Special Report No 2/99 on the effects of the CAP reform in the cereals sector accompanied by the Commission's replies
Date: 1999-05-06
Institutions: European Court of Auditors
Subjects: agricultural production policy, cereals, common price policy, export policy, import policy, reform of the CAP

8.7.1999

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Official Journal of the European Communities

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I

(Information)

COURT OF AUDITORS

SPECIAL REPORT No 2/99

on the effects of the CAP reform in the cereals sector accompanied by the Commission(cid:146)s replies

(pursuant to Article 248(4), second subparagraph, of the EC Treaty)

(1999/C 192/01)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph
reference

Page

SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1-1.3

2. HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1-2.12

Price support and external protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1-2.5

Evolution of the cereals market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6-2.12

3. THE REFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1-3.5

4. EFFECTS OF THE REFORM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1-4.48

The cereals budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1-4.5

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6-4.10

Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.11-4.14

Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.15-4.21

Producer prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.15-4.19

Consumer prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.20-4.21

Stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.22-4.23

External trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.24-4.28

Imports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.25

Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.26-4.28

Farm income from cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.29-4.48

Compensation in the cereals sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.31-4.36

Distribution of income from cereal growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.37-4.46

Value of agricultural land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.47-4.48

5. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1-5.13

Commission(cid:146)s replies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

4

4

4

5

6

10

10

12

14

14

14

15

17

19

19

19

20

20

23

26

26

31

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SUMMARY

The report deals with the impact of the 1992 CAP reform on the cereals sector. It provides a summary of the
history of the common organisation of the market (COM) in cereals, followed by a reminder of the key ele-
ments of the reform. It then traces the evolution of the COM(cid:146)s budget and of the main economic variables
present in the cereals sector after the reform. In the light of this evolution, it evaluates the results of the reform.

The old COM, which was based on price support and external protection, resulted in growing public stocks at
rising cost to the Community budget. In addition, ever-increasing export refunds had to be granted to dispose
of surplus cereals on the world markets. EC trade partners were also pressing the Community to further
liberalise its agricultural markets. This finally resulted in the CAP (common agricultural policy) reform of 1992,
mainly directed at the cereals sector (see paragraphs 2.1 to 2.12).

This reform attempted to deal with internal and external problems by increasing the competitiveness of
EC-grown cereals. The principal instrument was drastic reduction of intervention prices. Farmers were com-
pensated for income losses resulting from price reductions by means of direct area aid. Market balance was to
be achieved by paying lower prices and thereby discouraging production, by making area aid independent of
the actual production volume and by setting aside production areas (see paragraphs 3.1 to 3.5).

Although the Commission expected a certain increase in budgetary expenditure, as the burden of farm sup-
port was gradually transferred from the consumer to the taxpayer, expenditure, as a result of management deci-
sions taken at Commission or Council level, grew faster than foreseen. The decrease in expenditure forecast
for 1997 did not take place (see paragraphs 4.1 to 4.5).

Decreases in production in the first year of reform were rapidly followed by increases that brought production
back up to pre-reform production levels. The evolution differed greatly from one Member State to another,
indicating that the volume of production was influenced more by climatic changes and continuously increas-
ing yields than by price reductions and the compulsory set-aside of arable land (see paragraphs 4.6 to 4.10).

Internal consumption increased as a result of the price reductions, which increased the attractiveness of using
cereals for animal feed. However, the animal-feed sector(cid:146)s ability to adapt shows that there is also a risk of it
reacting and moving in the opposite direction, for example whenever the price ratio between cereals and their
substitutes becomes unfavourable for cereals again (see paragraphs 4.11 to 4.14).

It was expected that producer prices would follow the decrease in institutional prices. This did happen to a
varying extent in the Member States, but due to shortages on the world market, EU market prices for common
wheat, the main cereal produced in the EU, stayed above the new institutional prices, which resulted in global
over-compensation of actual income losses. The Court has already reported on this phenomenon in its Annual
Report concerning the financial year 1996 (see paragraphs 4.16 to 4.18 and 4.33).

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In 1997 and 1998, after the transitional period, prices dropped and had to be supported by intervention once
again (see paragraphs 4.19 and 4.23).

The drop in producer prices was expected to lessen the burden on the consumer of supporting the agricultural
sector. However, significant falls in the price to the final consumer could either not be established (e.g. for
bread) or could not be related specifically to reduced cereal prices (beef and pork). Thus, the burden on the
taxpayer increased considerably, with no particular gain to the consumer (see paragraphs 4.20 to 4.21).

With respect to the farm income, the sector as a whole benefited from the reform. As market prices stayed
above the newly fixed institutional prices during the transitional period, real losses were over-compensated on
a global level. The higher the market prices were in Member States, the higher the overall returns to the farm-
ers concerned following the introduction of the new system. The system was never tailored to compensate for
losses either at the level of the individual farmer or at country level. Therefore, there are two sources of over-
or under-compensation. The first is due to the fact that aid is linked to average areas and yields that are frozen
at their historical level which led to under-compensation of efficient farmers and over-compensation of less
efficient ones. On the other hand, differences among countries in market prices for the same products caused
over-compensation for farmers in some countries and under-compensation for those in others in specific years
(see paragraphs 4.31 to 4.35).

Furthermore, the compensation system does not differentiate support according to farm size or yield and thus
does not improve the position of smaller producers. The large farms and those situated in regions with the
highest yields continue to benefit from the highest subsidies (see paragraphs 4.37 to 4.46).

As an actual policy change, the 1992 CAP reform was certainly a step in the right direction. However, in order
to safeguard the gains made as regards competitiveness and market balance, further steps are necessary. Mea-
sures suggested in Agenda 2000 are insufficient to combat recurring production surpluses, to react appropri-
ately to falling prices on the world market and to safeguard farm incomes. Given the increasing difficulties
associated with production and area-related subsidies, it may be appropriate to examine the possibility of
replacing the present system by some form of direct income support (see paragraphs 5.8 to 5.11).

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1.

INTRODUCTION

the main economic variables that applied to the cereals sector
after the reform, evaluates the results of the reform in relation to
its objectives, and comments on whether Agenda 2000 is likely
to remedy the weaknesses of the 1992 reform and drive the reform
process further. The report does not cover the evolution of the
special scheme for durum wheat, as this was dealt with in the
Court(cid:146)s Annual Report concerning the financial year 1997 (3).

1.1.
In many respects cereals are the Community(cid:146)s most impor-
tant crop. They occupy around 38 million hectares, about 25 %
of the Community(cid:146)s agricultural area. Quantity-wise they account
for the highest production at about 200 million tonnes a year.
They constitute the main product for intra-Community trade
amounting to approximately 38 million tonnes. The operation of
this common organisation of the market (COM) alone cost the
Community budget more than ECU 14 000 million in 1997, i.e.
34 % of the EAGGF Guarantee budget. This is by far the largest
amount for a single COM, in terms of EU budgetary support. In
terms of production value excluding on farm consumption, how-
ever, in 1995 cereals ranked fourth at ECU 18 379 million after
milk products (ECU 38 176 million), beef (ECU 24 583 million)
and pigmeat (ECU 23 123 million) (1).

2. HISTORY

1.2.
In 1992 the Community reformed parts of the common
agricultural policy (CAP). The main thrust of the reform was
devoted to the cereals market, where the new provisions were
applied from the 1993/1994 marketing year onwards. It was
expected that the reform would be implemented in full by the end
of a three-year transitional period i.e. June 1996. Thus the
1996/1997 marketing year was the first year in which the reform
was applied fully. This report deals with some of the major effects
the reform had on the cereals sector. It is based on audit work car-
ried out during 1997 and 1998, including analyses of economic
and financial data compiled by Eurostat, presented in other Com-
munity documents and obtained during interviews with national
administrations and representatives of producers, processors and
consumers that were conducted in the five most important cereal-
growing Member States: France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy
and Spain (2).

1.3. The report contains a brief summary of the history of the
COM in cereals, followed by a reminder of the key elements of the
reform. It then traces the evolution of the COM(cid:146)s budget and of

Price support and external protection

2.1. Cereals were the first product to become the subject of a
COM under the CAP, because of their fundamental importance to
human and animal nutrition, and to intra-Community trade. After
long negotiations, which began with the conference held in Stresa
in 1958, the Council finally decided to establish a COM in Janu-
ary 1962 the main instruments of which were as follows:

(a) target prices, which were fixed by the Council at the beginning
of each marketing year for each kind of cereal (mainly com-
mon wheat, durum wheat, barley, oats and rye); target prices
were defined as the farm-gate prices a farmer should receive;
the negotiations concerning this price were difficult from the
very start; Germany in particular refused to accept any drastic
cut in its farm prices and it was not until 1967 that common
cereal prices entered into force, although their level was some-
what higher than the market prices applied in the other five
Member States and far above the level of world-market prices;

(b) intervention prices which were fixed at a certain percentage of
the target prices marked the minimum level to which market
prices could drop; when this minimum price was reached,
national intervention boards were required to buy cereals at
the State(cid:146)s expense; the logic of the intervention system was
that in times when cereal supply exceeded demand (normally
at harvest time) supply would be reduced through State buy-
ing into intervention stores, thereby keeping market prices
above intervention price levels; when the opposite occurred,
normally towards the end of the marketing year, i.e. supplies

(1) The situation of agricultural markets in the European Union, Report

(2)

1996, Tables 3.1.5, 3.5.2.2, 3.6.16, 4.1.4.4.
In descending order, according to the extent of cereals production,
based on 1995 production figures, as set out in the 1996 Eurostat
report, Table 4.1.1.3.

(3) OJ C 349, 17.11.1998, chapter 2.

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became short and prices rose, sales from intervention stores
would keep market prices at the target-price level; moreover,
in order to give producers and traders an incentive to store
cereals themselves and not place them in intervention stocks
immediately after harvest, intervention prices were increased
by monthly increments over a certain part of the marketing
year. The Community(cid:146)s budget bore storage cost and later
depreciation of cereals on stock, but not the initial buying.

completely meaningless as far as farm income was concerned and
served as nothing more than a theoretical basis for determining
intervention prices. Furthermore, consumer interests were
neglected; from the very start consumers had to bear the burden
of the difference between high internal and low world prices.

2.2. By applying this price-support system the Community had
implicitly responded particularly to three objectives of Article 39
of the Treaty of Rome (4):

(a) the income objective, i.e. to ensure a fair standard of living for

the agricultural Community via the target price;

(b) the market-stabilisation objective, as prices were allowed to
fluctuate only between the target and intervention prices;

(c) the structural objective, for farms to produce enough to pro-
vide a sustainable income for the farmers concerned at the
prices that had been fixed.

2.3. Target prices were set at such a high level that market prices
tended to be significantly lower and were even below the 10 %
margin which separated the target and intervention prices. Inter-
vention therefore, became a permanent feature of the Communi-
ty(cid:146)s market management, keeping prices for producers at the arti-
ficially high intervention-price level. The target prices became

(4) Article 39 of the Treaty of Rome:

(cid:145)1. The objectives of the common agricultural policy shall be:
(a) to increase agricultural productivity by promoting technical
progress and by ensuring the rational development of agricultural
production and the optimum utilisation of the factors of produc-
tion, in particular labour;

(b) thus to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural com-
munity, in particular by increasing the individual earnings of the
persons engaged in agriculture;

In working out the common agricultural policy and the special

(c) to stabilise markets;
(d) to assure the availability of supplies;
(e) to ensure that supplies reach consumers at reasonable prices.
2.
methods for its application, account shall be taken of:
(a) the particular nature of agricultural activity, which results from
the social structure of agriculture and from structural and natural
disparities between the various agricultural regions;

(b) the need to effect the appropriate adjustments by degrees;
(c) the fact that in the Member States agriculture constitutes a sector

closely linked with the economy as a whole(cid:146).

2.4. Such a system of guaranteed minimum prices can only
function if competition from cheaper cereals on the world market
is excluded from the internal market. To achieve this end the
Community supplemented the internal price-support system with
an external sluice-gate system. Internal prices were protected by
variable levies on imports of cereals from third countries. These
levies were based on threshold prices, which were fixed in such a
way that the price of imported cereals at the Community major
consumption centres were slightly above target prices, and the
difference between these prices formed the basis of what is termed
Community preference. Variable import levies accrued to the
Community budget as an own resource.

2.5. Export refunds worked in the opposite direction to import
levies. Surpluses threatening the internal market were exported
and the exporters could be refunded the difference between the
higher internal market price and the lower sale price obtained on
a third country(cid:146)s market. However, when internal market supplies
fell short, export taxes could be used to discourage exports and/or
levies on imports could be lowered, a situation which has occurred
only twice in the history of the COM. The sluice-gate system was
initially conceived as a self-financing system in the sense that
receipts from import levies would cover export refunds over an
average of several years.

Evolution of the cereals market

2.6. When the COM in cereals was introduced there were only
six Member States and a substantial proportion of basic foodstuffs
was imported to ensure an adequate supply to the EC population.
In 1968 the Six imported over 17 million tonnes of cereals and
exported 6,5 million tonnes, which meant that a net requirement
of 10,5 million tonnes, i.e. 10 % of the Community(cid:146)s cereal demand
had to be covered by imports.

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market led to lower imports and an ever-increasing proportion of
export refunds remained uncovered by import levies. Finally, not
only did consumers have to fund the system by paying cereal
prices well above world prices, but taxpayers(cid:146) coverage of inter-
vention and export refunds also increased.

