Integration, indicators for energy : data 1985-98 : 2001 edition.
Date: 2001-06-08
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU Member State, air quality, energy consumption, energy industry, energy market, energy policy, energy supply, price of energy, renewable energy, sustainable development

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Integration ­
indicators for energy 

D a ta 1 9 8 5 ­ 98 

E U R O P E AN I ~i / I ■■*l:Environment 
COMMISSION eurostat V 2 í9 and energy 

m EUROSTAT 

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Eurostat  is  the  Statistical  Office  of  the  European  Communities.  Its 
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Yves  Franchet 
Director-General 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Introduction 

1. 

In  1998  the  European  Council in  Cardiff  started  a new  initia 

tive  to  incorporate  sustainable  development  more  effectively 

into  practical  policy  making.  The  principal  idea  was  to  shift 

responsibilities  and  control  from  environmental  authorities 

to  the  different  sectoral  policy  making  bodies  that  prepare 

and  implement  measures. 

2.  The  concept  of  sustainable  development  has  evolved  consid 

erably  over the  last few years. Today there is  a common  under 

standing  that  sustainable  development  is  a  wide  concept, 

encompassing  the  needs  of  human  beings  for  products  and 

services,  employment,  social  aspects,  and  protection  of  the 

environment.  A  sustainable  policy  should  take  care  of  the 

generations  to  come,  but  it  must  also  seek to  provide  welfare 

and  economic  competitiveness  today. 

3.  From  an  energy  point  of  view  it  is  important  to  note  that 

sustainable  development  encompasses  the  three  traditional 
objectives  of  energy  policy:  "security  of  supply",  "competi 

tiveness",  and  "concern  for  the  environment".  Each  of  these 

energy  policy  objectives  is  important  for  the  sustainable  de 

velopment  of  society. 

4.  At  the  beginning  of  the  21st century  the  Community  must 

look  for  an  energy  system, that  at  the  same time: 

• 

• 

provides  secure  energy  supplies  and  avoids  disruptions, 

is  competitive  and  supports  the  dynamics  of  economic 

growth,  employment  and  welfare,  and 

• 

preserves  the  environment  and  maintains  the  ecological 

basis for  life  on earth. 

Understanding  this  helps  to  remind  us  that  a  sustainable 

energy  policy  is  a  policy  that  maximises  the  long-term  wel 

fare  of  citizens,  by  keeping  a  reasonable  balance  between 

security  of  energy  supply,  competitive  energy  services  and 

environmental  protection. 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

5.  The  difficult  task  in  energy  policy  is  to  identify  the  current 

and  long-term  challenges  clearly,  and  to  give  each  goal  the 

appropriate  weight.  This  calls  for  a  continuous  analysis  of 

market  developments,  long-term  perspectives  and  options 

for  policy  measures, along with  their  impact,  advantages,  limi 

tations,  and  related  opportunities  and  risks.  Analysis  of  en 

ergy  markets  can  be  improved  by  using  energy  indicators. 

Energy  indicators  help  to  identify  criticaL  trends  well  in  ad 

vance  and  monitor  whether  energy  markets  are  on  track  to 

wards  sustainability. 

6. 

In  1999 the  Energy Council agreed on a list  of  relevant energy 

indicators.  These indicators  are included  in  the  "Energy  Indi 

cators  Pocket  Book",  published in  collaboration  with EUROSTAT 

and  the  European  Environment  Agency.  The  "Energy  Indica 

tors  Pocket  Book"  tries  to  give  an  overview  of  energy  market 

developments  and  of  the  Community's  progress  towards 

sustainability.  It  illustrates  the  evolution  of  the  Community's 

energy  systems  in  a condensed  form,  by  combining  graphical 

presentations,  data  and some explanatory  text  in  a systematic 

way. 

Acknowledgements 

Eurostat  is  pleased  to  acknowledge  the  contribution  of  the  Euro 

pean  Environment  Agency  to  the  preparation  of  this  publication. 

The  provision  of  data  associated  with  indicators  8.1 to  8.14,  8.16 

and  8.17  is  acknowledged  in  particular. 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Contents 

Indicator 

1  Overview  Indicators 

1.1  Energy  Dependency 

1.2 

Index  of  Energy  Intensity 

1.3  Price  of  Brent  Crude Oil 

Page 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

1.4  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions  of 

Greenhouse  Gases 

1.5  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions  of 

Acidifying  Gases  (S02 and  N0„) 

2.1  Total  Primary  Energy  Production 

2.2  Primary  Energy  Production,  by  Fuel 

2.3 

Indices  of  Primary  Energy  Production,  by  Fuel 

2.4  Net  Imports  of  Solid  Fuels 

2.5  Net  Imports  of  Oil 

2.6  Net  Imports  of  Natural  Gas 

2.7  Net  Imports  of  Electricity 

2.8 

Imports  of  Energy  Commodities  and  Country  of  Origin  ..2 8 

2.9  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

2.10  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

2.11  Indices  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

3.1  Final  Energy  Consumption 

3.2  Ratio  of  Final  Energy  Consumption  to  Gross 

Inland  Consumption 

3.3  Final  Energy  Consumption,  by  Sector 

3.4 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  by  Sector 

3.5  Energy  Consumption,  by  Type  of  Industry 

30 

3 2 

34 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

3.6 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption,  by  Type  of  Industry  ....48 

3.7  Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel 

3.8 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel 

3.9  Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport 

50 

5 2 

54 

3.10  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport ..5 6 

3.11  Energy  Consumption  in  the  Transport  Sector,  by  Fuel  ...5 8 

3.12  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  the  Transport 

Sector 

6 0 

111 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

3.13  Consumption  of  Unleaded  Gasoline  as  Percentage  of  Total 
6 2 

Gasoline  Consumption 

3.14  Energy  Consumption  in  Agriculture,  Services 

and  Households,  by  Fuel 

3.15  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Agriculture, 

Services  and  Households,  by  Fuel 

3.16  Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 

64 

66 

68 

3.17 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 70 

i i j . u . ' . j u j . i i u r — — ^ ^ ^ ^ —m 
4.1  Power  Station  Generation,  by  Type 

74 

4.2  Fuel  Input  to  Thermal  Power  Stations 

4.3 

Indices  of  Fuel Input  to  Thermal  Power  Stations 

4.4 

Installed  Capacity  of  Electricity  Generation  Plant, 
by  Type 

4.5 

Installed  Capacity  of  Thermal  Power  Stations, 

by  Type 

4.6 

Installed  Capacity  of  Wind  Turbines 

4.7  Efficiencies  of  Power  Stations,  by  Type 

4.8  Output  From  Refineries 

76 

78 

80 

8 2 

84 

86 

88 

5  Renewable  Energy Sources 
5.1  Renewables  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption  9 2 

5.2  Renewables  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption, 

by  Source 

5.3  Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity 

Generation 

5.4  Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity 

Generation,  by  Source 

9 4 

9 6 

98 

6.1 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  GDP and  Ratio ..102 

6.2  Gross  Inland  Consumption  per  Capita 

6.3  Final  Consumption  of  Electricity  per  Capita 

104 

106 

6.4  Consumption  of  Electricity  in  Households  per  Capita.. 108 

6.5 

6.6 

6.7 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added 
and  Energy  Intensity,  for  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry  .110 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added 
and  Energy  Intensity,  for  the  Chemicals  Industry 

112 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added 
and  Energy  Intensity,  for  the  Glass,  Pottery  and 
Building  Materials  Industry 

114 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

6.8 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added 

and  Energy  Intensity,  for  the  Paper  and  Printing 

Industry 

6.9 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added 

and  Energy  Intensity,  for  the  Food,  Drink  and 

Tobacco  Industries 

6.10  Contribution  of  CHP  Plant  to  Total  Electricity 

Generation  (1998) 

7.1  Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Steam  Coal 

7.2  Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Coking  Coal 

7.3 

Indices  of  VAT-Free  Industrial  Fuel  Prices 

7.4 

Tax  Component  of  Industrial  Fuel  Prices 

7.5 

Indices  of  Tax-Inclusive  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

7.6 

Tax  Component  of  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

7.7  Constant  Retail  Prices  of  Transport  Fuels 

7.8 

Tax  Component  of  Transport  Fuel  Costs 

8.1  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions 

of  Greenhouse  Gases 

8.2  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions 

of  Acidifying  Gases 

116 

118 

120 

124 

126 

128 

130 

132 

134 

136 

138 

142 

144 

8.3 

Indices  of  Energy  System  &  Energy  Industry  Emissions  146 

8.4 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Carbon  Dioxide 

Emissions 

8.5 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Methane 

Emissions 

8.6 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Nitrous  Oxide 

Emissions 

8.7 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Sulphur  Dioxide 

Emissions 

8.8 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  N0X  Emissions 

148 

150 

152 

154 

156 

8.9 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  NMVOC  Emissions  158 

8.10  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  from  the  Energy  System 

160 

8.11 

Indices  of  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  from  the  Energy 

System 

8.12  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Capita 

8.13  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Unit  of  GDP 

8.14  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Unit  of  Gross  Inland 

Consumption  of  Energy 

162 

164 

166 

168 

E N E R GY 

I

N

D

I

C

A

T O RS 

8.15 

Indices  of  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  from  Energy 

Transformation  and  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

8.16  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  by  Sector 

8.17 

Indices  of  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions,  by  Sector 

170 

172 

174 

8.18  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  from  Electricity  Generation  .176 

9.1  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

9.2  Contribution  of  Renewable  Energy  Sources  to 

Gross  Inland  Consumption  (1998) 

9.3  Contribution  of  Renewable  Energy  Sources  to 

Electricity  Generation,  by  Source  (1998) 

10.1  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

10.2  Electricity  Generation,  by  Type  of  Plant  (1999) 

10.3  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  (1997) 

180 

182 

184 

188 

190 

192 

Annex  A: 
Methodology  for  the  calculation  of  EU-wide  average  fuel  prices 

Annex  B: 
Glossary  of  Terms  Used  in  this  Publication 

vi 

afe. 

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Overview  Indicators 

indicatori.! Energy Dependency 

AU Products 

■ Oil 

Gas 

»Coal 

σ> σι 

table  1.1 

Energy  Dependency 

All  Products 
Oil 

Gas 
Coal 

Units: Per cent 

1985 

42.4 
30.7 

5.5 
6.0 

1986 

43.7 
32.0 

5.8 
5.8 

1987 

43.7 
31.6 

6.3 
5.7 

1988 

44.7 
32.5 

6.4 
5.7 

1989 

47.4 
34.6 

6.8 
6.0 

1990 

48.8 
35.0 

7.0 
6.7 

1991 

49.6 
35.4 

7.0 
7.1 

1992 

50.8 
36.2 

7.1 
7.3 

1993 

48.7 
35.0 

7.1 
6.4 

1994 

47.3 
33.4 

7.3 
6.4 

1995 

47.8 
32.8 

8.0 
6.9 

1996 

48.1 
32.9 

8.4 
6.7 

1997 

49.1 
33.3 

8.8 
6.9 

1998 

50.4 
34.1 

9.2 
7.0 

Energy dependency measures the extent to which a country relies on imports to 

other fuels due to  their  high environmental impact. 

meet its  energy  needs. The table  presents  energy dependency in  per cent and 

shows the  ratio  of  net imports  of an energy  product to  the  Gross Inland Con 

Dependency on imports has increased over the last 10 years to the point where 

sumption  of that  product. 

50% of  primary  fuel  requirements  are  now  imported.  This  highlights  the  in 

creased demand for energy sources, and the extent to which internal EU  supply 

The chart shows the importance of imported fossil fuels in EU-15 Member States. 

is outstripped  by demand for products such as petroleum for transport and gas 

Within  EU-15, approximately  one third of the consumption of crude oil and its 

for electricity generation. 

products  is  supplied  by imports.  Gas dependency  has shown  the  largest  per 

centage increase. The increase in  gas use in  all sectors is due to  a number of 

factors, including improved availability  and pressure to discontinue the use of 

A  Overview  Indicators 

indicator 1.2 Index of Energy Intensity 

Reference year = 1990 

, ­. 120 ■ 

­< 

Gross Domestic Product 

Gross Consumption 

Energy Intensity 

σ\ σι 
σι σι 

σι σ> 

σ» σι 

table  1.2 

Index  of  Energy  Intensity 

Reference year = 1990 

Gross  Domestic  Product 
Gross  Inland  Consumption 

Energy  Intensity 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100%) 

1985 

86 
94 

109 

1986 

89 
96 

108 

1987 

90 
98 

109 

1988 

1989 

95 
98 

103 

99 
100 

101 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

103 
102 

1992 

104 
101 

1993 

104 
101 

1994 

107 
101 

i 
1995 

1996 

t 
109 
103 
1 

i 

111 
107 

96 

1997 

114 
107 

94 

1998 

117 
109 

93 

Energy intensity is calculated by dividing the Gross Inland Consumption by the 
Gross Domestic  Product (GDP). 

Factors which influence this trend include the change in the nature of industry 

across  the  EU, with  heavy  (more  energy  intensive)  industries  declining  and 

service  (less energy intensive)  industries  expanding, as well as improvements 

Energy intensity  has fallen steadily for several years, with the energy required 

in the efficiency  of energy transformation  and the end use of energy. 

per  unit  of  output  in  1998  being  7% less than  that  of  1990. Although Gross 

Inland  Consumption  has increased by 9% over the period 1990 to  1998, Gross 

Domestic  Product  has  increased  much  more  rapidly  and  now  stands  at  17% 

above its  1990 level. 

A  Overview  Indicators 

indicator  1.3 

Price of  Brent Crude Oil 

» Current  prices 

» Constant  (1990)  prices 

table  1.3 

Price of  Brent Crude Oil 

Current  prices 
Constant  (1990)  prices 

Units: Euro /  barrel 

1985 

36.1 
42.0 

1986 

14.6 
16.7 

1987 

16.0 
17.7 

1988 

12.7 
13.5 

1989 

16.5 
17.0 

1990 

18.7 
18.7 

1991 

16.2 
15.6 

1 9 92 

14.9 

14.2 

1 9 93 

14.6 

14.0 

1 9 94 

13.4 

12.5 

1 9 95 

13.1 

12.0 

1 9 96 

16.4 

14.8 

1 9 97 

17.0 

14.9 

1 9 98 

11.7 

10.0 

1 9 99 

17.1 

14.3 

The  price  of  Brent  Crude  Oil is  used  as a yardstick  for  world  crude  oil  prices. 

In  1990  the  price  of  crude  oil  reached  a  peak  due  to  the  Gulf  War,  although  it 

The  price  of  crude  oil  has  remained  low  throughout  the  nineties  by  comparison 

and  1997,  as tensions  in  the  Gulf increased,  but  fell sharply  in  1998  as a result 

to  the  price  in  1985.  Much  of  the  fall  in  price  took  place  between  1985  and 

of the  Asian  economic  crisis. The OPEC decision  to  reduce  oil production  caused 

1986  as  a  result  of  OPEC countries  introducing  netback  pricing,  with  the  price 

prices  to  rise  in  1999. 

subsequently  fell  by  36%  over  the  next  five  years.  Prices  rose  again  in  1996 

of  the  crude  oil  being  negotiated  on  the  basis  of  the  expected  value  of  the 

products  refined  from  it.  This  forced  the  oil  producers  to  compete  more  ac 

tively  for  market  share. 

A  Overview  Indicators 

indicator 1.4  Contribution of Energy System to Total Emissions 

of Greenhouse Gases 

5 000 

4 500 

4 000 ■ 

3 500 ■ 

3 000 

2 500 ■ 

2 000 

1 500 

1 0 00 

500 

Non-Energy-Related GHG Emissions 

Energy System CH4 Emissions 

Energy System N20 Emissions 

Energy System C02 Emissions 

table  1.4 

Contribution  of  Energy System to  Total Emissions 
of Greenhouse Gases 

Non-Energy-Retated  GHG Emissions 
Energy System  N^O Emissions 

1990 

840 
52 

Energy System  CHt Emissions 
Energy System  C0;  Emissions 
Units: Million  tonnes  C0!  equivalent 

101 
3  156 

1991 

831 
54 

99 
3  190 

1992 

782 
54 

96 
3  117 

1993 

757 
53 

87 
3  058 

1994 

772 
56 

80 
3  063 

1995 

773 
58 

79 
3  101 

1996 

778 
60 

76 
3  179 

1997 

773 
60 

75 
3  119 

1998 

752 
55 

74 
3  164 

In  this  context,  the  term  "Energy  System"  refers  to  the  combination  of  the 

96%  of  energy  system  emissions.  C02  emissions  from  the  energy  system  in­

Ό 

energy  industry  (i.e.  the  energy  transformation  sector)  and  energy  consump­

creased  by just  0.2%  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998,  and  actually  fell  by 

tion  by final  consumers.  Greenhouse  gas  emissions  are widely  acknowledged  to 

3.1%  during  the  recession  of  the  early  1990s.  Methane  (CHJ  remains  the  sec­

give  rise  to  climate  change.  The  three  most  significant  greenhouse  gases  are 

ond  most  significant  greenhouse  gas,  accounting  for  2.3%  of  energy  system 

considered  here:  carbon  dioxide,  methane  and  nitrous  oxide. 

emissions  in  1998.  However,  CH< emissions  from  the  energy  system  fell  by 26% 

over the  period  from  1990 to  1998.  Nitrous  oxide  (N20)  only  accounts  for  1.7% 

Total  emissions  of  these  greenhouse  gases  across  the  EU fell  by  2.5%  over  the 

of energy  system  emissions.  NE0 emissions from  the  energy system  increased  by 

period  1990  to  1998.  Non-energy  related  emissions  fell  by  10%  over  this  pe­

6%  between  1990  and  1998,  despite  a  significant  decline  between  1997  and 

riod,  but  energy  system  emissions  fell  by just  0.5%.  Carbon  dioxide  (CO )  is  by 

1998. 

far  the  most  significant  of  these  three  greenhouse  gases,  with  C02  emissions 

from  the  energy  system  now  (1998)  accounting  for  78% of  total  emissions  and 

Overview  Indicators 

indicator  1.5  Contribution  of  Energy System to  Total Emissions of 

Acidifying  Gases (S02 and N0x) 

Non-Energy-Related  Emissions 

Energy  System  NO,, Emissions 

Energy  System  SO,  Emissions 

table  1.5 

Contribution  of  Energy System to  Total Emissions of 
Acidifying  Gases (S02 and NO  ) 

Non-Energy-Related  Emissions 

Energy  System  SO, Emissions 

485 

Energy System  NOx Emissions 
Units:  Thousand  tonnes  acid equivalent 

282 

442 

280 

405 

273 

369 

261 

The units  used adjust the tonnes  of emissions  by their  relative  potential acid 

(hydrogen ion)  production. Emissions of acidifying  gases (sulphur dioxide, ni 

trogen  oxides  and  ammonia)  are  partly  responsible  for  acid  rain,  increased 

concentration of photo-oxidants in the atmosphere and the occurrence of smog 

in winter. As the energy system is not a  source of ammonia, this acidifying gas 

is not included in  this analysis. 

1994 

21 

332 

252 

1995 

19 

305 

245 

1996 

21 

262 

240 

1997 

20 

235 

229 

1998 

20 

233 

225 

move away from solid fuels  (e.g. lignite  and coal) to fuels such as natural gas 
containing  less sulphur. 

Sulphur  dioxide  (S02)  remains the  most significant  component  of  energy sys 
tem emissions. S02 emissions fell by 52% over the period, and now account for 
49% of the total compared to  61% in  1990. Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO ) 

from the energy system fell by 20% over the same period and now account for 

Total emissions  of  these  acidifying  gases across the  EU fell  by 40% over the 

47%  of the  total  (35% in  1990).  Non-energy  system  emissions  of  acidifying 

period from  1990 to  1998, and emissions from the energy system  (accounting 

gases fell  by  36% from  1990 to  1998,  although  most  of  this  reduction  took 

for 96% of the total)  also fell by 40%. Contributory factors were the installa 

place in the early years. 

tion  of flue  gas desulphurisation  (FGD)  equipment  at  power stations  and the 

Overview  Indicators 

indicator  2.1  Total  Primary  Energy  Production 

1 000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

01 

| 

500 

400-

300 

200 

100 

0 

table  2.1 

Total·  Primary  Energy  Production 

Total  Primary 
Energy  Production 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

733 643 

751 140 

750 097 

739 512 

722 131 

705 130 

707 811 

702 266 

709 622 

722 656 

737 132 

762 582 

759 647 

750 931 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent  (ktoe) 

Primary  energy  production  is  the  total  amount  of  energy  produced  within 

ticularly  large  users,  are  often  free  to  purchase  from  the  most  competitive 

the  EU-15  Member  States.  It  includes  indigenous  fossil  fuels,  nuclear  en 

source,  whether  or  not  this  is  in  their  own  country.  It  follows  that  if  indig 

ergy,  renewable  energy  sources  and  energy  derived  from  other  non-imported 

enous  EU energy  sources  are  not  competitive  the  demand  for  them  will  fall. 

resources. 

In  increasingly  global  energy  markets,  t o t al  primary  energy  production 

to  1998,  it  is  clear  that  there  was  a  dip  in  production  in  the  early  1990s. 

reflects  the  extent  to  which  indigenous  energy  resources  are  economically 

This  reflected  the  fact  that  energy  consumption  generally  follows  economic 

and  environmentally  competitive  with  imported  energy.  Energy  users,  par- 

activity,  and  this  was  a  period  of  low  economic  growth  in  the  EU. 

Although  total  primary  energy  production  increased  by  only  4%  from  1989 

Energy  Supply 

indicator 2.2 Primary Energy Production, by Fuel· 

900 

800 

700-

600-

5 0 0· 

m min 

00 CO 00 00 00 Ol 
O Cn σι Cl Οι Ci 

■ Renewable Energy 

Sources 

■ Lignite 

■ Coal 

■ Crude Oil 

Natural Gas 

■ Nuclear Energy 

table  2.2 

Primary  Energy  Production,  by  Fuel 

Renewable 
Lignite 

Energy Sources 

Coal 
Crude Oil 

Naturat Gas 
Nuclear Energy 
Units: Thousand tonnes of 

oil equivalent  (ktoe) 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

67 026 
103 008 

133 616 
150 740 

131 875 
147 378 

65 569 
102 502 

139 518 
155 750 

129 300 
158 500 

68 533 
98 986 

133 918 
152 833 

133 791 
162 037 

69 145 
99 516 

129 319 
143 478 

124 723 
173 332 

65 040 
99 976 

125 752 
119 850 

129 085 
182 429 

65 804 
89 832 

118 387 
116 798 

132 871 
181 439 

68 916 
72 357 

115 765 
118 074 

145 680 
187 021 

70 834 
65 118 

109 893 
121 315 

146 838 
188 267 

72 430 
60 238 

94 508 
126  994 

157 894 
197 558 

72 636 
57 689 

79 080 
156 242 

159 737 
197 271 

73 348 
55 566 

81 041 
159 341 

166  597 
201  240 

76 052 
53 890 

76 275 
158 870 

188 632 
208 864 

81 771 
51 302 

73 820 
158 016 

182  123 
212 615 

84 816 
47 207 

66 363 
161 413 

181 467 
209 664 

While  total  primary  energy  production  has  remained  broadly  constant  (see 

Production  of  nuclear  energy  has also increased, and this  is  now the  largest 

2.1),  the  balance  of  fuels  contributing  to  the  total  has  changed  appreci 

single  source  of  primary  energy  (28%  of  the  total).  Little  new  nuclear 

ably.  The  production  of  coal  and  lignite  have  both  decreased,  reflecting 

capacity  has been installed  since the early  nineties  however,  so its contribu 

reduced  industrial  demand, fuel-switching  (mainly  in  favour  of  natural gas) 

tion  is  now  relatively  static.  The  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources 

and  increased  imports  of  cheaper  solid  fuels.  These  changes  were  in  part 

has also increased, mostly in  the  last four years, but it  remains  low  (11%  of 

driven  by  the  need to  reduce  emissions,  since  coal and  lignite  have  a high 

the  total)  compared  to  those  of  the  other  energy  sources. 

carbon  and  sulphur  content  compared  to  other  energy  sources.  In  contrast 

the  use of  crude oil  and  natural gas  has increased,  reflecting  increases  both 

in  production  capacity  and  in  demand. These  now  account  respectively  for 

21%  and  24% of  the  total. 

