Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Air transport and the environment Towards meeting the challenges of sustainable development
Date: 1999-12-01
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: air transport, competition law, environmental protection, research and development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Brussels, 1.12.1999
COM (1999) 640 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION
TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT,
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND
THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Air Transport and the Environment

Towards meeting the Challenges of Sustainable
Development

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

Air transport is a growth industry. This implies that this industry is important for the
economies of the European Union. But the air transport industry is growing faster
than we are currently producing and introducing technological and operational
source. The overall
advances which reduce the environmental
environmental impact is bound to increase since the gap between the rate of growth
and the rate of environmental improvement appears to widen in important fields such
as emissions of greenhouse gases. This trend is unsustainable and must be reversed
because of its impact on climate and the quality of life and health of European
citizens. The long-term goal, therefore, must be to achieve improvements to the
environmental performance of
that outweigh the
environmental impact of the growth of this sector.

transport operations

impact

air

at

Meeting this challenge necessitates, in line with the provisions of the Amsterdam
Treaty, significantly enhanced integration of environmental
requirements into
sectoral policies as part of the European Community's responsibilities for the
promotion of sustainable development and of its responsibilities for securing an
efficient functioning of the internal market.

The present Communication analyses and identifies for the first time ways for
coherent and integrated policy action for the European Union in the air transport
field. To this end reliance on better, preferably internationally agreed standards and
rules needs to be complemented by a more effective system of EU-wide national,
regional
of
environmentally friendly technologies and operating techniques to reduce noise and
gaseous emissions. It
the European Union improves the
promotion of its interests in the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).

is also important

local measures

introduction

accelerating

aimed

that

and

the

at

This Communication suggests
the introduction of economic and regulatory
incentives reinforcing the competitive edge of operators and users which choose to
use state-of-art technologies and environmentally friendly operations. It is proposed
to expose Europe's air transport system much more to a system of "Reward the best –
Punish the worst" by drawing a clearer line between operations on the basis of their
environmental quality. The air transport industry is invited to make, by means of
establishing voluntary environmental agreements or otherwise, a pro-active
contribution to reducing the environmental impact of its operations.

The Commission intends to continue its work on the creation of equitable conditions
for competition within the overall transport system. This implies working towards
integration of
and significant
improvement of the infrastructure at intermodal connecting points so that users and
their choice towards the environmental quality of
operators can actually orient
transport services and avoidance of congestion. This will contribute to replacing
shorter flights by truly competitive rail transport.

into charging systems

environmental

costs

Local rules for implementation at the level of airports are part of a policy aimed at
integrating in a coherent way environmental requirements into sectoral policies.
Therefore, the work programme outlined in this communication includes measures to
be applied at the level of airports in order to reconcile the need for action on
environmental grounds with the necessity to prevent distortive proliferation of local
rules.

2

vii)

viii)

it

is important

to ensure that the 5th and 6th Research and
In the longer run,
Development Framework Programmes aim at break-through achievements in the
environmental performance of aircraft and their engines and the understanding and
assessment of the atmospheric effect of aircraft exhaust gas emissions. In addition to
improving the green credentials of the air transport business, innovation in this field
will have the benefit of safeguarding the competitiveness of the EC’s aeronautical
industry.

the Commission's
This Communication constitutes the point of reference for
workprogramme during the next five years and beyond. On the basis of the results in
ICAO by the end of 2001 the Commission will present a re-assessment of the
balance between global, Community and local measures with a view to ensuring
fulfilment of the environmental goals laid down in the Amsterdam Treaty and the
Kyoto-Protocol and update priorities, where required, by lack of progress at
international level and/or new scientific evidence on environmental impacts of air
transport.

3

CONTENTS

I

II.

INTRODUCTION: POLICY CHALLENGES, GOALS AND STRATEGIES

IMPROVING TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND RELATED RULES

Noise

Gaseous Emissions

Operational Measures

III.

STRENGTHENING
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

MARKET

INCENTIVES

TO

IMPROVE

Economic Incentives

Encouraging Industry Initiatives

IV.

ASSISTING AIRPORTS

A Common Noise Classification Scheme

A Framework for Noise Measurement and Land-use Rules

A Community Framework for Operating Rules

Introducing More Stringent Noise Rules

The Role of Other Modes

V.

VI

ADVANCING TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENT (R&D)

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE MONITORING

VII.

ANNEXES

Statistical Annex

Air Transport and Climate Change

4

I

1.

2.

3.

4.

1

2

3

4

5

INTRODUCTION: POLICY CHALLENGES, GOALS AND STRATEGIES

The air transport industry, as well as related industries such as the aeronautical
industry and tourism, is growing at rates clearly above the average growth of the
economy of the European Union. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
special report on aviation and the global atmosphere1 states that passenger traffic has
grown since 1960 at nearly 9% per year, 2,4 times the average GDP rate. This
is, despite macroeconomic cycles, expected to continue due to
development
trade and air
underlying structural reasons for this above average growth,
transport liberalisation, new leisure patterns, high income elasticity of demand and
increasing value of goods to be transported.

i.e.

At the same time, the air transport industry and Europe's citizens are increasingly
facing the problems of success: Manifold environmental impacts of air transport are
growing as well. Globally, it contributes to the greenhouse effect and to the depletion
of the ozone layer, where high altitude emissions might be a specific problem. At a
regional
level aviation contributes to acidification, eutrophication and to the
formation of tropospheric ozone by emissions of air pollutants. At local level, in the
immediate vicinity of airports concerns
focus on the potential health and
environmental effects of noise and air pollution from emissions such as oxides of
nitrogen (N0x), volatile organic compounds and particulates.

There are worrying signs that growth in air transport has started to outstrip
environmental improvements resulting from continuous technology improvements
and the industry's considerable own efforts: for example, during the first decade of
the jet age (1960-1970) an annual technology induced fuel efficiency improvement
of 6,5% was achieved. This rate has fallen down to 1,9% during the period 1980-
2000.2 Optimisation of operating techniques can only in part compensate for the
increasing gap between technology improvement and overall growth. As a result
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other emissions increasing in absolute terms. The IPCC
report on aviation and the global atmosphere estimates that carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission will grow at 3% annually over the period from 1990 to 2015.

Similar trends exist in the area of noise emissions. Transition from Chapter 2 to
Chapter 3 classified aircraft3 is largely completed in the European Community and
will be definitely finalised in April 2002.4 Results from random noise surveys carried
out in 1986-1991 show that in particularly densely populated Member states about
15% of the population is affected by aircraft noise.5 So far, there is no internationally
agreed policy approach on how to carry forward measures aimed at decreasing noise
around airports, both in the long- and in the short-term. Continuous fleet renewal will
not be sufficient to reduce further annoyance by noise for people living under flight
paths to and from airports. As a by-effect of this, most airport infrastructure projects
face heavy opposition and delays in implementation which imply a trend towards
further congestion and further waste of fuel.

See IPCC report 'Aviation and the Global Atmosphere', Cambridge University Press, 1999, Summary
for policy makers: www.ipcc.ch
See Statistical Annex
Noise certification standards according to Annex 16 of the Chicago Convention forming the basic law
for international aviation
See statistical Annex
See LEN report no. 9420, 1994

5

5.

6.

7.

8.

the competitiveness of

industry's economic success,

A vicious circle endangering the air transport
the
Globe’s environment and the quality of life of citizens has become a real threat. The
combination of existing environmental legislation, local improvements at airport
level and the industry’s own efforts obviously do not suffice for reconciling pressing
environmental needs with the development of an industry which is of vital
job creation.
importance for
Accordingly, action is required targeting beyond business-as-usual improvements.
Current development trends indicating an increasing gap between the rate of growth
and the rate of environmental improvement must be reversed by means of an
integrated action programme encompassing policy and industry initiatives. The long-
term policy target must be to achieve improvements to the environmental
performance of air transport operations that outweigh the environmental impact of
growth. This is a very ambitious benchmark, notably in the field of CO2-emissions at
least as long as breakthrough developments on engine technologies do not emerge. It
requires new approaches looking beyond the traditional way of relying largely on
improvements to technical environmental standards.

the economy and for

Achieving such ambitious goals necessitates integration of environmental concerns
into sectoral policies. The entry into force of the Amsterdam Treaty – in which the
is firmly enshrined – provides a policy
principle of sustainable development
obligation to do so. Air transport policy must be an important part of the Community
strategy towards better integration of environmental goals which goes in line with
both the Amsterdam Treaty and the Cardiff-process. The present communication
outlines measures and strategies towards sustainable development in the air transport
sector and, with a view to the 1999 Summit in Helsinki, already incorporates parts of
the strategy presented in the Commission Communication “From Cardiff
to
Helsinki”.6

The improvement of technical environmental standards on noise and gaseous
emissions, strengthening of economic and regulatory market incentives, assisting
airports in their environmental endeavours and advancing long-term technology
improvements (R+D) are proposed as main pillars of a strategy integrating
environmental concerns into sectoral policies. The industry is invited to register
under the new Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) and to consider
for meeting the
establishment of voluntary agreements as a key element
aforementioned challenges. Decisions to be taken at international level (ICAO) will
be of considerable importance for defining in the course of the implementation of
this action programme the balance between the action parameters.

II

IMPROVING TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND RELATED RULES

Noise

Certification standards and recommended practices for aircraft noise were first
adopted by the ICAO-Council in 1971 pursuant to the provisions of Article 37 of the
Chicago Convention. These standards and recommended practices, which were
finally adopted as Annex 16 of the Chicago Convention, have been adapted to
technological progress on a regular basis. However, the latest significant revision of
the noise stringency rules within ICAO dates back to 1977, when the Chapter 3 noise

6

see COM(99) ….

6

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

7

8

standard was introduced. It simply no longer represents state of the art engine and
aircraft design technology.

