STRATEGY PAPER FOR REDUCING METHANE EMISSIONS - (COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT)
Date: 1996-11-15
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: action programme, air quality, environmental protection, hydrocarbon, oil pollution

COMMISSION  OF THE  EUROPEAN  COMMUNITIES 

Brussels,  15.11.1996 
COM(96)  557  final 

STRATEGY  PAPER  FOR  REDUCING 

METHANE  EMISSIONS 

(COMMUNICATION  FROM  THE  COMMISSION  TO  THE  COUNCIL  AND 

TO  THE  EUROPEAN  PARLIAMENT) 

Table  of contents 

1. 

EXECUTIVE  SUMMARY 

THE ISSUE 

Natural  Sources 
Atmospheric  concentrations  of Methane 

2. 
2.1  Methane 
2.2 
2.3 
2.4  Methane  and global climate change 
2.5 
2.6 

Stabilization  and Reduction  of global methane emissions 
Elimination  of methane  emissions  : combustion  with/without energy  recovery 
Economic  factors  connected to the adopted  process 

2.7  Methane  emissions  in  an EU context 

3. 

EU METHANE  SOURCES AND PRESENT  INVENTORIES 

Agriculture 

3.1 
3.2  Waste 
Energy 
3.3 

p  o 

p  5 
p. 5 
p. 5 
p. 5 
p. 6 
p. 6 

p. 7 
p. 7 

p. 8 

p. 8 
p. 8 
p. 8 

4. 

OPTIONS  FOR REDUCING  METHANE  EMISSIONS. SOME  MEASURES 
REPORTED  BY MEMBER  STATES AND THIRD COUNTRIES 

p. 9 

AGRICULTURE 

p. 9 
4.1 
p. 9 
4.1.1  Enteric  fermentation 
4.1.2  Livestock  manure 
p.  11 
4.1.3.  Description  of some measures reported  by  Member  States and Third  Countries  p.  12 
4.2  WASTE  TREATMENT  AND DISPOSAL 
p.  12 
p.  12 
4.2.1  Landfills 
p.  14 
4.2.2  Description  of some measures reported  by  Member  States and Third 

Countries 
ENERGY 

4.3 
4.3.1  Extraction  and distribution  of fossil  fuels 
4.3.1.1  Coal 
4.3.1.2  Natural  gas 
4.3.2  Combustion 
4.3.3  Description  of some measures reported  by Member  States and Third 

Countries 

5. 

EU POLICY  MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED 

ENERGY 

AGRICULTURE 

5.1 
5.1.1  Enteric fermentation 
5.1.2  Livestock manure 
5.2  WASTE  TREATMENT  AND DISPOSAL 
5.3 
5.3.1  Extraction  and distribution  of fossil  fuels 
5.3.1.1  Coal 
5.3.1.2  Natural  gas 
5.3.2  Combustion 
5.4 

CONCLUSION 
ANNEX 

p.  15 
p.  15 
p.  15 
p.  16 
p.  17 
p.  17 

p.  18 

p.  18 
p. 18 
p.  19 
p. 20 
p. 21 
p. 21 
p. 21 
p. 22 
p. 22 
p. 22 
p. 26 

JL 

EXECUTIVE  SUMMARY 

Methane, a global  issue  ? 

Since the pre-industrial era, methane (CH4) concentration in the atmosphere has grown continuously, 
mainly  influenced  by  human  activity.  Methane  is  an  active  greenhouse  gas  which  traps  heat  (from 
infrared  radiations)  and  inhibits  its  release  into  space,  it  therefore  contributes  to  the  increase  of 
atmospheric  and  earth  surface  temperatures  and  to  the  "global  greenhouse  effect".  It  is  currently 
second  to carbon dioxide (C02) in contributing to global warming.  Increasing atmospheric methane 
concentrations account for  18 percent of the global greenhouse effect  compared to approximately 66% 
for  carbon  dioxide  (see Fig. 2). 

Objective of the  Communication 

The  aims  of  this  document  are  to  examine  problems  and  concerns  related  to  atmospheric  methane 
emissions, to identify  the main  emissions  sources  and  sinks, to introduce  some cost-effective  means 
to  reduce  these  emissions  and  to  provide  a  set  of  potential  measures  for  incorporating  into  a 
Community  emissions  mitigation  strategy.  The  Communication  covers  a series  of measures  that 
explicitly  address the priority  sectors, namely  agriculture, waste  and energy. 

At both the Community and international level it has been recognised that a methane reduction policy 
should  be  an important  element  of  an overall  climate  change  strategy  especially  in  view  of the  fact 
that the implementation of methane  reduction strategy could have a more immediate impact compared 
to measures adopted for  C02. This Communication responds to this challenge  by developing for the 
EU  a credible  strategy  for  reducing  methane  emissions which  includes viable policies  and  measures 
and that could  form  a key element in the EU's developing  Climate  Change Policy. 

In this policy  framework  there  are still  some questions that need to be resolved  on the orientation  to 
take on mitigating methane emissions. An important part of this assessment would be either to  achieve 
a  certain  reduction  target  within  a certain  timeframe  (as  evoked  in  the  Fifth  Environmental  Action 
Programme)  or  to  choose  policy  measures  from  a list  of  options  having  the  most  favourable  cost-
effectiveness  ratio up to a certain cut-off  point. Such  a cut-off point in principle could be determined 
either by  a monetary valuation  of the  social  costs  caused by methane  emissions  or by other  suitable 
methods. 

Finally, the assessment of  the cost effectiveness  for the proposed strategy may require further  deeper 
analyses in order to develop reliable data to underpin concrete policy actions that could be  undertaken 
at the  EU 

level. 

Methane main properties 

Amongst the principal characteristics of methane which have a harmful  impact on the atmosphere, the 
following  are the most  important. 

First, methane concentration (1.72 ppm) in the atmosphere has nearly doubled  since the beginning of 
this century  mainly  due to human  activity. 

Secondly  the  power  with  which  a greenhouse  gas  contributes  to  earth  global  warming  is  normally 
expressed by its Global Warming Potential (GWP). The GWP indicates the power of a gas in relation 
to the  standard  substance,  C02,  and  that  by definition  has  a GWP equal  to  one.  Methane's  GWP  is 

62 times higher than the  GWP of C02, this  shows the importance of reducing methane emissions. 

Thirdly,  stabilization  of  methane  concentration  in  the  atmosphere  could  be  reached  today  by  a 
reduction of only  10% of the annual global anthropogenic emissions which is definitely  less than  for 
C02  which  would  require  around  a  60%  cut  in  annual  anthropogenic  emissions.  Clearly,  this 
difference  has repercussions  on the  span  of policies  and measures  and the  amount  of resources  that 
has to allocated in order to achieve specific reduction goals. Carbon dioxide remains, however, for the 
future  the main concern  for  global warming. 

Another important parameter is the time methane stays in the atmosphere,  12-17 years against 50-200 
years for  C02.  This means that the implementation  of a strategy to reduce methane emissions  would 
have  a more  immediate  impact  on the global  greenhouse  effect  compared  to  C02  where the  benefit 
of initiatives would  only be perceptible  in the medium  or long term. 

Finally, it must be pointed  out that the simple combustion  of methane transforms  methane into  C02 
and eliminates  95% of its warming potential. 

EU  inventories 

Agriculture, waste and energy are the three main anthropogenic methane emissions sources in the EU. 
Inventories have been  quantified  in these sectors  and  are summarized  below  (CORINAIR  90 data). 

Agriculture (45%) stands in first position with methane production resulting from the anaerobic enteric 
fermentation  (digestion)  of  animals  (30%)  and that resulting from the  anaerobic management  of the 
animal  wastes  -  manures  -  (15%).  Then  follows  waste  (32%)  where  methane  is  generated  by  the 
anaerobic fermentation  of organic matter trapped in landfills. Finally, methane is emitted in the energy 
sector  (23%), in particular  in  coal mining  (12%)  and the production,  distribution  and use  of  natural 
gas (8%). 

EU  inventories  (year 1990) of main  methane  anthropogenic  emissions  sources 

Agriculture 

44.7 % 

10.2Mt 

enteric  fermentation  (digestion) of 
ruminant  livestock  (cattle, sheep)  : 

livestock  manure  : 

Waste 

landfills  : 

30 % 

14,7 % 

30,8 % 

31,5% 

7.3 Mt 

waste water treatment  (sludge)  : 

0,7 % 

Energy 

23 % 

5.3 Mt 

coal mining, transport  and storage  : 
gas production  and distribution  : 
combustion  : 
transport  : 

11,4 % 
8,8 % 
2 % 
0.8% 

Mt = million of tonnes 

Community  strategy to reduce  methane  emissions 

A  series  of  options  to  reduce  methane  emissions  are  set  out  in  this  paper  as  well  as  policies  and 
measures that  are  already  implemented  in  some  Member  States  or third  countries. Effective  options 
in  the  most  promising  sectors,  essentially  agriculture, waste  and  energy,  are then  identified  at  EU, 
national, regional  and local  level  and  are proposed  as potential  actions to be  carried  out in the  form 
of a Community  strategy. They  are briefly  described  below. 

In the  agriculture  sector, the most promising  area for reducing methane  emissions  is animal manure 
management. Anaerobic digesters or simple covered  lagoons provide  an effective  means to limit and 
to reduce methane emissions. In order to gain acceptance, farmers in the EU must be first made aware 
of the  possibilities  offered  by these  technologies through  demonstration  programmes  and  feasibility 
studies  implemented  at  EU,  national,  regional  and  local  levels.  An  EU  legal  obligation  to  install 
recovery  systems  should  then  be  implemented  in  a later  stage. This  obligation  would  only  apply to 
animal farm  husbandry  of a certain  size (number of animals to be  defined). 

In the  waste  sector,  a distinction  needs  to be  made  between  specific  measures  addressing  new  and 
existing  landfills  and  general  measures  aimed  at  reducing  organic  wastes  in  landfills.  For  a  new 
anaerobic landfill,  action  should  be taken  at the  EU level to ensure that the  operating permit is  only 
given if other methane reduction options have been investigated and, where these are not feasible, that 
a  highly  efficient  system  is  put  into  place  to  recover  and  use  any  methane  produced.  For  existing 
landfills  EU  legislation  should  require  their  retrofitting  in  order  to  collect  and  to  use  the  methane 
wherever  possible. Where this is not  feasible  it should encourage the use of flaring.  Higher methane 
recovery as well as the use and further  development of appropriate technologies should be encouraged 
through  additional  economic  incentives,  both  at  the  national  and  EU  levels.  In  parallel,  general 
measures  to  reduce  the  amount  of  organic  wastes  in  all  landfills  such  as minimising  a  generation, 
separate collection, development of recycled products, composting etc.should be taken at EU, national, 
regional, local levels. 

In  the  energy  sector,  coal  production  and  consequently  methane  emissions  from  this  source  will 
continue  to  decline  in  the  future  and  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  justify  any  additional 
expenditures  to  implement  methane  recovery  techniques.  An  EU  initiative  should  only  encourage 
Member  State  to  generate programmes  promoting  the  application  of the best  available  technologies 
for those coal mines that will still be in operation beyond a certain time frame (10 years for instance). 
The task  is easier concerning  natural  gas emissions where  an EU minimum  leakages  standard  could 
be defined  in order to replace the less efficient  parts of the transmission and distribution networks for 
which  a  second  initiative,  taken  at  Member  State  level,  should  decrease  methane  emissions  by 
increasing  the pipelines networks control  frequency  and thus decrease natural  gas leaks. 

