised assistance throughout the whole national territory, as
the way social inclusion is dealt with differs significantly across different Autonomous
Communities;

To ensure closer co-ordination between active employment policies and social inclusion
policies;

To focus on the key vulnerable groups such as homeless people, immigrants and single-
parent  families,  as  these  groups  accumulate  disadvantageous  situations  such  as
unemployment, low educational skills, bad housing conditions, disabilities, etc.

To  respond  to  the  need  to  provide  social  protection  to  retired  persons  and  those  with
disabilities.

98

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  NAPincl  presents  the  overall  picture  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  and  the  different
existing measures and planned improvements that are designed to deal with this issue. This task
required  the  involvement  of  a  large  number  of  different  partners  at  central,  regional  and  local
level.  In  the  institutional  context  of  Spain,  the  NAPincl  is  necessarily  more  an  overview  of
different measures, than a single integrated plan. Still it should be considered as a considerable
achievement.

The  NAP  does  not  clearly  indicate  key  or  quantified  objectives.  However,  it  can  be  deducted
from  the  detailed  financial  figures  presented  in  the  Plan,  that  pension  and  minimum  income
schemes  are  the  major  instruments  to  combat  exclusion.  The  mobilisation  of  stakeholders  is  a
strategic objective that will allow improving the efficiency of the inclusion policy.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

As it is possible to deduce from the financial breakdown, almost 90% of the resources indicated
in the NAPincl are aimed at ensuring the minimum pension complement, and 10% to promoting
labour-market integration. In that context, the priority is to ensure income support for people that
are outside the labour market such as elderly people, and persons with disabilities.

The  other  10%  is  mostly  used  to  tackle  issues  indirectly  related  to  poverty,  such  as  housing
conditions, health, education etc, or to support specific target groups. The measures included in
these  categories  are  well  defined,  as  they  correspond  to  actions  implemented  by  specialised
public bodies.

The  lack  of  quantified  targets  is  a  weak  point  in  the  NAP.  The  improvement  of  the  indicators
related  to  exclusion,  which  should  also  cover  the  gender  aspects,  is  necessary  to  have  a  better
understanding of the social exclusion process and to encourage the adaptation of social policy to
new  trends.  It  is  important  to  note  that  for  each  Objective  there  is  a  description  of  a  set  of
initiatives that will be implemented in the next two years, in order to improve policies related to
social inclusion.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  most  innovative  content  of  the  NAPincl  is  the  mobilisation  of  stakeholders  as  described
under  Objective  4.  Although  under  the  other  Objectives  there  is  a  description  of  the  initiatives
planned for the next two years, these refer in  general to the improvement of existing measures.
The  mobilisation  of  all  stakeholders  in  the  field  of  social  inclusion  can  be  seen  as  the  way  to
promote  awareness  of  this  specific  issue  as  well  as  to  foster  systemic  changes  that  will  enable
building up a more integrated approach.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The decentralised administration of Spain implies that most of the elements described in the Plan
fall under the competencies of the Autonomous Communities. The "Ministerio de Presidencia" is
responsible  for  co-ordinating  the  elaboration,  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  the  Plan.  In  that
context it  would  be  appropriate  to  assess  at  the  regional  level  the  extent  to  which  the  different
measures are co-ordinated and integrated. In addition, most of the public bodies in Spain in the

99

field  of  social  affairs  are  strongly  organised  around  target  groups,  which  means  that  a  holistic
approach to social inclusion will only be possible through strong co-operation and co-ordination.
It is clear from the actions described under Objective 4 that huge efforts are been undertaken to
address this issue.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  the  strategic  approach  in  relation  to  the  National  Action
Plan/empl

The two  NAPs are closely  linked as regards  the  employment  measures.  This  is  particularly  the
case  in  the  Objective  1  measures  that  are  designed  on  one  hand  to  guarantee  unemployment
benefits to the  beneficiaries  and  on  another  hand  to  promote  labour  market  integration  through
vocational training. This Plan includes the estimated allocation of funds of the NAP employment
that are devoted to the most vulnerable persons.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1.

Facilitating participation in employment

The main emphasis is given to insertion schemes that combine employment and training as well
as employment subsidies. The target group of this objective is the LTU. The Active Income for
Insertion involves both the public employment service and the social services.  It is designed to
ensure  a  minimum  income  and  to  provide  assistance  in  order  to  foster  the  integration  of
beneficiaries into the labour market. As this measure is managed by the central administration it
would  be  interesting  to  evaluate  its  synergies  with  similar  schemes  for  Integration  managed  at
regional level.

3.2.

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

The  priority  is  given  to  ensuring  access  to  minimum  resources,  which  represents  65%  of  the
expenditure under this Objective and 32% of the whole NAP. The main beneficiaries are mostly
the retired or the persons with a disability. The other priorities of this Objective are educational
measures  especially  for  those  who  do  not  have  a  minimal  educational  background,  which
represents 12% of this  objective. Also representing 12%, the health  measures focus mainly on
integrated  services,  which  encompass  social,  and  health  services,  regional  and 
local
administrations  tackling  the  problem  of  care  for  chronic  illnesses,  and  on  the  National  Plan
against Drugs. Finally, 10% is allocated to social services and housing.

3.3.

To prevent the risks of exclusion

One of the strands of this Objective concerns the implementation of Inclusion Plans at regional
level. So far only 8 Autonomous Communities have presented a Plan, though by the end of 2003
all the Autonomous Communities, as well as the biggest municipalities will have their own plans.
The NAPincl does not specify any financial support for these Plans, nevertheless this should be
considered  as  a  starting  point.  Another  strand  of  this  Objective  is  "family  solidarity".  These
measures  focus  mainly  on  dependent  persons  and  childcare,  and  benefit  from  a  clear  financial
support.

100

As regards access to new technologies, the Plan recognises the role new technologies can play in
helping  NGOs  and  set  out  a  number  of  initiatives  to  provide  them  with  ICT  equipment  and  to
stimulate multimedia networks. It is also worth noting the intention to promote new technologies
for the development of teleworking in groups with social difficulties. However, one should also
note that 9,8 million  people  are  described  as  having  difficulties  in  accessing  new  technologies,
which means that this issue goes beyond the specific area of social exclusion.

3.4

To help the most vulnerable

The priorities are presented by target groups. The top financial priority is given to "immigrants"
and  "families  with  children"  which  represent  around  45%  of  the  expenditure  planed  under
Objective 3. "Elderly people" and "persons with disabilities" represent 40%, while "women" and
"youth" represent 10% of the financial allocation. Concerning homelessness, only a small share
of  less  than  1%  has  been  allocated.  Most  of  the  measures  or  specific  plans  described  are  of
particular interest for combating exclusion, and are closely targeted on specific groups.,.

3.5

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The  most  relevant  aspect of the  NAPincl is  the huge  effort  and  commitment  on  the  part  of  the
different Spanish authorities and partners to gather information in order to present this Plan, and
which  permitted  a  broad  overview  of  inclusion  issues  in  Spain.  The  follow-up  of  the  NAPincl
will  require  a  significant  effort  in  order  to  put  in  place  more  institutional  forms  of  decision-
making, including new discussion fora. As far as social inclusion is concerned, the co-operation
between  the  Central  administration  and  the  Regions  will  be  similar  to  that  already  in  place  for
employment  policy.  Social  partners  and  NGOs  also  intend  to  institutionalise  the  way  they  will
further contribute to the social inclusion debate. However it would have been appropriate to have
some information about the way the Public Administrations of the Autonomous Communities are
mobilising  the  different  actors  at  their  level,  as  it  is  mostly  at  the  regional  level  where  social
inclusion  is  implemented.  In  that  sense,  the  Plan  against  exclusion  of  Navarra  (1998-2005)
indicates  how  an  Autonomous  Community  can  mobilise  the  regional  partners  to  identify
challenges and define operational measures.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The  NAPincl  intends  to  apply  gender  mainstreaming  across  the  four  Objectives.  Gender  issues
however  are  mainly  seen  from  a  women's  vulnerabilities  point  of  view,  as  in  the  wide  ranging
fourth Spanish Action Plan for Equality between men and women which appears under Objective
3.  In  the  same  objective  is  presented  a  new  National  Action  Plan  against  Domestic  Violence,
which covers support from victims but also measures for the perpetrators and training for the law
enforcement staff. In Objectives 1 and 2, gender issues are sometimes raised to combat illiteracy
and when measures have specific incidences on family life such as childcare and health care and
may facilitate the integration of women into the labour market.

As  part  of  the  Ministry  of  Labour,  the  Women's  Institute  has  participated  in  the  process  of
elaboration  of  the  NAPincl,  however  there  is  no  clear  indication  about  the  follow-up  and
evaluation of the NAPincl from the point of view of gender.

101

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

The  current  CSF  Objective  1  and  3  (2000-2006)  supports  social  inclusion  mainly  through  the
priority  axis  "labour  integration  of  persons  with  special  difficulties".  Both  ESF  and  national
allocations represent for the whole period around € 980 million. The Autonomous Communities
and  NGOs  are  the  major  promoters  of  the  measures  related  to  social  inclusion.  The  EQUAL
initiative contributes also to social inclusion, in particular through the priorities related to labour
insertion and gender equality.

102

FRANCE

Conclusions

Situation and key trends: In recent years France has enjoyed sustained economic growth and seen a fall
in the unemployment rate and the number of people in a situation of poverty or exclusion. The country
continues to suffer from high unemployment, which affects the different social categories and regions in a
very  unequal  manner.  In  1997  relative  poverty  stood  at  17%,  putting  France  slightly  below  the  EU
average. Although poverty and exclusion are mainly associated with being out of work, people with a job
may also be affected. The main groups vulnerable to poverty and exclusion are children under the age of
15  living  in  poor  households,  the  long-term  unemployed,  young  people  with  inadequate  qualifications,
lone-parent families, large families, people living in run-down districts, and asylum seekers.

Strategic  approach: The NAPincl extends and supplements the approach to the fight against  exclusion
which  has  been  pursued  since  1998.  It  will  be  implemented  with  the  help  of  a  detailed  financial
programme. The NAPincl applies a two-pronged medium-term strategy which puts a premium on access
to employment, based on the NAPempl, and mobilises the various public and private-sector stakeholders
in order to help people in the greatest difficulty to obtain their rights. This mobilisation of the stakeholders
makes  it  necessary  to  ensure  better  coordination  between  the  administrative  departments  concerned,  as
well  as  the  close  involvement  of  all  the  relevant  partners.  The  procedure  adopted  takes  account  of  the
multidimensional nature of exclusion and places emphasis on an integrated approach in the various policy
fields.  The  NAPincl  also  stresses  the  importance  of  more  targeted  action  in  regions  where  poverty  and
exclusion are most marked. Finally, although a considerable effort has been made to define indicators, the
absence of quantified objectives or sub-objectives is regrettable.

Policy  measures:  The  measures  are  divided  into  four  main  categories  corresponding  to  the  four  Nice
objectives.  Although  a  large  proportion  of  measures  come  under  “access  to  employment”,  the  2001
NAPincl proposes a wide range of social and cultural measures aimed at clearly defined target groups or
regions.  The  intensity  of  the  proposed  policies  can  only  be  assessed  by  taking  account  of  the  financial
aspects of the “national programme on preventing and tackling poverty and social exclusion”. The across-
the-board approach in terms of access to rights helps to promote equal opportunities for men and women
under  the  Plan’s  provisions  and  measures,  and  this  should  be  consolidated  by  the  gender-specific
indicators currently being developed.

Challenges ahead: To tackle insecurity factors in relation to income from employment, housing, health,
knowledge and skills and to guarantee effective access to rights are the major challenges facing the French
authorities.  Special  attention  will  also  have  to  be  devoted  to  the  problems  arising  in  sensitive  social
housing  districts  or  certain  geographical  areas.  Furthermore,  in  the  light  of  the  presentation  of  the
“national  programme  on  preventing  and  tackling  poverty  and  social  exclusion”  in  July  2001,  and  to
reinforce  the  integrated  nature  of  the  NAPincl,  it  is  essential  to  ensure  a  sustained  follow-up  using
appropriate indicators, as well as joint implementation of the NAPincl and all the various programmes and
initiatives which the French authorities adopt with regard to social inclusion.

103

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

Since  mid-1997  the  French  economy  has  been  experiencing  sustained  growth,  despite  a  recent
downturn  (GDP  grew  by  3.2%  in  2000),  and  a  high  rate  of  job  creation  (515 000  in  1999  and
580 000 in 2000). The unemployment rate has been falling since 1997 (8.7% at the end of March
2001),  particularly  benefiting  the  long-term  unemployed,  over-50s  and  young  people.  Despite
these  trends,  unemployment  remains  very  high,  and  substantial  inequalities  persist.  For
example,  the  unemployment  rate  is  7.7%  for  men  but  10.9%  for  women,  and  there  are
considerable  differences  between  the  regions,  with  the  north  and  south  of  France  having  to
contend with much higher unemployment than the west or centre of the country.

In terms of the relative poverty rate, defined as the percentage of the population whose income is
less than 60% of the  national  median,  poverty  affected  17%  of  the  population  in  1997,  putting
France  slightly  below  the  EU  average  (according  to  European  Community  Household  Panel
data).  In  2000,  according  to  national  statistics,  some  five  million  people  were  living  below  the
poverty line (based on a threshold of 50% of the median wage).

However,  monetary  income  is  only  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty.  In  order  to  obtain  a
complete picture, account should also be taken of other equally relevant aspects, such as access to
employment, housing and health care and the degree to which essential needs are satisfied.

Poverty and exclusion are mainly associated with being out of work, but people in employment
are not immune. The “working poor” constitute one of the groups most vulnerable to poverty and
exclusion (1.3 million people). The other groups are children under 15 living in poor households
(950 000 in 2000), the long-term unemployed, young people with inadequate qualifications, large
families, lone-parent families, asylum seekers, and people living in run-down districts or overseas
departments.

The  return  to  work  of  parts  of  the  poorer  population  groups  and  their  escape  from  precarious
living conditions are recent results of economic recovery. The insecurity factors in relation to
income from employment, housing, health or knowledge/skills represent the main challenge
facing the French authorities. A second challenge is  that of  excluded people’s access to  their
rights. The complexity of administrative procedures  to be  completed,  forms  to be filled  in  and
dossiers to be compiled, together with the jumble of rules and regulations, often make access to
rights difficult. Attention will also  have to  be  devoted  to  run-down  or  sensitive  social  housing
districts and to the geographical areas particularly affected by social exclusion.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The NAPincl  applies a  two-pronged  medium-term  strategy  which  puts  a  premium  on  access  to
employment,  based  on  the  NAPempl,  and  mobilises  the  various  public  and  private-sector
stakeholders  in  order  to  help  people  in  the  greatest  difficulty  to  obtain  their  rights.  This
mobilisation  of  the  stakeholders  makes  it  necessary  to  ensure  better  coordination  between  the
administrative  departments  concerned,  as  well  as  the  close  involvement  of  all  the  relevant
partners (especially the local and  regional authorities). The  procedure  adopted  takes  account  of

104

the  multidimensional  nature  of  exclusion  and  places  emphasis  on  an  integrated  approach
involving measures in the fields of employment, training, housing and health.

The Plan does not lay down quantified objectives (or sub-objectives), a shortcoming which is
likely to be detrimental to a proper understanding and perception of poverty and social exclusion
situations, particularly in connection with evaluation. The strategy seems to opt for a presentation
of  "trends";  a  long  list  of  indicators  is  proposed,  focusing  especially  on  the  formulation  of
indicators by gender and according to various variables (age bands, groups of socio-professional
categories, income, labour market situation and family circumstances). By contrast, the July 2001
programme  lays  down  quantified  objectives  for  most  measures,  to  be  achieved  by  July  2003.
From  this  point  of  view,  it  is  important  to  emphasise  the  importance  of  the  integrated
approach to the implementation of the NAPincl and the July 2001 programme.

2.1.

The long-term strategic perspective

The strategy proposed in the NAPincl comprises an extension of the policies adopted in 1998
and is part of a medium-term outlook up to 2003. The financial instrument for implementing the
NAPincl  is  the  national  programme  of  July  2001.  The  first  results  of  the  1998  legislation
showed that the measures had a real impact on access to employment, but less effect on access to
rights (with  the  exception  of  access  to  health  care,  which  was  improved  by  the  introduction  of
universal sickness cover).

The first objective of the NAPincl is to reintegrate jobseekers into the labour market by focusing
more  sharply  on  the  groups  most  isolated  from  the  world  of  work.  It  includes  five  main
objectives which build upon the 1998 programme and correspond to the recommendations of the
Nice summit.

2.2.

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  real  breakthrough  in  French  policy  to  combat  poverty  and  exclusion  was  the  Act  of
29 July 1998,  of  which  the  NAPincl  includes  only  the  main  principles.  However,  the  NAPincl
emphasises the efforts directed at the population groups most isolated from the employment
market,  and  extends  the  involvement  of  the  various  State  stakeholders  (Justice,  Culture,
National  Education)  and  of  businesses  (the  development  of  social  responsibility  and  social
dialogue within businesses so as to prevent and avoid the severance of employment relationships
-  and  hence  exclusion  -  constitutes  one  of  the  objectives  of  the  draft  legislation  on  "social
modernisation"). The 2001 Plan also emphasises the importance of action focusing on regions
where poverty and exclusion are most in evidence.

2.3.

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The strategic approach is clear and perfectly consistent with the challenges identified. It is based
on the multidimensional nature of exclusion and the need to propose diversified responses. The
NAPincl clearly identifies the consequences of exclusion, recognises the need to prevent it, and
pinpoints the most vulnerable groups and areas. In order to meet the challenges, the NAPincl is
simultaneously  following  a  strategy  based  on  the  various  policies  (employment,  housing,
health, etc.) as well as mobilising the stakeholders.

105

Concerning cooperation and coordination between all stakeholders, it is important to note that the
development of this strategy was the subject of a major debate in French society between 1995
and 1998. The various associations and social bodies were all very much involved, together with
the competent State administrative departments. In extending and building on these actions, the
NAPincl does not seem to have given rise to such extensive mobilisation outside the associations
directly concerned and the State services. It would thus seem necessary to establish reinforced
coordination  mechanisms  between  the  administrative  departments  concerned  and  to  step
up  the  involvement  of  the  social  partners  in  implementing  the  arrangements.  In  this
connection it will be important to secure the close involvement of local and regional government,
in particular the general councils (conseils généraux) and municipal authorities.

2.4.

Compatibility of strategic approaches in relation to the National Action Plan/empl

There  are  close  links  between  the  NAPincl  and  the  strategy  put  forward  in  the  2001  National
Action  Plan  for  Employment.  The  new  Plan  by  necessity  takes  into  account  the  French
employment  strategy  formalised  in  the  NAPempl,  which  it  reinforces  and  supplements.  France
attaches considerable importance to preventive and/or active measures in favour of persons at risk
of  exclusion,  as  testified  to,  for  example,  by  the  introduction  of  the  new  "personalised  action
project"  scheme,  the  creation  of  the  “employment  premium”,  and  the  consolidation  of  the
TRACE  programme  ("gateway  to  the  labour  market"),  which  targets  young  people  with  major
difficulties.  Other  measures  provide  for  aid  in  direct  connection  with  employment  (market  and
non-market sectors).

3. 

3.1.

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

Facilitating participation in employment and access to resources, rights, goods and
services for all

The approach adopted does not consist in creating specific rights to which only the most deprived
are entitled, but proposes the adaptation of all provisions of general law and the development of
follow-up  action  to  ensure  their  effective  enforcement.  Action  mainly  involves  guiding  the
unemployed  and  the  groups  most  isolated  from  the  labour  market  into  employment,  validating
occupational skills and qualifications, and establishing social tariffs for public services based on
people's  real  incomes.  The  new  measures  include  facilitating  access  to  housing,  improving  the
system of access to health care, and above all a major effort concerning the psychological stress
incurred. The NAPincl also proposes - albeit on a lesser scale  - programmes to assist access to
education, justice and culture.

3.2.

To prevent risks of exclusion

The  proposed  strategy  is  consistent  with  the  principle  of  prevention  adopted  at  the  Nice
summit. A whole series of concrete measures are planned, in order to take early targeted action
when a breakdown in living conditions seems likely. The main measures are a proposal for social
support for families in serious debt, prevention of eviction, creation of education support units to
prevent children dropping out of school, prevention of family break-ups by providing increased
parenting help, and easier access to new technologies for young people and jobseekers.

106

Although  the  Plan  does  not  mention  eInclusion  as  a  major  challenge,  it  does  list  a  series  of
initiatives on the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in education (all
schools will be connected to the Internet by the end of the 2001–2002 academic year, Internet and
computer  user’s  certificate)  and  training  (Internet  initiation  module  and  "Internet  navigation
certificate" offered to jobseekers undergoing training and young people attending local centres).
Public Internet access points will be established (more than 7000 will be open by 2003, 2500 of
which will have signed a "public cyberspace charter" with a view to offering general training for
anyone  in  the  form  of  an  "Internet  and  multimedia  passport").  Finally,  the  "Points  Cyb"
programme will be stepped up.

3.3.

To help the most vulnerable

The approach adopted is oriented both towards people and regions. The vulnerable  groups
are  clearly  identified,  and  the  proposed  activities  target  the  people  and  regions  worst  hit  by
exclusion problems. The measures include extension of the TRACE programme for young people
seeking to enter the world of work, and the development of socially beneficial activities in run-
down  areas.  Special  attention  is  devoted  to  the  overseas  territories  and  departments  with
exclusion problems. Since the early 1980s France has invested considerable efforts in run-down
areas,  under  the  motto  "a  policy  for  towns  and  cities",  and  the  2001  Plan  emphasises  a  more
territorial  approach  by  the  State,  particularly  in  the  field  of  access  to  employment  for  the
population groups with the greatest difficulties.

3.4.

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The  NAPincl  recognises  and  emphasises  the  fact  that  effective  action  to  combat  exclusion
necessitates effective coordination among all the stakeholders. This is achieved by reinforcing
the  local  social  observation  structures  and  developing  local  centres  housing  the  various  public
and social services. Greater  involvement  and better coordination of decentralised State services
will  accompany  the  strengthening  of  partnerships  with  associations.  The  partnership  is  an
essential element of the Plan, in terms of both content and implementation procedures.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The across-the-board approach adopted to guarantee everyone effective access to the same rights
should  help  to  promote  equal  opportunities  for  men  and  women  under  the  arrangements  and
measures  presented.  However,  this  approach  seems  to  be  more  restricted  as  regards  social
protection, where discrepancies are found (especially in family break-up situations), and in fields
necessitating the development of statistics broken down by sex, which according to the Plan will
be introduced progressively.

The  nature  of  the  major  challenges  highlights  the  discrepancies  between  men  and  women  in
terms of employment and family situation (85% of lone parents are women). Consequently, the
initiatives  adopted  above  all  concern  access  to  employment  (quantified  objectives  for  the
participation  of  poorly  qualified  women  in  the  TRACE  programme)  and  improvement  of  the
economic  independence  of  recipients  of  lone-parent  benefit.  Men  who  are  particularly
marginalised, ex-prisoners, the homeless, delinquents, and migrant workers in hostels also benefit
from  special  attention  or  measures  in  connection  with  various  objectives,  such  as  access  to
employment,  housing,  health  care  and  the  Internet.  The  development  of  personalised  social

107

support  should  also  lead  to  more  consideration  being  given  to  the  specific  needs  of  men  and
women.

One question that remains to be resolved is how to steer the various measures. The Plan promises
special  attention  for  the  formulation  of  indicators  by  gender  so  that  measures  can  more  easily
target women, who are often the main victims of exclusion situations. This becomes even more
important  in  that  the  gender  dimension  is  not  particularly  visible  in  the  July  2001  programme,
unlike in the NAPincl.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF

The  NAPincl  does  not  specifically  mention  ESF-cofinanced  activities.  However,  the  links  are
perceptible  in  the  policy  of  prevention  that  is  being  pursued.  The  ESF,  under  the  Objective  3
programme  for  the  period  2000-2006,  is  providing  special  support  for  strengthening  the
preventive  approach.  These  measures  represent  65.5%  of  the  total  national  ESF  budget
(approximately € 3 billion in ESF contributions).

In  particular,  ESF  support  is  granted  for  activities  benefiting  the  target  groups  of  the
"personalised action programme  for  a  new start"  and the development of  "local integration and
employment  plans"  and  "departmental  integration  plans".  The  ESF  also  finances  measures  to
combat exclusion, supporting an approach based on prevention and social integration and seeking
to  combine  approaches  aimed  at  preventing  long-term  unemployment  with  measures  to  tackle
exclusion. The ESF also plays a preventive role by giving a second opportunity to young people
who leave school without qualifications. Similarly, workers in employment can also benefit from
ESF support. Finally, the ESF supports measures to remove obstacles to employment and training
access for women and to encourage diversification in their career choices.

108

IRELAND

Conclusions

Situation & Key Trends The year 2000 was the  7th  year  of  extraordinary  economic  growth  in  Ireland.
GDP  grew  at  10.7%,  three  times  the  EU  average  and  exceeding  the  results  of  the  previous  years.  The
impact has been enormous with a reduction in unemployment to 4.2% and in long-term unemployment to
1.7%. Alongside growth in employment, there are growing labour and skills shortages. In terms of poverty
the picture is mixed. Using the 'consistent poverty' definition, adult poverty levels fell from 15% in 1994
to 8% in 1998, whilst child poverty levels over the same period dropped to 12%. But there is a growing
income  disparity;  in  1997  20%  of  the  population  lived  in  relative  poverty  (income  below  60%  of  the
median). The NAPincl provides little trend information or detailed data on poverty such as poverty risk by
geographical area or specific groups. There is no analysis of the problem or systematic identification of
vulnerable  groups.  Health,  rural  deprivation,  transport  and  housing  issues  should  be  better  developed,
although broad objectives exist for some aspects.

Strategic Approach The need to tackle poverty is well recognised: social inclusion policies amount to 10
bn euros, and the National Anti-Poverty Strategy, which underpins the NAPincl, was established in 1997.
This  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  (and  hence  the  strategic  approach  to  poverty  in  Ireland)  takes  a  long  term
agenda  (10  years)  and  is  made  up  of  specific  targets  covering  particular  programme  areas  and  groups.
Employment and access to jobs for all is seen as key to moving out of social exclusion. An administrative
infrastructure and monitoring procedures and mechanisms (many new when introduced) have been put in
place to progress the strategy. Of particular significance is that targets and principles have been integrated
into  national  financial  and  development  plans.  There  is  a  commitment  to  revisit  and  improve  the  Anti-
Poverty Strategy and a wide-ranging review is now underway. Neither the analysis which underpins the
National Anti-Poverty Strategy nor any of the recent evaluations of this strategy are adequately reflected
in the NAP/incl. Gender as a specific issue is not highlighted.

When completed, the National Anti-Poverty Strategy Review is expected to contain both an analysis and a
strategic  policy  response  to  the  problem  of  social  exclusion.  This  is  not  present  in  the  NAPincl  which
lacks a strategic dimension and does not contain any targets or an evaluation of the on-going strategy.

Policy Measures Ireland is active under all four objectives, especially facilitating access into employment
and raising standards of education. Unemployed and disabled people are targeted, and the value of lifelong
learning highlighted. The importance of the family and tackling homelessness are two issues raised. The
need  for  an  effective  social  care  infrastructure  for  children  and  older  people  is  recognised,  and  child
poverty  is  a  key  focus  of  the  NAPincl.  The  involvement  and  contribution  of  stakeholders  is  generally
valued and work appears to be in hand to involve them yet further in the Anti-Poverty Strategy. However
the involvement of stakeholders in the current NAPincl process was weak, but will be addressed in future.

Challenges Ahead The NAPincl gives a broad outline of future challenges, and does not identify specific
objectives. But it is possible to infer from the NAPincl that any future strategy under the revised NAPS
must address a range of issues. Key priorities will be: enhancing investment in the provision of services
(health, housing and transport services) for those on low income, tackling rural and urban deprivation and
implementing  a  social  care  infrastructure  (especially  for  children  and  elderly).  It  will  also  need  to
concentrate on reducing growing income inequalities, the integration of refugees and migrants, as well as
the independence and well-being of women. Targeting employment opportunities and raising educational
achievements and literacy levels, will also need to be addressed.

109

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

The year 2000 was the 7th year of extraordinary economic growth in Ireland. GDP grew at 10.7%,
three times the EU average and exceeding the results of previous years. These developments also
saw growing labour and skills shortages. This impact is significant; most notable is the reduction
in unemployment to 4.2% and in long-term unemployment to 1.7% and a growth in employment.
The  trend is of  continued  growth  but  at  a  slower  rate  (forecast  6.7%  growth  in  2001  GDP).  In
poverty  terms  the  picture  is  mixed.  Using  the  national  'consistent  poverty'  definition,  adult
poverty levels fell from 15% in 1994 to 8%  in 1998, whilst  child  poverty  levels  over  the  same
period dropped to 12%. But there is a  growing income disparity  (the  reasons for  which  are not
examined in the NAP/incl.); according to the ECHP data, in 1997 20% of the population had an
income below 60% of the median. Ireland spent only 16% of GDP on social protection in 1998
(the  lowest  figure  in  the  Union),  which  is  partly  attributable  to  its  relatively  low  proportion  of
elderly people. However, such a level of social expenditure still represents a particular challenge
for Ireland.

