Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Annual Report on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men  in the European Union 2000
Date: 2001-04-02
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: action programme, equal treatment, gender equality, member country, report

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 02.04.2001
COM (2001) 179 final

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE
COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Annual Report on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men
in the European Union 2000

Executive Summary

The Community Framework Strategy on Gender Equality and the new Programme 2001-05

In June 2000, the Commission adopted the first comprehensive Framework Strategy on
Gender Equality covering all aspects of the question: equality in economic, social, and civil
life, equality in decision-making and gender roles and stereotypes. It combines measures
designed specifically to foster equality with the mainstreaming of gender issues in all
Community policies. In line with the integrated approach, the Strategy makes use of all
existing tools and structures, while supporting the development of new ones: monitoring,
indicators and benchmarking.

The Strategy is accompanied by a Programme, which will provide
50 million over the next
five years for promoting gender equality. The Programme will support awareness-raising
measures, policy analysis and the forging of networks for equality between EU institutions,
national authorities, social partners and NGOs. It will aim to promote good gender-equality
practice, enhance understanding of gender discrimination and help key players in the fight
against gender inequality.

€

Gender mainstreaming

Mainstreaming commits the EU to incorporating the goal of gender equality into the full
range of its activities, not just those aimed directly at promoting it. It is a central element in
the Commission's new Framework Strategy.

Over the past two years, progress has been concentrated in those areas where most had
already been done. Efforts must now be extended to other areas. It is also vitally important to
develop effective tools for this relatively new approach: better monitoring systems and
statistics are needed. Sufficient human resources must be allocated to the task, and staff
training is required to raise awareness.

Parliament has expressed its commitment to mainstreaming on several occasions over the past
year, and both the Portuguese and French Presidencies encouraged discussions on
mainstreaming in the Council.

Gender equality in employment

There is still a large gender pay gap and the female employment rate is still 18 percentage
points below the male rate. In response, the Lisbon European Council in March set ambitious
new targets for women: most importantly, measures should be take to increase the female
employment rate to 60% by 2010 from today's 53%.

The Employment strategy should play an important part in achieving that target. Under the
gender-equality pillar, there was an encouraging amount of activity aimed at helping working
people to reconcile work with family life. By contrast there was little action to reduce the pay
gap.

Gender equality is also pursued through the other pillars: employability, entrepreneurship and
adaptability. Employability measures should not be focused too narrowly on benefit
claimants, as this excludes many women who may want work but are not registered as
unemployed. Little has been done to promote adaptability, though working time and work

2

organisation more generally are of great relevance to working women. Measures must be
the number of women in information and
taken across
telecommunications industries.

the board to increase

A gender perspective in EU human rights policies

In 2000, the Commission put forward a proposal to amend the 1976 Directive on equal
treatment. The proposal makes use of the new Treaty provisions on gender equality and
tightens up the wording in line with European case law. Most importantly, it would recognise
sexual harassment as a form of discrimination, enable victims of discrimination to be
represented by organisations in administrative and legal proceedings, and guarantee women
the right to return to work after maternity leave.

The Commission also announced its intention to propose a new gender-equality Directive in
2002, based on Article 13 of the EC Treaty.

At the Beijing+5 Conference in New York, the EU reaffirmed its commitment to the Action
Platform it subscribed to in 1995. It blocked attempts to water down the language used in the
Platform but was less successful in its attempts to strengthen it on a number of issues
including trafficking in women.

Trafficking in women was high on the political agenda in 2000. The Commission continued
to fight
through the STOP Programme, and proposed a two-year extension to the
Programme. On domestic violence, the information campaign came to an end but the Daphne
Initiative was superseded by a fully-fledged Programme.

it

Equality in the enlargement process

Under the Commission's strategy paper on enlargement, endorsed at the Nice European
Council, provisional completion for negotiations on employment and social policy are
scheduled for the first half of 2001 for most countries.

Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania appear to be the front runners in passing
Community legislation on gender equality into national law. Other countries still have a great
deal of work ahead of them, though some progress was made in 2000. Poland and Turkey
seem to have made no progress in adopting the acquis over the past year.

Candidate countries must also ensure that their institutions are capable of enforcing equality
legislation. Here again, Hungary and Lithuania made most progress. On the whole,
institutional capacity is not up to the task. It is to be hoped that the candidate countries will
make use of the help available through the new action programme on gender equality. The
take up rate under the previous programme was low.

The figures on labour-market inequalities appear to paint a more optimistic picture. The
female employment rate, for example, compares favourably with the EU's average rate.
However, the picture is more complicated: a persistent pay gap; the scarcity of good-quality
childcare facilities and discriminatory social attitudes all keep female participation in the
labour market down. Furthermore,
is still segregated, with women
the labour market
concentrated in certain occupations and industries.

As regards political participation, women are seriously under-represented in national and
regional political arenas and positions of authority. Rates are significantly below the EU
average.

3

Promoting a gender balance in decision-making

Women are still under-represented in the EU too. Correcting the gender imbalance in
decision-making is a slow process despite the measures taken at national and European level.
Work will continue under the Strategy for gender equality. The Programme will support the
development of statistics on women in economic and social decision-making, currently
lacking.

The Commission is committed to tackling its own gender imbalance, through recruitment
targets and by taking gender into account as one of the criteria for selecting candidates. It will
also take steps to ensure that women are properly represented on all its committees and expert
groups.

At national level, a wide variety of measures have been tried to raise female representation,
with varying degrees of success. Long-term commitment, political will and a good mix of
policies appear to be more important than any single tool.

The issue of women in business is only just starting to be addressed in a systematic way.
Good statistics are needed to make the glass ceiling and other obstacles more visible. A recent
Commission study found that only 23% of businesses in the EU are owned by women.

4

The Community Framework Strategy on Gender Equality (2001-
2005) and the new Action Programme

THE STRATEGY

On 7 June 2000, the Commission adopted a new Community Framework Strategy for gender
equality.1 For the first time, the Strategy brings together, under a single umbrella, all the
different initiatives and programmes that tended to be dealt with in isolation from each other
in the past, often under different budget headings.

This comprehensive, integrated approach combines specific measures and policies designed
to promote gender equality with an across-the-board mainstreaming approach, the purpose of
which is to ensure that all policies take gender
issues into account; accordingly, all
Commission departments will be asked to report on what they are doing to incorporate the
goal of gender equality into their policy-making process.

The Strategy focuses on five objectives, which provide a frame of reference for policy
development and to which all Community gender equality initiatives will be linked:

– equality in economic life;

– equal representation and participation in decision-making;

– equality in social life;

– equality in civil life; and

– changing gender roles and overcoming stereotypes.

The Strategy applies not just to policies of direct relevance to EU citizens, but also in the
Union's dealings with the rest of the world, though the enlargement process, development
cooperation and external relations generally.

The Strategy makes use of existing tools, structures and methods, such as gender impact
assessment, whilst also supporting the development of new, more effective ones. Common
indicators are being introduced and benchmarks set, to improve monitoring and evaluation
and to enable activities to be refocused over the Strategy's lifetime.

THE PROGRAMME

Attached to the Strategy is a new Programme that will run alongside it from 2001 to 2005.2
Through the Programme,
50 million will be available over the five-year period to fund:
awareness-raising measures; analysis and evaluation of policies affecting equality; and the

€

1

2

Communication from the Commission to the Council, The European Parliament, the Economic and
Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Towards a Community Framework Strategy on
Gender Equality (2001-2005) COM(2000) 335 final
Council Decision of 20 December 2000 establishing a Programme relating to the Community
framework strategy on gender equality (2001-05)

5

forging of equality networks linking EU institutions, national authorities, social partners and
NGOs. These activities, in turn, serve three objectives:

– to promote and disseminate good gender-equality practice and the values underlying it;

– to provide insight into the issues related, directly or indirectly, to gender discrimination by

finding out where it exists and exploring policy responses; and

– to develop the capacity of key players, such as NGOs and social partners, to promote

gender equality.

6

Gender mainstreaming

MAINSTREAMING COMMUNITY POLICIES

The EU's mainstreaming policy commits it to pursuing the goal of gender equality through all
its policies, legislative measures and other activities, not just those with equal opportunities as
in the Commission's new
their primary purpose. Mainstreaming is a central element
Framework Strategy. It was also a guiding principle behind the Fourth Medium-term
Community Action programme on equal opportunities, which came to an end in 2000.
the projects funded were concerned primarily with gender
Around a quarter of all
mainstreaming.3 Many explored how gender can be integrated into the development and
implementation of local and regional policy, into urban policies, or how to familiarise key
players in the labour market and the media with the concept.