In the past, standards recommended at
ICAO-level have also been used as
benchmarks for Community legislation on the introduction of restrictions on the
in the Community.7.This
registration or operation of certain types of aircraft
approach has not been sufficient to relieve environmental pressure on the effective
use of airport infrastructure or to stop a further proliferation of local operational
restrictions with their problematic effects on the cost-effectiveness of operations and
on the internal aviation market

It seems therefore questionable whether ICAO standards should in the future and
under all circumstances continue to be used simultaneously for setting production
standards for future types of aircraft, for derived versions of existing aircraft and for
reaching regional environmental objectives, as has been the case in the past.8. More
differentiated approaches will be required

Work on noise certification standards steering future aircraft design should, however,
continue at ICAO level. Such standards are important for the undistorted and
balanced development of both the aviation and aeronautical
industries. In this
context, the introduction of more stringent noise emission standards should be
sufficiently ambitious to provide a framework for future aircraft design. At the same
time, it will be essential for the European Community to insist on establishing,
within the overall ICAO-framework, rules for transition that would facilitate to
phase-out the noisiest categories of Chapter 3 aircraft within a reasonable time-frame
in regions when this is required for environmental reasons

the Committee on Aviation Environmental
The current work programme of
Protection (CAEP), as endorsed by the 32nd Assembly of ICAO, has the potential to
meet these ambitious targets. It includes an assessment of the prospects for further
reduction of aircraft noise levels, including determination of the magnitude of short-
and long-term aircraft noise reduction needs, as well as technically and economically
practical solutions. It also covers an examination of the feasibility of introducing an
aircraft noise certification scheme, which will be better adapted to modern aircraft
and the operational procedures they use as well as the issue of transitional rules for
phase-out of aircraft.

In the short-term, in order to alleviate the noise situation at the most noise-sensitive
airports, economic and regulatory incentives should encourage operators to use state
of the art aircraft noise technology and environmentally friendly techniques which
exceeds the current ICAO Chapter 3 standard. These incentives are further discussed
in Chapters III and IV of this Communication.

Council Directive 80/51/EEC (O.J. L18 of 24-01-1980) as amended by Council Directive 83/206/EEC
(O.J. L117 of 04-05-1983)
Council Directive 98/629/EEC (O.J. L363 of 13-12-1989)
Council Directive 98/14/EEC (O.J. L76 of 23-03-1992) as amended by Council Directive 98/20/EC
(O.J. L107 of 07-04-1998)
As experience has shown this approach tends to suffer from trying to meet potentially conflicting
objectives and from a lack of capacity to meet regional particularities.

7

Action:

a)

b)

c)

The endorsement by the 32nd ICAO Assembly of the work programme on
noise implies that the Commission, in close co-ordination with Member States,
should participate actively in the CAEP work programme on the introduction
of a new noise certification standard and transitional rules for phasing-out the
noisiest of the current Chapter 3 aircraft. This standard should be significantly
more stringent than the current Chapter 3 standard. In line with the position
taken by the Community and its Member States at the 32nd ICAO Assembly,
the target date for a decision is the 33rd Assembly in 2001.

In addition, the European Commission will prepare policy measures aimed at
advancing, on the basis of objective and non-discriminatory conditions, the
level, with particular
introduction of more stringent measures at regional
emphasis on noise-sensitive airports (see also Chapter IV).

Should ICAO fail to agree, in 2001, on more stringent noise certification
standards and on transitional rules for phasing-out the noisiest categories of
current Chapter 3 aircraft
the
Commission may have to propose European requirements,
in close co-
operation with other industrialised regions. Any such proposal would have to
consider the need for an economic hardship clause for developing countries
and take account of the impact on competitiveness.

in line with Community requirements,

Gaseous Emissions

New Stringency Standards

14.

15.

Aircraft engine emissions have a negative impact on the local and regional level and
on the global atmosphere. Currently, Volume II of Annex 16 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation lays down international certification standards targeting
4 categories of aircraft engine emissions: smoke, unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). In addition, ICAO has been
mandated to pursue the reduction of the impact of the greenhouse effect from
aircraft. Today, the reference conditions for certifying aircraft engines are those of
the landing and take-off cycle (LTO). The debate on the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions has put into question the relevance of the LTO cycle for assessing the
contribution of air transport to those global environmental problems, such as climate
change and the depletion of the ozone layer which are caused by aircraft emissions.

The current CAEP work programme on aircraft engine emissions is assessing
technological advances in subsonic and supersonic aircraft which might influence
emission levels and fuel consumption and is developing new recommendations for
incorporation into Volume II of Annex 16. The development of new parameters for
the assessment of an aircraft's emissions to replace the existing LTO parameters and
to establish climb and cruise parameters is a high priority in the CAEP/5 work
programme. This work programme was endorsed by the 32nd ICAO Assembly, which
taking the Kyoto Protocol on the Reduction of
stressed the importance of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions fully into account
in ICAO's work. The Assembly
insisted on co-operation with the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework

8

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) regarding the inclusion of greenhouse
gas emissions from international aviation in national greenhouse gas inventories. It
also requested immediate work in close co-operation with the UNFCCC Subsidiary
Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA) on the development of proposals
for a suitable methodology for the allocation of greenhouse gas (notably CO2) from
international aviation.

In order to produce shorter term environmental
improvements, economic and
regulatory incentives should encourage aircraft operators to use clean aircraft engine
technology and environmentally-friendly techniques (see chapter III below).

Action:

The Commission, will participate actively in the CAEP/5 work programme on gaseous
emissions, with a view to reaching an agreement on new and complementary
methodologies and standards by the year 2001. In this context, the Commission will
attach priority to identifying the need of complementing the recent ICAO-decision on
NOx with other measures targeting regional and local impacts of NOx and other
gaseous emissions with a view to enhancing the environmental effectiveness of the
recent ICAO NOx standard, which is only applicable to new engine design. and present
its conclusions in 2001.

Enhancing the Efficiency of Air Traffic Management (ATM)

It has been estimated that 350,000 hours of flight by transport aircraft are wasted in
Europe annually, due to airport and air traffic management (ATM) delays9 and non-
optimal routings. Accordingly a major saving in the amount of fuel burned could be
made if ways can be found to improve the efficiency of ATM-systems. Indications
are that the potential for such improvements is of the order of at least two year’s
growth in the volume of air transport and its emissions10. The recent IPCC-report on
the global impact of aviation estimates that ATM improvement can reduce fuelburn
by 6% to 12% within the next 20 years.11

Air traffic delays and airspace congestion in Europe steadily deteriorated in 1998 and
1999. A Resolution of the Transport Council of 19 July 1999 stressed the need for
actions to relieve such a situation which "undermines the efficiency of Community air
transport and also causes great inconvenience to the air travellers and an additional
burden on the environment." In the wake of this Resolution, the Commission is
preparing a Communication on recent and ongoing measures aimed at reducing air
traffic delays and congestion in Europe and identifying new initiatives to be taken.

emissions

reduction potential of

A new CAEP working group has recently been entrusted with the task of quantifying
new Communication Navigation
the
Surveillance/Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM) system. As a short term objective
CAEP has been charged to ensure the development, the dissemination and, to the
maximum practical extent, the actual use of best operating practices to achieve near-
term reductions in aircraft emissions. Aircraft Ground and in-flight operations,
ground service equipment and auxiliary power units (APU), are all being considered,

a

16.

16a.

17.

9

10

11

ECAC "INSTAR" Study, 1995
EUROCONTROL-estimates
IPCC Special Report Aviation and the Global Atmosphere

9

together with possible actions for their broader adoption. The Commission services
and Eurocontrol are actively involved in this CAEP work.

18.

Through financial support for navigation systems, air traffic management and airport
projects, via the Trans-European Transport Networks Programme and other
Community sources (such as R&D), concrete contributions are being made to the
implementation of such measures.

Action:

The European Commission will continue to strengthen its support, both at technical and
organisational
level, for the work of the ATM community, and in particular of
EUROCONTROL in order to achieve significant improvements to the efficiency of
ATM-systems,
thus reducing aircraft emissions. A Communication on ongoing
measures in this field has been adopted together with this Communication.

Operational Measures

19.

20.

21.

is being put

Considerable effort
into reducing noise and emissions at source.
However, these will not be sufficient to solve the problems and they have little
impact on the global situation in the short term as they tend to be applicable only to
new aircraft, or aircraft types. It is therefore also necessary to lookat operational
measures that can be applied to in-service aircraft.

Current operational procedures require aircraft to follow fixed straight-line tracks,
particularly on the approach, which concentrate aircraft and the resulting noise over a
relatively narrow area but over a long distance. Modern aircraft
fitted with
sophisticated Flight Management Systems (FMS) increasingly have the ability to
navigate accurately and to follow non-linear routes that avoid high population
density areas and so minimise the noise impact. If this capability was used to the full
and linked with ground-based noise monitoring systems and prediction models,
which allow the routes to be regularly modified to take account of changing weather
conditions, some noise problems could be avoided.

the scope for operational measures to significantly reduce
In the longer-term,
environmental impact
is even higher. Given the appropriate approach aids and
enhanced air traffic controller tools, aircraft will be able to follow different approach
procedures (curved, stepped, segmented, steeper etc) not only to minimise noise
footprints, but also to ‘spread’ the environmental burden more equitably. On the
approach, about half of the aircraft noise is generated by the airframe, consequently
further benefits could be obtained by operating procedures which keep the
deployment of ‘noise generators’, flaps, undercarriage etc, as late as possible in the
landing phase, consistent with the required level of safety.

Action:

The European Commission will, when implementing the transport related chapters
of the 5th R&D Framework Programme, give priority to:

• validating appropriate modelling and prediction tools to enable optimised noise
abatement procedures to be introduced at airports, together with the required
monitoring and enforcement systems;

10

• developing and validating the longer term operational measures, associated
aircraft and ground-based tools and safety nets that permit a further reduction
in environmental impact.