However,  low  income  is  just  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty  and  in  order  to  measure  and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant aspects such as access to employment, housing, healthcare and the degree of satisfaction
of basic needs. Yet the NAPincl provides little trend information on poverty. Where it is used, it
is not broken  down,  such  as poverty risk  by  geographical area  or poverty  risks  associated  with
more  vulnerable  groups.  It  is  possible  to  deduce  some  of  the  major  problems,  such  as  rural
deprivation,  which  appears  endemic.  Access  to  health  is  recognised  as  unequal  but  data  is  not
provided.  Human  rights  are  tackled  primarily  through  the  Equal  Status  Act,  but  there  is  no
specific reference to social rights and little reference to citizenship. At this stage of the Review of
the National Anti-Poverty Strategy, the NAPincl identifies future challenges in broad terms rather
than  specific  objectives. The main aim of  the  Irish  Government  is  of  maintaining  a  sustainable
rate  of  economic  and  employment  growth  whilst  tackling  social  exclusion,  poverty  and
inequality. However it can be inferred from the NAPincl that if social exclusion is to be tackled
effectively, policies will need to address: the provision of services (health, housing and transport
services)  for  those  on  low  income;  rural  and  urban  deprivation  and;  the  implementation  of  a
social care infrastructure (especially for children and elderly). It will also need to concentrate on:
growing income inequalities; the integration of refugees and migrants, and; the independence and
well-being of women. Targeting employment opportunities at those excluded, as well as raising
educational achievements and levels of literacy, will also need to be addressed. This will require
co-ordination at local level and better data, particularly on marginal groups.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  need  to  tackle  poverty  is  long  recognised  in  Ireland  through  the  National  Anti-Poverty
Strategy, covering policies accounting for some 10 bn euros. Put in place in 1997, the Strategy
focuses  on  employment  as  a  main  route  out  of  exclusion.  Structural  support  for  the  Strategy
includes  strengthened  legislation  (especially  Equality)  and  a  partnership  approach,  in  particular
the  National  Partnership  Agreement.  This  Strategy  is  at  the  heart  of  the  NAPincl  and  of  its
strategic  approach:  it  takes  a  long  term  agenda  (10  years)  and  is  made  up  of  specific  targets
covering  particular  programme  areas,  reinforcing  a  target  group  approach.  An  administrative
infrastructure  and  monitoring  procedures  and  mechanisms  (many  of  which  were  new  when

110

introduced)  have  been  put  in  place  to  progress  the  strategy.  Of  particular  significance  is  that
targets and principles have been integrated into national financial and development plans. There
is a commitment to revisit and improve the Anti-Poverty Strategy, and a wide-ranging review is
now underway.

The unfortunate timing  of  the  NAPincl  and  National  Anti  Poverty  Strategy  Review  means  that
the  NAPincl  lacks  an  explicit  analysis  of  the  problem  of  social  inclusion.  Health,  rural
deprivation, housing and transport issues are not fully developed. Target setting is an important
part of the review and few have been able to be included in the NAPincl. Further improvement in
these areas is expected to be an important outcome of the NAPS review

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  takes  a  10  year  view.  This  commitment  to  the  long  term
perspective is also matched by a willingness to review and change where necessary. The focus on
employment as the most important route out of exclusion, particularly for people with disabilities
and  unemployed  people,  remains  appropriate  given  the  labour  market  situation.  The  National
Development Plan contribution to social inclusion is consistent with this approach. The timing of
the  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  Review  means  that  the  NAPincl  is  confined  largely  to
descriptions of policy measures already in place. It does not provide a quantitative or qualitative
critique. nor any evaluation evidence from the first four years of the Anti-Poverty Strategy.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  NAPincl  includes  little  that  is  new  over  and  above  the  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy,
although it does provide useful and interesting examples of good practice. It is expected that, as
agreed  with  Social  Partners,  the  NAPS  review  will  provide  a  new  impetus  through  an
examination  of  6  themes:  Educational  Disadvantage;  Employment;  Rural  Poverty;  Urban
Disadvantage; Housing; and Health. Each Working Group will address the concerns of women,
children,  older  people  and  ethnic  minorities  as  horizontal  issues.  A  separate  Group,  the
Benchmarking  and  Indexation  Working  Group  (BIG)  will  examine  the  adequacy  of  welfare
payments. The remit of each Working Group also includes targets and indicators. The review will
report in November 2001. A commitment has been given that the revised National Strategy will
be reshaped using the NAPincl framework.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  process  is  built  on  a  cross-Departmental  and  multi-agency
approach.  Social  partners,  NGOs,  voluntary  and  community  groups  are  involved  in  policy
development and strategy with work in hand to strengthen this. The review of the National Anti-
Poverty Strategy involves all relevant actors in a positive and significant way. Participation and
involvement in the NAPincl process is less clear. Conferences were organised to allow groups to
contribute but the view from stakeholders is that it has been less participative than other strategic
processes,  and  their  contributions  ignored.  A  commitment  to  full  participation  for  future
NAPincls  has  been  given.  A  comprehensive  approach  is  attempted  through  Poverty  Proofing.
This is a radical attempt to ensure that all Government policies consider the impact on those in
poverty. Poverty Proofing aims to provide policy makers with a systematic approach to assessing
the  impact  of  their  policies,  particularly  at  the  design  stage,  on  those  in  poverty.  To  date,  the

111

concept remains robust, but implementation needs further work. The approach should be further
strengthened and extended to the local level following an external review of its impact.

2.4. 

Compatibility of strategic approaches in relation to the National Action Plan/empl:

The  potential  for  compatibility  between  the  two  is  strong  and  the  NAP  Employment  addresses
social  inclusion  issues.  But  although  the  NAPincl  does  refer  to  the  role  of  the  NAP
Employment, the links between the two documents are weak and could be improved

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

The inclusion in the labour market of excluded people and eliminating long term unemployment
are key challenges. The strategy is to provide incentives and mobilise all sources of labour and to
provide the necessary education, training and lifelong learning opportunities. The NAPincl bases
its  approach  on  the  relevant  Employability  measures  of  the  NAPempl  and  targets  people  with
disabilities,  unemployed,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  Travellers  and  refugees.  A  Lifelong  Learning
Task  Force  has  been  established  to  identify  gaps  in  provision  and  make  recommendations.
Upgrading people with obsolete or low skills is a priority, but there are no targets yet. A number
of policy initiatives are already in place to allow access to the Knowledge Based Society. These
are either small pilots for particular groups, such as ICT opportunities for disabled people and for
supporting  the  voluntary  sector,  or  are  large  general  approaches  such  as  measures  for  digital
literacy.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

Social protection and minimum income issues are raised in The NAPincl. To put the position in
context,  Ireland  spends  the  lowest  proportion  of  GDP  than  any  other  Member  State  on  Social
Protection  (16.1%  compared  to  EU  average  of  27.7%).  But  there  is  now  a  commitment  to
increase  all  welfare.  More  specifically,  there  is  a  commitment  to  increase  child  benefit,  and  a
minimum IR£ 100 per week lowest welfare payment target exists. Removing the low paid from
the tax net and the development of a threshold for income adequacy is work planned. Regarding
health, there is a recognition that access to health is unequal in Ireland. Objectives have been set
by the Programme for Prosperity & Fairness, but no targets. In terms of transport, the upgrading
of facilities to assist access for the disabled is comprehensive including taxi's as well as buses and
trains. Although not highlighted, these changes will benefit others (parents with  young children
or  elderly  people).  But  how  the  transport  needs  will  be  met  of  other  socially  excluded  people,
especially in rural areas, is not specified. Other access issues such as access to justice, recreation
and arts are not raised. However there are several initiatives aimed at tackling domestic violence,
including  the  National  Steering  Committee  on  Women  against  Violence,  and  MOVE  and  First
Contact, two pilots aimed at potential perpetrators of violence.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

The  demand  for  housing  is  estimated  at  500,000  new  dwellings  over  the  next  10  years.  No
targets are set in the NAPincl to achieve this and the impact it will have on social inclusion is not
explained. Targets will emerge following the NAPs review. The housing needs of Travellers have

112

been singled out for action, but other socially excluded groups or low-income families have not
been identified as a priority in the NAPincl. The NAPincl recognises that homelessness needs to
be tackled urgently, and a new Homeless Agency has been established in Dublin. The NAPincl
does not include relevant indicators /data. For families there are a range of policies supporting all
aspects  of  family  life  including:  the  Money  Advice  and  Budgeting  Service  to  tackle
indebtedness and a strategy to improve work / life balance is in hand, but no targets are set. An
example  of  policy  on  the  ground  is  the  Family  Service  Pilot  Project  targeting  problematic
families with complex problems such as young lone mothers. Locally based, the project provides
an integrated approach, offering a 'package of support services' tailored to meet individual family
needs. This includes guidance, counselling and case management. A recent evaluation report has
now recommended mainstreaming the project.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Interventions  tend  to  be  targeted  at  specific  groups  rather  than  universal  in  approach.  Rural
disadvantage  is  endemic.  Nearly  61%  of  educationally  disadvantaged  school  children  are  in
rural areas. As with other aspects of rural poverty, no specific targets are set, although there are
global  targets  that  will  benefit  rural  inhabitants,  such  as  that  to  drastically  reduce  early  school
leaving and raise qualification levels. Poverty amongst older people is identified, particularly the
need for effective pension cover. Legislation is planned this year but no specific targets are set for
vulnerable groups. A new development is The RAPID Programme which identifies the 25 most
disadvantaged  areas  in  Ireland  based  on:  unemployment,  income  levels,  family  and  social
structure,  educational  disadvantage  and  high  levels  of  local  authority  housing.  RAPID  aims  to
focus  social  inclusion  measures  and  National  Development  Plan  investment  at  the  most
disadvantaged.  It  is  a  localised  and  targeted  approach  to  social  protection.  The  Colaiste  Ide  –
City  of  Dublin  Vec  provides  quality,  flexible  education  (online  and  distance  learning)  to
unemployed,  lone  parents  and  disabled  people.  It  attracts  students  from  all  over  Ireland  and  is
involved in outreach.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

Stakeholders are involved in the social inclusion agenda. The consultative infrastructure is strong,
whilst greater delegation of responsibilities to regional and local level is now evident, including
some  delegation  of  the  National  Development  Plan  and  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  to  the
Regional  Assemblies,  the  setting  up  of  the  City  and  County  Development  Boards  and  the
increasing  involvement  of  Local  Authorities.  The  newly  established  Equal  Opportunities  and
Social  Inclusion  Co-ordinating  Committee  is  drawn  from  a  wide  range  of  organisations
(including  NGOs  and  Social  Partners)  and  one  of  its  tasks  is  to  identify  ways  of  promoting
equality  and  social  inclusion  as  a  central  part  of  Government  Policy.  A  recent  White  Paper
'Supporting  Voluntary  Activity'  establishes  a  framework  to  strengthen  the  consultative
mechanisms  planned  as  part  of  the  National  Anti-Poverty  Strategy  Review.  For  the  NAPincl,
conferences were held to gather views, but the process has felt to be less inclusive than others.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

There  is  no  gender  analysis  in  the  main  challenges,  but  work  is  in  hand  to  tackle  women's
poverty, including through the National Anti-Poverty Strategy Review. Structurally, there is the

113

Gender  Mainstreaming  Unit  (GMU)  attached  to  the  Department  of  Justice  Equality  and  Law
reform,  as  well  as  the  planned  Education  Gender  Equality  Unit  (GEU).  The  new  equality
architecture covers 9 forms of equality, replacing the single focus on Gender. The impact of this
change is unknown. Gender  is partially  addressed  in social protection but crucial  reform of the
pension  and  social  insurance  systems  is  slow  from  a  gender  perspective.  Gender  is  not
considered in access to services.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

The national Employment and Human Resource Development OP accounts for more than € 12.5
bn investment. The ESF contribution to this programme is more than € 900m or 85% of all ESF.
In addition, ESF  contributes  to the two  Regional OPs where ESF measures  are  concerned  with
childcare  and  to  the  PEACE  II  OP  in  which  ESF  is  used  to  support  social  inclusion  and
employability actions. Although the amount of ESF allocated to the Social Inclusion Policy Field
is relatively modest (around 12% of € 1.056m available) there is substantial ESF support through
policy fields A and C for groups at risk of exclusion.

114

ITALY

Conclusions

Situation  and  key  trends:  Social  exclusion  in  Italy  is  concentrated  in  certain  regions  of  the  south,
whereas in the north the phenomenon is more limited and the groups affected are more specific. The main
reason  for  social  exclusion  is  economic  poverty,  which  in  1997,  according  to  the  European  indicators,
stood at 19% (relative poverty rate, based on a threshold of 60% of the median income). Social exclusion
particularly hits large families whose head is unemployed, as well as people with a low level of education
and dependent elderly people. The geographical concentration of these risks is very much in the south of
the country, where the social system is still centred on financial assistance mechanisms rather than on the
availability  of  services.  The  family,  which  remains  a  pillar  of  the  country’s  social  model  and  enjoys  a
range of tax benefits and direct aids, still has to make up for the lack of social services. This phenomenon
can have negative effects on female employment in spite of a series of initiatives designed to achieve a
balance between family life and work (which is still a distant prospect in Italy).

Strategic  approach:  The  social  exclusion  strategy  is  based  on  a  combined  approach,  which  includes
universal and preventive policies, as well as remedial policies aimed at target groups. The new planning
policy  being  tested  aims  to  be:  integrated,  with  assistance  and  social  services  consistent  with  the
principles  of  universal  access,  closer  partnership,  and  creation  of  networks  and  a  monitoring  system;
extensively decentralised, with direct involvement of the regional authorities at all levels; partnership-
based,  the  involvement  of  the  various  stakeholders  being  one  aspect  of  the  new  planning  system;  and
multisectoral in that the NAP, with different multiannual plans, is based on a timetable up to 2003, the
policy  objectives  of  which  are  not  quantified  at  national  level.  However,  the  spirit  of  the  strategy  and
policy  measures  adopted  clearly  testify  to  the  government's  long-term  commitment.  Two  main  trends
characterise public spending priorities up to 2003: the rebalancing (1998-2000) of expenditure on social
protection, with a reduction in (invalidity and war) pensions and an increase in transfers and services, and
the doubling of appropriations for the Social Policy Fund between 2000 and 2003.

Policy measures: The "National Social Plan" (NSP) adopted in April 2001 constitutes the  basis for  the
preparation  of  the  NAP  and  refers  explicitly  to  the  Nice  objectives.  It  is  being  implemented  through
regional plans and provides the framework for the new social inclusion strategy and the recently adopted
reform of the assistance system (2000 framework law). The NSP refers to a range of planning instruments
(four  national  and  four  sectoral  plans)  supplemented  by  other  more  specific  forms  of  assistance  (local
minimum wage trials, Immigrants’ Education Act, family and maternity benefits, Children's Rights Act,
etc.).  The  measures  in  force  correspond  to  the  four  common  objectives  and  are  presented  in  a  manner
consistent with this structure.

Challenges ahead: The main challenge is to develop the south of the country, and this is also a priority of
Italy’s  structural  policies.  To  this  end  a  strategic  effort  should  be  made.  Care  for  young  people  and
dependent elderly people also constitutes a major challenge. The problem of poverty, clearly identified in
the diagnosis and listed as one of the five objectives of the NSP, also remains a challenge which has not
yet  been  addressed  by  specific  measures,  other  than  the  minimum  wage  scheme  (which  is  still  at  the
experimental  stage).  At  institutional  level,  the  main  challenge  is  the  coordination  of  national  planning,
both  between  the  various  sectoral  plans  and  between  the  national  and  regional  levels.  Monitoring  and
evaluation (by the Social Policy Observatory) and the ability of the regional authorities to face up to the
responsibilities devolved to them are other aspects which must be followed up carefully.

115

6. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

The  NAP  analyses  poverty  in  a  very  methodical  manner,  applying  the  concepts  of  relative
poverty (based on a threshold which takes account of expenditure) and absolute poverty (based
on consumption of a minimum basket of goods and services). In 1999, according to national data,
relative poverty affected nearly 12% of households (approximately 7 508 000 people), 65.9% of
them in the south.  4.9%  of  families  (1 038 000  people)  were in a  situation of  absolute  poverty
(11% in the south compared to 1.4% in the north). In 1997, according to ECHP data on poverty
in terms of income (Eurostat methodology), 19% of the Italian population were living below the
threshold of 60% of the median income, of which 34.7% in the south, 9% in the north and 19.1%
in the centre. Income distribution is also unequal within these geographical areas, which increases
the differences in social cohesion The risk of poverty in terms of income is taken into account,
and the main  categories of persons  subject  to  this risk  are  identified (e.g.  large  families,  young
people  and  dependent  elderly  people).  It  is  noted  that  poverty  increases  with  the  number  of
minors in the household.

The  Italian NAP considers that monetary  income is  only one of the dimensions of poverty  and
social exclusion and in order to obtain a complete picture, account should also be taken of other
equally relevant aspects, access to employment, housing and health care and the degree to which
essential needs are satisfied, as well as other factors, such as for example, the level and quality of
school education, access to knowledge (especially new information technologies), and dropping
out of school (in the south, the number of young people who leave school without a certificate is
eight times higher than in the north).

The  groups  at  risk  of  social  exclusion  include  minors  (28%  of  minors  are  poor  in  the  south
compared with 5.2% in the North), the homeless, the disabled (especially the elderly disabled)
and immigrants, who find it difficult to gain access to employment and the school system and
tend to be in insecure jobs.

The lack of jobs remains an important factor in exclusion (which affects 28.7 % of households
whose head is unemployed). The situation is even worse in the south owing to the low level of
education of unemployed people and the high rate of short-time working.

Especially in the south, the family is still too often forced to act as a social cushion and extended
social inclusion and assistance network. The family network’s role in caring for minors and other
dependent persons constitutes a major challenge to Italian social policy and social inclusion. The
focus still tends to be on financial aid rather than on the availability of services.

Insufficient  childcare  services  are  available;  for  example  only  6%  of  infants  (0-2  years)  are
accommodated.  The  need  to  provide  care  for  children  and  dependent  people  has  a  negative
impact  on  equality  of  opportunity,  in  that  it  can  restrict  women’s  chances  of  employment  and
economic autonomy. Policies designed to reconcile work and family life should be strengthened
if this problem is to be tackled, in particular a greater availibility of care services

7. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  NAPincl  provides  a  broad  response  to  the  challenge  of  ensuring  social  inclusion.  The
gradual  rebalancing  of  public  spending  in  the  field  of  social  assistance  (including  social

116

security  and  pensions)  is  in  progress.  The  main  principles  of  the  NAP  are  the  promotion  of
universal access, minimum income and decentralised services, and the rationalisation of transfers
of  public  resources  with  clearer  identification  of  the  resources  earmarked  for  the  fight  against
the  burden  of  family
poverty  and  those  for  other  social  purposes  (e.g.  distributing 
responsibilities).  The  NAP  develops  the  priorities  identified  in  the  2000-2003  National  Social
Plan (NSP) adopted in April 2001. The initiatives adopted in the NSP by the government suggest
a commitment to a long-term strategy with a view to achieving ambitious objectives. In view of
the geographical concentration of the problems, another objective would be to enable the south to
catch up. The effectiveness of monitoring, steered at central level by a Social Policy Observatory,
is a key element in this strategy. Consequently, one of the priorities remains the development of
evaluation methods for social policies.

The  priority  policy  objectives  of  the  NAP  are  respect  for  children's  rights,  the  fight  against
poverty, the improvement of household services, the improvement of the conditions for caring for
dependent  people,  and  the  social  inclusion  of  immigrants.  The  reform  of  assistance  policy  is
pursuing  the  objective  of  a  long-term  universal  approach.  The  strategy  is  both  preventive  (e.g.
certain national and sectoral plans such as the national health plan, the plan for the disabled and
the education plan) and remedial. Action in this context includes minimum income trials, as well
as legislation covering maternity, dependent people, invalidity, children's rights, etc.

The strategic approach means that the regions must be able to face up to their new responsibilities
and  introduce  the  necessary  planning  tools  (plans  are  currently  being  drafted,  and  only  three
regional plans have been adopted as yet, all in central or northern Italy).

7.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

Owing to the organisation and regionalised structure of the Italian social system, the objectives to
be  achieved  are  described  mainly  in  qualitative  terms,  and  are  rarely  quantified  -  although
quantification and timetables are covered by the regional and local plans which are in the process
of being adopted.

However, the Italian government is prepared to quantify the national objectives once the regional
plans have been adopted.

The  monitoring  system,  work  on  indicators,  the  nature  of  the  problems  and  the  approach  to
multiannual planning demonstrate the consistency between the main challenges and the proposed
strategy. The Italian government's response covers a period of two years only.

7.2. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

Chapter 3 of the NAP focuses on the role of the "integrated system of social policies", which is
based on eight plans, four of them national (social services, health, employment, education) and
four of them sectoral (the disabled, children and young people, drug users, the elderly). One pillar
of  the  NAPincl  is  the  National  Social  Plan  (NSP),  a  sort  of  "master  plan",  which  is  very
innovative  for  Italy  and  is  characterised  by  an  integrated  strategy  of  universal  response  to  the
needs  of  social  inclusion,  based  on  the  principles  of  universal  access,  closer  partnership,  and
creation of networks and a monitoring system. The NSP provides a framework for regional and
local  planning  and  is  in  fact  implemented  through  regional  plans  (piani  sociali  regionali)  and

117

local  plans  (piani  di  zona),  which  directly  involve  the  regional  and  local  authorities  in  both
planning and implementation.

Within  this  complex  system  of  planning,  the  principles  of  coordination  and  integration  are
explained,  particularly  in  the  NSP.  It  is  not  clear  how  the  national  and  sectoral  plans  will
combine,  or  to  what  extent  the  proposed  structure  will  be  able  to  reduce  the  gaps  between  the
regions.  The  involvement  of  private  stakeholders  is  highlighted  by  the  part  played  by  the
Foundations  and  their  ability  to  mobilise  financial  resources.  Their  role  is  mentioned  in  the
National Social Plan for 2001-2003, in which private stakeholders, especially representatives of
the third sector and voluntary sector, are referred to as key players.

7.3. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The most innovative aspect of the NAPincl is the actual process of implementing the framework
act  on  the  reform  of  the  social  assistance  system.  Under  the  reform,  management  and
coordination tasks are separated; the central authorities will increasingly be required to perform
coordination  and  monitoring  tasks,  whereas  management  and  implementation  will  be  the
responsibility of the Regions.

Another important innovative aspect is the current minimum income trial being undertaken by a
number of municipalities since 1998.  However, the NAP  does  not  give  any  information  on  the
results achieved or say whether it is intended to give general currency to this measure. A further
innovative  element  concerns  the  tools  introduced  to  diagnose  social  exclusion  problems;  more
detailed  work  is  being  carried  out  on  indicators,  which  will  certainly  lead  to  a  significant
improvement of the permanent system of analysis and monitoring.

7.4. 

Compatibility between the NAPincl and the NAPempl

There no specific references to the policies set out in the NAPempl, which are merely repeated in
general terms in the context of the NAPincl.

8. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

8.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment and access to resources, rights, goods and
services for all

Measures  are  based  around  two  priorities:  facilitating  access  to  employment  and  facilitating
access  to  resources,  rights,  goods  and  services.  The  employment  strand  takes  in  all  current
policies (school reform, university reform, training, employment centres, etc.), as well as tax and
income support measures such as the minimum income trial. Measures to help people meet their
family  responsibilities  and  to  assist  prisoners  and  immigrants  are  also  included  under  this
objective.  The  important  aspects  of  the  resources,  rights,  goods  and  services  strand  are  the
consolidation  of  social  services  for  the  people  concerned,  regionalisation  of  public  health
services, measures to reduce the cost of housing, free  assistance for the most deprived,  and the
social services department.

118

8.2. 

To prevent the risks of social exclusion

Three types of initiative are listed in this connection: measures to stop young people dropping out
of school without qualifications, measures to support the family solidarity network, and adoption
of  a  national  plan  for  the  new  economy,  which  includes  training  schemes,  the  distribution  of
computers, and encouraging  young people to use the Internet. Apart from this plan  (which will
benefit 600 000 students during the period 2001-2, at a cost of around € 90 million), there are no
quantified objectives for the other activities mentioned.

8.3. 

To help the most vulnerable

The  initiatives  in  this  connection  are  aimed  at  four  target  groups.  The  poor:  the  government's
response  is  the  minimum  wage  and  minimum  measures  for  the  homeless.  Drug  users:  therapy
programmes are mentioned. Minors, young people and children: a diversified response is offered
(socialisation  structures,  participation  of  young  people  in  the  life  of  society,  centres  for  young
people, psycho-social help, school integration for immigrants, protection of young people against
the  risk  of  delinquency).  The  disabled:  a  national  sectoral  plan  (2000-2002)  and  a  series  of
specific financial assistance measures.

8.4. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The  very  nature  of  the  current  reform  is  based  on  a  partnership  approach,  which  requires  the
various  stakeholders  to  play  an  active  role  at  their  own  levels  of  responsibility.  The  active
participation of the private sector, as well as associations, NGOs and the social partners, must be
organised  by  the  regional  authorities.  Citizens,  as  beneficiaries  of  services  and  as  consumers,
must also play a more active role.

Central-level  initiatives  may  give  rise  to  local  programmes  and  also  encourage  “social  pacts”
(patti per il sociale), a pilot experiment based on a bottom-up approach and necessitating close
consultation with the stakeholders in the field.

9. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

Analysis  of  the  major  challenges  in  the  analytical  part  of  the  plan  reveals  discrepancies  to  the
detriment  of  women  in  relation  to  employment,  unemployment,  disabilities  and  the  sharing  of
family responsibilities and shows that women are more likely to be involved in voluntary work.
By  contrast,  80%  of  homeless  people  are  male,  half  of  them  immigrants.  The  Plan  provides  a
wealth  of  indicators  and  statistics  broken  down  by  sex  (including  data  on  households  broken
down  with  reference  to  the  head  of  household  (housing,  subjective  poverty,  difficulty  in
obtaining  access  to  services,  etc.).  The  social  situation  is  analysed  from  the  gender  angle.  The
question  of  promoting  equal  opportunities  for  women  and  men,  although  covered  by  the
diagnosis, is not adequately developed with regard to the strategic approach, the emphasis having
been placed on reconciling work and family life rather than on reducing the difference in activity
rates.  A  series  of  measures  may  be  regarded  as  making  a  positive  contribution  in  this  context
(maternity  support  for  women  not  covered  by  existing  legislation  on  maternity  leave,  tax
deductions for  looking  after  children  and  old people at  home,  better  access  to  care  services  for
children  and  the  elderly).  The  legislation  on  domestic  violence  is  also  mentioned,  as  is  the

119

development of new national statistical indicators on domestic violence and on reconciling work
and family life.

10. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF

The NAP mentions ESF assistance. Generally speaking, it is estimated that 6% of the resources
for  ESF  Objectives  1  and  3  are  earmarked  for  measures  concerned  with  social  exclusion  and
services for the individual. However, the role of the ESF in controlling social exclusion goes well
beyond  the  measures  specifically  mentioned.  Other  Community  initiatives  are  also  referred  to,
but their impact on social exclusion is not considered. The exception here is EQUAL, which aims
to  promote  integration  between  the  NAPempl  and  NAPincl  and  an  innovative  approach  as
regards cohesion and social inclusion policies.

120

LUXEMBOURG

Conclusions

Situation and trends. Luxembourg has a booming economy and a high standard of living. Its social
policy is generous, with total spending on social protection coming to  9  258  PPP  per inhabitant  per
year  in  1998,  putting  the  country  in  first  place  among  the  EU  Member  States.  The  1996  Eurostat
household income survey reported a relative poverty rate of 12%, based on a national median income
of  € 2  200  per  person  per  month  (after  payment  of  social  transfers),  attesting  to  the  relative
effectiveness of Luxembourg's social protection system in substantially reducing poverty. The policy
continues  to  encounter  difficulties  in  respect  of  unemployed  elderly  people,  low-skilled  jobseekers,
lone-parent families and other groups of disadvantaged people, including “new arrivals” who have left
their region of origin.

