COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT on LINKING RELIEF, REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT (LRRD)
Date: 1996-04-30
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: cooperation policy, development aid, economic development, economic reconstruction, emergency aid

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Brussels,  30.04.1996 
COM(96)  153 final 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION 
TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN  PARLIAMENT 

on 

LINKING RELIEF. REHABILITATION AND 
DEVELOPMENT (LRRD) 

Communication  from  the Commission 
to the Council  and the European Parliament 
on 
Linking  Relief,  Rehabilitation  and Development (LRRD) 

BACKGROUND,  CONCLUSIONS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

(i) 

Background 

Over  the  last  year,  important  decisions  on  long-term  development  cooperation  relationships 
were  taken  :  negotiations  on  the  Lomé  IV  mid-term  review  were  concluded  and  the 
Agreement  amending  the Fourth ACP-EC  Convention  of  Lomé was  signed  in Mauritius  on 
4 November  1995; negotiations  commenced  with  South Africa  towards the establishment  of 
a framework for long-term cooperation; a new EU-Mediterranean policy was decided; periodic 
conferences  with  Central  American  (San  José)  and  Latin  American  countries  (Rio  groupe) 
took place and  new framework  agreements  with  Asian  countries  were negotiated  (Vietnam), 
or  are under  preparation  (Cambodia,  Laos). 

At the  same  time,  a  series  of  legal  bases/draft  regulations  have  been  proposed,  regarding  a 
number  of  instruments  ranging  from  short-term  relief  and  rehabilitation  to  longer-term 
development. 

This reconfirmation  of the comprehensive  "toolbox" of different  instruments available for our 
relations  with  developing  countries  over  the  coming  years,  requires  that  they  are  not  dealt 
with  in  isolation but that  a coordinated  approach  to their management  is adopted  in  order  to 
strengthen linkages between them, thereby improving their complementarity and ensuring their 
global  coherence  in the most  efficient  way  and  with  a view  to  achieve the greatest  impact. 

At a time when  aid  efficiency  is the keyword, such efficiency  should  not only be  considered 
separately  within  the fields  of  relief,  rehabilitation  and  development  aid,  but  attention  must 
also be  given  to  strengthening  linkages  between  these fields  of  action. 

Furthermore,  aid  is increasingly  subject  to policy  and institutional  conditionality  and  it is  an 
appropriate  moment  for  the  donor  community  to  reflect  upon  the  way  in  which  their  own 
internal  policies  and  institutional  set-ups  could  be rendered  more  efficient  and  effective. 

This communication is the outcome of an extensive internal and external consultation process: 

an interservice working group of the Commission, consisting of representatives of the 
different  Directorates General for External Relations and ECHO, prepared a discussion 
document  on  "Linking  Relief,  Rehabilitation  and  Development  (LRRD)"; 

the document was discussed  in a workshop with experts in this matter (invited  in their 
personal  capacity)  from  Member  States, US AID, UN  agencies,  NGOs  and  academic 
institutions; 

it  was  subsequently  discussed  in  the  quarterly  meeting  of  ECHO  and  the  Heads  of 

Humanitarian  Relief  Services  of the Member  States and in the half-yearly  meeting of 
the Commission  and the Directors  General for Development of the Member  States in 
November  1995; 

the  document was discussed  in a seminar with  20 experts  of NGOs  with  experience 
in  relief,  rehabilitation  and  development  issues,  organised  in February  1996 by the 
Commission,  the NGO-Liaison  Committee  and VOICE; 

finally,  as  proposed  by  the  Directors  General  for  Development  from  the  Member 
States, the Commission  has organised  a meeting with relief  and development  experts 
of the Member  States  on 28 February  1996, on the basis of the discussion  document 
and  replies  of  Member  States  to the  questionnaire  prepared  by  the  Commission  on 
LRRD  bilateral  policies  (see annex  for  a summary  of these  replies) 

The  communication  takes  account  of  the  different  remarks  made  during  this  consultation 
exercice.  The global  conclusion  of the different  discussions  is  that  they  were  very  useful, 
because  a  formulation  of  a  coherent  policy  on  the  LRRD-isue  is  very  timely,  and  that 
although  general  agreement  exists  on  the  policy  approach  and  the  concept  of  the  linkage 
problem, there is also agreement on the fact that it is a difficult  task to implement in practice. 

Participants  in the  different  meetings, while  agreeing  on the policy  approach  and  proposals 
made  in the  document,  considered  that  they  could  also  be  applied,  if  necessary  in  adapted 
form,  in their  own organisations  (either  bilateral,  multilateral  or  non-governmental). 

Since  a  certain  number  of  Member  States  are  currently  in  different  stages  of  formulating 
documents  on  policies  and procedures  regarding  linkages  between  relief,  rehabilitation  and 
development (see annex), it was  agreed in the meeting with the experts of the Member  States 
that these documents would be exchanged between the members of the Union, an exercise for 
which  the Commission  offered  its services. 

(ii) 

The Relief-Rehabilitation-Development  (RRD)  Continuum1 

The role of relief  assistance2 is to provide urgent  short term  humanitarian  assistance to save 
and  preserve  lives  of  people  facing  serious  difficulties  resulting  from  natural  or  manmade 

1 

It has been suggested that the term "contiguum" would be more appropriate, reflecting the fact 
that operations in relief, rehabilitation and development may all be ongoing simultaneously 
within any given country . 

2  "Relief assistance" and/or  "humanitarian aid" are used interchangeably  in the text. The scope of 
humanitarian aid is defined in the Proposal for a Council Regulation concerning Humanitarian Aid as 
follows: "The Community's humanitarian aid shall comprise assistance, relief and protection operations 
on a non-discriminatory basis to help people in third countries, particularly the most vulnerable among 
them, and as a priority those in developing countries, victims of natural disasters, man-made crises, 
such as wars and outbreaks of fighting, or exceptional situations or circumstances comparable to natural 
or  man-made  disasters.  It  shall  do so for the time  needed  to  meet  the humanitarian  requirements 
resulting from these different  situations. Such aid shall also comprise operations to prepare for risks 
or prevent disasters or comparable exceptional circumstances". 

ii 

disasters.  Rehabilitation  programmes  are  seen  as  progressively  taking  over  from  relief 
assistance to  stabilise  the  economic  and  social  situation  and  facilitate  the  transition  towards 
a  medium  and  long  term  development  strategy. 