STRENGTHENING

III.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

MARKET

INCENTIVES

TO

IMPROVE

22.

23.

24.

25.

12

13

Current economic and regulatory incentives to enhance environmental performance
mainly take the form of modulating the level of airport charges on the basis of
environmental criteria12 but may also include Member States'
interventions on
environmental grounds in the distribution of traffic rights, within an airport system
and/or intervene in the exercise of traffic rights, in particular where other modes of
transport can provide a satisfactory level of services. However, the role of market
incentives for improving the environmental performance can still be strengthened
significantly thus complementing effectively international standards. This would help
to create a competitive edge for operators and users which choose to use state-of-the-
art technologies and environmentally friendly operations (“Reward the best – Punish
the worst”). In parallel, the potential role of voluntary agreements with the industry
merits careful examination.

Economic Incentives

Minimum technical standards which bind operators and airports are important for the
environmental performance of air transport activities. However, such minimum
standards are of limited effectiveness if the aim is to promote market-oriented
decisions to reduce noise and gaseous emissions. Such an approach gives operators
the flexibility to choose the measures they will use to reduce emissions on the basis
of a series of economic incentives which are linked to specific environmental
problems. This allows them to establish cost-effective solutions. This is the rationale
behind the principle of charging for the external environmental costs of transport13
which should also apply in air transport.

Environmental goals, however, are not the only reason for seeking a more balanced
treatment of air transport within the overall system of charges and taxes: as a
consequence of decisions taken during the infancy of international civil aviation,
international flights are exempted from taxes. This exemption raises fundamental
questions from the point of view of equal treatment across sectors, of the internal
market, general transport policy and in relation to the goal to internalise the external
costs of air transport.

Kerosene Taxation

With a view to addressing the imbalances which result from the exemption of
international aviation from excise duty, the European Commission issued a report n
November 1996, recommending that excise duties on mineral oil should be extended
to aviation kerosene. It stated that this should happen as soon as the international
legal situation allows the Community to levy such a tax on all air carriers including

The Commission's proposal on common principles for the establishment of airport charges includes the
possibility for modulation on environmental grounds
see White Paper on: "Fair payment for Infrastructure Use", COM (1998)466 final

11

those from third countries.14 The Council adopted the report in June 1997 and, in its
Resolution of 9 June 1997, requested the Commission to provide further information
on the effects of such taxation.15 To this end the Commission has commissioned a
study on the "Analysis of the taxation of aircraft fuel."16

26.

The main results of this study show the impact of the imposition of the minimum rate
of excise duty for kerosene as established for the territory of the European
Community (245 EURO per 1000 litres). It covers a number of different scenarios
for its application.17 Among these scenarios, the results for an application on all
routes departing from a Community airport (as proposed by the Commission –
Option A) and for an application on all intra-EC air routes for Community carriers
only (Option B) merit particular attention.

Summary table: Summary of main impacts of taxation options for 2005 – EURO 245/1000 litres

Unit

EU2005

Taxation options (taxation level: EURO 245/1000 litres)

Indicator

Air transport and aircraft operation

(1) All routes
from EU
Option A

(2) Intra-EU routes -
EU carriers only
Option B

Intra EU routes
Revenue Tonne km

Routes to/from EU
Revenue Tonne km

Effects on airlines

EU carriers
Operating result

Employment

Other carriers
Operating result

Employment

Environmental effect
Fuel consumption

Legal obstacles

Required changes of Air Service Agreements

Tax avoidance by tankering

Reduction of revenues from taxation

Reduction of environmental benefits

Source: AERO modelling system
RTK = Revenue ton/kilometres

1011 RTK pa

1011 RTK pa

109 1992 ECU
105 Employees

109 1992 ECU
105 Employees

108 tonnes pa

0.3

1.7

3.6

7.2

8.6

2.7

2.0

n a

n.a.

n.a.

-7.0 %

-7.5 %

-14.7 %

-6.7 %

-4.0 %

-1.2 %

-2.4 %

Yes

10-25%

35-70%

-6.8 %

0.0 %

-11.7 %

-2.7 %

2.1 %

0.1 %

-0.5 %

No

5-10%

10-20%

The table indicates, on the basis of a quantitative analysis for the year 2005, the
effects of the imposition of the minimum excise duty level (EURO 245/1000 litres)
on traffic volume (measured in revenue ton km RTK), operating resultsfor carriers,
employment and environmental effects (tonnes of CO2 emission reduction). In
addition, the table contains a rough estimation of potential effects of tax avoidance
by taking fuel in "tax-free" countries. The changes expressed in percentage rates
refer to a business-as-usual development during the period from 1992 (base year for
AERO-model data) to 2005 assuming that the minimum excise duty would be
introduced in 1998.

14

15

16

17

see COM(96)549 final
European Environment Transport Council, Luxemburg 17-06-1997, item 9(f)
Resource Analysis, Delft, 1998
In parallel, calculations were also done on the basis of a tax rate of 185 EURO (as applied in Japan) and
10 EURO per 1000 litres (as applied in the U.S.)

12

27.

28.

The results show clearly that the environmental effectiveness of imposing kerosene
taxes is significantly higher where all routes departing from EU airports are taxed.
Moreover, the ratio between environmental effectiveness, on the one hand, and
economic and competitive impact on the European airline industry, on the other hand
is, from a European view, significantly better where all air carriers are taxed, at least
as long as circumvention practices by means of taking fuel in third countries is not
widespread. Finally,
least
questionable whether a reduction in all transport-related CO2-emissions of just 0.26%
(as calculated for an EU 2005 scenario with 1992 a base year on the basis of
applying option B) and of NOx-emissions by 0.12% would justify considerable
pressure on the competitiveness of the European aviation industry which would have
to compete head-on with third country air carriers enjoying intra-Community traffic
rights, as a side-effect of the cumulative effects of so-called open-sky agreements
concluded by Member States.

in relation to cost-benefit considerations,

is at

it

Consequently, any effective approach would necessitate a system that allows for
taxing/charging all carriers operating out of Community airports (Option A). Such an
approach, however,
if applied in the field of kerosene taxation would require
fundamental changes to existing policies at ICAO-level and, in particular, to existing
bilateral Air Service Agreements (ASAs) that allow for the imposition of taxation
only in case of a reciprocal agreement. These changes will be difficult to achieve
without considerable concessions in other fields. For these reasons, the Commission
considers that the approach suggested in its 1996 report should be maintained, for the
time being, pending progress in international fora. The alternative (Option B), though
legally feasible, is unacceptable in the Commission's view. It would not strike the
delicate balance between environmental, economic and internal market requirements
which is necessary for a coherent policy in this area. The conclusion reached as to
the relative attractiveness of options A and B also applies to lower tax levels even
though these may reduce the economic burden for Community air carriers.

Environmental Charges

29.

Given the limited prospects for a fundamental change in the international framework
on kerosene taxation at this stage, studies targeting alternative or complementary
approaches have already been undertaken.18 A priori, there are a number of options
available.

30.

Environmental charges could take the form of the following levies:

a)

b)

a levy added to the passenger ticket fare;

a levy based on the distance flown and aircraft engine characteristics to be
collected via EUROCONTROL with en route charges differentiated on the
basis of the environmental performance of the aircraft used;

c)

a levy associated with airport LTO charges.

There are, in addition, several basic options for the revenues collected:

18

See "A European Environmental Aviation Charge" by Centre for Energy Conservation and
Environmental Technology, Delft, 1998 and report "Emission Charges and Taxes in Aviation, The
Hague, 1998

13

a)

b)

c)

a revenue-neutral application (i.e. only modulation on the basis of
environmental performance);

funding of general public
(R&D,

environmental
the
enhancements
etc.) or of
compensatory measures for environmental damage either directly related to the
air transport sector, or not (forestation, house insulation);

of different
in new technologies

investments

policies,

a combination of a) and b) in the form of a base rate emission charge targeting
the external environmental costs plus a modulation giving a premium in favour
of "clean" and a sanction against "dirty" operations.

31.

32.

Subject to further studies on this issue the Commission believes that the inclusion of
environmental charges into the system of en route charges seems to be a promising
technique. A combination of a base rate charge and a modulation of the rate of
charges on the basis of the environmental performance of the equipment appears to
be the most appropriate way to reconcile underlying environmental, economic and
transport policy goals. In particular, such an approach would bring about stronger
differentiation between more or less environmentally friendly operations,
thus
accelerating the use of better techniques and promoting equitable conditions for
competition between rail and air transport.

The preparatory work for establishing a European Charge will be coordinated with
the work taking place in the context of ICAO's CAEP/5 work programme, which is
aiming to present conclusions to the 33rd Assembly in 2001, for a modernised policy
framework for environmental levies including taxes and charges. The Commission is
participating actively in this work. The goal is to reach decisions which meet the
requirements of the European Community in 2001. The Commission, however,
believes that policy action is urgent in any case and that the European Community
may have to act in this field also in case ICAO fails to modernise existing rules.

Emission Trading

33.

The trading of emission rights is a new concept that is largely untested in the aviation
field. A priori, it could be implemented at three distinct levels:

– at State level as foreseen in the Kyoto-Protocol;

– at the level of companies, both internationally and within national borders, sector-

wise or not;

– between air carriers operating at an individual airport

imposing a quota on

(noise) emissions.

34.

Trading of emissions between, for example, States listed in Annex 1 of the
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) clearly does not imply a sector-
specific dimension. Developments in this field will take place in the context of
implementing the Kyoto Protocol, therefore the fulfilment of emission reduction
goals by means of trading emission rights will be a matter to be decided primarily at
State level. In practice this may mean that pressure on the aviation industry by
individual countries to contribute to the fulfilment of their agreed and binding
emission reduction goals may differ. This may give rise to concerns about distortions
of competition in what is a globally organised market.

14

35.

36.

37.

38.