Strategic approach. Under the new common strategy, Luxembourg intends to continue to follow a
determined policy in favour of an active social state, without feeling a need to introduce substantial
reforms. The Luxembourg social system sees itself as being all-embracing. This first NAPincl reveals
three  main  aims: to  provide  everyone  with sufficient  income,  to  foster  integration  into  the  world  of
work as a means of tackling poverty and social exclusion, and to do more to prevent potential crisis
situations. The plan also includes the development of coordination and follow-up  with  regard to  the
policies in these fields.

Policy measures. The proposed measures are relevant to the problems faced and constitute a response
to the common objectives adopted in Nice. As regards the first of those objectives, the plan submitted
pursues the active policy adopted, particularly measures designed to ensure adequate means of support
and  improved  access  to  employment,  training,  housing  and  all  public  services.  As  for  the  second
objective, the plan seeks to prevent school failure and illiteracy and to break the vicious circle caused
by serious debt. Thirdly, it makes provision for improved protection of young people and better social
integration of people who do not speak Luxembourgish. Finally, concerning the fourth objective, the
preparation of this plan has had the effect of mobilising all the forces of the political world, society
and  associations.  The  government  has  committed  itself  to  involving,  in  an  organised  manner,  the
various organisations (NGOs) and local authorities in implementing and steering the NAPincl.

Challenges  ahead.  A  number  of  challenges  merit  more  detailed  attention:  housing  conditions,
immigration,  the  role  of  the  school  system  in  promoting  social  inclusion,  risk  groups,  and  social
assistance.  Synergy  between  the  NAPincl  and  the  NAPempl  must  be  consolidated,  particularly  in
terms of the generalisation of activation and prevention policies with regard to GMI recipients or other
groups  with  limited  work  skills.  A  greater  effort  must  be  made  to  contain  the  risk  of  a  shortage  of
housing accessible to people on low incomes, given the state of the housing market. Recent migration
flows pose problems in terms of integration into the country’s cultural and social life, and especially
education. Furthermore, the proportion of women,  often  with  children,  who  are  dependent  on  social
assistance needs to be examined carefully, as does the number of elderly people in the same situation.
More detailed consideration should also be given to exclusion as a function of age, origin and gender.
Finally, this first NAPincl does not contain any quantified objectives.

121

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES

Strong  economic  growth  (8.5%),  a  preventive  and  active  employment  policy,  and
personalised  employment  services  are  all  factors  contributing  to  the  near  absence  of
unemployment  (2.4%). Despite  an enviable economic situation  and  a  social  policy  which  is
both all-embracing and generous (in 1998 total spending on social protection in Luxembourg
came to 9 258 PPP28 per inhabitant, putting the country in first place in the European Union),
the 1996 Eurostat survey on household incomes in Europe found that 12% of Luxembourg's
population  had  a  net  income  of  less  than  60%  of  the  national  median  income  (€ 2  200  per
inhabitant  per  month).  According  to  national  data,  5%  of  the  population  have  a  monthly
income of less than € 1 000, a percentage which has remained stable overall for a number of
years. This testifies to the effectiveness of the social transfers system in substantially reducing
the effects of poverty.

However,  monetary  income  is  only  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty.  In  order  to  obtain  a
complete  picture,  account  should  also  be  taken  of  other  equally  relevant  aspects,  such  as
access to employment, housing  and  health  care  and  the  degree  to  which  essential  needs  are
satisfied.

The recent rise in inflation (3.1%) affects people on modest incomes. The main factors in this
rise  were  essential  consumption  items  such  as  housing,  water,  electricity  and  energy,  and
food (more than 5%).

The increase in the number of social housing units (+7.5%) and sheltered accommodation for
rent is still not enough to meet the needs of the low-paid population, a problem which could
become worse in view of the rapidly expanding property market.

The steady growth in employment has brought unemployment down to 2.4%. This residual
unemployment often reflects an increase in specific problems and is therefore very much of a
social  nature.  Consequently,  there  remains  a  hard  core  which  the  active  employment
measures  in  place  are  unable  to  absorb.  These  are  generally  people  with  a  low  level  of
education and skills or with multiple and various disabilities (lack of expertise, psycho-social
or health problems).

Although the policies pursued have kept the poverty problem under control and even slightly
improved  matters  (1.7%  fall  in  the  number  of  GMI  recipients  between  1998  and  1999),
Luxembourg remains faced with a number of difficulties with regard to unemployed elderly
people,  low-skilled  jobseekers,  lone-parent  families,  thousands  of  “new  arrivals”  in  the
country  (people  without  papers,  refugees,  asylum  seekers,  illegal  immigrants,  etc.),  and
various other marginalised groups (people with social disabilities, drug users, alcoholics, ex-
prisoners, etc.).

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  NAP  reflects  the  government’s  desire  to  work  towards  an  active  social  state  with  the
intention  of  developing  responsible  solidarity  and  an  open  society  in  which  everyone  can
participate.  The  Luxembourg  social  system  sees  itself  as  being  all-embracing  and  non-

28

PPP = Purchasing power parity.

122

                                                
discriminatory.  Under  the  new  European  strategy,  Luxembourg  intends  to  continue  its
determined policy in this field so as to allow every citizen to participate fully in economic and
social  life  by  making  sure  that  everyone  has  sufficient  means  of  support,  access  to
fundamental  entitlements  (housing,  health,  education,  employment,  culture,  justice  and
leisure) and the means to exercise their rights as citizens.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

Given  the  challenges  faced,  the  proposed  measures  respond  to  the  common  objectives
adopted in Nice, without introducing major reforms. This first NAPincl should be seen from a
medium-term  perspective.  The  authorities’  intention  is  to  assess  the  effects  of  existing
legislation and to consolidate or even add to it. However, Luxembourg pays little attention to
the  question  of  drawing  up  strategic  and  operational  objectives,  the  choice  of  monitoring
indicators or the adaptation of measures to take account of results. This makes it difficult to
predict  the  eventual  impact  of  the  measures  proposed  or  to  envisage  a  timetable  for  the
implementation  of  the  new  policies.  Luxembourg  avoids  putting  figures  to  its  aims  in  this
field.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  NAPincl  includes  a  systematic  inventory  of  initiatives  which  have  proved  successful,
particularly with regard to economic solidarity, employment of the disabled,  and  integration
of GMI recipients into companies or under active policies promoting the return to work of the
most  vulnerable.  It  provides  an  added  value  compared  with  existing  policies  on  social
exclusion  and  poverty,  by  modernising  and  improving  certain  approaches  (to  serious  debt,
dependence,  access  to  minimum  wage,  dropping  out  of  school,  etc.).  The  most  innovative
aspects  of  the  NAP  relate  to  the  generalisation  of  the  social  emergency  service  at  national
level,  alternative  vocational  training  for  young  people  at  the  Dreiborn  socio-educational
institute, and primary school education for children who do not speak Luxembourgish.

2.3. 

Coordinated and integrated approach

The  NAPincl  is  based  on  broad  consultation  of  stakeholders  in  politics,  the  economy  and
civil society, with a prior information and awareness-enhancement phase involving the social
partners  and  NGOs  in  particular.  The  opportunity  afforded  by  the  NAPincl  has  also  been
seized  upon  by  the  government  to  develop  the  link  between  the  various  policies  and  hence
also between the large number of administrative bodies involved in the fight against poverty.
The NAPincl is a result of the coordinated contributions of policies, but does not make a clear
connection between them. More attention could have been paid to a fundamental examination
of exclusion as a function of age, origin and gender.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  the  National  Action
Plan/empl

Employment  is  an  important  factor  in  social  inclusion.  The  aim  of  an  intensified  active
employment  policy  and  application  of  the  measures  announced  in  the  NAPempl  is  to
consolidate  access  to  employment  -  and  hence  integration  into  society  -  for  everyone.  The
measures provided for under the NAPincl and NAPempl complement each other, in that those
under  the  NAPempl  seek  to  reintegrate  jobseekers  in  general  into  the  labour  market  while
those  under  the  NAPincl  are  more  specifically  aimed  at  reintegrating  people  who  are
particularly disadvantaged.

123

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment  and access  to  resources, rights, goods
and services for all

The majority of measures are linked to the objective of promoting participation and access for
everyone.  Social  inclusion  will  be  achieved  through  policies  in  support  of  employment,  the
family,  education,  training,  housing,  access  to  public  services  and  justice,  access  to  the
knowledge  society,  and  through  targeted  measures  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  most
vulnerable.  The  NAPincl  thus  includes  a  list  of  policies  (current  or  in  the  process  of  being
revamped),  including  activities  in  the  fields  of  job  creation  and  reintegration  through
economic solidarity. One of the priority instruments is integration into work as an ongoing
method of tackling poverty and social exclusion.

3.2. 

To prevent risks of exclusion

In absolute terms, the extent of exclusion may appear marginal. It manifests itself in the form
of a rise in long-term unemployment, an increased number of older jobseekers, and a steady
number  of  GMI  recipients  (9  000,  or  2%  of  the  population),  young  people  leaving  school
without qualifications, people with multiple personal disabilities, disabled persons, and other
dependent people.

The recent Act of 8 December 2000 on measures to prevent and deal with overindebtedness
is part of this policy of prevention, aiming to eliminate this vicious circle. Other very specific
measures (both preventive and remedial) with more immediate tangible effects include social
and  family  policy  measures  (increase  in  family  benefits,  reduction  of  tax  on  low  incomes,
increase in supplementary pension allowances, exemption of GMI recipients from inheritance
tax  on  housing),  other  statutory  measures  to  help  those  on  modest  incomes  (threshold  for
seizure  of  assets,  harmonisation  of  minimum  social  standards,  mediation  committee,
clearance  fund  for  overindebtedness),  the  creation  of  a  social  emergency  service,  specific
measures  for  providing  training  or  work  integration  for  GMI  recipients,  measures  to
counteract school failure or cultural exclusion, voluntary early education and socialisation at
infant school, literacy classes in French, and the establishing of an institution to help young
adults and young people who have dropped out of school to make the  transition to working
life. The plan makes only a passing reference to eInclusion as a major challenge between now
and 2003.

3.3. 

To help the most vulnerable

This  objective  was  already  well  covered  by  Luxembourg's  "classic"  policy.  The  measures
listed  reflect  the  desire  to  correct  the  inequities  of  a  society  characterised  by  a  booming
economy but with a hard core  of exclusion and persistent  poverty. Starting with  the  Act  on
guaranteed minimum income (GMI) forming part of the fight against poverty, with a view to
ensuring that everyone can enjoy the minimum means of support, the NAPincl extended the
horizon to social exclusion in its most global sense, in particular by facilitating access (new
instrument in place since March 2000).

The  NAPincl  lists  social  cohesion  and  solidarity  policies,  such  as  providing  shelter  for
children in distress (part of draft legislation promoting children's rights and protecting young
people), specific measures for GMI recipients, disabled people (draft legislation dated 27 July
2001),  integration  of  people  who  do  not  speak  Luxembourgish,  and  the  procedure  to

124

regularise the status of asylum-seekers without papers, Kosovo refugees, etc. There is also a
multiannual action plan on drug abuse and help for the mentally ill.

3.4. 

To mobilise all stakeholders

This  aspect  is  already  firmly  anchored  in  Luxembourg  tradition,  and  the  plan  therefore
includes  few  really  innovative  measures.  However,  the  Council's  desire  for  as  many
stakeholders as possible to be involved in the preparation and implementation of the NAPincl
has  been  complied  with.  The  plan  is  based  on  broad  consultation  and  involvement  of
stakeholders from politics, the economy and civil society. This involved an information and
awareness-enhancement phase relating to the conclusions of the Nice Summit, involving the
social  partners  and  NGOs  in  particular.  The  jointly  prepared  summary  document  was
submitted  to  the  national  parliament  and  approved  on  17  May  2001,  and  was  subsequently
ratified  by  the  government.  The  various  NGOs  and  local  authorities  will  continue  to  be
involved in implementing and steering the NAPincl.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The government’s intention is to systematically include equality between men and women in
all  its  practices  and  policies.  Furthermore,  the  NAP  proposes  the  continuation  of  positive
action for the integration of women into work and society, including the development of local
accompanying structures to help women reintegrate into the labour market and society. Some
measures  more  specifically  concern  women,  such  as  the  creation  of  childcare  facilities,  the
sharing  of  pension  rights  between  women  and  men,  and  pension  insurance  legislation  (the
"computation" system, under which a parent  staying at  home to bring up a  child  is  credited
with seven years of pension contributions).

However,  the  relative  proportion  of  women  who  are  dependent  on  social  assistance  or  who
are on the minimum wage might have led to a more in-depth examination of the promotion of
gender equality within the various policies.

Consideration  of  the  gender  dimension  raises  the  question  of  an  integrated  approach  on  the
part of the various tools, appropriate monitoring indicators, and more focused attention on the
problems of women and children from the poorest environments.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF

The NAPincl does not mention the role of the ESF, though some of the measures mentioned
clearly involve assistance under Objective 3 of the ESF or EQUAL (policies for the inclusion
of young people or women returning to work, tailored teaching, integration of people who do
not  speak  Luxembourgish,  people  suffering  discrimination  or  dependence  problems  such  as
drug users, the homeless, migrants, ex-prisoners, etc.).

Luxembourg  has  been  allocated  ESF  assistance  amounting  to  € 44  million  for  the  period
2000-2006 under Structural Objective 3 and the Community Initiative EQUAL. 36% of total
ESF assistance is earmarked for social inclusion, including 25% on measures for the disabled
and 11% on other victims of discrimination.

125

THE NETHERLANDS

Conclusions

Situation and key trends The Dutch demographic situation is characterised by an increasing share of
old persons and  a  growing  ethnic  minority  population.  The  booming  economy  of  the  past  years  has
caused  the  official  unemployment  figure  to  drop  under  3%,  and  labour  participation  to  increase  to
73%. However, some categories have a considerably lower employment rate, and the almost 1 million
persons with an occupational disability remain of concern. In 1997 the relative poverty rate stood at
13%,  below  the  EU  average.  Financial  poverty  was  reduced  in  the  past  5  years  because  minimum
income increased more than average wages. Furthermore, long-term dependency on minimum income
dropped slightly. Income statistics show that women and old persons are usually more vulnerable than
other categories. Provisions, such as housing, are mostly affordable and accessible for the less well-
off.  However,  some  problems  remain.  Educational  quality  is  suffering  from  staffing  problems  and
there are also problems of learning disadvantages for children of ethnic origin and there is too much
premature school leaving. Access to health care is constrained by waiting lists and there are important
health inequalities between persons with a different socio-economic status.

Strategic  approach  The  Dutch  strategy  to  combat  poverty  and  exclusion  is  based  on  4  main
principles.  The  first  is  to  bring  people  who  depend  on  a  benefit  back  to  work  or  to  make  them
participate in a social activation programme. The second is to offer income security to all those who
cannot  support  themselves.  Benefits  and  minimum  wage  are  indexed  to  wages.  A  generic  universal
minimum  income  policy  in  combination  with  more  specific  subsidy  schemes  and  local  individual
income  support  make  sure that  the  purchasing  power  of  minimum  income  recipients  as  well  as  low
income earners is maintained. The poverty trap, which increased between 1995 and 2000, was reduced
after  the  introduction  of  a  new  tax  system  with  a  larger  tax  credit.  The  third  is  to  maintain  a  well
developed system of social services and provisions. And attention is given to improve accessibility for
the  most  vulnerable.  The  fourth  principle  is  the  partnership  approach  which  is  to  ensure  that  all
stakeholders can participate in policy development and implementation.

Policy  measures  The  4  EU  objectives  are  broadly  addressed  in  the  NAP.  Social  participation  and
offering  accessible  and  affordable  provisions  are  two  main  principles  adopted  in  response  to  EU
objective  1.  Preventing  the  risks  of  exclusion,  EU  objective  2,  is  a  major  accent  in  Dutch  policies,
including  concrete  measures  to  promote  internet  access  and  to  prevent  'digital  disadvantage'.  Dutch
poverty policies have a strong emphasis on the most vulnerable groups and the strong accent on local
implementation  allows  for  special  action  towards  deprived  neighbourhoods  (EU  objective  3).  The
Dutch policy approach is based on the principles of co-operation between central and local authorities
and involvement of all stakeholders including the people suffering exclusion (EU Objective 4).

Challenges  ahead  The  main  challenge  for  the  Netherlands  will  be  to  combine  its  income  policy,
which guarantees a relatively high minimum income with an activation policy that financially rewards
people who leave the benefit system for a paid job. Another difficult challenge forms the reintegration
of  people  currently  receiving  an  occupational  disability  benefit  but  who  are  able  to  work.  More
prevention is  also  needed  to  reduce  the  inflow  into  the  disability  scheme.  Ageing  of  the  population
will  increase  demand  for  health  care.  The  current  waiting  lists  problem  has  to  be  tackled.  The
increasing share of people of minority ethnic origin requires adequate implementation of integration
programmes.  Although  figures  show  that  learning  disadvantages  are  decreasing,  efforts  to  tackle
disadvantages from the very start need to be sustained.

126

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

From a demographic point of view, Dutch society has changed considerably during the past
decades.  The  population  aged  and  now  counts  13.6%  of  persons  over  65,  against  7.7%  in
1950. This led to an increased number of people with physical disabilities or chronic illnesses.
Also  important  is  the  higher  growth  of  the  population  of  ethnic  origin,  a  consequence  of  a
high birth rate and immigration. The Netherlands has benefited from the booming economy of
the  past  period,  official  unemployment  fell  under  3%  and  the  labour  participation  level
increased  from  62%  in  1990  to  73%  in  2000.  However,  the  employment  rate  of  women,
ethnic minorities, older people and low-skilled people is much lower.

Since 1995, the minimum income has increased more than the average wages. The percentage
spent  on  fixed  costs  of  living  has  been  reduced  and  long-term  dependency  on  a  minimum
income  dropped  slightly.  Women  and  older  people  are  generally  more  long-term  dependent
on a minimum income than others.

According  to  ECHP  (European  Community  Household  Panel)  data,  in  1997,  13%  of  the
population  lived  on  an  income  below  60%  of  the  national  median.  Only  4%  lived
continuously in relative poverty throughout 1995-97.

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure and
analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other  equally
relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the  degree  of
satisfaction of basic needs.

The Netherlands has the largest share of social rented homes in the EU, which gives even the
less well off freedom of choice. Housing benefits have caused the net proportion of income
spent  on rent to decrease  over  the  past  years.  In  education,  children  from  ethnic  minorities,
often  suffer  from  a  considerable  language  and  developmental  disadvantage.  Between  1991
and 1999, the number of primary schools with a high concentration of disadvantaged children
was reduced from 19% to 8%. Premature school leaving is also tackled with success, leading
to  a  reduction  from  26.600  persons  in  1998  to  21.800  in  2000.  The  health  and  youth  care
sectors  face  the  problem  of  waiting  lists  as  supply  cannot  keep  up  with  demand.  Recent
studies  on  socio-economic  differences  in  health  status  reveal  that  people  with  a  low
educational level spend an average of 12 years less in good health and live an average of 3.5
years less than people with a higher education. Internet access is good but can be improved
for  the  most  vulnerable.  Compulsory  integration  programmes  are  organised  for  all
newcomers.  In  addition,  measures  are  taken  for  the  many  oldcomers  who  are  still  in  a
disadvantaged position. Finally, people with low incomes tend to be concentrated in the same
neighbourhoods of large cities, contributing to social and economic segregation.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  strategy  consists  of  4  main  principles.  Firstly,  social  participation  is  promoted  in  the
form  of  paid  employment  or  social  activation  for  those  with  a  large  distance  to  the  labour
market.  The  aim  is  to  increase  the  activity  rate  of  special  target  groups.  The  employment
aspect  is  more  broadly  elaborated  in  the  NAPempl,  which  complements  the  NAPincl.  The
NAPincl focuses on the social activation programmes, which promote the reintegration long
term unemployed through voluntary work or other activities that are of use to the community.

127

This reinstates a work routine and boosts the participants’ social skills. Social activation may
also be an option for people with an occupational disability benefit.

Second, income security, is pursued in three ways: 1/ Through a generic income policy, that
indexes  minimum  wage  and  social  benefit  to  the  average  wage  increase,  assuring  that
everyone benefits  from  an  increase  in  prosperity.  2/  There  are  specific  subsidy  schemes  for
groups that face specific costs in the areas of housing, children, disability or chronic illness. 3/
The municipalities may offer specific income support, possibly linked to activation measures,
based on individual and local circumstances. This is a successful approach that is to be further
pursued. At the same time activation policies have to make sure that wherever dependency is
avoidable  people  leave  the  benefit  system.  The  poverty  trap  is  tackled  by  offering  financial
incentives to those who accept a job or participate in social activation. For those with a long-
term  dependency  on  a  minimum  income  who  are  not  able  to  work  or  participate  in  social
activation, supplementary income support is offered.

Thirdly, poverty and social exclusion are also combated by offering affordable and accessible
services. Dutch local housing policy allows people to choose and rent a good quality home. In
education, the aim is to reduce developmental disadvantages of children and a target is set to
halve  premature  school  drop  out  by  2010.  In  health  care,  the  strategy  for  the  waiting  list
problem  could  be  elaborated  more  in  depth,  especially  in  the  light  of  the  ageing  of  the
population.  Regarding  the  socio-economic  health  differences,  the  government  wants  to
decrease the number of unhealthy years of life of people with a low socio-economic status by
25% in 2020. The Dutch policy mix for ICT is directed at internet access and ICT knowledge
and  skills.  Short-term  targets  are  being  set  for  connection  to  the  internet  of  schools,  public
libraries and municipal services. Social inclusion of immigrants is promoted by an integration
programme for all newcomers and social activation programmes to unemployed oldcomers.

Fourth  is  the  partnership  approach,  in  which  national  and  local  public  authorities  work
closely together with all stakeholders, including the beneficiaries themselves.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The  strategy  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  mix  of  income,  activation,  services  and  provisions
policies.  Basically,  the strategy aims at maintaining the current system  and  to  reinforce  and
fine-tune  where  it  is  weak  (with  particular  attention  to  the  weakest  groups).  In  general,  the
strategy  described  appears  adequate  to  meet  the  challenges.  New  challenges  like  ICT  or
poverty in deprived neighbourhoods of cities are tackled through new strategies. A few issues
like ageing or the labour market potential of persons with an occupational disability benefit,
could  be  elaborated  more  in  depth.  The  long-term  perspective  is  well  developed  in  the
NAPincl.  Specific  targets  and  commitments  have  been  included  for  the  next  decade.  Some
targets, like those relating to accessibility of public transport, go even beyond 2010.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

Important efforts have been made in the last years to modernise and integrate Dutch policies
aimed  at  combating  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Moreover,  the  preparation  of  NAPincl
coincided with the evaluation of national anti-poverty policies of the period 1995-2000, The
outcome of this evaluation will continue to provide policy guidance in the coming years. The
NAPincl seeks to build on and consolidate the ongoing reform and modernisation efforts.

128

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The  Minister  of  Social  Affairs  is  the  co-ordinating  Minister  in  the  field  of  tackling  poverty
and  social  exclusion.  An  interdepartmental  working  group,  comprising  all  the  relevant
Ministries,  reports  annually  on  the  progress  made.  This  working  group  also  compiled  this
NAP. The Association of Dutch Municipalities (VNG) and the Social and Cultural Planning
Office (SCP) provided input and advice to the working group. Consultation and co-operation
with all relevant actors and stakeholders is institutionalised in the Netherlands.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  the  National  Action
Plan/empl

The  NAPempl  concentrates  on  the  labour  market  aspects  whereas  the  NAPincl  focuses  on
other  social  policy  aspects.  The  labour  market  strategy  of  the  NAPempl  is  briefly  repeated
because it is the reintegration and activation pillar of the Dutch strategy against poverty and
social  exclusion.  But  the  NAPincl  has  three  extra  pillars  which  constitute  the  bulk  of  the
report. Both NAPempl and NAPincl make an explicit reference to each other.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

Increasing the labour participation is pursued through measures targeted at vulnerable groups
(women,  ethnic  minorities,  older  persons)  and  through  fiscal  incentives.  A  tax  reform
introduced in 2001 makes the tax system more employment-friendly. The review of the social
security  system  is  aimed  at  creating  a  private  market  for  reintegration  services.  In  order  to
support  development  and  implementation  of  social  activation  policy  at  local  level,  the
government set up a temporary national Information and Service Point for Social Activation
(ISSA). The Social Activation Incentive Scheme provides subsidies to municipalities to better
entrench  social  activation  in  their  own  structural  policies.  In  the  future,  performance
agreements  for  municipalities  will  be  established.  The  political  aim  is  to  reach  all  benefit
recipients through a comprehensive approach.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

In  housing,  the  future  rent  policy  will  continue  to  ensure  that  rent  increases  are  limited  to
inflation.  Ceilings  are  set  for  the  annual  increase  in  rents  in  relation  to  the  quality  of  the
dwelling.  The  Home  Ownership  (Promotion)  Act  of  1  January  2001  provides  low  incomes
with a mortgage subsidy,  which  may  be  supplemented  with  a  property  transfer  tax  subsidy.
The Netherlands is also promoting the accessibility of public transport especially targeted at
people with disabilities.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

The  preventive  approach  can  be  found  in  education,  where  learning  disadvantages  are
addressed through early identification, cure and prevention. Premature school leave is another
main  field  of  intervention.  The  educational  opportunities  of  disadvantaged  pupils  are  being
improved  with  extra  financial  resources  and  support  for  special  educational  opportunity
schools.  The  aim  is  to  raise  the  quality  of  the  education  and  the  performance  of  pupils.  In
various  municipalities  ‘broad  schools’  were  created,  they  aim  at  combining  mainstream
school activities with care for children outside school hours, thus allowing for reconciliation
of  work  and  family  life.  The  government  has  set  aside  extra  funds  for  the  'Compulsory

129

Schooling  Action  Plan’  and  the  ‘Early  School-leavers  Action  Plan’.  In  the  care  sector,  the
local authorities have been given a more preventive and co-ordinating role by the amendment
of the Public Health (Prevention) Act, which should enable them to more effectively reduce
socio-economically induced health differences.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Dutch income policies focus on the most vulnerable groups. Special national income schemes
offer  housing  benefits,  provisions  for  people  with  disabilities  and  chronically  ill  and  study
fees.  Municipal  income  support  includes  instruments  like  special  means  tested  assistance,
exemption  from  local  levies,  discounts  on  cultural  activities  etc.  ICT  policies  are  targeting
disadvantaged groups in vulnerable regions. Internet access is promoted through projects such
as  'Digital  playgrounds'.  In  public  libraries  in  disadvantaged  neighbourhoods,  residents  can
have access to Internet at low cost and/or receive training in ICT skills. EUR 9.1 million was
set aside for this project in 2000 as part of urban renewal policy. The number of locations is
currently around 300. Another measure is ‘Knowledge Neighbourhood’ where, with financial
support  from  the  government,  certain  Dutch  municipalities  are  experimenting  with  the
introduction of ICT infrastructure and applications in neighbourhoods.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

All Dutch policy efforts are based on a partnership approach. While the national authorities
provide legislation, frameworks and financial means, the local authorities play a major role in
the development and implementation of measures. The Government tries to involve citizens,
businesses  and  interest  groups  of  vulnerable  categories.  In  2000  benefit  claimant  lobby
groups,  churches, humanist NGOs and  trade  unions  joined  forces  in  an  ‘Alliance  for  Social
Justice’.  Twice  a  year  a  government  delegation  led  by  the  Minister  of  Social  Affairs  and
Employment  holds  talks  with  this  Alliance,  the  Association  of  Netherlands  Municipalities
(VNG) and the Association of Provincial Authorities (IPO) on all aspects relating to the fight
against poverty and social exclusion.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

There  is  little  attention  for  gender  mainstreaming  in  this  NAPincl  except  for  some  limited
assessment  of  gender  dimensions  in  employment,  income  and  homelessness.  Some  figures
confirm  the  (higher)  risk  of  income  poverty  among  older  single  women  and  single  parents
living on a minimum income. The Shelters Monitor, published for the first time in 2000, will
be  developed  to  provide  more  gender-sensitive  data  and  information,  not  in  the  least  in
respect of the growing group of homeless women.

The NAPincl generally pays attention to gender issues when these relate to the NAPempl and
the  Longterm  Emancipation  Policy  Plan,  for  example  the  general  target  of  65%  women  in
employment  by  2010.  However,  only  the  NAPempl  comprises  specific  measures  in  this
respect.  When  dealing  with  social  activation/participation  policy,  the  NAPincl  pays  some
attention to gender aspects. For example, it stresses the importance of  childcare  facilities  to
help single  mothers living on benefit  to re-enter the labour  market. Yet in  other  vital  social
inclusion policy domains (e.g. education, health, housing) gender sensitivity is hardly visible
in  the  NAPincl  and  could  be  strengthened.  The  new  Emancipation  Monitor  launched  in
November 2000 should make this possible.