A  Energy  Supply 

indicator 2.3 Indices of Primary Energy Production, by Fuel Reference Year = 1990 

80 

»Crude Oil 

Natural gas 

■Renewable Energy 

Sources 

»Nuclear Energy 

■Coat 

■ Lignite 

en σι 

table  2.3 

Indices  of  Primary  Energy  Production,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Crude  Oil 
Natural  Gas 

Renewable  Energy  Sources 
Nuclear  Energy 

Coal 
Lignite 

Units: Per cent  (1990=100%) 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

129 
99 

102 
81 

113 
115 

133 
97 

100 
87 

118 
114 

131 
101 

104 
89 

113 
110 

123 
94 

105 
96 

109 
111 

103 
97 

99 
101 

106 
111 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 
100 

101 
110 

105 
103 

98 
81 

104 
1  11 

108 
104 

93 
73 

109 
119 

110 
109 

80 
67 

134 
120 
no 
109 

67 
64 

136 
125 

112 
111 

69 
62 

136 
142 

116 
115 

64 
60 

135 
137 

124 
117 

62 
57 

138 
137 

129 
116 

56 
53 

This  figure  illustrates  the  changes  in  the  balance  of  primary  energy  produc 

in  the  late  eighties  following  the  Piper Alpha  incident,  but  increased  through 

tion  between  different  fuels. 

out  the  1990s. 

The  marked  decline  in  coal  and  lignite  production  can  be  seen  in  contrast 

The  increase  in  the  production  of  nuclear  energy  is  clearly  seen,  although 

to  the  net  increase  in  production  from  all  other  sources.  There  were  large 

the  rate  of  increase  has  been  much  lower  in  recent  years.  Production  of 

increases  in  the  production  of  natural  gas  and  crude  oil,  reflecting  i n 

energy  from  renewable  sources  also  shows  steady  growth  (29%  since  1990), 

creased  demand.  The  growth  in  natural  gas  production  has  been  greatest 

but  here  the  most  rapid  increase  took  place  in  the  last  three  years. 

since  1990,  and  in  1991  and  1996  in  particular,  reflecting  the  increased  use 

of  gas  for  power  generation  and  in  industry.  Crude  oil  production  decreased 

Energy  Supply 

indicator  2.4  Net  Imports  of  Solid  Fuels 

180 

160 

140 

120 

at 

I  100 
o 

I 8o 

60 

40 

20 

0 

table  2.4 

Net  Imports  of  Solid  Fuels 

Solid  Fuels 

Units: kilotonnes 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

116 963 

115 019 

113 368 

112 905 

119 446 

134 977 

150 046 

151 281 

133 087 

135 172 

145 926 

148 047 

152 803 

155 008 

Net imports  (imports  minus  exports)  of  solid  fuels  (essentially  coal)  rose by 

Since  1990,  imports  have  exceeded  the  production  of  coal  within  EU-15. 

15% over  the  period  1990  to  1998. This  contrasts  with  the  decline  of 45% 

These increases  in  imports  (at  the  expense  of  local  production)  reflect  the 

in the production of coal and lignite in  EU-15 over the same period (see 2.2). 

fact  that,  in  an  increasingly  global  energy  market,  users  (particularly  large 

industrial users and power  utilities)  are turning to  cheaper and often  cleaner 

solid  fuels  from  outside  EU-15. 

^a  Energy  Supply 

indicator  2.5 

Net  Imports  of  Oil 

table  2.5 

Net  Imports  of  Oil 

on 
Units: kilotonnes 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

382 217 

404 123 

405 973 

420 991 

453 608 

459  557 

475 757 

82 493 

466 568 

446 419 

446 296 

464 914 

469 411 

489 800 

Net imports  of  oil  rose  by  7% over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998. Over the 

In  1995, imports  were around  2.8  times  greater  than  EU production,  and by 

same period there  was a 38% increase in  the  production  of  oil within  EU-15 

1998  they  were  three  times  greater.  The  increasing  reliance  on  imports 

(see  2.2).  Although  imports  declined  in  the  early  1990s  as  new  oil  produc 

reflects in  part the increasing  demand for  oil,  particularly  from the transport 

tion  capacity  came on  stream, imports  have  again  increased  during  the  last 

sector.  However,  it  also  reflects  the  fact  that  oil  on  global  markets  was 

three  years  when  production  was  relatively  stable. 

relatively  cheap  during  this  period,  leading  to  increased  use  of  oil  where 

fuel-switching  is  possible. 

Energy  Supply 

indicator  2.6  Net  Imports  of  Natural Gas 

6  000 

> 

4 000 

m 
00 

*o 
00 

r*. 
CO 

CO 
CO 

CO 

Ok 

a\ 
σι 

σι 

σι 

σ> 

σι 

σ> 

σ> 

σ> 

table  2.6 

Net  Imports  of  Natural Gas 

Natural Gas 

3  191  691 

3 426 573 

3 788 443 

3 831 794 

134 298 

293 690 

388 674 

4 429 872 

4 417 032 

528 509 

5 053 300 

510 669 

776 241 

116 964 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

Units:  Terajoutes (Gross Calorific  Value) 

Net  imports  of  natural  gas  into  EU-15  rose  by  42%  between  1990  and  1998, 

The  increase  in  natural  gas  imports  is  due  both  to  increased  demand  for  gas 

with  a  particularly  rapid  growth  between  1995  and  1998.  In  contrast,  gas 

and  to  increased  availability  from  sources  outside  EU-15.  There  has  been 

production  within  EU-15  rose  only  37%  during  the  same  period  (see  2.2). 

increased  use  of  gas  by  industrial,  services  and  domestic  consumers  (see  3.7 

This  reflects  an  increasing  reliance  on  imported  gas.  In  1995  net  imports  of 

and  3.14)  but  since  1993  there  has  been  particularly  strong  growth  in  its 

gas  were  around  65%  of  domestic  production,  but  by  1998  this  figure  had 

use  for  electricity  generation  (see  4.3).  This  reflects  the  fact  that  natural  gas 

risen  to  72%. 

is  seen  as  a  clean,  cheap  and  efficient  fuel,  particularly  in  comparison  to 

solid  fuels. 

Energy  Supply 

indicator  2.7  Net  Imports  of  Electricity 

table  2.7 

Net  Imports  of  Electricity 

Electricity 

Units: GWh 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

15 428 

14 219 

18 078 

24 264 

26 712 

27 134 

14 170 

18 792 

21 873 

18 046 

17 402 

-1 582 

7 782 

13 112 

In  recent  years  EU-15  has  become  less  dependent  on  imports  of  electricity, 

Electricity  exchanges  between  Member  States  are  much  greater.  In  this  inter­

and  there  was  even  a  small  net  export  in  1996.  This  reduction  took  place 

nal  market  for  electricity  the  largest  exporter  in  EU-15  is  France,  although 

despite  an  increase  in  electricity  demand  in  all  sectors  (see  3.7  and  3.14). 

Denmark  and  Sweden  are  also  significant  exporters.  The  largest  importer  of 

electricity  is  Italy,  with  the  Netherlands  and  the  UK  also  importing  signifi­

Net  imports  are  very  small  compared  to  total  generation.  In  1998,  13.1 TWh 

cant  amounts. 

were  imported  compared  to  2  472  TWh  generated  (see  4.1),  and  during  the 

period  1990  to  1998  the  amount  of  electricity  imported  was  less  than  0.7% 

of  that  generated. 

^Ά  Energy  S u p p ly 

indicator 2.8 Imports of Energy Commodities & Country of Origin 

Crude Oil ­ 1990 

Hard Coal ­ 1 9 90 

Natural Gas ­ 1 9 90 

Norw ay 

Saudi Arabia 

Hard Coal ­ 1997 

USA 

■ South Africa 

Colombia 

■ Australia 

■ Poland 

ï i Other 

USSR 

Norw ay 

Algeria 

Libya 

Other 

Natural Gas ­ 1997 

table  2.8 

Imports  of  Energy  Commodities  &  Country  of  Origin 

Norway 
Saudi Arabia 
USSR  WEM 
Libya 

Iran 

Other 

1990 

1997 

52 374 
49 691 
37 512 

50 908 
55 595 

178 970 

114 927 
88 557 

65 274 
47 844 

42 724 
115  744 

USA 
South  Africa 

Colombia 
Australia 

Poland 
Other 

Units:  kilotonnes 

Units:  kilotonnes 

Hard  Coal 

1990 

46  548 
23  970 

9  248 
16  985 

12  771 
19  265 

1997 

35  357 
33  792 

19  265 
18  495 

17  646 
22  481 

USSR 
Norway 
Algeria 
Libya 
Other 

1990 

1997 

1 972 001 

2 430  185 

1 030 691 

1 74 1 84 2 

1 077  541 

1 709 750 

58 029 

229 225 

46 168 

79 378 

Units:  Terajoules (GCV) 

A 

Energy  S u p p ly 

Oil  imports  from  Norway,  Saudi  Arabia  and  the  USSR  all  increased  substan 

tially  between  1990  and  1997,  and  now  account  together  for  57%  of  EU 

imports  (33%  in  1990).  Imports  from  all  other  countries  fell  over  the  same 

period. 

Coal  imports  from  countries  producing 

low  sulphur  coal  (Indonesia, 

Colombia,  Canada,  South  Africa,  Poland)  all  increased  substantially. 

The  USSR,  Norway  and  Algeria  have  increased  their  share  of  gas  imports 

from  93%  in  1990  to  98%  in  1997. 

indicator  2.9  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

£ 

750-

m 

>o 

table  2.9 

Gross  Inland  Consumption 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1 242 354  1 261 478  1 285 417 

1 292 987 

1 311 816  1 318 087 

1 346 394 

1 336 323  1 335 757  1 335 653 

1 363 479  1 412 686  1 409 540  1 435 331 

Units: Thousand tonnes  of oil  equivalent  (ktoe) 

Gross inland  consumption  is the  total  consumption  of  primary  energy  within 

This  pattern  of  consumption  broadly  reflected  economic  growth,  there  be 

EU-15.  This  includes  energy  produced  within  EU-15  plus  net  imports,  after 

ing  a period  of  relative  recession  from  1990 to  1994  but  more  rapid  growth 

allowing  for  stock  changes  and  bunkers. 

in  recent years. Consumption  also  reflects  climatic  factors,  with  the  peak in 

1996  coinciding  with  a  relatively  severe  winter  and  increased  heating  de 

Gross  inland  consumption  in  EU-15  increased  by  9%  over  the  period  1990 

mand. 

to  1998.  Most  of  this  increase  took  place  since  1994,  following  a period  of 

relative  stability  during  the  preceding  four  years. 

^B  Energy  Supply 

indicator  2.10  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

I  Renewable  Energy  Sources 

I  Nuclear  Energy 

I  Lignite  and  Equivalents 

I  Coal  and  Equivalents 

Gas 

I  Oil 

table  2.10 

Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1 9 88 

1 9 89 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

Renewable  Energy  Sources 

Nuclear Energy 

Lignite and Equivalents 
Coal and Equivalents 

Gas 
Oil 

67 026 
147  378 

102 838 
213  345 

197 965 
512  268 

65 569 
158 500 

101 040 
208 875 

200 698 
525 359 

68 533 
162 037 

98 371 

69  145 

65  0 40 

173  332 

182  4 29 

97  672 

98  565 

213  ? ? :J 

207  692 

207  4 87 

2 12  7 10 

206  522 

215  651 

528  7 90 

536  345 

540  0 20 

65 804 
181 439 

91 079 
210 073 

222 052 
545 051 

68 916 
187 021 

74 222 
212 048 

239 693 
563 079 

70 834 
188 267 

66 681 
199 931 

237 113 
571 665 

72 430 
197 558 

61 677 
185 382 

252 230 
564 369 

72 636 
197 271 

58 047 
184 613 

253 635 
567 700 

73 348 
201 240 

55 445 
182 329 

273 351 
576 043 

76 052 
208 864 

54 968 
179 919 

305 137 
587 662 

81 771 
212 615 

51 852 
171 635 

302 540 
587 753 

84 816 
209 664 

49 617 
173 102 

315 499 
601  167 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent  (ktoe) 

The  total  consumption  of  energy  in  EU-15  has  increased  (see  2.9),  but  there 

The  largest  source  of  energy  throughout  the  period  1990  to  1998  has  been 

are  significant  differences  between  different  fuels.  The  biggest  change  is  in 

oil,  which  has  consistently  accounted  for  more  than  40%  of  total  consump 

the  use  of  gas,  which  increased  its  share  of  consumption  from  17%  to  22% 

tion.  Consumption  of  oil  accounted  for  42%  of  total  energy  consumption 

between  1990  and  1998.  This  is  due  to  its  increased  use  in  the  industrial, 

in  1998,  and  much  of  this  related  to  use  in  the  transport  sector  (see  3.11). 

domestic  and  electricity  generating  sectors,  both  because  of  its  increased 

Use  of  coal  and  lignite  has  decreased  sharply,  by  18%  and  46%  respectively 

availability  and  also  because  of  the  need  to  reduce  emissions.  The  contribu 

during  the  period  1990  to  1998,  and  reflects  the  shift  away  from  these  more 

tion  of  nuclear  energy  to  total  energy  consumption  has  risen  by  1%  during 

polluting  fuels.  Consumption  of  energy  derived  from  renewable  sources  has 

the  period  from  1990  to  1998.  Despite  this  limited  growth,  nuclear  now 

increased  by  29%,  but  its  share  of  the  total  increased  by  only  1%  between 

accounts  for  15%  of  total  energy  consumption. 

1990  and  1998. 

A 

Energy  S u p p ly 

indicator  2.11  Indices  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gas 

■Renewable Energy Sources 

■Nuclear Energy 

■Oil 

»Coal and Equivalents 

■Lignite and Equivalents 

LTl 

VO 

r*.  00 

σ»  o 
σ\ 
σ* 

en 
σι 

(Μ 
<3\ 
σι 

•-i 

σι 

σ> 

ιη 

σ\ 

ιο 

Οί 

σι 

σι 

table  2.11 

Indices  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Renewable  Energy  Sources 

Nuclear  Energy 

Coal  and  Equivalents 
Lignite  and  Equivalents 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100  %) 

1987 

96 

104 

89 

1985 

89 
102 

81 
94 

102 
113 

100 

87 
96 

99 
111 

105 

96 

99 
107 

1989 

97 

101 
99 

1990 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

1992 
107 
108 
104 
105 
95 
73 

105 

103 

103 

101 

1993 
114 

110 
109 
104 

1994 
114 

110 
109 

104 

1995 
123 

112 
111 
106 
87 

61 

1996 
137 
116 
115 

108 

1997 
136 
124 

117 
108 

1998 

142 

129 

116 

110 

82 

01 

These data illustrate  the  change in the  contribution  of different  fuels to  the 

total  consumption,  with  oil  maintaining  a constant  proportion  of  the  gross 

gross  inland  consumption  in  EU-15  Member  States. 

inland  consumption. 

The  drop  in  the  consumption  of  lignite  and  coal  can  be  clearly  seen,  in 

contrast  with  the  sharp  rise  in  the  use  of  natural  gas. The  decline  in  solid 

Consumption  of  nuclear  energy  and  energy  derived  from  renewable  sources 

are  also  increasing,  both  in  absolute  terms  and  in  terms  of  their  contribu­

fuel  consumption  and  increase  in  gas  consumption  reflects  mainly  fuel 

tion  to  total  consumption.  However,  nuclear  output  has  stabilised  over  the 

switching  between the two as a result of the increased availability  and lower 

last  three  years,  reflecting  the  lack  of  new  capacity  coming  on  line.  In 

emissions of  natural gas. The slower  growth in  oil is similar  to the  growth in 

contrast,  the  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources  has  grown  most 

rapidly  over  the  same period. 

φ 

Energy  Supply 

f· · 

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^8>*:r 

nergy lonsumption 

indicator 3.1 Final Energy Consumption 

1 000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

■< 

table  3.1 

Final  Energy  Consumption 

Final  Energy  Consumption 

1985 

823  167 

1986 

1987 

836 674 

851 433 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

855 598 

862 220 

882 811 

882 294 

884 601 

879 402 

897 503 

935 197 

931 018 

944 715 

Final  Energy  Consumption  is  the  energy  actually  consumed  by  end  users.  It 

The  data  indicate  a  period  of  relative  stability  in  the  early  1990s,  with  a 

is  lower  than  the  Gross  Inland  Consumption  (see  2.9),  which  is  the  total 

marginal  decline  of  0.4%  from  1991  to  1994.  This  reflects  the  fact  that 

supply  of  energy  available  for  transformation  into  other  products  or  for 

energy  consumption  is  linked  to  economic  activity,  and  this  was  a  period  of 

direct  consumption.  The  difference  is  mainly  accounted  for  by  losses  in 

low  economic  growth  across  the  EU. In  contrast,  the  peak  in  1996  relates  to 

conversion  to  secondary  energy  commodities  such  as  electricity,  by  distri 

the  severity  of  the  winter  across  Europe  that  year,  since  this  increases  the 

bution  losses  and  by  the  use  of  fuels  for  non-energy  purposes. 

consumption  of  energy  for  heating  purposes. 

Final  Energy  Consumption  has  increased  by  10%  over  the  period  1990  to 

1998. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.2  Ratio  of  Final  Energy  Consumption  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

O 

table  3.2 

Ratio  of  Final  Energy  Consumption  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

Ratio 

Units .  Per cent 

1985 

66.3 

1986 

66.3 

1987 

66.2 

1988 

66.0 

1989 

65.2 

1990 

65.4 

1991 

65.6 

1992 

66.0 

1993 

66.2 

1994 

65.8 

1995 

65.8 

1996 

66.2 

1997 

66.1 

1998 

65.8 

As  already  noted  (see  3.1),  the  difference  between  Gross  Inland  Consump 

However,  the  ratio  does  differ  between  Member  States.  For  example, coun 

tion  (GIC)  and  Final  Energy  Consumption  (FEC)  is  accounted  for  mainly  by 

tries  which import  nearly  all of their  energy  have a higher  ratio  due to  their 

losses  incurred  during  energy  conversion  processes  (for  example,  electricity 

smaller  transformation  sector.  The  ratio  is  also  higher  in  countries  where 

generation  from fossil fuels),  by distribution  losses  (e.g. in  electricity  trans 

renewable  energy  accounts  for  a  significant  fraction  of  energy  supply.  In 

mission),  and  by  the  consumption  of  energy  by  the  energy  industry  itself. 

contrast,  the  ratio  is  lower  in  countries  where  nuclear  energy  makes a 

In  addition  to  these  losses,  a small quantity  of  energy  products  is  used for 

significant  contribution.  This  is  because  the  conversion  process  from  nu 

non-energy  purposes,  such  as  feedstocks  within  the  chemical  industry. 

clear  heat  to  electrical  power  is  less  efficient  than  in  power  generation 

using  other  primary  energy  sources. 

The  ratio  of  FEC to  GIC  remained  relatively  stable  throughout  the  period 

from  1990  to  1998.  The  minimum  was  65.4%  (1990)  and  the  maximum 

66.2%  (1993  and  1996). 

^B  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.3  Final  Energy  Consumption,  by  Sector 

1 0 00 

900 

800-

700 

600-

500-

400 

300 

at 
| 

Industry 

Transport 

I  Households, commerce, 
public  authorities  etc. 

table 3.3 

Final Energy Consumption, by Sector 

Industry 
Transport 

264 439 
202 805 

259 108 
213 580 

264 149 
220 790 

268 816 
234 737 

271 565 
245 018 

265 226 
253 847 

256 408 
257 124 

252 539 
265 329 

246 505 
271 209 

250 830 
272 154 

257 462 
275 689 

259 581 
283 382 

262 
288 

645 
766 

261 575 
298 858 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1! 

197 

1998 

Households, commerce, 
public authorities etc. 
Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

355 923 

363 986 

366 495 

349 734 

339 015 

343 147 

369 280 

364 426 

366 888 

356 418 

364 353 

392 234 

379 

607 

384 282 

In terms of final energy consumption, there are significant differences be­

Energy consumption in the transport sector has increased consistently 

*■ tween different sectors of the economy. 

throughout the period. Transport is the only sector where consumption 

increased every year from 1990 to 1998, and this sector now accounts for 

Industry was the only sector where energy consumption decreased over the 

32% of total consumption. This increase is due to a significant rise in travel, 

period from 1990 to 1998, with a fall of just 1%. However, industry ac­

particularly by road and air. 

counted for 31% of total consumption in 1990, and by 1998 this had fallen 

to 28%. This relative decline reflects the contraction in manufacturing 

The households, commerce and public authorities sector has remained the 

industry across the EU over this period, together with improvements in 

largest in relation to total energy consumption (41% in 1998 compared to 

energy efficiency that have been achieved. Consumption in the sector was 

40% in 1990). Consumption increased by 12% over the period, with house­

lowest during the recession of the early 1990s. 

holds accounting for approximately two­thirds of the total consumption in 

the sector. 

A Final Energy 

Consumption 

indicator  3.4 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  by  Sector 

Reference Year = 1990 

-IN 
-is 

Transport 

1  Households, commerce, 
public authorities  etc. 

Industry 

table  3.4 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  by  Sector 

Reference Year = 1990 

Transport 
Households,  commerce, 
public  authorities  etc. 
Industry 

1985 

80 
104 

100 

1986 

84 
106 

98 

1987 

87 
107 

100 

1988 

92 
102 

1 01 

1989 

97 
99 

102 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

101 
108 

97 

1992 

105 
106 

95 

1993 

107 
107 

93 

1994 

107 
104 

95 

1995 

109 
106 

97 

1996 

112 
114 

98 

1997 

114 
111 

99 

1998 

118 
112 

99 

Units:  Per cent  (1990  =  100%) 

The trends  in  consumption  in  the  three  sectors  are  clearly  demonstrated  by 

The significant  and  continuing  growth  in  energy  consumption  in  the  trans 

indices  expressed  relative  to  1990. 

port  sector  is  clearly  identified. 

Consumption  in  the  industrial  sector  reflects  the  level of  economic  activity, 

Consumption  in  the  households,  commerce  and  public  authorities  (terti- 

with  a  decline  during  the  recession  of  the  early  1990s  but  growth  since 

ary)  sector  has also increased. This sector shows peaks relating to the  sever- 

o 

j, 

1993. 

ity  of  the  winters,  since  the  use of  energy  for  space  heating  accounts  for a 

significant  part  of  total  consumption  in  this  sector. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.5  Energy  Consumption,  by  Type  of  Industry 

Paper and  printing 
Food, drink  and tobacco 

I  Engineering and other  metal works 
!  Glass, pottery  and building  materials 

Chemicals 

I  Iron and steel 
I  Other 

1 

table  3.5 

Energy  Consumption,  by  Type  of  Industry 

Paper  and  printing 
Food,  drink  and  tobacco 
Engineering  and  other  metal  works 
Glass,  pottery  and  building  materials 
Chemicals 
Iron  and  steel 

1985 
15 454 

21 569 
27 793 
35 039 
50 366 
61 064 

1986 

15 776 
21 582 

27 956 
33 711 

50 051 
56 569 

Other 

53 152 

53 463 

j> 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

1987 

16 613 

21 938 

28 411 

34 064 

51 999 

56 037 

55 088 

1988 

16 847 

21 720 

27 985 

35 494 

51 801 

58 069 

56 900 

1989 

17 312 
2? 006 

27 797 
36 314 

52 422 
68 943 

56 770 

1990 
17 987 

21 945 
27 404 
35 780 
50 307 

55 715 

56 087 

1991 
18 035 
> 
22 333 
1 
27 673 
1 
34 854 
i 
45 608 
1 
I 
53 451 

54 453 
I 

1992 

1993 

18 770 
22 448 

26 458 
34 198 
46 967 
50 519 

53  179 

19 233 
1 
i 
22 320 
! 
24 934 
j 
32 248 
ί 
44 620 
i 
48  am 
54 192 

1994 
19 869 
22 475 
24 258 
32 226 
44 320 
92 930 
54 753 

1995 

1996 

20 793 
22 978 

23 562 
32 271 

43 638 
54 095 

20 930 
23 571 

23 534 
32 508 

42 830 
52 056 

60 126 

64 152 

1997 

21 908 
23 242 

23 000 
32 118 

42 400 
54 749 

65 229 

1998 

21 985 
23 650 

24 042 
31 378 

40 424 
52 752 

67 344 

All  of  the  more  energy  intensive  sectors  showed  significant  reductions  in 

In  contrast,  consumption  in  the  less  energy-intensive  sectors  increased 

energy  consumption  over  the  period  1990  to  1998.  Consumption  in  the 

over  the  same  period.  Consumption  in  the  paper  and  printing  sector  i n­

iron  and  steel  sector  fell  by  5%,  but  this  sector  remains  the  largest  energy 

creased  by  22%  between  1990  and  1998,  while  consumption  in  the  food, 

user  (20%  of  total  industrial  consumption  in  1998).  Consumption  in  the 

drink  and  tobacco  sector  increased  by  8%  and  other  sectors  not  separately 

chemicals  sector  declined  by  20%  over  the  period,  and  now  accounts  for 

classified  increased  by  20%.  However,  the  food  and  paper  sectors  together 

15%  of  the  t o t a l.  The  glass,  pottery  and  building  materials  sector  also 

still  accounted  for  only  17%  of  total  industrial  consumption  in  1998,  while 

showed  a  more  modest  decline  (12%),  along  with  the  less  energy  intensive 

other  sectors  accounted  for  26%. 

engineering  sector  (12%). 