Future possibilities for
trading of emission rights between companies on an
international scale will depend on rules to be established when developing further
flexibility provisions for the implementation of the Kyoto-Protocol. Since progress
during the Conference of Parties (CoP) in Buenos Aires was somewhat slow, a lot
will depend on the outcome of the next such meeting: CoP 6 in 2000 which will
assess the outcome of the action programme agreed in Buenos Aires.

for

In theory, stronger use of emission trading as an instrument
furthering
environmental improvements could also be established at regional (Community) or at
national level. In that case it would be necessary to set a cap on emissions and to set
rules for trading emissions under such a cap. This approach would imply that growth
industries such as air transport may purchase emission rights from declining
industries or from industries where new technologies already available pave the way
forcost-effective reductions of emissions. This mechanism may contribute to both the
acceleration of structural change and environmental improvement. However, it is
worth noting that from the point-of-view of the aviation industry the effects of such a
system would not necessarily be significantly different from the imposition of
environmental levies. In both cases, environmental improvement would in essence be
brought about by rendering more expensive emissions from air operations.

The trading of emission rights at an individual airport would imply the establishment
of overall emission quotas for the airport concerned (preferably with the goal of
lowering them over time) and of rules for the trading mechanisms which would have
to be compatible with existing rules for the allocation of slots. The concept is
attractive in terms of its underlying economic rationale. Therefore, the Commission
firmly intends to undertake further studies to look at
implementation and may
prepare an initiative to be launched at a later stage.

Carbon Offsets

Another approach to improving the global environmental impact of air transport
could be to look for a system which will allow the air transport industry to offset the
environmental impact of industry growth by investments in carbon sinks (forestation
etc.). Unfortunately, there is at this stage a considerable scientific uncertainty in
relation to the impact of forestation activities on absorption of CO2.19 Therefore, in
the short-term, the priority must be to analyse carefully the research findings in this
field prior to preparing possible policy conclusions.

Action:

1.

The European Commission will, in close co-ordination with the ongoing
work on this issue at ICAO-level, continue and accelerate its preparatory
work with a view to possibly introducing proposals to establish a
European Environmental Aviation Charge to be presented in 2001. This
work will in particular aim at:

• defining the approach on the level of the charge and its modulation;

19

see articles in New Scientist of 24-10-1998. Such uncertainties also reduce, at this stage, possibilities to
determine the appropriate level of environmental levies on the basis of an accurate knowledge of
prevention costs.

15

• identifying a collection method, in cooperation with EUROCONTROL;

• proposing rules for decisions on the use of proceeds;

• ensuring its compatibility with the international legal framework.

• considering options for emission related charges at the level of airports.

2.

3.

Prior to policy conclusions on this work the Commission will maintain its
proposal COM(96)549 on the imposition of kerosene taxation.

The Commission will continue its study work on innovative concepts for
economic instruments such as emission trading and carbon offsets with a
view to better identifying their capacity to contribute to solutions to
environmental problems in the aviation field whilst respecting legal
requirements.

Encouraging Industry Initiatives

Environmental Management Schemes

39.

40.

41.

The introduction of an environmental management system enables a company, such
as an airline or an airport, to develop an effective and co-ordinated response to all the
environmental issues that are part of its day-to-day business. It is an effective means
of demonstrating, environmental concern and responsibility as well as a willingness
to tackle the negative impacts of air transport activities in a structured and
transparent way. By setting objectives and targets for reducing their impacts and by
implementing the appropriate system capable of delivering real environmental
performance improvements.

In the Community, Council Regulation 1836/93/EEC has created a framework for
voluntary participation by companies in the industrial sector in a Community eco-
management and audit scheme (EMAS). ISO 14001, the international standard for
environmental management systems, represents an essential step towards improved
environmental management. EMAS, however, is a more ambitious system requiring
that the company reports to the public about its environmental performance. Both the
implementation of the system and the report are subject to external scrutiny which
provides for credibility concerning the environmental achievements of the company.
Organisations having already implemented ISO 14001 can built on it without
duplicating their system by adding the missing elements of EMAS to their ISO
14001 certification.

A number of airports in the Community were involved in a pilot project on the
introduction of EMAS. This project aimed at testing the feasibility to introduce
EMAS in the air transport sector. The result was undoubtedly positive. The revision
of the EMAS Regulation will make it accessible to the air transport sector in the very
near future whilst currently ISO 14001 certification was the only available standard
and was therefore used already by some airports.

Action:

16

42.

42a.

43.

The Commission will facilitate the exchange of experience and the promotion of the
upcoming revised Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) in the air transport
sector.

Environmental Agreements

The objectives and practicalities of environmental agreements are laid down in a
Communication20, which was presented in November 1996 by the Commission to the
Council and the European Parliament. Some aviation stakeholders, in particular the
Association of European Airlines (AEA), have expressed their interest in exploring
with the European Commission the feasibility and scope of a voluntary self-binding
commitment on CO2 emissions. Possible inclusion of other emissions impacting on
the global atmosphere may have to be explored.

Entering into a more formal approach on the possibility of establishing a voluntary
agreement with the air transport industry would necessitate the establishment of
environmental targets ensuring a significant contribution to fulfilling the reduction
targets as laid down in the Kyoto-Protocol which apply, however, to economies as a
whole and not to individual industries. According to estimates of the Association of
European Airlines (AEA) fuel efficiency of the fleet of member airlines will increase
in a business-as-usual scenario by 9,7% during the period 1998-2012 which would,
in view of most growth forecasts imply further increases of CO2 emissions in
absolute terms. This would imply a decrease of progress if compared with the recent
10 years where an annual improvement in the order of more than 2% was achieved.
The Commission considers doubling the rate of progress if compared with the recent
decade as an appropriate goal to be achieved by the end of an initial period of 10 to
15 years where no technology breakthrough is in sight. Putting together the various
possibilities to increase fuel-efficiency in all parts of the aviation system, an
environmental agreement should aim at reaching an improvement of 4% to 5% p.a.
by the end of the period. With the availability of new technologies as from 2015 even
more ambitious goals could be envisaged.

In order to be fully effective and to fit within the structure of the aviation industry, an
agreement may have to include or cover under separate agreements the different
parties concerned: air carriers, aircraft engine and airframe manufacturers, fuel
suppliers, air traffic management providers and airports. The agreement should
contain quantified objectives,
relative terms, going beyond
in absolute or
achievements already brought about by ongoing technology development and fleet
renewal ("business as usual"). With a view to providing a tool for assessing the
effectiveness of the agreement, intermediate objectives (“milestones”) as well as an
indicative timetable for their achievement should be part of the agreement. The
monitoring mechanisms should give sufficient guarantees regarding the reliability
and accuracy of the agreement and foresee enforcement provisions in case of non-
fulfilment of agreed goals which should include legislative measures to be taken
swiftly such as increase of environmental charges. Openness about
the initial
commitments and the achievement of environmental objectives is crucial to ensuring
their effectiveness.

20

COM(96)561final of 27.11.1996

17

44.

Given the international nature of air transport and the aeronautical industry an
important question is whether voluntary agreements on limiting CO2- and other
emissions from aviation activities should include Third country operators and
manufacturers. This aspect is especially important for the manufacturing industry
which has a strong homebase in North America. This will have to be examined as
well as the more general issue of avoiding "free riders" who exploit the benefits of
such agreements without making a contribution to achieving agreed goals. In this
context, the role ICAO might play in establishing a world-wide agreement merits
careful attention.

Action: The Commission will further investigate the appropriateness and possible
benefits of reaching voluntary agreements on CO2 and other emissions based on
clearly defined targets, whilst ensuring that such agreements go well beyond what
would be achieved in a business-as-usual-scenario. In the light of the outcome of this
work the Commission will decide on a framework for entering into formal
negotiations on a voluntary agreement on the basis of clearly established targets
including time-table

IV. ASSISTING AIRPORTS

The citizens living in the vicinity of airports are very directly exposed to the
environmental impact of air transport. However, it is also true that the variety of
situations at Community airports in terms of traffic volume and number of aircraft
movements, nightflights, proximity to residential areas, land-use rules in place and
environmental sensitivity of the population concerned make it difficult to target
environmental problems predominantly with uniform rules applying across the
board. Obviously, there is a need to strike a consistent balance between uniform
"bottom line" rules and possibilities to take action at local level within an agreed
framework safeguarding the internal market.

A Common Noise Classification Scheme

45.

46.

Noise-related charges are levied at several European airports as an incentive to use
quieter aircraft and to finance noise insulation programs. The noise charges can take
the form of an extra landing charge or a specific noise charge or tax. The noise
charges are presently based on aircraft noise classifications fixed according to
principles which vary from one country to another. Classification of aircraft is also
used as a basis for operational restrictions based on different local noise schemes,
such as night bans.

Most existing classifications are based on the noise certification values. With the
completion of the Chapter 2 aircraft phase-out, existing aircraft noise classifications
will have to be updated. That will be an appropriate time to adopt a common scheme
for noise classification of aircraft within Chapter 3 in order to prevent further
proliferation of different
local schemes. Such a classification scheme is also
necessary for several aspects of the general EU noise policy as well as for any local
noise reduction measures and charging schemes which prove necessary. A common
noise classification scheme would also make it simpler for air carriers to plan
operations, since it will establish a fair and transparent system applicable throughout
Europe.

18

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

The basic idea behind the classification is that it should reflect the contribution to the
noise exposure of people living near airports . The classification could be based on
one of two different principles:

• certification values;

• input data for the computation of noise exposure due to air traffic;

Certification values are used in many countries as a basis for charging and for
operational rules. They are established values based on a carefully described
procedure recommended by ICAO. The purpose of the certification procedure is to
establish a method for comparing the noise emission of different aircraft with the
regulations. Unfortunately, the procedures are not always representative for normal
flights.