130

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

ESF  objective  3  supports  the  Dutch  efforts  for  reintegrating  long-term  unemployed  persons
into  the  labour  market.  A  large  share  of  these  people  are  categorised  as  'having  a  large
distance  to  the  labour  market'.  They  require  a  reintegration  pathway  of  at  least  2  years  and
consisting of different components. ESF is also supporting measures in the field of education
aiming at the reduction of early school drop out. Equal supports actions aimed at improving
the qualifications of vulnerable groups at risk of discrimination.

131

AUSTRIA

Conclusions

Situation and key trends The main basis of social protection is a comprehensive, federal based
social insurance scheme with compulsory membership for all active persons and their non-active
dependants  (spouses  and  children).  This  system  provides  access 
insurance,
unemployment insurance, retirement pension systems and, accident insurance. A second, means
tested,  security  net,  the  social  assistance  system  (Sozialhilfe)  is  under  the  responsibility  of  the
nine  Länder.  The  good  economic  and  employment  performance  in  Austria  continued  in  2000.
Real  GDP  growth  amounted  to  3,2%,  the  unemployment  rate  fell  further  to  3,7  %,  a  situation
close to full employment. According to the ECHP (European  Household  Panel),  13 per cent  of
the  population  in  Austria  were  facing  relative  income  poverty  in  1997.  The  persistent  relative
poverty rate is 5% (1995-1997). Therefore, poverty is not a mass phenomenon in Austria.

to  health 

In recent decades, labour force participation rates have increased, while unemployment rates have
remained comparatively low. Disparities between high and low incomes  are lower than  the  EU
15-average,  but  income  disparities  between  men  and  women  are  considerable.  The  overall
education  and  qualification  level  of  the  population  has  significantly  improved  over  the  last  30
years.  The  minimum  level  of  old  age  pensions  (Ausgleichszulagenrichtsatz)  has  increased
significantly from 30 to 50 % of the average employment income.

Strategic  Approach  According  to  the  Austrian  Authorities  the  Austrian  policy-framework  to
combat poverty and social exclusion is based on an integrated economy, employment and welfare
policy. The NAPincl outlines a comprehensive catalogue of existing measures, which contributed
to a large extent to the favourable situation in Austria. For an overall strategic approach, research
in  identifying  future  risk  factors  leading  to  poverty  and  social  exclusion  are  planned  to  be
launched.  Quantitative  targets  based  on  expected  outcomes,  monitoring  indicators  of  the  effort
now  presented  and  time-schedules  for  implementation  are  not  sufficiently  outlined.  The
integration of the education policy to the overall policy framework and its specific contribution to
each policy goal should be further developed.

Policy Measures Austria is responding to the four objectives with a strong focus on employment
and  benefit  measures  for  families  in  general.  However,  the  NAPincl  is  based  on  ongoing
measures  and  presents  a  few  new  policy  developments  (e.g.  old-age  insurance  for  women,
disabled persons, family poverty). The problems of some groups facing severe problems of access
to  the  labour  market  or  exclusion  from  social  benefits  (such  as  non-EU  immigrants)  are  not
tackled in the NAP.

Challenges  ahead  The  main  challenge  is  to  define  a  comprehensive  and  integrated  strategy  to
combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  while  building  on  the  existing  well-developed  social
system. This would include the setting up of goals, the definition of clear time-schedules and the
promotion of a package of measures addressing the gaps identified. The general commitment for
monitoring and evaluation should be translated into operational arrangements in the context of the
NAPincl  implementation.  Efforts  will  also  need  to  be  made  to  reduce  the  complexity  of  the
administrative  system,  which  is  linked  to  the  responsibilities  between  the  federal  state  and  the
provinces, and between various administrative units (e.g. one-stop-shops).

132

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

The  good  economic  and  employment  performance  in  Austria  continued  in  2000.  Real
GDP growth amounted to 3,2%, the unemployment rate fell further to 3,7 %, a situation
close to classical full employment. The employment rate is nearly in line with the Lisbon
targets at 68,3% (77% for men, 59,4 % for women).

Altogether,  the  incidence  of  relative  poverty  in  Austria  is  a  quarter  below  the  EU-
average. The main basis of social protection is a comprehensive social insurance scheme
with  compulsory  membership  for  all  active  persons  and  their  non-active  dependants
(spouses and children). A second, means tested, security net, the social assistance system
(Sozialhilfe)  is  under  the  responsibility  of  the  nine  Länder  and  entitles  EU-citizens  to
social assistance.

The complexity of the issue is mirrored not only in a division of responsibilities between
federal  state  and  provinces  but  also  between  various  administrative  units  at  these  two
levels. The dual character of the Austrian social protection system prevents most people
from falling into poverty, but not in all cases the system is completely reliable. There is a
need of further development of co-ordination and integration of inclusion policies for the
most vulnerable groups.

According  to  ESSPROS  data  from  Eurostat,  Austria  spends  28,4  %  of  GDP  on  social
protection compared to the EU-average of 27,7 % (1998 data). Measured as expenditure
per  capita  in  Purchasing  Power  Standards  (PPS),  the  Austrian  expenditure  on  social
protection is at 6.297 PPS approximately 15 % above the EU-average of 5532 PPS.

Austria's  comprehensive  social  protection  system  has  contributed  to  keeping  relative
poverty generally low. According to ECHP (European Household Panel)  data for  1997,
13% of the population lived on an income below 60% of the national median. 4.7% lived
continuously under such relative poverty threshold throughout 1995-97.

However, low income is just one of the dimensions of poverty, and in order to measure
and  analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  other
equally  relevant  aspects  such  as  access  to  employment,  housing,  healthcare  and  the
degree of satisfaction of basic needs.

Disparities between high and low incomes are lower than the EU 15-average. However,
there are relatively high income disparities between men and women.

– 

– 

The overall education and qualification level of the population has significantly
improved  over  the  last  30  years  –  the  share  of  individuals  with  an  educational
level not higher than primary education have been tremendously reduced.

The  minimum  level  of  old  age  pensions  (Ausgleichszulagenrichtsatz)  has
increased  significantly  within  this  period  from  about  30%  of  the  average
employment income to about 50% of this income.

133

– 

There  are indications  that  asylum seekers not  covered by  the  federal minimum
guarantee ('Bundesbetreuung') are at high risk of poverty and exclusion.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  Austrian  welfare  state  has  established  a  very  comprehensive  social  security  net,
which has lead to a quite favourable situation concerning poverty in comparison to other
Member  States.  Therefore  the  NAP  puts  more  emphasis  on  outlining  a  catalogue  of
existing measures, which are intended to be continued and evaluated, rather than on many
new actions to be undertaken in the future.

– 

– 

– 

The NAPincl refers only roughly to existing analysis and ongoing debates.

The  translation  of  the  Nice  objectives  is  based  on  ongoing  and  some  new
measures.

There  are  only  a  few  quantified  targets,  albeit  the  plan  sometimes  includes
commitments  for  some  measures  and  non-quantified  goals  .  The  plan  does
hardly  provide  binding  time  schedules  for  implementation.  Appropriate
monitoring mechanisms capable for measuring progress in fighting poverty and
social exclusion would be particularly important.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

While the NAPincl includes a comprehensive list of existing measures, it is necessary to
evaluate  or  re-assess  them  against  new  developments  or  against  new  needs.  Some  long
term aspects which would have a significant preventive effect on the reduction of social
exclusion are mentioned in the NAPincl, but remain vague (e.g. the problem of  women
without a retirement pension is mentioned as  an issue which the  government intends to
tackle  in  the  future).  The  integration  of  the  education  policy  to  the  overall  policy
framework and its specific contribution to each policy goal should be further developed.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The working group (Beirat) for the development and implementation of the NAPincl can
be mentioned as a process-related innovation. The government's intention to address the
problem  of  women  without  a  retirement  pension  is  important.  One  concrete  step  is  to
calculate a certain number of periods of childcare, which will contribute to the number of
years required for a claim to a retirement-pension. Even though the labour market effects
of  the  new  childcare  allowance  ('Kinderbetreuungsgeld'),  remain  to  be  evaluated,  there
are  some  notable  and  positive  elements  in  it  like  the  considerable  rise  of  additional
earnings  (Zuverdienstgrenze)  or  the  periods  counted  as  contributory  times  not  only  for
the eligibility but also for the level of the pension.

134

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

Several  measures  mentioned  in  the  NAP  have  not  been  specifically  developed  to  fight
poverty,  though  they  have  poverty-reducing  impacts  (e.g.  some  employment  measures,
the childcare allowance, special funds for people with a disability). Their efficiency and
effectiveness in this respect will be analysed.

In  Austrian  the  co-ordination  of  measures  at  regional  level  to  combat  social  exclusion
including  for  the  social  assistance  measure  (Sozialhilfe)  is  an  important  issue.  The
NAPincl states that a working group will be established to deal with this problem and that
nation-wide quality standards will be developed.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  National  Action
Plan/empl

The  consistency  between  NAPincl  and  NAPempl  is  referred  to.  There  are  several
measures and objectives repeated in the NAPincl which are laid down in the NAPempl.
The NAPempl also has highlighted the disadvantages that immigrants face in relation to
the labour market. The integration of immigrants is mentioned as one of the priorities of
the NAPincl. Concrete measures or an indication of how this objective will be achieved
remain however vague.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

The  NAP  emphasises  employment  targets.  To  a  certain  extent  the  NAPincl  refers  to
elements  which  have  been  developed  in  the  NAPempl.  This  is  in  line  with  the  Lisbon
European  Council’s  conclusions  with  respect  to  the  goal  of  facilitating  participation  in
employment. However, some  groups, which face severe problems with employment are
not  mentioned,  such  as  non-EU  immigrants  for  whom  no  measures  are  being  taken  to
harmonise the residence permit and the employment permit. Some interesting IT-training
initiatives directed to women are mentioned. Little is said on how the knowledge-based
society  and  e-learning  initiatives  will  address  the  problem  of  the  'learning  divide'  and
which are the specific features foreseen to meet the specific needs of the disadvantaged.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

With  regard  to  access  by  all  to  resources,  rights,  goods  and  services  the  NAPincl
enumerates  the  various  transfers  which  already  exist  in  the  advanced  Austrian  welfare
state and which have positive effects for the achievement of this goal. Access for all to
education  is  given.  The  proportion  of  people  with  an  education  level  not  higher  than
primary education has been tremendously reduced in recent decades. Still, for 15,8 % of
the population  between  20  and 29  years, the education level is not  higher  than  primary
school (men: 14,4 %; women: 17,1 %).

135

A  number  of  reforms  in  the  social  policy  area  ('Social  Targeting')  need  to  be  assessed
with respect to their possible effects in the area of access to goods and services.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

The  NAPincl  mentions  three  policy  areas  which  should  serve  to  prevent  the  risk  of
exclusion:  The  use  of  information  technology,  measures  to  support  solidarity  within
families and other primary groups and help in specific situations of need. Beside specific
measures  for  people  with  disabilities,  on  regional  level  (e.g.  Vienna)  an  innovative
approach  to  prevent  homelessness  is  mentioned  in  the  NAPincl.  The  perspectives  for
long-term changes and improvements, which would help to solve the existing problems
in some remaining areas (e.g. the deprivation of immigrants from certain social benefits
measures  for  people  or the  lack  of innovative active labour  market  policy  measures  for
those  who  are  not  employable  in  the  'first  or  main'  labour  market)  need  to  be  further
examined.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

There is a comprehensive listing of the most vulnerable groups in the NAPincl. Notable
measures  are  the  additional  money  for  people  with  a  disability  ('Behindertenmilliarde')
and the childcare allowance, which is designed as a universal benefit  without insurance
necessity.  However,  the  NAPincl  does  not  specify  what  concrete  measures  are  planned
for other special groups in the future. There are only some commitments beyond the two
years perspective of the current NAP (disability, single parents, elderly persons and early
school  leavers)  and  a  strategic  framework  for  integrated  approaches  and  structural
reforms is difficult to identify. The NAPincl is referring to the rural dimension of poverty
and  several  proposals  for  the  improvement  of  the  infrastructure  in  rural  areas  are
announced.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

The  federal  government  stated  in  the  NAPincl  that  consultations  have  been  organised
with all relevant stakeholders. Some stakeholders however have voiced concern about the
process  and  wish  more  recognition  of  their  contributions.  References  to  mobilising
gender equality bodies are missing in the NAPincl.

Yet the NAPincl provides an institutional basis for establishing the dialogue between the
different actors and institutional groups in the framework of the NAPincl implementation
and preparation of the next exercise.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The  NAPincl  repeats  the  general  objectives  for  increasing  female  labour  market
participation  and  for  reconciling  work  and  family  life.  However,  a  consistent  gender
mainstreaming  approach  and  indications,  how  the  specific  problems  of  disadvantaged
women will be addressed are insufficient across the NAP. There are only few references
to the specific problem of female poverty.

136

While  the  'Kinderbetreuungsgeld'  might  ease  poverty  in  some  cases,  further  gender
impact  evaluation  will  have  to  assess  in  other  cases  whether  it  does  not  a  discourage
women  (especially  those  with  low  incomes  and  lower  qualifications)  to  (re-)enter  the
labour market after childcare.

The debate on individual rights is focusing on individual pension rights for women.

The maintenance advances (Unterhaltsvorschuss) intends to contribute to the diminution
of female poverty.

The  'Protection  Against  Violence  Act'  (Gewaltschutzgesetz)  enables  women  and  their
children  to  remain  in  their  own  apartments  and  thus  contributes  to  combating  social
exclusion of persons threatened by violence.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Out  of  1.147  Mio  Euro  for  the  objective  3  programme,  219  Mio  Euro  are  dedicated  to
policy  field  2  (social  inclusion).  In  objective  1,  Burgenland,  4,5  Mio  €  are  planned  for
social inclusion. In other policy fields positive effects to combat poverty are expected.

Only  a  general reference  is made to  the effect  of  the ESF in improving the  situation  in
combating poverty and social exclusion.

The  Community  Initiative  (CI)  EQUAL,  which  is  much  more  focused  on  people
excluded from the labour market, is mentioned in the NAPincl. The total amount of the
CI EQUAL for the programming period 2000-2006 is 204 Mio. Euro.

137

PORTUGAL

Conclusions

Situation  and  key  trends:  Despite  low  unemployment  and  high  employment  rates,  the
poverty rate remains high in Portugal (23%, according to Eurostat data for 1997). Traditional
forms  of  poverty  -  caused  by  the  limitations  of  the  social  protection  system  and  the
dominance of activity sectors with intensive but low-qualified and low-productivity labour -
coexist  with  “new  poverty”  emerging  as  a  result  of  recent  modernisation  processes  in  the
Portuguese  economy  and  often  linked  to  immigration  and  job  insecurity.  The  low  level  of
academic and vocational qualifications of the majority of the Portuguese population and the
high school drop-out rate only aggravate the  exclusion  factors.  Against this  background  the
government has started, over the last five years, to develop a “new generation of active social
policies”  with  a  view  to  improving  social  inclusion,  founded  on  partnership  and  giving
priority to integrated assistance methods.

Strategic  approach:  The  general  long-term  strategic  approach  is  based  on  economic
development  which  is  compatible  with  the  improvement  of  social  cohesion  and  the
elimination  of  the  structural  factors  which  generate  exclusion  processes.  The  NAP  makes
provision for the mainstreaming of social inclusion in all relevant policies, modernisation of
social  protection  systems,  and  integrated  initiatives  targeting  particularly  vulnerable  groups
and regions. The partnership approach and mobilisation of stakeholders at national and local
levels is also a central feature of the strategy. The NAP lays down quantified objectives with a
view to eradicating child poverty, reducing absolute poverty and the poverty rate, and fighting
poverty in both urban and rural environments.

Policy  measures:  The  NAP  comprehensively  covers  the  four  main  objectives  and  the  sub-
objectives  adopted  in  Nice,  but  sometimes  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  confusion  between
“priorities” and “goals”, repetition of the same “instruments” under  different  objectives and
sub-objectives, and difficulties as regards priorities. Most of the measures envisaged are not
new, and the link between each measure and the objective it serves is not always explicit. On
the  basis  of  the  measures  presented,  three  aspects  should  be  highlighted:  participation  in
employment  is  considered  from  a  perspective  of  prevention,  activation  and  promotion  of
lifelong learning; the principle of positive discrimination is a cornerstone of the reform of the
social protection system (addressing the problem of pensioners in a poverty situation); and an
integrated approach to vulnerable groups is  proposed  on  the  basis of  an  extensive  “contract
system”.  The  NAP  also  provides  for  the  development  of  services  and  facilities  primarily
intended for disadvantaged individuals and families and sets out a commitment to promoting
equal opportunities (“gender contract”).

Challenges ahead: The main challenges to be faced concern  combining  the  preventive  and
remedial dimensions  of  social  policies:  direct  action  to  combat  serious  exclusion  situations,
early  intervention  and  activation  to  facilitate  reintegration  into  work,  and  the  long-term
prevention of possible exclusion risks by improving education and skills levels. The role of
social protection is to ensure a more intensive supply of social services and facilities which
are geared to the needs of the most deprived, and to improve access to health care, housing,
justice, etc. Given the ambitious nature of the quantified objectives that Portugal has set itself
in  the  short,  medium  and  long  terms,  the  system  of  monitoring  of  indicators  certainly
constitutes a substantial challenge. The effective mobilisation of the stakeholders, particularly
the social partners and the beneficiaries of measures, should be stepped up.

138

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

In 2000 the rate of economic growth (3.3%) was equal to the EU average. Similarly,
productivity  increased  at  the  same  rate  as  the  Community  average  (1.6%),  but
Portugal  still  has  the  lowest  productivity  rate  in  the  EU  (65.8%  of  the  Community
average).

The employment situation is reflected by an employment rate (68.3%) which is above
the  Community  average,  as  well  as  a  relatively  low  unemployment  rate  (4.2%  in
2000).  However,  despite  the  generally  positive  trend  of  labour  market  indicators,
structural  problems  persist:  long-term  unemployment  accounts  for  40%  of  total
unemployment,  only  a  minority  of  the  population  aged  between  15  and  64  have
completed  upper  secondary  school  (11.5%  compared  with  42.3%  in  the  European
Union), and a high proportion of young people drop out of school early (43% of those
aged between 18 and 24 leave school with inadequate qualifications).

Poverty  remains  widespread  in  Portugal.  Measured  in  terms  of  relative  poverty,
defined as the percentage of the population living on an income of less than 60% of
the national median, poverty affected 23% of the population in 1997 (the highest rate
in  the  EU).  Persistent  poverty  also  remains  high:  15%  of  the  population  have  lived
below the relative poverty  line for three  consecutive  years.  However,  it  is  clear  that
monetary income is only one of the dimensions of poverty,  and in  order to obtain  a
complete picture, account should also be taken of other equally relevant aspects, such
as access to employment, housing  and  health care  and the degree to  which essential
needs are satisfied. Portugal spends less than average of its GDP on social protection
(23.4% in 1998, compared with a Community average of 27.7%).

Against  this  background,  special  attention  needs  to  be  devoted  to  the  number  of
people  in  a  persistent  poverty  situation,  the  high  proportion  of  working  poor  (low
incomes from employment and job insecurity), the high proportion of pensioners in a
poverty situation (highlighting one of the shortcomings of the social security system),
the low level of skills in the workforce, the tendency to drop out of school early, and
the  question  of  poverty  in  rural  environments  and  certain  urban  areas.  The  poverty
rate  for  women  is  higher  than  for  men  (25%  against  22%),  another  subject  which
merits special attention.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The main priorities in tackling poverty and promoting social inclusion are of a general
nature  and  are  based  on  six  strategic  aims:  economic  development,  social  cohesion,
equal  opportunities,  social  protection,  integration,  and  a  network  of  social  services
and facilities.

The principal objectives of the NAP are thus as follows:

– 

activation of people excluded from  the labour market, and lifelong learning
in a context of competitive economic development consistent with cohesion
needs

139

– 

– 

– 

– 

– 

development  of  social  protection  systems  as  specific  tools  for  tackling
poverty

reintegration of individuals and  families  in  exclusion  situations into  society
and work (integrated programmes and social integration contracts)

integrated development of regions affected by exclusion

creation of a network of social services  and facilities, with the participation
of civil society

promotion  of  equality  between  women  and  men  with  a  view  to  the
implementation of a “gender contract”.

In the NAP, Portugal has set itself certain objectives to be achieved by certain dates:

Quantified  objectives:  to  eradicate  child  poverty  by  2010;  to  reduce  the  relative
poverty rate to 17% and cut absolute poverty by half by 2005; to implement, by 2003,
50  “urban  social  development  contracts”  (managed  in  an  integrated  manner  and
covering disadvantaged urban communities).

Other  objectives:  to  launch  the  “rural  areas  and  social  development”  programme
(integrated local development of rural communities); to conclude a “social integration
contract” with all the people concerned within one year (three months in the case of
children  and  young  people  at  risk);  to  set  up  a  national  telephone  helpline  (in
conjunction with local social emergency centres).

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

Concerning  the  adequacy  between  the  strategy  and  the  objectives  pursued,  the
following aspects must be highlighted:

– 

– 

– 

– 

application of the principle of the mainstreaming of social inclusion so as to
make  the  fight  against  exclusion  an  integral  part  of  sectoral  policies  other
than social policy;

the various aspects relating to participation in economic  life  are  covered by
the NAP, in particular training, vocational skills, education, employment, and
lifelong  learning  in  a  society  of  knowledge.  Another  point  to  note  is  the
desire to place the eradication of structural exclusion factors at the  heart  of
economic policies;

the  development  of  social  protection  systems  is  a  central  aspect  of  the
strategy; despite the associated budgetary constraints, the reform of the social
security  and  solidarity  system  (based  on  the  principles  of  justice,  equity,
solidarity and positive discrimination) is continuing;

the  two  territorial  locations  of  exclusion  (rural  communities  and  run-down
urban areas) are covered by an integrated development strategy.

The  NAP  analyses  the  problems  clearly  and  in  a  long-term  perspective.  The
challenges are of a structural nature and refer back to the national economic and social

140

development plan (the ultimate goal of which is to enable the country to catch up on
the  Community  average  within  one  generation).  A  number  of  quantified  objectives,
more specifically child poverty and absolute poverty (concepts which are not further
defined),  are  presented  in  a  perspective  going  beyond  2003.  However,  the  way  in
which this two-year plan is integrated in the long term still has to be examined, as the
distinction  between  long-term  “priorities”  and  more  immediate  “goals”  is  often
difficult to follow.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

From the strategy point of view, there are two innovations in the national context: the
mainstreaming of social inclusion in all current policies and the long-term perspective
in tackling exclusion. Another point to note is the strategy to prevent the risk of a new
form  of  exclusion,  “info-exclusion”.  From  the  policy  point  of  view,  most  of  the
programmes and measures listed are already in place.

However, the innovative nature of certain themes should be highlighted, for example
a new dimension of the “contract system”. Side by side with “contracts for integration
into society and work” (not unknown in the past, as Portugal is already following the
integrated pathways to integration approach, formerly GMI), the NAP mentions a new
“gender contract” and “urban social development contracts”.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

The  roles  of  the  various  stakeholders  (institutional,  non-governmental,  public  and
private) at the various levels of action (especially national and local) are defined in the
context  of  the  social  dialogue  (social  consultation  committee)  and  partnership
between  the  State  and  civil  society  (cooperation  pact  for  social  solidarity,  social
network for development). The need for coordination is mentioned several times, and
despite  the  efforts  developed  over  the  last  ten  years  under  the  anti-poverty
programmes, active partnership must be stepped up.

The NAP makes provision for:  joint  mobilisation  of  the  national,  regional  and  local
authorities  (the  regional  authorities  have  only  a  coordinating  role);  institutional
partnerships (inter-ministerial monitoring committee for the combining of the various
sectoral policies and mainstreaming of social inclusion, and the Ministry of Labour’s
operational  committee  on  NAP  preparation  and 
follow-up);  adaptation  of
administrative  and  social  services  to  the  needs  of  local  stakeholders  (e.g.  solidarity
and  social  security  offices);  involvement  of  the  social  partners  (to  be  improved),
NGOs  and  social  services  institutions;  placing  of  responsibility  on  citizens  and
businesses (e.g. extension of the Portuguese Business Network).

2.4. 

Compatibility of strategic approaches in relation to the National Action
Plan/ empl

The  NAPempl  constitutes  the  preferential  reference  framework,  particularly  as
regards  measures  under  objective  1  of  the  NAPincl.  The  main  objectives  of  the
NAPempl (transition of  young people into working life,  integration  into  society  and
the  sectoral
work,  educational  and  vocational  qualifications,  monitoring  of 
restructuring process, and promotion of quality in employment) are incorporated into
the NAPincl either directly or indirectly.

141

There  is  also  a  close  relationship  between  the  two  Plans  in  terms  of  strategy:  links
between  education,  training  and  employment  systems;  adoption  of  macroeconomic
policies  for  job  creation;  innovation  and  information  society;  sectoral,  regional  and
local  approaches  to  resolving  problems  of  a  social  nature;  promotion  of  the  social
dialogue; linking of social protection, employment and training policies; promotion of
equal opportunities to encourage the participation of women in the labour market and
the participation of men in family life.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

Given  the  global  approach  which  should  constitute  the  framework  for  action  to
achieve  the  four  common  objectives  (comprehensively  covered  by  the  NAP,  but
hardly  systematically  in  terms  of  priorities  between  the  main  objectives  or  between
the sub-objectives), a number of examples can be highlighted:

3.1. 

To facilitate participation in employment and access to resources, rights,
goods and services for all

Concerning participation in the labour market, employment policy activities focus on
(i)  the  development  of  measures  to  prevent  long-term  unemployment  and  achieve
activation  through  pathways  to  integration  into  society  and  work  implemented  by
contract-based  plans  (placing  more  responsibility  on  the  individual)  and  (ii)  on  the
development  of  the  national  lifelong  learning  strategy.  Concerning  access  to
resources,  rights,  goods  and  services,  the  aspects  to  note  are  the  continuation  of  a
policy of “positive discrimination” in terms of retirement  pensions, the rehousing  of
people  living  in  substandard  accommodation  (taking  care  to  prevent  the  forming  of
new  exclusion  areas),  and  improvement  of  the  functioning  of  the  national  health
service and local health centres (especially help for drug users).

3.2. 

To prevent risks of exclusion

As  regards  preventing  the  risk  of  exclusion,  a  fundamental  aspect  is  the  strategy  to
avoid the risk of “info-exclusion” (generalised access to information technology, and
training  leading  to  the  awarding  of  a  “basic  skills  diploma”  to  2  million  people  by
2006).  Concerning  solidarity,  one  innovative  aspect  seems  to  be  the  combining  of
traditional solidarity with the development of the services market  (e.g.  remuneration
of neighbours for domestic support services).

3.3. 

To help the most vulnerable

Action to help the most vulnerable groups (clearly identified in the NAP, with special
attention  to  be  devoted  to  immigrants,  ex-prisoners  and  drug  users)  is  based  on  an
integrated  approach,  with  personalised  social,  institutional  and  economic  inclusion
programmes  and  integration  plans  for  the  priority  groups  founded  on  the  contract
system. Specific action in the form of regional inclusion initiatives is also envisaged
for problem regions.

3.4. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

As regards mobilisation, the practice of involving excluded people is being developed
at three levels (individual, collective and organisational), and the role of “mediators”

142

in promoting information for, and active participation by, excluded people is crucial.
At  institutional  level,  existing  institutional  partnerships  and  sectoral  action  plans,
together with “social security and solidarity offices” (local and community action to
find  integrated  solutions  to  problems),  constitute  an  attempt  to  adapt  administrative
and  social  services  to  citizens’  needs.  As  regards  public/private  partnership,  the
encouraging of businesses to take on social responsibility merits a mention.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

This is a concern which is common to all the NAP objectives (often implicitly) and is
one of its priority action areas.

As regards objective 1, the priorities are to promote equal opportunities in access  to
employment  and  ensure  non-discriminatory  treatment,  to  introduce  into  business
culture  the  idea  of  reconciling  working  life  and  family  life  as  a  right  of  workers  of
both  sexes,  an  employer’s  duty  and  a  business’s  social  responsibility,  and  finally  to
develop a network of support services for children and dependent people in order to
facilitate  employment,  training  and  occupational  inclusion  for  women.  Turning  to
objective  2,  ensuring  equality  is  explicitly  covered  in  terms  of  access  to  the
information  society  and  information  technology.  Under  objective  3,  the  NAP
specifically refers only to women who are victims of domestic violence. Concerning
objective  4, the NAP  mentions  the importance  of  systematically  taking  into  account
the  equality  dimension  in  the  partnership  context.  However,  additional  efforts  are
needed  in  terms  of  mobilising  women’s  organisations  and/or  bodies  representing
women’s interests.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

As regards the “instruments” contributing to the achievement of the Nice objectives,
the  operational  programmes  co-financed  by  the  ESF  under  Community  Support
Framework III (2000-6) and the Community Initiative EQUAL are mentioned several
times, but the NAP does not give any indication of the sums involved. However, the
effective  combining  of  funding  from  the  social  security  budget  and  the  CSF III  is
referred  to  as  one  of  the  factors  underpinning  the  development  of  the  Plan.
Furthermore,  the  framework  for  action  provided  by  the  NAP  makes  it  possible  to
avoid scattering national and Community assistance too widely; instead, assistance is
rationalised by concentrating resources and making instruments more specialised.