Mitigation of the greenhouse effect  and in particular mitigation of methane emissions are by  definition 
global  environmental  issues  and because  of  their  international  context  need  a Community  approach 
rather than individual  differentiated  actions implemented  by  Member  States. Nevertheless, it  cannot 
be  excluded  that  a  certain  number  of  initiatives  proposed  in  the  strategy  may,  because  of  the 
subsidiarity  principle, be better undertaken  at national, regional  and local levels. In any event, these 
initiatives will have to respond to the coordination efforts  at both international  and Community levels 
in order to meet future  global environmental  commitments. 

Methane reduction scenarios using similar strategies are also reported in this Communication, (CITEPA 
study), the results of which  are rather significant  despite some uncertainties.  The study comes to the 
conclusion that if similar measures were applied in the EU the resulting methane emission reductions 
could  amount to 30% and  41%  respectively  in 2005  and 2010 in relation  to their  1990 levels. 

The suggested  options  are illustrated  in the following  summary table. 

SUMMARY  OF EU POLICY  MEASURES TO BE  CONSIDERED 
FOR MITIGATING  METHANE  EMISSIONS 

AGRICULTURE 

*  Enteric fermentation 

-  promotion  of  research  and  incentives  (at  EU  and  national  level)  to  develop 
viable policies  and measures 

*  Animal  manure 

-  anaerobic  digesters  or  covered  lagoons  (preferably  with  energy  use,  if  not 
feasible  with  flaring) 
.  1st stage  : demonstration programmes  at EU, national, regional  and local level 
.  2nd  stage  :  obligation  at  EU  level  to  install  recovery  and  use  systems  for 
animal  farm  husbandry  units  above  a  certain  number  of  animals(number  to  be 
defined) 

WASTE 

*  General  measures 

- promotion  at EU, national, regional  and local  level of measures  such  as : 

. minimising  the generation of organic waste, including packaging 
. encouraging  separate collection  of organic wastes 
.  material  recovery  of  organic  waste  (through  operations  such  as 
composting)  and energy  recovery  operations.  Preference  should  be 
given,  where  environmentally  sound,  to  the  recovery  of  material 
over  energy  recovery  operations.  It will  nevertheless  be  necessary 
to  take  into  account  the  environmental,  economic  and  scientific 
effects  of  either  operation.  The  evaluation  of  these  effects  could 
lead,  in  certain  cases,  to  preference  being  given  to  energy 
recovery. 

- economic  incentives  at EU and national  level to promote recycled  products 

*  New  landfills 

- EU legislation requiring, in the absence of other methane reduction  alternatives, 
that new  anaerobic landfills  are equipped with methane recovery  and use systems 

*  Existing  landfills 

- EU legislation requiring the retrofitting  of existing landfills  with systems for the 
collection and use of methane wherever possible. Support and encourage methane 
recovery  processes  which  yield  energy  through  economic  incentives  at  the  EU 
and national  level. Where this is not possible encourage the use of  flaring 

ENERGY 

Coal 

-  EU  recommendation  to  Member  States  for  CH4  emissions  reduction  schemes 
promoting  best available recovery  techniques in coal mines 

*  Natural Gas 

setting-up  of  an EU minimum  leakages  standard 
increase control  frequency  of pipelines  at national  level 

ANNEX  TO THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

International and Community political context 

The  Intergovernmental  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  (FCCC),  ratified  by  the  EC  in 
December  1993,  contains  specific  commitments to take  actions to reduce greenhouse  gas  emissions 
and to report on the estimated effects  of those actions on projected  emissions levels, "with the aim of 
returning individually or jointly  to their  1990 levels these anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide 
and  other greenhouse  gases not controlled  by the Montreal  Protocol". This implies the  consideration 
of  greenhouse  gases,  such  as  carbon  dioxide,  methane,  nitrous  oxide  whose  concentrations  in  the 
atmosphere  are increasing  above their natural level.. 

Nevertheless,  current  international  and  Community  discussions  on  the  policy  response  to  climate 
change have so far focused  on carbon dioxide (C02) and halocarbons (CFCs).  To date, less attention 
has been paid to the  other greenhouse  gases, including methane  and nitrous oxide, partly  because of 
the gaps in quantitative knowledge  about their sources and sinks. Scientific knowledge has, however, 
considerably  increased  on  all  greenhouse  gases  and  uncertainties  about  climate  impacts  have 
constantly  been reduced. 

Community policy  development so far 

In  February  1993,  the  EU  through  its  Fifth  Action  Programme  for  Environment  "Towards 
Sustainability"  committed  itself  to  taking  measures  for  assuring  sustainable  development.  In  this 
perspective, the  EU recalled  that methane  (CH4) is  one of the main  agents  of the greenhouse  effect 
and  has  defined  in  its framework on  climate  change  (Chapter  5)  a series  of  actions  for  greenhouse 
gases  such  as  C02, CH4, N20,  CFCs... with the aim, in the particular  case of methane, of  possibly 
reducing its emissions. In parallel, through its Environment  and Climate research programme, the EU 
aims at improving knowledge  on the sources  and sinks of greenhouse gases. 

In  the  January  1996  progress  report  on  the  implementation  of  the  Fifth  Action  Programme  for 
Environment,  the  assessment  made  on  the  climate  change  issue  concluded  that  priority  action  is 
required at EU level to  "identify  impacts of greenhouse gases other  than C02", it also mentioned that 
"the Commission is not on schedule to put forward  an inventory of the problem and potential measures 
with reduction targets for methane  and nitrous oxide". 

In June  1993, a monitoring mechanism  for Community  C02  and other greenhouse gas emissions has 
been established  under the  Council  Decision  (93/389/EEC). Article 7.2  specifies  that for  greenhouse 
gases other than  C02,  "national  programmes  for  the  limitation  of these gases  should  be  established 
as policies with regard  to these developments". 

In the Environment Council conclusions of 15/16 December  1994, the Council "asked the Commission 
to  submit  as  soon  as possible  a strategy  to  reduce  greenhouse  gases  other  than  C02,  in  particular 
methane  and nitrous oxide. 

Moreover, the Council Ad Hoc Group on Climate, working on the elaboration of a Community  input 
to  the  negotiation  for  a  Protocol  process  under  the  Berlin  Mandate,  is  currently  discussing  a 
Community  position  in  three  key  areas,  agriculture,  waste  management  and  industry,  and  the 
possibility  of  inserting  policies  and  measures  to  limit  and/or  reduce  methane  emissions 
in  the 
Protocol. 

2. 

THE  ISSUE 

2.1. 

Methane 

Methane  (CH4) is a radiatively  and chemically  active trace greenhouse  gas. Being  radiatively  active, 
methane  traps  infrared  radiation  or heat  and  contributes  to  the  warming  of the  Earth.  It  is  currently 
second  only  to  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  in contributing  to potential  future  warming.  Being  chemically 
active  methane  enters  into  complex  chemical  reactions  in  the  atmosphere,  normally  the  presence  of 
CH4 is naturally removed by the radical hydroxyl (OH) whose concentration is however  continuously 
depleting,  that  increases  not  only  the  abundance  of  atmospheric  methane  but  also  atmospheric 
concentrations  of ozone  l  and stratospheric concentrations of water vapour, which are both greenhouse 
gases. 

2.2. 

Natural  Sources 

Variations  in  methane's  atmospheric  level  over  the  previous  150.000  years  are  largely  attributed  to 
changes  in  methane  emissions  from  natural  systems,  and  in  particular  wetlands.  This  suggests  that 
there is  a risk for  increased  methane  emissions  from  natural  sources as climate changes in the  future. 
The  emissions  from  several  of  the  natural  sources,  in  particular,  wetlands,  gas  hydrates,  and 
permafrost,  are  strongly  governed  by  environmental  variables  such  as temperature  and  precipitation. 
Therefore,  climate  change  induced  by  humans  could  actually  trigger the  release  of more  greenhouse 
gases from natural  systems  and  the magnitude  of  future  climate  change  could  increase  consequently. 

Because  of  the very  limited  action  that one  can undertake  in this field, this  paper  does  not  discuss 
further  the  natural  methane  sources  and  sinks  nor  explores  the  harmful  effects  that  human  activity 
could have on these. This paper will concentrate only on anthropogenic methane emissions since these 
are one  of the main  causes  inducing  climate  change. 

2.3. 

Atmospheric  concentrations  of  Methane 

Atmospheric  concentrations  of  methane  are  increasing.  These  increases  are  due  to  human-related 
activities that release methane to the atmosphere, partly  also because of increases in global population. 

In  1990,  the  methane  concentration  level  was  approximately  1.72  ppm2  -  nearly  double  the  level 
estimated  for  the beginning  of this  century.  A  summary  of  the  ice  core  data  and  direct  measurement 
data  showing  the  increase  in  atmospheric  methane  concentrations  are  provided  in  Figs  1, 2  and  3. 
Analysis  of infrared  solar  spectra has  shown that the  atmospheric  concentration  of methane  increased 
by  about  30 percent  over the  last 40 years. 

At  present,  the  current  atmospheric  amount  of  methane  is  approximately  4850  Mt3;  this  amount  is 
thought  to  be  increasing  by  about  30Mt per  year.  Atmospheric  methane  concentrations  are  expected 
to  continue  to  increase,  although  global  measurement  programs  indicate  that  the  rate  of  increase 
appears  to  have  slowed  in the  last  several  years.  The  current  annual  rate  of  increase  of  atmospheric 
methane  is  about  0.0115 ppm. 

l 

2 

Methane  is a major  concern  in the  formation of ozone  in the troposphere. 

lppm = lppmv = 1 part per million  in volume 
lppb = lppbv = 1 part per billion  in volume 
lppm = lOOOppb 

3 

1 Mt = 106t = 109kg 

2.4.  Methane and global  climate change 

Methane's  increasing  concentration  in the  atmosphere  has  important  implications  for  global  climate 
change. Methane is very  effective  at absorbing  infrared  radiation (IR) or heat given off by the earth's 
surface.  By absorbing IR and inhibiting its release into space, the presence of methane contributes to 
increased  atmospheric  and surface  temperatures, and thus to the  "greenhouse  effect". 

The power with  which  a greenhouse  gas contributes  to  earth global  warming  is normally  expressed 
by its  Global Warming  Potential  (GWP). The GWP reflects  how more powerful  a substance  is than 
the  standard  substance  which  is  C02  and that by  definition  has  a GWP  equal  to  one.  There  is no 
simple  way  of  calculating  the  GWP  compared  to  C02,  partly  because  substances  have  direct  and 
indirect  effects.  As  already  mentioned,  methane  indirectly  contributes  to  global  warming  by 
influencing  the amount of ozone in the troposphere  and stratosphere, the amount of hydroxyl (OH) in 
the  troposphere  and  the  amount  of  water  vapour  in  the  stratosphere.  Methane's  indirect  effect  on 
warming resulting from these chemical reactions could be comparable in magnitude to its direct effect, 
although  considerable uncertainty  remains4. 