Computed operational noise data is more closely related to real noise disturbance on
the ground than certification data. Different conditions, such as the actual power and
flap setting, as well as local conditions in the airport vicinity, can be included. At
present, however, there is no common European methodology or procedure used for
aircraft noise computation and the basic data used for the computation has not been
subject to the same control as the certification data.

Noise monitoring is performed at a number of European airports, mainly as an
instrument to control the noise situation, but there are also some examples of noise
databases consisting of measured data. As with the computed noise data there is,
however, so far no common European methodology or procedure for monitoring. It
is important
the classification reflects the degree of impact on the area
surrounding the airport. On the other hand, the classification has to be founded on
accepted standardised methods and a prescribed technical procedure.

that

The establishment of modelling guidance for airports is the subject of much
international discussion. When a common method for calculating noise around
airports has been achieved, together with a common database to support it, then this
will probably be the best basis for noise classification. Today only the certification
values can be used.

Action:

The Commission will propose in the year 2000 a Community framework on noise
classification of aircraft with a view to establishing an objective common basis for the
computation of noise exposure for local and national decisions on airport charges,
operational restrictions and, subject to the outcome of further study work for the
introduction of environmental performance criteria, rules to the allocation of slots.

A Framework for Noise Measurement and Land-use Rules

52.

In its White Paper on the future development of the Common transport Policy21, the
Commission stressed the need to ensure that areas surrounding airports are
adequately protected against an increase in noise volume due to the growth in air

21

COM(92)494 final of 2 December 1992.

19

transport and that no new noise-sensitive activities are allowed near airports. To that
effect measures were announced with a view to

• introducing a standard noise exposure index;

• establishing a standard method of calculation of noise exposure levels;

• implementing noise monitoring, noise zoning and land–use rules around airports.

It was further highlighted that such measures would need to give due consideration to
the characteristics of individual airports.

Various noise measuring, noise monitoring and land-use measures already exist at a
large number of Community airports. Indices and methodologies for determining
noise exposure due to aircraft operations however are different in individual Member
States22. The Commission sees great merit in the establishment of a common noise
exposure index as well as a standard methodology for calculation of noise exposure
around airports. Such common standards would make it possible to carry out a valid
comparison between existing noise exposure levels and limits. They would also
provide a general reference framework for assessing the compatibility of airport
capacity provisions with environmental objectives. Unambiguous methods also
facilitate the establishment of transparent and comparable common targets. In the
longer term, a coherent framework covering all (transport) sources would be
envisaged23 as suggested in the recent green paper on a future noise policy As a
follow-up to the Green Paper on future noise policy the Commission is preparing
measures on the harmonisation of noise indices, computation and measurement
methods for all the traffic noises.

Any aircraft noise abatement policy should include aircraft noise monitoring to
provide information to the public on the actual noise situation around an airport and
to assess complaints about aircraft noise. When combined with flight data from the
airport surveillance radar, the noise monitoring system allows compliance with
prescribed standard flight procedures and tracks to be checked. Such an integrated
flight
track and aircraft noise monitoring system makes it possible to detect
immediately violations of standard procedures and to trace offenders against
established noise limits.

In addition, the lack of proper land-use planning around airports has caused an
increasingly problematic situation in relation to balancing the valid interests of
different stakeholders. Although the present
location of residential areas in the
vicinity of airports cannot be reversed, it is important to improve the situation for the
future construction and extension of airports. Compatible land use planning is
essential to ensure that the gains achieved by the reduction of noise at source are not
offset by further residential and other non-compatible developments around airports.
The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) provides a framework for
making progress in this field.24

53.

54.

55.

22

23

24

A study into existing methodologies for the calculation of noise exposure levels in and around airports,
National Aerospace laboratory, the Netherlands, 1992
COM(96)540 final of 4 November 1996 on Future Noise Policy
ESDP, prepared by the Committee on Spatial Development, Potsdam, 1999

20

56.

57.

58.

However, the establishment and enforcement of land-use planning control is and will
remain the responsibility of the local and national government. In recognition of the
subsidiarity principle, the Commission does not intend to propose a change to the
existing allocation of responsibilities. However,
the Commission considers that
guidelines for such controls, based on best practice techniques, could be an
appropriate approach to improving the situation. Also, the use of the same indicators
and assessment methods in these procedures will help the transfer of knowledge and
experience. Furthermore, leverage through the Community's financial instruments for
airport infrastructure development could be used for stimulating progress in this
important field.

Action:

The Commission will propose a common noise measurement index, a methodology for
noise calculation and minimum requirements for noise monitoring.

the
The Commission will,
possibility of establishing recommended practices on land-use decisions in the vicinity
of airports.

in close cooperation with Member States, consider

The Commission will propose that proper land-use rules should be considered as an
eligibility criterion for financial support to airport construction and extension projects
under the Community's various financial instruments.

A Community Framework on Operating Rules

legal

In the present
framework the imposition or modification of operating
restrictions to reduce the impact of aircraft noise at Community airports is the prime
responsibility of the relevant national, regional and local authorities. Community
involvement in this field is strictly limited to ensuring that such decisions comply
with Community law and in particular with the rules of Regulation 2408/92 and
general Treaty principles such as non-discrimination and proportionality and with the
Community's competition rules. The diversity of situations at individual airports in
terms of traffic volume, noise performance of the aircraft used and, in particular,
their closeness to residential areas, have tended to imply that Community
harmonisation initiatives, for example on nightflights, would be inconsistent with the
subsidiarity principle

A fair balance of interests is difficult to reach by attempting to set down uniform and
binding rules on operating restrictions for all Community airports. Decisions must
continue to be taken at local level if the best-balanced solution is to be found for each
individual situation. However, the appropriateness of a Community Framework for
decision-making procedures is a distinct matter. For example, there is no convincing
argument on environmental grounds
in
establishing common points of reference for measuring the noise performance of the
operations which are to be restricted. Similarly, significant changes to existing rules
should incorporate sufficient time for operators to adapt their operations. It may also
be important to consider establishing the enforceable right of airport neighbours to
request consultations and negotiations on the imposition of new operating rules and
guarantees that noise is actually reduced and not just shifted to other areas. Finally,
the establishment of a body with a balanced representation of stakeholders to discuss
best practices in this field at Community level could contribute towards avoiding

for objecting to industry's

interest

21

weaker, "lowest common denominator" standards and in favour of a reasonable
recourse to legislation. Such "best practice
degree of harmonisation without
guidance" might over time, develop towards a Code of Conduct on operating rules.

Action:

The Commission will examine, in close co-operation with stakeholders concerned and
Member States, options for establishing a Community framework for decision-making
procedures in the field of environmental operating restrictions at Community airports,
including a forum for disseminating best practice.

Introducing More Stringent Rules on Noise at Individual Airports

international

The present
framework for advancing the introduction of new
stringency standards on noise is based on ICAO Resolution A28-3 on the chapter 2
phase out of 1990. This established an international understanding on a target date
for a non-operation rule. In the past, this date has also served as benchmarks for
Community legislation governing intra-Community and international
flights.
Therefore, any Membrer state decisions to advance the introduction of more stringent
in conformity with Community
noise requirements
legislation.25

rules are currently not

It is foreseeable that discussions and negotiations on future certification standards for
noise ("Chapter 4")will again be heavily influenced by the closely-related question of
appropriate phase-in dates for non-addition and non-operation rules for Chapter 3
aircraft. The European request that certification standards as such and regional rules
for their
implementation should be strictly separated reflects objective policy
requirements in Europe but has attracted, so far, little support in international fora
(see also chapter II). Therefore,
the establishment of a Community system of
identifying particularly noise-sensitive airports, i.e. airports creating a large number
of sleep disturbed and annoyed citizens, could pave the way for a more balanced and,
in an international context, more acceptable solution to problems at
individual
Community airports reducing the number of annoyed people.

Such a system would consist of establishing objective and controllable Community
rules under which, at the request of the Member State concerned, an individual
airport might, on the basis of a decision of the Commission and after examination of
the case assisted by an advisory committee, introduce more stringent noise rules prior
to their general introduction in the Community market place.

With a view to safeguarding internal market
requirements and undistorted
competition, it is important, however, that entitlement for introduction of more
stringent rules must be based on fulfilment of clear and objective criteria constituting
an exceptional situation and on use of common benchmarks for the determination of
the noise impact on the environment of the airport. Such benchmarking will be
greatly facilitated by the introduction of common indicators and assessment mehods
as discussed above. Granting a permit to advance the introduction of more stringent
rules could be justified in particular to avoid new operational restrictions or to pave
the way for public approval of airport extensions.

59.

60.

61.

62.

25

see Commission decision of 22 July 1998 on access to Karlstad airport. O.J. L233 of 20-08-1998

22

62a.

62b.

62c.

63.

64.

65.

66.

An alternative track towards better recognition of the situation at particularly noise
sensitive airports could be to introduce environmental criteria into the rules on the
allocation of slots at congested airports. The basic idea would be to give some
preference to operations with more silent aircraft when defining priority criteria for
re-allocation from the pool and to make sure, in any case, that air carriers cannot
substitute less acceptable aircraft for existing equipment.

The potential attractiveness of introducing criteria on the environmental performance
of aircraft into the system of re-allocating slots not only stems from the prospects for
environmental improvement: If combined with a system of overall noise quotas at
individual airports, the incentive to use more silent aircraft in order to obtain slots
would also improve the overall capacity of airports instead of accepting the current
tendency to "solve" environmental problems by means of capping the overall number
of movements.

However, some of the implications of such a modification of the existing regulatory
systems require further examination in order not to disturb the balance between the
interests of incumbent air carriers and those of new entrant operators. Such a step
necessitates definition of common reference criteria (a common noise classification
scheme) in order to be compatible with essential internal market requirements.

Action:

The Commission will examine the feasibility and possible scope for a Community
system for identifying particularly noise sensitive airports with a view to addressing
the need for the introduction of more stringent rules at these specific airports. Its
proposals in this respect will take into account the outcome of the CAEP/5 work on
future noise stringency measures.