In August 2000 the Commission carried out a survey on gender mainstreaming. In particular,
the survey looked at the organisational and methodological framework set up for gender
mainstreaming, and the impact of the gender mainstreaming methods used. The process was
also useful in guiding the Commission's choice of priorities for the new Framework Strategy
on gender equality.

The survey revealed that, as a rule, the greatest efforts to promote gender equality were made
in those policy areas where most progress had been made in previous years: the Structural
Funds, education and training, development co-operation and social affairs, and science and
research.Advances were also made in economic policy:
the Broad Economic Policy
Guidelines for 2000 included two recommendations on equal opportunities. One concerns
wage discrimination while the other calls for more work to be done on equal opportunities
policy for women and men. Efforts must now be extended to other areas, where the obstacles
noted in 1998 are still largely in place.

Tools, techniques and resources

1.

2.

3

Gender impact assessment is an essential first step in formulating gender-sensitive
policies. It has already been introduced into a number of Community policies: a
series of gender
the Fifth
Community Framework Programme for Research;
in the field of Community
humanitarian aid, gender is now one of the issues examined in the regular ex-post
evaluations; and new techniques and tools for assessing national tax policies are
currently being developed.

impact studies were launched in June 2000 under

Statistics and data broken down by sex are also essential tools for mainstreaming
and gender assessment. Statistics, indicators and benchmarks make it possible to
measure progress towards equality; they reveal the differential impact on women and
men of all policies, some of which were previously thought to be gender-neutral.

Despite technical complications and a reluctance on the part of data suppliers to
provide data broken down by sex, progress has been made.

See Directory of projects 1999 - medium-term Community Action Programme on Equal Opportunities
for women and men. See link at http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/equ_opp/index_en.html

7

• Gender benchmarks and indicators are being developed on science, and

development cooperation.

• The Council is promoting the development of indicators on balanced participation
of women and men in decision-making and reconciliation of work and family.

• In 2000, Eurostat launched a broad collection of gender statistics and a feasibility

study about comparable statistics on childcare.

3.

It is now recognised that institutional practices and structures, clear responsibility
and accountability, high-level support and interdepartmental cooperation are all
essential elements in the mainstreaming policy. Furthermore, senior officials
throughout the organisation must be aware of and give sufficient attention to gender
issues, and provide appropriate training. To flourish, gender mainstreaming must be
properly rooted in the institution rather than dependent for survival on the efforts of
committed individuals.

The high mobility of staff in charge of gender equality needs to be offset by good-
quality training throughout the Commission to increase levels of awareness. Hence,
in 2000, the Commission continued to provide training on gender equality and
mainstreaming, and stepped up its attempt to raise the profile of gender issues.

Successful gender mainstreaming: selected examples

Women and Science

Following the 1999 Communication on "Women and Science",4 considerable progress has
been made on integrating gender issues into the EU's science and research policies. Gender
impact assessment of the Fifth Framework programme for Research and Technological
Development (RTD) is currently under way and
1.4 million has been invested in gender
including on new technologies. When the Commission issues calls for
impact studies,
proposals for science and research projects,
includes in the call a standard clause
encouraging proposals from women, or from groups involving women.

it

€

The proportion of women in senior scientific positions is currently very small and statistics
are in short supply. The Council Resolution of 20 May 1999 on Women and Science5 invited
the Commission to produce, building on Member States' contributions, comparable data and
European indicators to assess at EC level the situation of women in RTD. Since then, and
after having assessed the limited potential to be found in major European statistical surveys
(e.g. LFS, R&D surveys, etc.), the Commission has launched a three-year project, "Design
and collection of statistical indicators on women in science". In its Communication "Making a
reality of the European Research Area: Guidelines for EU Research activities (2002-2006)6,
the Commission identified the situation of women in science as one of its key concerns. It will
recommend that gender equality should be mainstreamed into the Sixth framework
programme (2002-06).

4

5

6

COM(99) 76
OJ C 201, 16.2.1999, p. 1
COM (2000) 612

8

Structural Funds and rural development

Figure 1
Share ESF assistance for equal
opportunities

20

15

%

10

5

5

0

12

10

12

10

3 4

5

11

9

15

7

1

1

Source figure 1 and 27

the
negotiations with
In
Member States on the content
of the new programmes for the
Fund
new
Structural
the
Regulations
European Commission stressed
the need for more effective
action on equality.8

(2000-2006),

Figure 2
ESF assistance (obj 1 and 3) for equal opportunities in
absolute terms (2000 -2006)

1062

797,9

509,04

336,9

224,96

126,84

47,85

470,61

1,95 17,83 66,33 47,21 62,28

135,6

n
o

i
l
l
i

€m

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

Belgium

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Netherlands
Luxembourg
Austria

Portugal

Finland

Sweden UK

A new more comprehensive approach has been introduced. Amongst the improvements made:

• There is more in-depth analysis of socio-economic inequalities between women and men,
and the remaining obstacles to equality are more clearly defined. However, the analysis has
not always been followed up with quantified targets for greater equality.

• Programmes for Spain, Italy, Sweden, Portugal, Ireland, Greece and the United Kingdom
provide for the setting up of working groups on equal opportunities, to handle preparatory
work for the Monitoring Committees.

• In Germany, Greece, Italy, the UK, Spain and Sweden, bodies promoting equality have

been invited to take part in the work of the Monitoring Committees.

7

8

Commission Communication on European Social Fund support for the European Employment Strategy
Council Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999 of 21 June 1999 laying down general provisions on the
Structural Funds. The Commission has produced a technical paper on the issue of mainstreaming equal
opportunities
and projects. See
http://www.inforegio.cec.eu.int

and men in Structural Funds programmes

for women

9

• A number of Member States made a general commitment
participation of men and women in Monitoring Committees.

to the idea of balanced

• More attention is devoted to the development of childcare services. In Ireland,

1 755.4
million has been earmarked for them for the 2000-06 Structural Fund programming period.
Greece and Italy are also planning initiatives in this area.

€

Since gender equality is mainstreamed throughout the entire strategy, it is not possible to
the ESF budget for measures
calculate exactly how much is devoted to it. However,
4 billion (see figs 1 and 2.)9
specifically concerned with gender equality now stands at some

€

Many of the new rural development programmes adopted in 2000 devote greater attention to
gender equality in rural life than in the past. Women currently account for 34% of the
workforce on farms, and 22% of heads of farm are women. The programmes aim to support
the major role that women can play in diversification of the rural economy.

The LEADER+ Community initiative, approved in 2000, identifies measures for women in
rural areas as a priority area. This is reflected in the programmes presented to the
Commission, many of which include quantifiable targets relating to women.

Development co-operation

In 2000, the focus was on developing a new Action Plan10 to implement Directives and
Recommendations through practical measures. The key challenge is to increase the number of
projects that are gender assessed – currently around 20% and address the lack of engendered
information, evaluation and reporting.

The issue of gender awareness is also given explicit attention in the EU Budget where a
specific budget line aims at providing technical support for the inclusion of gender issues in
the whole body of EU development-cooperation policy.

The euro

Even the euro has a gender dimension that needs to be taken into account: surveys have
repeatedly shown that women are less enthusiastic than men about the single currency and
feel less well informed.11 In line with the mainstreaming approach, the Commission co-
funded an information campaign on the euro aimed at responding specifically to women's
needs and concerns. Women's magazines in three countries12 have agreed to help by
increasing coverage on the Euro, targeted at women.

Conclusions and outlook

The mainstreaming strategy is very much a work in progress. Strong foundations are already
the Amsterdam Treaty and the Commission's 1996 Communication on
in place:

9

10

11

12

The Commission communication of 16 January 2001 (COM(2001) 16) outlines how the ESF underpins
the Member States' commitments under the European employment strategy
Draft Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament of 25 October
2000 - Action plan for mainstreaming of gender equality in Community development cooperation
Eurobarometer survey published in July 1999
Femmes d'Aujourd'hui (Belgium), Emma (Germany), Noi Donna (Italy)

10

mainstreaming.13 The edifice is now taking shape with regulations on gender mainstreaming
in relation to the Structural Funds, the employment strategy, development cooperation and
research.