2.10. At the end of the 1992/1993 marketing year, the situation
culminated in 32,2 million tonnes of cereals, about 20 % of the
year(cid:146)s production, being in intervention warehouses (see Table 1).
This tonnage represented more than four months(cid:146) internal con-
sumption and in the same year cost the taxpayer ECU 2 724 mil-
lion in storage and depreciation (see Table 2). Over the same period
export refunds also increased to ECU 2 789 million, while levies
on all agricultural products imported amounted to no more than
ECU 1 000 million. Thus, taking into account the constraints
introduced by the agricultural guideline within the framework of
budgetary discipline decided in 1988, it became increasingly dif-
ficult to finance the agricultural budget.

2.11. Moreover, the bulk of this ever-increasing budgetary expen-
diture did not go directly to the farming sector, but to warehouse
owners and grain traders (cid:151) often comprising the same compa-
nies. The farming sector benefited from a system which kept
internal prices above world prices artificially, and trading compa-
nies collected the export refunds and intervention payments nec-
essary to sustain internal prices. In the last pre-reform year this
expenditure amounted to ECU 5 512,6 million out of a total cere-
als budget of ECU 6 923,2 million.

2.12. At the same time the Community(cid:146)s trade partners pushed
for the inclusion of agricultural products in the General Agree-
ment on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the opening of Community
markets for their agricultural products, and the phasing out of all
subsidies that directly or indirectly affect trade.

2.7. The oil crises in 1973 and 1979 led to worldwide inflation,
and by the mid 1980s continuing US budgetary deficits aggra-
vated the monetary instability caused by the two oil shocks. Infla-
tion led to a series of substantial increases in institutional prices
(target, intervention and threshold) and the devaluation of the
dollar further widened the gap between Community and world
market prices for cereals. The high support prices provided a
strong incentive to farmers to increase production, whereas Com-
munity consumption grew at a slower rate. Artificial outlets,
funded by intervention buying or high export-refund rates, gave
a false picture of the real market situation for producers. Thus, in
1980 the Community of nine Member States as it was then,
became a net exporter of cereals (see Table 1). From 1981 onwards,
production remained higher than internal consumption, imports
fell, and subsidised exports increased continuously. Intervention
stocks also continued to grow. The disposal of surpluses on the
internal market and abroad became increasingly expensive for the
Community budget.

2.8. Attempts to brake the upward trend in expenditure by
freezing or decreasing institutional prices and taking other stabi-
lising measures (maximum guaranteed quantities, coresponsibility
levies and a set-aside scheme for taking land out of production (5))
were introduced in the second half of the 1980s. All these mea-
sures failed to curb production and surpluses significantly and
budgetary expenditure (mainly intervention costs and export
refunds) therefore remained high. The agrimonetary system which
was supposed to protect agricultural prices by means of green
rates against increasing monetary instability, further increased
prices in Member States whose national currencies were undergo-
ing depreciation and led to only small off-sets through price cuts
in Member States whose national currencies were rising in value (6).
The incentives to increased production, caused by relatively high
internal prices, remained strong, and increasing yields aggravated
the problem of structural surpluses.

2.9. Price support via intervention buying-in and outside protec-
tion provided by import levies, export refunds and the agrimon-
etary system thus managed to insulate cereal producers and trad-
ers from the reality of the world market. Furthermore, increasing
self-sufficiency and, ultimately, cereal surpluses on the internal

3. THE REFORM

(5) See the Court of Auditors(cid:146) Annual Report concerning the financial

year 1989 (OJ C 313, 12.12.1990, pp. 75 and 89).

(6) See the Court(cid:146)s Special Report No 1/89 on the agrimonetary system

(OJ C 128, 24.5.1989, paragraph 6.13).

3.1. Having come under pressure from two sides, i.e. internally,
due to budget constraints, and externally, under the Uruguay
Round of GATT negotiations, the CAP had to be reformed and

.

.

8
7
1
9
9
9

Table 1

Total cereals balance sheet, 1972/1973 to 1997/1998

Marketing year

Community size

Usable production
(1) (2)

Imports (3)

Exports (3)

Domestic uses (3)

Change in stocks

Total ending
stocks (4)

Of which
intervention
stocks

Of which market
stocks

Self sufficiency

(million tonnes)

1997/98
1996/97
1995/96
1994/95
1993/94
1992/93
1991/92
1990/91
1989/90
1988/89
1987/88
1986/87
1985/86
1984/85
1983/84
1982/83
1981/82
1980/81
1979/80
1978/79
1977/78
1976/77
1975/76
1974/75
1973/74
1972/73

EU-15
EU-15
EU-15
EU-15
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-12
EU-10
EU-10
EU-10
EU-10
EU-10
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9
EU-9

205,0
205,3
176,6
172,8
164,8
168,3
181,0
169,4
162,8
163,6
154,2
153,8
160,2
151,3
123,6
131,4
122,3
125,0
113,8
115,6
102,6
90,0
96,4
107,3
104,7
102,2

4,9
4,8
8,0
6,6
5,2
4,1
5,5
5,1
6,5
7,3
7,9
7,1
11,1
7,3
8,9
11,1
15,3
16,7
17,0
20,8
21,8
30,5
26,1
24,2
24,4
25,1

23,4
28,3
20,4
32,0
35,2
36,8
34,7
30,0
33,8
35,3
26,8
27,2
25,8
29,1
22,9
23,0
23,8
24,1
17,4
16,7
13,4
10,6
17,1
13,8
12,2
14,4

174,7
172,9
166,7
159,6
144,9
134,6
140,6
141,5
135,5
135,9
137,0
138,0
144,1
119,2
116,5
114,7
115,4
117,8
115,7
115,9
111,4
109,7
110,3
113,2
115,5
113,8

11,8
8,9
(cid:150) 2,6
(cid:150) 12,2
(cid:150) 10,2
0,9
11,3
3,1
(cid:150) 0,1
(cid:150) 0,2
(cid:150) 1,7
(cid:150) 4,3
1,5
10,4
(cid:150) 7,0
4,8
(cid:150) 1,7
(cid:150) 0,2
(cid:150) 2,2
3,8
(cid:150) 0,4
0,1
(cid:150) 4,9
4,5
1,4
(cid:150) 0,8

37,2
25,4
16,5
19,1
31,3
41,4
40,5
29,2
26,2
26,3
26,5
28,2
32,5
31,0
20,6
27,5
22,7
24,4
24,6
26,8
23,0
23,4
23,3
28,2
23,7
22,4

14,5
2,4
2,6
9,7
20,1
32,2
26,4
18,8
11,8
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.

22,7
23,0
13,9
9,4
11,2
9,2
14,1
10,4
14,4
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.

117 %
119 %
106 %
108 %
114 %
125 %
129 %
120 %
120 %
120 %
113 %
111 %
111 %
127 %
106 %
115 %
106 %
106 %
98 %
100 %
92 %
82 %
87 %
95 %
91 %
90 %

(1) Usable production: production net of farm losses and harvest losses.
(2) For 1997, the usable production figure was not available. It has been replaced by the production figure which is a little bigger.
(3) Figure estimated by DG VI for 1996/1997 and 1997/1998.
(4) Ending stocks as at 30 June of the marketing year. They are calculated per difference.
na: non available.
NB: Before 1990/1991 the figures for the Community do not contain the figures for the New German L(cid:228)nder.
Source: Eurostat, New Cronos (up-date as at September 1998).

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Evolution of the expenditure for cereals and other arable crops from 1990 to 1997

Table 2

Before new CAP

New CAP

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1994 to 1997

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-15

EU-12

EU-15

EU-12

EU-15

EU-12

EU-15

(million ECU)

Export refunds for cereals

2 443,4

3 601,5

3 139,7

2 788,8

1 513,2

1 062,2

1 092,7

301,2

312,8

484,6

532,3

3 361,2

3 451,0

% of the total cereals expenditure

64,0 %

70,0 %

56,2 %

40,3 %

16,7 %

9,1 %

9,3 %

2,5 %

2,4 %

3,7 %

3,8 %

7,3 %

7,2 %

Storage intervention for cereals

1 251,4

1 419,4

2 497,4

2 723,8

186,7

36,7

62,7

(cid:150) 39,7

(cid:150) 46,5

67,1

71,5

250,8

274,4

% of the total cereals expenditure

32,8 %

27,6 %

44,7 %

39,3 %

2,1 %

0,3 %

0,5 %

(cid:150) 0,3 %

(cid:150) 0,4 %

0,5 %

0,5 %

0,5 %

0,6 %

Other intervention
Cereals
Cereals co-responsibility levy

341,4
(cid:150) 656,2

464,7

462,2
(cid:150) 924,3 (cid:150) 1 098,7

532,3
89,6

391,9
(cid:150) 0,9

347,6
(cid:150) 0,8

357,3
(cid:150) 0,8

279,2
(cid:150) 0,5

304,6
(cid:150) 0,5

273,4
0,0

300,7
0,0

1 292,1
(cid:150) 2,2

1 354,5
(cid:150) 2,2

Total

(cid:150) 314,8

(cid:150) 459,6

(cid:150) 636,5

621,9

391,0

346,8

356,5

278,7

304,1

273,4

300,7

1 289,9

1 352,3

% of the total cereals expenditure

(cid:150) 8,2 %

(cid:150) 8,9 % (cid:150) 11,4 %

9,0 %

4,3 %

3,0 %

3,0 %

2,3 %

2,3 %

2,1 %

2,1 %

2,8 %

2,8 %

Area aid for cereals

Compensatory payment
Set-aside on cereal area (1)
Supplementary aid for durum wheat

0,0
18,0
419,5

0,0
65,4
516,1

0,0
125,5
456,4

0,0
362,8
425,9

4 723,7
1 456,0
816,6

7 222,6
2 050,7
944,0

7 222,6
2 050,7
944,0

8 919,9
1 771,6
947,6

9 611,7
1 930,7
948,3

9 787,1 10 524,1 30 653,3 32 082,1
7 055,4
1 475,0
3 789,5
1 079,9

1 618,1
1 080,6

6 753,3
3 788,1

% of the total cereals expenditure

11,5 %

11,3 %

10,4 %

11,4 %

77,0 %

87,6 %

87,1 %

95,6 %

95,6 %

93,7 %

93,6 %

Total

437,5

581,5

581,9

788,7

6 996,3 10 217,3 10 217,3 11 639,1 12 490,7 12 342,0 13 222,8 41 194,7

42 927,0

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% increase compared to the previous year

3 817,5

5 142,8
34,7 %

5 582,5
8,5 %

6 923,2
24,0 %

(1) Calculated on the basis that 85 % of arable area concerns cereals (1992 figure).
Source: Commission(cid:146)s financial reports from 1990 to 1997.

9 087,2 11 663,0 11 729,2 12 179,3 13 061,1
11,4 %
29,1 %
31,3 %

28,3 %

4,4 %

13 167,1 14 127,3 46 096,6 48 004,8

8,1 %

8,2 %

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8.7.1999

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C 192/9

the cereals sector was, again, one of the areas most affected. In
early 1991 the (cid:145)Mac Sharry reform(cid:146) (named after the Commis-
sioner responsible for agriculture at the time) was presented (7).

(b) the objectives stipulated in Article 39 of the Treaty, in particular:

3.2. Given the awareness of the CAP(cid:146)s problems and failures up
to that time, the objectives for a reform of the cereals sector were
easily identified. The means, however, were the subject of lengthy
and difficult discussion and in May 1992 the Council finally agreed
to a less radical reform than the Commission had proposed.

3.3.
In June 1992 the two basic Council Regulations (EEC) No
1765/92 and (EEC) No 1766/92 of 30 June 1992 were adopted (8).
The first dealt with the creation of a new support system (area
aid) for producers of arable crops in general (cereals, oilseeds and
protein plants, later supplemented with linseed) and the second
renewed the COM in cereals. A transitional period was introduced
running from the 1993/1994 marketing year to that of 1995 to
1996, over which time the main features of the new COM were
to be introduced. The subsequent period, up to 1999 was viewed
as a (cid:145)cruise(cid:146) period, and the modifications proposed in the Com-
mission(cid:146)s Agenda 2000 mark the end of this cruise period.

3.4. The COM thus pursued the following main objectives
through the introduction of specific measures:

(a) the competitiveness objective: this was to be achieved over the
transitional period by gradually decreasing the average inter-
vention price from ECU 155/t (9) to ECU 100/t for all cereals
mixed; lower intervention prices were supposed to lead to
lower internal market prices; Community-grown cereals would
thus be more competitive on the internal market in relation
to duty-free imported substitutes used for animal feed (e.g.
manioc, corn gluten, etc.); on the external market, cereals
would be disposed of at lower or even no export refunds,
since the difference between international and internal prices,
which determines the rate of export refunds, would be reduced;

(i)

the income objective: to compensate farmers for income
losses due to decreases in institutional prices, as market
prices were supposed to follow this decrease; a subsidy,
based on the area declared as being under cereals by the
farmer, supplemented the revenue the farmer received
from selling his cereals on the market; the subsidy was, in
principle, calculated by multiplying the compensation rate
(difference between the average pre-reform intervention
price and the new target price fixed for the current year)
by the area in question and by a historical regional yield
figure fixed by the Member States;

(ii) the stabilisation objective: to reduce production in order to
achieve a better market equilibrium; this was to be achieved
by decreasing the incentive to production (via lower prices)
and by fixing a historical base area for arable crops; if the
base area was exceeded, area-aid payments were reduced
proportionately; compulsory set-aside, i.e. the taking out
of production of a certain percentage of arable land, was
introduced as a condition for receiving aid; this measure
applied only to producers growing more than 92 tonnes
a year; below this level producers were considered to be
small-scale and were exempt from the set-aside condition
for receiving area aid; as an (cid:145)emergency brake(cid:146) interven-
tion was maintained at 90 % of the new target prices under
uniform conditions throughout the Community;

(iii) the structural objective: to build larger farm units via a pre-
pension scheme (10), but also prevent a rural exodus by
the mainstream policies and other accompanying mea-
sures (11);

(c) to realise the objectives of Article 110 of the Treaty; this objec-
tive was directly linked to international trade policy, as it com-
pelled the Community to contribute to the (cid:145)harmonious devel-
opment of world trade, the progressive abolition of restrictions
on international trade and the lowering of customs barriers(cid:146);
the requirement to evaluate the CAP under this objective was
laid down in the Marrakesh Agreement, which closed the
GATT Uruguay Round in April 1994.