The Role of other Modes

From an environmental perspective, other modes are relevant for air transport in two
ways. First, for many short to medium distance flights rail, in particular high-speed
rail, can offer a realistic alternative. Second, air transport generates other traffic to
and from airports, which highlights the role of airports as intermodal terminals.

The interconnection of different modes of transport is being pursued in the context of
the trans-European transport networks (TEN-T). The Commission is currently
working towards a revision of the TEN-T Guidelines, in which the linkage of airports
to other modes of transport – notably rail – will receive particular attention in order
to create the conditions for efficient connections.

Provided that infrastructural preconditions do exist there is a significant potential for
thus easing pressure on ATM-systems and
enhancing rail/air
facilitating the situation at congested airports. This would free air
transport
infrastructure capacity for (longer) flights where competitive alternative transport
modes do not exist.

intermodality,

Most air trips are automatically multimodal because of the necessity to travel to and
from the airport. The local and regional traffic thus generated is in itself a major
source of air pollution, noise and congestion. But efficient public transport between
airports and city centres is not only a requirement on environmental grounds, it also

23

lowers the risk of delay through congestion and reduces parking requirements. This
constitutes an obvious "win-win" situation. In its Communication on the Citizen's
network26, the Commission highlighted the necessity of linking the TEN-T to local
networks, and in particular connecting airports to rail infrastructure. In this context it
must be ensured that rules on public procurement do not hinder local and regional
for such
authorities from using above-standard equipment, e.g. clean buses,
connections. The Commission is working to disseminate best practice in local
transport solutions27

Action:

The Commission will press for more effective air/rail connections in the future
development of the TEN-T and continue to accelerate its efforts to make rail transport
more competitive and better integrated facilitating replacement of shorter flights by
rail transport. In order to enable transport authorities to develop environmentally
advanced public transport systems around airports, the Commission will work towards
public procurement rules that allow and encourage procurement officers to purchase
environmentally advanced equipment. Existing activities to disseminate best practice
in local transport solutions will be strengthened.

V.

ADVANCING TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS (R&D)

The need for a long-term Research and Development (R&D) strategy is underlined
by the fact that the aeroplanes produced today are in general based on established
technologies,
the development of which started some 10 or 15 years before.
Improvements in environmental performance such as emissions and noise are an
integral part of the systems development for new aircraft which demonstrates the
need for an integrated R&D approach.28 The European Community has developed its
aeronautical research programme in close consultation with industry,
research
organisations and regulatory authorities taking into account related Community
policies.

The Community will continue to support research on the atmospheric effects of
aircraft emissions (see part 2 of the Annex to this communication). This will be part
of the Key Action on Global Change, Climate and Biodiversity under Thematic
Programme 4 on Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development. The overall
objective of the Key Action is to develop the scientific, technological and socio-
economic basis and tools necessary for the study and understanding of changes in the
environment such as climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, etc. In particular,
the quantification and the relative importance of aircraft emissions to other
anthropogenic and natural emissions and their impacts on the ozone layer and
climate will be studied.

COM(98) 431 final of 10 July 1998
For example by means of databases on the World Wide Web such as ELTIS (http://www.eltis.org) and
its planned extensions.
European efforts on the atmospheric impact of aircraft emissions have predominantly been supported by
the Environment and Climate Research Programme (E&C) as well as by the national programmes of the
EC Member States. Complementary R&D activities on both aircraft and engine technologies for
reducing exhaust gas emissions and noise have been supported by the Industrial and Materials
Technologies Research Programme (Area 3A: Aeronautics). Community funded research on emissions
have been part of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Framework Programmes while major research on external noise
from aircraft started more recently in the 4th Framework Programme.

24

67.

68.

26

27

28

69.

R&D on both aircraft and engine aspects related to exhaust gas and noise emissions
will be part of the Key Action 4 on New Perspectives in Aeronautics of the
Competitive and Sustainable Growth (GROWTH) programme under FP5.The Key
Action Aeronautics distinguishes two strands of work. The development of critical
technologies with a medium and long term perspective (10 to 15 years) will lead
research to improve the enabling technology base. Technology platforms with a
shorter term perspective (5 to 10 years) are designed to integrate and validate
technology developments. The overall objectives of both strands are:

• to increase fuel economy of both the airframe itself and the propulsion system by
20% in 10 years, consequently reducing emissions of the greenhouse gases CO2
and H2O;

• to develop and validate ultra low emission combustor concepts to achieve
significant reductions of pollutant emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
particulates in the LTO cycle compared to the current ICAO 96 standard, and in
climb/cruise phase to a NOx emission index of less than 8 g per kg fuel burned;

• to reduce external noise by 10 dB in 10 years in relation to present best available

technology.

70.

R&D under critical technologies will include, in the field of reducing emissions from
air transport:

• the development of

technologies for

research on
structures and materials to reduce weight, development of new and improved
engine designs with improved efficiency and in addition research on advanced on-
board systems and equipment contributing to improve the ATM system;

improved aerodynamics,

• to develop new combustor concepts for achieving substantial reductions in NOx
and improve the knowledge of the nature and effects of emissions. This will
include technologies for efficient and stable combustion systems, on-board
measurement techniques, modelling of the composition of engine exhaust gas
emissions and development of a new emission parameter for aircraft/engine
certification as recommended by ICAO/CAEP4;

• the reduction of external noise through reduction of noise at source generated by
engines, propellers and the airframe itself. This will include the development of
active noise and vibration control technologies and the development of prediction
models for airframe and engine for field noise radiation including work on
improved noise certification parameters and procedures.

71.

the technology platform on the more efficient and
The overall goal of
environmentally friendly aero-engine is to improve the competitiveness of the
European aero-engine manufacturing industry and at
the same time actively
contribute to curbing man-made climate change related to aviation. The activity
includes tests of the best available component
technologies in a conventional
performance cycle engine and validation of an advanced engine performance cycle
using an inter-cooled and recuperated engine core.

72.

The technology platform on low external noise aircraft
is developed on the
background that research in the last two decades has focused on the aero-engine as

25

the dominant noise source, resulting in substantial decrease of noise levels. However
further progress can only be achieved by the combination of developments of several
different elements: engine source noise, nacelle technology, airframe-generated noise
and installation effects as well as low noise flight operational procedures. The
objective of this activity is better integration of these different elements to achieve
and to demonstrate a substantial reduction of perceived noise.

Action:
In executing the 5th R&D Framework Programme, the European Commission, in line
with established procedure rules, is attaching priority to :
(cid:1)

explore the scientific, technological and socio-economic basis and to develop tools
for quantifying any change in the atmospheric environment which may be caused
by air transport
assist
industry to develop major
environmental performance of aero-engines and aircraft.

the aeronautical

improvements

to the

(cid:1)

The Commission services intend to establish a common European position within the
ICAO/CAEP process and enhance international co-operation in environmental
research.

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE MONITORING

The action programme as outlined in this Communication represents the position of the
European Commission in relation to strategies to achieve sustainable development as required
by the Amsterdam Treaty by means of integrating environmental concerns into sectoral
policies in the air transport field. The European Commission is looking forward to early
reaction in support and advice on priorities from the other EU-institutions when implementing
this programme. With a view to the importance of decisions to be taken at the level of the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) by the end of 2001 for safeguarding EU-
goals the Commission believes that ways for more effective representation of EU-interests
will have to be identified. In any case the European Commission intends to re-assess the
implications of such decisions for the balance between the main areas for action. A report
serving this goal will be presented early 2002.

A review on the implementation of this action programme may also be required by new
scientific evidence and by the availability of further developed environmental indicators. The
impact of air transport on the environment will be monitored regularly on the basis of the
Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM).29 TERM is a set of indicators
which has been developed in pursuit of a Transport Council Conclusion to measure the
integration process in the transport sector as well as to monitor deficits and achievements in
the implementation of sustainability of transport. The Commission will co-operate with
Member States in order to encourage the collection of missing data to improve the TERM as a
monitoring system for measuring environmental impacts of air transport. The Commission
will also continue its work on improving the meaningfulness of cross-modal comparisons of
environmental impacts.

29

Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM); TERM-Zero Report to be published in the
beginning of 2000

26

ACTION PLAN – SUMMARY

AREA

OBJECTIVES/TARGETS/ACTIONS

TARGET
DATES

I. IMPROVING TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND RELATED RULES

1. Noise

More stringent
transition

international standards and rules for

(33rd
2001
By
ICAO Assembly)

2. Gaseous Emissions

NOX

More stringent international rules

CO2
greenhouse gases

and

other

Reductions according to the targets of the Kyoto protocol.

LTO emissions

Provide proposal for an equivalent charge

(33rd
By
2001
ICAO Assembly)

2001 for
and
(33rd
Assembly)

review
update
ICAO

(33rd
By
2001
ICAO Assembly)

Emission methodologies

3.
Measures

Operational

To be improved, in co-operation with SBSSTA and CAEP By

(33rd
2001
ICAO Assembly)

Air
Management

Traffic

Improve ATM efficiency

Communication
end 1999

II. STRENGTHENING MARKET INCENTIVES

1. Economic Incentives

Aviation charges

Proposal for an aviation charge

Emission trading

Explore benefits/risks

Carbon offsets

Explore benefits/risks

2.
Industry Initiatives

Encouraging

EMAS

Encourage airports/airlines to register under
EMAS regulation (upcoming)

the new

Voluntary agreements

Suggest voluntary agreements on emission reductions.