At a conference on 27 October in Paris the French Presidency raised the issue of gender
mainstreaming in the Council, which they hoped would be established as a permanent feature.
Both Sweden and Belgium plan to pursue this issue during their Presidencies.

However, some essential building blocks are still missing. In some policy areas –transport, the
environment, consumer protection, agriculture and culture – a stronger "mainstreaming
reflex" needs to be developed to honour the Commission's clear commitment to promoting
gender equality across the board.

In general, the aim should be to:

–

–

–

make statistics broken down by sex the norm rather than the exception, and enhance
monitoring and evaluation;

increase awareness of gender issues at the decision-making levels in the Commission
and provide training to develop the necessary gender expertise among the
Commission officials; and

strengthen institutional mechanisms for gender mainstreaming.

Parliament's commitment to mainstreaming

The European Parliament regularly calls for gender mainstreaming in all Community
activities. In its resolution of 5 October 2000,14 Parliament expressed the view that any type
of aid, funding or benefit granted by the union must be subject to the requirement to observe
the principle of equal pay for men and women. It has called for measures in a wide range of
policy areas: to increase women's access to decision-making; encourage diversity in the career
choice of women and girls; persuade more women to enter the ICT sector; and examine what
bearing part-time work and atypical employment have on pay, social security contributions,
women's pensions and the spread on female poverty.

In its resolution on the Commission annual reports it takes the view that sex-disaggregated
statistics and gender indicators are "an essential tool for assessing progress towards equality
goals and for promoting gender mainstreaming by showing the differential impact on women
and men of all policies, particularly in fields previously thought to be gender neutral."
Parliament also considers it essential to identify comparable indicators, analysis procedures
and information to facilitate a correct assessment covering all aspects related to gender
equality.

13

14

COM (96)67 final, Communication on incorporating equal opportunities for Women and Men into all
Community Polices and Activities
Parliament Resolution of 5 October 2000 on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European
Union, Commission Annual Reports 1997, 1998 and 1999

11

Mainstreaming at national level

In February, Denmark passed a new law establishing the principle of gender mainstreaming
and new institutional mechanisms for gender equality. A new Italian equal opportunities
minister was appointed in April 2000 with increased scope for mainstreaming gender issues
into all government policies. Meanwhile the German Government
introduced gender
mainstreaming in all Federal ministries.

Tools and indicators

The Irish Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform commissioned research into the
mechanisms for monitoring gender equality, with a view to developing indicators to measure
the practical impact of policies and programmes. Germany set up an inter-ministerial working
group to develop mainstreaming tools.

Training

The Nordic Council outlined a gender equality training programme, to be launched in 2001.
The German Government also plans to arrange training for its officials. Portugal incorporated
gender equality in its teacher training programmes.

.

12

Gender equality in employment

NEW TARGETS FOR EQUALITY

If social justice did not demand equal opportunities for women and men in employment, then
the economy would. Equal pay, proper recognition of women's skills and abilities, and
policies that enable employees to combine work and family life: all help draw more women
onto the labour market and give the economy a productive boost. The increasing economic
activity rate among women has been a significant factor in Europe's economic growth. For the
EU as a whole, it is estimated that almost a fifth of the annual GDP growth of 2.3% can be
explained by women's increased labour force participation.

Yet inequalities are still very substantial, albeit diminishing (see figures 3-9).

• The employment rate for women in the EU is still 18.2 percentage points below the male

rate.

• The unemployment rate for women is on average 3 percentage points higher than the male

rate.

• The labour market

is segregated by gender, with women concentrated in certain

occupations and industries and men in others.15

• When women are employed, they earn less than men, accounting for 77% of low-income

employees.

In March 2000, the Lisbon European Council16 identified ambitious new targets for women in
employment, chiefly to raise the female employment rate in the EU from 53% today to 60%
by 2010. This is essential if the EU is to raise its overall employment rate to 70%, another of
the Lisbon targets. The 60% target is an ambitious one. Reaching it would take female
employment in the EU to a level never seen before. In absolute terms, it means drawing an
additional 10 million women onto the labour market. The shortfalls are particularly large, in
absolute terms, in Italy, Spain and France.

15

16

For statistics, see Joint Employment Report 2000, point 3.4.2.
Presidency conclusions (Lisbon 23 and 24 March 2000) http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm

13

Country

Women
Employed

Figure 3

Employment
rate
1999

Target figure –
60% of working-
age women in
absolute terms

Additional women's
jobs to be created

8.1
325.8
805.8

3 010.0

1 238.6
686.9
107.0
4 256.5
16.2

14.6

10 469.5

AT
BE
DE
DK

ES
FI

FR
GR
IE
IT
LU
NL

PT
SE

UK

1 600.4
1 672.7
15 590.2
1 241.7

4 952.8
1 105.7

10 144.4
1 443.8
638.3
7 401.9
68.5
3 217.9

2 064.2
1 920.6

12 084.4

Total

65 147.5

59.7
50.2
57.1
71.6

37.3
64.6

53.5
40.7
51.4
38.1
48.5
61.3

59.6
68.9

63.9

52.6

1 608.5
1 998.5
16 396.0
Target already
achieved
7 962.8
target already
achieved
11 383.0
2 130.7
745.3
11 658.3
84.7
Target already
achieved
2 078.8
Target already
achieved
Target already
achieved
74 289.7

SourceLabourForceSurvey1999

Figure 4
European Union Employement rate by age
64,7 65,8 66,4 67,5 65,2

49,6

20,1

56,6

39,1

14,4

%

75

60

45

30

15

0

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64

Source : Eurostat Labour Force Survey

14

Figure 5
Female employment rate, 1997-1999
Source:EurostatLabourForceSurvey(GR1998-1999)

EUtarget 60 %

80

60

40

20

0
DK SE UK

1999

1997

FIN NL AT PT DE FR

EUR15 IE BE

LUXGR IT ES

Figure 6
Gender pay gap, Female to Male Ratio 1996
Source: Eurostat ECHP(1)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

D

IRL

A

UK

L

NL

EL

EU

F

FIN DK

I

B

E

P

All

Private sector

Public sector

15

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)
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r
e
p
(
p
a
G

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

Figure 7
Gender Unemployment gap
Source : Eurostat Labour Force Survey

AT

BE

Dw

De

DK

ES

FI

FR

GR

IR

IT

LU

NL

PO SW UK

E15

1997

1998

1999

F i g u r e 8
F u l l t i m e e q u i v a l e n t e m p l o y m e n t g a p
S o u r c e : E u r o s t a t L a b o u r F o r c e S u r v e y

i

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a
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4 0

3 5

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2 5

2 0

1 5

1 0

5

0

A T

B E

D w

D K

D e

E S

F I

F R

G R

I R

I T

L U

N L

P O

S W

U K

E 1 5

1 9 9 7

1 9 9 8

1 9 9 9

16

Figure 9
Employment gender gap
Source : Eurostat Labour Force Survey

i

p
a
g
t
n
o
p
e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
p

35

30

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20

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AT

BE

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DK

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ES

FI

FR

GR

IR

IT

LU

NL

PO

SW

UK

E15

1997

1998

1999

ASSESSMENT OF THE NATIONAL ACTION PLANS FOR 2000

The European Employment Strategy, now entering its fourth year, has provided a new focus
and stimulus to employment policy across Europe. Each year, a set of EU-wide employment
guidelines are drawn up. The Member States then produce national action plans (NAPs) to
implement the employment guidelines. The Joint Employment Report provides a comparative
assessment of the NAPs, and examines each Member State's response to the individual
recommendations for 2000 (see below).

As in previous years, the Guidelines for 2000 were divided into four policy areas, or pillars.
One pillar is specifically concerned with promoting equal opportunities. However, in line with
the mainstreaming approach, gender-equality issues are also taken into account in the other
the workforce, encouraging
three pillars, aimed at
entrepreneurship and promoting adaptability.

improving the employability of

The Equal opportunities pillar

The Equal Opportunities pillar calls for measures to close gender gaps in the labour market
(gaps in employment and unemployment, gender segregation in occupations and sectors and
promoting equal pay), to improve reconciliation of work and family life, and to make it easier
for women and men to re-enter the labour market after an absence.

Member States have started to acknowledge the gender pay gap. However, measures tended
to be rather vague, or relied too heavily on voluntary compliance. Only a few Member States
have developed practical job-evaluation instruments as a tool to help close the pay gap.