^p  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator 3.6 Indices of Energy Consumption, by Type of Industry Reference Year = 1990 

00 

Paper and printing 

' Other 

Food, drink and tobacco 

> Iron and steel 

> Glass, pottery and building materials 

■ Engineering and other metal works 

' Chemicals 

table  3.6 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption,  by  Type  of  Industry 

Paper  and  printing 
Other 

Food,  drink  and  tobacco 
Iron  and  steel 

Glass,  pottery  and  building  materials 
Engineering  and  other  metal  works 

Chemicals 

Units: Per cent  (1990  =  100  %) 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

86 
95 

98 
110 

98 
101 

100 

88 
95 

98 
102 

94 
102 

99 

92 
98 

100 
101 

95 
104 

103 

94 
101 

99 
104 

99 
102 

103 

96 
101 

100 
106 

101 
101 

1 04 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 

100 
97 

102 
96 

97 
101 

91 

104 
95 

102 
91 

96 
97 

93 

107 
97 

102 
88 

90 
91 

89 

111 
98 

102 
95 

90 
89 

88 

116 
107 

105 
97 

90 
86 

87 

116 
114 

107 
93 

91 
86 

85 

122 
116 

106 
98 

90 
84 

84 

122 
120 

108 
95 

88 
88 

80 

A  downward  trend  in  energy  consumption  in  the  three  energy  intensive 

Energy  consumption  in  the  food,  drink  and  tobacco  sector  has  shown 

industries  (iron  and  steel,  chemicals,  glass,  pottery  and  building  materials) 

modest  but  sustained  growth  across  the  period  1990  to  1998,  whereas  the 

and  engineering  is  evident  from  the  early  1990s. 

paper  and  printing  sector  has shown  much  more  rapid  growth.  Other indus 

trial sectors  were affected  by the  recession  during  the  early  1990s, but have 

seen  rapid  recovery  and  growth  in  recent years. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.7  Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel 

NIMM 

Bio mass/Wastes 

Solid Fuels 

Petroleum  Products 

Electricity and Heat 

Gaseous Fuels 

m 

vo 

r«. 

00 

σι 

σι 

o 
σι 
σ> 

Ή 

σι 

CM 

σ> 

ci 

σι 

m 

σ> 

σι 

σι 

,^ 

σ> 

σι 

table  3.7 

Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel 

Biomass/Wastes 
Solid  Fuels 

Petroleum  Products 
Electricity  and  Heat 

Gaseous  Fuels 

19S5 

12  342 
63  519 

56  595 
65  189 

66  172 

1986 

12  319 
57  886 

58  318 
65  753 

64  744 

1987 

12  413 
57  159 

56  545 
67  779 

70  190 

1988 

12  377 
57  642 

55  475 
71  036 

72  234 

1989 

12  885 
56  872 

51  938 
73  275 

76  580 

1990 

12  585 
53  486 

48  857 
73  111 

77  160 

1991 

12  692 
47  672 

48  261 
71  321 

76  435 

1992 

12 188 

45 185 

47 712 

70 186 

77 248 

1993 

13 017 

40 126 

1994 

13 783 

40 133 

46 588 

48 227 

69 456 

70 566 

77 302 

78 106 

1995 

14 052 

39 138 

47 802 

74 447 

82 008 

13 889 
36 332 
45 296 
75 812 
88 238 

1997 

14 754 

37 684 

44 714 

78 427 

87 053 

1998 

15 205 

35 546 

42 171 

79 857 

88 784 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

Solid  fuels  accounted  for  20%  of  industrial  energy  consumption  in  1990, 

to  29% in  1990. The increase  in  gas  use  partly  reflects  an increased  use of 

but  by  1998  this  had  fallen  to  14%.  The  use  of  petroleum  products  in 

this  fuel in  industrial  boilers  due to  the  operational  and  efficiency  benefits 

industry  also  declined  from  18% in  1990  to  16% in  1998. 

it  gives.  There  has also  been  a significant  (9%)  increase  in  electricity  con 

sumption  by  industry  between  1990  and  1998,  and  this  now  accounts  for 

In  contrast  the  use of  all other  sources  of energy increased  over the period. 

31%  of  the  total  consumption  in  the  sector.  The  contribution  of  biomass 

The most significant  increase was in the  use of gas, which is  now the  largest 

and  wastes  remains  modest  (6% of  the  total  in  1998),  but  consumption  of 

single  energy  source  and  accounted  for  34% of  the  total  in  1998  compared 

this  form  of  energy  has  increased  by  21% over  the  period  1990  to  1998. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.8 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel  Reference  Year  =  1990 

V 

80' 

0  ι 

ι 

ι 

1 

1 

ι 

Biomass/Wastes 

Gaseous Fuels 

Electricity  and Heat 

Petroleum Products 

Solid Fuels 

table  3.8 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Industry,  by  Fuel  Reference  Year  =  1990 

Bio mas s/Wastes 
Gaseous  Fuels 

Electricity  and  Heat 
Petroleum  Products 

Solid  Fuels 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

98 
86 

89 
116 

119 

98 
84 

90 
119 

108 

99 
91 

93 
116 

107 

98 
94 

97 
114 

108 

102 
99 

100 
106 

106 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

101 
99 

98 
99 

89 

1992 

97 
100 

96 
98 

84 

1993 

1 03 
100 

95 
95 

75 

1994 

110 
101 

97 
99 

1995 

112 
106 

102 
98 

1996 

110 
114 

104 
93 

1997 

1998 

117 
113 

107 
92 

121 
115 

109 
86 

Units: Per cent  (1990  =  200%; 

The  rapid  and  continuing  decline  in  the  contribution  of  solid  fuels  to 

and the  move towards  cleaner  and cheaper  fuels. The increase  in  the  use of 

industrial  energy  consumption  from  1990  to  1998  reflects  both  the  decline 

both electricity  and gas by industry  was slowed  by the  recession in the early 

in  the  more  energy  intensive  industries  that  traditionally  used  solid  fuels, 

1990s,  but  has  now  accelerated  again. 

^ fe  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.9  Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport 

Inland  Navigation 

Rail 

Air 

Road 

table  3.9 

Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport 

Inland  Navigation 

Rail 

Air 

Road 

1 9 85 

1 9 86 

1 9 87 

1 9 88 

1 9 89 

1 9 90 

1 9 91 

1 9 92 

1 9 93 

1 9 94 

1 9 95 

1 9 96 

1 9 97 

1 9 98 

4  328 

6  966 

5  503 

6  954 

5  030 

6  984 

5  005 

6  813 

6  076 

6  740 

6  684 

6  888 

6  843 

7  083 

7  140 

7  133 

6  901 

7  330 

6  969 

7  295 

6  686 

7  438 

6  862 

7  572 

6  515 

7  617 

6  356 

7  605 

21  093 

22  076 

23  246 

25  435 

26  815 

27  808 

27  877 

28  796 

30  049 

31  303 

32  545 

34  3 67 

36  0 60 

38  939 

170  419 

179  047 

185  530 

197  484 

205  388 

212  468 

215  321 

222  260 

226  929 

226  587 

229  020 

234  580 

238  574 

245  958 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

All  modes  of  transport  except  inland  navigation  have  shown  substantial 

over  the  period  1990  to  1998,  which  has  increased  its  share  from  11%  to 

increases  in  energy  consumption  over  the  period  1990  to  1998,  with  total 

13%  of  the  total. 

consumption  increasing  by  18%.  The  proportion  of  energy  consumed  by 

each  mode  has,  however,  remained  approximately  constant. 

Energy  consumption  for  rail  transport  increased  by  10% between  1990 and 

1998.  During  the  same  period  energy  consumption  by  inland  navigation 

Road transport  consumes  by far  the  largest  share,  with  82% of  the  total  in 

fell  by  5%.  Rail  and  inland  navigation  account  for  only  a  relatively  small 

1998  (84%  in  1990).  Air  travel  has  seen  both  the  largest  percentage  in 

proportion  of  the  total  energy  consumption  in  transport,  with  shares  of 

crease  and  the  fastest  rate  of  rise  in  energy  consumption,  with  a 40% rise 

2.5%  and  2.1% respectively  in  1998. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.10  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Air 

•  Road 

»Rail 

Inland  Navigation 

table  3.10 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption,  by  Mode  of  Transport 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Air 
Road 

Rail 
Inland  Navigation 
Units:  Per cent  (1990  =  100%) 

1987 

84 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 
101 

103 
102 

104 
105 

104 
107 

108 
107 

106 
103 

113 
107 

106 
104 

117 
108 

108 
100 

1996 

124 
110 
no 
103 

1997 

1998 

130 
112 

111 
97 

140 
116 

110 
95 

The  above  indices  clearly  demonstrate  the  different  rates  of  change  in 

passenger  and  freight  transport.  Passenger  transport  by  car  (expressed  in 

energy  consumption  for  different  modes  of  transport.  Energy  consumption 

passenger-km)  increased  by  14%  over  the  period,  while  domestic  freight 

for  air  transport  increased  most  rapidly,  with  an  average  annual increase  of 

transport  (tonne-km)  increased  by 35%. 

4.3%  over  the  period  1990  to  1998  compared  to  2.1% for  transport  as a 

whole. This reflects the increased demand for air travel across the  EU-15 and 

The  growth  in  energy  consumption  for  rail  transport  has  been  slower,  with 

globally. 

only  a 10% increase over the  period. This reflects  a small (2.7%)  increase in 

the  number  of  passenger-km  travelled,  and  a decrease  of  5% in  the  amount 

Energy  use in  road transport  has increased  by  16% over  the  period  1990  to 

of  freight  carried  by  rail  (tonne-km). 

1998,  reflecting  the  increased  use  being  made  of  road  vehicles  for  both 

^ fc  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.11  Energy  Consumption  in  the  Transport  Sector,  by  Fuel 

300 

LPG 

Kerosene 

Gasoline 

Diesel 

table  3.11 

Energy  Consumption  in  the  Transport  Sector,  by  Fuel 

LPG 
Kerosene 
Gasoline 
Diesel 

1985 

1986 

1987 

2 314 
21 002 

105 880 
68 956 

2 346 
21 977 

2 489 
23 072 

110 095 
74 4 3/ 

112 992 
77 546 

1988 
2 538 

25 313 
117 294 
84 SIS 

1989 
2 707 

26 667 
119 217 

91 481 

1990 
2 689 

27 706 

122 318 
96 006 

1991 
2 617 

27 783 
122 417 

1992 

2 487 

28 717 

124 871 

98 826 

103 508 

1993 
2 563 

29 971 
125 979 
106 798 

1994 

2 625 

1995 

2 772 

31 235 

32 421 

1996 

2 811 
34 267 

1997 

2 886 
35 977 

1998 

2 906 
38 832 

122 177 

121 077 

109 995 

113 294 

123 130 
116 870 

122 588 
120 980 

123 003 
127 700 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

There  have  been  significant  changes  in  the  balance  of  the  fuels  used  in  the 

LPG  consumption  increased  by  8%  between  1990  and  1998  but  its  share  of 

transport  sector.  The  most  significant  change  was  a  33%  increase  in  the  use 

the  total  remains  around  1 %. Kerosene  is  used  exclusively  as  an  aircraft  fuel, 

of  diesel  fuel  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998,  increasing  its  share  of  the 

and  the  increase  in  consumption  of  kerosene  to  13%  of  the  total  directly 

total  from  39%  to  44%.  This  illustrates  the  increase  in  popularity  of  diesel-

reflects  the  increase  in  the  use  of  this  mode  of  transport. 

fuelled  vehicles.  Diesel  and  gasoline  are  used  mainly  for  road  transport, 

although  diesel  is  also  used  in  inland  navigation  and  rail  transport. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator 3.12 Indices of Energy Consumption in the Transport Sector 

Reference Year = 1990 

o 

40 

■■ Kerosene 

Diesel 

^ L PG 

^™ Gasoline 

σι σι 

σι σ> 

table  3.12 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  the  Transport  Sector 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Kerosene 
Diesel 
LPG 
Gasoline 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100%) 

1987 

83 

1988 

91 

1990 

100 
100 

100 
100 

1991 

1992 

100 
103 

97 
100 

104 
108 

93 
102 

1993 

108 
111 

95 
103 

1994 

1995 

113 
115 

98 
100 

117 
118 

103 
99 

1996 

124 
122 

105 
101 

1997 

1998 

130 
126 

107 
100 

140 
133 

108 
101 

<y<  The  indices  clearly  show  the  changes  in  the  balance  of  transport  fuels 

already  described  (see  3.11).  The most  rapid  growth  has been  in  the  use of 

kerosene for air transport,  which increased by an average of 4.3% per annum 

over  the  period  from  1990 to  1998. The consumption  of  diesel increased by 

33% over the  same period  (3.6% per annum),  reflecting  fuel switching  from 

gasoline  in  the  road  sector  and  its  use in  rail  and  inland  navigation. 

The  consumption  of  gasoline  remained  relatively  stable  over  the  period 
from  1990  to  1998,  although  in  absolute  terms  it  remains  the  most  widely 
used transport  fuel.  It  follows  that  the  observed  increase  in  road  transport 
over  the  period  has  taken  place  with  diesel-fuelled  rather  than  gasoline-
fuelled  vehicles. 

There was an 8% increase in  LPG consumption  for  transport  over the  period 
1990  to  1998.  Consumption  of  LPG fell  significantly  in  the  early  nineties, 
but  has  increased  progressively  since  1992. 

Q 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.13  Consumption  of  Unleaded  Gasoline  as  Percentage 

90 

80 

70 

60 

S  50 

αϊ 

"■ 40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

table  3.13 

Consumption  of  Unleaded  Gasoline  as  Percentage 

Per  cent  unleaded 
Units:  Per cent 

1991 

42 

1992 

48 

1995 

67 

1996 

71 

In  many  EU Member  States  unleaded  gasoline  is  taxed  at  a lower  rate  than 

gasoline  sales  within  EU-15,  but  there  are  significant  differences  between 

leaded  fuel,  however  this  tax  differential  has  reduced  during  the  nineties 

Member States. In  1998 for  example,  unleaded  gasoline  accounted  for 100% 

(see  7.7  and  7.8). 

of sales in  Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, Austria,  Finland and Sweden, 

but  for  a  much  lower  proportion  in  countries  such  as  Greece  and  Spain 

Since  its  introduction,  unleaded  gasoline  has  been  steadily  increasing  its 

(48%),  Portugal  (54%)  and  Italy  (56%). 

share  of  the  market.  By  1998  unleaded  gasoline  accounted  for  78% of  all 

^m  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.14  Energy  Consumption  in  Agriculture,  Services  and  Households,  by  Fuel 

450 

400 

350 

300 

αϊ  250 
o 
-t-í 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

■ Solid Fuels 

■ Biomass 

■ Petroleum Products 

Electricity and Heat 

Gaseous Fuels 

table  3.14 

Energy  Consumption  in Agriculture,  Services  and  Households,  by Fuel 

Solid  Fuels 

Biomass 

Petroleum  Products 

Electricity and Heat 

Gaseous Fuels 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

37 780 

36 609 

35 748 

31 528 

28 357 

26 606 

21 193 

16 076 

14 826 

11 749 

i 
9  828 

9 959 

8  744 

6  787 

22 188 

21 848 

22 268 

21 548 

21 262 

21 608 

23 357 

22 800 

22 250 

20 630 

I 
21 212 

21  9 39 

25 373 

26 263 

117 900 

120 430 

115 274 

108 375 

97 469 

98 318 

107 385 

104 303 

103 736 

99 904 

1 
99 891 

106 562 

101  240 

99 859 

83 437 

86 300 

90  2^ΰ 

90 841 

92 666 

95 250 

9 9 909 

105 068 

104 652 

106 462 

109 319 
3 

113 899 

114 244 

117 444 

94 436 

98 590 

102 715 

97 187 

98 767 

100 865 

116 911 

115 624 

120 853 

117 067 

123 470 
) 

139 187 

129 316 

133 221 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent  (ktoe) 

The  total  energy  consumption  in  this  sector  increased  by  12%  over the 

largest  single  fuel  source,  accounting  for 35%  of the  total  consumption  in 

period  from  1990  to  1998.  The sector  is  dominated  by  household  energy 

the  sector.  Electricity  and heat  consumption  increased  by  23%  over the 

use,  mainly  fuels  and  electricity  for space  heating. 

period,  and now  accounts  for 3 1% of the  total. 

There  has  been  a dramatic  reduction  in the use  of solid  fuels  in this  sector, 

The  use of  petroleum  products  remained  relatively  stable  from  1990  to 

with  consumption  falling  by 74%  between  1990  and  1998.  Solid  fuels now 

1998.  This  contrasts  with  the period  from  1985  to  1990,  when  the con­

account  for only  1.8% of  t o t al  consumption  in  the sector  (compared  to 

sumption  of  petroleum  products  fell  as many  householders  switched  from 

7.8%  in  1990),  reflecting  the general  trend  away  from  these  fuels  in  favour 

oil  to  gas,  electricity  or  heat  for heating  purposes. 

of  less  polluting  energy  sources.  In  contrast,  the consumption  of  both 

electricity  and  gaseous  fuels  has  increased  significantly  over  the  period. Gas 

Biomass  contributed  only  6.8%  of the  total  energy  consumed  in this  sector 

consumption  increased  by 32%  between  1990  and 1998.  Gas  remains the 

during 1998. 

Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.15  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Agriculture, 

Services  and  Households,  by  Fuel-

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gaseous Fuels 

Electricity and Heat 

Biomass 

Petroleum Products 

Solid Fuels 

40 

m 
co 

o 
00 

00 

oo 
co 

σ» 

ο 

Ή 

σ» 
σι 

σι 
σι 

«o 

ι-» 

table  3.15 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Agriculture, 
Services  and  Households,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gaseous  Fuels 
Electricity  and  Heat 

Biomass 
Petroleum  Products 

Solid  Fuels 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

94 
88 

103 
120 

142 

98 
91 

101 
122 

138 

102 
95 

103 
117 

134 

96 
95 

100 
no 
119 

Units:  Per cent  (1990 =  200%; 

The  indices  reflect  the  trends  already  observed  (see  3.14). 

The  significant  reduction  in  the  use  of  solid  fuels  since  1990  (and  indeed 

before  that  date)  is  clear,  with  a  continuous  decrease  in  all  years  and  an 

average  annual  fall  of  15.7%  over  the  period  1990  to  1998. 

Consumption  of  gas increased  most rapidly, and the  general trend  reflects  fuel 

switching  from  solid  fuels  and  (to  a lesser  extent)  from  petroleum  products. 

The trend  in  electricity  consumption  was similar  to  that for  gas, although the 

overall  increase  (23%)  over  the  period  1990  to  1998  was  less pronounced. 

^p  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 

116 
105 

108 
109 

80 

115 
110 

106 
106 

60 

120 
110 

103 
106 

56 

116 
112 

95 
102 

44 

122 
115 

98 
102 

37 

138 
120 

102 
108 

37 

128 
120 

117 
103 

33 

132 
123 

122 
102 

26 

The  use  of  petroleum  products  remained  relatively  stable  throughout  the 
period  1990  to  1998. 

Consumption  of  energy  derived  from  biomass  has  also  increased  over  the 

period,  but starting  from  a lower  base. As in  the  industrial sector  (see 3.8), 

most  of  this  growth  occurred  from  1995  to  1998. 

indicator  3.16  Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

Solid  Fuels 

Bio mass 

Petroleum  Products 

Electricity  and  Heat 

Gaseous  Fuels 

table  3.16 

Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 

Solid  Fuels 
Biomass 

Petroleum  Products 
Electricity  and  Heat 
Gaseous  Fuels 

1985 

26  711 

21  185 

79  461 

46  756 

66  627 

1986 

26  253 

20  845 

76  355 

48  010 

69  465 

1987 

26  363 

21  265 

71  645 

50  358 

71  558 

1988 

23  499 

20  545 

64  348 

49  343 

67  690 

1989 

20  427 

20  246 

62  846 

49  744 

74  148 

1990 

19  751 

20  576 

59  841 

51  544 

76  039 

1991 

18 789 
22 279 
65 411 

55 107 

84 126 

1992 

12 667 

21 701 

61 999 

55 697 

83 305 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

1993 

1994 

12 089 

10 149 

1995 

8 086 

21  329 

19  78Ü 

20  258 

62  309 

58  790 

58 853 

87 232 

59  64 9 

84  319 

59  216 

59  833 

1996 

8 294 
20 906 

64 034 
62 690 

1997 

7 646 
24 282 

60 073 
61 6 65 

1998 

5 801 

24  549 

60  690 

63  013 

88 664 

100 897 

92 723 

95  570 

Household  energy  consumption  accounts  for  over  60%  of  total  consump-

2 

tion  in  the  agriculture,  services,  public  administration  and  households 

consumption.  The  consumption  of  electricity  also  increased  by  22% over 
the  same  period. 

sector.  It  follows  that  the  trends  in  the  households  sub-sector  are similar  to 

those  in  the  sector  as a whole  (see  3.14). 

The  consumption  of  petroleum  products  increased  by  1% from  1990  to 

1998,  but  a more  accurate  picture  of  the  trend  in  consumption  is  obtained 

Overall,  the  energy  consumption  in  households  increased  by  9.6%  between 
1990  and  1998. 

by  considering  the  overall  decrease  of  7%  which  occurred  between  1991 

and  1998  (see  3.17).  It  should  however  be  noted that  the  energy consump 

By  1998,  the  consumption  of  solid  fuels  in  households  had  fallen  to  less 

than  a third  of its  1990 level. In  contrast,  the consumption  of gas increased 

The  use of  biomass  increased  slightly,  and  now  accounts  for  9.8%  of  house 

by  26%  over  the  same  period,  and  gas  now  accounts  for  38%  of  total 

hold  energy  consumption  across  EU-15. 

tion  data  have  not  been  corrected  for  temperature  variations. 

^ fe  Final  Energy 
Consumption 

indicator  3.17  Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

O 

II 
o 
σι 
CTI 

c 
CU 

at a. 

160 

140-

1^0 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Gaseous Fuels 

Electricity and Heat 

Biomass 

Petroleum  Products 

Solid Fuels 

cri 

en 

σι 

en 

table  3.17 

Indices  of  Energy  Consumption  in  Households,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gaseous  Fuels 
Electricity  and  Heat 

Siomass 
Petroleum  Products 

Solid  Fuels 

Units: Per  cent (1990 = 100%) 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

88 
91 

103 
133 

135 

91 
93 

101 
128 

133 

94 
98 

103 
120 

133 

89 
96 

100 
108 

119 

98 
97 

98 
105 

103 

1 00 
100 

100 
100 

100 

111 
107 

108 
109 

95 

110 
108 

105 
104 

64 

115 
114 

104 
104 

61 

1994 

111 
116 

96 
98 

51 

1995 

117 
116 

98 
99 

41 

1996 

1997 

1998 

133 
122 

102 
107 

42 

122 
120 

118 
100 

39 

126 
122 

119 
101 

29 

The  above  indices  demonstrate  the  trends  already  observed  (see  3.16). 