The IPCC5 has recommended  using  a GWP of 62 which reflects  both direct and indirect effects  over 
a time  horizon  of  20 years, this  means that the  impact  on global warming  of  1 tonne  of  CH4  is  62 
times higher  than  the  impact  of  1 tonne  of  C02. If one considers  the  same  effects  over  a  100 years 
time  horizon,  the  GWP  will  be  about  25.  Over  the  same  period,  it  has  been  estimated  that 
approximately  18  percent  of  the  greenhouse  effect  is  due  to  increasing  atmospheric  methane 
concentrations.  The total  contribution  to radiative  forcing  of  all  greenhouse  gases  in  1990 is  shown 
in Fig 2. 

2.5 

Stabilization  and  Reduction  of global  Methane  emissions 

Since  atmospheric methane  has been  increasing  at a rate of  about  30 Mt per year,  stabilizing  global 
methane  concentrations  at  current  levels  would  require  reductions  in  methane  emissions  by 
represents  less  than  10  percent  of  current 
approximately  the  same  amount.  Such  a  reduction 
anthropogenic  emissions.  This  reduction  is  much  less  than  the  percentage  reduction  necessary  to 
stabilize the other major greenhouse gases: C02 requires approximately a 60 percent reduction; nitrous 
oxide  requires  a  70  to  80  percent  reduction;  and  chlorofluorocarbons  require  a  70  to  85  percent 
reduction. 

Because methane has a relatively  short atmospheric  lifetime  compared to the other major  greenhouse 
gases, reductions in methane emissions will help to ameliorate global warming relatively quickly (CH4 
has an average residence time of  12-17 years in the atmosphere, whereas for  C02  it is 50-200 years). 
Therefore, methane reduction strategies offer  an effective  means of slowing global warming in the near 
term.  On the  other  hand, because  of the relatively  high  increase  in yearly  concentration  of methane, 
a continuation  of present trends may have a long-term  impact on the global temperature which could 
be almost  as dramatic as that foreseen  for  continued  increases of C02  concentrations.  In  conclusion, 
reduction  of  CH4  emissions  is  not  only  an  attractive  option  in  the  short  term  but  also  a necessary 
commitment  for the long term. 

4 

Typical uncertainty  is + 35% relative to the C02 reference 

International  Panel on Climate Change 

2.6 

Elimination  of methane  emissions  : combustion  with/without  energy  recovery. 
Economic factors  connected to the adopted process. 

Methane combustion gives rise to a release of energy followed by emissions of C02  and water vapour. 
During  combustion  one tonne  of  CH4 is  converted  into  2.75  tonnes  of  C02, this  means  that  if  we 
compare  on  a equal  basis the  GWP values  (before  and  after  combustion), the pre-combustion  GWP 
value of 62 (for methane) ends-up as a post-combustion  GWP value of 2.75  (2.75 x GWP6 of C02). 
By  converting  CH4  into  C02  in  a combustion  process,  one  eliminates  95% of  the  greenhouse  gas 
effect  problem  since the C02  generated during the combustion will only represent 5% of the original 
methane  global  warming  potential.  To the  extent that  avoidance  of methane  emissions  can be  done 
through collection  of CH4 and subsequent combustion with energy utilization, a double bonus can be 
achieved.  Certainly, in this case, there will be no net greenhouse emissions at all because the resulting 
C02  from  the combustion  will  be counterbalanced  by  the  saving of  fuel  that would  otherwise  have 
been needed  to cover the energy  production. 

In conclusion,  the use of flares (simple combustion without energy recovery) should be recommended 
for  eliminating  methane  emissions  and  their  associated  harmful  atmospheric  impacts  but  energy 
recovery  systems  should  be preferred,  if they  are economically  justified. 

It should be noted, however, that out of the complete elimination of recovered methane's  contribution 
to global warming, 95% of the benefit  is linked to the combustion of CH4 into C02  and only the 5% 
is due to the  energy  saving resulting from utilising the recovered methane's  energy  content.  In other 
words, from a climate point of view, the importance of methane recovery lies in the elimination of the 
CH4 molecules much more than in the use of the energy released  during the  combustion. 

This can be illustrated  via the  following  example  : if one  assumed  that the proposed  1 OS/barrel  for 
the  C02/energy  tax reflects  the internalization  of the external cost of  C02  emissions, the  equivalent 
figure for  methane  should  be  in  the  order  of  1500$ per  tonne  of  CH4,  whereas  the  fuel  value  of 
methane for industry  is in the range of 240$-460$/tonne. Consequently, decisions on recovering CH4 
for instance from  landfills or animal manure (biogas) should be based on a much higher shadow value 
of  the  methane  recovered  than  its  value  as  a  fuel.  In  other  terms,  CH4  recovery  just  for  flaring 
(combustion  without  heat  recovery)  will  in  many  cases  make  sense  if  one  takes  into  account  the 
potential release of methane into the  atmosphere  if it had not been recovered  or  flared. 

2.7  Methane  emissions  in  an  EU  context 

An inventory of anthropogenic methane emissions sources for the year  1990 is given in Table 2. This 
inventory  is  a synthesis  of national  specific  inventories  established  per  Member  State of the EU and 
supplied to the European Environment Agency (EEA). They have been prepared under the CORINAIR 
90 data base programme and include the last updated final  and provisional inventories (January  1995). 
The results are extended to the new enlarged EU; data from  former West Germany and former German 
Democratic  Republic  are merged  into one set of data for  Germany. Table 3 summarizes the methane 
emissions  sources per main  sector  in the EU-15. 

The  anthropogenic  methane  emissions  in  the  EU  amount  to  approximately  23  Mt  per  year  which 
represent  about  6% of global  emissions estimated  at 385 Mt per year. 

C02  global  warming  potential  is  1 by  definition 

3. 

EU  METHANE SOURCES AND PRESENT  INVENTORIES 

Eleven  main  source  sectors  (including  natural  sources)  are covered  by  the  CORINAIR  90  summary 
given  in Table 2 which  shows the contribution  of each  sector to global EU emissions. The  following 
conclusions, see also Table  3, can be deduced  from  the anthropogenic  methane emissions. 

3.1. 

Agriculture 

Emissions  from  agriculture  represent  the  greatest  source  of methane emissions  in  the  EU.  They  are 
estimated  at  10.2  Mt  for  the  year  1990  and  account  for  44,7%  of  European  emissions.  These 
emissions  come mainly  from: 

enteric  fermentation  (digestion) of 
ruminant livestock  (cattle, sheep)  : 
livestock  manure  : 

30 % 
14.7 % 

3.2.  Waste 

Emissions from waste treatment and disposal represent the second source of methane emissions in the 
E.U.  They  are  estimated  at  7.3  Mt  for  the year  1990  and  account  for  32%  of  European  emissions. 
These emissions  come mainly from: 

- 

landfills  : 
waste water treatment  (sludge)  : 

30.8 % 
0.7 % 

If the  emissions from unmanaged  and unaccounted  open  dumps  are taken  into  consideration,  waste 
might become the first methane emitter in the EU. 

3.3. 

Energy 

Emissions from energy represent the third source of methane emissions in the EU. They are estimated 
to  5.3  Mt  for  the year  1990  and  account  for  23.3% of  European  emissions.  These  emissions  come 
mainly  from: 

coal mining, transport  and  storage  : 
gas production  and distribution  : 
combustion  : 
transport  : 

11.4 % 
8.8 % 
2 % 
0.8% 

4. 

OPTIONS  FOR  REDUCING  METHANE  EMISSIONS 
REPORTED  BY MEMBER  STATES AND THIRD COUNTRIES. 

.  SOME  MEASURES 

The unique characteristics of methane emissions, described in Chapter  1, demonstrate the importance 
of promoting  strategies to reduce the amount of methane discharged  into the  atmosphere.  On top of 
that, methane  is  a source of energy  as well  as a greenhouse gas and implementing  emissions  control 
options  could  lead  to  additional  economic  benefits,  see also  Chapter  5.  Furthermore,  advanced  and 
well-demonstrated  technologies  are today  commercially  available. 

Options to reduce methane  emissions  from  major  sources  (agriculture, waste treatment  and disposal, 
energy)  will  be  developed  further  in  the  following  pages.  A  summary  in  Table  4  of  the  annex 
illustrates the technical/economical  aspects and the effectiveness  of these options. 

In the  context of the  FCCC7, a compilation  and  a synthesis  of recent national  communications from 
Annex I Parties has been prepared.  This preliminary  review  shows the present trends in policies and 
measures used by the Parties to mitigate climate change. Some 25 communications were analyzed, 12 
of them coming from EU Member States. Only key considerations about this assessment are reported 
in this chapter and cover each sector of interest that is described below. In addition to these comments, 
some actions undertaken  by individual  Member  States are also reported. 

Anthropogenic  sources  of methane  emissions which represent  less than  1% of EU-emissions  are not 
considered  in this chapter (e.g. waste water treatment, rice cultivation). 

41 

AGRICULTURE 

4.1.1  Enteric  fermentation 

Methane  is produced  as part  of the normal  digestion  process  of ruminant  animals  (e.g cattle, sheep, 
goats) as they digest their feed in their forestomach, or rumen. Some of this methane which is exhaled 
or eructated by the animal is, on an purely energy basis, considered  as a feed conversion  inefficiency; 
feed energy converted to methane cannot be used by the animal for maintenance, growth or production 
of product. 

Other pseudo-ruminant  animals (such as pig and horses) and humans also produce methane by enteric 
fermentation, but the total emission is small compared to the emission of ruminants. Therefore, in this 
chapter only measures  for reducing methane emissions  from  cattle  and  sheep are treated. 

Three options for reducing methane emissions from ruminant  livestock  are presented here. 

-Livestock reduction 

A  very  effective  option  for  reducing  animal  methane  emissions  is  obviously  the  reduction  in  the 
animals  number.  However,  at  the  European  level,  the  actual  trend  for  the  following  years,  even  if 
highly uncertain, indicates a slight reduction in ruminant numbers. This reduction will also be  affected 
indirectly  by  the  application  of  agricultural  policy  measures  other  than  those  aiming  at  livestock 
reduction. 

Framework Convention on Climate Change 

The  EU  indeed  controls  agricultural  overproduction  by  imposing  charges  and  by  fixing  of  quotas. 
Existing  policies  have  already  reduced  animal  numbers  during  the  past  years.  The  milk-quota 
instrument proved  to be very  effective  in reducing  the milk  surplus  and dairy  cattle numbers. Agri-
environmental measures such as economic incentives promoting, where appropriate, the extensification 
of  animal farming contribute to lowering livestock density and may lead to livestock reduction. In the 
future,  the  evolution  of agricultural  policy  may  affect  livestock populations, for  example, the  efforts 
to reduce manure surpluses may lead to the reduction of the number of animals  but the  maintenance 
and  conservation  of  the  landscape  may  require  in  some  areas  the  maintenance  or  increase  of  the 
livestock  density rate. 

Moreover,  reducing  EU  methane  emissions  by  restricting  livestock  numbers  is  only  possible  if 
ruminants  are not raised  elsewhere  to  compensate  for  reduced  EU milk/meat  output.  In  fact,  at the 
global  level,  a  transfer  of  production  to  less  technologically  advanced  countries  may  even  have 
perverse  effects,  if the manure there  is treated  in a less environmentally  conscious way. A reduction 
of consumption  of products  from  ruminants might be therefore  an alternative to the global  reduction 
of the number  of animals. 