The  basic  justification  for  linking  relief,  rehabilitation  and  development  is  simple  and 
sensible:  disasters  are  costly  in  both  human  life  and  resources;  they  disrupt  economic  and 
social  development;  they  require  long  periods  of  rehabilitation;  they  lead  to  separate 
bureaucratic structures and procedures which duplicate development institutions.  At the same 
time, however,  development  policy  too  often  ignores  the risks  of  drought  and  other  shocks 
and 
the  need  to  protect  vulnerable  households  by  helping  them  to  develop  "coping 
strategies".  If  relief  and  development  can  be  linked,  these  deficiencies  could  be  reduced. 
Better "development" can reduce the need for emergency relief; better "relief  can contribute 
to development; and better "rehabilitation" can ease  the transition between  the two. 

This  simple  model  however,  fails  to  deal  with  the  realities  of  many  current  emergency 
situations.  Most  are  not  due  to  natural  disasters,  but  are  the  result  of  the  interaction  of 
political,  economic  and  social  instability,  frequently  stemming  from  bad  governance,  failed 
economic policies and inappropriate development programmes which have exacerbated  ethnic 
or religious  differences.  The assumption  inherent in this model is that the path of short term 
relief  leading  via  rehabilitation  to  long  term  development,  underestimates  the  chronic  nature 
of  many  disaster  situations. 

Even  when  there  is  no  overt  conflict,  the  combined  effects  of  bad  governance,  failed 
economic  policies,  abuses  of  human  rights  and  the  democratic  process  may  lead  to  the 
suspension of long term development  aid, resulting in an  acceleration of economic and social 
disintegration. 

"Complex  emergencies"  or  chronic  crises 
involving  armed  conflict  represent  the  most 
difficult  context in which to develop a coordinated  approach to RRD.  Disaster prevention and 
preparedness  measures  are difficult  to apply, and  increasing prominence needs to be given to 
conflict  prevention,  through  early  and  coordinated  intervention  at  both  political  and 
developmental  levels  with  the  ultimate  goal  to  reach  a situation  of  "structural  stability"  i.e. 
a  situation  involving  sustainable  economic  development,  democracy  and  respect  for  human 
rights,  viable  political  structures,  healthy  social  and  environmental  conditions,  with  the 
capacity  to  manage  change without  resort  to  violent  conflict. 

It  is  important  to  introduce  gender  analysis  into  the  RRD  response,  so  as  to  avoid  further 
marginalisation  of  disadvantaged  groups.  A  gender  approach  helps  to  identify  women  and 
men's  differing  vulnerabilities  to  crises  as  well  as  their  different  (and  ever-changing) 
capacities  and  coping  strategies.  Vulnerability  is  a key  concept,  and  may  be  determined  by 
membership  of  a particular  ethnic  or  social  group. 

The  regional  dimension  also  requires  specific  attention.  Crises  may  spread  beyond  the 
borders  of  the  country  concerned,  threatening  the  socio-economic  and  political  stability  of 
neighbouring  countries  and  the  entire  region.  This  will  require  specific  action  in  favour  of 
neighbouring  countries, and at the regional  level to support any regional  initiatives  to address 
crisis  situations  through  political  interventions. 

in 

Two other  issues  need to be  considered.  The first  is the institutional  separation  of relief  and 
development which exists within  most  donor organisations. Different  criteria  and  procedures 
are  applied  to  sustainability,  funding  and  implementation  arrangements.  The  international 
response  to  chronic  crises  in  particular  may  risk  reflecting  the  organisational  and  political 
priorities of implementing  agencies, rather than the needs of war affected  populations  and the 
vulnerability  of  those  threatened  by  war. 

The  second  issue  is  financial.  Over  the  period  1988 to  1993, relief  expenditure  by  OECD 
member states rose from  US$ 500 mio to US$ 3,500  mio per year, at a time when overall  aid 
programmes  are  tending  to  stagnate  or  even  decline.  In  the  Community  aid  programme, 
emergency  and  distress  relief  amounted  to  764  MECU  in  1994  and  represented  in that  year 
18.8% of  total  Community  aid. 

For all the above reasons, it is timely that we should reconsider our approach to linking relief, 
rehabilitation and development and examine ways in which their impact and effectiveness  can 
be  improved. 

(iii)  General  conclusions 

The analysis  of the LRRD  problem  makes  clear that  the approach  to  the economic,  political 
and social development of developing  countries  should be more holistic than  is the case until 
now.  This  is  especially  important  for  countries  which  are  prone  to  the  risks/tensions  of 
political,  economic  and/or  natural  disasters. 

At all phases  of  their  development  - not  only  when  a crisis  is imminent  - there  is  a need  for 
a  strategic  planning  policy  which  comprises  political,  developmental,  social,  and  technical 
aspects.  This  global  policy  framework  should  define  : 

the  way  in  which  conflict  prevention  as  a means  of  managing  the  inevitable  strains 
resulting  from  social,  political  and  economic  change  can  be  incorporated  into 
development operations  : "peacebuilding" must be an intrinsic element of  development 
cooperation  strategies; 

the way  in which  disaster  prevention  and vulnerability  analyses  should  be  taken  into 
account  in  development  planning  and  operations; 

the  way  in  which,  once  an  emergency  situation  has  erupted  (either  natural  or  man-
made), relief  actions  should,  apart from  their  primary  objective  of saving the  lives  of 
victims, take account of the longer term objectives of reconstruction  and  development; 

the  way  in  which,  for  countries  in  a  post-emergency  phase,  rehabilitation  actions 
should  be  undertaken  so  as  to  ensure  the  most  effective  transition  from  emergency 
assistance  to  long  term  development 

The  "backward"  and  "forward" 
linkages  between  political,  development,  relief  and 
rehabilitation  operations  constitute  a  complex  network  of  relationships,  which  has  to  be 
examined within the global policy framework  or strategic planning policy, which is a dynamic 
function  of  the  specific  situation  of  each  country  or  region.  In  other words,  the  components 

iv 

of  the RRD-linkage and their  design  are highly  situation  specific  and should  be  considered 
in the light of the "hic et nunc"  realities  of the country  or region  concerned. 