The level of activity in the field of reconciliation between work and family life was
encouraging. While there was little progress in developing care infrastructure for the elderly
most Member States put forward concrete proposals to expand childcare facilities. Childcare
services also showed signs of increasing flexibility. A number of Member States made
changes to the provision for leave, making them more flexible or introducing specific leave
provisions for fathers. However, few Member States increased levels of remuneration during
leave periods, even though fathers may be reluctant to take leave unless it is remunerated at
reasonable levels.

17

Promoting desegregation of the labour market

The labour market is segregated both horizontally and vertically: across the economy
as a whole, women are concentrated in certain occupations, industries and sectors; and
in any given industry or sector, they are under-represented in senior, well-paid
positions and over-represented in lower-paid jobs. While some countries launched
ambitious programmes to tackle gender segregation, most measures related to
horizontal rather than vertical segregation, with the exception of some programmes
for the public sector.

Denmark

A training placement scheme was launched to encourage men to move into
traditionally female areas and vice versa. All municipal administrations must report
every two years on progress in reducing sex segregation.

Finland

A three-year strategic project on labour market equality was launched. Employers and
schools will look into and attempt to influence factors affecting boys' and girls' career
choices.

Gender Mainstreaming in the employment strategy

The requirement
to mainstream the gender perspective is a valuable addition to the
employment policies in Europe. The Nordic countries have an established commitment to
mainstreaming, which they continue to honour as their employment policies develop. Italy,
France and Ireland all made a major effort to mainstream gender equality in their national
action plans (NAPs) for 2000.

However, much remains to be done in the majority of Member States to establish new
mechanisms, programmes
for mainstreaming. Many
employment policy areas are still not subjected to a gender analysis; monitoring and
evaluation amounts to little more than establishing participation rates by gender; specific
targets or indicators for gender equality are still thin on the ground.

and institutional

arrangements

Examples of innovations in gender mainstreaming policies

France

An inter-ministerial committee on women's rights has been set up covering eight
fields of action. Each field will be assessed for contributions to gender equality on an
annual basis. This mainstreaming initiative follows the setting up of a new
Government Secretariat for Women’s Rights in 1998.

Ireland

An Equal Opportunities Promotion and Monitoring Unit has been set up in the
Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform. It monitors gender mainstreaming
generally and advises on appropriate indicators. A committee has been established to
co-ordinate equality objectives in the National Development Plan.

18

Gender Mainstreaming in the Employability Pillar

Employability tends to be given more attention than the other pillars in the NAPs, which
makes it particularly important from a mainstreaming point of view. Those Member States
if employability
most committed to mainstreaming have by and large recognised that,
measures are targeted too narrowly on benefit claimants, they will miss a large number of
women who want to work but who currently do not. Consequently, they have provided access
to active labour-market programmes for women returners and others not eligible for
unemployment benefits because of family circumstances or a lack of continuous employment.
Where this approach has not been taken, women are predictably under-represented in the
programmes.

Gender Mainstreaming in the Entrepreneurship Pillar

Many Member States have established some form of positive action programme to encourage
women in business. Germany launched a new loan programme for women setting up small
businesses; counselling and information services are also to be available. In Sweden, a group
of senior managers was set up to devise ways of involving more women in leading positions
in business.

More could be done to open up opportunities for women in lucrative areas traditionally
dominated by men, such as IT; at present, the issue of gender segregation is not given due
attention. Member States must also check that general schemes promoting entrepreneurship
are fully accessible to women.

Entrepreneurship: initiatives at European level

The European Network to promote Women's Entrepreneurship, WES, was officially launched
in June 2000. The network has seventeen members, from all EU Member States, Iceland and
Norway. Delegates represent national Governments and bodies that promoting female
entrepreneurship. The aims are to raise the profile of existing women entrepreneurs, create a
more favourable climate increase the number of new women entrepreneurs and help existing
businesses run by women to expand. According to a study into women entrepreneurs in the
EU and central and eastern Europe women find it harder than their male counterparts to raise
capital for start-ups and expansion. They are also less aware of available support.

Gender Mainstreaming in the Adaptability Pillar

Many NAPs have devoted relatively little attention to adaptability in general,
so
mainstreaming is not very advanced. Yet issues of work organisation and working time are
clearly highly relevant to gender equality.

Gender analyses within this pillar are still rare, even though there are still large gender gaps in
the proportion of workers on atypical contracts and in part-time work, for instance. Some
Member States continue to promote flexibility with little regard for the impact on gender
equality.

Gender equality has not, as a rule, featured strongly in the social partners' discussions on
adaptability. France is something of an exception: the social partners are to be required to
include equal opportunities in their bargaining agenda.

19

Reconciliation of work and family life: high on the Portuguese and French Presidencies'
agendas

The issue of reconciling work and family life was one of the main issues tackled during under
the Portuguese Presidency in the first half of the year. At the initiative of the Portuguese
Presidency, the Member States adopted a Resolution on the balanced participation of men and
women in family and working life on 6 June 2000. The Resolution drew attention to the
importance of this issue, as one of the basic conditions for de facto equality.

As part of the Beijing+5 follow-up process, the French Presidency took up the thread by
developing a set of indicators on reconciliation. Amongst the issues covered by the indicators
were flexible working schemes, parental and other forms of leave and care-service opening
hours. On 27 November, the Council of Ministers (Employment and Social Affairs) called on
Member States to ensure these indicators were kept up-to-date and to adopt new measures and
strategies with the aim of achieving a more balanced distribution of professional activity and
home-related work between women and men.

Recommendations on the implementation of Member States' Employment Policies

On the basis of the analysis in the Joint Employment Report, the Commission drew up
employment-policy recommendations for 2000, for each individual Member State. The
recommendations, adopted by the Council, recognise that gender gaps in the labour market
require comprehensive gender mainstreaming strategies and measures to reconcile work and
family life. Recommendations on gender issues were issued to twelve Member States.

New developments in the Employment Guidelines for 2001

The Guidelines for 2001 were endorsed at the Nice European Council in early December
2000. The mainstreaming element for 2001 has been strengthened. Member States are
committed to developing more effective procedures for consulting gender-equality bodies,
assessing the gender impact of measures under each guideline and developing indicators to
measure progress towards gender equality, again for each guideline. Furthermore, the new
guidelines for 2001 take account of the Lisbon target for increased female employment. They
also call on Member States to consider setting national targets for increasing care facilities.

Women in the knowledge-based economy

Women are badly under-represented in the information technology and communications
industries. Even though women outnumber men in high-education sectors taken together,
within those sectors, they are less likely than men to secure the most highly-skilled, highly-
paid jobs.

If Europe is to make a successful transition to the a knowledge-based economy, it cannot
afford to under-utilise the enormous untapped potential of its female population. Accordingly,
when the Commission and the Council set out their ideas on how to achieve the targets set at
Lisbon in the e-Europe 2002 Action Plan,17 they stressed the importance of attracting women
into IT professions.

17

e-Europe 2002 – an Information society for all, prepared by the Council and the European Commission
for the Feira European Council (19-20 June 2000), Brussels, 14 June 2000

20

Likewise, the e-learning initiative,18 adopted by the Commission in May, seeks to prevent the
gap from growing any wider between those with access to the new information technologies
and those without, including women. Education plays a crucial role. One reason that women
are under-represented in well-paid IT professions is that they do not study the relevant
subjects in sufficient numbers at school or in higher education. It is important to break down
the barriers that prevent them from doing so.

18

e-Learning – designing tomorrow's education, COM(2000) 318 final, 24 May 2000

21

A Gender perspective in EU human rights policies and external
relations

WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN THE EU

Proposal to amend equal treatment Directive

On 7 June 2000, the Commission presented a proposal to amend the 1976 Directive on equal
treatment in employment.19 The legal basis for the proposal, Article 141(3) of the EC Treaty,
gives Parliament considerable influence through the codecision procedure, and specifies that
the Council can adopt the proposal with a qualified majority.

The proposal aims to bring the Directive up to date with recent thinking on equality, and to
tighten up the wording of some provisions in the light of European case law.