Today,  even  if  the  balance  of  policies  and  measures  shows  a  reduction  in  animal  numbers,  it  is 
difficult  on the  European  level  to  assess the  impacts  of these measures  in  2000  and beyond  and to 
see to what extent  and  for  which  animal types  the reduction  could  actually  take place. However, no 
drastic changes between  1990 and 2000 should be expected. 

-Increase of feed conversion  efficiency 

Some  measures  can  be  taken  to  improve  animal  efficiency  by  decreasing  energy  losses  through 
methanogenesis  e.g.  the  alkali/ammonia  treatment  of  low  digestibility  straws,  the  supplements  of 
molasses/urea  multinutrient  blocks,  the  defaunation  through  mineral/protein  supplements.  These 
nutrition  options  don't  have  much  potential  when  applied  to  European  livestock  as  most  animals 
already  receive  a  carefully  composed  diet  which  has  a  high  digestibility  and  contains  sufficient 
nutrients.  However,  some  options  might  be  applicable  like  an  increased  level  of  feed  intake,  the 
replacement  of  roughage  with  concentrates  and  a change in the composition  of concentrates. 

An increase  in level  of feed  intake  changes rumen VFA-content8  in such a way that  less  acetate  and 
more propionate is formed, with lower methane emissions as a consequence.  The production level of 
the animal will  generally  increase  as well. 

As  roughage  contains  a high  degree  of  structural  carbohydrates  (fibres),  replacement  of  part  of  the 
roughage  in  the  animal  diet  with  concentrates  will  generally  improve  propionate  generation  and 
decrease methane  production. 

If  the  composition  of  the  currently  added  concentrates  is  changed  towards  one  with  less  fibres,  a 
methane  reduction  is possible.  Alternatives  are starch  and  sugars.  By replacing  25  % of  structural 
carbohydrates  with non-structural  carbohydrates  a CH4 reduction  of almost 20 % is predicted. 

-Increase of animal productivity 

For completeness this  item, even if  questionable, is presented  as a third  potential  option. 

Methanogenic  bacteria  are  inhibited  by  ammonia  and  by  the  volatile  fatty  acid  (VFA) 
propionate.  By  sustaining  a  sufficient  level  of  ammonia  and  shifting  the  rumen  VFA-
composition towards more propionate and less acetate, methane production can be reduced. 

10 

By  adding  production  enhancing  agents  to  animal  feed,  or  by  injecting  animals  with  these  agents, 
animal productivity  (milk, beef)  can be improved, methane emissions per agricultural product  can be 
decreased.  Emissions reductions per unit of 5 % to 30 % have been demonstrated.  Currently  several 
antibiotics, ionophores  and halogenated  compounds  are being used  for production  stimulation,  some 
of which have  a direct effect  on methanogenesis  in the rumen  as well. 

Finally,  apart  from  adding  agents,  animal  production  can  be  also  improved  through  transgenetic 
manipulations  or biotechnology  reproduction  techniques. 

4.1.2  Livestock  manure 

If livestock manure is kept under  anaerobic  (absence of air) conditions  and with temperatures higher 
than about 15°C, methanogenic bacteria will produce methane. At this stage, a controlled  fermentation 
of manure  can  be  started.  Methane  emissions  from  anaerobic  digestion  (fermentation)  constitute  an 
energy  resource  that  can  be  then  recovered.  Manure  management  and  recovery  techniques  enable 
methane to be collected. This recovered methane (biogas) can be either flared (combusted) or used  for 
energy generation (heat and/or electricity) for on-farm purposes or for sale (see Chapter 5). As already 
mentioned  in  Chapter  2, the flaring process  decreases  by up to  95% the  harmful  atmospheric  effect 
of the recovered methane if this gas was actually emitted, whereas methane recovery  and use eliminate 
completely  this  harmful  effect  and  even  contribute  to  a  greater  greenhouse  effect  reduction  by 
decreasing  the  overall  balance  of  C02  emissions.  The  final  stabilized  products  produced  by  the 
anaerobic  digestion  can be  utilized  as  feed  and  aquaculture  supplements  in  fish  farming  or  as  crop 
fertilizers. 

If livestock manure is kept under aerobic (presence of air) conditions (by turning the manure regularly 
or  by  forced  ventilation),  aerobic  transformation  of  the  product  will  take  place  replacing  CH4 
emissions  by  C02  emissions.  That process will  lead to a stabilized  compost which then can be used 
as a crop  fertilizer.  Clearly  in this process, the energy  resource  and benefits  of the biogas  (CH4) are 
lost  but  its  main  advantage  stays  in  the  replacement  of  a powerful  greenhouse  gas  by  a  weak  one 
which leads to a drastic reduction, up to 95%, of the residual  emissions' GWP (see Chapter 2). 

Generally,  policy  measures  to  reduce  livestock  population  will  have  indirect  consequences  on  the 
livestock  manure  reduction  strategy  and  will  subsequently  greatly  influence  the  methane  emissions 
from this source. 

Two options using anaerobic recovery techniques to reduce methane emissions from  livestock manure 
are presented here. 

-Covered lagoons 

Manure  management  in  lagoons  is  associated  with  relatively  large-scale  intensive  farm  operations. 
Manure solids are washed out of the livestock housing facilities  with large quantities of water, and the 
resulting slurry flows into primary lagoons.  Due to anaerobic conditions the manure is converted into 
significant methane emissions, provided temperatures remain high enough.  By placing an impermeable 
floating cover  over the  lagoon  and  applying  negative pressure, methane can be recovered  . Methane 
recovery  efficiencies  up to  80 % can be achieved. 

-Digesters 

Digesters are special reactors designed to enhance the anaerobic decomposition of organic material and 
inside  the  reactor  for  recovery.  As  a  rough 
thus  maximize  methane  emissions  production 

11 

approximation,  anaerobic  digester  will  reduce  the  potential  for  methane  emissions  by  two  third  or 
more,  leaving  the  remaining  one  third  of  the  compounds  in  the  effluent.  Methane  may  still  be 
generated  from  the  effluents.  Therefore,  efficient  digesters  with  gas  recovery  systems  may  reduce 
methane emissions by up to 70 %, with larger reductions  at longer. 

Small  scale  digesters  are  relatively  simple  to  build  and  operate.  As  such,  they  are  an  appropriate 
strategy  for  small  isolated  farms  and  for  regions  with  technical,  capital,  and  material  resources 
constraints.  The  recovery  of  high  quality  fertilizer  from  digesters  may  be  an  even  more  important 
benefit than the energy  supplied  from  biogas. 

Large-scale  digesters, often  more  technologically  advanced  digesters,  are usually  heated  and require 
greater capital investment per unit. Advanced designs can greatly improve the performance of livestock 
manure digesters  and can operate in colder regions. 

4.1.3.  Description  of some measures  reported  by Member States and Third  Countries. 

FCCC  : Approximately  10% of  all  policies  and  measures  reported  on  CH4  were  directed  towards 
agriculture.  Only nine  Parties have provided real measures to reduce  CH4 from enteric  fermentation 
or  livestock  manure.  Mention  is  rather  made  of  policy  instruments  such  as  information/education 
programmes aimed at the improvement of  livestock productivity  and manure management.  However, 
indirect measures have been reported, like the reduction of livestock population, which clearly  affects 
methane  emissions from enteric  fermentation  and livestock manure. 

Netherlands  : One of the main instruments put in place in the Netherlands is a manure policy  which 
will  not  allow  more  phosphate  being  put  on  the  land  than  is  taken  up  by  the  crop.  This  policy 
measure  should result in a decrease of cattle and  manure  and reduce indirectly  CH4 emissions from 
crops. 

Germany  : Germany  has  enforced  the Animal  Husbandry  Act which  should  lead  to  a reduction  of 
methane  emissions through the improvement of animal digestive  efficiency. 

France : Considering that levels and conditions of emissions in the agriculture sector are  insufficiently 
known, France has launched  a research programme, in particular on enteric fermentation  and manure 
management. 

4.2  WASTE TREATMENT  AND DISPOSAL 

4.2.1  Landfills 

Methane is generated  in the  sub-layers  of landfills  as a direct result of the natural  decomposition  of 
organic solid waste in  anaerobic condition. The organic component of landfilled waste is broken down 
by methanogenic bacteria in a complex biological process which produce methane, carbon dioxide and 
other gases, in  a similar way to the storage or manure  digestion. 

Several options can reduce methane emissions from landfills, some of them by up to 90 percent. These 
available options  are briefly  described  below. 

-Anaerobic (no air) landfill management  : methane recovery and utilization 

When  the  landfill  is  capped  by  an impermeable  layer,  anaerobic  conditions  are enhanced  inside  the 
landfill  and  methane  gas  generation  is  accelerated.  Emissions  of methane  to  the  atmosphere  can  be 

12 

prevented  by removing this generated waste  gas. When recovery wells are installed inside the  landfill 
and by  applying  a vacuum  pressure  the methane  gas  can be collected.  Recovery  efficiencies  of 50 to 
80%  are  achievable, with  methane  concentrations  varying  from  30 to 70%. 

There  are two  options  for  the medium  quality  gas typically  recovered,  energy  generation  or flaring. 

First, the recovered  landfill  gas can be used  to generate energy, electricity  and/or heat.  Electricity  can 
be  generated  on-site  or  at  a nearby  power  plant,  using  internal  combustion  engines  or  gas  turbines. 
Landfill  gas can be also used directly  as a fuel  source without conversion to electricity, it can be sold 
with  little  or  no  processing  as  a medium  quality  gas  for  local  industrial,  residential  or  commercial 
heating  and energy needs or be processed  into high quality gas and sold to natural gas supply systems. 
Second,  landfill  gas  can  be  flared  (combusted)  where  there  is  insufficient  gas  to justify  an  energy 
project  or  as  an initial  step before  implementing  utilization  options. 

These  options  would  eliminate  either  completely  (up to  100%) or almost completely  (up to  95%) the 
harmful  atmospheric  effects  of methane  gas emitted  from  landfills. 

-Aerobic  (with air)  landfill  management 

In  an  aerobic  landfill  the  ratio  of  CH4  to  C02  production  is  shifted  towards  C02  production,  as  a 
consequence  of  the  improved  oxidation  in  the  landfill.  Methanogenic  bacteria  are  prevented  from 
functioning  and  consequently  aerobic  bacteria  are  able  to  convert  organic  waste  into  carbon  dioxide 
and water.  Instead  of being  fermentated,  the  organic  waste  is  composted. 

In  order  to  sustain  aerobic  conditions  in  a  landfill,  specific  designs  are  necessary,  as  described 
hereafter. 

In  semi-aerobic  landfilling  air  can  diffuse  through  the  landfill  as it  is  supplied  through  the  leachate 
collection  pipes  located  at the  bottom  of the  landfill.  Pipe  diameters  should  be  large  enough  to  both 
collect  leachate  from  and  supply  air  to  the  landfill.  Compared  to  anaerobic  landfills  a  methane 
production  reduction  of  50% can be  achieved. 