This  means  also that the structure of the document  should  be seen  in this  light,  in a holistic 
way.  The  fact  that  it  starts  with  relief,  followed  by  rehabilitation,  subsequently  by 
development,  including  a political  approach  to the aim of structural  stability,  does  not mean 
that  the  so-called  RRD-continuum  is  to be  considered  in  this  linear  manner.  As  indicated 
before,  reality  is more  complicated  and requires  a multi-faceted  approach, based  on the real 
situation  of each  country  or region  under  consideration. 

If GLOBAL STRATEGIC PLANNING POLICY is the first keyword in the recommendations 
made in this  document,  the second  one is  : COORDINATION.  Also  institutionally  a holistic 
approach is required  : coordination  between  donors, as well as internal  coordination  between 
services  is a prerequisite for efficient  policy  and action, but can only operate  successfully  in 
the framework  of this  overall  strategic  plan  of  action. 

In  addition  TIMING  is of the essence  and procedures  should  be adapted,  where  necessary, 
to the requirements of appropriate timing and a smooth handover and articulation between the 
different  aid approaches.  Indeed  the existence  of rapid  decision  procedures  is  necessary  at 
all  stages  of  the  relief,  rehabilitation,  development  continuum  if  momentum  is  to  be 
maintained  both  on the donor  and the beneficiary  side.  In many  cases  a loss of  momentum 
at  a  critical  stage  can  plunge  a  country  back  into  crisis,  resulting  in  even  higher  donor 
spending  in the future.  Procedures  must  be flexible  enough  to prevent  this  happening. 

(iv) 

Recommendations 

Global  policy  frameworks  should  be prepared  for  each  country  and region,  with  the 
overall  aim of achieving  in due time  "structural  stability"  and based upon  a  detailed 
analysis  of risk and vulnerability.  These frameworks  should  draw together  economic, 
social,  (including  gender,)  and political  (démocratisation,  human  rights  and the  rule 
of  law)  factors  in  development  and  define  more  clearly  linkages  between  relief, 
rehabilitation  and development.  As a first  step, a pilot  exercise should  be undertaken 
for  a  representative  sample  of  countries,  which  are  particularly  prone  to  the 
risk/tensions  of  political,  economic  and/or  natural  disasters. 

Conflict  prevention,  by which  is meant  the broad  range  of policies  to  anticipate and 
react  towards  the  social,  economic  and  political  factors  which  could  result  in  a 
breakdown of society.  This concept should be considered within the broader  sense of 
"peacebuilding"  and  be  treated  as  an  intrinsic  element  of  these  global  policy 
frameworks. 

Political  analysis  capacity  must  be  enhanced,  in  order  to  focus  on  structural  root 
causes  of  conflict,  identify  potential  trouble  spots  and translate  analysis  into  timely 
political  actions  at the level of the Union.  Political  reports of EC delegates, based on 
coordination with EU Member States' representatives on the spot, are key contributions 
to  this  analysis  and should  be adapted  to the new requirements. 

Intensified  political  cooperation  and  development  coordination  with  Member  States 
and  other  donors,  at HQ and  field  level  is an essential  element  of  the above  process. 

Internal  coordination will be enhanced  by the creation of country  Task Forces,  at HQ 
and  field 
levels,  consisting  of  officials  from  departments  dealing  with  relief, 
rehabilitation,  development  and  political  relations. 

Country  specific  relief  impact  analyses  will  be  undertaken  in  situations  where 
humanitarian  assistance  is  likely  to be  required  beyond  the  immediate  short  term,  in 
order  to take account  of  longer  term  objectives  so that  humanitarian  aid becomes  as 
effective  as  possible.  Training  in  such  analyses  will* be undertaken. 

Rehabilitation  planning  strategies  in  post-emergency  situations  must  be  developed, 
including  assessments  of the causes  of crises, evaluation  of constraints  and  structural 
weaknesses  highlighted  during  the  emergency  phase  -  specific  tools  for  situation 
analyses  have to be further  elaborated.  This must be accompanied  by the  application 
of  appropriate  rules  and  procedures  allowing  rapid  and  flexible  response  to  ensure 
effective  bridging  with  relief  assistance. 

Disaster  preparedness  programmes  should  be  given  increased  prominence  within 
longer  term  development  programmes  and  policies. 

Macroeconomic  planning  and  economic  reform  programmes  should 
include 
considerations  of risk and vulnerability  to natural and manmade disasters  during their 
design  and  implementation.  For  the  Community,  this  also  means  that  risk  and 
vulnerability  should be taken  into account  in programming  of Community  assistance. 

Sectoral  policies  and  programmes  must  also  build  in  risk  and  vulnerability  as  key 
factors  in  design  and  implementation. 

vi 

LINKING RELIEF, REHABILITATION  AND  DEVELOPMENT (LRRD) 

1. 

HOW CAN RELIEF ACTIONS TAKE BETTER ACCOUNT OF DEVELOPMENT 
REQUIREMENTS/OBJECTIVES  : DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF EMERGENCY 
OPERATIONS. 

1.1 

Introduction 

The explicit aim of humanitarian  aid is to save and preserve the lives of victims of emergency 
situations.  Agencies  involved  in  relief  are  obliged  on  humanitarian  grounds  as  well  as  by 
their  mandates  and  public  opinion  and  the  media  to  save  lives  irrespective  of  the  lack  of 
preventive  actions,  the  poor  state  of  preparedness  against  natural  disasters  or  prevailing 
social,  economic  and  political  conditions  in  the  crisis  areas.  Since  the  humanitarian  aid  of 
the Commission is non-political and often  demand-driven, it is difficult  to define very  specific 
goals  for  its  operations  beyond  saving  lives. 

Although  in such situations, the long-term  perspective must come second  to saving  life,  it is 
nevertheless  extremely  important  to  keep  sight  of  the  longer-term  view.  Indeed,  the  short-
term and long-term perspectives in relief operations can sometimes be conflictive: what makes 
good  sense  in  terms  of  saving  lives  may  conversely  make  longer-term  solutions  harder  to 
attain. 