By
early
(after CAEP 5)

2001

By 2001

By 2001

New
regulation
2000)

EMAS
(mid

Early 2000 launch
of
substantive
discussions

27

III. ASSISTING AIRPORTS

1. A Common Noise
Classification Scheme

Proposal
for
classification

a Community

framework

on

noise

By 2000

2. A Framework for
Noise Measurement

A Framework for Land-
use Rules

A

3.
Framework
Operating Rules

Community
for

4.
Introducing More
Stringent Noise Rules at
Individual Airports

5. The role of other
modes

R&D

Proposal for a common noise measurement
methodology
noise
for
requirements for noise monitoring

calculation

index, a
and minimum

By 2001

Guidance on best practices for land-use decisions

By 2001 (Report)

Framework
dissemination

fo

procedural

rules

,

best

practices

By 2001 (Report)

Analyse appropriateness of a Community system for
identifying noise-sensitive airports

By 2001 (Report)

Working towards for more effective air/rail intermodality

Ongoing

IV- ADVANCING TECHNOLOGICAL
IMPROVEMENT (R&D)

Ongoing (5th and
6th
R&D
framework
programme)

TERM-Zero
report
be
to
published in early
review by
2000,
2002

Monitoring

Develop inventories of statistics and indicators through
the Transport and Environment Review Mechanism
(TERM) process.

28

ANNEX 1

EU Passenger Transport Performance
Main Modes of Transport

Figure 1: Performance by mode
1000 mio pkm

Passenger

Buses &

Tram +

Railway

Air*

1970

1980

1990
1994

1995

1996

1997

cars
1 583

2 333

3 302

3 584

3 656

3 710

3 787

Coaches
270

Metro
38

347

369

374

384

386

393

40

48

41

41

41

41

217

253

274

270

270

279

282

43

96

204
254

274

290

322

1990-97

+ 15 %

+ 6 %

- 13 %

+ 3 %

+ 58 %

Total

2 151

3 069

4 197

4 523

4 624

4 707

4 826
+ 15 %

Source : ECMT, UIC, UITP, national statistics and estimates

Notes : * European traffic, Source : AEA, IATA and estimates

Worldwide traffic of EU carriers was 550 bio pkm in 1995

EU Passenger Transport
performance by mode (1000 mio pkm)

1997

1996

1995

1994

1990

1980

1970

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Passenger cars

Buses & Coaches

Tram + Metro

Railway Air*

Source: EU TRANSPORT IN FIGURES, STATISTICAL POCKETBOOK, DG TRANS, EUROSTAT

29

MARKET DEVELOPMENT – SUPPLY

Figure 2: Growth and Forecast in Scheduled Air Traffic Capacity

)
n
o

i
l
l
i

b
(
d
e
r
e

f
f

O
m
K

t

a
e
S

)
n
o

i
l
l
i

b
(

d
e
r
e
f
f

O
s
e
r
t
e
m
o

l
i

K

t
a
e
S

H istorica l

F orec ast

C e n tra l

H ig h ;
C en tra l G D P + 30 %
A ve ra g e 5.9 % p .a
1 9 9 6-2 0 1 5

L o w ;
C en tra l G D P - 3 0 %
A ve ra g e 3.7 % p .a
1 9 9 6-2 0 1 5

1 2 , 0 0 0

1 0 , 0 0 0

8 , 0 0 0

6 , 0 0 0

4 , 0 0 0

2 , 0 0 0

0
1 9 6 0

1 9 6 5

1 9 7 0

1 9 7 5

1 9 8 0

1 9 8 5

1 9 9 0

1 9 9 5

2 0 0 0

2 0 0 5

2 0 1 0

2 0 1 5

Figure 3: Capacity Forecast by Geographical Region

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
1990

Europe

SE Asia

USA & Canada

Rest of the W orld

Historical

Forecast

17%

38%

19%

26%

17%

33%

28%

22%

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Note: W orld regions grouped for clarity

Source: ECAC/ANCAT (Expert group on Abatement of Noise Caused by Air Transportation)

30

1 0

8

6

4

2

)

2
1
0
1
(

K
S
A

Figure 4: Capacity Trend

G r o w t h

R e p l a c e m e n t

R e m a i n i n g b a s e f l e e t

0
1 9 9 4

1 9 9 9

2 0 0 4

2 0 0 9

2 0 1 4

ASK: Available Seat Kilometres

Source: ECAC/ANCAT (Expert group on Abatement of Noise Caused by Air Transportation)

31

MARKET DEVELOPMENT - DEMAND

Figure 5: Growth Situation of Aviation

+66%

+45%

806

North America

552

Europe

+89%

53

Middle-East

+140%

+54%

91

+65%

44

South America

Africa

407

Asia/Pacific

10^9 RPK
(Revenue Passenger km)

Forecast

Year

1992

2003

Total

1953 +75%

Source:DLR(DeutschesZentrumfurLuft-undRaumfahrt)

32

Figure 6: Forecast of Passenger Demand in Aviation

(10^9 Revenue Passenger Kilometre)

BOEING

AIRBUS

ICAO

ANCAT/EC2
70 % PAX LF

5 %
per annum

9
^
0
1
*
K
P
R

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

YEAR

SourceDLR(DeutschesZentrumfurLuft-undRaumfahrt)

33

FUEL CONSUMPTION AND CONSUMPTION EFFICIENCY

Figure 7: Growth of Air Traffic and Fuel Consumption

200

150

+ %

100

50

0
1996

DEMAND (RPK)

FUEL

2000

2004

2008

2012

2016

2020

YEAR

RPK=RevenuePassengerKilometres

Source:AssessmentusingBoeingMarketOutlook

34

Figure 8: Engine Technology Steps and Gain of SFC

T urbojet

18%

2 0%

S FC
[kg/d aN/h]

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,3

Turbo fans

1 .G en

2.G en

3.G en

12%

Propfan ?

Lim it of an ideal engine

1950

1 960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Y ear

(Specific Fuel Consumption) at cruise conditions

Source:MTU/DLR

Note: Specific Fuel Consumption means the amount of fuel weight flow to an engine's combustor in
kg per hour (kg/h) divided by the amount of thrust produced by the engine in dekanewton (daN=10 N)

35

Figure 9: Development of Aircraft Fuel Consumption per 100 Available
Seat Kilometres (ASK)

Litre/100 km

1000 NM trip

Comet

global average(1992)
from ANCAT/EC2

12

10

8

6

4

2

0
1950

B707-120

B727-100

B737-200

DC 9-30

B747-200B

A300

B737-300

B747-400

B767

A320

A340-300

Year

1960

1970

1980

1990

Source:DLR(DeutschesZentrumfurLuft-undRaumfahrt)

36

Figure 10: Aircraft and Engine Fuel Efficiency Improvement

(Long range transport)

100

%

80

60

40

20

- 2.0 %

- 4.5 %

per annum

- 1.8 %

- 2.6 %

Engine

Aircraft

- 0.6 %

- 1.3 %

0

1960

1970

1980

Year

1990

2000

Source:DLR

Base:B707

37

Figure 1 1 : N umber of commercial aircraft by N oise certification operated in EU

ICA O noise classifications:

Chapter 1:
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
-
SS

Super Sonic (Concorde)

aircraft types certified before 1970 (e.g. Boeing 707)

aircraft types certified between 1970 and 1978 (e.g. Boeing 747-200)
aircraft types certified after 1978 (e.g. A irbus A 310)

Stage
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Super Sonic

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1
690
1093
14

632
1336
14

551
1515
14

457
1613
14

397
1723
14

358
1883
13

2
299
2022
13

2
260
2195
13

2
224
2448
13

Total
(source: A irclaims )

1798

1982

2080

2084

2134

2254

2336

2470

2687

EU noise stage evolution 1990-1998

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Super Sonic

0
9
9
1

1
9
9
1

2
9
9
1

3
9
9
1

4
9
9
1

5
9
9
1

38

6
9
9
1

7
9
9
1

8
9
9
1

Fuel burned, Nox and CO2 forecast 1991/2 and 2015

Fuel (Tg)
Nox* (as Gg NO2)
CO2 (Tg)

EU 1992

EU2015

15,5
177
49,3

29,5
331,5
94,3

USA 1992 USA 2015 World 1992 World 2015
226,5
2678,8
723,4

107,4
1317,8
342,9

51,4
557,7
164

29,9
327,3
95,5

Source : ANCAT / ECAC

Tg (teragram) = 1012 grams
Gg (gigagram) = 109 grams
* as Gg NO2
Notes:

Notes:
The data excludes the following:
1. Dedicated freight traffic
2. Business jet traffic
3. Military traffic
4. General aviation and helicopters
5. Carriers from the former Soviet Union and Eastern European states

Figure 12: Fuel and NOx forecast for 1992 and 2015

World 2015

World 1992

USA 2015

USA 1992

EU2015

EU 1992

CO2 (Tg)

Nox* (as Gg NO2)

Fuel (Tg)

10

100

1000

10000

Teragrams (except for NOX which is in Gigagrams)

39

Figure 13: Annual emissions of NOx (Gg NO2)
percentage of global totals 1991/92

from civil aviation and

L e g e n d : u p p e r fig u re is th e N O x e m is s io n

lo w e r is th e p e rc e n ta g e o f g lo b a l to ta l

1 5 .9 7
1 .0 0

7 8 .9 1
4 .9 2

3 5 .1 2
2 .1 9

6 .1 3
0 .3 8
0 .5 7
0 .0 4

0 .0 3
< 0 .0 1

7 .1 6
0 .4 5

4 7 0 .9 4
2 9 .3 6

8 5 .5 9
5 .3 4

7 .6 3
0 .4 8
2 .6 5
0 .1 7

0 .0 4
< 0 .0 1

1 0 .3 9
0 .6 5

1 6 0 .6 3
1 0 .0 2

1 8 .5 4
1 .1 6

2 4 .1 7
1 .5 1
2 .7 0
0 .1 7

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

1 1 .7 8
0 .7 3

2 4 2 .2 3
1 5 .1 0

4 4 .9 2
2 .8 0

1 4 .2 0
0 .8 9
1 .3 2
0 .0 8

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

6 .7 7
0 .4 2

3 8 .4 2
2 .4 0

1 0 1 .1 0
6 .3 0

1 4 .2 9
0 .8 9
1 .2 1
0 .0 8

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

2 .4 4
0 .1 5

1 2 4 .3 8
7 .7 6

3 1 .3 2
1 .9 5

2 1 .3 0
1 .3 3
2 0 .9 4
1 .3 1

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

e
d
u
t
i
t
a
L

9 0

6 0

3 0

0

- 3 0

- 6 0

- 9 0

- 1 2 0

-6 0

0

6 0

1 2 0

1 8 0

L o n g itu d e

Figure 14: Annual consumption of fuel (Tg )
from civil aviation and percentage of global totals, 1991/92