The re-circulatory  semi-aerobic landfill  system is an improved version of the semi-aerobic system. The 
rate  of  decomposition  and  purification  of  leachate  is  enhanced,  by  recirculating  the  leachate  to  the 
landfill  so  as  to  encourage  aerobic  bacterial  growth  as  more  oxygen  and  nutrients  are  available. 
Compared  to  anaerobic  landfills  a methane production  reduction  of  80% can be  achieved. 

The  aerobic  landfill  system  uses  an  air blower to  force  air into the  landfill  layers. The  air is  pumped 
into  landfill  through  separate  pipes  down  in  the  landfill.  With  this  system,  methane  production 
reductions  of  90% are  feasible. 

-Reduced  landfilling  of organic waste 

The reduced  landfilling  of organic waste can be achieved  firstly  by minimising the amount of organic 
waste  which  is  generated.  Where  this  is  not  possible,  organic  wastes  should  be  made  subject  to 
recovery  operations  such  as, for  example,  composting. 

In composting facilities  organic waste is converted under aerobic conditions into carbon dioxide, water 
and  mainly  compost,  which  can  be  applied  as  a  soil  conditioner.  In  extensive  systems  the  organic 
waste  is just regularly  turned;  in  intensive  systems  forced  ventilation  is  applied. 

13 

It should be noted that several emerging recovery technologies  are being developed  which may reduce 
methane  emissions  from  organic  waste  management,  like  the  controlled  anaerobic  digestion  (i.e. 
biogasification)  to produce  methane  or the pyrolysis  (i.e. thermal  conversion)  to produce  oil  or gas. 

Some  organic  waste  such  as  paper  could  be  made  subject  to  its  own  recycling  process  enabling  its 
reintroduction  in  the  paper  production  process.  Council  Directive  94/62/EC  on  packaging  and 
packaging waste already lays down criteria for the reduction and recycling of packaging and packaging 
wastes. 

The  establishment  of  efficient  recovery  operations  is  often  dependent  on  the  availability  of 
appropriately  sorted  wastes  to  feed  the  relevant  recovery  process.  The  separate  collection  of  organic 
wastes  will  therefore  need  to be  considered. 

Organic  waste  can  also  be  made  subject  to  energy  recovery  operations.  Although  preference  should 
usually be given to material recovery operations such as composting, in certain cases the effect  of this 
preference  on  the  environment  and  the  economy  as  well  as  technological  constraints  may  weigh  in 
favour  of the  energy  recovery  option. 

4.2.2  Description  of  some  measures  reported  by  Member  States  and Third  Countries. 

FCCC  : Most  countries reported  on measures  to promote  recycling  and minimize  waste.  These were 
being  implemented  through  regulations, policy  guidelines  and  technical  standards.  Several  countries 
reported  on guidelines  to  change  business practices  and  lifestyles,  promotion  of recycling  and  waste 
minimization,  technical  standards  to  regulate  packaging  and  municipal  waste,  taxes  (landfill  levies, 
tariffs  on  wastes)  as  policy  tools  to  reduce  waste  volumes  and  voluntary  agreements  to  stimulate 
recycling  in households,  small  business  and  industry. 

Several  Parties  reported  on  policies  and  measures  to  improve  sewage  treatment  and  reduce  methane 
emissions from landfills, focusing on the curtailment of landfills  and technical standards to reduce their 
CH4 emissions. In some cases, financial  incentives have been introduced to promote the  development 
of  sewage  treatment  facilities  and  support projects  that use biogas. 

Some  countries  have  adopted  voluntary  agreements  to  promote  recovery  and  use  of  energy  from 
wastes. 

United  Kingdom  : UK  policies  aim to reduce  the  amount  of methane  from  landfills  by  : 
-  adopting  policies  which promote  waste minimisation  and recycling, including  energy  recovery. 
- introducing  further  measures to promote the use of methane  from  landfills  as  an energy  source  and 

the  flaring  of methane  ( conversion  of  CH4 in  C02) 

The  government  is  also  promoting  energy  recovery  from  waste  through  orders  requiring  public 
electricity  supply  companies in England  and Wales to obtain more electricity  from  renewable  sources. 
One  economic  instrument  under  consideration  is  introducing  a  levy  on  landfill.  This  could  have  a 
significant  impact  on the  amount  of waste  going to  landfill. 

Austria  :  In  order  to  substitute  fossil  fuels  with  renewables  energies  and  in  particular  CH4  from 
landfills,  Austria  has  established  regulations  concerning the  supply  of electricity  into the  public  grid 
through  an ordinance  on  landfills. 

Finland  : The waste management development programme according to the Finnish government calls 
for  a rigorous reduction  in the number  of landfills.  One aim is to have just  200 landfills  by  2000. By 

14 

reducing  their  number,  more  effort  and  resources  could  be  dedicated  to  the  management  and  the 
supervision  of  the  existing  landfills  in  order  to  reduce  their  harmful  environmental  effects.  Another 
aim  is to reduce  the volume  of waste  dumped  in landfills  by  increasing  waste recovery  and reuse. 

France  :  Since  July  1992, France  has  a regulation  that  should  modify  completely  the present  waste 
management strategy focusing  mainly on waste recycling and valorisation. Accordingly, by 2002 only 
final wastes  will be disposed  and newly  installed  landfills  dealing with organic wastes  should recover 
and  incinerate  the methane  emissions. 

4.3 

ENERGY 

4.3.1  Extraction  and  distribution  of  fossil  fuels 

4.3.1.1  Coal 

Methane  is  produced  during  coalification  (the  process  of coal  formation)  and  remains  trapped  under 
pressure in the coal seam and surrounding rock  strata.  This trapped methane is released when the coal 
seam  is fractured  and will  eventually  be  emitted  into the  atmosphere  or will  seep back into the  mine 
workings  as the  coal  is  mined. 

Because  methane  is  highly  explosive,  mine  air  containing  methane  is  removed  from  the  mine 
workings,  and  is  generally  vented  directly  into  the  atmosphere.  The  same  kind  of  techniques  can  be 
adapted  to  recover methane.  One of the most  important  characteristics  of mined  coal  is  its  coal  rank 
which  determines  the  gas content  per unit  of mass  (e.g  lignite  versus  anthracite). 

Reducing CH4 emissions from coal mining requires two types of technologies, recovering technologies 
and  utilization  technologies  (flaring  of recovered  gas is  also possible). 

Three recovery  techniques  and their  associated  utilization options are briefly  presented  here.The most 
significant  methane  emissions  and  gas  use  optimizations  are  likely  to  occur  by  employing  a 
combination  of these recovery  strategies. 

-Enhanced  gob  recovery 

The highly fractured area of coal  and rock that is created by the caving of the mine roof after  the coal 
is  removed  is  a  gob  area,  it  can  release  significant  quantities  of  methane  into  the  mine  which 
afterwards  is evacuated  through  the  air ventilation  system.  If this gas is recovered  before  entering the 
mine, recovery  becomes  more  efficient  and ventilation  requirements  can be  reduced. 

The main recovery techniques include the vertical gob wells drilled from the surface  and the boreholes 
drilled  from  in-mine  workings  into  the  gob  areas.  Methane  recovery  efficiencies  can range  from  20 
to 50%. 

The  main  option  for  utilizing  the  recovered  medium  quality  gas  is  on-site  power  generation  with 
either  gas  turbines  or  internal  combustion  engines.  Power  is  used  directly  on-site  or  sold  to  nearby 
electricity  users  or to  supply  companies. 

-Pre-mining  de gasification 

Recovering  the methane before  the  coal is mined  through  pre-mining  degasification  can be  attractive 
because methane  is removed before  the air from  the mine workings can mix with it. The two primary 

15 

recovery  technologies  are in-mine horizontal  boreholes and.vertical  wells, drilled  from  the surface  in 
advance of mining. 

Due to its high calorific  value, the recovered  gas can be used in many  applications such as electricity 
generation, gas distribution  systems  and industrial  heating.  It consistently  contains 95 % of methane 
and  can  be  sold  in  high  quality  pipeline  systems.  Methane  recovery  efficiencies  up to  70% can  be 
achieved. 

-Ventilation air utilization 

Most  mine  gas  is  released  to  the  atmosphere  through  the  ventilation  air  system  which  is  used  in 
underground  coal mines for safety  reasons.The methane content of the vented air must be below  5 % 
for  safety  reasons  (frequently  0.5 %). 

In  spite  of  its low  concentration,  it  appears  that there  may be opportunities  to use ventilation  air  as 
combustion air in turbines or boilers. However, the technical and economic feasibility has not yet been 
demonstrated.  Methane recovery  efficiencies  can range from  10 to 90%. 

4.3.1.2  Natural  gas 

Methane  is  the  primary  constituent  of  natural  gas,  and  significant  quantities  can  be  emitted  to  the 
atmosphere  from  components  and  operations  throughout  a  country's  natural  gas  system.  Emissions 
sources  generally  include  gas  and  oil  wells,  processing  and  storage  facilities  and  transmission  and 
distribution  systems.  Oil wells  are also natural  gas emissions  sources, even if small. Usually  the oil 
pumped  at the well-station  is  a two-phase  mixture  (liquid  and gas) releasing  natural  gas that can be 
recovered.  Emissions  primarily  result  from  the  normal  operations  of  many  natural  gas  system 
components,  such  as  venting  and  incomplete  flaring  (combustion)  at oil  and  gas  wells,  compressor 
station  operations,  gas  processing  facilities,  gas-operated  control  devices  and  unintentional  leaks 
(fugitive  emissions). 

Two emissions reduction  strategies  are briefly  discussed here. 

-Reduced venting and effective flaring during production 

In  oil production,  the  gas must  be  separated  from  the oil  and  the recovered  gas  is  normally  used  if 
there is a demand  for  natural  gas  as an energy  source. Where demand for gas does not exist, the gas 
is  directly  released  (venting),  burned  off  (flaring),  or  reinjected  into  the  field  to  help  maintain 
formation  pressure  or to  "dispose" of the unwanted  gases generated  during  oil production.  Although 
venting  and  flaring  of  gases  are  strictly  controlled  and  reinjecting  of  gas  is  increasingly  used, 
significant  methane  emissions  reduction  from  production  facilities  can  still  be  achieved  through 
increased  effectiveness  of flaring  and reinjecting  operations. 

Emissions from gas production arise during exploration, extraction losses and system upsets. Reducing 
emissions  from  these  sources  involves  marginal  improvements  in  existing  practices  that  will  also 
reduce  safety  hazards  from  methane  leaks  and  reduce  wastage.  In  this  way  methane  recovery 
efficiencies  up to  50% can be  achieved. 

-Improved leak detection and pipeline  repair 

Gas  pipelines  are  subject  to  corrosion  and  subsequently  develop  chronic  leaks.  Preventing  and 
repairing  these  leaks  will  reduce  fugitive  emissions  but  also  achieve  at the  same time  the  following 

16 

triple bonus : increased safety of installations, reduced  economic cost of gas losses and finally reduced 
environmental  damages.  These  results  can  be  achieved  through  a  number  of  actions  including 
improved leak detection and pipeline inspection, preventative maintenance and replacement programs, 
and  the  increased  use  of  corrosion  resistant  materials  (e.g.,  coated  steels,  PVC,  PE).  In  this  way 
methane recovery  efficiencies  up to  80% can be  achieved. 