The Structural Fund resources allocated to Portugal under Objective 1 are substantial:
the  ESF’s  contribution  accounts  for  22%  (€ 4 370  million)  of  this  aid,  and
approximately  16%  of  ESF  assistance  is  specifically  earmarked  for  social  inclusion
(an increase over CSF II). Another element is the indirect contribution of other areas
of ESF assistance (active labour market policies and lifelong learning). Other aspects
of  CSF III  worthy  of  mention  include  the  “Employment,  training  and  social
development”  programme  (the 
terms  being  social
top  priority 
development),  the  “Education”  programme  (measures  to  prevent  young  people
dropping  out  of  school,  improvement  of  educational  qualification  levels,  adult
education),  the  “Information  Society”  programme  (acquisition  of  ICT  skills,

in  financial 

143

prevention  of  info-exclusion),  and  the  “Health”  programme  (one  of  the  priorities
being to improve access to quality health care).

144

FINLAND

Conclusions

Situation and key trends The Finnish social security system rests on the basic principles of
universal social welfare and health services and a comprehensive income security system. The
aim is to provide the entire population with social welfare and health services that are mainly
tax-funded  and  whose  organisational  responsibility  is  decentralised,  being  assigned  to
municipalities. The income security system is by nature a risk-based social insurance system,
which is  supplemented  by  residence-based  benefits.  Finland  spent  27,2%  of  GDP  on  social
protection in 1998, slightly less than the EU average. This structure has succeeded in ensuring
a low level of poverty by international standards. In 1997 9% of the Finnish population lived
on an income of less than 60% of median income.

Strong economic growth (5,7%) continued in Finland in 2000 led by the burgeoning export
sector.  It  seems  likely  to remain relatively  strong  for this  year  as  well  (at  around  4%).  The
employment rate amounted to 67,5% in 2000.

Strategic approach The NAPincl strategy in the coming decade is crystallised in four general
policies:  promoting  health  and  ability  to  lead  an  active  life;  increasing  attractiveness  of
working life; prevention and combating social exclusion; and ensuring effective services and
a reasonable level of income security. The starting point is to preserve the basic structure of
the Finnish social security system and work within that structure, by putting more emphasis
on  the  primacy  of  work.  The  process  will  be  monitored  and  evaluated  systematically  by
Finnish  authorities,  but,  apart  from  the  relative  poverty  rate,  the  NAPincl  does  not  specify
which targets will be used for that purpose.

Policy measures Finland regards the universal system of services and income transfers as an
effective policy tool aimed at countering poverty and social exclusion. The system has been
supplemented  by  extra  income  transfers  and  services  aimed  at  groups  in  danger  of  social
exclusion.

The NAPincl responds to all four objectives with a number of measures, most of which aim at
improving the universal system. The measures include, for instance, a rise in the level of the
national  pension,  rehabilitative  work  activities,  improvement  of  mental  health  services  for
children  and  youths,  establishment  of  an  ombudsman  for  issues  of  discrimination,  and
activation  of  elderly  people  as  well  as  quality  recommendations  for  their  care.  Budget
implications of the measures have been identified, where possible. Finland has annexed to the
plan  an  integrated  summary  table  of  all  the  measures  under  the  four  common  objectives
broken down by identified risk factors.

Challenges ahead The main challenges include: developing the protection system in such a
way  that  accepting  work  is  always  financially  worthwhile;  preventing  the  accumulation  of
problems  as  regards  e.g.  the  long-term  unemployed,  people  with  mental  or  addiction
problems,  the  over-indebted,  and  families  of  these;  targeting  support  to  people  in  the  most
vulnerable  positions;  improving  co-operation  between  various  actors  concerned  with  the
prevention  of  social  exclusion  and  poverty;  and  addressing  regional  discrepancies  so  as  to
maintain the same standards of social services in the whole country.

145

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

Strong  economic  growth  (5.7%)  continued  in  2000  led  by  the  burgeoning  export
sector. National sources project, however, slower growth for this year (2,7%) mainly
due  to  weaker  international  demand.  Employment  increased  by  1,5%  in  2000.  The
employment rate was 67.5% (70.6% for men and 64.4% for women). In contrast with
the  favourable  economic  development  in  2000,  the  unemployment  rate  declined
slowly and remained at 9.8% (9.1% for men, 10.6% for women). Structural problems
in the labour market are manifested in disproportionately high unemployment among
low-skilled, older workers on the one hand and in increasing recruitment problems in
some sectors and growth sectors on the other.

Due to savings decisions made as a consequence of the early 1990´s depression and a
relatively long period of economic growth after that, the share of GDP spent on social
expenditure  has  come  down  to  less  than  the  EU-average  in  Finland.  According  to
ESSPROS  data  from  Eurostat  Finland  spends  27,2%  of  GDP  on  social  protection
compared  to  the  EU15  average  of  27,7%  (1998  data).  Measured  at  expenditure  per
capita  in  Purchasing  Power  Standards  (PPS),  the  Finnish  expenditure  on  social
protection is at 5181 PPS almost equal to the EU15 average of 5379 PPS (1997 data).
The  harmonised  ECHP  data  reveal  that  in  1997  9%  (EU15  18%)  of  the  Finnish
population lived on an income below 60% of the national median. Young adults, the
unemployed and “other inactive” and single person households tended to present the
highest risk of income poverty.

However,  low  income  is  just  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty,  and  in  order  to
measure  and  analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into
account  other  equally  relevant  aspects  such  access  to  employment,  housing,
healthcare and the degree of satisfaction of basic needs.

(cid:1)  National  sources  indicate  that  the  number  of  people  suffering  from  severe  social
exclusion ranges from 30 000 to 60 000, i.e. 0.6-1.2% of Finns.

(cid:1)  High  unemployment,  in  particular  long-term  unemployment  (LTU-  rate  2,8%),
remains Finland's most important social problem.

(cid:1) The major risk factors leading to the danger of social exclusion include economic or
financial  exclusion;  health  problems;  exclusion  from  the  labour  market,  exclusion
from the housing market; exclusion from education or a low level of education; and
other types of exclusion, such as criminality, addictions, cultural exclusion etc.

(cid:1) Territorial differences deserve attention.

(cid:1)  Exclusion  is  often  about  accumulation  of  many  problems.  A  key  challenge  is  to
prevent simultaneous accumulation of resource deficiencies.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  Finnish  social  security  system  rests  on  the  basic  principles  of  universal  social
welfare  and  health  services  and  a  comprehensive  income  security  system.  Residents

146

have  normally  individual  rights  to  basic  services  and  benefits.  There  is  no  basic
requirement of employment or income, but employed people get higher benefits based
on their income. The schemes have succeeded in ensuring a low level of poverty by
international standards.

The  NAPincl  strategy  in  the  coming  decade  is  crystallised  in  four  general  policies:
promoting  health  and  ability  to  lead  an  active  life;  increasing  attractiveness  of
working  life;  prevention  and  combating  social  exclusion;  and  ensuring  effective
services and a reasonable level of income security.

Finland strives to preserve the basic structure of the existing system and works within
that structure by putting more emphasis on the primacy of work. The reform of social
security  benefits,  taxation  and  service  charges  is  to  be  continued  in  order  to  make
work  acceptance  always  financially  worthwhile.  The  aim  is  to  improve  not  only
incentives  for  households  but  also  institutional  incentives  for  organisations:  special
attention  is  to  be  paid  to  incentives  for  employers,  legislation  regulating  the
relationship between the State and municipalities, and the State funding of municipal
finances.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

The plan sets out key strategic objectives and attempts to identify the challenges from
the long-term perspective. Finland strives for integrating a number of furtherances to
the  system  in  place.  The  policies  and  measures  aimed  at  upgrading  the  universal
support  and  services  system  can  be  seen  as  an  endeavour  to  address  problems  in  a
durable  manner.  The  NAPincl  recognises,  however,  that  many  of  the  challenges
foreseen in the plan necessitate also the use of special targeted actions. All in all there
is  a  broad  range  of  undertakings  at  different  levels  to  tackle  the  problems.  An
important  goal  is  to  increase  employment  and,  especially,  to  try  to  cut  long-term
unemployment,  through  a  strategy  based  on  active  social  policy.  This  is  a  special
challenge in Finland. While it has been in the centre of the Government's policies for
several  years,  long-term  unemployment  has  not  decreased  as  much  as  would  have
been desirable and affects a core of hard-to-place people.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

Besides  the  comprehensive  set  of  measures  Finland  has  included  in  their  plan,  they
present  various  issues  subject  to  ongoing  policy  discussion  and  measures  that  have
been  proposed  or  being  dealt  with  by  different  working  parties.  These  will  be
discussed and addressed during the period of the plan. The following are examples of
measures  being  envisaged:  reforming  the  occupational  health  system  to  incorporate
short-term jobs; promoting the employment of the disabled; development of an action
model  based  on  joint  responsibility  on  part  of  various  actors  within  society  and
changing  the  funding  responsibilities  of  benefit  systems  in  order  to  increase  the
chances  of  employment  for  those  who  are  at  the  risk  of  exclusion  from  the  labour
market; drawing up integrated housing strategies in municipalities based on the use of
the  existing  housing  stock;  examination  of  nationwide  development  needs  and  of
student  welfare  at  the  levels  of  pre-school  instruction,  basic  schooling  and  upper
secondary  schooling;  and  establishment  of  a  centre  working  closely  with  NGOs  to
study and monitor poverty and social exclusion.

147

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

Broad-based  policy  preparation  has  a  long  tradition  in  Finland.  The  schemes  are
normally  run  by  the  public  administration,  mostly  at  municipal  level.  The  country’s
policies  in  the  areas  of  income,  taxation,  employment  and  social  affairs  have  been
developed through collaboration between the State,  the municipalities  and the social
partners. Such a partnership-based tradition played an important role in the adjustment
of  Finland’s  system  of  social  policies  to  changed  circumstances  in  the  1990s.  Third
Sector actors and the churches, the public and private sectors have recently increased
co-operation aimed at preventing social exclusion.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  and  objectives  in  relation  to
National Action Plan/empl

The NAPincl measures classified under the title “exclusion from the labour market” in
the  plan  have  been  reported  in  NAPempl  and  they  are  compatible.  Both  plans  have
been checked by an inter-ministerial group responsible for coordination of EU-related
matters  in  the  field  of  social  affairs.  Furthermore,  the  social  partners,  who  play  an
important  role  in  social  and  employment  policy  in  Finland,  have  participated  in  the
preparation of both NAPs.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

Changes in  the labour  market have meant that market demand is mainly  focused on
highly  educated  and skilled persons.  It  is important to ensure  an  adequate supply  of
labour.  Obstacles  to  employment  have  been  removed  by  eliminating  disincentives
embodied  in  the  tax-benefit  system.  New  types  of  services  and  various  kind  of
subsidised work have been developed to promote employment of less highly educated
and skilled persons. Rehabilitation for work, and any associated supporting measures
aimed at increasing a person's control of his or her life, are key methods identified by
NAPincl in putting an end to social exclusion.

There are also measures to improve the work capacity of ageing persons, as well as to
enhance the  employability  of immigrants.  As  regards the  reconciliation  of  work  and
family life, parents with children of pre-school age have a subjective right to day care
regardless  of  their  employment  status.  The  NAPincl  foresees  the  development  of
afternoon  activities  for  schoolchildren.  Life-long  learning  is  being  promoted  by
reforming income security during adult vocational training.

3.2. 

Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

The danger of social exclusion is countered by using the universal system of services
and income transfers that covers all people living in Finland. The social safety net and
the  wide  consensus  around  it  saved  Finland  from  major  social  unrest  in  the  early
1990´s. Policies aimed at combating exclusion will continue to rely first and foremost
on  the  development  of  the  universal  system,  which  can,  however,  be  supplemented
with specially targeted measures where necessary.

148

The plan refers to a number of measures to improve the social protection system: co-
ordination of subsistence allowance and earnings to encourage people to take on part-
time  or  short-term  jobs;  extension  of  the  allowance  period  for  the  rehabilitation  of
youths with disabilities in order to support them to take on work without immediately
losing  their  benefits;  raising  the  maximum  rent  acceptable  for  the  general  housing
allowance; and improving mental health services for children and young adults.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

Vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  in  a  number  of  policy  areas  with  the  aim  of
preventing crisis situations leading to social exclusion. Income redistribution reduces
relative poverty in Finland very effectively. The NAPincl lists the following measures
under  the  prevention  objective:  raising  the  national  pension  level;  raising  child
supplements  associated  with  labour-market  support;  reform  aimed  at  increasing  the
effectiveness  of  preventive  subsistence  allowance;  making  compliance  with  job-
seeking  schemes  a  prerequisite  for  receiving  unemployment  allowances;  free  pre-
school  instruction  for  children  in  the  six-year-age  group;  and  establishment  of  an
equalisation  fund  to  ensure  that  child  protection  is  not  dependent  on  the  financial
situation of a municipality.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

Social  exclusion  risks  are  addressed  first  and  foremost  by  the  services  and  income
security  provided  under  the  principle  of  universality,  but  the  existence  of  social
exclusion  problems  means  that  specially  targeted  measures  are  required  in  addition.
Finland  presents  various  kinds  of  rehabilitation  measures  aimed  at  increasing  an
individual's  control  over  his  or  her  life.  Innovative  workshops  at  vocational  training
institutes  to  counter  exclusion  from  education,  as  well  as  workshops  for  young
unemployed,  both  co-funded  by  ESF,  are  also  referred  to.  The  Government  is
proposing  the  establishment  of  an  Ombudsman  for  issues  of  discrimination  and
promotion of good inter-ethnic relations. Moreover, ordinary people's ability to cope
with information society is to be developed.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

In the Finnish structure, the participation and mobilisation of all stakeholders is part
of the normal administration, where the relations to bodies outside the administration
itself are regulated in the legislation and in daily practice. However, the NAPincl puts
forward  new  initiatives  in  this  regard,  such  as:  the  development  of  co-operation
between municipal authorities in the field of active social policy; the 'Suburbs 2000'
housing  estate  programme;  the  development  of  open  services  for  persons  who  have
been  treated  for  mental  health  problems;  and  establishment  of  regional  partnership
centres by the NGOs.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The  structure  of  the  social  policy  system  is  mainly  based  on  the  individual  and
individualised  rights  and  duties  have  proved  to  enhance  gender  equality  in  society.
The  NAPincl  shows  awareness  of  gender  differences  as  such  and  the  importance  of
promoting  gender  equality.  The  individual-based  systems  are  supported  by  a

149

comprehensive  system  of  services  that  facilitates  the  reconciliation  of  working  and
family life and facilitates the participation of women in the workforce.

5. 

THE ROLE OF ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Under Finland´s Objective 3 programme almost 140 M€ of ESF and national public
funding is foreseen for specific measures aimed to reintegrate the most vulnerable and
disadvantaged  groups,  representing  13%  of  the  total  public  expenditure  for  the
programme.  Social  inclusion  measures  are  also  funded  through  Finnish  regional
programmes.  Furthermore,  the  Community  initiative  EQUAL  aims  to  combat  all
forms  of  discrimination  and  inequalities  as  well  as  to  prevent  social  exclusion.  ESF
and  national  public  funding  for  Finland's  EQUAL  programme  amounts  to  145  M€.
All  in  all  planned  ESF  and  national  public  social  inclusion  expenditure  makes  up
some 20% of the total public funding for ESF-programmes in Finland.

150

SWEDEN

Conclusions

Situation  and  key  trends  The  Swedish  social  and  health  system  is  universal  and
comprehensive. Social security benefits are largely based on the principle of compensation for
loss of income with individual rights to basic benefits for all  people  resident  in the  country
regardless of their social or professional affiliation, marital status or sex.

Steady  economic  growth  (over  3%  during  the last  3  years)  with a  high  employment  rate  of
73%, and relatively low unemployment form a solid basis for strengthening policies for social
inclusion and for the fight against poverty. Sweden spent 33% of its GDP on social welfare in
1998, the highest share in the Union. The rate of relative poverty is low, 12% in 1997.

Strategic approach The Swedish welfare system is based on a policy of full employment for
both  men  and  women  and  on  a  universal  social  security  system.  The  Government  commits
itself  in  the  NAPincl  to  further  increase  employment  (target:  employment  rate  of  80  %  by
2004) and to strengthen social justice (target: halving the number of welfare dependent people
by  2004).  A  vigorous  employment  policy  is  the  key  to  fighting  poverty.  By  opting  for  a
universal system with income-related benefits rather than a system of minimum benefit levels,
Sweden ensures an integrated and inclusive approach . Gender mainstreaming is embodied in
the structure of the welfare system. The universal schemes giving individual rights  enhance
equality between men and women.

Policy  measures  The  NAPincl  responds  to  the  four  common  objectives  by  increasing
investment in the welfare system, and by adjusting the social protection schemes so that they
address more effectively the existing pockets of poverty. The NAPincl includes a broad range
of  general  reforms  and  specific  measures  in  all  areas  with  a  comprehensive  approach  for
social  inclusion.  Inclusive  labour  market  measures  mean  that  the  unemployed  are  offered
training  or  work  experience  if  no  work  is  available.  The  Primacy  of  Work  principle  urges
effective  measures  to  give  people  the  opportunity  to  find  a  job  and  support  themselves.
Pension  reforms  seek  to  enhance  social  inclusion.  The  NAPincl  includes  investment  in  all
levels  of  education,  a  reform  of  vocational  training  and  adult  education,  as  well  as
enhancement of skills and accessibility to information technology.

Challenges ahead The major challenge ahead is to continue to strengthen the welfare system
including the full employment policy and universal social security system. Only by increasing
employment  can  health  care,  social  services  and  pensions  of  the  ageing  population  be
adequately financed and the need for  benefits and  other  social  security  allowances  reduced.
Further  challenges  have  been  identified  to  ensure  that  those  whose  standard  of  living
deteriorated substantially during the economic crises are not socially excluded, to strengthen
protection for those at risk of social exclusion on account of disabilities, ethnic origin, short or
incomplete  education,  lack  of  integration  into  labour  market  or  residence  in  disadvantaged
areas/regions, and to improve support for the most vulnerable (those with misuse of alcohol
and drugs, homeless people, children at risk and the intellectually disabled).

151

1. 

MAJOR CHALLENGES

The Swedish social and health system is universal and comprehensive and the social
security system is largely based on the principle of compensation for loss of income
including  individual  rights  to  basic  benefits  for  all  people  resident  in  the  country
regardless of their social or professional affiliation, marital status or sex. There is no
basic  requirement  of  employment  or  of  income  in  order  to  get  social  security,  even
though the employed get higher benefits based on their incomes. During the last three
years GDP growth has been over 3 % per year, 3,6 % in 2000, but it is expected to
slow down to 2 % in the current year. The employment rate in 2000 was 73 % (71 %
for women and 74,8 % for men), one of the highest in the Union. The unemployment
level continues to fall and  was  5,9  % (5,8  %  for  women  and  6  %  for  men)  in  2000
compared  with  7,2  %  in  1999.  The  long-term  unemployment  rate  remains  low,  at
1,1% for women and 1,4 % for men in 2000.

According  to  ESSPROS  data  from  Eurostat,  Sweden  spent  33.3%  of  its  GDP  on
social  protection  in  1998,  the  highest  share  among  the  EU  Member  States  (EU
average  of  27,7%).  The  2001  Spring  Budget  Bill  indicates  that  the  percentage  of
relatively  poor  persons  (those  living  on  an  income  below  50%  of  average  income)
have increased on a trend basis from 7.2% to 9.1% between 1991 and 199829. On the
basis of the harmonised ECHP data, the relative poverty rate (estimated at 60% of the
national median) was 12% in 1997.

However,  low  income  is  just  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty,  and  in  order  to
measure  and  analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into
account  other  equally  relevant  aspects  such  access  to  employment,  housing,
healthcare and the degree of satisfaction of basic needs.

After the economic recovery social policy has been reformed and resources increased.
However, the following challenges can be observed:

– 

– 

The  expansion  of  the  social  welfare  allowance  system  meant  rising  costs,
due  to  the  longer  periods  of  welfare  dependency  and  the  increasing
number  of  households  depending  on  these  allowances  for  long  periods
(young  people  and  households  containing  refugees  and  immigrants).  To
counteract  this,  the  policy  was  to  make  the  system  less  generous  and  more
restrictive,  especially  through  tighter  eligibility  criteria  and  putting  ceilings
on benefit levels. The restoring of the social system ensures its sustainability
and stability.

Even  though  the  Swedish  social  security  system  was  able  to  face  the
challenge of the economic recession and to prevent it turning into a welfare
crisis, some groups such as young people, immigrants and single parents
were affected harder than others. The challenge is how to compensate these
groups.

29

Measured by the households' disposable income per consumption unit, using national data, the
relative poverty rate fell to 3,9 % during the same period.

152

                                                
– 

– 

A challenge is also to improve the situation for the most vulnerable. Despite
the lack of data available there are indications that the situation of the most
vulnerable has deteriorated in several respects, i.e. for children at risk, those
misusing  alcohol  and  drugs,  the  homeless  and  overcrowded,  criminals  and
prostitutes.  Further  attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  needs  of  the  long-
term unemployed, the disabled, the elderly, and people born outside Sweden.

Even though there are only minor regional differences in disposable income,
the process of socio-economic and ethnic segregation has continued during
the  1990s.  However,  the  trend  is  neither  dramatic,  nor  clear-cut  in  all
respects. Ethnic segregation is particularly high.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The  Swedish  welfare  system  is  based  on  a  policy  of  full  employment  for  both  men
and women and on a universal social security system. The Government is committed
to increased employment and social justice. The employment target is that 80% of the
population  aged  between  20  and  64  shall  be  in  regular  employment  by  2004.  The
target of social justice is to halve welfare dependency between 1999 and 2004.

A  vigorous  employment  policy  is  the  key  to  fight  poverty.  The  purpose  of  the
Swedish  employment  policy  is  to  reduce  unemployment  and  create  a  high  rate  of
employment for both men and women regardless of their background or origin.

The objectives of the Government to increase social justice include: 1) to ensure that
the  groups  whose  standard  of  living  deteriorated  substantially  during  the  economic
crisis  are  not  socially  excluded  –  mainly  young  people,  single  parents  and  some
immigrant and refugee groups; 2) to strengthen protection for groups at risk of social
exclusion on account of disabilities, ethnic origin, short or incomplete education, lack
of integration into the labour market, or residence in disadvantaged areas/regions; and
3) to improve support for the most vulnerable groups. Measures need to be  taken to
prevent  and  treat  the  misuse  of  alcohol  and  drugs,  reduce  the  number  of  homeless
people and strengthen protection for children at risk and the mentally disabled.

By  opting  for  a  universal  social  security  system  with  income-related  benefits  rather
than  a  system  of  minimum  benefit  levels,  according  to  the  Swedish  authorities,
administration  is  cheaper  than  in  a  system  of  means-tested  benefits,  and,  the  most
disadvantaged groups are better off.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

Given  a  policy  of  full  employment  with  a  universal  social  system  supplemented  by
income  based  schemes,  the  strategic  approaches  and  key  objectives  are  targeted
correctly. When no clear poverty or social exclusion can be identified, it is sensible to
strengthen  the  welfare  of  all  people.  If  economic  growth  continues  as  foreseen,  the
long-term  objectives  will  be  reached.  By  strengthening  the  social  welfare  policy
framework, the possible problems caused by lower growth will be met.

How this underlying strategy of the welfare system diminishes effectively poverty and
social  exclusion  is  not  really  discussed  in  the  Swedish  NAPincl,  neither  has  the

153

importance and the potential of the universal schemes been assessed. Moreover, it is
not  clear  how  the  different  measures  set  out  in  the  NAP/incl  will  contribute  to  the
central  target  of  halving  the  number  of  welfare  dependent  people.  Progress  will,
however, be measured by 2004.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The  thrust  of  Swedish  policies  against  poverty  and  social  exclusion  is  the  universal
social system as described above. The system provides a solid basis for abolishing the
main sources of poverty and social exclusion. However, specific measures addressed
to  special  cases  or  groups  of  people  are  still  needed,  which  contain  some  scope  for
further innovation.

Some Offices of Ombudsman (the Disabled, Children) are mentioned in the NAPincl.
Having  a  long  tradition  of  Ombudsmen  in  different  fields,  this  typical  Swedish
institution  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion  could  be  mentioned  as  an
innovation, on which more information would be welcome.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

In the framework of the welfare system, the co-ordinated and integrated approach to
policies is mainly regulated by legislation and administrative rules. The bodies outside
the administration can give their opinions. Taking this as granted, the general welfare
policy takes into account all the relevant aspects of poverty and social exclusion. Even
if  not  clearly  spelled  out,  there  seems  to  be  a  clear  balance  between  employment
related  policies  and  the  measures  to  strengthen  social  schemes,  and  clearly  defined
key objectives for both areas (see also point 3.4. below). References are made in the
NAP  to  the  efforts  which  the  Government and a  large range of  different  bodies  and
interest groups at all levels have put in, although it is not possible to assess  to  what
extent the participation of the bodies outside the normal administration has resulted in
actual contributions to the NAP/incl. Other stakeholders should be encouraged to get
involved in the joint combat against poverty.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  the  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  the  National
Action Plan/empl

Sweden solved the compatibility and co-ordination of the NAP/empl by attaching it as
Annex  1  to  the  NAPincl.  The  employment  policy's  potential  for  the  welfare  system
was not properly  discussed in the  NAPincl,  nor was the  social  policy  linkage  in  the
NAPempl. Even though there seems to be co-ordination in policy level between these
two aspects of the Swedish welfare state, this is not clearly spelled out in the NAPincl.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

The policy of full employment being a cornerstone of the Swedish welfare system, the
NAPincl  stresses  the  role  of  employment  policy  in  the  fight  against  poverty.  To
facilitate participation in employment Sweden has opted for the principle of activation
and skill enhancement. The Primacy of Work principle means effective measures to
give people the opportunity  to find a  job  and  support  themselves.  To  strengthen  the

154

incentive  to  work,  the  rules  of  the  unemployment  insurance  scheme  have  been
changed to this effect. Furthermore, an activity guarantee scheme was introduced last
year.  Educational  reforms  also  enhance  access  to  labour  market,  such  as  qualified
vocational training, new post-secondary education, and a new bill on the development
of adult education. To make it easier for both parents to enter and stay in the labour
market, parental benefits are to be extended by 30 days, totalling 480, if both parents
make use of at least 60 days each.

3.2. 

Facilitating access by all to resources, rights, goods and services

The  universal  welfare  system  means  individual  rights  and  access  by  all  to  social
benefits, to education, to health and to care services and to housing. Everyone has a
right to reasonable financial resources in case of loss of income. To facilitate access
by  all,  Sweden  has  launched  several  reforms  and  measures.  For  instance,  the
economic situation of the elderly has been improved and the old age pension has been
reformed  based  on  lifelong  earnings  and  including  a  basic  cover  in  the  form  of  a
guaranteed  pension  for  those  who  have  a  low  or  no  income.  To  facilitate  access  to
education, investment in all levels has been made. Housing policy has been reformed;
for instance local authorities are required to plan their housing supply to ensure decent
housing  for  everybody.  A  National  Action  Plan  for  the  Development  of  the  Health
Services  is  to  improve  health  care.  A  new  Social  Service  Act  is  to  extend  the
individual's right to assistance. The Office of the Disability Ombudsman will set up a
national accessibility centre.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

One of the main objectives of  the  Government is  to  strengthen  the protection of the
groups at risk of social exclusion for whatever reason. The situation is to be analysed
annually to allow strengthening of specific measures. The NAPincl presents numerous
plans  and  measures  to  this  effect  such  as  the  national  action  plan  against  racism,
xenophobia,  homophobia  and  discrimination,  which  was  recently  presented  to
enhance possibilities for general legislation against discrimination. The measures for
e-Inclusion focus on the  ICT  potential for disabled people,  while  existing  initiatives
for  digital  literacy for  disadvantaged  groups  or  for  ICT  access  of  elderly  people  are
not reported.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

To  improve  support  to  the  most  vulnerable  is  also  one  of  the  strategic  policy
approaches  of  the  Government  to  be  analysed  annually.  Measures  and  plans
introduced cover the most vulnerable such as children at risk, misuse of alcohol and
drugs,  homeless  and  with  overcrowding,  crime  and  prostitution  as  well  as  the  long-
term  unemployed,  the  disabled,  the  elderly  and  immigrants.  To  improve  social
integration,  a  special  investigator  has  been  appointed  to  submit  proposals  for
implementation  of  the  two  EU  directives  against  discrimination.  Government  has
committed  funds  for  1999-2003  to  address  social,  ethnic  and  discriminatory
segregation in the metropolitan regions and to promote equal and gender-equal living
conditions for the inhabitants of these regions.