If adopted the proposal will:

– class sexual harassment at work as a form of discrimination and define sexual harassment, in
line with the definition given in the Article 13 Directives (see below) and the Commission's
code of good conduct;

– enable independent bodies to pursue administrative or judicial claims on behalf of the

victims of gender discrimination under certain conditions;

– clarify the notion of indirect discrimination;

– guarantee women the right to return to their jobs, or an equivalent post, after maternity

leave;

– and encourage social partners to help implement the principle of equal treatment by adopting

collective agreements on discrimination;

Other legal developments

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union was proclaimed by the Presidents of
the Council, the Parliament and the Commission at the beginning of the European Council
meeting in Nice on 7 December 200020. The Charter is written in gender-neutral language ; it is
addressed to everybody, with no predominance of one gender over the other. However, it does
include a number of specific provisions whose aim is to promote gender equality. Article 21
prohibits discrimination on any grounds, sex in particular. Article 23 sets out the principle of
gender equality in all areas, specifying that positive action is a legitimate tool in pursuit of this
goal. Slavery, forced labour and trafficking in human beings are banned by Article 5, although
women are not specifically mentioned. Protection from dismissal for a reason connected with
maternity and the right to paid maternity leave are laid down by Article 33. Under Article 34,

19

20

Proposal for a European Parliament and Council Directive amending Directive 76/207/EEC on the
implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment,
vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, COM(2000) 334 final
OJ C 364, 18.12.2000, p. 1

22

the European Union has to recognise and respect the entitlement to social security benefits and
social services providing protection in cases such as maternity21.

In May 2000, Parliament held a public hearing on the fight against discrimination and the new
possibilities opened up by Article 13 of the revised EC Treaty, where gender discrimination is
one of the main themes. The Commission has now announced its intention to propose a new
gender equality Directive in 2002. The proposal will venture for the first time outside the realm
of employment to combat inequalities in other areas too.

Article 13 has already indirectly benefited the cause of the gender equality, through the new
Directive against racial discrimination.22 Gender equality has been mainstreamed into the
Directive, in recognition of the fact that discrimination on the grounds of racial or ethnic origin
may affect women and men differently.

At national level, the UK Government issued a joint action plan to combat forced marriages.
Planned measures include data collection by the police and NGOs and the production of
information materials for educational institutions.

THE REVIEW OF THE BEIJING+5 PROCESS

Last year saw the fifth anniversary of the UN Fourth World Conference on Women. The United
Nations General Assembly convened a Special Session in June 2000 entitled "Gender equality,
development and peace for the twenty first century, Beijing+5". The Session provided an
opportunity to review progress and discuss ideas for future action.

On 19-21 February 2000, a regional preparatory conference was held by the UN's Economic
Commission for Europe, in partnership with the European Commission, the Council of Europe,
the UNDP and UNIFEM. NGOs played an active role in the discussions, which focused on just
four areas of the Beijing Platform for Action. In February, an EU level conference reaffirmed
the EU's commitment to the objectives set out in the Platform for Action, but pointed to a
weaknesses in the implementation framework23. Moving from commitment to Action has
proved more complex than expected.

The Economic and Social Committee and the European Parliament presented reports on the
follow-up to the Beijing Platform for Action.24 Both called for the establishment of indicators
and benchmarks. On 28 March, Parliament's Committee on women's rights and equal
opportunities organised a public hearing on the progress made in implementing the Beijing
Platform for Action.

21

22

23

24

See Communication from the Commission on the legal nature of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of
the European Union, COM (2000) 644 final of 11 October 2000
Council Directive of 29 June on implementing the principle of equal
irrespective of racial or ethnic origin
Beijing+5 An overview of the European Union follow-up and preparations a publication prepared by the
European Commission to mark the five-year review of the Platform for action adopted at the UN Fourth
World Conference of Beijing, 1995.
CES 172/2000 and A5-0125/2000

treatment between persons

23

In June, at the UN conference, the EU successfully opposed attempts to water down the
agreement reached in Beijing. Indeed some significant advances were made, and the Outcome
Document25 incorporates a number of the EU's proposals. It:

– reiterates the human rights of women and the importance of education;

– contains new, clearer language on the state's obligation to combat violence against women,
reflecting the EU's stance in the UN Commission for Human Rights (56th session) in Geneva
in March 2000;26

– highlights the link between gender equality and poverty eradication, and the need for a more

equal distribution of paid work and care between women and men; and

– stresses the need for benchmarks and indicators, in line with the reports presented by
the European preparatory

Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee at
conference.

However, the Outcome Document did not meet all the EU's expectations. Faced with some
strong opposition, the EU was unable to gain acceptance for a statement on the need to combat
discrimination on all grounds, including sexual orientation. Strong resistance also blocked
attempts to move forwards on poverty eradication, gender-based violence, sexual rights of
women, trafficking in women and access to abortion.

Activities in the Member States on Beijing+5

A report on the implementation of the Platform for action was presented to the Parliament in
Belgium. A yearly Ministerial meeting will be held in order to reach, in all ministries, strategic
In Ireland, work is under way on the
objectives and establish a national machinery.
development of a national action plan for women, which will be influenced by the Beijing+5
process. In Italy, the national Statistics Institute began studies to produce gender sensitive data.
In Norway, a committee of the relevant ministries has been set up to review progress on
implementing the Beijing Platform.

DEFENDING WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN THE WIDER WORLD

2000 was the first year of implementation of the Human Rights Regulations adopted in 199927
which provided a coherent
framework and a legal basis for all human rights and
democratisation activities under Chapter B7-70 of the EU budget (European Initiative for
democracy and human rights). Gender mainstreaming was integrated in the 2000 programming
document for the European Initiative. A number of gender-specific projects were funded in the
Mediterranean region, such as a programme of positive action on the rights of women in the
3 million
Maghreb and a project on women in decision-making in Egypt. Approximately
were spent on gender-specific projects in 2000. On 14 November 2000, the Commission
adopted a report on the implementation of measures intended to promote observance of human

€

25

26

27

Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Whole of the twenty-third special session of the General
Assembly. A/S-23/10/Rev.1. Draft resolution II Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action. UN 2000.
The EU called for UN Members to prevent and punish all types of gender-based violence in the private
and public sphere, emphasising that the human rights of women included sexual rights and rights related
to reproductive health.
Regulations 975/1999 and 976/199 – OJ L120/1 of 8.5.99

24

rights and democratic principles in external relations that covers the 1996-1999 period28. This
document contains a comprehensive section on the empowerment of women. A similar report is
under preparation for 2000.

On 15 November 2000, the EP adopted a report and resolution on the participation of women in
peaceful conflict resolution.29 The report is based on the premise that virtually all analyses and
policies regarding conflicts have been gender blind. Women are generally absent from official
initiatives to end conflicts; their voices should be heard in peace processes.

THE FIGHT AGAINST VIOLENCE, TRAFFICKING AND SEXUAL EXPLOITATION

Violence against women is only now starting to receive the political attention it deserves. The
EU campaign that ended in 2000 helped to raise awareness of issues, amongst men as well as
women.

In 2000, the Daphne Initiative was superseded by a fully-fledged Programme to combat
violence against women, children and young people (2000-03).30 The new Daphne Programme
supports the work of public authorities and private-sector organisations,
the
candidate countries and the EEA; multi-annual projects are now eligible.

in the EU,

At national level, Portugal adopted a strategy to remove perpetrators of violence from the
home, in Liechtenstein a draft legislation was tabled with the same aim and discussions were
started in France. The German Government launched a nation-wide action plan to combat
domestic violence.

Trafficking in women remained high on the political agenda in 2000.Trafficking is a global
problem ; women are brought to the EU from central and eastern Europe, north and central
Africa, Latin America and Asia. The STOP Programme (1996-2000)31 continued in 2000 to
support training, projects, seminars, studies, with assistance for victims and prevention as two
of the priorities. An external assessment of the projects funded was largely positive. The
Commission has proposed a two-year extension to the Programme. At the same time, it helped
the candidate countries tackle trafficking through the Phare Programme. Furthermore it has put
forward a proposal for two Council Framework Decisions on combating trafficking in human
beings and combating the sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.32 The
objective is to approximate the Member States' criminal law on these matters, to ensure there
are no safe havens for offenders.

The European Parliament attaches great importance to the fight against trafficking of women
for sexual exploitation. In February, it held a public hearing on trafficking in women; in March
a working paper linked trafficking with other forms of organised crime, and pointed out that,
measured against the severity, and the profitability of the crime, the punishment for trafficking
was relatively light.