4.3.2  Combustion 

Methane  emissions  from  stationary  and mobile  fossil  fuel  combustion  sources  (see  Table  2)  can be 
reduced by alterihg combustion processes to reduce the amount of gases produced or by using exhaust 
control  technologies,  such  as  catalytic  converters,  to  reduce  emissions  of  some  gases  after  the 
combustion process has taken place. 

The  feasibility  of  some  of  these  options  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
potential for reducing methane emissions has not been well quantified.  CH4 emissions from fossil  fuel 
combustion  can be considered  as a minor  source category  in the methane inventory  (less than  3  %). 

4.3.3  Description  of some measures  reported  bv Member  States  and  Third  Countries. 

FCCC  : Policies to reduce fugitive  fuel  emissions associated with fossil  fuel  production  such as coal 
mining  and natural  gas  were  reported.  Such policies  took  the  form  of  low-emission  guidelines  and 
information  programmes  to encourage voluntary  action. 

Netherlands  : Offshore  fields  are responsible  for  80% of the methane  emissions in the Netherlands. 
Measures are being discussed by government and gas producing companies, in particular regarding the 
increased  use of gas on offshore  platforms. 

France  : Mainly  for  safety  considerations,  "GDF"9 replaced  from  1990 to  1993 6000 km  of the  old 
gas network.  The  intention  was  to  devote  one billion francs per  year  from  1993 to  2000 to  replace 
1000 km/year of the old existing network. Indirect effects  on methane emissions are expected  as well 
from this  measure.  France  claims that losses might be reduced  by  27kt/year  for  the period  1990 to 
2000. 

United  Kingdom  : The UK government has  adopted  a working  assumption that methane  emissions 
from coal  mining,  0.8Mt  in  1990, could  fall  by  about  a half  by  2000.  It is  encouraging  utilities  to 
increase the proportion of methane taken from mines and will take steps to require utilities to publish 
periodic  statements  of  their  approach  to  limiting  methane  emissions.  UK  authorities  recently 
commissioned  a study to elaborate the technical potential, cost and effectiveness  of possible measures 
to limit methane  emissions  from  UK deep mined  coal production. 

9 

Gaz  de  F r a n ce 

17 

5. 

EU  POLICY  MEASURES TO  BE  CONSIDERED 

The  aim  of this  chapter  is to introduce  and discuss  the best policy  options  for  controlling  methane 
emissions from each  source  (agriculture, waste, energy). These  options are based  on  some  existing 
policies or studies  about cost-effective  measures to reduce methane emissions.  However, the lack of 
literature  on cost-effectiveness  analysis has to be recognized.  The non-availability  of  quantified  data 
on  this  matter,  in  particular  those  referring  to  least-cost  measures  for  society  may  lead  to  some 
concerns  on  a proposed  methane  strategy  is  well-founded.  Additional  work  and  studies  at  EU and 
Member  State  levels  would  in  fact  be  welcome.  In  this  context,  the  work  performed  by  ECOFYS 
("Cost-effectiveness  of  emission  reducing  measures  for  methane  in  the  Netherlands")  should  be 
highlighted. An illustration  of the results obtained  is given in Fig. 5. 

5.1 

AGRICULTURE 

When  addressing  the policy  measures  to be  considered  in this  sector, in particular  those  concerning 
the reduction  of methane  emissions  from  livestock  farming,  attention  should  be paid  to the need  for 
a consistent  approach  to  all the  environmental  issues  linked  to this  sector  and the relevant  (existing 
or proposed) legislation. 

5.1.1  Enteric  fermentation 

- livestock reduction 

More  accurate  data  on  methane  emissions  induced  by  current  multi-sectorial  measures  in  the 
agricultural field are indispensable to identify  clearly the potential and the need for livestock reduction 
in  order  to  influence  future  policy  formulation  in  this  field.  Consequently,  in  the  short  term,  the 
implementation  of a livestock  reduction measure  does not seem  to be an appropriate  option. 

- increase of feed conversion  efficiency 

These options are available but the costs and to what extent these options can be implemented  in the 
EU are unknown, currently  no reliable data are available on methane reductions  and their  associated 
costs. An essential measure that could be considered is the  reinforcement  of present knowledge at EU 
to  identify  more 
and  national  level  by  promoting  research  or  launching  a new  research  campaign 
precisely  methane  emissions resulting from this option. 

-  increase of animal productivity 

In some EU countries  like the Netherlands, Denmark  and  Germany, production  enhancing  agents  are 
currently banned  for dairy cattle. In addition to this there is a strong resistance against the further  use 
in livestock  of production  enhancing  agents. This will  influence  the eventual implementation  of  such 
measure in the future.  Most of the enhancing agents and the genetic techniques are still the subject of 
research  and are not expected  to be exploited  before  2000. 

These options  are not easy  to express  in terms of cost-effectiveness,  except  for  the enhancing  agents 
whose costs  are relatively  small  compared to the  saving  achieved per animal. 

As a consequence, more research at EU and national level is needed on enteric fermentation.  Therefore 
the mentioned  options will  not be considered  as presently  viable. 

It should be noted that promoting this type of technological  incentive in the EU would lead to  fewer 
animals  but  it  might  increase  in  particular  the  "intensive"  character  of  animal  husbandry,  therefore 
disconnecting  cattle  keeping  from  land  use.  There  are  several  implications  of  such  a policy  on  the 
environment: 

1)  a  bigger  concentration  of  animal  waste  (manure)  could  produce  through  excessive 
spreading  on  land  to  harmful  effects  on  soils  and  waters  and  there  would  be  a risk of 
conflict  with the EU Nitrate  Directive  if the spreading threshold  value is overridden. 

2) 

less  grass  and  less  roughage  could  also  mean  that  landscape  and  natural  features  are 
negatively  affected.  Managed  and maintained natural spaces may progressively  disappear 
and  lead  to  abandoned  natural  spaces  (problems  like  erosion,  biotopes,  area  fires  may 
arise) 

3) 

the creation of new efficient  cow species ("turbo cows") may influence their biodiversity. 

In response to this, the EU in the framework  of the Agri-Environment regulation is financing  (through 
farmers  premiums  of  the  EAGGF)  promotion  actions  aimed  at  safeguarding  the  "less  productive" 
animals  and relocating  these  in their original  areas  and climates. 

5.1.2  Livestock  manure 

The  successful  development  of  manure-to-energy  facilities  depends  on  several  important  regional 
factors including, the ambient temperature and climate; the economic, technical and material resources; 
the local regulatory requirements and the specific  benefits of developing an energy resource and a high 
quality  fertilizer. 

From the cost-effectiveness  point of view, the most promising technology  seems to be the installation 
of small  and medium-scale power units generating heat or/and electricity that  are, simple to build, to 
operate  and  to  maintain  . The  energy  use  for  on-farm  (or neighbouring-farm)  purposes  can  also  be 
easily  implemented.  Their  investment  cost  is  relatively  small  and  the  double  benefits  (fertilizer  and 
energy) may be quite high. However the future  acceptance and development of these technologies still 
require the demonstration of their usefulness. This is why in a first stage, accompanying measures such 
as demonstration programmes, promotion campaigns, financial  incentives and local feasibility  studies 
should  be defined  at EU, national, regional  and local  level. In a second  stage, the technology  should 
be  introduced  through  an  EU  obligation  legislation  for  animal  farm  husbandry  larger  than  a certain 
number  of  animals(number  to be  defined).  At this  stage, however, this  obligation  would  have to  be 
integrated  with existing  agricultural  and environmental policies  such  as the Nitrate Directive  and the 
extensive modes of ruminant  farming. 

Larger-scale  power  units generating  gas or/and  electricity  mainly  for  sale  are not recognized  as cost 
effective  tools.  Farms in the EU are in the main relatively dispersed, important transport means would 
have to be developed, first to collect the intensive manure products  (mainly  sludges and liquids) that 
have to be processed  and  secondly,  after  digestion, to recover the large  amount of stabilized  effluent 
that has to be either dispersed  on lands and crops  as fertilisers  or used  for  other  applications. 

The policy measures to be considered  should therefore  be organized  in two stages : 

*  Stage  1 : 

elaboration  of  demonstration  programmes  with  public  subsidies  in  order  to 
illustrate  the  reliability  of  such  equipment.  Covered  lagoons  or  anaerobic 
digesters must gain the  acceptance  of animal  farmers  by demonstrating  their 

economic viability  and their technical reliability. 

*  Stage 2: 

EU obligation to introduce such technology for animal farm husbandry larger 
than a certain number of animals.( number to be  defined) 

5.2  WASTE  TREATMENT AND  DISPOSAL 

Community action in this field may be best split into three areas : general measures aimed at reducing 
the  amount of organic waste which  is landfilled,  new landfills  and existing  landfills. 

General  measures 

A promising  area for methane reduction is in reducing the amount of organic waste which goes into 
landfills.  This  cost-effective  technique  must  be  considered  as  a  part  of  a  global  scheme  of  waste 
elimination,  which  gives  priority  to  waste  prevention.  However,  where  waste  arises,  improved 
processing  of the  organic  fraction  should  be encouraged.  The  facilitation  of increased  recovery  may 
require additional measures such as the setting up of appropriate composting standards and criteria as 
well  as encouraging  the  separate  collection  of  organic  wastes  to  improve  the  supply  of  appropriate 
inputs into the various recovery processes. Composting in particular has the advantage of being a cost-
effective  measure which requires  small  investments, has low operating costs  and can yield  relatively 
high  revenues  if  the  end-product  is  of  sufficient  quality  to  be  sold  as  a soil  conditioner.  Although 
preference  should usually be given to material recovery unless there are environmental, economic and 
technological  arguments to the contrary, energy  recovery from organic waste may  also be an option. 

Community  measures  could  help  to  implement  this  process  with  the  collaboration  of  regions  or 
municipalities through focused information programmes, particularly where organic waste minimisation 
projects  and collection  schemes are concerned. 

Efforts  should be made at EU level, as a first priority, to prevent the production  of packaging  wastes 
and in addition to reuse, recycle and otherwise recover packaging wastes. Further, the use of recycled 
materials in the packaging itself should be encouraged. Problems of price competitiveness of recycled 
products  could be overcome by the introduction  of economic incentives to promote their use. 

If the policy measures outlined above were to be implemented it would result in a substantial reduction 
in the organic wastes to be landfilled  in the  future. 

New  landfills 

If  other  methane  reduction  options  have  been  investigated  and  where  these  are  not  feasible, 
technologies  to  recover  and  to  use  the  methane  emitted  should  be  installed  in  new  landfills.  With 
regard to this, upcoming Community legislation will propose that permits for new landfills will depend 
on systems for the recovery and processing of any methane produced being in place before the  landfill 
is  opened  for  business.  In particular  the  legislation  will  require  appropriate  measures  to  be taken  to 
control the  accumulation  and migration  of landfill  gases which will have to be collected, treated and 
used in a manner which "minimises damage to or deterioration of the environment and risk to human 
health"  according to strict standards. 

20 

Existing  landfills 

The policies referred  to above will have relatively  little impact on already dumped wastes which are 
the main CH4 emissions contributors. Therefore,  specific  actions must be developed in this direction. 
Account  must  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  existing  landfills  were  not  designed  to  be  methane 
production plants hence making their retrofitting  for  this purpose  difficult. 