155

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

As Sweden has a strong tradition of voluntary organisations, the government allocates
grants every year to support about 100 organisations in the social sector. In order to
increase the knowledge base and develop the work of these organisations, a secretariat
was set up in the National Board of Health and Welfare in 2001. To mainstream the
fight  against  exclusion,  all  government  agencies  are  to  prepare  action  plans  for  the
promotion of ethnic diversity among their employees. To enhance the possibilities for
asylum-seekers,  refugees  and  other  newly  arrived  immigrants,  an  agreement  to
improve  co-ordination  has  been  made  between  a  broad  range  of  public  authorities.
The social responsibility of business has been enhanced by different measures.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The universal schemes, giving individual rights to all, enhance equality as such, also
between men and women. There is gender mainstreaming in the structure itself. This
might be why there are rather few specific references to  gender issues. Even though
Sweden has a good tradition on equal opportunities and has obtained good results in
the  field,  gender  mainstreaming  as  such  is  not  discussed  at  all  to  make  gender
perspective visible in targets, actions and evaluation process.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

The total ESF co-funding for 2000-2006 under objective 3 is €2,78 billion, objective 1
€44  million  and  EQUAL  €172,4  million,  including  ESF  and  national  public  and
private funding. 14,5% of both the Objective 3 and l programmes is allocated to equal
opportunities.  EQUAL  is  wholly  contributing  to  the  fight  against  discrimination.
Despite of these programmes, the role of ESF is practically non-existent in the NAP
incl. It is mentioned only in references to the NAPempl and there to the chapter which
describes what ESF does in Sweden.  No discussion on  how ESF programmes  could
assist Swedish social welfare policy is found.

156

UNITED KINGDOM

Conclusions

Situation and Key Trends Healthy economic performance has lead to record high levels of
employment and low levels of unemployment and long term unemployment. Despite this the
UK  has  experienced  continued  income  inequalities.  The  UK  had  a  relative  poverty  rate  of
22%  in  199730  (income  below  60%  of  the  national  median).  One  in  three  children  live  in
households below this poverty threshold. Almost 2 million children live in households  with
no  one  at  work.  Worklessness  is  concentrated  in  particular  social  groups  and  geographical
areas. There are a  number  of  groups  particularly  vulnerable  to  social  exclusion:  children  in
care, rough sleepers, lone and teenage parents, certain ethnic minorities, the mentally ill, and
the disabled. Women constitute a higher proportion of adults in poverty. The  persistence  of
poverty  means  many  pensioners  were  unable to  build  up  a  decent  second  pension  and  now
live in poverty. A major challenge is the concentration of poverty within geographical areas
(inner cities, social housing estates and some rural areas) suffering from interlinked problems
of social exclusion.

Strategic  approach  The  UK  approach  tackles  issues  in  relation  to  the  life  cycle  with
intervention tailored to the needs of different age groups. This operates in the context of the
UK's universal social protection system. There is a strong commitment to employment as the
route out of poverty, but also as a significant preventative element. Particular focus is given to
children living in poverty with a key commitment to eradicate child poverty within 20 years.
Given  the  complex  nature  of  the  problem,  the  strategy  takes  a  long-term  approach.  The
NAPincl only reports on an existing set of policies, and does not announce any new policies.
There  is  emphasis  on  setting  long-term  targets  (2020)  with  both  sub-targets  for  specific
groups  or  areas.  A  range  of  innovative  indicators  monitor  progress.  The  NAPincl  contains
little  detail  on  the  gender  mainstreaming  of  policies.  The  Devolved  Administrations  are
responsible  for  many  of  the  policies  impacting  on  poverty  and  exclusion  and  each  is
responsible for developing its own strategy for tackling problems. The UK government  and
the  devolved  administrations  share  a  common  goal  of  eradicating  poverty  and  promoting
inclusion and there are similarities in their strategic approaches.

Policy Measures The UK responds to all four objectives. There are a range of policies, and
recent reforms, designed to increase opportunities and incentives to work and tackle low pay
and low skills. The NAP/incl provides a narrow range of examples from the UK's approach to
ensuring access to services. Preventing exclusion places particular focus on policies helping
children  from  an  early  age.  Pension  reform  should  help  prevent  more  people  from  moving
into pensioner poverty. The NAP also discusses national strategies to reduce poverty risks for
carers  and  lone  parents.  The  NAPincl  identifies  a  number  of  vulnerable  groups  requiring
additional  intervention  to  meet  their  needs.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  children  in  or
leaving  care,  pregnant  teenagers,  and  those  suffering  from  problems  with  drug  abuse,
homelessness or poor mental health. Local Partnership is a strong theme in the UK approach,
with  a  range  of  relevant  actors  closely  involved  in  the  delivery  of  policies.  They  are  often
given flexibility to "bend" programmes to meet specific local circumstances. However, at the
national level NGOs and the two main Social Partners are less closely involved.

Challenges Ahead The UK's major challenge remains tackling the numbers of children living
in poverty. The fight against exclusion must also address continued income inequalities and

30

18% in 1996. The increase is due to a break in the statistical series in the ECHP data for the
UK.

157

                                                
concentration of unemployment and inactivity amongst key groups and areas. It is important
that the UK continues to develop properly co-ordinated arrangements for targeted policies to
ensure access for all to good quality services, particularly health, housing and education. This
is  especially  important  within  deprived  neighbourhoods.  Devolution  and  the  focus  on  local
delivery mean that the UK needs to ensure existing co-ordination methods continue to work
effectively to maintain the strategy behind the range of local, regional and national policies.
Tackling poor basic skills is important because of the link to low paid jobs and periodic spells
of unemployment. Given that women are more likely to be in, and remain in, poverty future
NAPs  need  to  systematically  mainstream  gender  in  all  the  policies.  A  further  challenge  is
tackle the large numbers of individuals (especially women) who are unable to build up decent
pension entitlements and thus reduce the number of pensioners living in poverty.

1. 

CHALLENGES AND TRENDS

Despite healthy economic performance leading to record high levels of employment
and  low  levels  of  unemployment  and  long  term  unemployment,  increases  over  the
past  20  years  in  income  inequalities  and  the  number  of  people  living  in  poverty
present a range of challenges. 22% of the population lived in relative poverty in 1997.
Before social transfers, the relative poverty rate was 43% in 1997, which is a measure
of  the  income  correcting  effect  of  the  social  protection  system.  The  UK  spent  with
social  protection  26.8%  of  GDP  in  1998,  marginally  less  than  the  EU  average
(27.7%).

However,  low  income  is  just  one  of  the  dimensions  of  poverty,  and  in  order  to
measure  and  analyse  this  phenomenon  more  precisely,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into
account  other  equally  relevant  aspects  such  access  to  employment,  housing,
healthcare and the degree of satisfaction of basic needs.

Women constitute a higher proportion of adults in poverty. One of the most important
challenges  is  the  number  of  children  living  in  poverty.  The  problem  is  not  only  of
sheer numbers but has the potential to be compounded across generations as children
grow  up  in  persistent  poverty.  Approximately  one  in  three  children  lived  in  a
household  with  income  below  60%  of  the  national  median  in  1998/9.  Part  of  the
explanation  is  the  number  of  children  living  in  families  where  no  one  works.  The
number of "workless" households has doubled since 1979. Almost 2 million children
lived in such households in 2000 (nearly 16% of all children) with 800,000 growing
up  in  families  where  all  parents  have  been  claiming  out-of-work  benefits  for  more
than 5 years.

The  problem  of  worklessness  can  be  exacerbated  by  a  lack  of  incentive  to  work
caused  by  the  relationship  between  low  wages  and  loss  of  benefits.  The  recent
introduction  of  in  work  tax  credits  to  help  the  low  paid  should  help  alleviate  this
situation. Worklessness is concentrated in particular social groups, geographical areas
and  households.  16-18  year  olds  neither  in  education  or  work,  lone  parents  (the
highest number in the EU), certain ethnic minorities, the disabled, and those with no
qualifications  are  more  at  risk  of  poverty  and  exclusion.  Particularly  vulnerable  to
exclusion are children in  care, teenage  mothers  ,  and  those  suffering  from  problems
with drug abuse, homelessness and mental health problems.. One in four older people
lived in a low-income household in 1998/9. The persistence of this poverty means that
many were unable to build up decent second pensions. A further challenge facing the
UK  is  the  concentration  of  poverty  within  geographical  areas  (inner  cities,  social

158

housing  estates  and  some  rural  areas).  These  areas  suffer  from  multiple,  interlinked
problems of high unemployment and mortality  rates, ethnic divisions, high levels  of
crime, and poor access to quality services (housing, education and health care).

The  key  future  trends  are  likely  to  continue  to  be:  growing  concentration  of
unemployment  amongst  key  groups  and  areas;  persistently  high  levels  of  economic
inactivity,  especially  among  older  men  (there  are  2.3  million  economically  inactive
men  of  working  age);  poor  basic  skills  and  its  link  to  periodic  spells  of
unemployment; and the high levels of child poverty. Projected patterns of job growth
are  likely  to  exacerbate  this  with  growth  concentrated  in  high  qualification
occupations and low unemployment localities.

2. 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND MAIN OBJECTIVES

The UK has a universal social protection system based on minimum standards for all.
The approach is to tackle issues in relation to the lifecycle. Intervention is tailored to
the  needs  of  different  age  groups  to  ensure  disadvantage  is  not  compounded  across
generations.  This  approach  has  a  strong  commitment  to  employment  as  the  primary
route out of social exclusion. Strategic objectives are identified in relation to children
and young people, people in working age and older people. Further objectives relate
to disadvantaged communities. Measures to address social exclusion combine changes
to  mainstream  programmes  such  as  the  tax  and  benefit  systems  with  targeted
initiatives  addressing  specific  issues  or  groups.  Such  initiatives  have  proliferated
recently and need to be well integrated to ensure coherence.

The key commitment is to eradicate child poverty within 20 years. Policies to address
this  have  a  strong  preventative  element.  There  are  similar  objectives  across  all  the
devolved  administrations.  For  people  in  working  age  the  aim  is  to  create  a  more
inclusive  society  through  a  welfare  state  that  provides  support  and  opportunities  to
everyone  who  can  work,  and  ensures  the  most  vulnerable  can  participate  fully  in
society.  Tackling  pensioner  poverty  concentrates  on  alleviating  immediate  problems
faced by today’s poorest pensioners and a long-term objective to provide older people
with security and independence in retirement. There are a range of innovative policies
to  narrow  the  gap  between  the  poorest  neighbourhoods  and  the  rest  of  the  country.
Central  to  this  is  ensuring  that  core  public  services  address  the  special  needs  of
deprived areas.

2.1. 

The long-term strategic perspective

There  is  a  range  of  objectives  consistent  with  tackling  the  UK's  major  challenges.
Given  the  complex  and  multi-dimensional  nature  of  the  problem,  the  strategy
necessarily takes a long-term approach. There are a range of well-focused long-term
targets  (2020),  with  both  sub-targets  for  specific  groups  or  areas,  and  intermediate
targets to monitor progress.

2.2. 

The innovative content of the NAPincl

The NAPincl reports exclusively on an existing set of policies, and does not announce
any  new  policies  in  the  fight  against  social  exclusion.  The  range  of  innovative
indicators  measure  progress,  not  just  nationally,  but  also  at  the  local  level,  with  a

159

focus on improving standards in areas with the worst performance. "Floor targets" set
minimum standards below which provision can not fall. A crucial element of the UK
approach is the focus on objectives. This gives emphasis to and significant investment
in, developing the “evidence base” through systematic monitoring of progress and the
use of robust evaluation.

2.3. 

Co-ordinated and integrated approach

Devolution  has  important  implications  in  the  UK.  Scotland,  Wales  and  Northern
Ireland are responsible for many of the policies impacting on poverty and exclusion
and each is responsible for developing its own strategy for tackling problems. The UK
government  and  the  devolved  administrations  share  a  common  goal  of  eradicating
poverty and promoting inclusion and there are close similarities in their approaches. A
Joint  Ministerial  Committee  on  Poverty,  including  Ministers  from  the  UK  and  the
Devolved Administrations, has been set up to develop a joint policy. Both devolution,
and the focus on local delivery, makes the need for co-ordination a priority in order to
maintain  the  strategy  behind  the  vast  range  of  local,  regional  and  national  policies.
Partnership in the delivery of policies at a local level, is a very strong theme in the UK
approach.  The  Government  and  the  devolved  administrations  recognise  that  they
alone  can  not  achieve  success  without  the  active  involvement  of  all  relevant  actors.
The multi-agency and cross-departmental approach is essential given the scale of the
problem.  It  is  important  that  the  UK  continues  to  develop  properly  co-ordinated
arrangements  for  targeted  policies  to  ensure  access  for  all  to  good  quality  services.
Consultation in developing the next NAPincl at all levels should improve with a less
tight timetable.

2.4. 

Compatibility  of  strategic  approaches  in  relation  to  National  Action
Plan/empl

Given  the  UK's  employment  led  approach,  there  is  a  strong  relationship  between
policies covered in the NAPincl and the NAPempl. However this linkage is not well
drawn out in the NAPincl.

3. 

MAJOR POLICY MEASURES UNDER THE FOUR COMMON OBJECTIVES

3.1. 

Facilitating participation in employment

Policies encouraging access to employment include active labour market policies, tax
and  benefit  reform  (tax  credits  for  the  low  paid),  and  improvements  in  the  work
focused  "service"  for  the  unemployed  and  inactive.  The  New  Deal  regime  is  the
keystone of this approach. The regime offers intensive support and training to a wide
client group: young people (compulsory at 6 months); over 25 year olds (compulsory
at  18  months);  and  voluntary  programmes  (lone  parents,  the  disabled,  the  over  50's
and partners of the unemployed). Evaluation has been relatively positive on the effects
of  the  New  Deals,  especially  the  New  Deal  for  Young  People,  leading  to
improvements in all of the programmes. To tackle disincentives to work, and address
the problem of low levels of pay amongst a significant part of the workforce, the UK
increasingly uses targeted tax credits to provide a minimum in work income. This will
be extended in 2003 with the introduction of an employment tax credit for people on
low incomes , with or without children. To complement this, the National Minimum

160

Wage provides a floor for wages. To improve the service offered to the unemployed
and the economically inactive, the new "Jobcentre plus", will  become  operational in
October 2001. This agency, merging the Public Employment Service and the Benefit
Agency, will provide a more work-focused approach to the payment of all benefits for
people of working age in Great Britain.

3.2. 

Facilitating access by all to resources, rights, goods and services

A range of policies tackle variations in quality and access to these services. However
the  NAP/incl  provides  a  narrow  range  of  examples  from  the  UK's  approach  to
ensuring  access  to  services,  with  no  discussion  of  access  to  legal  services,  sport  or
culture.  Innovative  life  long  learning  services  aim  to  attract  people  traditionally
unable  or  unwilling  to  take  up  learning.  Policies  for  E-inclusion  are  not  well
illustrated  in  the  plan,  with  notable  exceptions.  "UK  online"  centres  aim  to  help
develop ICT skills and tackle the risk of exclusion of groups on the wrong side of the
digital divide.  "learndirect" offers  web-based  learning  and  over  1,000  centre  across
UK  to  make  learning  accessible  to  all.  Access  to  decent  housing  is  a  particular
concern in the UK. In 1996 40% of social sector and 29% of private sector homes in
England  failed  to  meet  set  standards  of  decency.  The  recent  green  paper  "The  Way
Forward  for  Housing" sets  out  the  strategy  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  housing  in
England, backed up by an additional investment of £1.8 billion. In Wales the National
Assembly  recently  consulted  on  proposals  for  a  National  Housing  Strategy  "Better
Homes for People in Wales". In Scotland the recent Housing Act give local authorities
stronger  powers  to  tackle  housing  needs  and  help  alleviate  homelessness.  The  UK
offers universal access to healthcare services through the NHS. The 10-year NHS plan
sets out reforms to improve health services and ensure they tackle health inequalities
in England.

3.3. 

To prevent the risks of exclusion

The life cycle approach places emphasis on preventing the risks of exclusion amongst
children. Policies, backed by significant investment, aim to tackle the key risk factors
occurring  during  childhood:  poor  early  development,  health,  school  attendance,
teenage  parenthood,  and  non-participation  in  education,  training  or  employment
between the ages of 16-18. "Sure Start" is the key policy in this fight. The scheme is
directed  at  neighbourhoods  where  a  high  proportion  of  children  live  in  poverty,
working with parents-to-be, parents and children to break the cycle of disadvantage. It
aims  to improve services  at  the  local  level,  spread  good  practice,  and  work  towards
local  and  national  targets  which  vary  according  to  local  needs.  Recent  education
reform  is  helping  to  raise  standards,  as  evidenced  by  progress  towards  meeting  the
various  National  Targets.  Support  through  policies  like  Early  Education  Centres,
Excellence in Cities, and New Community Schools in Scotland are designed to prevent
the  risks  of  exclusion  amongst  the  most  vulnerable  groups  of  children.  Northern
Ireland  has  set  a  target  to  reduce  the  number  of  pupils  identified  as  persistent  non-
attendees  (2003).  To  prevent  exclusion  in  old  age  the  UK  has  introduced  measures
both to target help on existing pensioners and to protect tomorrow's pensioners from
the  risks  of  social  exclusion.  Currently  steps  have  been  taken  to  help  the  poorest
pensioners  through  the  Minimum  Income  Guarantee.  In  the  longer  term  the  most
important  cause  of  poverty  in  old  age  is  the  lack  of  a  decent  second  pension  to
supplement the basic state pension. Thus important reforms to the pensions system are
designed  to  address  this  with  the  new  State  second  pension  targeting  groups

161

particularly at risk such as those on low incomes or those with a broken work record
or unable to  remain  in  paid  work  due  to  caring  responsibilities,  illness  or  disability.
The impact of these new developments will need to be carefully monitored.

3.4. 

To help the most vulnerable

The NAPincl identifies a number of vulnerable groups requiring specific intervention
to meet their needs. Particular attention is given to children in or leaving care, an issue
identified  as  one  of  the  key  risks  for  social  exclusion.  "Quality  Protects"  (England)
aims  to  modernise  the  services  provided  for  children  in  care  so  they  can  make  a
successful transition  into  adulthood.  Targets  have  been  set  to  improve  outcomes  for
vulnerable  children,  including  educational  attainment  for  those  leaving  care.  Given
that  the  UK  has  one  of  the  highest  rates  of  teenage  pregnancy  in  Western  Europe,
reducing  this  rate  gets  special  attention.  In  England  the  Government  has  set  up  a
Teenage Pregnancy Unit to co-ordinate initiatives aimed at halving the rate of teenage
conceptions among under-18s by 2010. In Wales "Children First" sets out a five year
programme to improve social services for children in need, backed up by local targets.

The  primary  focus  of  initiatives  for  the  working  age  is  getting  them  into  work.
Additional support is targeted towards those suffering from problems with drug abuse,
homelessness or mental health. As regards support to vulnerable older people the aim
is  to  provide  a  decent  minimum  income,  and  improve  the  access  and  quality  of
services, in particular health and social care, housing, and tackling the fear of crime.
The  NAP  discusses  policies  targeted  at  neighbourhoods  in  Objective  4,  to  illustrate
the  partnership  led  approach  of  these  policies.  However,  the  UK  has  a  strong
territorial  approach  to  tackling  exclusion.  In  Wales,  Communities  First  will  provide
targeted  support  to  the  most  deprived  communities.  The  National  Strategy  for
Neighbourhood  Renewal  sets  out  the  Government's  intention  of  narrowing  the  gap
between  deprived  areas  and  the  rest  of  the  England.  Policies  are  often  locally
delivered, and designed to tackle significant, inter-linked problems of deprived areas.
The  ambitious  aim  is  that  within  10-20  years  no  one  should  be  seriously
disadvantaged  by  where  they  live.  A  major  focus  of  the  strategy  is  to  "bend"
mainstream  programmes  to  focus  on  the  most  deprived  areas.  The  Neighbourhood
Renewal  Fund  provides  extra  resources  for  88  of  the  most  deprived  local  authority
areas.  26  Health  Action  Zones  across  England  aim  to  reduce  health  inequalities  in
deprived areas. Similar approaches are followed by the Devolved Administrations. In
Scotland,  the  Social  Inclusion  Partnership  programme  promotes  inclusion  in
neighbourhoods suffering multiple deprivation.

3.5. 

To mobilise all relevant bodies

Territorial  based  policies  of  the  UK  Government  and  the  Devolved  Administrations
heavily rely on partnership in their delivery at a local level. Local Partners are often
given flexibility to bend programmes and tailor them to  local needs.  Local  Strategic
Partnerships  bring  together  the  public,  private,  voluntary  and  community  sectors  to
identify  the  root  causes  of  neighbourhood  decline  and  develop  ideas  on  how  to
improve  things.  Many  Local  Authorities  have  been  set  Local  Public  Service
Agreements (PSAs) whereby they have to meet targets agreed with local people  and
partners. At an England-wide level the Social Exclusion Unit has a remit to improve
Government action by promoting "joined up solutions". The unit draws heavily upon
the involvement of partners in its work. Wider consultation at the national level is less

162

frequent with the involvement of NGOs and (especially) the UK's two major national
Social Partners restricted to specific issues.

4. 

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The UK NAPincl acknowledges that "women constitute a higher proportion of adults
in  poverty  and  are  more  likely  to  be  persistently  poor"  but  its  treatment  of  gender
mainstreaming is patchy. The Scottish sections of the plan show nevertheless a more
consistent identification of the challenges and reference  is  made to Northern  Ireland
statutory commitment to promote equality of opportunity including between men and
women.  The  coverage  of  gender  issues  under  the  four  objectives  is  variable.  It  is
strong  under  the  first  objective,  where  policies  encourage  women  to  play  a  full  and
active part in the labour market. Examples include the New Deal for Lone Parents and
the  national  childcare  strategies  which  aim  at  a  large  increases  in  the  number  and
quality  of  childcare  places.  Future  female  pensioners  with  current  broken  work
records  should  particularly  benefit  from  the  ongoing  State  Pension  reforms.  Under
Objective 3 teenage mothers and boys leaving care home are identified as particularly
vulnerable groups. Few of the indicators in the NAP/incl were broken down by gender
although  this  could  easily  have  been  done  for  many  of  the  indicators  and  targets.
Scotland shows a fuller breakdown of its indicators.

5. 

THE ROLE OF THE ESF IN FIGHTING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Structural Funds have  a  considerable  role  to  play  in  tackling  social  exclusion  in  the
UK. Social Inclusion is a key theme for ESF. Under funding for 2000-2006, Objective
3  contains  three  Operational  Programmes  (England,  Scotland,  Wales)  providing  a
closer  national  focus  and  allowing  each  programme  to  vary  funding  to  address
exclusion according to national priorities. In Scotland 40% of the Objective 3 budget
is  aimed  directly  at  Social  Exclusion.  ESF  will  tackle  a  range  of  problems  directly
linked  to  fighting  exclusion  across  all  priority  fields.  Most  important  is  priority  2,
which 
individuals  or  areas  of  deprivation  suffering  from  multiple
disadvantage.  However  action  under  all  other  four  priorities  also  make  important
contributions.  Under  Objectives  1  and  2  ESF  will  work  alongside  ERDF  in  using
areas based approach to bring forward Community Economic Development. EQUAL
will play a major role in targeting socially  excluded groups, but is not  mentioned  in
the plan.

targets 

163

Annex I

Indicators

164

LIST OF INDICATORS USED IN JOINT INCLUSION REPORT 2001

Indicator

Definition

Data  sources  +
years

1.

Index  of  income
inequality
S80/S20

2.

Gini coefficient

3a Relative  poverty
rate 
after
transfers  with
breakdowns  by
age and gender

3b Relative  poverty
rate 
after
transfers  with
breakdowns  by
most 
frequent
activity status

3c Relative  poverty
rate 
after
transfers  with
breakdowns  by
household type

Ratio  between  the  income  of  the  top  20%  of
the income distribution to the bottom 20%.

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

The  relationship  of  cumulative  shares  of  the
population arranged  according to  the  level  of
income,  to  the  cumulative  share  of  the  total
amount  received  by  them  (as  calculated  in
Newcronos).

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

Individuals  living  in  households  where  the
household  income  is  below  60%  national
equivalised median income.

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

Age  groups  are:  1.0-15,  2.16-24,  3.25-49,
4.50-64, 5. 65+. Gender breakdown for all age
groups + total

Individuals  aged  16+  living  in  households
where  the  household  income  is  below  60%
national equivalised median income.

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

Most  frequent  activity  status:  1.employed,
2.self-  employed,  3.unemployed,  4.retired,
5.inactives-other.  Gender  breakdown  for  all
categories + total

Individuals  aged  16+  living  in  households
where  the  household  income  is  below  60%
national equivalised median income.

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

1. 1 person household, under 30 yrs old

2. 1 person household, 30-64

3. 1 person household, 65+

4.  2  adults  without  dependent  child;  at  least
one person 65+

5. 2 adults without dep. child; both under 65

6. other households without dep. children

7. single parents, dependent child 1+

8. 2 adults, 1 dependent child

165

9. 2 adults, 2 dependent children

10. 2 adults, 3+ dependent children

11. other households with dependent children

12. Total

Dispersion
around 
poverty
threshold

the

Relative  poverty
rate  anchored  at
in
a  moment 
time

living 

the
Persons 
household income was below 40, 50 and 70%
median national equivalised income

in  households  where 

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

1995X:  Relative  poverty  rate,  using  60%  of
the median of 1995 multiplied by the inflation
factor 1994/95

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

1996: Relative poverty rate, using 60% of the
median of 1996

1996X  Relative  poverty  rate,  using  60%  of
the median of 1995 multiplied by the inflation
factor of 1994/96

1997: Relative poverty line, using 60% of the
median of 1997

Relative  poverty
before
rate 
transfers

Original 

income
1. 
income  +old  age+survivors
2.  original 
(=previous  definition  of  'before  transfers').
Gender breakdown + total

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

of
Persistence 
relative poverty

living 

in  households  where 

the
Persons 
household  income  was  below  60%  median
national  equivalised  income  three  years  in  a
row. Gender breakdown + total

ECHP 
1996, 1997)

(1995,

Regional
cohesion

Coefficient  of  variation  of  employment  rates
at NUTS 2 level.

LFS 
1997, 2000)

(1995,

term

Long 
unemployment
rate

Total long-term  unemployed  population  (>12
mths.;  ILO  def.)  as  proportion  of  total  active
population; Gender breakdown + total

LFS 
1997, 2000)

(1995,

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. Long 

term

unemployment
share

Total  long-term  unemployed  population  (>12
mths.;  ILO  def.)  as  proportion  of 
total
unemployed population; Gender breakdown +
total

LFS 
1997, 2000)

(1995,

11. Very  long  term Total  very  long-term  unemployed  population LFS 

(1995,

166

unemployment
rate

(>24  mths.;  ILO  def.)  as  proportion  of  total
active population; Gender breakdown + total

1997, 2000)

12. Early 

school
in
or

leavers  not 
education 
training

Share  of  total  population  of  18-24-year  olds
having  achieved  ISCED  level  2  or  less  and
not attending education or training.

LFS 2001

167

1. Share ratio S80/S20

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

1995
6,4
2,9
5,7
6,5
6,2
4,8
5,8
6,1
4,8
4,7
4,3
7,6
:
:
6,0
5,7

1996
5,8
2,8
5,3
6,4
7,0
4,8
5,7
5,9
4,6
4,9
4,1
7,1
2,7
:
6,0
5,6

1997
5,5
2,7
4,7
6,8
6,7
5,0
5,4
6,0
:
4,6
3,9
7,4
3,0
3,4
7,4
5,7

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Note: For UK there is a break in series between 1996 and 1997. Until 1996, ECHP  was  used for calculations.
From 1997 onwards the national panel transformed into the ECHP format is used.