(7) COM(91) 100 final of 1 February 1991.
(8) OJ L 181, 1.7.1992, p. 12.
OJ L 181, 1.7.1992, p. 21.

(9) Before application of the price stabiliser relative to marketing year

1991/1992.

(10) Council Regulation (EEC) No 2079/92 of 30 June 1992 (OJ

L 215,30.7.1992 p. 91).

(11) Council Regulations (EEC) No 2078/92 and (EEC) No 2080/92 of 30

June 1992 (OJ L 215, 30.7.1992, pp. 85 and 96).

C 192/10

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Official Journal of the European Communities

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3.5. For the six-year period of implementation of the Uruguay
Agreement (1995-2000) the following measures were agreed:

4. EFFECTS OF THE REFORM

(a) reducing outside protection: import levies (quantity-based) were
to be replaced by customs tariffs (value-based) and these were
to be reduced in six equal instalments by 36 % in relation to
the reference period 1986 to 1988; the starting point was cal-
culated as the difference between the export prices of major
suppliers outside the Community and the Community thresh-
old price; by way of a concession it was agreed that the import
duties on cereals would not lead to prices of imported cereals
higher than 55 % above the intervention price, thus safeguard-
ing so-called (cid:145)Community preference(cid:146); in addition, (cid:145)current
access(cid:146) (12) quotas for maize and sorghum imports into Spain
and (cid:145)minimum access quotas(cid:146) (13) for wheat, oats and maize
(for Portugal only) were agreed at reduced or nil rates of duty;

(b) limiting subsidised exports: with the exception of food aid, budg-
etary expenditure on export refunds was to be cut by 36 %
and the volume of subsidised exports by 21 % over the six-
year implementation period using the reference period 1986
to 1990;

(c) reducing domestic support; based on (cid:145)Aggregate measures of sup-
port(cid:146) for each product being the difference between an exter-
nal reference price and an internal support price, multiplied
by the volume of production during the reference period 1986
to 1988, internal market support was to be reduced by 20 %
over the six-year period in respect of all products, taken
together; exemptions were granted in respect of certain aid
categories that did not distort competition (the so-called (cid:145)green
box(cid:146)), such as research, pest and disease control, etc.; in the
case of cereals, area aid was made exempt from the reduction
obligation under the so-called (cid:145)blue box(cid:146), provided that such
payments were based on fixed areas and yields, i.e. decoupled
from real production.

The cereals budget

4.1. The Mac Sharry plan included among its objectives the
curbing of the growth of budgetary expenditure, i.e. the volume
of expenditure incurred by the year 2000 was to be below the
level forecasted prior to the reform. Although the Regulations
introducing the Mac Sharry reform made no reference to the bud-
getary objective, the question of the cost of the reform is legiti-
mate. Just prior to the reform (1993) total expenditure on cereals
amounted to ECU 6 923,2 million (see Table 2). In the four finan-
cial years following the reform expenditure on cereals almost
doubled growing by a yearly average of 17,4 % to ECU 13 167,1
million (1997). With regard to the structure of expenditure, the
proportion of total expenditure on cereals taken up by export
refunds and storage costs fell from 79,6 % in 1993 to 4,2 % in
1997. On the other hand, the proportion of area-aid paid increased
from 11,5 % to 93,7 % over the same period.

4.2. As outlined in the Court(cid:146)s Annual Report concerning the
financial year 1996 (14), budgetary expenditure was expected to
increase as the burden of farm support was gradually passed from
the consumer to the taxpayer. Indeed, the Commission forecast an
expenditure increase of ECU 4 003,8 million (EU 12) between
1993 and 1997 (see Table 3). However, the final cost outstripped
the forecast by about ECU 2 240 million.

4.3. The difference between the outturn and budget estimates is
due to the fact that some cost elements were higher than esti-
mated. Agrimonetary adjustments, the later inclusion of aid for
silage other than that of maize, a higher premium for set-aside,
higher base areas and yields (15) and the increase in the area eli-
gible for special aid in respect of durum wheat (16) explain the
increase in area aid. On the other hand, export refunds and stor-
age costs amounted to less than expected during the period 1994
to 1997 as a result of high international prices. These high prices
enabled the Commission to recover some depreciation costs by
selling off previously devalued intervention cereals.

(12) Current access quotas are the transcription of levy or duty conces-
sions which the EC has made in the past on certain products for
specified countries.

(13) Minimum access quotas are import opportunities which must be
opened at 36 % of the basic duty for the equivalent of 3 % rising to
5 % of internal consumption.

(14) OJ C 348, 13.11.1997, paragraphs 3.5 to 3.8.
(15) The Court of Auditors(cid:146) Annual Report concerning the financial year

1996 (OJ C 348, 13.11.1997, paragraph 3.6).

(16) The Court of Auditors(cid:146) Annual Report concerning the financial year

1997 (OJ C 349, 17.11.1998, Chapter 2, Title 2).

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Comparison of estimates and real expenditure on cereals for EU-12 since the reform

Table 3

Expenditure
1993

Expenditure 1994

Expenditure 1995

Expenditure 1996

Expenditure 1997

Real

Real

Estimates

Difference

Real

Estimates

Difference

Real

Estimates

Difference

Real

Estimates

Difference

(million ECU)

Cumulated
difference
1994-1997

1. Area aid

Cereals and supplementary aid for durum wheat
Set-aside on cereals areas (1)

425,9
362,8

5 540,3
1 456,0

5 890,0
969,0

(cid:150) 349,7
487,0

8 166,6
2 050,7

7 854,0
969,0

312,6
1 081,7

9 867,5
1 771,6

9 817,0
969,0

50,5
802,6

10 867,0
1 475,0

9 817,0
969,0

1 050,0
506,0

1 063,4
2 877,3

Total 1

788,7

6 996,3

6 859,0

137,3

10 217,3

8 823,0

1 394,3 11 639,1 10 786,0

853,1 12 342,0 10 786,0

1 556,0

3 940,7

2. Other cereal expenditure

Export refunds
Storage costs
Other intervention
Co-responsibility levy

3. Grand total

% difference to estimate

2 788,8
2 723,8
532,3
89,6

1 513,2
186,7
391,9
(cid:150) 0,9

1 529,0
754,0
336,0
(cid:150) 40,0

(cid:150) 15,8
(cid:150) 567,3
55,9
39,1

1 062,2
36,7
347,6
(cid:150) 0,8

1 089,0
519,0
303,0
0,0

(cid:150) 26,8
(cid:150) 482,3
44,6
(cid:150) 0,8

301,2
(cid:150) 39,7
279,2
(cid:150) 0,5

274,0
199,0
209,0
0,0

Total 2

6 134,5
6 923,2

2 090,9
9 087,2

2 579,0
9 438,0

(cid:150) 488,1
1 911,0
1 445,7
(cid:150) 350,8 11 663,0 10 734,0
(cid:150) 3,7 %

(cid:150) 465,3

682,0
540,2
929,0 12 179,3 11 468,0
8,7 %

27,2
(cid:150) 238,7
70,2
(cid:150) 0,5

(cid:150) 141,8
711,3
6,2 %

484,6
67,1
273,4
0,0

(cid:150) 21,0
39,0
123,0
0,0

825,1
13 167,1

141,0
10 927,0

(1) Calculated on the basis that 85 % (1992) of arable area concerns cereals.
Source: Commission(cid:146)s financial reports for EAGGF Guarantee from 1994 to 1997.

Council: Evaluation des incidences financiŁres de la dØcision sur la rØforme de la PAC, Agrifin 187, Agriorg 241, 8188/92 of 9.9.1992, table 2, part A.

505,6

490,2
28,1 (cid:150) 1 260,2
321,1
37,8

150,4
0,0

684,1
2 240,1
20,5 %

(cid:150) 411,1
3 529,6

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Official Journal of the European Communities

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4.4. With particular regard for 1997, the Commission predicted
a decrease in total cereals expenditure of ECU 541 million by
comparison with 1996 but the revenue and expenditure account
shows an increase of ECU 988 million. However, the accounts do
not present the real increase between the two years, because of
cut-off problems. In 1995 the Commission paid an advance of
ECU 738,5 million on the 1995 harvest to Spain and Portugal in
order to compensate the negative financial impact the drought
had on farmers in these two countries. Under normal circum-
stances this amount would have been paid under the 1996 bud-
get. Furthermore the 1996 expenditure contains an amount of
ECU 181,1 million and the 1997 expenditure an amount of ECU
160 million which are linked to late payments in certain Member
States who were not able to conclude their prepayment controls
in time. These amounts should have come under the budgets of
previous years. If one reallocates all these amounts to the budget
year which generated them, expenditure for 1996 would have
amounted to ECU 12 892,7 million and for 1997 to ECU 13 010
million. Thus the real increase in expenditure would have been
less important (ECU 117,3 million) but still quite different from
the predicted decrease. Moreover, export refunds and storage costs
increased again after three years of continuous decrease.

4.5. Although budgetary expenditure increased after the reform,
the new system makes the real cost of agricultural support more
transparent. Before the reform a large part of support did not
enter the budget, as it was provided by consumers who had to
accept prices which were substantially higher than world market
prices. This burden was passed on to taxpayers, when area aid
replaced much of the price support.

4.7. This global situation hides quite different developments
within the Member States (see Table 4). The relative stability of
total production during the transitional period was due to the fact
that the significant increase in German production by compari-
son with the pre-reform 1989-1992 period was counterbalanced
by a corresponding decrease in Spain (drought) and France. In the
first two years of full application of the reform (1996-1997) France
and Spain returned to pre-reform production levels, while Ger-
many(cid:146)s rising trend continued. This shows that, had it not been
for the exceptionally unfavourable production conditions in Spain
and France, the observed jump in total production would already
have occurred during the transitional period.

4.8. Given the fact that cereal yields are continually increasing,
the main means of limiting production is by imposing compul-
sory set-aside. Indeed, since set-aside was introduced, it has reduced
production by about 86 million tonnes in total (between 1993
and 1997). The argument that world prices that were temporarily
higher than internal prices would cause supply shortages in the
EU led to the set-aside rate being reduced from 15 % to 12 % in
the third year of the reform. In the fourth year the rate went down
to 10 % and was then fixed at 5 % for the 1997/1998 and1998/1999
marketing years. When compared with a production of more
than 200 million tonnes (1997/1998), the effect of such a low set-
aside rate is minimal. However, it also becomes clear that reduc-
ing production to levels closer to internal-market needs (i.e. at
present, a reduction of about 30 million tonnes would be required)
by means of set-aside alone may call for drastic set-aside levels,
which would encourage farmers to further intensify production
on the remaining land thus offsetting the intended reduction of
production.

Production

4.6. Aside from the bumper crop in 1991 to 1992, Table 1 shows
that the EU 12(cid:146)s production in tonnes in the three transitional
years 1993 to 1995 remained at levels close to those of the pre-
reform period, fluctuating at around 165 million tonnes. In 1996
to 1997, after the transitional period, the EU 12(cid:146)s production rose
to 191,2 million tonnes, thus outstripping the bumper crop of
1991 by about 10 million tonnes. The three new Member States
added another 14 million tonnes, so that global production in the
EU 15 reached 205,3 million tonnes in 1996/1997 and stayed at
approximately the same level in the following marketing year. In
1998/1999, a new record harvest in the EU 15 of 208 million
tonnes has been reached. The introduction of a single aid rate for
oilseeds and cereals, as suggested in Agenda 2000, runs the risk
of oilseeds being partly replaced by cereals, as the crop yields and
prices of the latter are higher than those of oilseeds.

4.9.
In addition, the set-aside rates are submitted for a Council
decision one year in advance and are based on an estimated cere-
als balance of marketing year n and projected figures for market-
ing years n+ 1 and n+ 2. However, at the end of marketing year n
(in June) the Commission will not have reliable information on
the year concerned (reliable Eurostat figures are available only two
years later), nor can the future situation be forecast with sufficient
accuracy. The arbitrariness of this system was revealed in 1997,
when the Council demanded that the Commission present a pro-
posal fixing the set-aside rate at 5 % (17).

(17) Council document No 9462/97 of 27 June 1997, compromise pack-

age on prime and related amounts for 1997/1998.