Electricity  use  in  this  sub-sector  increased  by  22%  over  the  same  period. 

The  use  of  solid  fuels  has  decreased  at  an  average  annual  rate  of  14.2%  over 

Although  the  consumption  of  petroleum  products  in  the  households  sub-

the  period  1990  to  1998,  reflecting  the  move  away  from  these  less  conven- 

sector  remained  relatively  stable,  there  has  been  a  slight  (1%)  increase  from 

ient  and  more  polluting  sources  of  energy. 

1990  to  1998. 

The  corresponding  increase  in  gas  consumption  is  clear,  reflecting  its  i n 

Consumption  of  energy  derived  from  biomass  has  increased.  Biomass  now 

creased  availability  as  a  substitute  for  solid  fuels  and  (to  a  lesser  extent) 

accounts  for  9.8%  of  total  consumption  in  this  sub-sector,  while  the  house 

petroleum  products. 

holds  sub-sector  accounts  for  no  less  than  93%  of  total  biomass  consump 

tion  in  the  sector  as  a  whole. 

^p  F i n al  Energy 

Consumption 

indicator  4.1  Power  Station  Generation,  by  Type 

4>-

3  000η 

2 500-

2  000-

1  500-

1  000-

5 0 0· 

I  Other  Renewables 

I  Hydro 

I  Nuclear 

Thermal 

table  4.1 

Power  Station  Generation,  by  Type 

Other Renewables 

Hydro 

Nuclear 
Thermal 

Units:  GWh 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

13 446 
283 781 

14 254 
269 376 

14 495 
295 997 

15 740 
311 319 

19 040 
251 422 

19 431 
259 048 

20 231 
268 456 

22 369 
285 944 

24 972 
289 379 

27 855 
296 969 

30 189 
290 128 

32 845 
288 591 

38 626 
296 016 

1998 

47 362 
305 445 

575 023 
1 029 700 

622 559 
1 038 790 

636 472 
1 062 594 

682 018 
1 050 983 

723 391 
1 114 023 

720 189 
1 140 761 

747 352 
1 163 668 

759 925 
1 139 479 

794 284 
1 103 375 

791 953 
1 129 184 

810 266 
1 178 101 

851 200 
1 216 682 

859 893 
1 211 879 

854 182 
1 265 183 

Between  1990  and  1998 the  total  amount  of  electricity  generated  at  power 

been  completed  in  recent  years. 

stations  in  EU-15  increased  by  16%. Over this  period, the  balance  between 

different  types  of  power  station  remained  broadly  constant. 

The amount  of  electricity  produced  by hydro-electric  power  plants increased 

by 18% over the  period, and now accounts for just  12% of total production, 

The largest  contribution  came from thermal power stations, which accounted 

which  is  the  same  percentage  as in  1990. 

for  51% of  the  total  in  1998.  Electricity  generation  from  thermal  power 

stations  increased  by  11% between  1990  and  1998. 

Electricity  obtained  from  other  (i.e.  non-hydropower)  renewable  energy 

sources  has seen the  most  rapid  growth, increasing  by  144% between  1990 

There was a 19% growth  in  the  output  from  nuclear  power stations  between 

and  1998.  However,  this  renewable  energy  contributed  only  1.9%  of  total 

1990  and  1998,  although  the  output  remained  almost  constant  from  1996 

electricity  production  across  the  EU in  1998. 

to  1998.  This  reflects  the  fact  that  fewer  new  nuclear  power  stations  have 

^S  Energy  Industry 

indicator 4.2 Fuel Input to Thermal Power Stations 

11111 ■ 1111 ■ 11 ■  CD 

-< 

■ Renewables 
■ Petroleum Products 

Gases 

■ Lignite and Derivatives 
■ Coal and Solid Derivatives 
■ Other 

oo co 
σ. ΟΛ 

m νο 

σι σ> 
en σ. 

table  4.2 

Fuel  Input  to  Thermal  Power  Stations 

Renewables 
Petroleum  products 

Gases 
Lignite  and  derivatives 

Coal  and  Solid  derivatives 

Other 

1985 
7 525 
39 945 
29 904 
59 123 
111 251 
207 

1986 

7 636 
36 988 

29 694 
57 775 

116 564 
215 

1987 
7 770 
37 607 
31 305 
54 6 58 
122 076 
196 

1988 
7 785 
36 686 
31 344 
56 676 
117 074 
194 

1989 
8 341 
42 201 
34 908 
58 353 
119 910 
448 

1990 
8 387 
42 559 
36 530 
55 518 
126 800 
257 

1991 

8 747 
44 275 
36 708 
52 678 
131 671 
213 

1992 
10 030 

46 114 
36 839 
50 945 
125 383 
216 

1993 
10 798 

42 247 
42 462 
48 744 
114 440 

231 

1994 
10 924 
40 390 
46 843 
48 081 
114 742 
199 

1995 
11 635 

43 650 
55 170 
47 541 
114 279 
228 

1996 
12 019 

41 630 
64 156 
47 430 
113 432 
220 

1997 
12 961 

38 430 

70 825 
45 955 

104 020 
705 

1998 
13 256 

39 078 

75 554 
46 639 
108 895 
338 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent  (ktoe) 

Fuel  inputs  to  thermal  power  stations  reflect  both  the  electricity  generated 

power  stations.  This  reflects  mainly  fuel  switching  to  cleaner  fuels  such 

and  the  efficiency  of  the  generation  process.  Overall,  fuel  input  increased  by 

as  gas. 

5%  between  1990  and  1998,  although  there  was  actually  a  decline  in  1993 

and  1994. 

The  use  of  oil  products  in  power  stations  rose  in  the  early  1990s,  and 

peaked  in  1992.  Since  then  it  has  declined  steadily.  Overall,  oil  consump 

The  consumption  of  gas  increased  by  107%  between  1990  and  1998,  re 

tion  fell  by  8%  between  1990  and  1998,  and  now  represents  just  14%  of 

flecting  fuel  switching  from  solid  fuels. 

total  fuel  input  to  power  production. 

The  consumption  of  coal  and  solid  derivatives  f e ll  by  14%  between 

Again,  the  use  of  renewable  fuels  increased  rapidly  (58%  between  1990  and 

1990  and  1998,  broadly  in  line  with  the  drop  in  output  from  coal-fired 

1998),  but  accounted  for  only  4.7%  of  total  fuel  input  in  1998. 

^9  Energy  Industry 

indicator  4.3 

Indices  of  Fuel Input  to  Thermal  Power  Stations 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gas 

Renewables 

Petroleum  Products 

Coal and Solid  Derivatives 

Lignite  and Derivatives 

σι 
σι 

σ> 
σι 

table  4.3 

Indices  of  Fuel Input  to  Thermal  Power  Stations 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Gas 
Renewables 

Petroleum  Products 
Coal  and  Solid  Derivatives 

Lignite  and  Derivatives 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100%) 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

82 
90 

94 

81 
91 

87 

86 
93 

88 

86 
93 

86 

1989 

96 

1990 

1991 

1 00 
100 

100 
100 

1 00 

100 
104 

104 
104 

95 

1992 
101 
120 
108 

99 

1993 

1994 

1995 

116 
129 
99 

90 

128 

130 

95 

151 
139 
103 
90 

1996 

176 

143 

98 

1997 

194 

155 

90 

1998 

207 

The indices  demonstrate  the  relative  growth  or  decline  in  the  use of  differ 

ent  fuels  for  power  generation  (see  4.2). 

Since  1990  the  use  of  oil  in  power  generation  has  decreased  by  8%,  al 

though  consumption  actually  increased  by  8%  between  1990  and  1992 

and  declined  thereafter. 

There has been a rapid increase in the  use of gas, particularly  since  1992, as 

new  gas-fired  installations  came  on  stream  to  take  advantage  of  the  low 

Between  1990 and  1998 the  use of  lignite  and derivatives  declined  by 16%, 

emissions  and  increased  availability  of  this  fuel.  The  use  of  renewable en 

while  the  use of  coal and solid  derivatives  fell  by 14%. This was due mostly 

ergy  has  also  increased  rapidly,  as  it  becomes  more  competitive  with  con 

to  fuel  switching  (mainly  to  gas)  following  concerns  over  the  emissions 

ventional  fuels. 

from  solid  fuels. 

indicator 4.4 Installed Capacity of Electricity Generation Plant, by Type 

oo 
o 

·■■" Thermal 

■■» Nuclear 

Hydro 

00 00 
σι σι 

table  4.4 

Installed  Capacity  of  Electricity  Generation  Plant,  by  Type 

Thermal 

Nuclear 

Hydro 

Units: MW 

1985 

271 850 
85 062 

101 480 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

270 378 
95 435 

272 970 
100 470 

272 310 
107 140 

275 530 
112 000 

274 500 
114 670 

291 356 
116 004 

289 131 
117 003 

294 577 
118 850 

296 333 
118 718 

301 114 
119 560 

308 888 
121 445 

313 509 
124 180 

1998 

316 009 
123 130 

103 931 

105 620 

106 810 

108 410 

109 764 

112 070 

112 356 

114 499 

113 956 

115 223 

115 708 

115 985 

115 962 

-< 

As a result  of  the  re-unification  of  Germany  there  is  a break  in  the  above  data 

Installed  nuclear  capacity  increased  by  6%  from  1991  to  1998,  and  ac 

series  between  1990  and  1991.  This  analysis  is  therefore  based  on  the 

counts  for  22%  of  total  capacity,  as  it  also  did  in  1991.  The  more  limited 

period  1991  to  1998.  The  total  installed  capacity  of  electricity  generating 

increase  in  nuclear  capacity  in  recent  years  reflects  increasing  public  con 

plants  rose  by  7%  from  1991  to  1998.  This  was  less  than  the  12%  increase 

cern  over  this  technology.  Installed  hydro-electric  capacity  increased  by 

in  the  amount  of  electricity  generated  during  the  period  (see  4.1),  and 

only  3%  over  the  period,  with  very  little  change  since  1995.  This  reflects  the 

reflects  higher  load  factors  and  the  improved  availability  of  most  of  the  new 

limited  opportunities  for  establishing  new  large-scale  hydro-electric  plants 

capacity  coming  on  line. 

within  EU-15. 

The  installed  thermal  power  station  capacity  increased  by  8%  between 

1991  and  1998,  and  now  represents  57%  of  t o t al  capacity,  compared  to 

56%  in  1991. 

Energy  Industry 

indicator  4.5 

Installed  Capacity  of  Thermal  Power  Stations,  by  Type 

200-

Steam 

CCGT 

Gas  Turbine 

m 

ισ 

Ο 

τι 

table  4.5 

Installed  Capacity  of  Thermal  Power  Stations,  by  Type 

Steam 
CCGT 

Gas Turbine 

Units: MW 

1985 

1986 

249 290 
2 453 

247 402 
2 637 

17 611 

17 678 

1987 

249  634 
2 

3  091 

17  434 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

246 897 
3 299 

18 173 

249 344 
3 647 

247 954 
3 744 

18 334 

18 566 

263 924 

259 617 

260 676 

252 043 

254 137 

4 279 

19 535 

6 017 

21 051 

10 928 

20 986 

15 122 

22 309 

16 842 

23 184 

1996 

1997 

1998 

251 630 
24 196 

251 223 
25 774 

25 043 

25 544 

246 352 
32 747 

24 397 

As a result of the re-unification  of Germany there is a break in the above data 

series  between  1990  and  1991. This  analysis  is  therefore  based  on  the 

period  1991  to  1998. 

The  installed  capacity  of  steam  generating  plants  fell  slightly  over  the 

period  1991 to  1998,  but  still  accounts  for  by far  the  largest  proportion  of 

The  installed  gas  turbine  capacity  increased  steadily  from  1991  to  1996, 

but  has  been  relatively  static  since  then.  This  reflects  the  increased  use of 

the  more  efficient  CCGT technology,  with  installed  capacity  increasing  by a 

factor  of  almost  seven  (but  from  a very  low  base)  between  1991 and  1998. 

In  1997  CCGT systems  overtook  gas  turbine  systems  in  terms  of  installed 

capacity,  and  now  account  for  11% of  the  total  compared  to  8%  for  gas 

total  capacity  (81%). 

turbines. 

A  Energy  Industry 

indicator 4.6 Installed Capacity of Wind Turbines 

oo 
4^ 

12 000 

10 000 ■ 

8 000-

6 000' 

4 000' 

2 000-

table  4.6 

Installed  Capacity  of  Wind  Turbines 

Wind 

Units: MW 

1985 

60 

1987 

140 

1988 

230 

1989 

355 

1990 

483 

1991 

657 

1992 

905 

1993 
1  245 

1994 

1  674 

1995 

2  472 

1996 

3  391 

1997 

4  600 

1998 

6  026 

Between  1990  and  1998  the  capacity  of  installed  wind  turbines  across  EU- 

part  of  total  generation),  and  that  hydro-electric  power  remains  far  more 

" 

15  increased  by  a factor  of  almost  13,  and  this  rapid  growth  is  continuing 

significant  in  terms  of  installed  capacity  as well  as output  (see  5.4). 

with  a  31%  increase  in  capacity  in  1998  alone.  In  1998  approximately  two 

thirds  of  the  installed  capacity  was  located  in  Germany  and  Denmark. 

The  increase  in  the  installed  wind  generation  capacity  reflects  in  part  the 

financial  support  available  for  these  systems  in  many  EU Member  States, 

together  with  the  relatively  wide  availability  of  wind  as a resource  and the 

increasing  competitiveness  of  electricity  generated  from  wind  power. 

It  is 

important  to  recognise  that  wind  generation  is  still  a relatively  minor  con 

tributor  to  electricity  generation  from  renewable  sources  (itself  a small 

indicator 4.7 Efficiencies of Power Stations, by Type 

OO 
en 

50· 

«■ 

40-

35-

30-

25-

20· 

Ιδ-

ΙΟ-

5-

0 --

Thermal 

1 Nuclear 

table  4.7 

Efficiencies  of  Power  Stations,  by  Type 

Thermal 
Nuclear 

Units: Per cent 

1985 

1986 

37.9 

33.6 

38.2 

33.8 

1987 

38.3 

33.8 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

38.6 

33.9 

38.4 
34.1 

38.7 

34.1 

39.2 

34.4 

1992 

39.1 

1993 

39.7 
34.6 

1994 

40.6 

1995 

43.6 
34.6 

1996 

1997 

44.5 

35.0 

45.4 

34.8 

1998 

45.5 
35.0 

The  efficiency  of  a  power  station  is  defined  as  the  gross  production  of 

to  45.5%,  a  relative  improvement  of  17.4%. 

electricity  relative  to  the  energy  input  as fuel  (NCV). In  the  case of  nuclear 

power,  this  input  is  defined  as the  energy  in  the  steam  at  entry  into  the 

turbines  driving  the  generators.  In  the  case  of  Combined  Heat  and  Power 

(CHP)  plants,  the  output  is  defined  as the  sum  of  the  heat  and  electricity 

outputs. 

The  reasons  for  the  significant  improvement  in  the  average  efficiency  of 

thermal  power  stations  include  fuel  switching,  the  commissioning  of  new, 

high-efficiency  generating  plants  and  the  decommissioning  of  older  ineffi 

cient  plant.  In  particular,  there  was a move away from  coal and towards gas 

as  a  more  efficient  fuel,  often  using  high  efficiency  combined  cycle  gas 

Between  1990  and  1998  nuclear  power  stations  increased  their  average 

turbine  systems. 

efficiency  from  34.1% to  35.0%, a  relative  improvement  of  2.6%.  Over the 

same period, the  efficiency  of thermal  power  stations  increased  from 38.7% 

A  Energy  Industry 

indicator  4.8  Output  From  Refineries 

00 
00 

Kerosenes and Jet  Fuels 

Residual Fuel Oil 

Other 

Motor Spirit 

Gas/Diesel Oil 

table  4.8 

Output  From  Refineries 

Kerosenes  and  Jet  Fuels 
Residual  Fuel  Oil 
Other 
Motor  Spirit 
Gas/Diesel  Oil 

Units:  Thousand tonnes 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

29 535 
122 526 

92 274 
110 564 

32 327 
131 325 

97 164 
116 720 

32 727 

35 550 

124 612 

121 332 

99 761 

108 098 

119 962 

125 829 

37 355 
119 538 

112 403 
128 357 

38 471 
118 503 

113 538 
130 600 

35 022 
121 725 

112 551 
132 311 

36 246 
125 268 

113 724 
136 928 

36 746 
121 584 

115 708 
139 241 

169 254 

182 903 

173 233 

182 170 

180 763 

184 890 

196 014 

202 717 

208 669 

39 473 
111 992 

125 865 
139 893 
213 153 

1995 

40 994 
109 057 

126 261 
140 068 

209 978 

1996 
43 854 
110 672 
126 275 
141 720 
221 619 

1997 
44 067 
112 902 
130 871 
143 355 
225 897 

1998 

44 963 

118 657 

133 478 

145 700 

232 625 

Between  1990  and  1998  the  total  refinery  output  across  EU-15  increased 

diesel  in  cars.  The  increase  in  air  traffic  resulted  in  increased  demand  for 

by  15%. 

kerosene  and jet  fuel,  with  output  increasing  by  17% over the  same period. 

The  output  of  motor  spirit  increased  by  12%  during  this  period,  again 

The  largest  increase  in  refinery  output  was  gas/diesel  oil,  with  output 

reflecting  a growth  in  road  traffic. 

increasing  by  26% between  1990 and  1998. This  reflects  the  growth  in  road 

freight  (as  most freight  vehicles  are diesel fuelled)  and the increased  use of 

^m  Energy  Industry 

indicator  5.1  Renewables  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

6-

5-

3-

2. 

en 

table  5.1 

Renewables  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption 

RES 

Units: Per cent 

1990 

4.99 

1991 

5.12 

1992 

5.30 

1993 

5.42 

1994 

5.44 

1995 

5.38 

1996 

5.38 

1998 

5.91 

The contribution  from  renewable  energy  sources  (RES)  to  gross  inland  con 

sumption  increased  from  5.0%  in  1990  to  5.9%  in  1998.  After  modest 

increases  from  1990  to  1993  contributions  remained  relatively  static,  with 

the  most  significant  increase  taking  place  during  the  last  two  years. The 

contribution  from  renewable  energy  sources  to  gross  inland  consumption 

has  risen  by  29% in  absolute  terms  (see  2.10). 

A 

Renewable  Energy 
Sources 

indicator  5.2  RenewabLes  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Source 

Wind 

Geothermal 

Hydro 

Biomass 

table  5.2 

Renewables  Contribution  to  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Source 

Wind 
Geothermal 
Hydro 
Biomass 

Units: Per cent 

1990 

0.1 
3.4 

33.9 
62.6 

1991 

0.1 
3.2 

33.6 
63.1 

1992 

0.2 
3.4 

34.8 
61.6 

1993 

0.3 
3.6 

34.5 
61.6 

1994 

0.4 
3.5 

35.3 
60.9 

1995 

0.5 
3.4 

34.1 
61.9 

1996 

0.6 
3.6 

32.8 
63.1 

1997 

0.8 
3.5 

31.2 
64.5 

1998 

1.2 
3.5 

31.1 
64.1 

Biomass  is  the  most  widely  used  renewable  energy  source,  accounting  for 

The  use  of  geothermal  energy  increased  between  1990  and  1998,  but  still 

64%  of  the  contribution  to  gross  inland  consumption  (GIC)  in  1998. Much 

accounts  for  only  3.5%  of  the  renewables  contribution  to  GIC.  Its  use  is 

of  this  takes  the  form  of  wood  and  wood  by-products. 

limited  by the  lack of a financially  viable resource in  most EU Member States. 

Hydropower  is  also  a significant  contributor,  and  accounted  for  31%  of  the 

Wind energy  has seen a significant  growth  over the  period  (see 4.6),  but  its 

total  in  1998.  However,  in  energy  terms  the  contribution  of  hydropower 

contribution  to  GIC  remains  small  by  comparison  with  those  of  the  other 

increased  much  less  than  those  of  the  other  technologies  between  1990 

technologies. 

and  1998.  This  is  reflected  in  the  reduced  percentage  contribution  of 

hydropower  (from  34% in  1990  to  31%  in  1998),  and  results  from  the  fact 

that  the  potential  for  large  scale  hydropower  has  already  been  largely  ex 

ploited. 

^S  Renewable  Energy 

Sources 

indicator  5.3  Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity  Generation 

20-, 

18· 

16· 

14· 

12-

10-

8-

6-

4-

2-

0· 

table  5.3 

Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity  Generation 

RES 

Units:  Per cent 

1990 

13.0 

1991 

13.1 

1992 

14.0 

1993 

14.2 

1994 

14.5 

1995 

13.9 

1996 

13.5 

1997 

13.9 

1998 

14.3 

UD 
^1 

The  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources  (RES)  to  total  electricity 

generation  showed  a  relative  increase  of  9.6%  between  1990  and  1998. 

There was a 27% increase in  the  contribution  of  renewables in  energy terms 

over  the  period,  but  this  was  offset  by  a  16% increase  in  total  electricity 

generation  (see  4.1).  However,  for  the  last  two  years  electricity  generation 
from  renewables  has increased  more rapidly,  and has outpaced the growth  in 
overall  electricity  generation. 

φ 

Renewable  Energy 
Sources 

indicator  5.4  Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity  Generation,  by  Source 

U3 
OO 

Geothermal 

Wind 

Biomass 

Hydro 

table  5.4 

Renewables  Contribution  to  Total  Electricity  Generation,  by  Source 

Geothermal 

W i nd 
Biomass 
H y d ro 

Units: Per cent 

1990 

1.2 
0.3 

5.5 
93.0 

1991 

1.1 
0.4 

5.5 
93.0 

1992 

1.1 
0.5 

5.6 
92.7 

1993 

1.2 
0.8 

6.0 
92.1 

1994 

1.1 
1.1 

6.4 
91.4 

1995 

1.1 
1.3 

7.1 
90.6 

1996 

1.2 
1.5 

7.5 
89.8 

1997 

1.2 
2.2 

8.2 
88.5 

1998 

1.2 
3.4 

8.8 
86.6 

In  terms  of  total  electricity  generation,  hydropower  is  by  far  the  most 

Generation  from  biomass  has  grown  steadily  over  the  period,  and  this  re 

significant  renewable  energy  source  (RES)  and  accounted  for  87%  of  the 

mains  the  second  most  important  contributor  of  electricity  from  RES. Wind 

total  in  1998.  The  contribution  from  hydropower  to  total  electricity  gen 

powered  generation  has seen  the  most  rapid  growth,  and  its  share  of  total 

eration  has  however  experienced  a  relative  decrease  of  2%  between  1990 

electricity  generation  increased  by  a  factor  of  almost  thirteen  between 

and  1998.  This  demonstrates  the  extent  to  which  the  potential  for  large 

1990  and  1998. 

scale  hydropower  has already  been  exploited,  while  other  RES have  realised 

only  a small proportion  of their  potential. The contribution  from  small scale 

hydropower  plants  is  increasing,  but  this  amounts  to  only  a small  percent 

age  of  total  hydropower  generation. 