28

29

30

31

32

COM (2000) 726 final
A5-0308/2000
European Parliament and Council Decision No. 293/2000, OJ L 34 of 9.2.2000
Joint Action 96/700 JHA, OJ L 322 of 12.12.1996
COM(2000) 854

25

In January 2000 Spain adopted one of the most far-reaching laws on the rights of victims of
trafficking. Victims and witnesses residing illegally in Spain can obtain the right to stay and
work, if they testify against the organisers of trafficking. Italy has also changed its law on
immigration to allow victims of trafficking to stay for at least six months and receive support
from social services. A help line is being set up. Lastly, the Italian Penal Code is being
amended to make trafficking in human beings a crime.

26

Equality in the enlargement process

INTRODUCTION

At its meeting in Nice in December 2000, the European Council reaffirmed the historic
significance of enlargement and the political priority it attaches to the process. Success will
depend, amongst other things, on the candidate countries' ability to adopt the European social
model, with its commitment to gender equality and equal opportunities.

Clearly,
this means legislating to implement Community law (the acquis) on equal
opportunities, but the candidate countries will also have to build the institutional capacity to
enforce those laws effectively. All types of inequality must be tackled: economic, political,
social and cultural.

PROGRESS ON ACCESSION NEGOTIATIONS DURING 2000

February 2000 saw the opening of accession negotiations with Bulgaria, Malta, Latvia,
Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia (although negotiations on employment and social policy,
which includes equal opportunities, have yet to begin with Bulgaria and Romania).

In December the Nice European Council endorsed the Commission's strategy paper on
enlargement, which sets out a timetable for the next two years: provisional completion of
negotiations on employment and social policy is scheduled for the first half of 2001 for most
countries. To meet this target, candidate countries will, at the very least, have to produce
detailed, credible plans over the next six months setting out how and when they will meet EU
membership requirements in this area.

The Nice European Council also endorsed the Commission's proposal for an Accession
Partnership for Turkey, which will identify the main priorities that must be addressed to meet
the basic conditions for membership laid down in the Copenhagen criteria.

IMPLEMENTING COMMUNITY LAW

In the field of equal opportunities, there are nine Community Directives which must be
transposed into national law.

27

Bulgaria Czech

Cyprus Estonia Hungary Latvia Lithuania Malta Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia Turkey

Republic

2002

2002

2003

2002

2001

2002

2002

2003

2002

2001

2003

2003 Screen
ing not
comm
enced

Not yet
opened

Open

Prov.
closed

Prov.
closed

Prov.
closed

Open

Open

Open Open Not yet
opened

Open

Prov.
closed

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

2

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

1

0

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

0

2

2

1

1

1

2

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

0

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

2

2

Candidate
country
target date for
transposition
(end of year)

of

State
accession
negotiations
on chapter 13

Directive
75/117/EEC33

Directive
76/207/EEC34

Directive
86/613/EEC35

Directive
92/85/EEC36

Directive
96/34/EC37

Directive
97/80/EC38

Directive
79/7/EEC39

Directive
86/378/EEC40
and Directive
96/97/EC41

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Council Directive of 10 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
to the application of the principle of equal pay for men and women, OJ L 45, 19.2.1975
Council Directive of 9 February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men
and women as regards access to employment, vocational
training and promotion, and working
conditions, OJ L 39, 14.2.1976
Council Directive of 11 December 1986 on the application of the principle of equal treatment between
men and women engaged in an activity, including agriculture, in a self-employed capacity, and on the
protection of self-employed women during pregnancy and motherhood, OJ L 359, 19.12.1986
Council Directive of 19 October 1992 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements the
safety and health at work of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth or are
breastfeeding (tenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of Directive
89/391/EEC), OJ L 348, 28.11.1992
Council Directive of 3 June 1996 on the framework agreement on parental leave concluded by UNICE,
CEEP and the ETUC, OJ L 145, 19.6.1996
Council Directive of 15 December 1997 on the burden of proof in cases of discrimination based on sex,
OJ L 14, 20.1.1998
Council Directive of 19 December 1978 on the progressive implementation of the principle of equal
treatment for men and women in matters of social security, OJ L 6, 10.1.1979
Council Directive of 24 July 1986 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men
and women in occupational social security schemes, OJ L 225, 12.8.1986
Council Directive of 20 December 1996 amending Directive 86/378/EEC on the implementation of the
principle of equal treatment for men and women in occupational social security schemes, OJ L 46,
17.2.1997

28

Key:
0: no compatibility with acquis in national legislation
1 ; national legislation partially compatible with acquis (on information supplied by relevant national authorities.
Not yet verified by the European Commission)
2: national legislation fully compatible with acquis (on information supplied by relevant national authorities. Not yet
verified by the European Commission)

The Czech Republic is ahead of schedule, having adopted appropriate legislation in all areas,
save social security, in 2000. Lithuania appears to have implemented all legislation except the
Burden of Proof Directive. Hungary looks set to achieve alignment with the acquis as
projected, by the end of 2001. The apparently strong progress made by Romania during 2000
will be considered in detail when negotiations open on the employment chapter.

In other candidate countries, much work remains to be done to align national legislation with
the acquis. Slovakia has relaxed its total ban on women working at night and outlawed job
advertisements that discriminate on grounds of gender. An amendment to the Labour Code
has strengthened the rights of pregnant employees. In both Latvia and Malta, much of the
acquis has yet to be transposed. However, over the last twelve months Latvia has made
necessary amendments to its law on social security and Malta has adopted legislation that is
compatible with the Pregnant Workers' Directive.

A number of candidate countries have commenced or pressed ahead with preparatory work.
For instance, draft legislation has been presented in Cyprus, Latvia, Malta, Slovenia and
Slovakia. In April, Estonia adopted a concept paper on gender equality, intended as a basis for
legislation transposing the acquis. Bulgaria has set up a working group with representatives
from Government and the voluntary sector to prepare draft legislation. Given the target dates
for transposition, it is to be hoped that this work will result in legislation in the next twelve
months.

Neither Poland nor Turkey appear to have made any legislative progress in 2000. The Polish
timetable for implementation now seems somewhat optimistic.

In summary, there has been some progress in the adoption of legislation that is compatible
with the acquis, but much is still to be done and the pace of change remains slow and varies
markedly from country to country.

INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY

The candidate countries have themselves recognised the need to develop institutional and
administrative structures to implement and enforce equality rights.42

Lithuania has made significant progress in developing institutional capacity. For example, in
March, it set up an inter-institutional equal-opportunities commission. The equal opportunities
ombudsman has also proved effective in improving implementation of legislation.

Hungary, too, has made further progress in 2000 through its participation in the medium-term
Community action programme on gender equality, with three projects concerned with
developing institutional capacity. Meanwhile, Romania established a consultative inter-
ministerial commission on equality of
to promote
mainstreaming. Otherwise, much work needs to be carried out in Romania.

for men and women,

treatment

42

See National Plans for the Adoption of the Acquis 2000

29

Institutional structures exist in Malta and Cyprus, but need strengthening. During 2000, the
Maltese government set up an equal opportunities unit.

In other candidate countries, particularly Bulgaria and Poland, institutions are not properly
equipped to enforce existing national legislation in this field, let alone the acquis. There has
been no significant progress during 2000.

Measured against what needs to be done, the progress made is clearly inadequate. Much more
will have to be done over the next twelve months. Community programmes can assist through
the provision of expertise and finance, but only Hungary participated in the medium-term
Community action programme for the period 1999-2000. A larger number of projects in
several candidate countries have been accepted for the period 2000-2001 and it is to be
assumed that applications will be received from candidate countries for participation in the
programme relating to the Community framework strategy on gender equality (2001-2005).

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL LIFE

Adopting and enforcing the acquis is only a small part of the battle against gender inequality.
Equal rights should be accompanied by greater economic, political and social equality on the
ground.

Women in the economy

The candidate countries have undergone radical economic change over the last decade:
technological progress, preparations for EU accession and, in many countries, the transition
from a command to a market economy. One unwelcome consequence has been a rise in
unemployment. (Figure 10)

Figure 10
Unemployment rate in candidate countries 1999

%

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Bulgaria

Cyprus

1

R.
Czech

Estonia

Hungary

Latvia

Lithuania

av.