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Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/13

Cereals (excluding rice) production data from 1989 to 1997

Table 4

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997 (1)

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-15

EU-15

EU-15

349,6
1 577,8
4 639,5
1 432,5
7 851,1
9 420,2
321,7
4 421,0
34,3
202,3
na
873,9
na
na
3 874,3

334,6
1 581,7
4 470,7
1 453,8
7 463,0
9 040,5
300,5
4 192,6
33,0
196,3
na
723,5
na
1 287,2
3 658,4

315,0
1 573,3
6 559,9
1 480,1
7 719,7
9 207,3
301,5
4 196,7
31,0
181,6
na
794,3
na
1 148,3
3 500,9

310,7
1 611,9
6 514,5
1 392,2
7 318,1
9 320,8
300,3
4 011,7
29,7
183,4
846,9
730,5
na
1 140,7
3 488,8

312,3
1 437,9
6 223,6
1 340,3
6 378,0
8 507,9
285,0
3 844,1
29,5
186,6
834,4
699,0
922,2
1 124,7
3 030,8

309,4
1 406,2
6 235,4
1 321,7
6 422,6
8 137,6
270,0
3 867,7
29,6
194,1
830,6
657,0
944,6
1 173,1
3 041,8

308,8
1 454,0
6 526,7
1 209,9
6 638,1
8 266,8
273,9
3 986,0
28,8
198,0
754,3
667,0
977,7
1 104,5
3 180,2

294,8
1 523,2
6 707,4
1 270,5
6 625,1
8 817,5
293,5
4 016,8
29,8
205,7
809,9
640,6
1 075,3
1 216,3
3 356,6

303,2
1 573,0
7 023,5
1 279,5
6 872,5
9 142,0
308,7
3 944,8
28,7
207,4
848,1
668,0
1 112,5
1 269,5
3 512,0

Area (1 000 ha)
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Austria
Portugal
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom

Total EU-12
Total EU-15

34 998,1
na

33 448,6
na

35 861,3
na

35 212,7
na

32 275,0
35 156,3

31 893,2
34 841,5

32 738,2
35 574,7

33 781,6
36 883,0

34 863,4
38 093,4

Usable production (1 000 t)
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Austria
Portugal
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom

2 220
8 795
26 113
5 195
19 047
57 465
2 051
15 961
144
1 365
4 872
1 688
4 296
5 490
22 729

1 964
9 530
37 580
4 042
17 904
54 876
2 110
16 065
148
1 359
5 137
1 272
3 429
6 404
22 576

2 050
9 232
39 267
6 055
18 596
60 219
1 964
17 983
156
1 255
4 913
1 628
2 603
5 160
22 630

1 997
6 954
34 758
4 946
13 731
60 450
2 017
18 641
152
1 350
4 323
1 236
3 340
3 760
22 064

2 141
8 197
35 547
4 275
16 893
55 498
1 626
18 096
151
1 465
4 207
1 392
3 399
5 242
19 484

2 025
7 800
35 824
4 790
14 605
53 283
1 616
17 661
134
1 356
4 436
1 533
3 367
4 472
19 946

1 981
9 150
39 220
4 213
11 073
53 425
1 796
18 290
147
1 504
4 455
1 340
3 333
4 792
21 861

2 380
9 218
42 136
4 151
21 217
62 349
2 142
19 692
175
1 660
4 494
1 470
3 698
5 953
24 576

2 350
9 683
45 408
4 556
18 583
62 493
1 937
18 396
156
1 536
5 009
1 317
3 799
6 120
23 620

Yield (t/ha)
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Austria
Portugal
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom

Total EU-12
Total EU-15

162 773
177 431

169 426
184 396

181 035
193 711

168 296
179 719

164 765
177 613

160 573
172 848

164 000
176 580

191 166
205 311

190 035
204 963

6,35
5,57
5,63
3,63
2,43
6,10
6,38
3,61
4,20
6,75
na
1,93
na
na
5,87

4,65
na

5,87
6,02
8,41
2,78
2,40
6,07
7,02
3,83
4,49
6,92
na
1,76
na
4,98
6,17

5,07
na

6,51
5,87
5,99
4,09
2,41
6,54
6,51
4,29
5,03
6,91
na
2,05
na
4,49
6,46

5,05
na

6,43
4,31
5,34
3,55
1,88
6,49
6,72
4,65
5,11
7,36
5,10
1,69
na
3,30
6,32

4,78
na

6,86
5,70
5,71
3,19
2,65
6,52
5,71
4,71
5,12
7,85
5,04
1,99
3,69
4,66
6,43

5,11
5,05

6,54
5,55
5,75
3,62
2,27
6,55
5,99
4,57
4,52
6,99
5,34
2,33
3,56
3,81
6,56

5,03
4,96

6,41
6,29
6,01
3,48
1,67
6,46
6,56
4,59
5,11
7,60
5,91
2,01
3,41
4,34
6,87

5,01
4,96

8,07
6,05
6,28
3,27
3,20
7,07
7,30
4,90
5,86
8,07
5,55
2,29
3,44
4,89
7,32

5,66
5,57

7,75
6,16
6,47
3,56
2,70
6,84
6,27
4,66
5,44
7,41
5,91
1,97
3,41
4,82
6,73

5,45
5,38

Total EU-12
Total EU-15

(1) For 1997, the usable production figure was not available, It has been replaced by the production figure which is a little bigger.
na: Not available
Source: New Cronos (up-date as at September 1998).

C 192/14

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8.7.1999

4.10. The consequence of this system is that the Commission
cannot act with immediate effect. If figures subsequently proved
incorrect, the system would be destabilised rather than stabilised
and a supply shortage or surplus could result. Indeed, at the end
of the 1997/1998 marketing year the low set-aside rate of 5 %
again led to higher production and resulted in intervention stocks
amounting to 14,5 million tonnes, the second highest level since
the 1993 to 1994 period. Based on the production for 1998 to
1999 (see paragraph 4.6), intervention stocks may again reach
pre-reform levels.

4.14. The comparison shows that Community cereals benefited
by increased production of animal feed. However, the change in
the composition of animal feed also shows how readily one ingre-
dient may be substituted with another, when relative prices change.

Prices

Consumption

Producer prices

4.11. Table 1 shows a clear increase in internal consumption
from the 1993/1994 marketing year onwards. While average con-
sumption in the four years before the reform was about 138 mil-
lion tonnes, it increased within the EU 12 to 152,1 million tonnes
in the four years after the reform.

4.12. The greater proportion of Community cereals is used for
animal feed (62 %) and the increase in internal consumption is
due mainly to the fact that their use for animal feed and industrial
purposes has increased. The increase between the four years prior
to the reform and the four years following it averaged at about
12 %. Human consumption accounted for just 24 % of total con-
sumption in 1996/1997. It rose by 6 % within the EU 12.

4.13. The increasing use of Community cereals for animal feed
is explained by the growing production of compound animal feed
(11 % increase since 1992/1993) and the narrowing price gap
between the price of Community cereals and the world market
price for cereal substitutes (e.g. corn gluten, manioc, and sweet
potatoes), which made EU cereals more competitive. While in
1992 to 1993 the average price of cereal substitutes was just 68 %
of the average price of cereals, the ratio increased to 83 % in 1996
to 1997. The result was that in 1997 animal feed consisted of 55 %
cereals, 20 % substitutes and 25 % of proteins. In the year prior
to the reform these ratios were 46 %, 26 % and 28 % (18) respec-
tively.

4.15. One of the principles on which the CAP was founded at
the Stresa Conference was that of a Single Market. Price support
was organised on the unjustified assumption that a single market
would require, inter alia, uniform prices (19). However, a single
price for cereals is not a condition for a single market; it would
occur only if cereals were a homogeneous product traded under
conditions of perfect competition. Reality proved and continues
to be different (20). The market prices of the various cereals and
of the different qualities of any one cereal varied between and
within Member States within the margin between artificial target
and intervention prices. Trade is organised by a very limited num-
ber of large trading companies, hence the primary market meets
the criteria governing an oligopsony, rather than those for perfect
competition. Intervention in the form of public storage was needed
to keep prices high via the artificial reduction of market supply.
Because intervention suppressed the price signals which would
have transferred supplies from areas with surpluses to those with
shortage, regional imbalances in cereal supplies had to be redressed
by means of transfers of intervention cereals organised by the
Commission at high cost. The introduction in 1992 of a single
target and a single intervention price for all kinds of cereals, albeit
at a lower level, did nothing to make the COM work better.

4.16. On the basis of the unrealistic assumption of uniform
prices, it was expected that market prices would follow closely the
reduction in institutional prices. However, owing to bad harvests
worldwide in 1994 and 1995, world market prices remained
exceptionally high. Consequently, EU market prices also remained
well above the new target price. Graph 1 illustrates this with regard

(18) DG VI working document VI-7316-96.

(19) Commission, Documentation EuropØenne PØriodique 6/1982: La poli-
tique agricole de la CommunautØ europØenne, troisiŁme Ødition, Luxem-
bourg ISBN 92-825-3001-8, p.15.

(20) Tangermann Stefan, Eurostat, Agricultural price trends in the EC, ISBN

92-826-5049-9.

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C 192/15

to the average producer prices for all cereals (unit values calcu-
lated by Eurostat).

Consumer prices

4.20. One of the reasons for replacing price support by direct-
income support for farmers by means of area-aid payments was
to shift the burden of financing farm incomes from the consumer
to the taxpayer. Without doubt cereal purchasers benefited from
decreased prices after the reform; for final consumers, however,
it is rather difficult to measure the effects of lower cereal prices
on food prices. Too many other factors influence consumer end-
prices and, except in the case of animal feed, cereals account for
only very small value percentages in the price of products for
human consumption. Even in the case of bread, its share of the
sale price is between 2 % and 4 % only (22). Indeed, prices for
principal foodstuffs, such as bread have followed the same trend
as before the reform (see Table 6). Prices for pasta, however, seem
to have decreased slightly, but according to Italian producers this
was the consequence of harsh competition between them, rather
than a direct consequence of lower cereal prices. Although cereal
prices affect the price of compound feed more than the price of
goods for human consumption, actual lower meat prices may be
influenced more by exceptional situations (BSE crises (23) and
swine fever), rather than by cheaper inputs for compound feed.
Lower prices noted for chicken, however, may be the result of
lower feed prices (24).

4.21. A recent report by the Commission bringing together the
findings of a series of impact analyses of the reform proposals
made in Agenda 2000 (25) predicts that the price reduction for
cereals, beef and milk products will reduce consumers(cid:146) food bills
by about 1,9 %. The absolute advantage is estimated to be about
ECU 12 500 million per year. However it appears to the Court
that in practice the benefit to the consumer is unlikely even to

4.17. Nevertheless, market prices in the various Member States
did not follow this general trend to the same extent. The market
price for common wheat, the main cereal, remained quite high in
Spain and Italy, and even above the average intervention price of
ECU 155/t (21) in 1992, which was used as the reference level for
the reform (see Graph 2). In addition, currency movements worked
against the drop of institutional prices in national currencies thus
putting the level of price guarantee higher. The high price levels
in Italy and Spain are mainly due to the traditional supply deficit
of home-grown cereals in these two Member States(cid:146) markets. The
drought which hits Mediterranean countries every three or four
years (Spain) and the initial set-aside (Italy) further aggravated the
supply situation. Low public stocks in the other Member States
and relatively high transport costs in relation to cereal prices
appear to have prevented cereals from other Member States from
being put on the Spanish and Italian markets and thereby bring-
ing prices down.

4.18. The reform also equalised target and intervention prices
for different cereals, even though market prices continued to vary
quite substantially between one kind of cereal and another (see
Graph 3). On average, durum wheat is the most expensive cereal
on the market, being 40 % more expensive than the cheapest, rye.
Owing to differing production structures and market situations,
cereal prices also differ between Member States, as Table 5 shows.

4.19.
It can be seen that the trend in market prices indicates
rather different features from one Member State and one cereal to
another. In 1997 and 1998, owing to good harvests in Europe,
cereal prices dropped to the intervention-price level and interven-
tion buying recommenced. Under such conditions it is not the
market which determines what cereal is produced, but the inter-
vention price. At this fixed price the farmer will choose the cereal
which gives him the highest yield at the lowest production cost,
irrespective of the level of market supply.

(21) This amount is in (cid:145)green(cid:146) ecu. To obtain budgetary ecu, this figure has
first to be converted with the (cid:145)green(cid:146) exchange rate applying to agri-
cultural products into the national currency and then, re-converted
with the official market exchange rate into ecu. From 1 February
1995 onwards the existing difference of 20,75 % between the (cid:145)green(cid:146)
ecu and the budgetary ecu has been abolished by increasing the
amount by the same difference.

(22) According to information collected from consumer associations.
(23) See the Court(cid:146)s Special Report No 19/98 of 4.12.1998 on BSE (OJ

C 383, 9.12.1998).

(24) The Court was unable to find any significant reduction in consumer
prices which could have been clearly linked to the reduction in insti-
tutional prices. A recent audit of the Swedish National Audit Office
of the consumer price problem came to the same results for Sweden.
(25) European Commission, DG VI (cid:151) CAP Reports (cid:151) CAP reform pro-

posals, Impact analyses (cid:151) October 1998 (cid:151) Luxembourg.

C 192/16

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EU-12 average producer cereal price and target price (ECU/t)

Graph 1

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

t
/

U
C
E

EU-12 average cereal price
Target price (excluding switch over)

100
1992/1993

1993/1994

1994/1995

1995/1996

1996/1997

1997/1998

Note: The target price was abolished after it reached its foreseen lowest level.

Source: Eurostat, annual unit values turned into marketing year unit values.

Target price and producer soft wheat price in the five main Member States (ECU/t)

Graph 2

200,0

190,0

180,0

170,0

160,0

t
/

U
C
E

150,0

140,0

130,0

120,0

110,0

100,0

1992/1993

1993/1994

1994/1995

1995/1996

1996/1997

1997/1998

Note: The target price was abolished after it reached its foreseen lowest level.

Source: Eurostat, annual unit value turned into marketing year unit values.

Spain

Italy

United Kingdom

Germany

France

Target price (excluding switch over)

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C 192/17

EU-12 average producer price of different cereals and target price (ECU/t)

Graph 3

220,0

200,0

180,0

t
/

U
C
E

160,0

140,0

120,0

Durum wheat

Maize

Oats

Soft wheat

Barley

Rye

Target price (excluding switch over)

100,0

1992/1993

1993/1994

1994/1995

1995/1996

1996/1997

1997/1998

Note: the target price was abolished after it reached its foreseen lowest level.