2. Gini-coefficient

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

1995
37
22
31
35
34
30
34
33
29
29
28
38
:
:
34
32

1996
34
22
30
34
35
29
34
32
28
31
26
37
22
:
34
32

1997
34
21
29
35
35
30
33
32
:
28
25
38
23
23
34
31

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

168

3a. Relative poverty rate by age-group and gender (60% of median equivalised income)

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total

Age
Total 
Total 
Total 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
16 - 24 
M 16 - 24 
16 - 24 
F
25 - 49 
Total
M 25 - 49 
25 - 49 
F
50 -64 
Total
50 -64 
M
50 -64 
F
65+ 
Total
65+ 
M
65+ 
F

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total

Age
Total 
Total 
Total 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
16 - 24 
M 16 - 24 
16 - 24 
F
25 - 49 
Total
M 25 - 49 
25 - 49 
F
50 -64 
Total
50 -64 
M
50 -64 
F
65+ 
Total
65+ 
M
65+ 
F

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total

Age
Total 
Total 
Total 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
16 - 24 
M 16 - 24 
16 - 24 
F
25 - 49 
Total
M 25 - 49 
25 - 49 
F
50 -64 
Total
50 -64 
M
50 -64 
F
65+ 
Total
65+ 
M
65+ 
F

1995
17
17
18
19
18
20
24
26
21
12
10
14
18
18
17
24
24
25

1995
17
16
17
20
20
19
27
24
29
12
11
12
14
13
14
18
17
20

1995
13
12
15
16
15
17
13
11
15
11
11
12
10
9
10
20
15
23

B
1996
16
15
18
21
21
20
22
20
24
12
9
14
13
13
12
21
18
24

F
1996
17
17
18
22
23
21
28
25
32
12
12
13
14
16
13
17
15
19

A
1996
14
12
16
18
18
19
14
12
15
11
10
12
11
9
13
21
16
24

1997
15
13
16
15
13
17
23
20
26
10
8
12
14
15
14
22
22
21

1997
17
17
17
24
27
21
30
28
32
11
11
12
14
16
12
17
14
19

1997
13
12
15
16
15
16
12
14
10
10
9
11
10
8
12
22
16
25

1995
12
11
12
9
12
6
20
23
18
7
6
7
6
5
7
27
23
29

1995
19
18
20
27
27
28
19
17
21
15
14
16
14
16
12
20
13
25

1995
23
22
25
26
25
28
19
18
21
17
16
17
24
21
27
39
38
40

DK

1996
10
8
11
5
4
6
17
17
17
6
5
6
6
5
6
24
21
26

IRL

1996
19
18
20
26
25
28
19
18
20
15
14
17
13
15
12
21
14
26

P
1996
22
21
23
25
25
26
18
16
20
16
15
17
22
21
23
37
36
38

1997
8
7
9
3
3
4
14
15
13
4
5
4
5
5
5
22
19
25

1997
20
19
21
28
28
27
21
20
22
15
15
16
14
15
12
25
18
30

1997
23
22
25
29
29
30
21
20
22
17
15
18
21
19
23
37
34
39

1995
17
15
19
23
22
23
20
19
21
14
12
17
17
17
17
17
10
21

1995
20
19
20
24
25
23
28
27
30
17
16
18
18
17
18
16
14
18

1995
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

D
1996
16
14
17
22
22
21
21
18
23
13
12
14
12
11
14
16
11
19

I
1996
20
19
20
24
24
23
28
25
30
17
16
18
17
17
18
17
13
20

FIN

1996
8
8
8
5
5
5
19
20
19
5
5
5
7
9
5
12
6
16

1997
14
13
15
24
26
21
17
15
20
10
9
11
13
11
14
14
8
18

1997
19
19
20
24
25
23
26
26
27
18
17
19
17
17
16
16
13
17

1997
9
8
9
7
6
7
19
18
19
7
8
7
6
5
6
9
5
12

1995
22
21
23
19
19
19
23
23
22
15
14
16
24
21
26
36
35
36

1995
12
11
13
16
16
17
12
11
14
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
9
14

1995
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

EL

1996
21
21
21
20
21
19
23
24
23
15
15
15
20
18
22
33
32
35

L
1996
12
12
12
17
22
12
18
16
20
9
8
10
10
9
11
9
8
9

S
1996
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

1997
22
22
22
21
23
19
22
25
20
16
16
16
24
21
26
35
34
36

1997
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

1997
12
12
11
10
10
10
22
20
24
12
14
10
7
7
7
9
8
10

1995
20
20
20
24
24
25
23
23
24
17
17
18
19
19
19
15
16
15

1995
11
11
12
13
12
13
24
21
27
9
8
10
8
7
8
8
8
8

1995
22
20
23
31
30
31
21
21
22
16
14
18
14
13
14
32
28
36

E
1996
19
19
19
24
22
26
24
26
22
17
16
18
18
18
18
14
15
14

NL

1996
12
12
13
15
15
15
27
26
27
10
9
11
8
7
8
8
8
7

UK

1996
18
16
20
26
25
28
19
16
22
12
11
14
13
11
15
25
22
27

1997
19
19
19
25
23
27
23
22
24
18
17
18
17
17
17
15
15
14

1997
13
12
14
13
13
13
24
24
24
9
8
10
6
5
7
:
:
:

1997
22
20
25
39
37
42
25
26
25
14
12
16
12
13
12
29
22
34

169

Sexe

Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total

Age
Total 
Total 
Total 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
0 - 15 
16 - 24 
M 16 - 24 
16 - 24 
F
25 - 49 
Total
M 25 - 49 
25 - 49 
F
50 -64 
Total
50 -64 
M
50 -64 
F
65+ 
Total
65+ 
M
65+ 
F

EU15T

1996
17
16
18
22
22
22
23
21
25
14
13
15
14
14
15
19
16
21

1995
18
17
19
23
23
23
23
22
24
15
13
16
16
15
16
21
17
23

1997
18
17
18
25
25
24
23
22
24
13
12
14
14
14
14
19
15
22

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Figures  showing  gender  breakdowns  for  multiple  person  households  are  based  on  the  assumption  of  equal
sharing of income within the household.”

* In the age group 18-24 years there is a large number of persons who are in full-time education. Such persons
would in some Member States live mainly or partly from income in kind transferred from parents/family. Income
in kind are not part of the income concept used in this study and thus the poverty rate for persons in full-time
education may be overestimated.

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

3b.  Relative  poverty  rate  by  gender  and  most  frequent  activity  (60%  of  the  median
equivalised income)

Most frequent activity

TOTAL 
TOTAL 
TOTAL 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Self-employed
Self-employed
Self-employed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Retired
Retired
Retired
Inactive - other
Inactive - other
Inactive - other

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F

1995
17
16
18
4
4
4
17
19
12
35
46
27
20
21
20
28
31
27

B
1996
15
13
17
3
3
4
18
17
19
30
39
24
17
15
19
26
26
25

1997
15
12
16
4
4
3
15
16
12
29
34
26
18
18
18
24
21
25

1995
12
11
13
4
3
5
20
22
16
10
13
9
24
22
26
24
30
21

DK
1996
10
9
12
3
2
3
15
16
12
8
12
5
21
19
22
26
27
25

1997
9
8
10
3
2
3
13
18
2u
4
6
3
18
16
20
21
24
19

1995
16
13
18
8
7
8
10
7
14
40
42
37
20
17
22
27
26
27

D
1996
14
11
16
7
7
7
7
3
14
39
45
32
17
13
19
25
26
25

1997
12
10
15
6
5
6
5
4
8
35
39
32
15
12
18
23
24
22

1995
23
22
24
10
8
12
24
25
23
34
44
28
34
32
37
25
30
24

EL
1996
21
20
21
11
10
12
22
23
19
28
37
23
31
29
36
22
24
22

1997
23
22
24
11
10
13
23
24
18
38
45
34
36
32
40
24
29
23

1995
18
18
18
7
8
5
23
23
21
38
42
34
12
15
6
22
22
22

E
1996
18
18
18
6
7
6
30
31
27
34
39
28
11
14
6
21
22
21

1997
18
18
18
7
7
5
27
28
24
36
41
30
13
15
7
21
21
21

170

Most frequent activity

TOTAL 
TOTAL 
TOTAL 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Self-employed
Self-employed
Self-employed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Retired
Retired
Retired
Inactive - other
Inactive - other
Inactive - other

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F

Most frequent activity

TOTAL 
TOTAL 
TOTAL 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Self-employed
Self-employed
Self-employed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Retired
Retired
Retired
Inactive - other
Inactive - other
Inactive - other

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F

1995
15
14
16
7
7
6
15
15
14
36
43
31
17
15
18
28
29
28

1995
13
11
15
6
6
7
23
26
19
34
37
29
14
12
17
21
21
22

F
1996
16
15
17
7
7
6
16
16
14
43
52
36
17
15
18
28
26
29

A
1996
13
11
15
6
6
6
20
22
16
31
34
28
16
14
19
24
20
24

1997
16
14
17
6
7
5
17
18
16
38
42
33
15
14
17
31
28
32

1997
13
11
15
5
4
6
25
27
22
31
36
25
16
14
17
21
21
21

1995
16
14
18
3
4
2
14
14
9
35
39
21
18
17
20
24
20
25

1995
23
21
25
10
11
10
35
30
43
31
41
23
35
36
35
28
19
30

IRL

1996
17
15
19
4
5
3
13
14
7
39
42
28
17
16
19
26
24
27

P
1996
22
20
23
10
10
10
34
30
41
29
29
29
32
33
32
27
27
27

1997
18
17
20
5
6
4
13
12
15
44
47
33
22
20
30
27
29
27

1997
22
20
25
11
10
12
32
30
36
34
42
28
33
31
34
28
23
30

1995
19
18
20
8
9
6
22
23
19
48
52
43
15
14
15
25
24
26

1995
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

I
1996
18
17
20
8
9
5
19
20
16
48
54
41
13
14
13
26
21
27

FIN

1996
9
8
9
2
2
2
15
15
15
17
20
14
10
6
13
18
21
16

1997
18
17
18
7
8
6
24
26
17
47
52
40
13
13
12
24
21
24

1997
8
8
9
2
2
2
13
11
15
19
23
15
7
3
10
18
22
15

1995
11
10
12
7
7
9
12
13
:
:
:
:
12
10
15
15
18
14

1995
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

L
1996
10
9
11
5
6
5
12
8
:
:
:
:
11
10
12
15
18
14

S
1996
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

1997
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

1997
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

1995
11
10
12
6
6
6
18
20
12
20
24
19
6
6
9
15
18
14

1995
19
17
21
6
6
7
20
20
20
54
55
50
30
27
33
32
30
33

NL
1996
12
11
13
6
6
7
18
19
15
23
29
21
:
:
:
15
17
15

UK
1996
16
14
18
6
4
8
14
16
7
48
50
44
24
21
26
27
26
28

1997
13
12
14
5
5
6
17
17
16
19
20
18
:
:
:
21
23
19

1997
17
15
20
5
3
7
15
15
14
49
53
37
29
23
34
31
34
29

Most frequent activity

TOTAL 
TOTAL 
TOTAL 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Employed - not self-employed 
Self-employed
Self-employed
Self-employed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Unemployed
Retired
Retired
Retired
Inactive - other
Inactive - other
Inactive - other

Gender
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

1995

EU15T
1996

1997

17
16
19
7
7
7
18
18
18
40
45
36
20
18
20
26
26
26

16
14
17
7
7
7
16
16
16
40
45
34
17
15
18
25
24
25

16
14
17
6
6
6
17
17
15
38
43
32
18
15
19
25
25
25

Figures  showing  gender  breakdowns  for  multiple  person  households  are  based  on  the  assumption  of  equal
sharing of income within the household.

The figures cover the population aged 16 or more.

* The variable on most frequent activity status is not available in the Dutch ECHP. The figures provided here are
constructed from comparable information.

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

u: unreliable data

171

3c. Relative poverty rate by household type (60% of median equivalised income)

Total 

1 person 
hh, total

1 person 
hh, male 

1 person 
hh, female 

1 person 
hh, under 
30 yrs 

1 person 
hh, 30-64 
yrs 

1 person 
hh, over 
65 yrs 

25
27
23
32
30
27
29
24
27
36
30
35
14
11
12
24
24
21
42
43
51
27
27
23
18
17
:
17
18
22
29
31
31
51
49
46
:
24
20
:
:
20
36
31
41
28
25
27

33
26
27u
43
42
47
40
34
34
25
24u
34
16u
21u
32u
40
41
32
16
21
17
15u
27u
26u
12u
13u
:
50
53
53
29
34
29
           :  
           :  
18u
:
48
43
:
:
46
30
29
42
30
31
34

18
15
15
11
11
9
19
15
20
20
13
15
18
16
14
16
15
11
30
29
32
14
13
16
9
11
:
7
8
5
18
19
19
34
34
29
:
14
12
:
:
18
21
18
17
18
16
16

26
25
23
35
29
26
27
25
25
41
33
36
12
8
8
25
25
25
46
48
58
29
28
23
18
13
:
8
7
:
30
31
33
58
55
51
:
25
17
:
:
11
40
33
47
29
26
28

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

EU15T

1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997

17
16
15
12
10
8
17
16
14
22
21
22
20
19
19
17
17
17
19
19
20
20
20
19
12
12
:
11
12
13
13
14
13
23
22
23
:
8
9
:
:
12
22
18
22
18
17
18

23
21
20
27
25
24
26
21
24
32
25
29
14
11
11
24
24
20
36
37
43
23
23
21
13
12
:
18
19
22
25
27
27
49
47
43
:
23
20
:
:
23
32
27
35
25
23
24

20
11
15
22
19
20
21
17
19
22
20
18
14
11
11
24
23
18
29
30
34
15
14
16
6
5
:
18
20
22
18
18
19
45
42
34
:
23
19
:
:
26
26
20
24
21
18
19

172

Other hh 
without 
dep. 
children

Single 
parent, at 
least 1 
dep. child 

2 adults, 1 
dep. child

2 adults, 2 
dep. 
children

2 adults, 3 
or more 
dep. 
children

Other hh 
with dep. 
children

2 adults, 
without 
dep. 
children,  
(at least 
one 65+ 
yrs)

2 adults, 
without 
dep. 
children,  
(both 
under 65 
yrs)

23
18
20
19
19
17
10
11
8
39
35
36
19
18
18
16
14
14
8
10
9
12
13
14
12
9
:
8
8
:
18
15
18
42
38
40
:
4
4
:
:
4
28
20
17
17
15
15

8
5
6
6
7
3
11
7
5
18
15
16
13
12
12
9
8
10
5
4
4
14
15
14

34
12
30
8
30
10
9
4
7
4
9
3
53
13
55
9
48
8
23
17
26
13
24
17
38
13
36
15
30
14
29
11
31
11
:
10
52
6
52
7
40
7
23
8
19
9
25
11
5           27u 
8
2           27u 
10
:
:
:
30
9
6
45
7
6
40
6
6
40
6
7
32
5
8
28
6
6
34
15
22
32
14
18
40
14
19
:
:
:
9
6
5
9
4
8
:
:
:
:
:
:
16
7           35u 
59
6
8
49
5
7
41
7
7
40
11
11
38
9
10
40
9
9

10
9
7
4
3
0
12
13
8
12
10
13
15
14
14
9
8
7
7
11
14
14
13
15
11
8
:
11
9
7
12
10
11
13
16
12
:
3
5
:
:
6
13
11
12
12
11
10

14
14
12
3
2
3
14
11
12
17
17
14
18
17
21
8
9
8
15
16
12
18
19
21
9
9
:
9
9
6
8
11
9
17
16
13
:
3
4
:
:
7
19
16
16
15
14
14

22
25
18
15
13
6
32
38
:
16
20
26
31
36
33
28
34
30
34
33
38
42
40
34
30
23
:
16
18
17
24
31
26
45
40
58
:
5
9
:
:

23
24
23
19
5
0
16
12
6
26
32
37
26
24
24
26
30
28
16
18
20
31
32
29
11
17
:
15
17
16
13
17
12
23
21
28
:
11
4
:
:
12           44u 
26
38
19
36
16
:
23
32
22
35
20
:

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

EU15T

1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Figures  showing  gender  breakdowns  for  multiple  person  households  are  based  on  the  assumption  of  equal
sharing of income within the household.

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

u: unreliable data

173

4.  Dispersion  around  the  relative  poverty  threshold  (40%,  50%,  60%  and  70%  of  the
median equivalised income)

40% of the median  50% of the median  60% of the median  70% of the median 

17
16
15
12
10
8
17
16
14
22
21
22
20
19
19
17
17
17
19
19
20
20
20
19
12
12
:
11
12
13
13
14
13
23
22
23
:
8
9
:
:
12
22
18
22
18
17
18

26
24
23
19
17
16
24
22
21
29
27
29
27
25
25
25
25
25
29
29
29
27
26
27
21
20
:
20
21
22
21
22
21
30
29
30
:
16
17
:
:
20
30
26
29
26
25
25

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

P

FIN

S

UK

EU15T

1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997
1995
1996
1997

6
6
6
2
2
2
8
6
4
10
9
11
8
9
9
5
4
4
3
3
2
8
8
9
4
3
:
5
5
6
4
4
4
10
9
9
:
2
2
:
:
4
6
6
11
7
6
7

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

10
10
10
4
5
4
11
9
8
16
15
16
12
13
13
9
10
11
8
8
10
13
13
13
7
6
:
7
8
9
7
7
8
17
15
15
:
4
3
:
:
7
13
12
16
11
11
12

174

5. Relative poverty rate anchored at a moment in time (%)

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

1995
17
12
17
22
20
17
19
20
:
11
13
23
:
:
20
18

1995x
16
11
15
21
20
17
17
19
:
12
14
22
:
:
23
17

1996
16
10
16
21
19
17
19
20
:
12
14
22
8
:
21
17

1996x
14
8
13
22
19
18
14
20
:
12
14
22
:
:
20
17

1997
15
8
14
22
19
17
20
19
:
13
13
23
9
12
22
18

Source: Eurostat, ECHP

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

6.  Relative  poverty  rates  before  transfers  by  gender  (including  and  excluding  old  age
pensions) (60% of median equivalised income)

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

Total
29
31
24
23
27
28
34
23
25
25
25
28
:
:
33
27

Excluding old age pensions in social transfers
1997
1996
1995
M
M
M
28
27
27
30
29
27
22
22
21
22
22
23
28
26
28
27
27
28
33
32
32
22
21
21
25
25
:
24
24
25
23
22
23
26
27
27
:
30
33
:
:
26
30
27
31
25
25
25

F total 
28
29
29
32
22
24
24
23
28
26
28
29
34
34
22
23
:
26
26
24
25
28
29
29
34
33
29
:
33
33
26
27

F Total
28
30
31
33
23
25
23
24
26
27
28
28
33
36
22
23
26
26
24
25
25
27
28
30
32
:
:
:
30
36
26
28

F
29
31
23
24
28
28
35
22
:
26
27
30
35
30
36
27

175

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

Total
45
40
39
38
41
40
42
40
41
38
42
38
:
:
42
40

Including old age pensions in social transfers
1995
1996
1997
M
M
M
42
42
43
37
37
35
34
34
35
36
37
36
39
40
41
38
38
39
40
40
39
38
38
40
38
40
:
36
36
34
37
36
36
35
36
36
36
38
:
:
:
41
38
35
39
37
37
38

F Total
46
49
38
43
38
42
38
37
42
43
41
43
40
44
42
44
:
44
37
41
40
44
39
40
39
40
45
:
43
43
41
43

F Total
46
48
40
42
38
43
37
40
42
43
41
42
42
44
41
42
42
43
38
41
40
46
38
40
38
:
:
:
39
45
40
43

F
49
41
42
39
43
43
42
45
:
40
43
41
41
48
46
44

Source: Eurostat. ECHP

Figures  showing  gender  breakdowns  for  multiple  person  households  are  based  on  the  assumption  of  equal
sharing of income within the household.

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

7. Persistent relative poverty for 3 continuous years (1997, 1996, 1995) (60% of median
equivalised income)

B
DK
D
EL
E
F
IRL
I
L
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK
EU15T

Total
8
3
8
11
8
11
11
8
:
4
5
15
:
:
10
9

Male
7
3
7
10
8
11
10
8
:
4
5
14
:
:
8
8

Female
9
3
9
12
8
10
11
9
:
5
6
16
:
:
11
9

Source: Eurostat, ECHP (1995, 1996, 1997)

Figures  showing  gender  breakdowns  for  multiple  person  households  are  based  on  the  assumption  of  equal
sharing of income within the household.

Note: Break in series for UK see table 1

176

8. Coefficient of Variation - Employment Rate (in percentage)

B
D
EL
EL
F
I
NL
A
P
FIN
S
UK

1995
8,1
5,9
9,0
10,7
6,9
16,3
3,1
3,2
6,3
7,1
:
5,4

1996
7,7
5,8
10,1
10,6
7,0
17,5
3,5
3,2
8,1
7,2
4,3
6,5

1997
7,5
5,5
9,1
10,9
7,1
17,2
3,2
2,8
9,6
7,2
3,2
6,4

1998
7,5
5,6
7,3
11,2
7,2
16,5
3,1
2,6
7,4
7,3
4,2
7,4

1999
7,6
5,8
7,3
10,9
7,1
17,2
2,7
1,7
7,5
7,5
4,4
8,0

2000
8,0
5,9
7,3
10,8
6,9
17,1
2,1
3,0
8,2
7,1
4,7
7,8

9. Long term unemployment rate

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

1995
5,8
2,0
3,9
4,6
12,4
4,7
7,2
7,4
0,7
3,1
1,2
3,4
5,5
1,8
3,8
5,2

Total long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
5,7
1,3
5,0
5,9
9,4
5,0
:
7,1
0,9
1,9
1,6
2,1
3,6
3,3
2,0
:

1997
5,4
1,5
4,9
5,3
10,8
5,0
5,7
8,1
0,9
2,5
1,5
3,5
4,4
3,5
2,7
5,2

1996
5,8
1,8
4,2
5,4
11,8
4,7
6,9
7,9
0,9
3,0
1,4
3,6
5,1
2,9
3,3
5,2

2000
3,8
1,0
4,0

1999
5,2
1,0
4,5
6,5                  :
7,3
4,7
2,8
7,1
0,8
1,4
1,5
1,9
2,6
2,2
1,8
4,3

5,9
3,8
1,7
6,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,7
2,8
1,3
1,5
3,6

177

Males

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

Females

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

1995
4,5
1,8
3,2
2,6
8,8
3,9
7,8
5,7
0,5
2,9
1,0
3,0
6,3
2,3
5,0
4,5

1995
7,7
2,1
4,9
7,9
18,2
5,8
6,1
10,3
0,9
3,4
1,5
4,0
4,6
1,3
2,2
6,1

Total long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
4,5
0,9
4,5
3,1
6,1
4,3
:
5,6
0,7
1,5
1,5
1,6
4,2
3,9
2,6
:

1997
4,2
1,2
4,3
2,8
7,5
4,2
6,4
6,4
0,6
1,9
1,4
3,0
4,6
3,8
3,6
4,5

1996
4,4
1,6
3,6
2,8
8,1
3,8
7,5
6,1
0,7
2,6
1,2
3,1
5,6
3,5
4,4
4,5

2000
3,1
0,9
3,7

1999
4,5
0,9
4,2
3,7                  :
4,4
3,9
3,2
5,4
0,7
1,1
1,3
1,6
2,6
2,7
2,3
3,6

3,5
3,0
2,1
4,9
0,5
0,7
1,0
1,4
2,8
1,4
2,0
3,0

Total long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
7,4
1,8
5,7
10,1
14,4
5,9
:
9,6
1,1
2,3
1,8
2,6
3,1
2,7
1,3
:

1997
7,1
1,8
5,6
9,2
16,1
5,9
4,6
11,0
1,3
3,2
1,5
4,1
4,1
3,1
1,6
6,2

1996
7,8
2,1
4,9
9,6
17,5
5,8
5,9
11,0
1,2
3,5
1,5
4,3
4,5
2,2
1,8
6,2

1999
6,2
1,2
4,9

2000
4,8
1,2
4,3
10,7                   :
9,5
11,6
4,7
5,5
1,0
2,1
8,8
9,8
0,6
0,9
1,1
1,7
1,0
1,7
2,0
2,2
2,7
2,6
1,1
1,6
0,9
1,1
4,4
5,2

178

10. Long term unemployment share

Total long-term unemployed population/
Total unemployed population.

1996
61,3
26,5
47,2
56,3
52,8
38,0
58,6
65,1
27,6
46,0
25,6
49,9
32,8
30,0
39,8
47,9

1997
60,5
27,0
49,2
55,4
51,7
39,2
55,6
65,6
34,6
44,9
28,3
53,4
29,2
33,9
38,6
48,5

1998
61,7
26,7
51,5
54,5
49,7
41,6
:
58,9
31,3
42,4
29,2
44,1
27,6
37,4
32,6
:

1999
60,5
20,3
50,8
55,3
46,3
38,7
48,3
60,6
32,3
37,7
31,2
40,9
22,3
29,1
29,6
45,6

1995
62,4
27,9
48,3
50,9
54,6
39,9
60,1
62,9
22,4
43,6
27,0
48,7
32,3
20,4
43,5
48,6

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

11. Very long term unemployment rate

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

1995
3,8
0,8
2,2
2,5
8,1
2,4
5,1
4,9
0,3
2,0
0,6
1,4
2,9
0,0
2,4
3,1

Total very long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
4,1
0,6
3,1
3,8
6,2
2,7
:
4,9
0,3
1,2
0,9
1,2
2,0
0,0
1,3
:

1997
3,7
0,6
3,0
3,1
7,1
2,6
3,8
5,6
0,2
1,5
0,7
1,9
2,6
0,1
1,8
3,2

1996
3,8
0,8
2,5
3,2
7,7
2,6
4,7
5,5
0,4
1,9
0,7
1,7
2,9
0,0
2,1
3,2

1999
3,8
0,5
2,9
3,9
4,8
2,7
1,9
5,0
0,5
0,8
0,7
0,9
1,5
0,0
1,1
2,7

2000
54,3
21,3
50,6
0,0
41,8
40,0
40,5
61,0
25,0
29,6
27,0
40,5
28,6
22,0
27,3
43,9

2000
2,7
0,3
2,6
3,6
3,8
2,3
:
4,8
0,2
0,5
0,8
0,9
1,3
0,0
0,9
:

179

Males

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

Females

B
DK 
D
EL
E
FR 
IRL
I
L
NL 
A
P
FIN
S
UK 
EU-15 

1995
2,7
0,6
1,7
1,4
5,4
1,9
5,9
3,8
0,2
1,9
0,6
1,2
3,5
0,0
3,3
2,7

1995
5,3
1,0
3,0
4,4
12,5
2,9
3,7
6,8
0,4
2,1
0,7
1,7
2,3
0,0
1,2
3,7

2000
2,1
0,3
2,3
2,1
2,2
1,8
:
3,7
0,1
0,4
0,9
0,8
1,5
0,0
1,2
:

2000
3,4
0,4
2,9
5,9
6,2
2,8
:
6,4
0,3
0,7
0,7
1,1
1,1
0,0
0,5
:

Total very long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
3,2
0,4
2,6
1,9
3,8
2,3
:
3,9
0,3
1,1
0,8
1,0
2,4
0,0
1,8
:

1997
2,8
0,5
2,5
1,6
4,6
2,1
4,5
4,4
0,2
1,2
0,8
1,5
2,8
0,1
2,5
2,7

1996
2,8
0,7
2,1
1,5
5,0
2,1
5,5
4,3
0,3
1,7
0,7
1,4
3,4
0,0
3,0
2,8

1999
3,0
0,4
2,6
2,1
2,8
2,2
2,3
3,9
0,4
0,7
0,7
0,7
1,6
0,0
1,5
2,3

Total very long-term unemployed population/
Total active population.
1998
5,3
0,9
3,6
6,7
10,0
3,2
:
6,4
0,4
1,3
0,9
1,5
1,5
0,0
0,7
:

1997
4,8
0,8
3,6
5,6
10,9
3,1
2,7
7,4
0,2
1,8
0,7
2,2
2,4
0,1
0,9
3,8

1996
5,3
0,9
3,1
5,8
11,9
3,2
3,6
7,4
0,5
2,1
0,7
2,1
2,4
0,0
0,9
3,9

1999
4,8
0,6
3,2
6,5
7,9
3,2
1,2
6,7
0,6
0,9
0,7
1,2
1,4
0,0
0,6
3,3

180

12. Early school leavers rate by gender (age 18-24)

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

A

PT

FIN

S

UK

EU15T

M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total

1998
16,7
12,3
14,5
9,5
10,0
9,8
:
:
:
24,6
15,5
20,1
34,8
23,7
29,2
16,2
13,7
14,9
:
:
:
32,3
24,5
28,4
:
:
:
17,0
14,0
15,5
:
:
:
51,7
42,0
46,9
8,6
7,2
7,9
:
:
:
:
:
:
27,0
20,2
23,6

1999
17,7
12,7
15,2
14,2
9,1
11,6
14,2
15,6
14,9
21,2
14,8
18,0
34,7
23,0
28,9
16,0
13,5
14,7
:
:
:
30,3
24,2
27,2
18,9
19,4
19,1
17,5
14,9
16,2
:
:
:
51,3
39,6
45,5
12,0
7,9
10,0
7,7
6,1
6,9
7,3
7,0
7,1
20,9
16,9
18,9