A 

Renewable  Energy 
Sources 

1 nerqy 

indicator  6.1 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  GDP and  Ratio 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

140-1 

120 

Gross  Domestic  Product 

Final  Energy  Consumption 

Ratio 

table  6.1 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  GDP and  Ratio 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Final  Energy  Consumption 
Gross  Domestic  Product 
Ratio 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100%) 

1987 

99 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

100 
100 

100 

102 
103 

99 

102 
104 

98 

103 
104 

99 

102 
107 

96 

104 
109 

95 

108 
111 

98 

108 
114 

95 

110 
117 

93 

The  ratio  of  final  energy  consumption  to  gross  domestic  product  (GDP)  in 

energy  consumption  rose  by  10%,  and  it  too  increased  only  slowly  during 

constant terms  gives  an indication  of the effectiveness  with  which  energy is 

the  recession.  The  ratio  of  final  energy  consumption  to  gross  domestic 

used  to  produce  added  value.  The  table  and  graph  display  this  ratio  as an 

product  has therefore  shown  an overall decrease of  7% over the  period. This 

index,  with  1990  shown  as  the  reference  year. 

decrease  reflects  a  combination  of  improved  energy  efficiency  and  a move 

away  from  the  more  energy-intensive  heavy  industries  towards  the  less en 

GDP  rose  by  17%  from  1990  to  1998,  despite  a  period  of  low  economic 

ergy-intensive  lighter  industries  and  the  services  sector. 

growth  during the  recession of the early  nineties.  Over the  same period final 

ra  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.2  Gross  Inland  Consumption  per  Capita 

o 

4.0 

3.5 

3.0 

2.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0.0 

Ul 

IO 

r*. 

00 

en 

O 
σ\ 
σι 

,_, σι 

σι 

CM 
σι 
σι 

ΓΟ 
σι 
σι 

** 

σι 

ιη 

σι 

ο 

σ> 

r» 

σι 

00 

σι 

table  6.2 

Gross  Inland  Consumption  per  Capita 

GIC  per  capita 

1985 

3.46 

1986 

3.51 

1987 

3.57 

1988 

3.58 

1989 

3.62 

1990 

3.62 

1991 

3.68 

1992 

3.63 

1993 

3.61 

1994 

3.60 

1995 

3.67 

1996 

3.79 

1997 

3.77 

1998 

3.83 

Units: tonnes of oil equivalent per capita  (toe/capita) 

Gross  inland  consumption  per  capita  increased  by  6%  between  1990  and 

energy  consumption  followed,  as  the  EU  went  through  a  period  of  reces 

1998,  and  continued  the  trend  established  in  the  preceding  years. 

sion.  This  caused  energy  consumption  per  person  to  decrease.  Energy  con 

Gross  inland  consumption  per  capita  increased  at  a  fairly  uniform  rate  of 

similar  increase  was  observed  in  the  rate  of  energy  consumption  per  person. 

sumption  increased  from  1994  onwards  as  the  economy  recovered,  and  a 

about  1%  per  year  between  1985  and  1991.  A  period  of  low  growth  in 

A  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.3  Final  Consumption  of  Electricity  per  Capita 

6-, 

o 

table  6.3 

Final  Consumption  of  Electricity  per  Capita 

Electricity  per  Capita 

Units: MWh per  capita 

1985 

4.42 

1986 

4.52 

1987 

4.68 

1988 

4.79 

1989 

4.93 

1990 

4.98 

1991 

5.04 

1992 

5.17 

1993 

5.07 

1994 

5.13 

1995 

5.30 

1996 

5.42 

1997 

5.50 

1998 

5.63 

g 

Overall  electricity  consumption  per  capita  rose  by  13%  between  1990  and 
1998,  again  reflecting  the  trend  observed  in  preceding  years.  However,  this 
increase  is  significantly  greater  than  the  6% increase  in  gross  inland  con-

sumption  per  capita  over  the  same  period  (see  6.2),  resulting  from  the 
increased  penetration  of  electricity  into  final  energy  consumption, 

φ 

Energy  Efficiency 

indicator 6.4 Consumption of Electricity in Households per Capita 

o 
00 

1.8 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

in 
CO 
en 

to 
CO 
en 

Γ­
ΟΟ 
en 

00 
co 
en 

σ» 
CO 
en 

o 
en 
en 

rH 
Cn 
Oí 

CM 
en 
en 

m 
en 
en 

si­
Oí 
Cn 

in 
en 
en 

« en 

en 

r­. 
en 
en 

co 
en 
en 

table  6.4 

Consumption  of  Electricity  in  Households  per  Capita 

Household  Electricity  per  Capita 

Units:  MWh per  capita 

1985 

1.31 

1986 

1.35 

1987 

1.41 

1988 

1.37 

1989 

1.39 

1990 

1.42 

1991 

1.50 

1992 

1.52 

1993 

1.54 

1994 

1.55 

1995 

1.56 

1996 

1.64 

1997 

1.62 

1998 

1.65 

Electricity  consumption  in  households  is  strongly  linked  to  the  size  of  the 

population  served.  Between  1990  and  1998  the  per  capita  consumption  of 

electricity  in  households  rose  by  16%,  compared  to  the  13%  increase  in 

overall  electricity  consumption  per  person  (see  6.3).  Thus  electricity  con 

sumption  in  households  is  increasing  more  rapidly  than  electricity  con 

sumption  in  general.  Household  electricity  consumption  was  not  greatly 

affected  by  the  relative  economic  slowdown  in  the  early  1990s. 

^  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.5 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
for  the  Iron  and  SteeL  Industry 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

•Value Added 

» Final Energy Consumption 

Energy Intensity 

20 

σι 

σι 

table  6.5 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
(Reference  Year  =  1990) 
for  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

Final  Energy  Consumption 
Value  Added 

Energy  Intensity 

1985 

110 
90 

122 

1986 

102 
90 

112 

1987 

101 
90 

112 

1988 

104 
96 

109 

1989 

106 
98 

108 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

96 
100 

96 

1992 

1993 

1994 

91 
98 

92 

88 
94 

94 

95 
98 

97 

1995 

97 
103 

95 

1996 

93 
102 

92 

1997 

98 
105 

93 

Units: Per cent (1990 = 100%)  * Data  not available 

1998 

95 

* 

The  energy  intensity  of  a  sector  is  the  ratio  of  energy  consumption  in  the 

Improvements  in  energy  intensity  are  the  result  of  improvements  in  energy 

sector  to  the  value  added  by  that  sector,  and  is  an  indication  of  the  effec 

efficiency  and  restructuring  of  the  industry,  typically  by  measures  such  as 

tiveness  with  which  the  energy  has  been  used. 

closing  older  inefficient  plants  and  producing  products  with  greater  value 

added.  The  iron  and  steel  industry  underwent  major  restructuring  through 

Within  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  energy  consumption  fell  by  5%  between 

out  Europe  during  the  last  decade. 

1990  and  1998.  Consumption  fell  to  a  minimum  in  1993,  but  has  generally 

increased  since  then  (despite  dips  in  1996  and  1998)  as  output  recovered 

after  the  recession. 

M  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.6 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
(Reference  Year  =  1990) 
for  the  Chemicals  Industry 

Value Added 

Final Energy Consumption 

Energy Intensity 

oo 
σι 

co 
σι 

co 
σι 

co 
σι 

co 

σι 

σι 

σι 

σι 

σι 
σι 

σι 

m 

«ο 

table  6.6 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
(Reference  Year  =  1990) 
for  the  Chemicals  Industry 

Final  Energy  Consumption 
Value  Added 

Energy  Intensity 

1985 

100 
79 

127 

1986 

99 
81 

123 

1987 

1 03 
88 

118 

1988 

1 03 
94 

110 

1989 

104 
98 

107 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

91 
100 

90 

1992 

93 
102 

91 

Units: Percent  (1990 =  100%) 

*  Data 

not available 

1995 

87 
1  1  1 

78 

1996 

85 
112 

76 

1997 

84 
115 

73 

1998 

81 

* 

The  energy  intensity  of  a sector  is  the  ratio  of  energy  consumption  in  the 

Improvements  in  energy  intensity  are the  result  of  improvements  in  energy 

sector  to  the  value  added  by that  sector,  and  is  an  indication  of  the  effec 

efficiency  and  restructuring  of  the  industry,  typically  by  measures  such as 

tiveness  with  which  the  energy  has  been used. 

closing  older  inefficient  plants  and  producing  products  with  greater  value 

Energy  consumption  in  the  chemicals  industry  reduced  by  19%  between 

added. 

1990 and  1998, following  a period  of  relative  stability  in  the  late  1980s. At 

The  chemical  industry  has  seen  a  high  degree  of  consolidation  and  merger 

the  same  time,  value  added  increased  by  15%  to  1997  thereby  reducing 

activity  throughout  the  1990s.  Another  trend  within  the  industry  has been 

energy  intensity  within  the  industry  by  27% over  the  period  from  1990  to 

a  higher  degree  of  specialisation  within  individual  companies. 

1997. 

^p  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.7 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy 
Intensity,  for  the  Glass,  Pottery  and  Building  Materials  Industry 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

Value Added 

Energy Intensity 

Final Energy Consumption 

σι 

σι 

σι 

σι 

σι 
σι 

σι 
σι 

σι 
σι 

σι 
σι 

table  6.7 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy 
Intensity,  for  the  Glass,  Pottery  and  Building  Materials  Industry 

Final  Energy  Consumption 

Value  Added 

Energy  Intensity 

1985 

98 
83 

117 

1986 

94 
86 

109 

1987 

95 
89 

106 

1988 

99 
95 

104 

1989 

101 
100 

102 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

97 
98 

99 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100 %) 

* Data not available 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

1993 

90 

1996 

91 

The  energy  intensity  of  a sector  is  the  ratio  of  energy  consumption  in  the 

Improvements  in  energy  intensity  are the  result  of  improvements  in  energy 

sector  to  the  value  added  by that  sector,  and  is  an  indication  of  the  effec 

efficiency  and  restructuring  of  the  industry,  typically  by  measures  such  as 

tiveness  with  which  the  energy  has  been used. 

closing  older  inefficient  plants  and  producing  products  with  greater  value 

added.  A series  of  international  mergers  has  taken  place  within  the  glass, 

Energy  consumption  in  the  glass,  pottery  and  building  materials  industry 

pottery  and  building  materials  industry  in  recent  years,  and  one  feature  of 

peaked  in  1989  and  1990,  and  declined  by  12% over  the  period  from  1990 

this  increasing  internationalisation  has  been  a  shifting  of  production  to 

to  1998. There  was  a  rapid  drop  in  the  early  1990s,  but  from  1993  energy 

countries  where  costs  are  lower  than  in  the EU. 

consumption  was  relatively  stable.  Value  added  by  the  industry  declined 

during  the  early  1990s,  but  recovered  almost  to  its  1990  level  by  1997. 

In  general  this  sector  produces  commodity  products,  so  specialisation  is 

not as viable a strategy for increasing  added value, as it  is in the  case of the 

chemicals  sector. 

m  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.8 

Indices  of  FinaL  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
(Reference  Year  =  1990) 
for  the  Paper  and  Printing  Industry 

» Final  Energy  Consumption 

Energy  Intensity 

►  Value  Added 

20-

m 

io 

r» 

oo 

cu 

m 

table 6.8 

Indices of Final Energy Consumption, Value Added and Energy Intensity, 
for the Paper and Printing Industry (Reference Year = 1990) 

Final Energy Consumption 

Value Added 

Energy Intensity 

1985 
86 

104 102 103 

Units: Percent (1990 = 

100%) 

* Data not available 

1988 

94 

1989 

96 

1990 

100 

100 

100 

1991 

1992 

100 

101 

100 

104 
100 

104 

1993 

107 
100 

106 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

110 
104 

107 

116 
105 

110 

116 
105 

111 

122 
107 

114 

1998 

122 

■m 

The energy intensity of a sector is the ratio of energy consumption in the 

A significant factor in the increased energy consumption by the industry 

sector to the value added by that sector, and is an indication of the effec­

was the 25% rise in paper consumption across the EU. 

tiveness with which the energy has been used. 

Energy consumption in the paper and printing industry increased by 22% 

between 1990 and 1998, and was affected only marginally by the recession 

in the early 1990s. The value added in the sector declined slightly in the 

early 1990s, but increased from 1993 onwards. 

Energy intensity in the paper and printing industry has risen consistently 
from 1990 to 1997, and reflects the more rapid growth in energy consump­
tion (22%) than in value added (7%). 

^p Energy Efficiency 

indicator  6.9 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
for  the  Food,  Drink  and  Tobacco  Industries 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

Final Energy Consumption 

Value Added 

Energy Intensity 

Ο 
σι 
σι 

»π 
σι 
σι 

cu 
σι 

m 
σι 

ιη 
σι 

ιο 
οι 

r- 
σι 

co 
σι 

table  6.9 

Indices  of  Final  Energy  Consumption,  Value  Added  and  Energy  Intensity, 
for  the  Food,  Drink  and  Tobacco  Industries 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

Final  Energy  Consumption 

Value  Added 

Energy  Intensity 

1985 
98 
93 

106 

1986 
98 
94 

105 

1987 
100 
93 

107 

Units: Percent  (1990 = 

100%) 

* Data not available 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

100 

97 

104 

100 

100 

100 

102 

102 

100 

102 

101 

102 

102 

102 

100 

102 

103 

99 

105 

102 

103 

102 

105 

1998 

108 

1997 

106 

104 

102 

The  energy  intensity  of  a sector  is  the  ratio  of  energy  consumption  in  the 

The ratio  of final energy  consumption  to  value  added in  the  food,  drink  and 

sector  to  the  value  added  by that  sector,  and is  an  indication  of  the  effec 

tobacco  industry  rose  by just  2%  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1997  and 

tiveness  with  which  the  energy  has  been used. 

reflects  the  marginally  greater  increase  in  energy  consumption  (5.9%)  than 

in  value  added  (4.2%)  over  the  same period. 

Energy  consumption  in  the  food,  drink  and  tobacco  industries  increased  by 

8%  between  1990  and  1998.  Consumption  was  stable  during  the  recession 

(1991 to  1994),  but  has increased  over  the  last  four  years. Value  added by 

the  industry  has  grown  slowly  during  the  1990s. 

A  Energy  Efficiency 

indicator  6.10  Contribution  of  CHP  Plant  to  Total  Electricity  Generation  (1998) 

table  6.10 

Contribution  of  CHP  Plant  to  Total  Electricity  Generation  (1998) 

ted 

(Member  State 

Electricity  generated 
by  CHP  Plant 

overall  efficiency  of  the  plant  is  much  higher  and  typically  reaches  65%  to 

Member  State 

EU-15 
Ireland 

Greece* 
France 

Belgium 
United  Kingdom 

Sweden 
Germany 

Electricity  generi 
by  CHP  Plant 
11.0 
1.9 

2.1 
2.5 

4.1 
5.8 

6.0 
7.5 

Units: Percent 

' Eurostat estimated data 

Portugal 
Spain 

Italy 
Luxembourg 

Austria 
Finland 

Netherlands 
Denmark 

8.4 
11.2 

17.8 
22.5 

24.8 
35.8 

52.6 

6 2 .3 

80%. 

The  higher  efficiency  of  CHP  plants  brings  cost  benefits  to  the  plant  users, 

as  less  primary  energy  in  fossil  fuel  (generally  gas  or  oil)  is  needed  to 

produce  the  same  useful  outputs.  There  are  also  environmental  benefits  in 

terms  of  reduced  emissions  of  greenhouse  gases  (particularly  C02)  and  other 

polluting  gases  such  as  S02  and  N0X. 

Combined  Heat  and  Power  (CHP)  or  cogeneration  plants  generate  both 

electricity  and  useful  heat.  Conventional  (thermal)  power  plants  typically 

The  use  of  CHP varies  widely  between  EU Member  States.  The  contribution  of 

convert  only  38%  to  40%  of  the  energy  available  in  the  primary  fuel  into 

CHP  plants  to  total  electricity  generation  ranges  from  62%  (Denmark)  to  2% 

electricity  (see  4.8),  with  the  remainder  of  this  energy  being  discharged  as 

(Ireland,  Greece).  The  countries  with  the  largest  contribution  from  CHP 

waste  heat  rather  than  being  used. In  a CHP plant  much  of  this  heat  is  used, 

tend  to  have  extensive  district  heating  networks,  since  these  are  heated 

typically  for  space  heating  and/or  in  industrial  processes.  As  a  result,  the 

from  a  central  plant  that  simultaneously  generates  electricity. 

A  Energy  Efficiency 

M 

nergy  mees 

indicator  7.1  Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Steam  Coal 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

> Current Prices 

• Constant  (1990)  Prices 

table  7.1 

Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Steam  Coal 

Current 
Constant  (1990) 
Units: Euro/tonni 

39.8 
43.8 

1989 
45.4 

47.7 

1990 
42.7 
42.7 

1991 
41.2 

39.3 

1992 
38.0 

34.6 

1993 

37.5 
33.0 

1994 

36.1 

31.1 

1995 

36.3 
30.5 

1996 
36.6 

30.2 

1997 

41.6 

33.7 

1998 

37.5 

29.8 

1999 
32.8 

25.6 

Imported  steam  coal is  used  mainly  for  power  generation  but  also  in  large, 
coal-fired  boilers  in  industry. 

ishing  total  from  outside  EU-15.  The  main  reason  for  this  is  the  cheaper 

prices  that  are clearly  demonstrated  here, although  there  are often  environ 

mental  benefits  as  well.  It  follows  that  the  falling  price  is  not  necessarily 

Between  1990  and  1999  the  price  of  imported  steam  coal  fell  by  23%  in 

the  price  for  coal from  the  same source, as cheaper  coal from  a wider  range 

nominal  terms  (current  prices)  and  by  40% at  constant  (1990)  prices. Im 

of  sources  becomes  available  on  world  markets. 

ports  of  all  solid  fuels  increased  by  15% between  1990  and  1998  (see  2.4). 

However,  the  total  consumption  of  coal  and  eguivalent  fuels  in  power 

stations  fell  by  14% over  the  same  period  (see  4.3). 

The  market  picture  is  therefore  one  of  reducing  reliance  on  coal for  power 

production,  but  sourcing  of  a  rapidly  increasing  percentage  of  that  dimin 

A  Energy  Pr 

The  peak  in  the  price  of  steam  coal in  1997  coincides  with  the  increase  in 

world oil prices (see 1.3)  and is reflected in  a dip in the  use of coal for power 

generation  (see  4.2)  as the  market  responded  to  these  higher  prices. 

indicator  7.2  Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Coking  Coal 

60 

50 

40-

S  30-

20 

10 

> Current  Prices 

• Constant  (1990)  Prices 

table  7.2 

Current  and  Constant  Import  Prices  of  Coking  Coal 

Current 
Constant (1990 ) 

Units: Euro/tonne 

1992 
48.5 
44.2 

1993 
49.4 

43.5 

1994 
50.2 

43.2 

1995 
47.2 
39.7 

1996 
47.9 
39.6 

1997 
55.9 

45.4 

1998 
54.2 

43.2 

1999 
45.7 
35.7 

Coking  coal  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  steel  industry. 

Between  1990  and  1999  the  price  of  imported  coking  coal  fell  by  1 1% in 

nominal  terms  (current  prices)  and  by  3 1% at  constant  (1990)  prices.  This 

is  less  of  a  decline  than  that  observed  in  the  price  of  steam  coal  (see  7.1). 

Energy  Prices 

indicator 7.3 Indices of VAT­Free Industrial Fuel Prices 

(Reference Year = 1990) 

CD 

■< 

Natural Gas 

• Residual Fuel Oil 

Electricity 

en σ» 

table  7.3 

Indices  of  VAT-Free  Industrial  Fuel  Prices 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

Natural Gas 
Residual  Fuel  Oil 

Electrídty 

1985 

203 
277 

124 

1986 

180 
191 

117 

1987 

107 
114 

105 

Units: Per cent (1990 

=200 %) 

1989 

91 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

100 

100 

100 

100 
109 

99 

96 
69 

95 

88 
69 

90 

88 
66 

89 

83 
89 

85 

79 
90 

78 

84 
94 
74 

85 
83 
69 

In  real terms  industrial  fuel  prices  net  of  VAT (Value  Added Tax)  have  fallen 
across  the  EU between  1990  and  1999. 

The  price  of  gas  decreased  throughout  the  nineties  in  a  manner  somewhat 

similar  to  that  of fuel oil. This reflects  both the  increased availability  of gas 

and the  need to  remain  competitive  with  fuel oil. Thus the  price  of gas rose 

Residual  fuel  oil  prices  follow  world  oil  prices,  and  therefore  declined  dur 

in  1997  and  1998,  but  declined  again  in  1999. 

ing  the  early  nineties  (except  for  the  peak in  prices  related  to  the  Gulf War 

in  1991),  mainly  as a result  of  reduced  demand during  this  period  of reces 

sion.  Oil  prices  rose  from  1995  to  1997,  but  declined  somewhat  in  1998 

and  1999. 

The  price  of  electricity  has  fallen  in  every  year  from  1990  to  1999.  This 

reflects the effects  of a move towards cheaper fuels such as gas for  electricity 

generation,  falling  prices  for  fossil fuels  generally  and, in  particular,  greater 

competition  in  electricity  markets  as  a  result  of  increased  liberalisation  in 

several  EU-15  Member States. 

Energy  Prices 

indicator  7.4  Tax  Component  of  Industrial  Fuel  Prices 

45 τ 

40 

35 

30 

25 

5 

ω 

"- 

20 

15 

10 

5' 

o o c o c o c o c o c n c r i c n c T t c r i r j
C ^ O l C T i O i c n c j

i c rt 
i C n c T i C r i C T i C T i ai 

Residual Fuel Oil 

Natural Gas 

Electridty 

table  7.4 

Tax  Component  of  Industrial  Fuel  Prices 

Residual  Fuel  Oil 

Natural  Gas 

Electricity 

Units: Per cent 

1986 

16.8 

1985 

12.9 

10.4 

10.6 

1987 

24.3 

13.8 

12.1 

1988 

28.3 

14.0 

12.8 

1989 

27.2 

14.1 

13.5 

1990 

24.9 

14.0 

14.5 

1991 

26.5 

17.4 

15.7 

1992 

36.6 

1993 

35.1 

20.3 

16.1 

1994 

32.0 

1996 

35.2 

20.5 

16.9 

1997 

33.2 

20.9 

17.5 

1998 

35.7 

20.7 

17.6 

1999 

39.3 

22.2 

18.8 

The levels  of  tax  on  energy  prices  are set  by individual  Member  States, and 
in  fact  vary  significantly  between  countries. 

From 1990 to  1999 the  rate of tax  on all industrial fuels increased across the 

EU. The greatest increase was in the tax  on residual fuel oil, which increased 

by  14.4  percentage  points  to  reach  39.3% and  was the  most  heavily  taxed 

fuel  throughout  the  decade.  Over the  same  period,  the  tax  rate  on  natural 

gas  (the  second  most  heavily  taxed  fuel,  except  in  1990)  increased  by  8.2 
percentage  points  to  reach  22.2%  in  1999.  The  tax  rate  on  electricity 
increased  by  only  4.3  percentage  points,  and  this  remains  the  least  taxed 
fuel  at  18.8%. 

The increase in taxes on energy for industry  across the  EU contrasts  with the 
fall  in  tax-free  energy  prices  over the  same period. 

n 

Energy  Pr 

indicator  7.5 

Indices  of  Tax-Inclusive  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

180 

160· 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20-

0-

i n i o r ^ c o o t O T H r g r o sr 
o o c o c o c o c o c n o t c f
t c n oi 
σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σι 

σι 
ot 

en 
οι 

en 
οι 

σι 
οι 

Electricity 

Natural Gas 

« Heating Gas Oil 

table  7.5 

Indices  of  Tax-Inclusive  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

(Reference  Year  =  1990) 

Electricity 
Natural Gas 
Hearing  Gas  Oil 

1985 

120 

138 

157 

1986 

117 

137 

126 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

105 

109 

97 

103 

104 

83 

102 

104 

89 

100 

100 

100 

1991 

101 

104 

116 

1992 

107 
100 

1993 

102 

1994 

102 

1995 

98 

Units: Per cent  (1990  =100 %) 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 

96 
89 

78 

94 
92 

92 

92 
91 

76 

88 
85 

65 

Tax-inclusive  prices  of  all  domestic  (housing)  fuels  have fallen  in  real terms 
(constant  1990  prices)  between  1990  and  1999  across  the  EU.  Unlike  the 
industrial  market,  domestic  fuel  prices  are  affected  by  weather  conditions, 
with  colder years  pushing  up demand and prices, as well as by wider  market 
factors. 