Source: Eurostat, annual unit values turned marketing year unit values.

reach the additional burden to taxpayers of an extra ECU 10 000
million a year (see Table 7 which compares the cost per inhabit-
ant of public support to the cereal market before and after the
reform).

tonnes, with the corresponding budgetary consequences.

Stocks

4.22. A distinction needs to be drawn between private storage
and public storage (intervention). While private storage serves,
primarily, commercial purposes, and therefore forms part of
internal demand, public storage comprises an artificial outlet for
production not absorbed by the market at given prices. Table 1
provides some information concerning both types of storage. The
figures show that private stocks were fairly stable from market-
ing year 1989/1990 onwards. However, in 1992/1993, the last
year before the reform took place, private stockholders feared the
price reductions involved in the reform and sold private stocks
into intervention. Private stocks were therefore (cid:145)emptied(cid:146) and
intervention stocks grew to their record level of 32,2 million

4.23. Following the reform, private stocks resumed their normal
levels again. As a consequence of market prices being above inter-
vention prices and of increased internal demand, in 1996/1997
intervention stocks fell to their lowest level for a long time at 2,4
million tonnes. In that year increasing market prices made trades-
men expand their private stocks to 25,6 million tonnes, as com-
pared with 19,7 million in the previous year, in the hope of fur-
ther price increases. Given the marked downturn in market prices
from 1996/1997 onwards, there is a risk that those quantities
kept for speculative purposes will later end up in intervention
stores. Indeed, the Commission predicted intervention stocks of
up to 10,7 million tonnes (26) for 1997/1998. However, this figure
was still too optimistic. Intervention stocks at the end of June
1998 amount to 14,5 million tonnes, as compared with 2,4 mil-
lion tonnes in 1996/1997.

(26) CAP 2000 Commission(cid:146)s working document, Long-term Prospects,

April 1997, page 23.

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Table 5

Cereal producer prices per Member State for EU-12

Before the reform

Since the reform

(ECU/t)

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Soft wheat
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom
Durum wheat
Belgium
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Rye
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom
Barley
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom
Oats
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom
Maize
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Portugal

180,4
172,6
186,3
161,7
n.a.
179,5
163,0
210,1
169,8
175,6
295,5
166,2

180,4
212,7
n.a.
259,4
261,5

168,4
156,0
179,6
142,8
n.a.
174,8
197,8
166,8
167,0
268,7
168,6

166,9
163,8
184,2
152,6
n.a.
165,4
150,8
189,9
157,7
175,6
268,7
167,9

168,3
168,7
169,9
175,6
n.a.
187,2
152,6
230,9
154,2
179,9
199,9
166,2

170,5
173,1
n.a.
191,4
199,7
238,2

172,0
171,4
177,0
185,7
n.a.
176,1
158,7
216,5
164,2
171,3
290,6
164,1

172,0
245,5
n.a.
276,5
298,6

162,4
160,0
171,6
153,1
n.a.
164,3
199,3
161,5
175,6
263,5
165,0

160,1
164,5
174,4
169,4
n.a.
163,9
155,1
194,6
154,5
184,1
263,5
169,9

161,4
152,8
160,7
209,2
n.a.
162,3
148,2
251,6
156,0
149,9
196,1
154,6

165,3
188,5
n.a.
184,7
195,3
233,5

172,8
157,6
168,7
179,1
197,7
173,3
151,9
201,1
159,1
160,0
280,7
161,0

172,8
242,1
227,7
255,6
282,5

154,3
149,1
162,9
150,7
174,3
158,9
184,6
154,0
155,7
252,3
167,4

153,8
155,4
170,6
170,1
173,8
161,0
151,2
190,5
137,9
173,0
252,3
169,4

146,5
152,3
152,0
197,2
161,3
167,3
145,7
223,4
133,0
164,3
182,2
155,9

173,0
192,3
219,1
226,2
210,3
223,6

169,1
162,5
167,0
176,8
215,4
168,8
152,5
210,7
155,1
164,4
250,9
175,7

169,1
200,0
222,1
225,7
264,1

154,8
152,8
155,5
150,7
177,2
159,3
181,9
145,6
138,5
187,1
171,8

152,6
155,7
159,6
172,1
177,3
157,6
148,2
192,4
132,7
160,1
187,1
168,7

161,0
154,8
146,6
198,9
167,4
173,1
139,7
226,3
138,3
177,4
197,1
159,6

183,0
170,5
220,4
187,1
217,8
196,9

164,3
168,3
169,3
172,0
201,8
166,0
143,3
193,1
154,6
158,2
231,7
167,6

164,3
190,3
215,8
215,4
237,6

150,8
160,9
162,6
160,4
180,5
154,0
167,4
145,5
145,1
183,5
160,5

150,5
164,0
164,5
167,5
169,3
151,1
142,0
176,8
137,5
162,6
183,5
158,8

175,6
180,1
159,3
193,2
176,0
171,6
144,1
222,5
158,8
180,2
200,1
159,4

168,5
175,0
197,2
185,7
191,2
192,9

135,9
145,6
146,7
163,4
179,5
144,6
136,5
182,5
127,3
133,3
185,3
159,6

135,9
161,3
142,6
191,6
216,2

118,0
135,3
130,8
145,2
153,2
132,2
160,2
121,6
128,7
162,8
145,6

125,1
144,4
138,3
158,0
148,1
131,0
126,8
168,4
118,6
137,9
162,8
155,7

135,1
162,9
144,7
186,2
158,6
152,0
137,4
211,8
128,4
156,3
187,0
165,6

137,3
164,3
194,9
145,2
172,7
171,5

130,5
136,2
140,9
162,2
169,1
133,8
115,9
164,6
129,8
134,4
160,0
139,5

130,5
134,9
162,5
164,0
165,6

119,6
126,5
124,1
132,3
143,0
125,4
146,2
117,7
120,5
145,8
136,2

125,6
138,9
134,5
147,6
138,8
130,8
112,7
160,4
128,0
143,6
145,8
146,7

118,3
125,8
124,5
244,8
139,8
148,7
104,8
188,1
123,9
129,7
145,4
136,7

141,8
141,5
169,1
153,6
158,8
150,3

135,1
135,9
132,4
174,9
173,7
135,8
141,4
166,2
132,8
133,4
165,2
140,9

135,1
173,1
179,6
174,4
178,4

121,3
123,6
112,4
139,3
148,3
123,0
140,8
111,2
109,6
146,4
127,9

120,5
146,4
133,6
164,2
156,6
138,4
136,8
160,6
112,8
147,7
146,4
144,9

111,1
120,3
116,2
188,5
159,6
155,4
121,3
183,1
103,9
128,6
178,5
121,7

151,1
174,6
171,3
173,1
169,0
150,9

128,0
132,5
134,7
153,2
n.a.
134,5
123,8
163,4
124,7
126,2
151,7
138,2

128,3
149,7
n.a.
162,4
177,6

109,9
124,9
116,3
170,2
n.a.
119,8
158,2
107,3
121,5
143,0
130,3

118,7
142,1
137,3
172,4
n.a.
133,4
123,8
162,3
106,8
135,5
143,0
138,0

115,9
133,0
121,3
186,4
n.a.
162,7
119,6
217,0
112,0
121,5
183,9
130,1

139,0
130,7
n.a.
153,7
166,9
153,2

n.a.
121,0
124,9
154,7
n.a.
129,3
103,9
153,9
118,2
108,6
133,4
132,5

n.a.
150,3
n.a.
175,9
187,6

n.a.
117,3
110,6
171,2
n.a.
113,8
151,4
95,4
99,5
120,9
126,7

n.a.
128,0
118,0
171,2
n.a.
122,2
103,8
153,4
98,9
108,6
125,9
122,6

n.a.
124,3
111,3
187,5
n.a.
161,3
101,3
204,7
101,4
90,5
201,4
115,8

117,4
129,6
n.a.
129,5
137,4
141,0

n.a.: Not available.
Source: Eurostat unit values of agricultural products.

8.7.1999

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/19

Consumer price index in nominal terms of bread and cereals for EU (cid:151) 12

Table 6

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom

105,8
109,9
102,2
140,2
108,3
107,2
114,2
111,5
106,3
101,9
124,9
109,0

106,8
118,2
103,5
155,1
117,6
111,0
116,8
116,2
112,3
102,4
127,6
116,2

111,8
123,6
105,2
179,1
137,7
114,7
113,3
123,5
113,4
103,0
140,2
122,9

n.a.: not available.
Source: The agricultural situation in the European Union (cid:150) 1989 to 1997 report.

114,0
126,5
108,4
221,0
148,5
118,7
116,5
131,0
116,9
104,8
169,7
131,1

Table 7

117,1
130,4
113,4
261,4
163,1
122,7
122,6
139,3
122,6
107,7
203,4
140,7

120,7
134,8
119,4
315,3
178,5
126,8
126,1
147,0
124,3
112,5
229,5
145,4

123,4
138,1
123,5
360,3
190,8
129,6
124,9
156,8
126,1
115,0
239,4
145,7

124,9
140,4
126,1
382,6
197,8
131,0
128,0
164,4
128,9
115,9
250,9
146,7

Estimation of the average budgetary expenditure for cereals per inhabitant

(1985 = 100)

1995

n.a.
142,4
n.a.
408,5
206,0
132,4
n.a.
169,0
131,8
117,1
249,9
148,1

Before new CAP

New CAP

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-12

EU-15

EU-15

EU-15

3 817,5
342 572
11,14

5 142,8
344 072
14,95

5 582,5
345 527
16,16

6 923,2
347 281
19,94

9 087,2
348 595
26,07

11 729,2
371 589
31,57

13 061,1
372 670
35,05

14 127,1
373 687
37,80

Total expenditure for cereals (million ECU) (1)
Total population as at 1st January (1 000) (2)
Average cost per inhabitant (ECU/inhabitant)

Source:
(1) See Table 2.
(2) Eurostat (New Cronos up-date as at June 1998).

External trade

4.24. The annual figure for world cereals production is about
1 500 million tonnes. Only 12 % of these cereals are traded
worldwide and relatively small changes in quantities traded have
a significant influence on world market prices. The Community
is the third largest producer of cereals in the world and the second
largest trader in cereals internationally after the USA.

to its own production. Since the reform imports have continued
to decrease, reaching less than 3 % of Community production.
More than 50 % of these imports consist of tariff quotas at reduced
custom duties for 2,5 million tonnes of maize and 0,3 million
tonnes of sorghum which were introduced for Spain and Portugal
after they had become members of the Community. The remain-
ing imports comprise mainly special qualities of wheat which are
not produced in the EU (27).

Exports

Imports

4.26. Prior to the reform, the Community constantly increased
its exports, which reached 36,8 million tonnes in 1992/1993. The

4.25. Before the 1992 reform the Community had continually
decreased its imports of cereals in absolute terms and in relation

(27) 0,3 million tonnes of these quantities can be imported duty free.

C 192/20

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

8.7.1999

cost of these exports for the Community budget amounted to an
average of ECU 3 000 million over the years 1992 and 1993. Dur-
ing the transitional period, world prices for cereals were close to
or even above internal market prices in some Member States.
Therefore, in 1995/1996, 11,2 million tonnes of mainly wheat
could be exported without paying export refunds. For 9,2 mil-
lion tonnes of mainly coarse grains, export refunds had to be paid
costing the budget about ECU 700 million on average over 1995
and 1996. The EU could have exported even more, if the Com-
mission had not introduced export taxes thus discouraging the
export of cereals and preventing internal prices from rising too
far above the target price. Under these circumstances it was easy
to comply with the WTO Agreement, i.e. to decrease both the
total amount of export refunds and the quantity of subsidised
exports.

4.27. From 1995/1996 onwards subsidised exports rose again,
reaching 23,4 million tonnes in 1997/1998. This reflects the drop
in world prices below the EU price level and the return of sur-
pluses on the internal market. Indeed, in July 1998 world prices
stood at USD 90/t, below the price on which the Commission had
based its proposal for a new intervention price in Agenda 2000.

Farm income from cereals

4.29. From the very start the overriding objective of the CAP
has been (cid:145)to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural
community, in particular by increasing the individual earnings of
persons engaged in agriculture(cid:146) (28). According to the Treaty this
should have been a consequence of increased agricultural produc-
tivity (29), rather than of interventions in the market process that
alter its genuine parameters (prices and farm income).

4.30.
In 1991, when the reform proposals were published, the
European farmers(cid:146) organisations (COPA and Cogeca) predicted
that in 1997 farmers would have an average income loss per work
unit of almost 40 % by comparison with 1991. This would indeed
have aggravated the cereal sector(cid:146)s situation, as its income was
already the lowest within the agricultural sector (30). In reality the
cereals sector gained quite considerably under the reform as a
combined result of persons leaving farming, increasing yields and
subsidies. Graph 4 shows that in 1995 the family farm income per
working unit in the cereals sector increased by 95 % by compari-
son with the prereform 1990 to 1992 period. In cases where
grain merchants and trading companies owned major cereal farms
they made even more substantial gains.