For example, in certain major refugee  crises it is expedient to set up laige refugee camps. Logistically 
this may be the only way for foreign relief agencies to quickly feed and shelter the large numbers of 
people at risk.  Once the camps are established (almost by default), they may attract more people than 
intended (the pull-factor), they may discourage refugees from going home, give rise to epidemics and 
internal  security problems and  can very  often  destroy the local  environment  and  alienate the local 
population.  All these elements have been experienced in the huge refugee camps outside the borders 
of Rwanda. 

Another  example  of the  conflict  between  short-term  and  long-term  consideration  in  humanitarian 
actions concerns woridng closely with local administrative systems and local NGOs.  In major  crisis 
situations, the local structures are often destroyed or totally overwhelmed, and the international relief 
agencies set up their own systems to procure and distribute humanitarian aid.  When relief agencies 
leave, an administrative vacuum may arise  which can make rehabilitation very difficult  and which can 
even affect political stability (e.g. in Somalia).  It is obviously a challenge - and a very difficult  one -
for all relief actions to try to involve local institutions (official, NGOs or community based structures) 
in planning and implementation  so that they are ready to take responsibility  when the international 
attention is gone. 

There  are  two  main  ways  to  deal  with  the  conflict  between  the  short-term  and  long-term 
perspectives: 

(a)  improved  awareness  of  the impact (short  and  long term)  of  humanitarian  actions, 
on  the  part  of  humanitarian  actors  (local  and  foreign); 

(b)  organisational  coordination  (links 

between  humanitarian-development  aid 

branches,  headquarters-field, 
between  international  and  local  structures, etc). 

donor-implementing  agencies,  donor-donor, 

links 

1.2 

The Ideal  Relief  Model 

The basic  elements  of  the  ideal  relief  model  are the  following: 

(1) 

Relief should  not undermine development (all relief operations, even the most 
urgent  ones,  should  be  carefully  planned  to  protect  development  assets,  e.g. 
tools,  seeds  and  livestock). 

(2) 

The  basic  principles  normally  applied  in  development  projects  should  be 
applied  to  relief: 

Relief should be integrated into existing government structures or (if these are absent 
or party to the conflict) into independent local NGO operations and/or beneficiaries' 
own representative structures, thereby ensuring the participation of the beneficiaries 
of aid. 
Relief  should be  flexible  in such a way that relief  items and distribution  systems 
match local culture and society. 
Relief  should pay special attention to the gender dimension by taking into account 
the  division of  labour between  men and women which  is  likely to be  even  more 
important under emergency situations. 
Relief should be predictable and should not be terminated in an abrupt or premature 
manner. 

(3) 

Relief should be immediately followed  up by and where possible  implemented 
in parallel with rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes in order to ensure 
a  smooth  "continuum"  on the way  back  to  a long term  development  process. 

Against  this  conceptual  model, the  actual  programmes  of  relief  agencies  are often  criticised 
as being mediatic, short-term  and short-lived,  top-heavy, centralized,  standardized,  resource-
intensive,  donor-dependent  and neglecting  local  administrative  structures  and  social  mores. 

Although  relief agencies may be well aware of these criticisms, they may have difficulties  in 
addressing them  all because of the framework  in which they work:  lives must be saved,  time 
is  short,  highly  specialized  partners  are  implementing  actions,  the  mandates  for  follow-up 
actions  belong  to  development  agencies  or departments  whose procedures  and  resources  are 
not  always  suitable  for  ensuring  a smooth  transition  from  relief  to  development. 

1.3 

Natural  Emergencies 

Pure  natural  disasters  are  less  common  than  generally  thought.  In  Third  World  countries 
man-made factors  exacerbate  "natural  catastrophes",  e.g.  droughts  are often  combined  with 
civil  wars  (Horn  of  Africa).  Even  in  a  "regular"  drought  situation,  the  real  cause  of  the 
hardships  suffered  by victims  in affected  areas can be existing structural  problems  and  abject 
poverty.  In  such  crises  the whole  socio-economic  and  political  structure  of  a country  needs 
an overhaul.  The  lack  of  rain  is  often  simply  the  straw  that  breaks  the  camel's  back. 

A key  factor  which  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  in  dealing  with  long-term  relief  following 
droughts,  is  local  purchases  of  food.  It  is  extremely  important  to  monitor  the  impact  of  aid 
on the local food  price mechanisms to avoid distortions which could affect  future  production. 
The use of  local markets  and  institutions  in food  aid  distribution  must also be examined.  At 
the  on-set  of  each  crisis,  and  in  parallel  with  any  relief  operation,  efforts  must  be  made  by 
relief  donors  to  ensure  protection  and/or  supplies  of  development  assets  such  as  livestock, 
seeds  and  tools. 

Limited  natural  disasters  such  as  floods,  earthquakes  and  tropical  storms  often  put 
exceptional  demands  on donors  and  relief  agencies to provide relief  very quickly.  When  the 
crisis  strikes  it  is  too  late  to  build  up  a  management  capacity  within  local  government 
structures. The answer  to this  is  preparedness  programmes in order to test local government 
structures,  identify  relief  supplies  and  stock-piles  (local  or  international).  Officials  and  local 
representatives  should  be  trained  to  handle  a  major  disaster  and  to  cooperate  with  foreign 
agencies,  if  necessary. 

The  value  of  preparedness  programmes  is  accepted,  but  donor  support  towards  these 
programmes  is still  limited.  5 MECU was made available in  1995 by the Community  budget 
for  these purposes.  This should,  however, be regarded  as  "seed money"  to stimulate  disaster 
prone  countries  to  give  greater  attention  to  this  approach  in  their  long  term  development 
programmes  and policies. Many "development"  programmes funded  by the Commission  have 
disaster  prevention,  mitigation  or  preparedness  as  implicit  objectives. 