L e g en d : u p p e r fig u re is th e fu e l b u rn

lo w e r is th e pe rc e n ta g e o f g lo b a l to tal

0 .9 7
0 .8 5

5 .2 3
4 .5 8
2 .1 3
1 .8 6
0 .3 7
0 .3 3
0 .0 3
0 .0 3

<0.0 1
< 0 .0 1

0 .4 5
0 .3 9

3 6 .9 8
3 2 .3 8
6 .7 8
5 .9 4
0 .6 1
0 .5 4
0 .2 3
0 .2 0

< 0 .0 1
< 0 .0 1

0 .6 5
0 .5 7

1 0 .8 9
9 .5 3
1 .2 0
1 .0 5
1 .7 4
1 .5 2
0 .1 9
0 .1 7

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

0 .8 3
0 .7 3

1 7 .9 7
1 5 .7 4
2 .9 3
2 .5 7
0 .9 1
0 .7 9
0 .1 1
0 .0 9

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

0 .4 7
0 .4 1

2 .7 3
2 .3 9
6 .4 3
5 .6 3
0 .9 8
0 .8 6
0 .0 8
0 .0 7

0 .0 0
0 .0 0

0 .1 7
0 .1 5

7 .2 9
6 .3 8
1 .9 6
1 .7 1
1 .4 8
1 .2 9
1 .4 5
1 .2 7

< 0 .0 1
< 0 .0 0

e
d
u
t
i
t
a
L

9 0

6 0

3 0

0

-30

-60

-90

- 12 0

-60

0

6 0

1 2 0

1 8 0

source : ANCAT/ECAC

L o n gitud e

40

Annex 2

2. Air Transport and Climate Change

• The problem

Air transport contributes through the emission of gases and particles from aircraft engines
to changes in air quality at the Earth’s surface, in climate, and in the stratospheric ozone
loss, thus affecting the UV-B radiation at the surface. The question of how significant
emissions and their effects are, is, naturally of particular importance for future policy
priorities.

The present fleet of subsonic aircraft consumes about 130 to 160 Tg (i.e. millions of tons)
of fuel per year and emits carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), nitrogen oxides
(NOX), particles (mainly soot), sulphur oxides, carbon monoxide, various hydrocarbons
(HC), and radicals such as OH. Though the absolute amounts of the emissions are small
compared to other anthropogenic global emissions (2-3% for CO2 and NOX), these
emissions occur in the critical altitude region below and above the tropopause, between 9
km and 14 km altitude, and are concentrated mainly in the latitude regions between 40°N
and 60°N. Furthermore, global air traffic is increasing rapidly, at rates outperforming the
impact of technology improvements reducing engine emissions.

• European research (current activities)

Research related to the atmospheric effects of aircraft emissions and their mitigation
increasing
through aircraft/engine technological and operational measures
importance within the Framework Research Programmes of the European Commission.
From a few singular activities at the beginning of this decade this has developed into a
specific target area.

is of

The European R&TD efforts concerning the atmospheric impacts of aircraft emissions are
predominantly supported by the Environment and Climate Research Programme (E&C) of
the European Community (EC) as well as by national programmes of the Member States
of
the Netherlands, UK, etc. The
complementary R&TD activities on both aircraft and engine technologies for reducing the
exhaust gas emissions are supported by the EC Industrial and Material Technologies
Research Programmes (Area 3: Aeronautics).

the European Union e.g. Germany, France,

The European efforts have been concentrated since 1990 on the effects of subsonic
transport. For the first time, an integrated study aiming towards a better understanding of
the atmospheric effects of emission of subsonic aircraft, the AERONOX project, was
supported under
the initiation of
the Environment Research Programme. After
AERONOX, further research activities have been supported by the European Community
such as the POLINAT, STREAM, MOZAIC, AEROCHEM and AEROCONTRAIL
projects.

• The European Assessment30

30

Published in Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 32, n° 13, July 1998

41

This report concluded that aircraft emissions are small in comparison to all other man-
made emissions, but could be significantly affecting atmospheric ozone and cloud
coverage with possible implications for climate change in the future having regard to the
predicted growth of air traffic. More specifically:

a) The 20-50% increase in the NOx abundance caused by aircraft traffic in the vicinity of
their cruising altitude (10-12 km) has produced a 4-8% increase in the ozone
concentration of the upper troposphere (maximum value during summertime) where
ozone is a strong greenhouse gas. The warming effect associated with this ozone increase
is comparable to the warming effect of CO2 emitted by aircraft (about 2-3% of all
anthropogenic CO2 emissions).

b) Climate pertubations could also result from the formation of persistent contrails and
high-level cirrus clouds produced in the busiest flight corridors. Additional effects on the
radiative balance of the atmosphere could have been generated by the soot and sulphur
particles released by aircraft engines. The warming effect of the changes in cloudiness is
more difficult to assess but appears to be also of the same magnitude as the warming
effect of CO2 emitted by aircraft.

c) The total climate impact caused by the present fleet of commercial aircraft (about 0.1
Wm-²) is a small contribution to the total forcing (2.4 Wm-²) associated with industrial
development. However, with air traffic in the next 20 years expected to grow faster than
the global economy,
the relative contribution of aviation to environmental changes
(pollution, stratospheric ozone, climate) will become more significant, unless new, less-
polluting engines and significantly more fuel-efficient aircraft
technologies are
introduced.

European research also identified a number of areas where improved knowledge could
advance understanding of how aircraft perturb the atmosphere. It stresses that the impact
of emissions at cruising altitudes, straddling the tropospheric and stratospheric boundary
at around 12km,
is not yet sufficiently understood. A better understanding of the
background (‘natural’) state of this region is required prior to being able to identify the
impact arising from aircraft emissions with accuracy. For instance, the natural production
of NOx from lightning needs to be better quantified before the impact of aircraft-induced
NOx can be determined with confidence. In addition, the effect of aircraft emissions on the
abundance of particles that provide the surface for complex heterogeneous reactions,
needs to be carefully studied. The considerable large uncertainty and the large potential
for climatic impact due to possible changes in cloudiness induced by aircraft emissions,
requires more R&TD emphasis on this topic in future. Finally, the relative importance of
aircraft emissions may evolve in the course of future changes e.g. in tropospheric and
stratospheric temperature, in water vapour concentration and in the residence time of other
greenhouse gases like methane.

42

IPCC special report “Aviation and the Global Atmosphere”

Because of the potential policy importance and the need of the industry
for better
information on medium- and long-term implications and the underlying complexity of the
it was considered appropriate that an
global atmospheric phenomena involved,
international understanding of
the status of both scientific understanding and
technological/economic options associated with these issues should be reached.

involving the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
A coordinated assessment
(IPCC) as leading body, the Ozone Science Panel of the Montreal Protocol under the
auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) was launched and finalised early 1999.

The report considers the current (year 1992) and possible future (year 2050 on the basis of
different scenarios) effects of aircraft engine emissions on the atmosphere. CO2, which
represents 2% of total emissions in 1992, could represent 3%in 2050. In absolute terms for
the range of scenarios, the range of increase in emissions would be 1.6 to 10 times the
value of 1992 in 2050. NOx increased O3 (ozone) by 6% in 1992 and could increase it by
13% in 2050. Even though NOx is expected to decrease the concentration of CH4
(methane), the net regional radiative effects of O3 and CH4 do not cancel, because the
geographical distribution of the radiative forcing (a measure of the importance of the
potential climate change mechanism) is different: changes in O3 are mainly located near
the flight routes in the Northern Hemisphere, while those of CH4 are globally mixed. This
implies that NOx emissions from aircraft continue to be a problem in the upper
troposphere. The effect of water vapour, a greenhouse gas, from aviation is smaller than
those of other aircraft emissions such as CO2 and Nox. Aircraft contrails, which
contribute to the warming of the Earth are expected to increase by a factor of 5 between
1992 and 2050. Over the period 1992 to 2050 the overall radiative forcing by aircraft can
be a factor 2 to 4 larger than the forcing by aircraft CO2 alone.

The report further explores the potential options for emissions mitigation through changes
in technology, the air transport system and in regulatory and economic frameworks. The
report assumes a 20% “natural” improvement in fuel efficiency by 2015 and a 40 to 50%
improvement by 2050 compared to today’s technology. Improvements in ATM could
reduce fuel burn by 6 to 12% in the next 20 years. Other operational measures could bring
about a further 2 to 6% reduction. The assumption that there would be no shortage of
airport capacity in the time-horizon of the report was seriously questioned. The report also
recognises that although the improvements in aircraft and engine technology and in the
efficiency of the air traffic system will bring environmental benefits, these will not fully
offset the effects of increased growth of air transport. Regulatory and market based
options are identified as other mitigation measures.

The key areas of scientific uncertainty, which are identified in the report, include i.a. the
role of NOx in changing O3 and CH4 concentrations, the climate response to regional
forcing.

Although the IPCC special report on “Aviation and the Global Atmosphere”, in line with
established IPCC practice, does not make policy recommendations or suggest policy
preferences, it has become a key reference point for future policy decisions aimed at
reducing gaseous emissions from aviation that can affect the chemical properties of the
atmosphere

43