Tax-inclusive  gas  prices  have  been  more  stable  throughout  the  nineties, 

falling  by  15% between  1990  and  1999.  As in  the  case  of  oil,  the  peak  in 

1991 is  linked to  the  Gulf War, while  minor  peaks in  1994 and  1997 are more 

related  to  weather  conditions. 

Heating  oil prices fell by 35% in  real terms over the  period. There was a peak 

increase  (16%)  in  1991, as world  oil  prices  rose  as a result  of the  Gulf War. 

The smaller  peak in  1997 was related  to  increased demand as a result  of the 

cold  winter  across  Europe. 

Energy  Prices 

On the  basis  of  constant  prices,  electricity  prices  for  the  domestic  sector 
have  fallen  by  12% over  the  period  1990  to  1999. 

indicator  7.6  Tax  Component  of  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

6 0! 

50· 

40 

30-

20-

10-

Heating Gas Oil 

Electricity 

Natural Gas 

-

a

* co 
i CI 
σι 

ί

i v o r ^ c o c j

u "
O O C O C O C O C O O l O l O l O l O l O l O i
σ

- < c M m *

i L n v o r

i o *

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

ι

σ

table  7.6 

Tax  Component  of  Domestic  Fuel  Prices 

Heating  Gas  Oil 
Electricity 

Natural  Gas 

Units: Per cent 

1985 

22.8 
13.2 

9.8 

1986 

24.7 
13.6 

9.6 

1987 

37.5 
15.1 

9.8 

1988 

41.0 
15.5 

9.6 

1989 

4 2 .8 
15.5 

11.4 

1990 

40.2 
16.1 

11.9 

1991 

36.9 
15.8 

12.4 

1992 

45.7 
16.4 

10.5 

1993 

42.5 

17.1 

11.5 

1994 

42.8 

1995 

4 2 .8 
18.9 

14.8 

1996 

43.8 
18.6 

16.4 

1997 

39.4 
20.5 

16.4 

1998 

43.8 
20.8 

15.7 

1999 

48.9 
20.7 

16.2 

The levels  of  tax  on  energy  prices  are set  by individual  Member  States, and 
in  fact  vary  significantly  between  countries. 

From 1990 to  1999 the  rate of tax on all domestic  fuels increased across the 
EU. The greatest  increase  was in  the  tax  on  heating  gas oil,  8.7  percentage 
points  to  reach  48.9%  and  this  fuel  was  by  far  the  most  heavily  taxed 
throughout  the  decade. 

Over  the  same  period, the  tax  rate  on  electricity  (the  second  most  heavily 
taxed fuel)  increased  by 4.6  percentage  points  to  reach  20.7% in  1999. The 
tax  rate on natural gas increased  by 4.3  percentage  points, and this  remains 
the  least  taxed  fuel  at  16.2%. 

The increase in  taxes on domestic  fuels across the  EU contrasts  with  the  fall 
in  tax-inclusive  energy  prices  over  the  same period. 

Energy  Prices 

indicator  7.7  Constant  Retail  Prices  of  Transport  Fuels 

ω 

£ 

g 

-- 
o 

5 

1 0 00 

900 

800 

700 

600-1 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

Unleaded Gasoline 

• Leaded Gasoline 

1 Diesel 

ο

ο
σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι

ο σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ί σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σ ι σι 
ι σ ι σ ι σι 

ο Μ ο

ο

ο

ο

ο

table  7.7 

Constant  Retail  Prices  of  Transport  Fuels 

Unleaded  Gasoline 
Leaded  Gasoline 
Diesel 

915 

628 

846 

652 

719 

512 

684 

488 

694 

486 

693 

525 

Units: Euro /  1 000 litres Constant  (1990)  pnces 

* Data not available 

1992 

615 

1991 

594 

712 

555 

1993 

1994 

613 
655 

499 

656 
666 

521 

1995 

654 

1996 

668 

1997 

1998 

706 
685 

569 

693 
686 

535 

1999 

6 53 
641 

497 

On the  basis  of  constant  prices,  the  retail  (tax  inclusive)  prices  of  diesel  and 

The  above  data  show  that  unleaded  gasoline  is  actually  more  expensive 

leaded  gasoline  fell  during  the  period  1991  to  1999,  whereas  the  eguiva-

than  leaded  gasoline.  This  indication  is  somewhat  misleading  however, 

lent  price  of  unleaded  gasoline  rose  by  10%,  although  it  fell  during  the  last 

because  in  those  Member  States  where  there  is  still  considerable  consump 

two  of  the  years  under  consideration. 

tion  of  leaded  and  unleaded  gasoline,  the  average  price  of  unleaded  gaso 

line  is  always  the  lower  of  the  two.  The  main  reason  for  this  anomaly  is  that 

Diesel  fuel  decreased  in  price  by  10%  between  1991  and  1999,  and  remains 

Greece  and  Spain,  who  consume  about  25%  of  the  leaded  gasoline  used, 

by  far  the  cheapest  transport  fuel.  The  price  of  diesel  was  76%  of  that  of 

have  some  of  the  lowest  gasoline  prices  in  EU-15. 

unleaded  gasoline  in  1999. 

Energy  Prices 

missions 

indicator  8.1  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions 

of  Greenhouse  Gases 

4  500-1 

4  000· 

3  500· 

3  000· 

2  500· 

2  000· 

1  500· 

1  000-

500-

Non-Energy-Related 

Energy Industry 

Final Consumers 

table  8.1 

Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions 
of  Greenhouse  Gases 

Non-Energy-Related 
Energy Industry 

Final Consumers 

1990 

839 529 
1 165 853 

2 143 764 

1991 

811 715 
1 168 373 

2 173 035 

1992 

782 496 
1 133 925 

2 132 483 

1993 

756 646 
1 078 635 

2 120 139 

1994 

772 070 
1 080 720 

2 117 651 

1995 

772 925 
1 088 893 

2 149 539 

1996 

777 369 
1 096 134 

2 219 449 

1997 

775 655 
1 059 547 

2 192 051 

1998 

752 361 
1 091 242 

2 202 036 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes  C02  equivalent 

In  this  context,  the  term  "Energy  System"  refers  to  the  combination  of  the 

Emissions  from  the  energy  industry  accounted  for  27%  of  total  emissions  in 

energy  industry  (i.e.  the  energy  transformation  sector)  and  the  energy  con 

1998.  Despite  an  increase  in  energy  output,  the  associated  emissions  have 

sumed  by  final  consumers.  Greenhouse  gas  emissions  are  widely  acknowl 

decreased  by  6%  between  1990  and  1998.  This  decrease  reflects  improve 

edged  to  give  rise  to  climate  change.  The  greenhouse  gases  considered  for 

ments  in  the  efficiency  of  energy  transformation  and  changes  in  the  fuels 

this  indicator  are  carbon  dioxide,  nitrous  oxide  and  methane. 

used  for  generating  electricity. 

Total  emissions  of  greenhouse  gases  have  decreased  by  2.5%  over  the  period 

Greenhouse  gas  emissions  associated  with  energy  use  by  final  consumers 

1990  to  1998;  however  the  contribution  of  the  energy  system  to  these 

have  increased  by  3%  over  the  period,  mainly  as  a  result  of  increased  con 

emissions  has  risen  from  80%  to 8 1 %. 

sumption  in  the  transport  sector.  Emissions  from  other  activities  fell  by 

10%,  mainly  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1993. 

Q 

Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator  8.2  Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions  of  Acidifying  Gases 

4N 

900 η 

500 

200 

Non-Energy-Related 

I  Final  Consumers 

I  Energy  Industry 

table  8.2 

Contribution  of  Energy  System  to  Total  Emissions  of  Acidifying  Gases 

Non-Energy-Related 
Energy  Industry 

Final  Consumers 

1990 

31 
376 

391 

1991 

24 
354 

367 

1992 

23 
329 

350 

1993 

23 
297 

333 

1994 

21 
269 

3,5 

1995 

19 
251 

299 

1996 

21 
219 

282 

1997 

20 
199 

265 

1998 

20 
202 

256 

Units:  Thousand tonnes  acid  equivalent 

The  units  used  adjust  the  tonnes  of  emissions  by  their  relative  potential 

Emissions  of  acidifying  gases  from  the  energy  industry  fell  by  46%  over  the 

acid  (hydrogen  ion)  production,  i.e.  tonnes  χ  1/32  (for  S02)  and  tonnes  χ 

period,  mainly  due  to  the  installation  of  flue  gas  desulphurisation  (FGD) 

UI 

1/46  (for  NOx,  as  N02).  Emissions  of  acidifying  gases  (sulphur  dioxide  and 

eguipment  at  power  stations  and  to  the  move  away  from  solid  fuels  (e.g. 

nitrogen  oxides)  contribute  to  acidification,  eutrophication  and  ground 

lignite  and  coal)  to  fuels  such  as  natural  gas  containing  less  sulphur.  These 

level  ozone.  Another  important  acidifying  gas  is  ammonia  (NH3),  but  as  the 

emissions  fell  from  47%  of  the  total  in  1990  to  42%  in  1998. 

predominant  source  of  this  gas  is  the  agricultural  sector,  its  contribution  is 

not  included  in  this  analysis. 

Acidifying  gas  emissions  from  the  use  of  energy  by  final  consumers  fell  by 

35%  over  the  same  period.  This  resulted  principally  from  a  reduction  in 

Total  emissions  of  acidifying  gases  fell  by  40%  over  the  period  from  1990  to 

industrial  energy  use, from  a trend  away  from  the  use  of  solid  fuels,  and  from 

1998,  although  the  contribution  of  the  energy  system  to  these  emissions 

legislation  to  reduce  the  sulphur  content  of  liquid  fuels.  Acidifying  gas 

remained  unchanged  at  96%. 

emissions  from  non-energy-related  activities  are  also  down  by  37%  over  this 

period. 

t ra  Energy  & Er 

indicator  8.3 

Indices  of  Energy  System  and  Energy  Industry  Emissions 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

4^ 
cn 

S 

80 

Energy  System  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions 

'  Energy  Industry  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions 

Energy  System  Acidifying  Gas  Emissions 

Energy  Industry  Acidifying  Gas  Emissions 

table  8.3 

Indices  of  Energy  System  and  Energy  Industry  Emissions 

Energy  System  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions 
Energy  Industry  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions 
Energy  System  Acidifying  Gas  Emissions 
Energy  Industry  Acidifying  Gas  Emissions 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 100%) 

1990 

100 
100 

100 
100 

1991 

101 
100 

94 
94 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

1994 
97 

1995 

98 
93 

72 
67 

1996 

100 
94 

65 
58 

1997 

98 
91 

61 
53 

1998 

100 
94 

60 
54 

£ 

These  indicators  further  demonstrate  the  trends  that  have  already  been 
described  (see  8.1  and  8.2). 

tion  in  greenhouse  gas  emissions  by  switching  to  fuels  with  low  or  zero 

carbon  content  and, to  a lesser  extent,  by  more  efficient  power generation. 

Greenhouse  gas  emissions  were  virtually  the  same  in  1998  as they  were  in 

1990,  although  there  was  a  modest  reduction  during  the  recession  of  the 

early  1990s.  Another  factor  which  contributed  to  this  reduction  was  the 

economic  restructuring  and  the  overall  improvements  in  energy  efficiency 

which  occurred  in  Germany  following  reunification.  Despite  an  increase  in 

end-user  energy  consumption,  the  energy  industry  achieved  a  6%  reduc 

The drop in  acidifying  gas emissions  was much more significant,  with  a  40% 

reduction  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998.  Within  the  energy  industry 

the  reduction  was  even  greater  (46%).  This  resulted  from  a combination  of 

the increased  use of low sulphur fuels such as natural gas, the fitting  of flue 

gas  desulphurisation  equipment  to  much  of  the  remaining  solid  fuel  fired 

electricity  generation  plant,  and  legislation  limiting  the  sulphur  content  of 

fuels. 

t ra  Energy  &  Emissi 

indicator 8.4 Energy System Contribution to Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions 

4^ 
C» 

φ 
c 
o 
c 
o 

^ E 

4 000­

3 500­

3 000­

2 500· 

2 000­

1 500· 

1 000­

500­

0 ■ 

Non­Energy­Related 

Energy System 

table  8.4 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions 

N o n - E n e r g y - R e l a t ed 

Energy  System 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes 

1990 
163 431 

3 156 310 

1991 

154 447 

189 580 

1992 

150 865 
116 540 

1993 
145 074 

1994 
153 963 

3 058 189 

3 063 268 

1995 

158 815 
3 101 215 

1996 
156 529 

1997 
159 455 

3 179 349 

3 118 891 

1998 

163 649 
3 163 824 

Emissions  of  carbon  dioxide  are  generated  largely  by  the  energy  system, 

The  fact  that  carbon  dioxide  emissions  have  increased  less  than  energy 

which  accounted  for  95%  of  the  total  in  both  1990  and  1998.  Over  this 

consumption  is  mainly  due  to  switches  from  high  carbon  content  fuels  (e.g. 

l£> 

period  t o t al  carbon  dioxide  emissions  increased  marginally  (0.2%),  and 

coal  and  lignite)  to  fuels  with  a  lower  carbon  content  (e.g.  natural  gas), 

there  was  a  modest  (3.5%)  reduction  between  1990  and  1993  due  to  the 

recession  throughout  Europe  in  general,  and  also  to  the  overall  improve 

Carbon  dioxide  emissions  from  sources  outside  the  energy  system  account 

ments  in  energy  efficiency  which  occurred  in  Germany  following  reunification. 

for  only  5%  of  the  total,  and  have  remained  at  a  very  similar  level  through 

Carbon  dioxide  emissions  from  the  energy  system  can  be  reduced  by  improv 

ing  efficiency  or  by  switching  to  fuels  with  low  or  zero  carbon  content. 

out  the  period. 

Q  Energy  & Er 

indicator  8.5  Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Methane  Emissions 

en 
O 

Energy  System 

Non-Energy-Related 

table  8.5 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Methane  Emissions 

Energy  System 
Non-Energy-Related 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes 

1990 

4  812 
15  963 

1991 

4  722 
15  435 

1992 

4  592 
14  971 

1993 

4  152 
14  645 

1994 

3  787 
14  511 

1995 

3  779 
14  372 

1996 

3  638 
14  049 

1997 

3  576 
13  924 

1998 

3  541 
13  806 

Methane  (CH4)  is  a  powerful  greenhouse  gas  with  each  tonne  of  methane 

However,  methane  emissions  from  the  energy  system  fell  by  26%  while 

equivalent  in  global  warming  terms  to  21  tonnes  of  carbon  dioxide,  over  a 

methane  emissions  from  other  sources  fell  by  only  14%.  The  contribution  of 

time  span  of  100  years.  The  main  sources  of  methane  within  the  energy 

the  energy  system  to  total  methane  emissions  fell  from  23% in  1990  to  20% 

system  are  coal  mining  and  the  production  and  transmission  of  natural  gas. 

in  1998. 

Sources  outside  the  energy  system  include  agriculture  (mainly  ruminant 

animals)  and  landfill  sites  used  for  waste  disposal.  As  well  as  being  a  direct 

The  reduced  methane  emissions  came  about  mainly  as  a  result  of  the  reduc 

greenhouse  gas,  methane  is  also  a  precursor  of  tropospheric  ozone  which 

tion  in  coal  mining  throughout  the  EU,  improved  control  of  methane  emis 

also  is  an  important  greenhouse  gas. 

sions  from  landfill  sites,  reduced  leakage  from  gas  transmission/distribution 

pipelines  and  improvements  in  oil  and  gas  extraction  processes. 

Over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998,  total  methane  emissions  fell  by  17%. 

^m  Energy  & Er 

indicator  8.6  Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Nitrous  Oxide  Emissions 

1 2 00 

Energy  System 

Non-Energy-Related 

table  8.6 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Nitrous  Oxide  Emissions 

Energy  System 
Non-Energy-Related 

Units: Thousand tonnes 

1990 

167 
1  101 

1991 

173 
1  072 

1992 

173 
1  023 

1993 

172 
981 

1994 

179 
1  Oil 

1995 

187 
1  008 

1996 

192 
1  052 

1997 

195 
1  036 

1998 

178 
964 

Nitrous  oxide  (N20)  is  a  very  powerful  greenhouse  gas,  with  each  tonne 
equivalent  in  global  warming  terms  to  310  tonnes  of  carbon  dioxide,  over 

a time  span  of  100  years. The  main  sources  of  nitrous  oxide  are  industrial 

M 
ω 

processes  (particularly  nitric  and  adipic  acid  production),  agriculture  and 

nitrous  oxide  emissions  per  unit  of  energy  used  has  actually  fallen.  An 

important  factor  behind  the  increase  in  nitrous  oxide  emissions  from  the 
energy  sector  is  the  fact  that  N20  emissions  from  petrol-engined  cars  fitted 
with  three-way  catalytic  converters  are  higher  than  those  from  older  cars 

fuel  combustion. 

without  such  converters. 

Over the  period  from  1990 to  1998, total  emissions  of  nitrous  oxide  fell by 

There  was  a  significant  (7%)  reduction  in  nitrous  oxide  emissions  from 

10%.  However,  nitrous  oxide  emissions  from  the  energy  system  increased by 

6% over  the  same  period, so that  the  contribution  of  the  energy  system  to 

the  total  has  increased  from  13% in  1990  to  16% in  1998.  This  compares 

outside  the  energy  system  between  1997  and  1998,  following  a  period  of 
relative  stability.  This  resulted  mainly  from  the  installation  of  N20  removal 
equipment  at  German  adipic  acid  plants  (adipic  acid  is  used in  the  produc­

with  a 9% rise in  total  energy  use (see  2.9),  demonstrating  that  the  level of 

tion  of  nylon  and  plasticizers). 

^H  Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator 8.7 Energy System Contribution to Total Sulphur Dioxide Emissions 

Ul 
4V-

18 000 

16 000-

14 000 

12 000 

10 000· 

8 000 

6 000 

4 000· 

2 000 

0 

■ Non-Energy-Related 

■ Energy System 

table  8.7 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  Sulphur  Dioxide  Emissions 

Non-Energy-Related 
Energy  System 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes 

1990 

810 
15 504 

1991 

618 
14  111 

1992 

578 

12  949 

1993 

558 
11  793 

1994 

549 
10 604 

1995 

531 
9  760 

1996 

483 
8  371 

1997 

464 
7  506 

1998 

449 
7  444 

Sulphur  dioxide  (S02 ) emissions  contribute  to acidification  and  also to  the 
production  in the  atmosphere  of fine  particulate  matter  which is associated 
with  major  health  and  mortality  effects. 

It  follows  that  the amount  of sulphur  dioxide  emitted  per unit  of energy 

used has fallen  significantly.  The main reason for this  fall is the  reduction in 

the  use of coal and  lignite  with  a relatively  high  sulphur  content  (obtained 

mainly  from  sources  within  the  EU).  The installation  of  flue  gas  de-

The  majority  of sulphur  dioxide  emissions  (95% in 1990  and  94% in 1998) 

sulphurisation  equipment  at  many  solid  fuel  power  stations  and  the  re 

come  from  the energy  system.  The  major  source  of these  emissions  is  the 

duced  sulphur  content  of liquid  fuels  (both  driven  by legislation)  have also 

combustion  of solid  fuels  and  some  oils. 

made a significant  contribution  to the reduction  in  SO  emissions. 

Over  the period  from  1990  to  1998,  total  emissions  of sulphur  dioxide 
decreased by 52%. Emissions of S02 from the energy system also fell by 52%, 
despite  a 9% increase in total  energy  use  (see  2.9). 

^a  Energy  &  En 

indicator 8.8 Energy System Contribution to Total N0X Emissions 

12 000 

10 000 

Β 8 000 

Un 
en 

en 
·< 

■ Non-Energy-Related 

$■ Energy System 

nj m 

σι σι 

in ic 

σι σι 

table  8.8 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  N0Y  Emissions 

Λ 

Non-Energy-Related 
Energy  System 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes 

1990 

313 

12 989 

1991 

303 
12 907 

1992 

288 
12 602 

1993 

271 

12 010 

1994 
257 

11 631 

1995 
257 

11 280 

1996 

282 

11 050 

1997 

267 

10 560 

1998 

264 
10 357 

I—» 

ui 

Nitrogen  oxides  (which  should  not  be  confused  with  nitrous  oxide:  see  8.6) 

Over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998,  total  emissions  of  nitrogen  oxides  fell 

are  partly  responsible  for  a  series  of  environmental  problems.  These  include 

by  20%.  Emissions  from  the  energy  system  fell  by  the  same  amount,  despite 

acidification,  eutrophication  and  photochemical  smog,  including  ground 

a  9%  rise  in  total  energy  use  (see  2.9).  It  follows  that  the  level  of  nitrogen 

level  ozone  which  is  a threat  to  human  health.  Nitrogen  oxides  also  contrib­

oxide  emissions  per  unit  of  energy  used  has  decreased.  This  decrease  results 

ute  to  the  build-up  of  tropospheric  ozone  which  is  a  potent  greenhouse 

mainly  from  the  increased  use  of  'low  NO/  combustion  technology,  together 

gas. 

with  the  use  of  three-way  catalytic  converters  on  petrol  cars  -  although 

these  have  increased  the  emissions  of  the  potent  greenhouse  gas  nitrous 

The  majority  (almost  98%  from  1990  tol998)  of  nitrogen  oxide  emissions 

oxide  (see  8.6). 

are  produced  by  the  energy  system,  with  the  major  source  being  the  com­

bustion  of  fossil  fuels. 

φ 

Energy  &  Emiss 

indicator 8.9 Energy System Contribution to Total NMVOC Emissions 

■ Non-Energy-Related 

Energy System 

4 000· 

2 000· 

m *& in *o 
Οι Οι Οι 01 
Ol Ol Ok Οι 

table  8.9 

Energy  System  Contribution  to  Total  NMVOC  Emissions 

Non-Energy-Related 
Energy  System 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes 

1990 

6  742 
8  407 

1991 

6  510 
8  073 

1992 

6  298 
7  845 

1993 

6 100 
7  414 

1994 

6 146 
7  133 

1995 

6  030 
δ  790 

1996 

5  689 
6  563 

1997 

5  659 
6  256 

1998 

5  629 
6  054 

Non  Methane  Volatile  Organic  Compounds  (NMVOCs)  include  gaseous hy-

Over the  period  from  1990 to 1998, total  emissions  of NMVOCs fell by 23%. 

jg 

drocarbons  and  other  gaseous  organic  compounds  which  (in  combination 

with  nitrogen  oxides)  contribute  to the formation  of photo-chemical  smog 

and  tropospheric  ozone.  NMVOCs therefore  contribute  indirectly  to  global 

Emissions  from  the energy  system  fell  by 28%,  while  emissions  from  other 
sources  reduced  by only  17%. As in the case of other  gases, this  reduction 
in  emissions  from  the energy  sector  contrasts  with  the 9% rise  in  total 

warming  because  of the  fact  that  tropospheric  ozone is a greenhouse  gas. 

energy  use  (see  2.9),  showing  that  emissions  per unit  of energy  used have 

Over  half  of  NMVOC  emissions  originate  from  the energy  system  (55% in 

lytic  converters  to the exhaust  systems  of petrol-engined  cars. 

1990  and 52% in  1998).  Major  sources  include  fossil  fuel  combustion 

(particularly  in the transport  sector),  evaporative  emissions  from  industrial 

The  introduction  of  legislation  to  reduce  fugitive  emissions  from  petrol 

processes  and  non-industrial  uses  of organic  solvents. 

stations  and to control  the  storage  and  use of solvents  is also  a contribu- 

decreased in this  instance  also. This  results  mainly  from  the  fitting  of cata­

" 

^ 

σ 

—I 

° 

^ 

tory  factor  in the reduction  of NMVOC emissions. 