1.4  Man-Made  Emergencies 

Man-made emergencies  are used here to describe emergencies which  involve violent  conflict. 
However,  it must be made clear that many so-called  "civil wars" and "ethnic  conflicts"  have 
also been  given  a misleading  label  as  is the  case for  "droughts".  The underlying  causes  for 
these crises  are often  structural economic  and social  problems.  In many  cases  local  political 
and  economic  conditions  do  not  give  much  hope  for  reform  in  the  immediate  future.  We 
have  many  examples  of  this  type  of  situation  in  Africa,  Central  Asia  and  in  the  Caucases. 
Humanitarian  aid  can  address  the  symptoms  when  severe  conflicts  break  out,  but  does  not 
have the  means  to  address  the root  causes. Neither  humanitarian  nor  development  resources 
suffice  for  a global  long-term  mitigation of abject poverty in the foreseeable  future.  A global 
response  is required  including,  in particular,  appropriate  policy  reforms  by the  Governments 
concerned. 

However,  if  humanitarian  aid  can  in  some  situations  defuse  an  explosive  situation,  this  in 
itself  may  pave the way  for  development  agencies  to  help  and/or  for  the  local  authorities  to 
assume responsibility  for reform  and development. Relief supplies may reduce tensions, when 
they can ease competition  between population  groups  in search of scarce primary  necessities. 
One  such  example  is  the  rehabilitation  of  Sarajevo's  water  supplies,  which  has  helped  to 
reduce  tension  between  different  sections  of  the  city. 

Even  where  an  uneasy  peace  is  established,  some  problems  remain,  most  notably  that  of 
landmines,  the  elimination  of  which  remains  a  top  priority  for  action  by  the  international 
community. 

Another  difficulty  which  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  is  the  increasing  politicisation  of 
humanitarian aid.  In structural crises, humanitarian aid can easily be seen as supporting rulers 
whose shortcomings  in terms of providing for their people would otherwise be exposed.  Care 
must be taken  to associate relief  in these cases with other types of support attacking  the  root 
causes  of  the  structural  crises,  including  "democratic  deficits". 

In  open  conflict  situations  humanitarian  aid  can  be  interpreted,  not  only  as  saving  and 
preserving  lives, but also as "meddling" in the conflict  itself.  Humanitarian  aid may fall  into 
the  hands  of  warring  parties.  This  means  that  humanitarian  relief  can  be often  regarded  by 
one party as supplying their enemies.  Consequently, humanitarian agencies become unwanted 
and  their  local  distribution  could be subject  to violent attacks.  In some cases, local  warlords 
have seized  humanitarian aid supplies, either to prevent it falling  into enemy hands  or simply 
to  supply  their  own  soldiers  (e.g.  Ex-Yugoslavia  and  the  Horn  of  Africa).  This  situation 
raises  important  questions  about  the  possible  need  for  military  protection  of  victims  and 
humanitarian  aid  workers  in  certain  situations. 

1.5 

Country-Specific  Impact Analysis 

A  solid  long-term  perspective  of  relief  operations  can  only  be  assured  if  a  clear  impact 
analysis  is  made before  relief  actions  are implemented  (especially  in case of  chronic  crises). 
Such  country-specific  impact  analyses  in  man-made  and  natural  crises  consist  of  several 
elements  beyond  the traditional,  and  still  the  most  important,  short-term  objective  of  saving 
and  preserving  lives: 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

The role that relief can play in quickly covering basic human needs, e.g. food, health, shelter 
and education, which in itself may reduce tensions and promote a climate of conciliation. How 
beneficiaries  could  play a more participatory and active role ? How effective  humanitarian 
aid could be not only in covering basic needs but improving, for instance, nutrition levels ? 
This political analysis includes an examination of whether relief affects  or is affected  by the 
local security situation. 

Does humanitarian  aid affect  population  movements?  e.g. do we for  the  sake of  logistical 
expediency establish camps and other centres which are disastrous for long-term settlement 
and development  ("pull-factor"  into refugee  camps in  Afghanistan)? 

What is the social impact of humanitarian aid? e.g. does humanitarian aid have a negative 
long-term effect against certain ethnic groups, age groups or a particular gender and how does 
humanitarian  aid inter-relate  with other demographic factors?  How does humanitarian  aid 
influence  the  division  of  labour  between  men  and  women  and  specifically  women's 
responsibility for productive labour, which is likely to intensify  under emergency situations? 
The central role of women must recognised and women must be reasserted  in the decision 
making process, planning, management and distribution of relief assistance as the best way 
of ensuring that relief reaches the most vulnerable. 

What is the short-term and long-term economic impact of humanitarian aid? e.g. an analysis 
of how relief affects  local markets, price mechanisms and supplies is always important. 

Environmental consequences is now regarded as an essential element in any impact analysis. 
Environmental destruction has already had severe consequences for the host population in and 
around many refugee camps (e.g. around Rwanda). Could we finance and promote the use of 

alternative sources of energy in a more environmental friendly manner thereby avoiding tree-
cutting ? 

(f) 

The impact analysis should always include a section on how relief affects local administrative 
structures. Future reduction of vulnerability and shock absorption capacity depends on strong 
permanent  local  structures.  Local  government  structures  and  local  NGOs  and  community 
groups have their complementary roles to play as long as this does not endanger humanitarian 
aid principles of impartiality and neutrality.  If local government is absent, local NGOs could 
be engaged.  If local NGO's lack experience and capacity they can work with, and at the same 
time receive training from international NGOs in order to improve their capacities in the long 
term. Obviously, the international NGOs must be encouraged to accept greater  responsibility 
for local partners.  At the same time, care must be taken that levels of pay offered  by NGO's 
do not become disproportionately high compared to local administrations, thereby leading to 
an exodus of staff  from the latter. 

(g) 

In general the impact analysis must always ascertain that implementing partners have clear 
ideas of how to follow-up relief operations. Relief agencies should feel responsible for long-
term consequences of their actions and for ensuring a smooth transition to the post relief  -
operations even if it involves other agencies or organisations. 

Once an impact  analysis with these and other  elements  has been  carried  out  (within  the time 
and the resources  available),  account  can be taken  of  longer term objectives  in the  planning 
and implementation of each relief operation. This in turn will help relief donors, implementing 
agencies  and  field  workers  to  keep the  long-term  perspective  in mind  from  the start  of  each 
"relief  operation". 