However, technologies do exist and are already in use in a limited number of sites. Measures requiring 
the application of these technologies to anaerobic landfills  should be promoted. EU legislation should 
require  the  retrofitting  of  existing  landfills  with  systems  for  the  collection  and  use  of  methane 
wherever possible.  The recovered  gas could be either sold, used  on site, converted  into electricity  or 
if none  of these  options  are  feasible,  it  should  be flared. An upcoming  Community  legislation  will 
require plans to be produced  for  existing landfill  sites which include an assessment  of these options. 
In the  future  there may  also be  a need  for  economic  incentives, both  at the  national  and  EU levels, 
to  encourage  higher  methane  recovery  as  well  as  the  use  and  further  development  of  appropriate 
technologies.  EU  funds  will  need  to  be  made  available  for  research  to  find  ways  of  improving 
retrofitting  techniques. 

Methane recovery  systems  for  anaerobic landfills  in operation  today  are faced  with certain  problems 
when  it  comes  to  methane  utilization  due  to  the  variability  of  its  production  (quality, pressure  and 
flow) and  the  fact  that  it  is  not  easy  to  introduce  these  techniques  into  a gas  distribution  network. 
Therefore, the  gas recovered  is generally  used  on site or flared,  which eliminates  at least 95% of the 
greenhouse  effect  problem  caused  by  emitted  methane  gas  (see  chapter  2). Despite  the  considerable 
associated  investment  and  operational  costs  involved  in  the  recovery  and  use  of  this  gas, the  large 
reduction potential with regard to the greenhouse effect  still makes these measures cost-effective  (see 
chapter 2.6). 

5.3 

ENERGY 

5.3.1  Extraction  and  distribution  of fossil  fuels 

5.3.1.1  Coal 

The  recovery  methods  largely  determine  the  quality  and  quantity  of  gas  recovered,  which  in  turn 
determine  the  possible  utilization  options.  Developing  uses  for  recovered  methane  is  required  if 
emission reductions are to be achieved. The sale and/or use of methane can offset the costs of recovery 
in  certain  cases.  In  addition  to  the  reduction  of  methane  emissions  into  the  atmosphere,  improving 
methane recovery  techniques can result in safer, more productive mines with lower ventilation costs. 

EU coal  production  will  decrease  between  1990 and  2005/2010  leading  to  a fall  in  CH4  emissions. 
Moreover,  existing policies  in countries which  are important  coal producers  would  allow their  CH4 
emissions to be reduced  by 40% in 2010 compared  to the  1990 level. 

Technologies for recovering CH4 are already technically available, additional emission reduction could 
be achieved by the generalization  of CH4 recovery techniques. Therefore, the state of the art working 
with  the best  available technologies  should be defined  and  applied  as soon  as possible. 

However,  their  application  to  EU  coal  mines  is  dependent  on  the  specific  nature  of  the  mines  in 
concerned  Member  States. EU coal  production  will  decline  in the  coming years  and coal mines will 
h»vc to CIONC prntficwiivclv  I» p,i*iK*nil.  Itict WHII rarlnr ivpiwnls  a IÏIWIIU hil himlt'it  lor (how* Member 
States  that  subsidize  coal  mining  industry  and  so  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  justify  any 

21 

additional expenditures needed to implement  CH4 recovery techniques. 

Consequently, an EU initiative should not go beyond encouraging those Member  States concerned to 
establish  CH4  emission reduction programmes  or  schemes by promoting  the  application  of the  best 
available  recovery  techniques  for  those  coal  mines  that  will  still  be  in  operation  beyond  a  certain 
timeframe (10 years  for  instance). Another initiative  that might be envisaged  is the reinforcement  of 
the financial instrument emerging from the budget line of the European Community for Steel and Coal 
(ECSC)  one  of  whose  objectives  is  to  fund  research  projects  promoting  the  best  available  methane 
emission reduction  technologies. 

5.3.1.2  Natural  gas 

Implementation  of  existing  techniques  to  reduce  leakages  requires  financing  and  proper  incentives. 
Therefore,  a first measure could be the setting-up of an EU minimum leakages standard aiming at the 
replacement  of  the  less  efficient  parts  of  the  transmission  and  distribution  networks  by  appropriate 
substitution  materials.  This  would  be  implemented  in  each  Member  State  concerned  according  to  a 
specific time schedule. One minimum leakages standard proposal could be 350m3/km/year. France and 
in particular GDF (Gaz De France) estimated that gas losses in modern networks using materials like 
welded  carbon  steel, coated  steel  or polyethylene  may  amount to  350m3/km/year whereas  leakages 
in existing grey cast iron network were estimated  to 3500m3/km/year. As mentioned in section  4.3.3, 
France  is  currently  replacing  of  part  of 
its  old  gas  network.  A  second  measure  may  consist  in 
increasing the pipeline control frequency. A study performed  by CITEPA (see section 5.4) shows that 
by  doubling  the  control  frequency  in  Europe  to  about  800  km  inspected  each  year,  (present  EU 
average control  is  400 km/year/man), may result in  a leak rate cut  of 50%. 

Unlike coal consumption gas consumption is expected to increase by  60% by 2010 compared to 1990. 

5.3.2  Combustion 

Considering the very  modest contribution  of combustion  (less than  3%), there is no immediate need 
to adopt policy measures on this source. Moreover, as regards the transport sector, the popularisation 
of  catalytic  converters  is expected to reduce these emissions to some extend. 

5.4 

CONCLUSION 

In  conclusion,  the  following  table  sets  out  the  Commission's  ideas  for  an  action  programme  for 
mitigating EU methane emissions. The policy measures suggested in the previous sections for the three 
main sectors  are summarized  and reported  in the following  table. 

22 

SUMMARY  OF EU POLICY  MEASURES TO  BE  CONSIDERED 
FOR MITIGATING  METHANE  EMISSIONS 

AGRICULTURE 

*  Enteric fermentation 

-  promotion  of  research  and  incentives  (at  EU  and  national  level)  to  develop 
viable policies and measures 

*  Animal  manure 

-  anaerobic  digesters  or  covered  lagoons  (preferably  with  energy  use,  if  not 
feasible  with flaring) 
.  1st stage  : demonstration  programmes  at EU, national, regional  and local level 
.  2nd  stage  :  obligation  at  EU  level  to  install  recovery  and  use  systems  for 
animal  farm  husbandry  larger  than  a  certain  number  of  animals(number  to  be 
defined) 

WASTE 

*  General measures 

- promotion  at EU, national, regional  and local  level of measures  such  as : 

. minimising the generation  of organic waste, including  packaging 
. encouraging  separate collection  of organic wastes 
.  material  recovery  of  organic  waste  (through  operations  such  as 
composting)  and energy  recovery  operations.  Preference  should  be 
given,  where  environmentally  sound,  to  the  recovery  of  material 
over  energy  recovery  operations.  It will  nevertheless  be  necessary 
to  take  into  account  the  environmental,  economic  and  scientific 
effects  of  either  operation.  The  evaluation  of  these  effects  could 
lead,  in  certain  cases,  to  preference  being  given  to  energy 
recovery. 

- economic  incentives  at EU and national  level to promote recycled  products 

*  New  landfills 

- EU legislation requiring, in the absence of other methane reduction  alternatives, 
that new anaerobic landfills  are equipped with methane recovery  and use  systems 

*  Existing landfills 

- EU legislation requiring the retrofitting  of existing landfills  with systems for the 
collection and use of methane wherever possible. Support and encourage methane 
recovery  processes  which  yield  energy  through  economic  incentives  at  the  EU 
and national  level. Where this is not possible encourage  the use of flaring 

ENERGY 

*  Coal 

-  EU  recommendation  to  Member  States  for  CH4  emission  reduction  schemes 
and promoting  best available recovery  techniques  in coal mines 

*  Natural Gas 

-  setting-up  of an EU minimum  leakages  standard 
- increase control  frequency  of pipelines  at national  level 

23 

With  regard to this proposed  strategy, reference  could  be made to a study  (CITEPA)  financed  by  the 
EU and completed  in November  1993. In this report, future  trends of methane  emissions in the  EU, 
before  the  enlargement  (EU-12), were determined  for  the years 2005  and  2010 from two  emissions 
scenarios : 

-  a first scenario called  "existing policies" scenario, based on current national  policies in use 
in  different  Member  States  (EU-12)  in  1993,  leads  to  a  first  assessment  of  methane 
emissions reduction  as given in the following  table. 

-  a  second  scenario,  more  ambitious,  called  the  "recommended  Community  programme" 
scenario, based  on the  "existing policies" scenario to which a set of complementary  policy 
measures  has  been  added,  is  relatively  similar  to  the  proposed  strategy  and  leads  to  a 
second  assessment  showing  a more drastic  reduction  of methane emissions, see also table 
hereunder. 

Observation  : the  set  of  Community  actions  suggested  by  this  study  as well  as the  results  obtained 
from the emissions forecasts could be easily transposed  and extrapolated to a EU of  15 Member States 
instead  of  12  without  changing  adversely  the  overall  conclusions  brought  forward  by  these  two 
scenarios. 

It should be noted that within each sector  (agriculture, waste, energy), a certain number  of measures, 
launched in some Member States, already had or will have additional indirect effects  on the proposed 
CH4  emissions  reduction  strategy,  although  these  measures  did  not  or  will  not  as  such  address 
specifically  the issue. This is the case in particular for agriculture and energy where reduced  methane 
emissions  are expected  beyond  the year  2000 because  of  a fall  in livestock  numbers reduction  as a 
result  of the  Common Agricultural  Policy  and because of a fall  in EU coal production.  These  effects 
have been taken  on board  in the reduction  forecast  assessments  of the  CITEPA  study. 

These results are presented in the following  summary table giving the reduction forecasts  with regard 
to the  1990 level  of CH4 emissions  in 2005/2010 based  on two mitigating  scenarios : 

a) existing policies 
b)  additional  EU policy measures to be considered 

2005 
Existing 
policies 

2005 
Recommended 
policies 

2010 
Existing 
policies 

2010 
Recommended 
policies 

AGRICULTURE 

- 7.00 % 

WASTE 

ENERGY 

TOTAL 

-  11.1 % 

-  18.5 % 

-  10.6  % 

(Source  : CITEPA NOV.  1993, EU-12) 

- 24 % 

- 45 % 

- 24 % 

- 30  % 

24 

-  9.70 % 

-  14.5 % 

- 25.3 % 

-  14.3  % 

-  34 % 

-  60 % 

-  34 % 

-  41  % 

As shown in this table, emissions reductions of 30% and 41% could be expected in 2005  and 2010 
with  regard  to  the  1990  level  if  the  so  called  "policy  measures  to  be  considered"  scenario  was 
implemented. The table shows also that in this case, compared to the "existing policies" scenario, the 
expected  methane  emissions  reduction  could  also  triple.  However,  in  order  to  avoid  any 
misinterpretation  of  the results  emerging from the  CITEPA  study, the reader must be  aware of the 
present lack of knowledge of several parameters concerning methane such as for instance the emission 
factors  on  which  there  is  considerably  uncertainty  in  current  available  data.  That  uncertainty  is, 
therefore, reflected  in the results of the study. 