EU

2

Malta

Poland

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

Turkey

1

women Men

Source: Employment
EUROSTAT; p.47

in Europe 2000, European Commission 1 Euro-Mediterranean statistics, 1/2000,

30

Figure 11
Female employment by sector in candidate countries
1998

%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Cyprus

R.
Czech

Estonia

Hungary

Latvia

Lithuania

2

Malta

Poland

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

1

Turkey

Agriculture

Industry Construction

Services

Source: Statistical Yearbook on candidate and South-East European countries 2000
Agriculture includes hunting, forestry and fishing
Industry includes mining, manufacturing, electricity, water and gas supply
Services include all other branches; 1data for 1999, http://lmisnt.pub.die.gov.tr/lmise, Ankara, SIS; 2 Women
and men, 1999, p. 41; comparable data for Bulgaria are n. a.

Figure 12
Employment rate 1999

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

3

Bulgaria

Cyprus

R.
Czech

Estonia

Hungary

Latvia

Lithuania

1

Malta

Poland

Romania

Slovakia

3

2

Turkey

Slovenia

women men

Source: Employment in Europe 2000, European Commission 1 Women and Men 1999, COS Malta, data for
1998 for fully and part-time employed; 2 http://lmisnt.pub.die.gov.tr/lmise, Ankara, SIS; 3 data for 1998; 4 data
for 1996/97, material of the embassy of the Republic of Cyprus

The figures for female unemployment compare favourably with those for the European
Union. In the candidate countries, the average unemployment rate in 1999 was 9.2% for
women and 9.6% for men (which include 1998 figures for Malta and 2000 figures for
Turkey). The European Union average for the same period was 10.8% for women and 7.9%
for men.

• In Malta, Cyprus and Turkey, both the level of female employment and the gender gap is

far below the European Union average, and the gender employment gap far greater

31

• In the countries of central and Eastern Europe, the level of female employment and the
gender gap compare favourably with the European Union average, inherited from the old
command economies the former command economies have a history of high female
participation in the labour market.

the picture is not as positive as it

However,
first appears. First, male-dominated
manufacturing sector bore the brunt of job losses in the last decade, but future pressures on
employment are likely to affect all sectors and hence affect more women. All the candidate
countries are experiencing pressures on female employment similar to those in the EU.

• Women do not have the same incentives to work as men. Female employment

is
concentrated in the lower skilled and lower paid service and agricultural sectors. Reliable
figures are not available for every candidate country, but on the latest information, the
gender pay gap is bigger in many countries than the EU average. In the Czech Republic,
for example, women's average wages are only 69% of men's.

• Good quality, affordable childcare facilities are scarce. The extensive provision of
institutional child-care and pre-school education in the former command economy
countries has not survived the transition to a market economy. The inadequacy of parental
leave, in particular in Malta, compounds the problem.

• There is evidence that female employment is not accorded the same value as that of men.

This is especially the case in Turkey, but also in Cyprus, Malta and Poland.

It is in all countries' economic interests to make the best use of their human resources. That
means increasing women's participation – attracting them onto the labour market and
providing them with the incentives to stay there. In practical terms, that means: giving them
equal employment rights with men; enforcing equal pay; encouraging family friendly policies
at work, and equal burden sharing at home.

Women in decision-making

The representation of women in the governments and parliaments of the candidate countries is
significantly below the European Union average. Balanced participation is a pre-requisite for
a healthily functioning democracy.

Figure 13
Re pre sentation of women in gov ernment in candidate

countrie s 2000

30,0

24,7

18,8

18,5

18,7

13,3

6,1

10,0

7,7

5,3

0,0 0,0

0,0

0,0

%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1

8

Bulgaria

Cyprus
Czech

R.2
2,9
Hungary
Estonia

2

Latvia

3
EU

av.

Lithuania

3

Malta

6

5

4

10
Poland

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

7

11
Turkey

32

Sources: Data collected in 12/00
1 data from I/01, www.government.bg ; 2 data from I/01, European Database Women in decision-making,
http://www.db-decision.de/english/default.htm ; 3 Gender Equality in Baltic States, 1999; 4 data from 1/99,
material from Ministry for Social Policy of Malta, page 1; 5 data for 2000 after elections, www.cdep.ro ; 6 data
from XII/00, www.government.sk ; 7 data from XI/00, www.sigov/si ; 8 data from XII/00,
www.kyprus.org/PIO/ministry ; 9 data from 3/99; 10 data from VIII/00, www.kprm.gov.pl/gov ; 11 data from
I/01, material from the embassy of the Republic of Turkey.

Figure 14
Representation of women in Candidate countries Parliaments 2000
%

%

25

20

15

10

5

0

20,6

17,8

17

13,1

10,8

7,1

8,4

13,4

11,9

13,3 12,2

11

9,2

4,1

1

9

Bulgaria

Cyprus

Czech

R.2
Estonia

3

Hungary11

4

Latvia

EU

4

av.

Lithuania

7

Malta

5

3,6
Romania
Poland

Slovakia

Slovenia

3

8

10
Turkey

Sources:
1 data from XII/00 (38th National Assembly), www.parliament.bg; 2 data from XII/00, Lower House: 15 %,
Upper House: Senate: 11.1 %, European Database Women in decision-making; 3 data from X/00, European
Database Women in decision-making; 4 data from XII/00, Special material of the Ministry of Welfare of the
Republic of Latvia, p. 5; 5 data from XII/00, European Database Women in decision-making; 6 data from XI/00,
www.senat.gov.pl, European Database Women in decision-making; 7 data for election 2000, Senate: 13 %,
Chamber of deputies: 10.7 %, www.infoeuropa.ro; 8 data from I/01, material of the embassy of the Republic of
Turkey in Berlin; 9 data from I/01www.kyprus.org; 10 data from I/01, www.dz-rs.si; 11 data from X/00,
European Database Women in decision-making

Trafficking in women

Analysis of trafficking in human beings in Europe is hampered by the lack of reliable
statistics and of a unified legal definition of the crime.

However, on the limited information available there can be no doubt that the trafficking of
women to, within and from the candidate countries of Central and Eastern and Europe and
Turkey is a growing phenomenon.

The European Union and the candidate countries must take urgent measures to eliminate the
trade in women. These should include:

• introducing appropriate criminal penalties against traffickers. In May 2000, the Latvian

Parliament made trafficking a criminal offence.

• improving detection and enforcement mechanisms in candidate countries;

• developing mechanisms to provide support and protection for victims.

33

• tackling structural weaknesses,

in particular unemployment, poverty and a lack of

opportunities for women in candidate countries.

• raising awareness. Much work is already being done through the STOP programme. Also,
in 2000, the Budapest office of the International Organisation for Migration undertook a
wide-ranging awareness-raising campaign with the participation of both governmental
agencies and NGOs.

Domestic violence

Domestic violence against women is also a human rights issue of growing concern in many
candidate countries. Again, comprehensive reliable statistics are not available. However, the
European Commission Regular Report 2000 identifies domestic violence as a matter for
concern in Estonia, Romania, Slovakia and Turkey, though the Report mentions that limited
steps that are being taken to tackle the issue. In Poland, a UN project on spousal violence
remains suspended by the government.

Many of the remedies applicable to trafficking will also be relevant to tackling domestic
violence. In both cases, it is assumed that candidate countries will take full advantage of the
opportunities afforded under the Programme relating to the Community framework strategy
on gender equality (2001-2005).

34

Promoting a gender balance in decision-making

INTRODUCTION

In a democracy, participation in the decision-making process must be open to all citizens –
women and men – and both genders must be properly represented in positions of power. The
Member States, the Commission and the European Parliament have taken numerous measures
to ensure that is so. The long-term trend is in the right direction, but progress is slow. These
were the findings of the Commission's report43 on implementation of the 1996 Council
Recommendation on the balanced participation of women and men in decision-making.44

A sustained political commitment from all players must be accompanied by a co-ordinated
mix of policies and practical measures: sound statistics, regular monitoring, structures
designed to fit the national cultures of the Member States, effective legislation and adequate
funding.

In 2000, the European Parliament demonstrated its continuing commitment to increasing the
proportion of women in decision-making positions. In March, it adopted a resolution on
women in decision-making, calling for a variety of measures from the Commission, Member
States and social partners to promote gender balance in decision-making. In particular, it
urged the Commission to work on developing statistical tools and to urge Member States to
take action. Conversely, Member States were asked to help create a healthy gender balance in
EU institutions. Parliament endorsed the use of quotas as a transitional measure to bring more
women into decision-making.45

In 2000, the Fourth Action Programme funded a number of transnational projects promoting
gender balance in decision-making. Many of these projects will extend into 2001.46 They
covered a range of activities, including mentoring and training to motivate women to take an
active part in politics and public life; networking and exchanges of ideas on best practice; and
measures to improve the gender balance in the European Parliament.