Q  Energy  &  Er 

indicator  8.10  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  from  the  Energy  System 

Nitrous Oxide 

Methane 

Carbon  Dioxide 

o 
σι 

σι 

Ol 
σι 

m 
σι 

-<r 
σι 

m 
σι 
σι 

σι 
σι 

^ σι 

σι 

σι 
σι 

table  8.10 

Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  from  the  Energy  System 

Nitrous Oxide 
Methane 

Carbon Dioxide 

1990 

51 916 
101 051 

1991 

53 549 
99 162 

1992 

53 545 

96 429 

1993 

53 315 
87 202 

1994 

55 526 
79 533 

1995 

57 828 
79 355 

3 156 310 

3 189 580 

3 

116 540 

3 058 189 

3 063 268 

3 101 215 

Units:  Thousand tonnes  CO  equivalent 

1996 

59 540 
76 388 

179 349 

1997 

60 313 
75 091 

1998 

55 041 
74 354 

3 118 891 

3 163 824 

S 

As in  the  case of indicator  8.1 earlier,  methane  (CH4)  and nitrous  oxide  (NO) 
emissions  are  expressed  in  terms  of  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  equivalents.  This 
takes  into  account  the  higher  global  warming  potential  of  these  green 

house  gases  compared  with  that  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Between  1990  and  1998  total  greenhouse  gas  emissions  from  the  energy 

sector  have  changed  very  little,  although  there  was  a fall  of  around  3% in 

the  early  1990s  due  to  the  recession  throughout  Europe  in  general,  and 

also  to  the  improvements  in  energy  efficiency  which  occurred  in  Germany 

following  reunification.  Overall there  was  a reduction  of just  0.5%,  despite 

the  9%  increase  in  the  total  amount  of  energy  consumed  over  the  same 
period  (see  2.9). 

As already  noted, increased  consumption  of  energy  was offset  by the  switch 
to  fuels  with  a low  or  zero  carbon  content. 

Carbon  dioxide  emissions were by far the  largest  source of  greenhouse gases 

(95%  in  1990  and  96%  in  1998),  even  after  taking  account  of  the  much 

greater  global  warming  potential  of  nitrous  oxide  and  methane.  Methane 

now  accounts  for just  2.3%  of  the  total  and  nitrous  oxide  for  1.7%. 

Q 

Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator  8.11  Indices  of  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  from  the  Energy  System 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Nitrous Oxide 

Carbon Dioxide 

Methane 

table 8.11 Indices of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Energy System 

Reference Year = 1990 

Nitrous Oxide 
Carbon Dioxide 

Methane 

1990 

100 
100 

100 

1991 

103 
101 

98 

1992 

103 
99 

95 

1993 

1 03 
97 

86 

1994 

107 
97 

79 

1995 

111 
98 

79 

1996 

115 
101 

76 

1997 

116 
99 

74 

1998 

106 
100 

74 

Units: Per cent (1990 = 100%) 

These indices clearly demonstrate the ways in which emissions of different 

¡J greenhouse gases have changed over the period from 1990 to 1998. 

Emissions of nitrous oxide (N20) increased by 6% over the period, despite a 
significant (8.7%) drop between 1997 and 1998. This increase results pri­

marily from the increased number of petrol­engined cars fitted with three­

Emissions of carbon dioxide, the most significant greenhouse gas, remained 

way catalytic converters, which produce higher nitrous oxide emissions 

at a similar level throughout the period, although there was a small (up to 

than cars without converters. 

3%) reduction in emissions during the early 1990s. As already noted (see 

8.10), the potential for higher emissions as a result of increased energy use 

Methane emissions fell by 26% over the period. This resulted mainly from 

was offset by the increased use of fuels with a low or zero carbon content. 

the reduction in coal mining across the EU and to improvements in the 

control of emissions from gas transmission/distribution pipelines and im­

provements in oil and gas extraction processes. 

φ Energy & Emissions 

indicator  8.12  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Capita 

15-1 
14-
13· 
12· 
i l­
io-
9 
8-
7· 
6 
5· 
4· 
3-
2· 
Ι­
Ο-

o 
-< 

table  8.12 

Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Capita 

GHG  Emissions/Capita 
Units: Tonnes C02 equivalent/capita 

1990 
11.38 

1991 

11.34 

1992 

11.00 

1993 

10.70 

1994 

10.71 

1995 

10.78 

1996 

10.97 

1997 

10.76 

1998 

10.79 

^ 
S 

Total greenhouse  gas emissions  per person  across the  EU fell  by 5% between  While  greenhouse  gas emissions from  sources  outside  the  energy  system  fell 
1990  and  1998.  This  reflects  a  combination  of  a  2.8%  increase  in  the 
population,  and  a  reduction  of  2.5%  in  total  greenhouse  gas  emissions. 

by  10% over  the  period  1990  to  1998, they  accounted  for  only  19% of  the 
total  in  1998  (see  8.1). 

The  decline  in  per  capita  emissions  was  steepest  in  the  early  part  of  the 
decade  and  emissions  per  capita  in  1998  were  only  0.9%  higher  than  the 
minimum  level  of  10.7  tonnes  per  capita  which  was  achieved  in  1993. The 
peak  in  1996  (10.97  tonnes  per  capita)  is  linked  to  the  severity  of  the 
winter  in  that year. 

φ  Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator 8.13 Greenhouse Gas Emissions per Unit of GDP 

900-, 

■ξ 300-

en 

-< 

table  8.13 

Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Unit  of GDP 

GHG  Emissions  /  GDP 

1990 

798 

1991 

7 73 

1992 

746 

1993 

734 

1994 

715 

Units: kg CO¡equivalent/'1  000 Euro  (constant 1990 pnces) 

1995 

706 

1996 

708 

1997 

679 

1998 

663 

The  greenhouse  gas  emissions  per  unit  output  of  gross  domestic  product 
(GDP)  link  emissions  with  economic  output. 

The  increased  use  of  lower  carbon  content  fuels,  some  improvements  in 

energy  efficiency  and  better  controls  over  landfill  gas  emissions  have  also 

contributed  to  the  reduction  in  greenhouse  gas  emissions  per  unit  of GDP. 

Emissions  per  unit  of  GDP fell  by  17% between  1990  and  1998,  reflecting a 

The  accelerated  rate  of  reduction  since  1996  reflects  mainly  the  reduction 

combination  of  a 17% increase  in  GDP and a 2.5% drop in  total  greenhouse 

in  emissions  of  greenhouse  gases  from  power  generation  that  have  been 

gas emissions.  These  contrasting  changes  are  not  inconsistent.  They  reflect 

achieved  largely  through  the  substitution  of  natural  gas for  coal as a fuel. 

the  fact  that  the  increase  in  GDP took  place  mainly  in  sectors  that  are less 

energy  intensive,  such  as the  service  sector.  There  has  also  been  a contrac 

tion  in the traditional  heavy industries, which are more intensive in terms of 

energy  used  per  unit  of  output,  and  also  in  mining,  which  contributes 

directly  through  methane  emissions. 

A  Energy  & Er 

indicator  8.14  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Unit  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption  of  Energy 

= 

2.5  · 

table  8.14 

Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  per  Unit  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption  of  Energy 

GHG  Emissions  /  GIC 

I 

1990 

3.15 

1991 

3.08 

1992 

3.03 

1993 

2.96 

1994 

2.97 

1995 

2.94 

1996 

2.90 

1997 

2.86 

1998 

2.82 

Units: Tonnes C0! equivalent/tonne oil equivalent (toe) 

Total  greenhouse  gas  emissions  per  unit  of  gross  inland  consumption  (GIC) 

greenhouse  gases  (particularly  C02)  per  unit  consumed,  towards  fuels  such 

of  energy  fell  by  10%  over  the  period  from  1990  to  1998,  despite  the  9% 

as  gas  which  produce  lower  emissions.  The  increase  in  the  use  of  renewable 

increase  in  GIC  over  the  same  period  (see  2.9). 

energy  and  the  continued  role  of  nuclear  power  are  also  factors  in  the 

reduction,  since  neither  produces  greenhouse  gas  emissions  except  in  cases 

It  follows  that  the  EU  as  an  entity  is  consuming  more  energy  but  actually 

where  the  combustion  of  wastes  is  involved. 

emitting  lower  volumes  of  greenhouse  gases.  This  results  mainly  from  the 

switch  away  from  fuels  such  as  coal  and  lignite  which  emit  higher  levels  of 

^M  Energy  & Er 

indicator 8.15 Indices of Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Transformation 

and Consumption, by Fuel Reference Year = 1990 

220 

200 

180 

160 ■ 

140-

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Transformation - Natural Gas 

Consumption - Natural Gas 

Consumption - Oil and Products 

Transformation - Oil and Products 

Transformation - Solid Fuels 

Consumption - Solid Fuels 

table  8.15 

Indices  of  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  from  Energy  Transformation 
and  Consumption,  by  Fuel 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Transformation  -  Naturat  Gas 
Transformation  -  Petroleum  Products 

Transformation  -  Solid  Fuels 
Final  Consumption  -  Natural  Gas 

Final  Consumption  -  -  Petroleum  Products 
Final  Consumption  -  Solid  Fuels 
Units:  Per cent  (1990  =  100%) 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

86 
92 

97 
96 

98 
115 

85 
87 

96 
94 

100 
111 

95 
99 

98 
97 

98 
107 

100 
100 

100 
100 

100 
100 

102 
106 

100 
110 

103 
87 

103 
109 

96 
111 

101 
77 

121 
100 

88 
114 

105 
70 

137 
95 

88 
113 

105 
67 

166 
101 

87 
119 

105 
63 

189 
96 

86 
132 

108 
60 

201 
90 

80 
126 

108 
60 

1998 

215 
91 

83 
130 
no 
55 

Indices  relating  to  transformation  cover  fuels  used in  areas  such  as thermal 

The use of solid fuels  has declined  even  more rapidly  across the final energy 

power stations,  district  heating  systems  and oil refineries,  while those  relat 

consuming  sectors,  with  a 45% fall  in  emissions  of  CO., between  1990  and 

ing  to  final  energy  consumption  cover  energy  use  by final  consumers. There 

has been a 17% decline in  CO.,  emissions from the use of solid fuels in energy 

transformation  between  1990  and  1998, while  emissions  from  the  use of  oil 

1998.  Despite  the  decreased  use  of  oil  in  both  industry  and  households, 
rapid  growth  in  the transport  sector  has led to  a 10% overall increase in C02 
emissions  from  the  consumption  of  this  fuel.  The  use  of  natural  gas  has 

fuels  for  this  purpose  decreased  by 9% over the  same  period. This  contrasts 

increased  in  all  sectors,  and  has  contributed  to  a  30%  increase  in  the 

with  the  very  significant  (115%)  growth  in  emissions  from  natural gas used 

associated  CO, emissions. 

within  the  energy  transformation  sector,  mainly  for  electricity  generation. 

^a  Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator 8.16 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, by Sector 

l l l l l l l ll 

2 2 000 

■ Manufacturing Industries 

Small Combustion 

Transport 

■ Energy Industry 

MINIMI 

CM m 

table  8.16 

Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions,  by  Sector 

Manufacturing Industries 
Small Combustion 

Transport 
Energy Industry 

Units:  Thousand tonnes 

1990 

635 832 
632 981 

692 346 
1 148 052 

1991 

600 808 
671 277 

694 004 
1 133 010 

1992 

591 243 
647 251 

729 389 
1 116 580 

1993 

571 925 
656 832 

734 907 
1 061 719 

1994 

594 131 
629 095 

742 131 
1 063 530 

1995 

606 384 
638 214 

748 803 
1 070 474 

1996 

595 737 
703 780 

766 744 
1 076 937 

1997 

596 566 
641 496 

766 322 
1 017 219 

1998 

599 878 
652 164 

798 166 
1 076 337 

There  are  significant  differences  between  the  trends  in  C02 emissions  from 
different  sectors.  Emissions  from  the  energy  industry  and  from  manufactur 

consumption  in  road  transport.  (In  accordance  with  the  guidelines  of  the 

United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change,  data  for  the 

ing  industries  both  fell  between  1990  and  1998,  by  6.2% and  5.7% respec 

transport  sector  do  not  include  emissions  from  international  aviation  or 

tively.  In  the  case of the  energy  industry  this  occurred  mainly  as a result  of 

international  marine  transport.) 

switching  from fossil fuels to  gas, the increased use of renewable energy and 

nuclear generation, and improvements in  energy efficiency  in  general. Manu 

With  small  combustion  energy  use  (mainly  in  the  commercial  and  service 

facturing  industries  have  restructured  and  become  more  efficient,  and  have 

also  switched  from  solid  fuels  to  gas. 

sectors,  households,  agriculture  and  public  institutions),  there  was  an in 
crease  of  just  3%  between  1990  and  1998.  Consumption  (and  thus  C02 
emissions)  in  this  sector  are  closely  linked  to  winter  temperatures,  with 

In  the  transport  sector  emissions  have  increased  significantly  (15%)  be 

particularly  cold  winters  across  Europe  leading  to  the  peaks  in  1991, 1993 

tween  1990  and  1998.  This  resulted  mainly  from  the  increase  in  energy 

and  1996. 

A 

Energy  &  Emissions 

indicator  8.17  Indices  of  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions,  by  Sector 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

-ÍN 

Transport 

Small Combustion 

Manufacturing  Industries 

Energy Industry 

table  8.17 

Indices  of  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions,  by  Sector 

Reference  Year  =  1990 

Transport 
Small  Combustion 

Manufacturing  Industries 
Energy  Industry 

1990 

100 
100 

100 
100 

1991 

100 
106 

94 
99 

Units: Per cent  (1990  = 

200%; 

1992 

105 
102 

93 
97 

1993 

106 
104 

90 
92 

1994 

107 
99 

93 
93 

1995 

108 
101 

95 
93 

1996 

111 
111 

94 
94 

1997 

111 
101 

94 
89 

1998 

115 
103 

94 
94 

The trends  that  have already  been described  (see 8.16)  are clearly  illustrated 

Emissions  from  manufacturing  industries  have  declined, with  the  most  rapid 

here. 

decreases  occurring  during  the  early  1990s. The minimum  level of emissions 

was  reached  in  1993,  but  emissions  have  risen  (by  5% in  1998)  since  then 

Emissions  from  the  transport  sector  have  increased  steadily  year-on-year. 

as the  economy  recovered  and  energy  use increased. 

Since  the  data  for  this  sector  exclude  emissions  associated  with  fuel  con 

sumption  in  both  the  international  aviation  and  international  marine  sub-

Emissions  from  the  energy  industry  also  fell  during  the  early  1990s,  but 

sectors,  all  of  the  increase  can  therefore  be  attributed  to  increased  road 

have  remained  relatively  stable  since  1994  except  for  a  significant  dip  in 

traffic. 

1997.  The  relative  volatility  of  emissions  from  small  combustion  plants  is 

clearly  seen,  with  peaks  in  1991,  1993  and  1996  corresponding  to  cold 

winters  throughout  Europe. 

^p  Energy  &  Emis 

indicator 8.18 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Electricity Generation 

100 

000 

900 

800 ■ 

700 ■ 

600 ■ 

500 

«00 

300 

200 

100 

0 

table  8.18 

Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  from  Electricity  Generation 

CO,  Emissions 

Units:  Thousand tonnes 

1990 

961 257 

1991 

974 738 

1992 

948 498 

1993 

897  134 

1994 

899 630 

1995 

924 433 

1996 

936 089 

1997 

898 959 

1998 

936 823 

The emissions  of  carbon  dioxide  associated  with  the  generation  of  electric 

generated  (see  4.1).  This  results  mainly  from  the  switch  to  fuels  with  a 

ity  decreased  by  2.5%  between  1990  and  1998.  During  that  period  this 
activity  consistently  contributed  about  30% of  the  C02 emissions  from  the 
energy  system,  which  in  turn  contributed  a  consistent  95%  of  total CO., 

emissions. 

relatively  low carbon  content  (e.g. natural gas)  at the  expense of solid fuels 

such  as coal and  lignite  which  have  a higher  carbon  content.  Factors which 

contributed  to  the  reduced  level  of  CO., emissions  included  the  modest 

expansion  in  the  role  of renewable and nuclear  energy for  power generation, 

improvements  in  the  efficiency  of  electricity  generating  plants  (combined 

This  decrease  in  the  CO., emissions  associated  with  electricity  generation 

cycle  gas  turbine  technology  etc.)  and  the  decommissioning  of  older,  less 

was  achieved  despite  a  22% increase  in  the  total  amount  of  electricity 

efficient  generating  plants. 

M  Energy  &  Er 

h 

■ I 

Member State Data 

indicator  9.1  Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

00 
o 

in 

E 

in 
3 

=1 
t 

ε 
« 
1>  £ 

Negative  values  of  Gross Inland  Consumption  of  electrical  energy  indicate  that  exports  exceed  imports 

I 
1 
I 

Electrical Energy 
Renewables 
Lignite and Derivatives 
Coal and Derivatives 
Nuclear Energy 
Gases 
Crude Oil and Products 

table  9.1 

Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

EU-15 

B e l g i um 

Denmark 
Germany 

Greece 
Spain 

France 
Ireland 

Italy 
Luxembourg 

Netherlands 
Austria 

Portugal 
Finland 

Crude  Oil 
and  Products 

601 
11 

167 
945 

9  87! 
660 

137 

15 
59 

525 
577 

91 
7 

628 
125 

92 
2 

914 
013 

27 
12 

15 
10 

091 
428 

334 

835 

Sweden 
United  Kingc 

lorn 

15 
80 

75-
4 6; 

Gases 

315 
12 

499 
474 

4 
72 

224 
729 

725 
609 

11 

33 
2 

413 
803 

51 

126 
633 

34 
6 

946 
730 

697 
336 

712 
342 

3 

79 

Nudear 
Energy 

209 
11 

664 
394 

0 
912 

0 
418 

636 
0 

0 
0 

937 
0 

0 
370 

38 

14 

96 

5 

16 
25 

166 
831 

Coal  and 
Derivatives 

Lignite  and 
Derivatives 

Renewables 

173 
8 

102 
396 

5 
49 

642 
839 

833 
131 

16 

16 
1 

240 
823 

11 

9 
2 

3 
3 

681 
106 

236 
895 

171 
511 

2 
41 

356 
241 

49 

35 

617 
42 

1 
587 

8 
1 

322 
643 

447 
025 

1 

25 
0 

0 
253 

0 
930 

339 
0 

1 

84 

1 
8 

1 
7 

16 

13 

1 
6 

3 
7 

816 
660 

768 
501 

355 
001 

890 
259 

278 
50 

454 
765 

591 
247 

13 
2 

734 
263 

Electrical 
Energy 
1  127 
120 

-  371 
-  55 

138 
293 

-  4  949 
7 

3  502 
466 

1  016 
-  14 

24 
800 

-  920 
1  072 

Crude  oil  and  products  are  the  main  source  of  energy  in  all  Member  States 

except  Sweden  and  France  (nuclear  energy)  and  the  Netherlands  (gas).  Oil 

accounts  for  42%  of  total  gross  inland  consumption  across  the  EU.  Gas  is 

the  second  most  commonly  used  fuel  overall  (22%),  although  it  is  used 

only  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  Sweden,  Greece  and  Portugal. 

Nuclear  energy  accounts  for  15%  of  EU  t o t al  energy  consumption.  The 

percentage  contribution  of  nuclear  energy  is  however  much  higher  in  France 

(39%)  and  Sweden  (34%),  while  seven  Member  States  make  no  use  of  nu 

clear  energy.  Solid  fuels  (coal  and  lignite)  account  for  16%  of  total  energy 

consumption  within  EU-15,  but  again  there  are  significant  variations  be 

Units: Thousand tonnes t 

iii  equivalent  (ktoe) 

tween  countries.  The  total  in  Greece  is  34%,  27%  in  Denmark  and  25%  in 

Germany,  but  only  7%  in  Italy  and  France,  6%  in  Sweden  and  3%  in  tuxem-

bourg.  Renewable  energy  accounts  for  6%  of  t o t al  energy  consumption 

within  EU-15  (see  9.2). 

^y  Member  State  Data 

indicator 9.2 Contribution of RenewabLe Energy Sources to 

Gross Inland Consumption (1998) 

I 

en .α' 

I Mil 

■*-* "O 

table  9.2 

Contribution  of  Renewable  Energy  Sources  to 
Gross  Inland  Consumption  (1998) 

EU-15 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Germany 

Greece 

Spain 

France 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxembourg  Netherlands 

Austria 

Portugal 

Finland 

Sweden 

Contribution 

5.9 

1.2 

8.4 

2.5 

5.0 

6.3 

6.7 

2.0 

7.7 

1.5 

1.9 

23.3 

15.7 

21.8 

28.5 

Units  :  Per  cent 

United 
Kingdom 
1.0 

so 

C~i 

The  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources  to  gross  inland  consumption 

The  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources  to  gross  inland  consumption 

varies  widely  between  Member  States.  Renewables  are  the  second  largest 

is  generally  about  one  third  of  their  contribution  to  electricity  generation. 

source  of  energy  in  Finland,  Portugal, and  Austria  (together  with  gas), and 

the  third  largest  in  Sweden  where  it  contributes  28.5%  to  gross  inland 

consumption. 

^%  Member  State  Data 

indicator 9.3 Contribution of Renewable Energy Sources to 

Electricity Generation, by Source (1998) 

00 
4^ 

100 

90 

80 ■ 

70 

O) 

S 60 
¡s 50 

a. 

40 

30 

ci 

■< 

■ Geothermal 

■ Wind 

■ Biomass 

■ Hydro 

20 

10  i 

­ . ­. ■ 

>, -ο α» 
c c w 
ro ro α* 

table  9.3 

Contribution  of  Renewable  Energy  Sources  to 
Electricity  Generation,  by  Source  (1998) 

B e l g i u ir 

Denmark 

Germany 

Italy 

Luxembourg  Netherlands 

Austria 

Portugal 

Finland 

Sweden 

Wind 
Biomass 
Hydro 

Total 

0.2 
0.5 

12.4 

14.3 

0.0 
0.0 

0.5 

1.1 

0.0 
6.8 

0.1 

10.4 

0.0 
0.8 

3.2 

4.9 

0.0 
0.2 

0.0 
8.0 
8.2 

0.0 
1.1 

0.8 
17.5 
19.5 

0.0 
0.0 

0.4 
12.4 

12.8 

0.0 
c 
0.8 
c 

0.4 
C 
4.4 
4 

5 
5.6 

1.7 
0.1 

0.5 
16.3 

18.5 

0.0 
2.9 

12.0 
30.7 

45.6 

Units:  Per cent 

0.0 
0.1 

3.0 
66.4 

69.5 

0.1 
0.2 

2.6 
33.4 

36Y4 

0.0 
0.0 

10.7 

21.4 

32.2 

0.0 
0.2 

47.0 

48.9 

Kingdom 

0.0 

Hydro-electric  power  is  the  most  significant  source  of  renewable  electricity 

centage  contribution  in  Denmark  (6.8%),  although  the  amount  of  electric 

across the  EU, accounting  for  12.4% of  all  electricity  generated,  and  making 

ity  generated  from  wind  power  in  Germany  is  now  1.7  times  as great  as in 

the  largest  contribution  in  all countries  except  Denmark and the  Netherlands. 

Denmark. Italy  is the  only  Member State where geothermal energy is  used to 

Biomass  is  the  second  most  significant  source  of  renewable  electricity,  but 

still  accounts  for  only  1.3%  of  total  electricity  generation  across  the  EU. 

The  contribution  of  renewables  to  electricity  generation  in  Luxembourg  is 

The  contribution  of  biomass  is  increasing,  and  is  particularly  significant  in 

high  because  of  the  low  overall  level  of  electricity  generation  within  that 

Finland  where  it  accounts  for  10.7%  of  electricity  generation. 

Member  State,  as most  of  its  electricity  needs are  met  by imports. 

generate  electricity  to  any  significant  extent. 