25 

ANNEX 
- Figures 
- Tables 
-Bibliography 

26 

Measurements  of  Global  Methane  Concentrations 

1800H 

1300-1 

> n a a 

GO 
c 
o 

8 
8  mA 
x 
o 

300 A 

w 

•  Modern record 
*  Stole lea .core 
*  Byid toe core 
•  Dye ice core 
°  Moetok KB  core 

•* 

S 
0 

O*  •  A 

V 

108 

10* 

10s 

ic 

icr 

10° 

Years  Before  Present  (1990 A.D.) 

Annual adnoepberic CH4 concentrations daring the p ut 16WXX>ye*n 
(derived from ice c om and the NOAA/CMDL  flniknurçtfittgnetworic). 

Source: Oak Ridge (1990). 

Fig  1 

ppbv = ppb = part per billion (in volume"1 

r\ 

Global Contribution to Integrated  Radiative Forcing by Gas tor  19901 

o aroor  Dioxide  55% 

N i trous 
Ox i de :  5% 

CFCs:  11% 

Methane : 18% 

Estimated on a carbon dioxide equivalent basis using IPCC (1990a) global warming 
potentials (GWPs) for a 100-year time horizon.  Anthropogenic emissions only. 

1 This chart is used to present a general understanding  of methane's contribution to future warming based on 
the GWPs presented in IPCC (1990a).  However, these GWPs are continually being revised due to a variety of 
scientific and methodological issues,  tt is likely that the contribution of CFCs presented will decrease and that 
the contribution of other gases will be about the same or greater upon further investigation. 

f ig  2 

Last Two Centuries 
Atmospheric Data 

Enlarged View of the Last ten Years 

ii 

** 

.ii*1 

1750  1800  1850 1900  1950 

I  ï  JÏ 

1.7 

Parts 
Per 
Million 

1.6 

K^ 

1.5 

I 

197* 

1980 

i 
1982 

Atmospheric levels of methane are 
increasing at a rate of 1% per year 

1984 

1986 

1988 

1990 

•rces. Slaulfer et al, 1985; Blake & Rovwnand, 1988 

Last  10 years 

Fig  3 

OE08 
Site J 
Mizuho 
Summit (Bern) 
Summit (Grenoble) 
1 Cape Grim 

a 
c 
o 

(a) 

1650 

1550  -
1450 
1350 

1250 

1150 
1050 
950 
850 

750 
650 

1 

0.40 

0.35 

0.30 

0.25 

9 J 

0.20 

0.15 

- 0.10 
- 0.05 
- 0 

E 
5 

CD 
c 
Ô 
o 
> 
CO '•5 
« 
DC 

900  1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 

Year 

1750 

<a)  CH4 concentration derived from Antarctic ice cores over the past  1000 years. Direct observations of CH4 concentration 

from  Cape Grim. Tasmania, are included to demonstrate the smooth transition from ice core to atmosphenc measurements. The 
radiative rorcine resulting from increases in CH4 relative to the pre-industrial period are indicated on the right-hand axis. The effect of 
overlap with N,0  is accounted for according to IPCC (1990). (b) Globally averaged CH4 concentration tor  1983 to  1993 showing the 
decline in erowth rate during  1992 and  1993. 

ppbv = ppb = part per billion  (in volune; 

Fig  4 

lo 

,  , 
SET UtMEA&UUm 

. 

emission 
reduction 

CO, 
emission 
reduction 

$pcaffc:].çasxs& 

kton  ClVyr 

ktoo COj/yr 

:DflAûo::X^';:;::'.., 

Gas-production 
1  Increased  gas  utilization 
2  Further  increased  gas  utilization 
3  Offshore  flaring 

Gas-distribution 
4  Replace  grey  cast-iron  network 
5  Double  leak  control  frequency 

Animal  niaiiur« 
6  Adjustment  of  stablc/Morngc 
7  Large-scale  digestion 
8  Farmscale  digestion  (mesophilic) 
9  Farmscale  digestion  (psyduophilic) 

Landfills;  waste  gas  recovery 
10  Electricity  generation 
11  Upgrading 
12  Raring 

Landfills;  reduced  landfilling 
13  Composting 
14  Fermentation 
15  Incineration 

Total 

11  (1%) 
22  (2%) 
6  (1%) 

52  (5%) 
9  (1%) 

18 (2%) 
4  (0%) 
6  (1%) 
12 (1%) 

72  (7%) 
31  (3%) 
51  (5%) 

5  (1%) 
1  (0%) 
6  (1%) 

307  (31%) 

0 
0 
-14 

0 
0 

0 
16 
16 
27 

158 
39 
0 

-2 
1 
96 

336 

-160 
-18 
1000 

4500 
3000 

0 
-120 
960 
1100 

-95 
-70 
16 

600 
1300 
15700 

Table 

Emission  reducing  measures  for  methane  in  the  year  2000, 
as  described  in  this  study 

Sp«oHto  co«t»  (1000  Dflfton  CH4) 

15 

15  r 

10 

2O0 

300 

4 00 

SO 

Avoided  C H4  (kton  C H 4) 

Figure 

Supply  curve  of  methane  mitigating  measures  for  the  year  2000  in  the 
Netherlands:  extra/avoided  C02-emissions  excluded.  Numbers  refer  to  Table A. 

q.  3 

2,1 

Estimated  Present Day Sinks and  Sources of  Methane 
(Lelieveld  & Crutzen,  1993) 

Estimated  Sinks and  Sources  of  methane 

Sources 
Natural sources 
Natural  wetlands (swamps, marshes, tundra,  etc.) 
Termites 
Oceans 
Freshwater 
CH4 hydrate  déstabilisation 

Subtotal natural sources 

Anthropogenic sources 
Rice fields 
Enteric  fermentation  (mainly  ruminants) 
Landfills 
Biomass burning 
Animal  wastes 
Domestic sewage 
Coal  mining 
Gas and oil  drilling,  gas venting, gas transmission 

Subtotal anthropogenic sources 

Total sources 

Sinks 
Reaction  with  OH  in the troposphere 
Removal  by soils 
Reactions with  OH, Cl and O ('D)  in the stratosphere 

Total sinks 

Atmospheric  increase10 

Table 1 

based  on  CH4  c o n c e n t r a t i on  measures 

i n c r e m e n ts 

32 

Mt y"1 

125 + 70 
30 ±  30 
10 ±  5 
5  ±  5 
5  ±  5 

175 

70 ±  50 
80 ±  20 
40 ± 25 
30 ±  15 
25 ±  10 
25 ±  10 
35 ±  10 
80 ±  45 

385 

560 ± 90 

455 ±  50 
30 ± 25 
45 ±  10 

530 ±  85 

30 ±  5 

CORINAIR  1990  Summary 
(Anthropogenic sources) 

C H4  in  tonnes 

Public power, 
cogeneration and  district 
heating 

Commercial, institutional 
and residential 
combustion 

A 

B 

DK 

D 

F 

FL 

GR 

I 

IRL 

L 

NL 

ES 

P 

S 

UK 

100 

137 

866 

6000 

1100 

1100 

963 

3803 

0 

3 

550 

8912 

356 

938 

200 

7800 

3958 

6106 

112000 

149900 

6500 

21 

16733 

3580 

426 

1900 

44174 

6913 

9608 

500 

Industrial combustion 

1200 

Production processes 

NE 

2718 

14118 

710 

40 

10000 

6600 

2100 

6000 

5900 

AZ 

25 

1413 

9527 

7614 

200 

0 

37 

0 

1600 

7300 

2904 

4173 

8100  j 

3880 

1547 

14 

0 

0 

Extraction and 
distribution of  fossil  fuels 

91600 

42437 

11938 

1547000 

310100 

100 

363756 

347460 

10180 

1628 

940 

683662 

1978 

0 

1210500 

Solvent use 

0 

0 

Road transport 

2700 

9161 

IE 

0 

0 

1811 

1056 

-

0 

NE 

70000 

22300 

1880 

2000 

600 

7550 

0 

3733 

876 

0 

0 

25229 

1160 

0 

172 

20 

0 

0 

NE 

0 

6400 

11446 

1391 

12718 

10500 

8154 

40 

14 

160 

1629 

169 

3498 

300 

311000 

4620 

121600 

2249000 

739500 

67100 

202467 

1302802 

138340 

3838 

378000 

506711 

35180 

179755 

1088000 

Agriculture 

202600 

262564 

263123 

2052000 

1611200 

163000 

362674 

1764207 

642610 

17650 

520000 

874158 

203662 

205078 

1076100 

Corinair  1990 
Total  per  MS 

617000 

339703 

407250 

6054000 

2847200 

249330 

935928 

3485529 

796110 

23768 

917670 

2141872 

254100 

415782 

3386100 

Table 2 

Other mobile 
sources/machinery 

Waste treatment and 
disposal 

CORINAIR  1990  Summary 
(Anthropogenic  sources) 

C H4 

inkilotonnes(lOOOtonnes) 

Total  for  EU 
per sector 

Total  for  EU 

per  sector 

(  %) 

Public power,  cogeneration and 
district  heating 

Commercial,  institutional  and 

residential combustion 

Industrial  combustion 

Production  processes 

Extraction  and distribution  of  fossil 

fuels 

Solvent use 

Road transport 

Other mobile  sources/machinery 

Waste treatment and disposal 

Agriculture 
Corinair  1990 
Total  for  EU 

25 

370 

49 

49 

4623 

0.02 

181 

26 

7328 

10221 

22872 

0,11 

1,62 

0,22 

0,21 

20,21 

0 

0,79 

0,11 

32,04 

44,69 

100 

Table 3 

M-

TECHNICAL  OPTIONS  TO REDUCE  METHANE  EMISSIONS 

TECHNICAL  OPTIONS 

AGRICULTURE 

Enteric  fermentation 

CH4 
REDUCTION 

AVAILABILITY 

COSTS 

Livestock  reduction 
Increase of  feed  conversion  efficiency 
Increase of animal  productivity 

max  % 
10 - 20 % ? 
5 - 30 % 

Available 
Available 

? 
Low 

Livestock  manure 

Covered  lagoons 
Digesters 

up to  80 % 
up to  70 % 

Available 
Available 

Low/Medium 
Low/Medium 

WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 

Landfills 

Anaerobic  landfill  management  : 
methane recovery  and  utilization 
Aerobic  landfill  management 
Semi-aerobic  landfill  management 
Reduced  landfilling  of waste 

ENERGY 

Coai  mining 

30 - 70 % 
over  80 % 
up to  50 % 
up to  100 % 

Available 
R &D 
Available 
Available 

Medium 
High 
Medium 
Low/Medium 

Enhanced  gob well  recovery 
Pre-mining  degasification 
Ventilation  air  utilization 

Natural  gas 

Reduced  venting  &  flaring 
Improved  leak  detection  & pipeline 
repair 

20 - 50 % 
up to  70 % 
10 - 90 % 

Available 
Available 
R &D 

Low 
Medium/high 
Low/Medium 

up to  50 % 

Available 

Low 

up to  80 % 

Available 

Low/Medium 

Table 4 

S5 

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v\ 

ISSN 0254-1475 

COM(96) 557 final 

DOCUMENTS 

EN 

14  11 

Catalogue number  :  CB-CO-96-567-EN-C 

ISBN 92-78-11402-2 

Office  for Official  Publications of the European Communities 

L-2985 Luxembourg 

M