Once  the  routine  of  solid  impact  analyses  are  available,  the  Commission  will  be  in  much 
better position to work out a "Relief  Code of Good  Practices" aimed at improving  all  aspects 
of  relief  work. 

1.6 

Organisational  Aspects 

However,  a  detailed  impact  analysis  and  the  formulation  of  clear  goals  can  not  be  done  in 
isolation.  The  organisations  involved  and  their  staff  must  be  equipped 
to  carry  out  these 
tasks. 

First  of  all,  relief  and  development  staff  need  guidance  and  training  so  that  long-term 
consequences  of  relief  for  development  becomes  a natural  reflex  in  preparation  of  all  relief 
actions. 

When  dealing with  crises-ridden  countries, in countries with severe structural  imbalances,  in 
countries  which  are  prone  to  ethnic  problems  and  in  countries  often  affected  by  natural 
disasters, the Commission  is in the process of creating Task Forces as a flexible  coordination 
structure,  composed  of  officials  dealing  with  humanitarian  aid  and  with  longer-term 
programmes.  Planning  of relief,  rehabilitation,  reconstruction  and  development  programmes 
should  be  considered  by  the  Task  Force,  and  its  members  should  be  informed  of  individual 
actions  in  this  context  before  they  are  submitted  for  decision.  Follow-up  links  must  be 
recorded  in  an  accessible  form  and  discussed  at  regular  intervals.  Regarding  assistance  to 
refugees,  internally  displaced  persons  and  returnees  in third  countries,  the  Commission  has 
already  set up  a permanent  internal  coordination  structure. 

In  a more  general  way the Commission,  in its meeting  of 20 September  1995 has  asked  its 
services  responsible  for  different  instruments  in the external  relations  field  to  carry  on the 
efforts  already  made  in  the  area  of  coordination  in  order  to  ensure  maximum  coherence 
between  actions  financed  from  different  budget  lines. 

To  ensure  good  coordination,  not  only  between  Commission  services,  but  also  with 
implementing  partners,  relevant  NGOs  and  UN  agencies  responsible  for  relief  and/or 
rehabilitation and development should be invited to take active part in specially arranged open 
meetings of the Task Force.  The strategy  adopted for Liberia is an example of this.  Regular 
weekly  meetings  of the DG VIII  and ECHO  staff  dealing  with  Liberia  were  complemented 
by  quarterly  meetings  between  the Commission  and its main NGO and UN partners. 

Another vital  element to improve in the existing organisational  structure is coordination  with 
and in the field.  In crisis-ridden or crisis-prone countries EC Delegation staff  should  convene 
regular  coordination  meetings  with  ECHO  coordinators  and  local  representatives  and 
implementing  partners. 

Global coordination of all international relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction  efforts  at field 
level  is  of  utmost  importance.  If  the United  Nations  Department  of  Humanitarian  Affairs 
(DHA)  or  other  UN bodies  have  set up  effective  coordination  structures  at  field  level,  the 
Commission and other donors must make every effort  to take part and support such structures. 
Within  this  global  coordination  framework,  coordination  between  Commission  and Member 
States  will  take  place  as normal,  in the light  of  Council  resolution  of 2 December  1993 on 
procedures  for coordination  between  the Community  and its Member  States. In this  case the 
main  role  of  a Field  Task  Force  would  be to  keep  regular  contact  with  the Brussels  Task 
Force and vice-versa to ensure that all plans, initiatives and actions within the field  of relief, 
rehabilitation  and development  are properly  linked. 

On the other  hand, if in a given  crisis  situation  there is no appropriate global  coordination  in 
place  (between  actors  involved  in relief,  rehabilitation  and reconstruction),  the  Commission 
will have to coordinate  the activities  funded  by the Community. This should be done by the 
Field  Task  Force  in  an  open-ended  manner  together,  to  the  largest  extent  possible,  with 
interested  EU Member  States,  other  donors, UN and other  relief  agencies,  NGOs  and  local 
structures.  The EC Aid Coordination  office  in Monrovia  is a good  example  of  a "one stop 
shop"  for  aid to the victims  of the crisis  in Liberia. 

Finally,  the  Task  Force  in  Brussels  should 
take  steps  in  a  similar  way  to  ensure  proper 
coordination of all plans and initiatives with other donors, especially the relevant EU Member 
States. 

This proposal for the setting up of task forces does not apply only to countries in which crises 
have erupted  but also to disaster prone countries  throughout the RRD continuum. 

2. 

REHABILITATION  -  POST CRISIS  ASSISTANCE 

Rehabilitation may be defined  as an overall, dynamic and intermediate strategy of institutional 
reform  and reinforcement,  of reconstruction  and  improvement  of infrastructure  and  services, 
supporting the initiatives  and actions of the populations  concerned,  in the political,  economic 
and social domaines, and aimed towards the resumption of sustainable development.  People -
both victims  and participants  in violent conflicts  - must be reintegrated  into civil society,  in 
its  economic,  social  and  political  aspects. 
In  other  words,  the  human  dimension  is  an 
essential feature of rehabilitation.  At this stage it is most feasible  to ensure integration of the 
gender dimension.  Attention should  also be paid here to the changed roles and  circumstances 
of men and women,  and the need  to address  such  issues  if social  integration  is to take place. 

Rehabilitation  can also play an  important role in those countries  on a path towards  peace but 
still suffering  sporadic conflict.  Rehabilitation  can build upon stable zones and aim to extend 
areas  of  peace. 

2.1 

Rebuilding  of  Civil  Society 

The  reconstruction  phase  of  a  country  which  has  undergone  a  period  of  conflict  must 
necessarily  include the reestablishment  of  the rule of  law and  civil  society.  One of  the  key 
elements  is  the  rapid  installation  of  a government  and  administration  able  to  inspire  public 
confidence  and trust and to reestablish  economic activities, health and education systems  etc. 

Such  an  administration  must  be  regarded  by  its  citizens  as  serving  all  groups,  in  order  to 
allay  the  inevitable  tensions  which  will  continue  to  exist  during  such  a  period.  From  the 
outset,  it  is  therefore  essential  that  these  aspects  are  not under-estimated,  as  they  will  have 
a  determining  influence  on  the  reconstruction  of  the  country  itself. 