The contribution  of wind  power is  also increasing,  but  remains  at  only  0.5% 

of  total  electricity  generated  across  the  EU. Wind  makes  the  greatest  per-

A  Member  State  Data 

■■■ 

mH  nlarqement Countries Data 

indicator  10.1  Gross  InLand  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

Co 
00 

Renewables 

Gases 

Nuclear  Energy 

Electrical  Energy 

Crude  Oil  and  Products 

Lignite  and  Derivatives 

Coal and  Derivatives 

Negative  values of  Gross Inland  Consumption  of  electrical  energy indicate  that  exports  exceed  imports 

table  10.1 

Gross  Inland  Consumption,  by  Fuel  (1998) 

Bulgaria 
Czech  Republic 

Estonia 
Hungary 

Latvia 
Lithuania 

Poland 
Romania 

Slovakia 
Slovenia 

Coal and 
Derivatives 
2  448 
6  381 
26 

138 

52  493 

2  767 

3  279 

27 

Lignite  and 
Derivatives 
5  031 
14  412 
3  045 
2  835 
60 
18 

12  889 
5  226 

1  580 
1  402 

Crude  Oil and 
Products 
4  846 
8  293 
1  004 
7  088 

1 636 
3 737 
18 579 
11 789 
3 201 
2 549 

Electrical 
Energy 
-313 
-212 

- 33 
64 
417 
-523 
-299 
40 
194 
-163 

Nuclear 
Energy 
4 727 

3 592 
0 
1 390 
3 204 
1 308 

Units: Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) 

Renewables 

rotai 

In  general,  gas  is  used  less  commonly  than  in  EU-15,  with  notable  excep­

3 130 
/ 685 

592 
9 787 
1 044 
1  754 

9 514 
14 923 

6 337 
864 

678 
327 

507 
407 

1 047 
591 

3 870 
4 660 

662 
521 

20 547 
40 340 

5 141 
25 079 

4 310 
9 307 

97 046 
40 795 

18 456 
6 507 

tions  in  the  cases  of  Hungary,  Romania  and  Slovakia  where  this  is  the  most 

heavily  used  fuel.  The  contribution  of  renewable  energy  sources  to  gross 

inland  consumption  in  the  enlargement  countries  varies  between  1%  and 

24%,  and  the  overall  contribution  of  all  the  countries  listed  is  5%.  This  is 

comparable  with  the  overall  contribution  in  EU-15  where  renewable  energy 

accounts  for  5.9%  of  gross  inland  consumption  (see  9.2). 

Nuclear  energy  makes  a  significant  contribution  in  countries  such  as  Bul­

garia,  Lithuania  and  Slovenia,  although  its  contribution  across  all  of  the 

In  the  enlargement  countries  listed  above,  the  contribution  of  crude  oil 

countries  listed  is  only  8%.  This  is  less  than  the  15%  which  applies  in  the 

and  products  to  gross  inland  consumption  varies  between  17%  and  40%. 

This  is  significantly  less  than  in  EU-15  where  it  accounts  for  42%  of  total 

gross  inland  consumption  (see  9.1). 

case  of  EU-15.  Solid  fuels  (coal  and  lignite)  account  for  a  much  greater 

proportion  of  gross  inland  consumption  in  the  enlargement  countries  listed 

above  than  they  do  within  EU-15.  The  overall  contribution  of  solid  fuels  to 

the  gross  inland  consumption  of  all  of  the  countries  listed  is  43%,  which  is 

considerably  larger  than  the  equivalent  contribution  of  16%  in  EU-15. 

φ  Enlargement 

Countries  Data 

indicator  10.2  Electricity  Generation,  by  Type  of  Plant  (1999) 

I Other  Renewables 

I Hydro 

I  Nuclear 

I Thermal 

table  10.2 

Electricity  Generation,  by Type  of Plant  (1999) 

Bulgaria 

19 

4 52 

Czech  R e p u b l ic 

49 

117 

15 

8 14 

13 

357 

? 

753 

1 

680 

Estonia 

Hungary 

Latvia 

L i t h u a n ia 

P o l a nd 

Romania 

Slovakia 

Slovenia 

Ά 

263 

0 

22 

877 

14 

096 

HSH 

181 

1 

350 

2 

812 

137 

8 42 

27 

2 22 

0 

? 

757 

9 

862 

414 

0 

2 

155 

5 

198 

18 

290 

HH 

825 

4 

HH 

696 

4 

ΗΒΗ 

3 

740 

Units: GWh 

('data  not available) 

Wind  Geothermal  Other  Fuel 

Combustible  fuels  used  in  thermal  power  stations  are the dominant  means 

0 

1 

1 

0 

2 

0 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

0 

3 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

38  0 19 

64  158 

8  2 68 

37  154 

4  1 10 

13  0 88 

140  0 01 

50  713 

HHH 

0 

HHH 

0 

HHH 

0 

HHH 

13  2 62 

of  electricity  generation  in the enlargement  countries  for which  data has 

been  presented.  Notable  exceptions  however  are  the use  of nuclear  energy 

in  Lithuania,  and  the use  of  hydropower  in  Latvia. 

The  most  significant  source  of renewable  energy  is hydropower  which  makes 

a  contribution  of 67% in  Latvia,  36% in  Romania  and  28%  in Slovenia, but 

significantly  smaller  contributions  in  the other  countries.  Wind  powered 

generation  makes  a small  (up to  0.05%)  contribution  in four  of the  coun­

tries  listed.  As in the  case of EU-15, the  use of geothermal  heat for electric­

ity  generation  is very  limited. 

Λ)  Enlargement 

Countries  Data 

indicator  10.3  Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  (1997) 

Nitrous Oxide 

Methane 

Carbon Dioxide 

table  10.3 

Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  (1997) 

Bulgaria  (1995) 
Czech  Republic 

Estonia 
Hungary 

Latvia 
Lithuania  (1990) 

Poland 
Romania 

Slovakia 

Units:  Thousand  tonnes  C0!  equivalent 

Methane 
18 929 

11 761 
2 164 

16 542 
2 138 
7 937 

47 845 
29 852 

Nitrous Oxide 
6 386 
8 882 
217 
1 364 
1 184 
4 077 
16 743 
4 721 
3 884 

Total  greenhouse  gas  emissions  from  the  enlargement  countries  listed  amount 

to  1 066  million  tonnes  of  C02  eguivalent,  while  total  emissions  from  EU-15 

Member  States  were  4  046  million  tonnes  in  1998  (see  8.1)  The  relative 

contributions  of  the  three  greenhouse  gases  are  different  for  the  enlarge 

ment  countries  by  comparison  with  those  of  the  Member  States.  Carbon 

dioxide  is  still  by  far  the  most  significant  and,  as  in  the  case  of  EU-15, 

accounts  for  82%  of  the  total.  However,  the  contribution  of  methane  in  the 

enlargement  countries  (13%)  is  higher  than  in  EU-15  (9%),  while  the  con 

tribution  of  nitrous  oxide  (4.5%)  is  lower  than  the  9%  which  applies  in  the 

case  of  EU-15. 

ffî)  Enlargement 

Countries  Data 

E N E R GY 

I

N

D

I

C

A

T O RS 

Annex  A: 
Methodology  for  the  calculation  of 
EU-wide  average  fuel  prices 

All  available  price  data  has  been  used  in  the  calculation  of  EU-

wide  fuel  price  averages  in  the  section  on  energy  prices.  However, 

in  the  majority  of  the  series  in  this  section,  price  data  for  the  three 

countries  most  recently  acceded  to  the  Union  (Sweden,  Finland 

and  Austria)  are  not  available  before  1993.  (This  is  not  the  case  for 

the  data  presented  in  the  other  sections  which  include  all  Member 

States  for  the  entire  period,  including,  unless  otherwise  stated, 

the  former  East  Germany).  Since  the  overall  EU  price  is  an  average 

of  the  prices  in  the  individual  countries  weighted  by  their  con 

sumption,  the  impact  on  the  EU  price  of  these  Member  States  will 

be  minimal  due  to  their  relatively  low  consumption. 

Electricity 
Electricity  prices  are  collected  by  Eurostat  from  the  Member  States 

of  EU-15.  The  prices  are  as  of  1 January  in  the  year  shown.  Prices 

are  collected  at  a  variety  of  locations  in  each  country  and  for  a 

number  of  different  consumers.  For  domestic  prices,  the  standard 

consumer  used  is  Dd  -  one  with  an  annual  consumption  of  7  500 
kWh  which  corresponds  to  a  standard  dwelling  of  100m2  with  4-5 

rooms  plus  a  kitchen.  For  industhal  prices,  the  standard  consumer 

used  is  Ig  -  one  with  an  annual  consumption  of  24  000  000  kWh. 

More  detailed  information  on  the  survey  can  be  found  in  Eurostat's 

Electricity  Prices  publication. 

The  average  price  in  each  country  is  calculated  as  the  median  of 

the  prices  in  the  various  locations.  The  average  EU  price  is  then 

calculated  by  taking  a  weighted  average  of  the  prices  in  indi 

vidual  countries.  Domestic  prices  are  weighted  by  the  final  energy 

consumption  of  electricity  in  households  recorded  annually  by 

Eurostat.  Industrial  prices  are  weighted  by  the  final  energy  con 

sumption  of  electricity  in  industry  recorded  by  the  same  survey. 

Since  price  data  are  available  for  1998  and  1999  but  consump 

tion  data  are  not,  the  prices  for  1998  and  1999  have  been  weighted 

by  1997  consumption;  this  should  have  only  a  small  effect  on  the 

EU  average. 

194 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

The  survey  collects  final  selling  prices,  prices  less  VAT  and  prices 

less  all  taxes.  The  domestic  prices  shown  here  are  final  selling 

prices  while  industrial  prices  are  shown  less  VAT  (i.e.  what  industry 

will  actually  pay  for  the  energy). 

Gas 

Natural  gas  prices  are  collected  by  Eurostat  on  a  similar  basis  to 

electricity  prices.  The  EU averages  are  also  calculated  in  the  same 

way  albeit  using  different  standard  consumers  and  different  con 

sumption  measures  to  weight  the  country  prices.  For  domestic 

consumers,  the  standard  consumer  used  is  D2  (annual  consump 

tion  of  16.74  GJ  i.e.  4  652  kWh)  while  for  industrial  consumers  it 

is  14-1  (annual  consumption  of  418  600  GJ  i.e.  116.30  GWh). 

Domestic  natural  gas  prices  are  weighted  by  final  energy  consump 

tion  of  gas  in  households  while  industrial  prices  are  weighted  by 

final  consumption  in  industry. 

The  survey  collects  final  selling  prices,  prices  less  VAT  and  prices 

less  all  taxes.  The  domestic  prices  shown  here  are  final  selling 

prices  while  industrial  prices  are  shown  less  VAT  (i.e.  what  industry 

will  actually  pay  for  the  energy). 

Petroleum  products 
The  heating  gasoil,  residual  fuel  oil  and  gasoline  and  automotive 

diesel  prices  are  supplied  to  DG-TREN  of  the  Commission  by  the 

Member  States  as  those  being  the  most  freguently  encountered  for 

the  specific  categories  of  sale  listed  below.  The  prices  given  are  as 

of  15  January  in  each  year. 

The  heating  gasoil  prices  given  are  for  deliveries  of  between  2  000 

and  5  000  litres  while  those  for  residual  fuel  oil  are  for  monthly 

deliveries  of  less  than  2  000  tonnes  or  annual  deliveries  of  less 

than  24  000  tonnes.  Average  pump  prices  are  given  for  premium 

(leaded)  gasoline,  unleaded  gasoline  and  automotive  diesel  fuel. 

The  EU average  prices  are  calculated  by  weighting  the  prices  from 

each  country  by  the  final  energy  consumption  of  gasoil  in  house 

holds,  of  residual  fuel  oil  in  industry  and  of  the  three  automotive 

fuels  (separately)  in  transport  for  the  respective  products. 

EU-wide  prices  for  premium  gasoline  are  not  given  for  1997  to 

1999  because  falling  consumption  means  that  some  of  the  prices 

have  become  unreliable. 

195 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

The  price  of  oil  shown  is  the  annual  average  of  Brent  crude  spot 

prices. 

Coal 
The average  import  prices  of  steam  coal are  taken  from  Eurostat's 

Comext database of trade in  goods of  EU Member States. The prices 

include  imports  from  within  and  outside  the  EU. They  are  calcu 

lated  by  taking  the  total  value  of  imports  to  each  Member  State 

and  dividing  it  by  the  total  quantity.  The  EU average  is  then 

calculated  by  weighting  the  results  from  each  Member  State  by 

the coal input  into  conventional thermal power stations  (for steam 

coal)  and  by  coal  input  into  coking  plants  (for  coking  coal). 

196 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Annex  Β: 
Glossary  of  Terms  Used  in 
this  Publication 

Acid Equivalent: 
The acid  equivalent  of  a gas is  a measure  of  the  acidifying  effect 

of  that  gas. The  concept  is  used in  order  to  determine  the 

acidifying  effect  of  a combination  of  different  gases. This is 

achieved  by  first  multiplying  the  quantities  of  the  individual 

gases  by  their  respective  acid  equivalents  and  then  adding 

these  equivalent  quantities  together.  For  the  gases  included  in 
this  publication,  the  acid  equivalent  of  sulphur  dioxide  (S02)  is 
1/32,  and  that  of  oxides  of  nitrogen  (NOJ  is  1/46. 

Acidifying Gases: 
The  acidifying  gases  considered  in  this  publication  are  sulphur 
dioxide  (S02)  and  oxides  of  nitrogen  (NOJ. Emissions  of  these 
gases  are  associated  with  the  formation  of  acid  rain. 

Added Value: 
See  "Value  Added" 

CHP: 
See  "Combined  Heat  and  Power" 

C02 Equivalent: 
The  C02 equivalent  of  a greenhouse  gas  is  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  quantity  of  that  gas  by  its  global  warming 

potential  (q.v.).  The  concept  is  used  in  order  to  determine  the 

global  warming  potential  of  a  combination  of  different 

greenhouse  gases.  This  is  achieved  by  first  multiplying  the 

quantities  of  the  individual  gases  by  their  respective  global 

warming  potentials  and  then  adding  these  equivalent  quantities 

together. 

Cogeneration: 
See  "Combined  Heat  and  Power" 

197 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Combined  Heat and Power: 
A combined  heat  and  power  (also  referred  to  as a cogeneration 

or  a CHP)  unit  is  an  installation  in  which  heat  energy  released 

from  fuel is  transmitted  to  electrical  generator  sets  which  are 

designed  and  operated  in  such  a way  that  energy  is  partly  used 

for  generating  electrical  energy  and  partly  for  supplying  heat  for 

various  purposes.  The  thermal  efficiency  of  a combined  heat  and 

power  unit  is  significantly  higher  than  that  of  an  electricity-

only  unit. 

Constant  Price: 
The constant  (or  real)  price  of  a commodity  is  its  price 

considered  in  constant  terms,  taking  account  of  inflation. 

Current  Price: 
The current  (or  nominal)  price  of  a commodity  is  its  price 

considered  in  current  terms,  without  taking  account  of 

inflation. 

Energy  Dependency: 
Energy  dependency  shows  the  extent  to  which  a country  relies 

upon  imports  in  order  to  meet  its  energy  needs.  It  is  calculated 

using  the  following  formula: 

net  imports  /  gross  inland  consumption 

Energy  Intensity: 
Energy  intensity  gives  an  indication  of  the  effectiveness  with 

which  energy  is  being  used  to  produce  added  value.  It  is 

defined  as the  ratio  of  Gross  Inland  Consumption  to  Gross 

Domestic  Product. 

Energy System: 
The  energy  system  is  the  combination  of  the  energy  industry, 

i.e.  the  energy  transformation  sector,  and  the  final  energy 

consumers. 

Final Energy Consumption: 
Final  energy  consumption  is  the  energy  consumed  in  the 

transport,  industrial,  commercial,  agricultural,  public  authority 

and  household  sectors.  It  excludes  deliveries  to  the  energy 

transformation  sector  and  to  the  energy  producing  industries 

themselves. 

198 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

GCV: 

See  "Gross  Calorific  Value" 

GDP: 

See  "Gross  Domestic  Product" 

Global Warming  Potential: 

The  global  warming  potential  of  a  greenhouse  gas  is  a  measure 

of  its  ability  to  trap  heat  in  the  earth's  atmosphere  over  a  100-

year  period.  This  is  quoted  relative  to  that  of  carbon  dioxide 

which  has  a  global  warming  potential  of  1.  Of  the  other  gases 

included  in  this  publication,  the  global  warming  potential  of 

methane  (CHJ  is  21,  and  that  of  nitrous  oxide  (N20)  is  310. 

Greenhouse  Gases: 

The  main  greenhouse  gas  emissions  considered  in  this 

publication  are  carbon  dioxide  (C02),  methane  (CHJ  and  nitrous 

oxide  (N20).  Emissions  of  these  gases  are  associated  with  the 

"Greenhouse  Effect"  which  gives  rise  to  an  increase  in  the  Earth's 

temperature. 

Gross  Calorific  Value: 

The  gross  calorific  value  (GCV)  is  the  total  amount  of  heat 

released  by  a  unit  quantity  of  fuel,  when  it  is  burned  completely 

with  oxygen,  and  the  products  of  combustion  are  returned  to 

ambient  temperature.  This  quantity  includes  the  heat  of 

condensation  of  any  water  vapour  contained  in  the  fuel  and  of 

the  water  vapour  formed  by  the  combustion  of  any  hydrogen 

contained  in  the  fuel. 

Gross  Domestic  Product: 

The  gross  domestic  product  (GDP)  is  the  value  of  the  output  of 

all  goods  and  services  produced  within  the  borders  of  a  country. 

Gross  Inland  Consumption: 

Gross  inland  consumption  is  the  quantity  of  energy  consumed 

within  the  borders  of  a  country.  It  is  calculated  using  the 

following  formula: 

primary  production  +  recovered  products  +  imports  + 

stock  changes  -  exports  -  bunkers  (i.e.  quantities 

supplied  to  sea-going  ships) 

199 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Hard Coal and  Derived Products: 
Hard  coal  and  derived  products  include  hard  coal,  patent  fuels, 

hard  coke,  gas-works  coke  and  coal  semi-coke. 

Lignite  and  Derived  Products: 
Lignite  and  derived  products  include  lignite,  peat,  brown  coal 

briquettes  and  peat  briquettes. 

Natural Gas: 
Natural  gas  occurs  in  natural  underground  deposits,  and  may  or 

may  not  be  associated  with  oil  deposits.  It  contains  essentially 

methane,  but  also  small  proportions  of  other  gases.  It  also 

covers  methane  recovered  in  coal  mines. 

NCV: 
See "Net  Calorific  Value" 

Net Calorific Value: 
The  net  calorific  value  (NCV)  is  the  amount  of  heat  released  by a 

unit  quantity  of  fuel,  when  it  is  burned  completely  with 

oxygen,  and  the  products  of  combustion  are  returned  to 

ambient  temperature.  This  quantity  does  not  include  the  heat 

of  condensation  of  any  water  vapour  contained  in  the  fuel  nor 

of  the  water  vapour  formed  by  the  combustion  of  any  hydrogen 

contained  in  the  fuel. 

Nominal Price: 
See "Current  Price" 

Power Station  Efficiency: 
The efficiency  of  a thermal  or  nuclear  power  station  is  defined as 

the  ratio  between  the  output,  i.e.  the  gross  electricity 

generated,  and  the  fuel  input.  In  the  case  of  a combined  heat 

and  power  installation  the  output  is  considered  to  be  the  gross 

electricity  generated  plus  the  heat  produced. 

200 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Primary  Energy Production: 
Primary  energy  production  is  the  extraction  of  energy  from a 

natural  source.  The  precise  definition  depends  on  the  fuel 

involved: 

Hard coal, lignite: Quantities  of  fuels  extracted  or  produced, 

calculated  after  any  operation  for  removal  of  inert  matter.  In 

general,  production  includes  the  quantities  consumed  by  the 

producer  during  the  production  process  (e.g.  for  heating  or 

operation  of  equipment  and  auxiliaries)  as well  as any  quantities 

supplied  to  other  on-site  producers  of  energy  for  transformation 

or  other uses. 

Crude  oil:  Quantities  of  fuels  extracted  or  produced  within 

national  boundaries,  including  off-shore  production. 

Production  includes  only  marketable  production,  and  excludes 

any  quantities  returned  to  formation.  Production  includes  all 

crude  oil,  natural  gas  liquids  (NGL),  condensates  and  oil  from 

shale  and  tar  sands,  etc. 

Petroleum  products:  Quantities  of  natural  gasoline  and  other 

products  obtained  from  the  production,  purification  and 

stabilisation  of  natural  gas,  which  can  be  consumed  without 

refining. 

Natural gas: Quantities  of  dry  gas,  measured  after  purification 

and  extraction  of  natural  gas  liquids  and  sulphur.  Production 

includes  only  marketable  production,  and  excludes  any 

quantities  re-injected,  vented  and  flared,  and  any  extraction 

losses.  Production  includes  all  quantities  used  within  the 

natural  gas  industry,  in  gas  extraction,  pipeline  systems  and 

processing  plants. 

Nuclear  heat: Quantities  of  heat  produced  in  a  reactor. 

Production  is  the  actual  heat  produced  or  the  heat  calculated 

on  the  basis  of  the  gross  electricity  generated  and  the  thermal 

efficiency  of  the  nuclear  plant. 

Hydropower,  Wind energy,  Solar photovoltaic  energy: 

Quantities  of  electricity  generated.  Production  is  calculated  on 

the  basis  of  the  gross  electricity  generated  and  a conversion 

factor  of  3 600  kJ/kWh. 

201 

E N E R GY 

I N D I C A T O RS 

Primary  Energy Production, continued 

Geothermal  energy:  Quantities  of  heat  extracted  from 

geothermal  fluids.  Production  is  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the 

difference  between  the  enthalpy  of  the  fluid  produced  in  the 

production  borehole  and  that  of  the  fluid  disposed  of  via  the 

reinjection  borehole. 

Biomass/Wastes:  In  the  case  of  municipal  solid  wastes  (MSW), 

wood,  wood  wastes  and  other  solid  wastes,  production  is  the 

heat  produced  after  combustion  and  corresponds  to  the  heat 

content  (NCV)  of  the  fuel. 

In  the  case  of  anaerobic  digestion  of  wet  wastes,  production  is 

the  heat  content  (NCV)  of  the  biogases  produced.  Production 

includes  all  quantities  of  gas  consumed  in  the  installation  for 

the  fermentation  processes,  and  excludes  all  quantities  of  flared 

gases. 

In  the  case  of  biofuels,  production  is  the  heat  content  (NCV)  of 

the  fuel. 

Real Price: 
See "Constant  Price" 

Renewable  Energy: 
Renewable  energy  includes  hydroelectricity,  biomass,  wind,  and 

solar,  tidal  and  geothermal  energies. 

Value Added: 
The  value  added  (to  a  product,  or  added  value  of  a  product)  is 

the  increase  in  the  value  of that  product  as the  result  of a 

particular  stage  of  a  production  process. 

202 

European  Commission 

Integration -  indicators for energy 

Luxembourg: Office for Official  Publications of the  European  Communities 

2001  -  203  pp.  -  10.5 χ 21  cm 

Theme 8: Environment  and  energy 
Collection: Key  indicators 

ISBN  92-894-1000-0 

Price (excluding VAT) In Luxembourg: EUR 10 

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The European Union Chamber ct 

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+ Eun Jt 
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ISBN 92-894-1000-0 

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KS-AE-01-OOl-EN-K 
Integration - indicators for energy 
Dati 1985-98 

Please replace the text associated with Indicator 11 (energy dependency) on page 3 of the publication 
'Integration — indicators for energy' 
Data 1985-98 
Catalogue no KS-AE-01-OOl-EN-C 
with the following: 

Integration - indicators for energy Ρφ 3 

Indicator 1.1 - energy dependency 

Energy dependency measures the extent to which a œuiitry renes M imperò to meet ite 
presents energy dependency in percent and shows the ratio of net ιπφοΠ3 of an energy product to the total gross 
inland camnption. 

The chart shows the importance of imported fossil tuels in EU-15 Member States. Within EU-15, approximately 
ime tluid of the gross inland amsumption is satisfied by imported erode oil and its products. Gas dependency has 
shownthe largest percentage increase. Themcreasemgasusemallse^irsisa^toanumberofiactors, 
inchiding improved availability and pressure to discontinue the use of other fuels due to their high environmental 
impact 

DerxmdCTcyOTinipomtiasi^^ 
are now imported. This highlights the increased demand for energy sources, and the extent to which internal Eli 

is outstripped by demand tor products such as petroleum for transport and gas for electncity generation