DECISION-MAKING IN THE NEW FRAMEWORK STRATEGY AND THE NEW PROGRAMME

Gender balance in decision-making is one of the five core priorities identified by the
Framework Strategy. The Strategy's approach is based on the findings of the Commission
report referred to above, and work done by the Member States. Of particular importance was
the Finnish Presidency's very comprehensive report to the Council, covering women in
political life, including the EU institutions, in public administrations, and in the judiciary.47

43

44

45

46

47

COM(2000)120 final of 7.3.2000
Council Recommendation of 2 December 1996 on the balanced participation of women and men in the
decision-making process OJ L 319 of 10.12.96, p.11
Minutes of 2 March 2000, resolution B5-0180/2000, see also Report of Ms Karamanou on the
implementation of Council Recommendation 96/694 on the balanced participation of women and men
in the decision-making process
Directory of Projects 1999, p.125 See footnote..
See Council Conclusions of 22 October1999

35

The Strategy and accompanying programme are not solely concerned with political life,
however. Another major theme is women in decision-making positions in economic and
social life. With funding from the Programme, a full set of statistics will be compiled and
regularly updated on women in decision-making positions in the economy and in society. It
will also finance research into the transition from education to working life, and the
recruitment and career development of women with the potential to reach senior management
positions.

Women within the Commission

The number of women in decision-making positions is steadily increasing in the Commission,
as in the other EU institutions. However, women are still under-represented in management
posts.

The Commission is committed to tackling the gender imbalance in its staffing structure as part
of its wider internal reforms.48 For example, women are to be given preference for senior
appointments when there are male and female candidates of equal merit. The Commission
aims to double the number of women in senior management positions by the end of its term of
office in 2005. Measures will be taken to make it easier for staff – including management – to
reconcile work and private life. The Commission will use management training courses and
other channels to raise awareness of gender issues. It will examine recruitment and promotion
procedures for gender bias.

Figure 15
% women in middle management in European
Commission

Figure 16
% women amongst category A staff in
the European Commission

20
15
10
5
0

10,5 10,9 11,4 13,7 14,1 14,9 15,6

9,9

13,4 14 15,6 17,2 18,1 18,7 19,4 20,3

30
20
10
0

janv-
94

janv-
95

janv-
96

janv-
97

janv-
98

janv-
99

janv-
00

oct-00

janv-
94

janv-
95

janv-
96

janv-
97

janv-
98

janv-
99

janv-
00

oct-
00

Source figure 15 and 16: Directorate General Personnel and Administration

In June 2000, the Commission decided that neither gender should account for less than 40%
of the membership of any of its committees and expert groups.49 Previously, the binding
target had applied only to committees and groups in the field of science and research. The
Commission has called on Member States, the social partners and other bodies responsible for
nominating members, to make sure they put forward enough people of both genders.

At national level

Some Member States have made a sustained effort over a period of years to increase the
number of women participating in political decision-making, with good results. Others are

48

49

White Paper "Reforming the Commission" COM (2000) 200 of 1 March 2000
Commission Decision relating to Gender Balance within the Committees and Expert Groups established
by it (2000/407/EC of 19/06/00), Official Journal L 154, 27/06/2000 p. 34

36

just starting to set targets. No less diverse are the tools employed: official or informal quotas,
gender alternation systems on electoral lists, quotas for women in government committees,
awareness-raising activities, and measures to facilitate reconciliation of political work and
family life. Even where these measures have proved effective, women still have difficulties
breaking through into the most senior government posts.

Though progress is slow, the Nordic countries demonstrate that a sustained commitment does
pay off in time. It is difficult
to a single policy that makes the difference; a
comprehensive approach combining a number of policies seems to be the key. Political will is
important too in ensuring that policies are properly implemented.

to point

Advances in 2000

In France, following an amendment to the Constitution in 1999, Parliament adopted a law in
May 2000 requiring that parties' electoral lists be made up of equal numbers of men and
women. Otherwise, the lists may be declared invalid and state funding for election campaigns
withheld. The municipal elections in 2001 are likely to be the first held under the new rules.

In Belgium, the Government has drafted a similar bill, requiring absolute gender equality in
party lists. Furthermore, from 2005, parties will have to put forward one man and one woman
for the top two positions on the list.

The United Kingdom Government
is committed to achieving gender parity in public
appointments. Government Departments must draw up action plans detailing past progress
and future goals. The Civil Service reported a steady increase in the number of women
applying for and being appointed to the highest posts.

On 27 October, the French Presidency organised a conference50 for ministers, social partners
and representatives from the European Parliament, the European Women's Lobby and the
Commission. One of the issues discussed was women and decision-making. The conference
revealed a high degree of agreement on the need to set time-bound goals for progress on
decision-making. There was also widespread support for the idea of devising a strategy for
change, involving research and the exchange of information, ideas and experience between a
wide range of partners.

50

For information contact; Service des droits des femmes et de l'égalité, 10, 16 rue Brancion 75015 Paris,
France, tel.: +33-1 40 56 60 00

37

Figure 17
% of women in national Parliaments in the EU and EEA Member States

n
e
m
o
w

f
o
%

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

37,1

29,6

27,1

25,6

33,3

24,7

19,6

14,6

16,7

10,3

8,7

10,2

45

37

41,2

36,5

20,6

17,1

4

B DK D GR E F

IRL I L NL A P

FIN S UK

TotalEU

Iceland

Norway

Liechtenstein

Source Figure 17 and 18: Frauen Computer Zentrum Berlin, European Database on Women in decision-making,
http://www.db-decision.de/index.html

Women in national parliaments

In national parliaments across the EU, the proportion of seats held by women rose to just over
a fifth in 2000.51 Only Sweden and Norway's parliaments count as gender balanced, with over
40% women, though Denmark, Finland, Iceland and the Netherlands have all reached, or
remained above, the 30% mark. France, Greece, Ireland and Italy all had rates under 15%.
Discouragingly,
the
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Sweden.

the proportions fell slightly in Denmark, France, Germany, Italy,

Regional assemblies saw a healthy increase in female representation, from 22% in 1999 to
29% in 2000.

Women in national and regional governments

The number of women in national Governments rose again in 2000, though only by a tiny
margin. Sweden is the only country where the number of women and men in the Government
is exactly half and half. By contrast, less than 15% of Greek, Italian and Portuguese ministers
are women.

Similar slight improvements were noted in regional governments too, though in Germany and
Sweden, the trend was downwards. In Portugal, there is still not a single woman in any of the
regional governments.

51

Data
FrauenComputerZentrumBerlin, http://www.fczb.de

European

Database

from

the

"Women

and

Decision-making"

of

the

38

Figure 18
% of Women in national Governments in EU Member States
and European Commission, 2000

50,0

38,9

35,3

24,7

25,0

28,631,0

31,3

30,3
12,017,6

18,8

14,1

11,7

60,0

50,0

40,0

45,0

35,0

%

30,0

22,2

20,0

10,0

0,0

Belgium

Denmark

Germany

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands
Austria

Portugal

Finland

Sweden
United

Total

Kingdom
Europ.Commission

Women in economic and social decision-making

A study financed by the European Commission estimates that only 23% of businesses in the
EU are owned by women.52 Clearly, the situation is far from satisfactory, but a lack of precise
and comparable data makes detailed analysis difficult. The Framework Strategy on Gender
Equality and the new action programme aim to remedy this. The programme will fund the
compiling and regular updating of statistics in this area.

Sweden has already made a start by publishing statistics specifically concerned with women
and power.53 Finland has produced figures on women in management positions in
companies.54

52

53

54

Study on "Young Entrepreneurs, Women Entrepreneurs, Co-Entrepreneurs and Ethnic Minority
Entrepreneurs in the European Union and Central and Eastern Europe" of the Centre for Enterprise and
Economic Development Research (CEEDR) Middlesex University Business School, UK, published by
DG Enterprise:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/entrepreneurship/craft/craft-studies/entrepreneurs-young-women-
minorities.htm
Statistics Sweden:
http://www.scb.se/Scbeng/OVRHTM/women_and_men.htm
"Women and Men in Finland 1999", published by Statistics Finland, contact: Population statistics
irja.kyto@stat.fi

in Sweden: Facts

and Figures

and Men

"Women

2000",

see

in

39