On  the  basis  of  these  preconditions,  reconstruction  efforts  should  be  built  around  the 
following  axes: 

2.1.1  Reconstruction  and functioning  of  the  rule of law 

Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  certain  guiding  principles  on  which  the  rule  of  law 
should  be  built,  that  is, the  separation  of  powers; respect  for  the  rules  of  good  management 
of  public  affairs  with  a view  to  legality  and  transparency;  the  establishment  of  institutional 
mechanisms  accepted  by  the  main  actors,  including  the  importance  of  clear  laws  and  of 
institutions  which  are accessible to the public,  and respect for  universally  recognised  human 
rights, specifically  including recognition  of the rights  of minority  groups.  It may be that  the 
laws which were in force  prior to the conflict  can be utilised,  provided they are reestablished 
within  a framework  of  national  consensus. 

On  the  basis  of  the  particular  situation  in  each  country,  priorities  should  be  established 
concerning  the  specific  actions  to  be  put  in  place.  Amongst  these,  particular  importance 
should  be  given  to  the  effective  and  independent  administration  of  justice  (cf.  actions  in 
favour  of  Rwanda).  This  aspect  is  fundamental  to the  reestablishment  of  public  confidence 
and to allow them to rebuild their lives  in an environment where they do not feel under threat. 

2.1.2  Development of  Political  Dialogue  and Public  Participation 

As a basic prerequisite of  democracy,  the development of political  dialogue should  not  await 
the  arrival  of  better  times  before  being  put  in  place.  From  the  very  beginning,  particular 
attention  must  be given  to  allow  various  groups  and  minorities  to  express  themselves. 
Questions such as freedom  of association, or the encouragement of political parties should  be 
included  in  the  political  agenda  as  quickly  as  possible  in  order  that  the  new  administration 
possesses  the necessary transparency.  Political  dialogue and public participation  can only  be 
achieved  if civil and human rights  are guaranteed, including the opportunity  for both men and 
women  to  participate on  equal  terms. 

At the  same time,  it is necessary  to  carry  out  actions  aimed  at effective  public  participation 
in  the  exercise  of  power,  through  elections  e.g.  Mozambique,  South  Africa,  as  well  as 
economic  participation  in  the  costs  and  benefits  of  development.  In this  context,  actions  in 
the  field  of  freedom  of  expression  and  independence  of  the  media  allowing  unbiased  and 
informative  reporting  are  essential  to  allow  the  forging  of  public  opinion  and  may  have 
positive  repercussions  in  reducing  any  continuing  tensions.  In  addition,  it will  be  useful  to 
undertake  actions  in  the  areas  of  training,  civic  education,  support  to  associations, 
decentralised  cooperation  etc. 

All the actions described  above clearly  apply not only in the context of rebuilding  of the civil 
society,  but  also  in  all  situations  of  transition  towards  democracy,  even  when  not  preceded 
by  a  period  of  armed  conflict.  The  actions  may  also  extend  beyond  the  period  of 
reconstruction  itself  and  be  incorporated  into  longer  term  development  plans.  Such  actions 
are  essential  if  external  assistance  is  to  have  a sustainable  impact  in the  long  term. 

Community  actions  in these  areas  can  only  play  a catalytic role in  assisting  governments  to 
start  the  ball  rolling.  It  will  however,  be  up  to  the  latter  to  internalise  the  process.  These 
issues  should  therefore  be  the  subject  of  dialogue  set  up  with  each  government  when 
rehabilitation  and  development  actions  are being planned,  and must be taken  into  account  in 
the global  policy  framework. 

One section of the public which may require particular attention in post conflict  situations  are 
the  ex-combatants.  Their  demobilisation  and  reintegration  into  civilian  life  may  be 
particularly  difficult  in  countries  which  have  suffered  long  periods  of  civil  war,  and  where 
it may  take  some  time to  achieve  demilitarisation  and  a removal  of  the  "culture  of  killing". 
Ex-combatant reintegration schemes should preferably take place in parallel with  programmes 
to  resettle  returnees  and  refugees,  in order  to remove  any  impression  that the fact  of  having 
carried  arms  gives  any  right  to  priority  treatment.  Schemes  to  encourage  ex-combatants  to 
give up  their  weapons  have  not  generally  been  very  successful,  and  it  may  be  preferable  to 
concentrate  on  creating  conditions  under  which  weapons  are  not  used  even  though  they 
remain  in  private  hands.  Particular  attention  may  be  required  where  the  ex-comb attants  are 
women  and/or  children. 

2.1.3  The  particular case  of  anti-personnel  mines 

Responsible  for  the  daily  loss  of  human  life,  anti-personnel  mines  constitute  a  serious 
hindrance to the development  of the regions  affected:  they  are an obstacle to the  repatriation 

of  refugees  and  displaced  persons, to the utilisation  of  arable  land  and to the functioning  of 
infrastructure. 

Demining,  even  if  it  is  often  considered  as  a  rehabilitation  activity,  may  also  well  have  a 
humanitarian  character  or  be  a component  of  a  long term  development  process. 

Furthermore,  demining  is  a  political  priority  for  the  European  Union,  as  witnessed  by  the 
common  action  recently  adopted  within  the  CFSP  framework. 
In  view  of  the  magnitude  of  the  problem,  it would  seem  particularly  important  to  aim  at  a 
more  global  coordinated  approach  and  the  continuity  of  the  different  interventions,  in 
particular  in countries  where humanitarian,  rehabilitation  and development  activities  coexist. 

The  existence  of  rules  and  procedures  ensuring  the  necessary  rapidity  and  flexibility  of  the 
interventions, whilst facilitating the development of local capacities and guaranteeing a longer 
term  donor  commitment,  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  efforts  to  increase  coordination  and 
complementarity. 