4.28. Exports are sometimes considered to comprise part of the
demand that is to be taken into account when establishing market
balance. It is claimed that the Community has a vocation to
export, at least in the cereals sector, and that such exports provide
foreign currency that benefits the Community(cid:146)s balance of pay-
ments. However these arguments appear to be not convincing at
all:

Compensation in the cereals sector

(a)

if cereals are sold by Community traders on the world market
at a price which is below the purchase price, the gap is bridged
by export refunds; exceptionnally, such subsidies are accepted,
under certain conditions, by the WTO;

4.31. The relative prosperity of the cereals sector is due to the
introduction of area aid, known as compensatory payment, to
compensate farmers for income losses attributable to the reduc-
tion in institutional prices. Although the preamble of the Regula-
tion provides that compensatory aid should compensate farmers
for income losses resulting from the reduction in institutional
prices, the intended compensation rates per tonne were fixed in
the same Regulation without any reference having been made to
income losses and institutional prices thereby leaving some uncer-
tainties. However, it becomes clear from reports drawn up by the
Council(cid:146)s Agrifin group in September 1991 (31) and July 1992 (32),
that the rates were set at the level of the differences between the

(b) subsidised exportation of this nature is an artificial outlet cre-
ated by the Community budget, rather than by autonomous
demand based on the EU(cid:146)s competitive edge; the world market
would not absorb the quantities exported at their purchase
price; producing for export under such circumstances is not
the best use of Community economic and financial resources.

(28) Article 39(1)(b) of the EC Treaty.
(29) Article 39(1)(a) of the EC Treaty.
(30) Commission, FADN, Farm income results in the EU 1990-95.
(31) Council Document No 8156/91 of 19 September 1991.
(32) Council Document No 8188/92 of 9 September 1992.

8.7.1999

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/21

Change in family farm income per working unit and per type of farming for EU-12 in 1995 as compared to 1990 to 1992 (in percentage)

Graph 4

100 %

95

80 %

60 %

40 %

20 %

0 %

l

s
a
e
r
e
C

47

i

g
n
p
p
o
r
c

l

a
r
e
n
e
G

26

13

7

s
d
r
a
y
e
n
V

i

s
p
o
r
c

t

n
e
n
a
m
r
e
p
r
e
h
O

t

e
r
u

t
l

u
c
i
t
r
o
H

31

k
c
o
t
s
y
r
D

21

i

g
n
y
r
i
a
D

5

y
r
t
l

u
o
p

/
s
g
P

i

29

32

d
e
x
M

i

s
m
r
a

f

l
l

A

Source: Commission, FADN, Farm income results in the EU 1990 to 1995 (real 1995 ECU).

average guaranteed price at which cereals were bought into inter-
vention during the 1991/1992 marketing year (ECU 155/t) and
the reduced target prices set by the Council for marketing years
1993/1994 at ECU 130/t, 1994/95 at ECU 120/t and 1995/1996
at ECU 110 ECU/t (33) (34). These target prices were meant to
approximate the average of the market prices of the Member
States.

4.32. The above provisions imply the following:

(a) compensatory payments were not meant to compensate farm-
ers according to individual market prices of each Member

(33) The target price was abolished from the 1995/96 marketing year
onwards, as it had become redundant; Council Regulation (EC) No
1528/95 of 29 June 1995 (OJ L 148, 30.6.1995, p. 3).

(34) This amount is in (cid:145)green(cid:146) ecu. To obtain budgetary ecu, this figure had
first to be converted with the (cid:145)green(cid:146) exchange rate applying to agri-
cultural products into the national currency and then, reconverted
with the official market exchange rate into ecu. From 1 February
1995 onwards the existing difference of 20,75 % between the (cid:145)green(cid:146)
ecu and the budgetary ecu has been abolished by increasing the
amount by the same difference.

State; otherwise, it would be difficult to defend the decoupled
nature and thus comply with the WTO requirements (see
paragraph 3.5(c));

(b) the payments neither sought to compensate for the impact of
other factors, such as climatic conditions, increasing yields,
currency movements, nor were they designed to compensate
differences in income determined by farm size, soil quality
and individual farming skills;

(c) set-aside was to be compensated only at the level of the com-

pensation rate for cereals.

4.33. The compensatory aid based on an average price (target
price) fixed at a level irrespective of any movement in actual mar-
ket prices led to over-compensation at global level. As market
prices did not fall as much as the difference between pre-reform
intervention prices and new target prices (see paragraph 4.16), the

 
 
 
 
 
 
C 192/22

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

8.7.1999

Estimation of the global impact of the reform on the cereals farmers(cid:146) revenue for EU-12

Table 8

Marketing year

Estimated
revenue without
reform (1)

Estimated
revenue after the
reform (2)

Normal
compensatory
payment (3)

Currency effect
on the
compensatory
payments (4)

Total revenue after
the reform

Global increase
in revenue

(million ECU)

Increase in revenue
due to market
prices

1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98

(a)

(b)

27 289,4
26 518,6
26 727,6
31 301,9
31 135,4

24 719,6
23 502,2
23 734,3
26 576,8
24 890,2

(c)

3 888,5
5 446,4
7 417,4
7 840,5
8 065,0

(d)

224,8
420,2
870,8
814,4
795,9

(e)=(b)+(c)+(d)

(f)=(e)(cid:150)(a)

(g)=(f)(cid:150)(d)

28 832,9
29 368,8
32 022,5
35 231,7
33 751,1

1 543,5
2 850,2
5 294,9
3 929,8
2 615,7

1 318,7
2 430,0
4 424,1
3 115,4
1 819,8

Total

142 972,9

123 423,1

32 657,8

3 126,1

159 207,0

16 234,1

13 108,0

Method of calculation:
(1) The estimated revenue without the reform is the quantities of cereals for each marketing year multiplied by the average 1992/93 producers(cid:146) prices (unit values).
(2) The estimated revenue after the reform is the quantities of cereals for each marketing year multiplied by the average producers(cid:146) prices of the marketing year (unit values).
(3) Expenditure per marketing year before currency effect and net of the special aid for silage.
(4) Agrimonetary cost.
Source: All basic data are from Eurostat or from the Commission, DG VI.

amount of area aid finally paid was higher at a global level than
the true amount of income loss in the cereals sector by about ECU
13 100 million (35) (see Table 8). The Court has already highlighted
this phenomenon in its Annual Report concerning the financial
year 1996 (36).

which it was intended could be limited to the differences in mar-
ket revenue resulting from price reductions:

4.34. This does not mean that such payments in excess of income
losses were irregular since the Regulation had not foreseen a
mechanism to adjust the amounts of compensation paid to reflect
actual market prices rather than the previously set target price.
Nevertheless, the levels of compensation paid in excess of actual
income losses account for the greater part of the increase in the
cereal budget.

4.35. As all other factors influencing farm income from cereals
could be eliminated (see paragraphs 4.32(b) and (c)), a calculation
to determine whether area aid compensated for the losses for

(35) The Commission estimates an even higher over-compensation of
about ECU 17 000 million. Indeed the Commission has estimated for
the four year period 1993/1994 to 1996/1997 an over-compensation
of ECU 8 500 million to which it is necessary to add the abolition of
the co-reponsability levy effect representing, for the five year period
1993/94 to 1997/98, another ECU 8 500 million (see replies of the
Commission).

(36) The Court of Auditors(cid:146) Annual Report concerning the financial year

1996, Chapter 3, paragraph 3.31 (OJ C 348, 8.11.1997).

(a) the market returns on cereal production were obtained by
valuing the output for each year after the reform according to
Eurostat(cid:146)s unit values for each country and each type of cereal;
the use of unit values has the advantage of removing incon-
sistencies which would otherwise result when using directly
raw national price statistics;

(b) the actual market returns on cereals, calculated in this man-
ner were compared with the market returns that would have
been received had prices stayed at their pre-reform levels in
each Member State; this method takes account solely of
changes in market revenue due to price changes, and the
aggregate differences thereby derived provide the basis for
compensation within the meaning of the Regulation(cid:146)s objec-
tive;

(c) the differences between market returns at pre-reform prices
and at current prices were compared on a year-by-year and
Member State-by-Member State basis with the amounts of
area aid actually paid; increases in the aid arising from the

8.7.1999

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/23

cost of the agrimonetary system is shown separately, i.e. they
were considered to be a component of budgetary cost which
has no bearing on the question of compensation as it is treated
in this report (see Table 8);

this country benefited. For those countries which, immediately
before the reform, were recipients of only small amounts of export
refunds, storage and other interventions, the introduction of the
new area aid resulted in an increase in their share of total EU bud-
getary expenditure on cereals (see Table 9).

(d) as the unit values used relate to calendar years, but the pro-
duction figures used for the calculation relate to cereal mar-
keting years (1 July to 30 June of the following year), unit val-
ues were adjusted on the assumption that 65 % of one year(cid:146)s
production had been sold between 1 July and 31 December
and 35 % between 1 January and 30 June; this hypothesis is
supported by the Commission and a number of Member
States;

(e)

lastly, the effect of set-aside was not considered specifically, as
it can be assumed that the effect on income of reduced pro-
duction resulting from set-aside has already been partly taken
into account in the market prices used for the calculation; in
any case, because of the reduction in the rate, set-aside was of
minor importance following the start of the reform in the
1993/1994 marketing year.

4.36. The amendment to Council Regulation (EEC) No 1765/92
proposed in the Commission(cid:146)s Agenda 2000 no longer uses the
term (cid:145)compensatory payment(cid:146), but merely area-aid payments. The
compensation rate of these payments has been fixed at half of the
value of the reduction in the intervention price once the (cid:145)cruise(cid:146)
period has ended. In formal terms it will no longer be correct to
use the term (cid:145)compensation(cid:146), once the new aid rate has been
introduced.

Distribution of income from cereal growing

4.37. The concept of compensation was based on historical base
areas, historical average yields, a single historical average interven-
tion price and a single target price for all cereals fixed for the
three-year transitional period. It is evident that a compensation
system which does not differentiate support according to farm
size or yield does nothing to improve the position of smaller pro-
ducers in the cereals sector.

The influence of market prices

4.39. At the level of the individual farmer, it is clear that the new
system was advantageous to farmers who were in a position to
withhold their cereals from the market until prices reached their
maximum. This strategy may not always achieve its objective, but
is encouraged when it is certain that area aid payments will be
made at the beginning of the period. It is mainly the larger pro-
ducers with sufficient financial means and private storage facili-
ties who are in a position to benefit from such strategy.

4.40. Agenda 2000 suggests that the area-aid payments should
be made later (January to March of the following year, instead of
October to December of the harvest year) and that the monthly
increments to the intervention price should be abolished. Both
suggestions are intended to counter withholding of cereals from
the market and to even out market supply. On the other hand,
when the market operates at intervention price levels, the lack of
monthly increments results in increased intervention buying at
the beginning of the intervention period (1 November). Subse-
quent increases in market prices then benefit storekeepers alone.

The influence of yields

4.41. According to Council Regulation (EEC) No 1765/92, the
specific structural characteristics that influence yields are to be
taken into account when farmers are compensated. Indeed, each
Member State was allowed to use its own average yields. Regional
characteristics were taken into account when Member States fixed
their regionalisation plans, in which they established differenti-
ated yields by region (37).

4.42. Regulation (EEC) No 1765/92 did not require that this dif-
ferentiation should lead to a redirection of funds to disadvantaged
regions or States. On the contrary, it was intended that farmers in
regions or States with traditionally higher yields should not be
under-compensated by comparison with their counterparts in tra-
ditionally lower-yielding areas. France alone introduced a factor
which decreased yield differences between regions in its region-
alisation plan.

4.38. As market prices stayed generally above the new target
price, Member States received more compensation than was justi-
fied by the actual losses attributable to price reductions. The
higher this difference was in a country, the more the farmers in

(37) The Court expressed some criticism in this regard in its Annual Report

concerning the financial year 1996.

Evolution of the expenditure for cereals from 1993 to 1997 for EU-12 by Member State and kind of expenditure

Table 9

B

DK

D

EL

E

F

IRL

I

L

NL

P

UK

TOTAL

(million ECU)

1993 (Before new CAP)
Export refunds for cereals
Storage intervention for cereals
Other intervention
Per hectare aid (1)

Total expenditure for cereals

Member States(cid:146) part in % (a)

1997 (new CAP)
Export refunds for cereals
Storage intervention for cereals
Other intervention
Per hectare aid (1)

Total expenditure for cereals

Member States(cid:146) part in % (b)

Difference (b)-(a)

(1) Includes 85 % of the set-aside expenditure.
Source: Commission(cid:146)s financial reports 1993 and 1997.

201,5
36,8
16,3
0,4

105,9
163,3
27,6
1,2

303,2
1 008,2
162,5
98,5

16,1
36,0
0,6
82,4

148,7
(cid:150) 17,0
21,4
119,4

1 139,6
1 270,6
172,8
82,0

255,0

298,0

1 572,4

135,1

272,5

2 665,0

3,7

4,3

22,7

2,0

3,9

38,5

39,5
(cid:150) 0,4
1,3
137,7

20,3
2,2
25,2
549,8

80,7
77,0
88,7
2 733,7

5,1
(cid:150) 5,2
0,1
450,6

18,4
(cid:150) 4,0
2,0
1 292,4

189,4
(cid:150) 1,5
43,4
3 746,8

7,0
29,0
3,5
0,2

39,7

0,6

0,8
3,5
0,1
114,8

419,4
21,8
33,2
380,2

854,6

12,3

34,3
(cid:150) 4,7
4,2
1 698,4

178,1

597,5

2 980,1

450,6

1 308,8

3 978,1

119,2

1 732,2

1,4

(cid:150) 2,3

4,5

0,2

22,6

(cid:150) 0,1

3,4

1,5

9,9

6,0

30,2

(cid:150) 8,3

0,9

0,3

13,2

0,8

0,0
(cid:150) 0,1
0,2
0,0

0,1

0,0

0,0
0,0
0,0
8,5

8,5

0,1

0,1

184,3
0,0
83,2
2,9

270,4

3,9

28,4
0,0
71,0
128,5

0,8
(cid:150) 17,6
58,8
0,5

42,5

0,6

0,3
(cid:150) 0,8
33,3
152,3

262,3
192,8
41,8
21,0

2 788,8
2 723,8
621,9
788,7

517,9

6 923,2

7,5

100,0

67,4
1,0
4,1
1 328,4

484,6
67,1
273,4
12 342,0

227,9

185,1

1 400,9

13 167,1

1,7

(cid:150) 2,2

1,4

0,8

10,6

3,2

100,0

0,0

C
1
9
2
/
2
4

E
N

O

f
f
i
c
i
a
l

J
o
u
r
n
a
l

o
f

t
h
e

E
u
r
o
p
e
a
n
C
o
m
m
u
n
i
t
i
e
s

.