2000
14,8
10,2
12,5
13,4
9,9
11,7
14,6
15,2
14,9
21,8
12,9
17,4
33,7
22,4
28,1
14,8
11,8
13,3
:
:
:
32,4
25,6
29,0
15,9
17,6
16,8
17,5
15,9
16,7
:
:
:
50,6
35,6
43,1
12,5
7,2
9,8
9,2
6,2
7,7
6,5
7,1
6,8
20,7
16,4
18,5

1995
16,6
13,5
15,1
5,2
6,9
6,1
9,7
11,4
10,6
26,6
18,8
22,7
38,1
28,4
33,3
16,8
14,2
15,5
25,7
17,1
21,4
35,8
29,1
32,4
32,9
33,9
33,4
:
:
:
9,9
17,3
13,6
47,1
35,5
41,3
15,1
10,5
12,8
:
:
:
4,2
5,1
4,7
23,2
19,4
21,3

1996
14,7
11,0
12,8
12,2
12,1
12,1
12,5
14,2
13,3
24,2
17,8
21,0
36,4
25,3
30,9
17,0
13,7
15,3
23,5
14,2
18,8
34,9
27,7
31,3
32,8
37,9
35,3
18,1
17,1
17,6
9,2
14,9
12,0
45,6
34,4
40,0
11,4
10,8
11,1
9,0
6,0
7,5
4,8
6,4
5,6
22,6
18,6
20,6

1997
14,2
11,2
12,7
11,0
10,3
10,7
12,3
13,5
12,9
23,7
16,7
20,2
35,0
24,5
29,8
15,4
13,0
14,2
22,6
15,1
18,8
33,7
26,2
29,9
30,9
30,5
30,7
16,8
15,2
16,0
9,0
12,5
10,8
46,8
34,4
40,6
9,1
7,0
8,1
7,3
6,2
6,7
5,5
6,0
5,8
21,8
17,8
19,8

181

1. Relative poverty rates 1997

25

20

15

10

5

0

10000

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

DK

FIN

SW

NL

OS

D

B

F

EUR15

ES

I

IRL

EL

UK

P

2. Spending on social protection per capita PPS, 1998

P(p)

EL(p)

ES(p)

IRL

FIN(p)

I(p)

UK(p)

EUR15(e)

B(e)

OS

F(p)

D(p)

S

NL(p)

DK

L

182

3. Percentage of GDP spent on social protection, 1998

35,0

30,0

25,0

20,0

15,0

10,0

5,0

0,0

7
9
9
1

a
t
i
p
a
c

r
e
p
n
o
i
t
c
e
t
o
r
p

l
a
i
c
o
s
n
o
t
n
e
p
s

IRL

ES(p)

P(p)

L

EL(p)

I(p)

UK

FIN(p)

B(e)

EUR15(e)

A

NL(p)

D(p)

DK

F(p)

S(p)

GRAPH 4 - Correlation between relative poverty and on social expenditure per capita (PPS) 1997

9000

8000

7000

D

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

7

L

S

FIN

D

B

F

NL

A

EUR15

I

E

UK

IRL

EL

P

9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

Relative poverty rate 1997

183

 
 
 
 
 
 
Examples of indicators used in the NAPs/incl:

On employment

- involuntary part-time (F)

- activation rate (EMCO indicator) (F)

- employment rates for women with and without children (I)

-  %  persons  who  could  not  work  because  of  childcare/care  for  other  dependants
(SILC) (F)

- % population participating in voluntary work (NL)

-  employment  rates  for  disadvantage  groups  (people  with  disabilities,  lone  parents,
ethnic minorities, 50+) (UK)

- households with two or more unemployed members (I)

On access to minimum resources

- perception of poverty (I, B)

- proportion of persons aged 18-65 who received benefits for at least 6 months in the
year (DK)

-  proportion  of  people  who  for  the  last  3  years  have  been  at  least  80%  of  the  time
either  unemployed  or  in  activation,  or  training/educational  leave,  or  cash  assistance
recipients, or rehabilitees or sickness benefit recipients (DK)

On living conditions

- living condition indicators (cumulative non monetary deprivation) (F)

On Housing

- housing indicators (existence of amenities- all separate) (F)

- overcrowding (F)

- housing costs (F)

- number of homeless /number of people using shelters (F,NL, Fin)

On health

- renouncing medical expense for financial reasons (F, B)

- % people limited in daily activities because of illness/disability (B, F)

- % of disabled people living alone (I)

184

- Share of disabled 16-64 in employment (I)

- Adult smoking rates (UK)

on education/training

- % functional illiteracy (B)

-% household budget spent on education (B)

- truancy at school (UK, E)

- link between education level of parents/children (B)

On access to services

- % persons who live less than 10 mins walk from public transport (F)

on social/ cultural participation

- % people having seen a show (theatre, cinema) last month (F)

- Cultural participation in last 12 months (F)

- sport undertaken in past 12 months (F)

- % households who can afford a week holiday away from home (F)

on access to new technologies

- proportion of population using PCs by income

- proportion of population using internet, by income

on indebtedness

- % population with (bad) debts (NL, B, Fin)

on children

- % of children living in households below the poverty line (I, PT, UK)

- % of children living in jobless households (B, UK)

- children living in working age jobless households (UK)

- children living in a home that falls below the set standard of decency (UK)

- number of children living in temporary accommodation (UK, Fin)

- % of children institutionalised (F, Fin)

on older people

185

- % of old people living alone

- % of isolated older people (Percentage of population aged 65 and over living alone
without any living children or brothers/sisters) (I)

- % of older people living in households below poverty line (I, UK)

-proportion  of  older  people  living  in  a  home  that  falls  below  the  set  standard  of
decency (UK)

- proportion of population of older people being helped to live independently (UK)

- proportion of older people whose lives are affected by fear of crime (UK)

on specific groups

- prisoners (average on a particular day) (FIN)

- reintegration of prisoners (F, B)

- incidence of alcohol abuse (Fin, E)

- incidence of drug misuse (UK, Fin)

-Rates of domestic burglary (UK)

- Violent crimes (per 100 000) (FIN)

- suicide (Fin)

on territorial disparities

-  proportion  of  students  from  under-represented,  disadvantaged  areas  in  higher
education, compared to overall student population in higher education (Scotland)

-  The  Netherlands  have  included  an  example  of  a  package  of  local  indicators  and
targets for a specific locality (HAARLEM)

186

ANNEX II

EXAMPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE INDICATED IN THE NATIONAL ACTION
PLANS AGAINST POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

187

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Employment ............................................................................................................. 189

Minimum Income / Social Safety Net...................................................................... 191

Healthcare ................................................................................................................ 191

Housing .................................................................................................................... 192

Education ................................................................................................................. 193

Justice....................................................................................................................... 194

E-Inclusion (ICT) ..................................................................................................... 195

Culture, Sports, Leisure............................................................................................ 196

Indebtedness............................................................................................................. 196

Homelessness ........................................................................................................... 197

Territorial / Regional Dimension ............................................................................. 197

Family Solidarity / Children .................................................................................... 198

To help the most Vulnerable .................................................................................... 200

Mobilising Stakeholders .......................................................................................... 201

188

1.

EMPLOYMENT

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

A

BE

DA

1. Supported employment

Project  designed to provide the disabled with guidance  and  help  and  to  offer
employers various forms of assistance in order to ensure that disabled workers
can fully develop their potential.

1. Le Plan Rosetta

The  plan  obliges  companies  to  hire  a  certain  percentage  of  adolescents
younger than 25.

1. Methodology Development Programme

2.  Job 
individual skills and qualifications

types 

for  people  with  highly

Project  to  be  launched  late  2001  to  develop  new  and  better  methods  for
practical  social  work,  to  increase  the  quality  of  social  work  and  to  ensure
increased awareness.

Three-year  pilot  project  to  be  launched  in  2001  to  gather  and  disseminate
existing  knowledge  and  ideas  that  may  provide  inspiration  for  local  job
creation activities.

3.  Increased  awareness  about  local  efforts
relating to the job market

Major information campaign initiated in collaboration with the Social Council
to be launched in 2001.

4. Effect measuring

5. Youth Project

Project to enable local monitoring of labour market policy measures.

Model  project  (1999-2002)  for  local  authorities  to  support  the  integration  of
young  people  from  vulnerable  groups  in  training  and  education  programmes
and in the job market.

6. The On-the Job Rehabilitation Project for
Vulnerable Groups

Programme to develop individual projects for people to reintegrate the labour
market.

DE

1.  "Course  Scheme"  to  fight  long-term Scheme  introduced  in  Brandenburg  in  1993  to  encourage  the  long-term

189

unemployment - Brandenburg

unemployed  to  take  the  initiative  in  reintegrating  themselves  back  into  the
labour market.

2.  Temporary 
social
assistance recipients  on  work  benefiting  the
community - Bavaria

employment  of 

3. Work has to pay off

Supplementary  child  benefit 
to  avoid
reliance  on  social  assistance  –  Rhineland
Palatinate.

Use  of  temporary  work  as  a  means  for  social  assistance  recipients  to
reintegrate the labour market.

Programme  launched  in  May  2000  to  determine  how  the  readiness  of  social
welfare  recipients  with  children  to  take  up  gainful  employment  can  be
increased.

FR

1. Trace - Pathways to Employment

On-going  programme  to  promote  tailored  and  early  intervention  to  help  job
seekers and prevent youth and adult unemployment.

2.  Aid  for  unemployed  people  who  start  up
or rescue businesses

Social  and  fiscal  measures  to  provide  entrepreneurs  with  guidance  and
financial aid.

1.  Moriana  –  Municipalities  of  Milan  and
Turin  and  the  provinces  of  Naples  and
Genoa.

New jobs for socially excluded young people. The project aims at the insertion
of  young  people  in  employment  via  new  economy  jobs,  also  through  the
creation of centres for aggregation of micro-self-employment

1. Pathways to Employment for minorities

I

NL

2. Talent activated

PT

1. Horizons 2000

Framework  agreement  reached  in  June  2000  between  the  government  and  a
number  of  large  companies  to  improve  labour  market  participation  and
integration of ethnic minorities.

Various  local  projects  aimed  at  activating  people  who  are  far  removed  from
the  labour  market  and  who  are  socially  isolated  through  voluntary  work,
sheltered employment, vocational training courses and subsidised jobs.

Programme to provide individual guidance and propose adequate training and
jobs for the unemployed.

190

SV

1.  Real  opportunities 
parenting and work

for 

combining

Combined  system  of  family  allowances  and  childcare  services  to  make  it
easier for both parents to combine parenting and work.

2.

MINIMUM INCOME / SOCIAL SAFETY NET

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

A

EL

I

PT

1.  Integration  of  atypical  workers  in  the
social system

Promotion  of  social  coverage  to  ensure  that  all  economically  active  persons
have social security or be given the opportunity to join a scheme on favourable
terms.

2. Means-tested minimum pension

Provision for a minimum pension taking the form of compensatory payments
to persons who have been insured for a short period or been on low pay.

1.  EKAS  –  Targeted  income  support  for
pensioners

Pensioners'  social  solidarity  supplement  established  in  1996  to  provide
additional benefits to pensioners in greater need.

1.  Minimum 
municipalities throughout Italy.

Income  Benefit  –  237

Experimentation  to  introduce  a  minimum  income  scheme,  targeted  at
individuals  and  households  under  poverty  threshold  and  including  activation
measures.

1. Guaranteed minimum income

Measure to guarantee a minimum income to all citizens in financial need.

3.

HEALTHCARE

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

BE

DA

1. Maximum health cost bill

Reform of the healthcare system to ensure that low-income households do not
pay more than an annual health cost ceiling.

1. INTEGRA – The Back to Life Project

Project  in  partnership  between  the  local  authorities  of  Odense  and  Frederica

191

and  the  European  Commission  to  develop  new  human  resources  and
qualifications as a first step toward the functional and social  rehabilitation of
marginalised groups of drug misusers.

DE

1. Medical care for the homeless – Berlin

Integrated programme aimed at providing outreach services for the homeless.
(e.g. mobile surgery and outreach consultation with doctors ).

2.  Medical  care  for  migrants  –  Lower
Saxony

Programme to provide health and counselling services geared to the needs of
migrants by removing linguistic and cultural barriers.

FR

1. Universal Health Coverage

Reform  of  the  healthcare  system  brought  in  1999  to  make  it  possible  for
everyone  to  join  the  social  security  system  and,  for  the  poorest,  to  have  all
their costs paid for over and above those charges already covered by the basic
scheme.

4.

HOUSING

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

BE

ES

FR

NL

1 Federal law on housing

Federal  law  adopted  in  1997  setting  the  minimum  conditions  to  which  a
building  for  renting  purposes  has  to  comply  to,  such  as  elementary  security
requirements, electric installations, running water and housing.

1. Plan for Historical Centrum - Saragossa

Plan  to  maintain  the  existing  population  and  attract  new  habitants  into  the
historical centre of Saragossa.

1.  Loca-Pass: Aid to  access  housing  for  the
youth

Scheme designed for  young persons under 30 looking for  an accommodation
to provide him or her with financial guarantee and advance.

1. "EOS": modernisation of housing benefit Governmental  programme  aimed  at 

improving  efficiency,  customer

friendliness of and information on housing benefits.

192

2. Social Investment Plan: Overtoomse Veld
Noord in Amsterdam

Consultative Platform composed of representatives from the local government,
housing associations and local businesses to improve local housing and urban
policy..

5.

EDUCATION

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

BE

DA

DE

1. Reducing the cost of education

Various initiatives to increase financial support to the family and children most
in need.

1.  Language  play  –  the  integration  of
bilingual children in day-care facilities and
schools.

Project  led  by  the  local  authority  of  Alberstlund  focusing  on  language
development both for Danish and bilingual children.

1. "Rath" Model – North Rhine Westphalia Set  of  reintegration  measures  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  young  people

dropping out of school.

2.  Integration  courses  to  promote  social
and linguistic skills – Hamburg

Programme  to  enable  teenagers  and  young  adult  migrants  to  improve  their
knowledge of German.

I

1. Chance – Municipality of Naples

Aimed at children aged between 13 and 15. Socially reintegrating drop-outs and
bringing them back into the education system.

2.  Socialisation  and  Creativity  among
Young  People  –  27  municipalities  in  the
centre/north of Italy

Training  for  socially  excluded  young  people  using  socialisation  and
creativeness, encouraging the creation of cooperatives.

IRL

1.  Stepping  Stones  Project  –  Watterford
Youth Committee

Project  aimed  at 
improving  personal  and  educational  skills  of  young
unemployed people in order to enhance their prospects of securing employment.

193

2.  Colaiste  ide  Open  Learning  Centre  –
City of Dublin

Centre  established  in  1994  to  provide  quality  flexible  education  to  the
unemployed, lone-parents, house-parents and those who need flexibility in their
education.

3.  Moyross  Probation  Project  (Step  by
Step)

Project aimed at the development of training for work for young offenders and
youth at risk between the ages of 15-25..

NL

1. Tilburg Tuition Fees Foundation

Foundation set up in 1996to give children of less well-off parents an opportunity
to take part in normal extra-curricular activities.

2. Broad School Policy:

Open Neighbourhood Schools

Initiatives aiming at putting schools at the heart of a neighbourhood, offering a
wide range of activities for children, parents and other local residents.

PT

1. Combat School and Social Exclusion in
the frame of primary education

Set  of  policy  measures  aiming  at  reducing  school  drop-outs  by  favouring  the
offer of diversified training and facilitating the transition from school to active
life through qualifying education.

2.  National  Agency  for  Education  and
Training for Adults- ANEFA

Permanent  structure  in  charge  of  the  promotion  of  lifelong  education  and
training for people with little education and qualifications.

6.

JUSTICE

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

EL

DA

1.  The  Ombudsman:  encouraging  equal
access

Setting  up  of  an  autonomous  authority  operating  as  an  independent  extra-
judicial mechanism for control and mediation.

1.  Legal  protection  of  the  most  vulnerable
groups in society

Project  part of the wider "Service and  Welfare"  project  to  make  an  intensive
outreaching effort in relation to the most vulnerable groups in society to enable
them to use the services offered by public authorities.

194

FR

1. Access to Justice

Setting  up  of  Houses  of  Justice  together  with  the  increased  role  for  local
Ombudsmen  to  allow  people,  particularly  the  excluded,  to  better  know  and
take up their rights

7.

E-INCLUSION (ICT)

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

DA

ES

I

NL

1.  SOLICOM  –  IT  project  for  socially
excluded people in Vejle

Project launched in 1999 to give socially excluded groups a chance to access
information and communication technology.

1. OMNIA – Catalunia

Project initiated in 1999 to set up IT centres in the most deprived areas.

1.  Sito  Word  Scuola  –  Ministry 
Education

for

Learning to use new technologies targeted at students and teachers.

2.  Domus  Area,  Teledidattica,  Relais
Service,  Telelavoro,  Rete  Radio-Mobile  -
Ministry  of  Employment,  Ministry  of
Health,  Municipality  of  Ferrera,  private
company

Using new technologies to increase the possibility for elderly and/or disabled
to  people  to  stay  in  their  own  home  and  to  maintain  social  contacts  for
disabled, elderly excluded and socially marginalised people.

1.  Internet  in  combined  Housing  &  Care
centres for the elderly

National project to enable older people to become acquainted with computers
and the internet through the development of internet cafés.

2.  Knowledge  Neighbourhood:  ICT  in  the
neighbourhood.

Experimental  projects  to  provide  inhabitants  mainly  from  disadvantaged
neighbourhoods  with  access  to  a  range  of  innovative  electronic  services  via
high-quality ICT infrastructure.

3. Removing thresholds:

Internet and the disabled

The  intention  of  this  project  is  to  increase  access  to  the  Internet  for  the
disabled  and  to  make  the  functionalities  of  the  Internet  and  communication

195

technology more easily accessible to people with disabilities.

SV

UK

4. A virtual home for the homeless

Project aimed at giving homeless people the opportunity to become familiar at
their own pace with the ICT.

1. ICT for the disabled

Programme designed to test and develop the use of ICT systems for disabled
persons during the period 1998-2001.

1. University for Industry – learndirect

Private  company  funded  through  a  combination  of  public  and  commercial
sources  to  stimulate  demand  for  lifelong  learning,  and  in  particular  ICT
training, amongst adults and SMEs.

8.

CULTURE, SPORTS, LEISURE

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

FR

IRL

1. Solidarity Vacation Voucher

Voucher  distributed  by  local  social  services  to  allow  families  in  social
difficulties to go on vacation.

1. CELTTS (Celtic Eco-Leisure  Training  &
Tourism  Scheme)  –  Waterford  Youth
Comtee.

Project aimed at the delivery of a joined accredited training course for young
people working in the outdoor pursuits sector

9.

INDEBTEDNESS

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

A

1. Private bankruptcy

Procedure  established  in  1995  enabling  all  debtors  to  discharge  their  debts
under certain precisely defined conditions within a reasonable time (as a rule
seven years)..

196

10.

A

DE

ES

NL

HOMELESSNESS

1. Measures against homelessness

1. Avoiding homelessness:

securing a permanent place to live –  North-
Rhine Westphalia.

Programme set up in Vienna to prevent and combat homelessness through the
prevention  of  eviction,  day  centres,  sheltered  accommodation  and  suitable
long-term housing.

Programme  to  help  the  homeless  and  to  promote  integrated  strategies  at  the
interfaces between urban development, housing and social policy.

1.  Relocation  into  "normal"  housing  –  IRIS
Madrid

Institute settled in Madrid in charge of helping people living in shantytowns to
find better accommodation.

2. IGLOO network

Setting  up  of  national,  regional  and  local  networks  to  provide  simultaneous
and multidimensional responses to the issue of homelessness.

1.  Foundation  Voila  for  the  homeless  –  the
homeless  working  for 
in
Amsterdam

the  homeless 

The aim of the foundation is to ensure that homeless people help each other by
developing ideas and initiating projects for and by homeless peoples.

2.  Pension  Maaszicht:  young  homeless
people  on  their  way  to  a  new  place  in  the
community - Rotterdam

A  halfway  house  in  Rotterdam  that  offers  accommodation  and  guidance  to
young  homeless  people  in  order  to  make  it  easier  for  them  to  return  to
"normal" society.

11.

TERRITORIAL / REGIONAL DIMENSION

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

DE

1. Social City - Bremen

 Programme  combining  4  areas  of  action:  stimulation  of  economic  activity,
new businesses and services, residential development and rejuvenation of focal
points.

197

2. Living in neighbourhoods - Bremen

Programme  aimed  at  residential  and  district  development,  as  well  as  support
for neighbourhoods. .

3.  Promoting 
conditions 
Rhineland Palatinate

and 

improvements 

in 

community  work 

living
–

Measures  to  improve  living  conditions  in  the  urban  districts  and  to  promote
community work.

EL

ES

PT

UK

1. The Response to the Athens Earthquake

Set of coordinated urban and city planning policy measures taken as a response
to the Athens earthquake, Sept. 7th 1999.

1.  Confederation  of  Centres  for  Rural
Development (COCEDER)

Network of centres in charge of the integrated development of rural areas.

1.  National  programme  in  the  fight  against
poverty

Nation-wide strategy supported by European structural funds to develop rural
and urban zones.

1. Community Regeneration - Wales

Programme  aimed  at  regenerating  the  most  disadvantaged  communities  in
Wales and based on a recent review of best practice.

12.

FAMILY SOLIDARITY / CHILDREN

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

A

1. The Carinthia childcare allowance

Childcare allowance paid for children aged three and under.

2. Prevention of violence in the family

Federal Act  empowering the  police  and  constabulary  to  remove  a  potentially
violent person from the home and to issue an exclusion order.

3. Advance on child maintenance

Provision that the Bund pays advances for children in the event of default of
the person who is legally obliged to pay maintenance.

4. Nursing care

System  of  standardised  federal  nursing  care  allowance  combined  with  an

198

DA

DE

IRL

PT

1.  Children  should  be  seen  and  heard  –  a
project  about  children  in  alcohol  misuser
families in Randers

1. Mother and Child

for 

Help 
Württemberg.

single  parents  –  Banden-

adequate  range  of  social  services  for  persons  providing  nursing  care  on  a
private basis.

Project carried out from 1996 to 1998 to promote child perspectives and parent
motivation in alcohol misuser families.

Programme  to  ensure  that  single  parents  receive  the  necessary  guidance  and
financial independence to care for their children

1. Family Services Project - Waterford

Establishment  of  a  high  quality  information  service  regarding  both  statutory
and voluntary support available to the family.

1.  Working 
professional life and family life

fathers 

combining 

the

Recognition of men's rights being both workers and fathers.

2.  Committee  for  the  protection  of  children
and teenagers in danger

Official  institutions  established  in  1991  in  order  to  promote  the  rights  of
children and teenagers by developing preventive and curative measures.

3. Nursery care 2000

4. To be born citizen

UK

1. Sure Start

Governmental programme to develop the capacity of the national  network  of
nursery care for children under 3.

Interministerial project  to  establish  a  package  of  procedures  from  which  it  is
possible  to  promote  the  immediate  legal  registering  of  children  at  the
maternity/hospital.

Governmental strategy to tackle child poverty and social exclusion through the
development of integrated local programme

199

13.

TO HELP THE MOST VULNERABLE

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

DA

1.  Equal  opportunities  for  people  with
disabilities

Amendment  to  the  Housing  Act  to  ensure  continued  equal  opportunities  for
people with disabilities and in particular unobstructed access to a wide range
of premises .

2. Facilitator scheme for ethnic minorities

Pilot project enabling local authorities and Public Employment Service regions
to provide financial support to buy some of the working time of an employee
in  a private company so that this employee can  work as  a facilitator for new
employees.

3. Local policy concerning the integration of
ethnic minorities.

Cross-sectoral integration plan adopted by the Greve local authority to unite all
the initiatives taken by the local authorities.

DE

1. Anti-discrimination Programme

Programme  aiming  at  fighting  any  discrimination  on  the  grounds  of  sexual
orientation in various policy domains.

Same-sex cohabitation – Schleswig-Holstein

2.  Nursery  places  for  all  children  with
disabilities  for  the  purpose  of  integration.  –
Hessen

Framework agreement between the Land and the relevant institutions to ensure
that  every  disabled  child  has  an  entitlement  to  a  place  in  a  day-care
establishment.

ES

1. Commune Metisse - Asturia

Various initiatives at local level to favour the integration of immigrants

2. CANDELITA - Madrid

Programme  in  place  since  1996  to  provide  various  vulnerable  groups  with
specific local services and benefits.

3. "La Huertecica" – action against addiction
and social marginalisation

NGO-led project aimed at setting up integrated centres to respond to the needs
of the most vulnerable.

200

I

1. Arcobaleno – private company

Integration of young disabled in an ICT company, also through training of the
employers and intervention on the enterprise culture.

2. Oltre la Strada – Emilia Romagna region

Project  aimed  at  combating  trafficking  and  sexual  exploitation  of  foreign
women and children and at reintegrating the victims.

3.  Quality  of  Home  Help  –  Municipality  of
Reggio Emilia

Restructuring  of  the  service  for  home  care  for  for  dependent  elderly  people
focusing on the quality of services

NL

1. Information at home – Heeveren

2. Handholds for recovery – Eindhoven

Project to inform older people at home about provisions and schemes relating
to  housing,  care,  and  welfare,  which  are  currently  not  being  take  up  and  to
enable them to play an active part in the community.

The  project  is  a  collaborative  "chain"  whose  links  are  made  up  of  night
shelters, day centres, clinical and peripatetic care facilities, the criminal justice
system,  care  facilities,  and  other  support  for  around  300  long-term  drug
addicts.

PT

1. Integrated help to older people - PAII

Programme aimed at the promotion of the autonomy of elder people at home
by improving the quality, mobility and access to services.

2. Principle of Positive Discrimination

System  by  which  families  or  individuals  receive  specific  benefits  or  services
according to their particular needs.

UK

1. The Disability Rights Commission (DRC)

Independent body set up by the Government to help secure civil rights for the
disabled.

14.

MOBILISING STAKEHOLDERS

Member State

Title of Measure

Summary

201

DA

DE

ES

FR

IRL

I

NL

1.  The  Social  Index  and  the  Socio-Ethical
Accounts

The Social Index was introduced in 2000 by the Ministry of Social Affairs as
an instrument for the companies to benchmark their social responsibility.

1.  Social  Service  Agencies  –  North  Rhine-
Westphalia

Programme  to  develop  "one-stop  shops"  to  improve  working  procedures,
quality and delivery of social services.

2. "JobPlan" pilot project - Hamburg

Pilot project to improve cooperation between employment services and social
welfare organisations (MoZArt).

3. Social Information System - Bavaria

Setting up of a new regionally-organised social information system providing
details  of  virtually  all  service  providers  in  order  to  compare  benefits  and
services.

1.  Plan  to  combat  Social  Exclusion  in
Navarra

Integrated regional action plan to fight social exclusion across various policy
fields

2. 
Network 
integration - Madrid

for 

socio-professional

Global  plan  led  by  the  Association  RAIS  to  fight  against  social  exclusion
across education and work.

1.  PLIE  (Local  Plans  for  Inclusion  and
Employment)

Plans  gathering  local  actors  to  coordinate  their  action  in  the  fight  against
inclusion and in the promotion of local employment.

1.  Area  based  partnership  companies  and
funded community groups

Local  partnerships  gathering  representatives  from  community  and  voluntary
sector,  state  agencies,  the  social  partners  at  local  level  and  elected  public
representatives.

1.  Territorial  Pact  for  Social  Issues  –
Province of Savona

Territorial  pact  aimed  at  socially  excluded  people,  elaborated  through  a
partnership  between the  regional, provicial and local  authorities,  other  public
and non- public bodies, social partners, representatives of the third sector.

in
1.  Neighbourhood  social  activation 
Klazienaveen,  Hengelo  and  Rotterdam

Project  aimed  at  promoting  social  activation  through  support  to  formal  and
informal organisations contributing to the participation of local residents.

202

Noord

2.  LETS  (Local  Economic  Transaction
Systems) Swap Shops

LETS  is  an  amenity  at  district  level  which  facilitates  and  encourages  the
exchange of goods and services between private individuals.

3.  Social  Axis  Desk:  Integrated  service-
provision

Governmental plan to ascertain how and with what resources local health care,
income support and housing services can be offered in a more integrated way.

PT

1. Social Network

Integrated  programme to encourage the networking of  local  stakeholders  and
to better coordinate the delivery of services.

2. Solidarity and Social Security Centres

Project  aimed  at  improving  the  quality  of  reception  of  beneficiaries  in  social
services.

3. Book 2000 – From declaration to action

Book inspired by the lists of grievances of the French Revolution to promote
self-expression of socially excluded people.

SV

1. Personal representatives for more persons
with intellectual disabilities

Governmental grants to local authorities to cover the cost of 300 new posts for
independent representatives of those with the severest intellectual disabilities.

203