.

8
7
1
9
9
9

8.7.1999

EN

Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/25

In general the area-aid system, based on average yields fro-

4.43.
zen at their historical value, resulted in the following:

increase in productivity.

(a) at regional level, the system did not greatly change the distri-
bution of aid; Annexes 1 and 2 show the largest farms and
highest yields in the Community; the combination of the two
gives an indication of the distribution of compensatory pay-
ments; almost half of the cereals produced in the EU-15 are
grown in 20 regions out of a total of 127; it also becomes
clear that these 20 regions are in no way less-favoured regions;
support for cereals continues to be concentrated in regions
which may be considered reasonably prosperous;

(b) at the individual level it is clear that compensation based on
average yields frozen at their historical values could never
compensate each individual farmer accurately; farmers with a
yield higher than the historical average are relatively less well-
off under the new system; those who had lower yields gain;
higher yields result from many factors: where such yields can
be attributed to more fertile soil and/or to more efficient
farming methods, the new system works against structural
improvements by treating less-efficient farmers more favour-
ably; it may be concluded that the system even contravenes
Article 39(a) of the Treaty, as it tends to discourage the global

4.44. The 1992 reform offered Member States the option of
establishing individual base areas. In view of the administrative
burden which such a system would entail, no Member State intro-
duced it. This option has been withdrawn under Agenda 2000.

The influence of farm size

In its communication COM(91)100 final of 1 February
4.45.
1991 the Commission concluded that the rising budgetary expen-
diture, devoted in large part to a small minority of farms, pro-
vided no solution to the problem of uneven distribution of farm
incomes. The reform did not change this situation either. Indeed
in 1995, almost 40 % of the compensatory payments were paid
to less than 3 % of the beneficiaries. At the other end of the scale,
small farmers with less than 5 ha, who represent 57 % of benefi-
ciaries get only 4,5 % (see Graph 5). But these figures hide big dis-
parities in the Community. In the United Kingdom, the Member
State with the biggest farms, farms with 100 ha and more repre-
sent 17 % of total farms and get 66 % of the payments. In Italy,
78 % of farms have less that 5 ha but get only 20 % of the aid.

Estimation of the concentration of cereals compensatory payments per holding size for EU-15 in 1995 (excluding the supplementary aid
for durum wheat)

Graph 5

60 %

50 %

40 %

30 %

20 %

10 %

0 %

56,8

% of total cereal compensatory payments

% of total number of holdings

38,6

13,0

10,6

8,1

4,5

4,5

22,3

14,1

7,9

5,6

5,9

5,1

2,9

less than 5 ha

 5 to 10 ha

10 to 20 ha

20 to 30 ha

30 to 50 ha

50 to 100 ha

100 ha and more

Source: Eurostat, 1995 survey of the structure of agricultural holdings and DG VI, expenditure for harvest 1995.

Utilised agricultural area in hectares (ha)

 
C 192/26

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Official Journal of the European Communities

8.7.1999

4.46. Needless to say, the larger a farm is, the greater the return
from the market and area-aid will be. The reform did not there-
fore fundamentally change the fact that large amounts of public
money are spent on the largest farms (38). It would appear that the
only solution to this problem is to make area-aid payments
degressive in relation to farm size. It should be noted, however,
that such a system would be vulnerable to abuse, if large farms
were broken down into smaller ones for the sole purpose of quali-
fying for higher amounts of aid.

prices continue to converge with world market prices. Contrary
to the expectations at the time of the reform, the world price level
during the transitional period was exceptionally high due to sup-
ply shortages on the world market. It therefore seems reasonable
to consider this favourable effect on competitiveness as being the
result of historically, a, rather exceptional market situation dur-
ing the transitional period.

Value of agricultural land

4.47. A major determinant of wealth, and thus of standard of liv-
ing, is the value of land owned by farmers. As the stream of
income expected from this land is a principal determinant of the
selling price, the reform, which attributes a fixed and definite
income to the land, will certainly have an impact on land values.

Indeed, international prices between 1996 and 1998, i.e. the
5.2.
first years of full application of the reform, decreased quite sharply.
Agenda 2000 proposes further cuts in the intervention price
which would allow internal market prices to follow the expected
downward trend in world prices. If it were not possible to make
these further reductions in intervention prices, the competitive-
ness of EU cereal production would be at risk. Of course, other
factors, such as quality improvements, could play a role in this
regard but for bulk goods, such as cereals, the price remains the
major determinant of competitiveness.

4.48. Owing to the lack of empirical data, the Court was unable
to estimate this impact. Only the UK was able to provide some
data, which suggest there will be an increase in the sale price of
farm land. However, a scientific approach shows that the CAP
reform may lead to an increase in the selling price of poor land
and a decrease in that for good land (39). This is due to the fact
that compensatory payments form a larger share of the income
of farms with poor land and unreliable yields, and help farmers
to overcome uncertainty concerning income to a relatively greater
degree.

5. CONCLUSION

5.3. With regard to the effect of the reform on stabilising the
market, within the meaning of the Mac Sharry reform, i.e. ending
the cereal crisis and establishing market balance, the reform
achieved its objective over the transitional period. Production was
kept at pre-reform level, storage was reduced to almost zero, and
more than half of the exports were achieved without export
refunds. It might have been expected that set-aside and price cuts
would reduce production to a greater extent than it actually did:
the former by reducing the area under cereals and the latter by
lowering market revenues in relation to production costs thus
reducing inputs like fertilisers and pesticides. However, looking at
the global production trend and, in particular, at the divergent
trends in Member States, it is quite difficult to ascertain any last-
ing effect of the reform on production. The production-reducing
effects of the price cuts and set-aside were weakened by the fol-
lowing factors:

5.1. During the transitional period cuts in internal prices and the
latter(cid:146)s convergence with international prices rendered EU cereals
relatively more competitive than other cereals on the world mar-
ket and cereal substitutes on the internal market (see paragraph
4.13). Whether this favourable effect will persist will depend on
the extent to which intervention and, therefore, internal market

(a) favourable weather conditions in 1995 and 1996 in broad
areas of northern Europe, where the main production areas
are located (see paragraph 4.7);

(38) See also paragraph 3.30 of the Court(cid:146)s Annual Report concerning the

financial year 1996 (OJ C 348, 8.11.1997).

(39) Rob Fraser, land heterogeneity and the May 1992 reform of CAP
cereal price support, Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol 48, No 1,
p.69, Falkirk 1997.

(b) area-aid payments, which motivated farmers to grow arable
crops, of which cereals are the most important (see paragraph
4.19);

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Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/27

(c)

increasing prices on the world market as production lagged
behind consumption due to the decline in world area allo-
cated to cereals and to the slow down in world yield increases
since the mid-1980s (40) (see paragraph 4.16);

(d) currency movements against the ecu, which offset the price
cuts in the national currency of some Member States (see
paragraph 4.17).

level farmers were over-
period 1993 to 1997, on a global
compensated by about ECU 13 100 million. However, even if
over-compensation had not taken place at Community level, the
actual manner in which area aid was calculated would have led to
over-compensation in some Member States where market prices
were higher than the fixed average target price, and vice versa.
Furthermore, individual farmers with historical yields that were
higher than the average were penalised while farmers with lower
yields benefited from this system. The reform did not take account
of this effect.

5.4. Looking at the recent evolution of the market it is evident
that the stability achieved during the transitional period cannot
be sustained. In fact, in 1996/1997 Community production already
exceeded pre-reform levels and remained high in 1997/1998.
Stocks have also increased as a result. Furthermore, the introduc-
tion of a single aid rate for cereals and oilseeds could affect the
relative attractiveness of cereal production (see paragraph 4.6).

5.7. Moreover, the reform did not address the point that the
larger a farm is, the greater is the public support it receives, thus
jeopardising the political intention to help small farmers first and
foremost. This problem can only be solved by placing a ceiling on
public farm support. Agenda 2000 proposes ceilings and a degres-
sive system of area aid. However ceilings and degressive aid sys-
tems engender the risk of large farms being split up into smaller
ones so that more aid may be obtained.

5.5. The maintenance of high prices on the home market by
comparison with world prices combined with surpluses of home-
grown cereals, presents the Community with a very difficult
problem. Disposal of surpluses is constrained by WTO limits on
the total amounts of export refunds and on the volume of cereals
which may be exported with the aid of refunds. These limits are
likely to be further reduced during the next round of negotiations.
Agenda 2000, apart from a price cut which could prove inad-
equate, contains no alternative proposal as to how this problem
may be solved. Allowing surpluses to be dealt with by means of
intervention storage alone is not a sustainable solution.

5.6. The effect of the reform on farm income is described in
paragraphs 4.29 to 4.46. The objective of the reform was to com-
pensate farmers for income losses due to the reduction in insti-
tutional prices to an average Community level. The reform did
not seek to cover potential losses caused by the fact that compen-
sation was based on average yields and cultivation areas that had
been frozen at their historical levels and on a single average target
price for all cereals, rather than on the specific market prices in
each Member State. The reform carried the objective of compen-
sating farmers for income losses too far. In fact, over the five-year

(40) European Commission, CAP working notes: The outlook of world cereal
markets, ISBN 92-827-8813-X, Brussels-Luxembourg October 1996,
p.2.

5.8. The Court is fully aware that it is difficult to achieve all the
objectives of Article 39 of the EC Treaty simultaneously. The
income objective has been one of the predominant ones in all the
years since the introduction of the CAP. However one could
envisage a solution whereby farm support could be determined
on a basis which is different from prices, production or area. It
could be based on, for example, a standard net income per farm
household or working unit. If sufficient income were not earned
on the market, farm support would be triggered to make up part
of the difference.

5.9.
It is clear that any policy approach should, in part, meet the
requirement of Article 39(1)(b) of the Treaty: (cid:145)... to ensure a fair
standard of living for the agricultural community ... (cid:146). Any increase in
individual farm earnings beyond the (cid:145)standard net income(cid:146) how-
ever, has to come from increasing productivity through technical
progress, the rational development of agricultural production, the
optimum use of factors of production, as required by Article
39(1)(a) and the adjustment of structures as required by Article
39(2)(b).

5.10. To summarise, it can be said that the Mac Sharry reform
has taken a small step in the right direction. It has served the aim
of rendering public support of the COM in cereals transparent by
replacing price support with direct aid paid by the taxpayer. This
resulted, as anticipated, in a significant increase in budgetary
expenditure as of the first year of implementation of the reform.
The increase in expenditure, was, however, higher than forecast,
i.e. actual expenditure has turned out to be higher each year. Fur-

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Official Journal of the European Communities

8.7.1999

thermore, the forecast drop in expenditure for 1997 did not take
place.

5.11. The fact that stocks and export refunds reappeared in 1996
to 1997, following the transitional period, does not reduce the sig-
nificance of the reform. It merely demonstrates that the reform is
an ongoing process and corrective measures should be taken to
remedy the weaknesses identified. Agenda 2000 proposes a fur-
ther reduction in intervention prices as a measure to remove the
risks connected with the recurrence of increasing stocks and
export refunds. The effectiveness of set-aside could not be prop-
erly evaluated because world-wide supply shortages called for
considerable reductions in the set-aside rates after the transitional
period.

5.12.
In order to move towards the approach suggested in para-
graph 5.8 at least in the medium term, the Commission should

initiate studies to evaluate the level of competitiveness actually
achieved by the Community cereals sector following such pro-
tracted public support. The potential risks of unemployment, the
segmentation and abandonment of land, environmental damage,
etc. should be addressed by effective means, such as integrated
rural development aid.

5.13. On the other hand, inadequate reference is made to mea-
sures for improving competitiveness by means of structural mea-
sures that also comply with the WTO Agreements (green box).
Consumer interests are somewhat neglected in the reform pro-
cess. Taxpayers bear an increased burden, which is not followed
by any significant reduction in final consumer prices. The effect
of market structure on transmission of benefits to the consumer
requires further examination.

This report was adopted by the Court of Auditors in Luxembourg at its meeting of 6 May 1999.

For the Court of Auditors

In the absence of Jan O. KARLSSON

President of the Court

Bernhard FRIEDMANN

Acting President

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Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/29

ANNEX 1

EUROPEAN UNION
Average cereal area
per cereal holding (ha)
in 1993
(Austria/Finland/Sweden 1995)

<= 5 ha

5 - 10 ha

10 - 20 ha

20 - 40 ha

> 40 ha

DATA PROCESSING: GISVI and VI.A.1

CARTOGRAPHY: EC-GISVI - 06/97

SOU CE: EUROSTAT

R

0

150

750 km

UKA

UKB

UK1

IE

YORKSHIRE AND HUMBERSIDE

UK8

EAST MIDLANDS

UK7

EAST ANGLIA

UK9

FI15

SE08

SE07

FI14

FI13

FI12

FI11

SE06

FI2

SE01

SE02

SE05

SE03

DK

SE04

DEF

MECKLENBURG-VORPOMMERN

NL1

DE5

DE6

DE9

DE3

BRANDENBURG

SOUTH EAST (UK)

UK6

NL3 NL2

NL4

DEA

BE1

BE3

BE2

FR3

SACHSEN-ANHALT

SACHSEN

THUERINGEN

DE7

FR23

FR22

FR25

LU

DEB

DEC

FR52

ILE DE FRANCE

FR21

FR41

FR42

DE1

DE2

FR51

FR24

FR26

FR43

AT1

AT2

IT312

AT3
IT311

IT31

IT2

IT32

IT33

FR53

FR61

ES11

ES12

ES13

ES21

ES23

ES22

FR63

FR72

FR71

IT12

IT11

FR62

FR81

FR82

IT13

IT4

PT11

ES41

PT12

ES3

ES24

ES51

PT13

PT14

PT15

ES43

ES42

ES52

ES53

ES61

ES62

ES63

FR83

ITB

IT51

IT53

IT52

IT6

IT71

IT72

IT8

IT91

IT92

IT93

ITA

GR11

GR41

GR12

GR13

GR21

GR14

GR24

GR22

GR23

GR25

GR3

GR42

GR43

 
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ANNEX 2

EUROPEAN UNION
Regional cereal production
in % of EU-15
(average 3 most recent
years available)

<= 0.5 %

0.5 - 1.0 %

1.0 - 2.0 %

2.0 - 3.0 %

> 3.0 %

DATA PROCESSING: GISVI and VI.A.1

CARTOGRAPHY: EC-GISVI - 06/97

SOURCE: EUROSTAT

0

150

750 km

FI15

SE08

SE07

FI14

FI13

FI12

FI11

SE06

FI2

SE01

SE02

UKB

IE

UKA

UK1

UK2

UK3

UK8

UK7

UK9

UK6

UK5

SE05

SE03

DANMARK

SE04

DEF

DE6

DE8

UK4

NL1

DE5

NIEDERSACHSEN

NL3 NL2

NL4

DEA

BE1

BE3

BE2

FR3

DEE

DEG

DE7

DE3

DE4

DED

FR23

FR22

FR25

LU

DEB

DEC

FR52

FR1

FR21

FR41

FR51

CENTRE

BAYERN

FR42

DE1

AT31

AT12

AT13

AT11

FR26

FR43

AT34

AT33

AT32

AT22

FR53

FR61

FR63

FR72

FR71

IT12

IT11

IT311

IT312

AT21

IT33

IT2

IT32

FR62

FR81

FR82

IT13

IT4

ES11

ES12

ES13

ES21

ES23

ES22

PT11

ES41

PT12

ES3

ES24

ES51

PT13

PT14

PT15

ES43

ES42

ES52

ES53

ES61

ES62

ES63

FR83

ITB

IT51

IT53

IT52

IT6

IT71

IT72

IT8

IT91

IT92

IT93

ITA

GR11

GR41

GR12

GR13

GR21

GR14

GR24

GR22

GR23

GR25

GR3

GR42

GR43

8.7.1999

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C 192/31

COMMISSION(cid:146)S REPLIES

SUMMARY

The 1992 reform of the CAP aimed to render cereals grown in the Community more competitive both inter-
nally in the Community and on the world market. During the 1980s and early 1990s, home-grown cereals
continuously lost market share on the internal market for animal feed to the benefit of imported cereals sub-
stitutes. A simple continuation of past trends over the 1993/1994 to 1995/1996 period would have led to a
reduction of cereals uptake in animal feed of some 5 to 7 million tonnes. At the time it was also clear that the
on-going GATT negotiations would result in restrictions on the quantities of cereals which could be exported
with export refunds.

The reform, by the end of the transitional period, successfully re-established the market balance for cereals.
The internal consumption of Community-grown cereals increased and intervention stocks disappeared,
although they have been starting to build up again in recent months.

However, the Commission in its Agenda 2000 proposals recognised the need to build on the 1992 reform by
proposing an additional reduction of 20 % in institutional cereal prices, in order to improve the Union(cid:146)s com-
petitiveness on internal and external markets. The Berlin European Council concluded that the price cut should
be 15 % over the marketing years 2000/2001 and 2001/2002 (7,5 % per year) and that a decision on a further
reduction in the intervention price to be applied from 2002/2003 onwards should be taken in the light of
market developments. In addition, the reference rate for compulsory set-aside has been fixed at 10 % for the
period 2000 to 2006. This percentage may also be changed in the light of market developments. The com-
bined effect of price cuts and set-aside should allow the Union to maintain market balance.

The Court repeats its earlier findings (Annual Report 1996) that the direct aids introduced by the 1992 reform
actually over-compensated cereal growers. This was acknowledged by the Commission, which in 1996 pro-
posed to reduce the compensation paid to farmers. However, neither the Council nor the European Parliament
endorsed the proposal. Agenda 2000 addresses this by offering only a partial compensation for the price
reduction. Following the European Council(cid:146)s decision, in case of a further reduction in intervention price, any
increase in area payments will provide the same degree of compensation as in 2000/2001 and 2001/2002.

A differentiation of compensation payments according to farm size was part of the initial 1992 reform pro-
posal and was also included in the Agenda 2000 proposals, but neither of these proposals has been accepted
by the Council.

The Court states that neither the price reductions from the first reform, nor those in Agenda 2000, can be
shown to benefit the final consumer. Even though measuring the effect on consumer prices is not an easy task
as prices are influenced by a number of factors, the Commission has studied price transmission in other sec-
tors and reached the conclusion that in general terms there is a positive effect. Both econometric models and
economic analysis support the conclusion that price reductions in a sector central to human consumption and
animal feed can only have a positive impact on prices paid by consumers.

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4. EFFECTS OF THE REFORM

Prices

Production

Producer prices

4.6 to 4.10. The principal factors behind the stabilisation of the
market for cereals were

(1) a reduction in production by the means of set-aside and

(2) an increase in internal consumption of cereals by reducing

cereal prices.

The differences among Member States in terms of the reduction
in production during the first years of the reform are explained
by the application of a compulsory set-aside rate of 15 % from
which small producers are exempt. Also, the adjustment of the
agriculture sector in the new L(cid:228)nder to the market economy has
continued.

Oilseed production will not necessarily decrease under Agenda
2000. The market prospects for oilseeds are better than for cere-
als and should make it possible to recoup the loss in aid follow-
ing alignment via higher market prices. In addition, under the
preliminary agreement on Agenda 2000 it is planned to subject
the oilseed sector to separate monitoring so as to be able to react
to any possible substantial reduction in area sown.

4.15 to 4.19. Market price disparities are not inconsistent with
the principle of the single market. Community preference makes
it possible to sell cereals from surplus regions to the deficit regions
without intervention by the public authorities. The EU has a single
institutional price but different market prices reflecting the seg-
mentation of the market.

Where the Community has in the past organised transfers or sales
of intervention stocks to specific regions, these measures have
been justified by special circumstances such as serious droughts
affecting feed production and livestock farmers(cid:146) incomes.

Before the 1992 reform, intervention prices were the main factor
determining the prices of cereals on the internal market. In sur-
plus areas, the market aligned on that level; in deficit areas, the
market price included the additional marketing and transport
costs. The introduction of a significant set-aside rate brought pro-
duction and consumption back into balance. Some regions in sur-
plus before the 1992 reform became deficit regions, enabling pro-
ducers to secure prices higher than the intervention price.

The Commission took account of this effect in the context of the
reform by calculating compensation on the basis of a target price
5 % above the intervention price.

The Commission accepts that it is impossible to foresee the pro-
duction and consumption of cereals at Community level or at
world level two marketing years beforehand. However, as the
Court itself recognises, the introduction of obligatory set-aside
was the main element which contributed to a better equilibrium
in the Community market.

The base rate for compulsory set-aside (15 %) took account of the
need to dismantle intervention stocks and of the trend rise in
yields. Production projected for 1993 and 1994 was smaller than
the likely outlets on the internal and external markets. The drought
in Spain and Portugal as well as the fall in world stocks accentu-
ated this situation.

The fixing of the set-aside rate for the 1997 and 1998 harvests,
respectively, in September 1996 and June 1997 has to be seen in
relation to the state of the world market at that time, which saw
stocks at an extremely low level. This situation caused prices to
be very volatile and compelled the Commission to introduce
export levies for different wheats.

In order to take account of this necessity, the Commission initially
proposed extending the co-responsibility levy scheme tempo-
rarily. Neither the Council nor Parliament backed this proposal.

Consumer prices

The system for fixing the set-aside rate might not be ideal but is
nevertheless the best found so far.

4.20 to 4.21. The Commission is of the opinion that a price
reduction at producer level generally has a positive effect at the

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Official Journal of the European Communities

C 192/33

consumer level. Its recent analysis of the pigmeat sector demon-
strates it. Models developed by the University of Bonn, the Centre
for World Food Studies at the University of Amsterdam and the
Commission have been used for the estimates. They are presently
the best econometric tools available in the EU.

When evaluating the price transmission for cereals it must be rec-
ognised that the cereal share of the final consumer price is very
limited for most food products, for example the share of wheat in
the price of bread is approximately 5 %.

Exports

4.26. The introduction of an export levy has as its principal aim
the protection of the internal market against speculative price
increases. This measure is justified within the context of a market
organisation which seeks to rebalance the interests of producers
and consumers.

4.28. The setting of the refund rate is based on the difference
between the internal market price and the level of those prices on
the world market which are the most representative for the same
quality as Community production. In this way the Community
offsets the effect of the price increase on the internal market due
to the intervention system.

Farm income from cereals

4.30. Although the income increase in percentage terms is sig-
nificant, due to the exceptional market situation, cereals produc-
ers(cid:146) income reached a level only 14 % above the average for all
farmers.

The Commission has conceded that there was over-compensation
over several years. It has put this over-compensation at ECU 8,5
billion for the period from 1993/1994 to 1996/1997. However,
the situation differs depending on the type of cereal, the region
and the marketing year considered. In 1996 the Commission pro-
posed a cut in arable crop payments which was not accepted by
either the Council or Parliament. However, market prices dropped
in 1997 and 1998, offsetting to a large extent the problem of
over-compensation. Moreover, Agenda 2000 addresses this by
only offering partial compensation.

As to the method of estimating this over-compensation, the Com-
mission would like to add the following information. A calcula-
tion based on producer prices includes the impact of the
co-responsibility levy, amounting to ECU(B) 10/t. This levy, abol-
ished by the Council without any change in the method of fixing
compensatory payments, accounts for about ECU 8,5 billion in
the calculation of over-compensation for the period from 1993 to
1997.

Distribution of income from cereal growing

The influence of market prices

4.40. Agenda 2000 brings the intervention price closer to the
projected price on the world market for wheat. In this case, inter-
vention remains only a safety net.

The influence of yields

4.43 to 4.44. The reform had the effect of reducing the incen-
tive to higher yields arising from market support via high prices.
This was one stated aim of the reform. In this context, a system
of compensatory payments based on individual yields would be
counter to the goal sought.

Compensation in the cereals sector

The influence of farm size

4.31 to 4.36. The Commission explained in its reply to the
Court(cid:146)s Annual Report for the financial year 1996 why a (cid:145)flat-rate(cid:146)
approach was chosen for compensatory payments. A flat-rate
payment system, decoupled from production levels and based on
historic data, is needed in order to benefit from opportunities
arising from developments on the world market. Moreover, it
reinforced the EU position in the negotiations then in progress for
a new GATT agreement.

4.45 to 4.46. The Commission included the plan to differentiate
aid according to the number of hectares of individual producers
in its proposals for the 1992 reform, but the Council decided
against the idea at the time (see 3.72 in the 1996 Report (OJ C
348, 18.11.1997, p. 95)). Within Agenda 2000 the Council did
not include the degressivity of direct aids in its compromise pack-
age.

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5. CONCLUSION

5.1 to 5.3. The Commission shares the Court(cid:146)s view that the
1992 reform achieved its aims during the transitional period. The
reform contributed in large part to rebalancing the cereals market
by introducing the set-aside scheme and cutting prices. The set-
aside scheme has the added advantage of adjusting to fluctuating
conditions in the world market.

However, the Commission in its Agenda 2000 proposals recog-
nised the need to go further than the first reform. In this context,
a 15 % cut in cereals intervention price has been agreed on. A
decision on a further reduction will be taken in the light of market
developments. In addition, the reference rate for compulsory set-
aside has been fixed at 10 %. This percentage may also be changed
in the light of market developments. The combined effect of price
cut and set-aside should allow the EU to maintain market balance.

5.6. As indicated in the Commission(cid:146)s reply to the Court(cid:146)s Annual
Report for the financial year 1996 (OJ C 348, point 3.31, p. 93),
the Commission(cid:146)s own calculations confirmed that there had been
an over-compensation in the cereals sector, estimated at ECU 8,5
billion, over four years excluding the effect of the abolition of the
co-responsibility levy. The direct aid scheme never aimed to pro-
vide 100 % compensation for the price cuts suffered by individu-
als. It was brought in to offset some of the distortions of a high-
price intervention system, in particular over-intensification.

5.13. The Commission fully agrees about the risks mentioned by
the Court. This is why a new Regulation on rural development is
part of Agenda 2000.

The two reforms of the CAP entail very substantial price reduc-
tions. The Commission emphasises that analyses carried out within
the meat sectors indicate a positive price transmission to the ben-
efit of the consumer, although with a certain time lag.