2.2 

How  can rehabilitation  form  a bridge between  relief  and development 

In  order  that  rehabilitation  can  contribute  towards  the  continuity  of  the  transition  from  the 
emergence  from  serious  crisis  to  the  resumption  of  development,  certain  essential  elements 
of  the  "continuum"  must  be  in  place  at  the  time  of  the  transition  period,  in  particular  the 
existence  of  a  minimum  level  of  security,  and  the  commencement  of  a  transition  process 
which  respects  democratic  values  and  fundamental  freedoms.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to 
insist  on three  principles: 

rehabilitation  should  be  implemented  in  a way  which  is  determined  by  the 
situation  of  each  country  concerned  (duration,  priorities,  gender  issues) 
rehabilitation  should  be  of  a  transitional  nature,  and  in  principle  of  limited 
duration, although specific situations may require interventions  of longer term; 
rehabilitation  should  not simply  aim for  a return  to the previous  situation  but 
should  prepare,  not  necessarily  in  a  linear  way  for  the  resumption  of 
sustainable development  in a better way than before  and taking account  of the 
lessons  learned  from  the  crisis. 

Wherever  possible,  rehabilitation  should  build  upon  the  achievements  of  humanitarian 
assistance by  (i)  avoiding  a significant  deterioration  in  services  and  infrastructure  to  which 
populations  have  had  access  during  the  crisis  period  and  (ii)  by  conserving  and  improving 
local  expertise utilised  or  created  during  the  crisis  period. 

Rehabilitation  should,  however,  aim  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  any  perverse  effects  of 
humanitarian aid by (i) progressively removing the economic substitution role of humanitarian 
aid,  (ii)  removing  as  soon  as  possible the  system  of free  distribution  of goods  and  services 
in  favour  of  a  system  of  paying  at  minimum  costs,  particularly  for  those  which  can  be 
produced  locally  and  (iii)  supporting  actions  in  favour  of  vulnerable  groups  (demobilised 
soldiers, orphans, female  heads  of family,  the handicapped) with the aim of reinserting  them 
into  economic  and  social  life.  In  this  light  rehabilitation  should  also  take  into  account  the 

psychological  effects  of  exposure  to  violence,  in  particular  on  children. 

In  designing  rehabilitation  programmes,  four  factors  should  be  borne  in  mind  to  maximise 
their  contribution  to the  transition  process: 

(i)  "leverage  effect" 

Choose  actions  which  are balanced  geographically  and  sectorally,  taking  account  of 
changes  which  have  taken  place  during  the  crises  (displacement  of  population  etc). 
Reorient,  complete  and accelerate  through  rehabilitation  actions,  the  implementation 
of  development  programmes  already  underway  in the basic  and  productive  sectors. 
Give priority,  in those areas which  lend themselves to it, to methods which  maximise 
the involvement  of the local population (microprojects,  food  for work), and make use 
of  small  scale  credit  for  the  private  sector. 
Put  in  place  appropriate  technical  assistance  both  at  the  level  of  projects  and 
programmes  and  at  the  general  level  (priority  sectors,  overall  management).  This 
support  is  especially  required  for  the  management  of  programmes  by  beneficiary 
government  and  NGO  structures. 

(ii)  "critical  mass" 

Make available, in a timely way through donor coordination financial  resources, taking 
into  account  macro-economic  forecasts. 
Implement  accelerated  and  flexible  procedures  to  limit  the  period  of  "intensive" 
rehabilitation  during  which  certain  benchmarks  should  be  attained. 
Decide,  on  the  basis  of  the  situation  in  each  country,  the  priority  sectors,  bearing  in 
mind that institutional strengthening, reconstruction and rehabilitation of  infrastructure, 
and  the  supply  of  essential  goods  and  services  for  the rehabilitation  period  are  those 
linked  to  production,  notably  agriculture,  and  health/sanitation,  primary  education, 
access  to  land,  demining  and  demobilisation. 

(iii)  "continuity  of  partners" 

more  support  for  the  longer  term  operations  of  international  and  local  NGO's  which 
were present at the time of the humanitarian crisis, by associating those which are able 
to  do  so  with  the  programming  of  rehabilitation  funds,  in  the  basic  sectors,  and  by 
insisting during implementation on an approach emphasising viability of actions  in the 
medium  term  and  use  of  local  structures. 
support basic  community  groups which have survived the crisis  (village  associations, 
women's  groups,  producer  groups,  local  administrations). 
support  the  restructuring  of  administration  in  the  priority  sectors  necessary  for  the 
planning  and  management  of  rehabilitation  and  long term  development  programmes, 
support  for  restructuring  of  administrations  by concentrating  actions  on those  sectors 
able  to  support  the  process  of  return  to  peace and  those  able to  give  to  the  State  the 
minimal  means  of  action,  notably  at the  macro-economic  and  public  finance  levels. 

10 

(iv)  " a phased  approach" 

programme  and  finance  actions on the basis  of sectoral or geographic  "channels"  e.g. 
from  supply  of  medicines  under  emergency  aid  to  the  reorganisation  of  essential 
medical supplies, redeployment of human resources and rehabilitation of health centres 
during  rehabilitation;  integration  and  development  of  these  centres  within  the  health 
pyramid  when  development  aid recommences. 
give  priority  to  social  viability  (assimilation)  and  seek,  in  the  first  instance,  micro-
economic  viability. 
consider,  during  the  various  phases  of  aid  programming,  rehabilitation  actions  as 
important  elements  in  the  definition  of  the priority  sectors  for  support, 
integrate  into  the  approach  the  policy  elements  relating  to  the  campaign  against 
poverty and the macroeconomic context to which the country should evolve by the end 
of  the  rehabilitation  period. 
provide  a  conducive  environment  for  the  recovery  of  production  and  trade;  initial 
activities  under  the  macroeconomic  framework  should  focus  upon  ensuring  the 
functioning  of  basic  exchange,  trade  and  banking  services  and  on  rebuilding 
institutions  for  basic  macroeconomic  management. 
determine  the  conditionality  criteria  which  are  necessary  for  the  success  of  the 
rehabilitation  programme  and  with  a  view  to  the  recommencement  of  development 
(political,  economic  or  specific  eg.  demining)  and  make  them  effective  through 
dialogue  on  (sectoral)  policies. 

• 

3 

HOW CAN DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS TAKE BETTER ACCOUNT OF THE RISK 
OF EMERGENCIES: EMERGENCY ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT OPERATIONS 

3.1 

The  macro-economic  context 

Violent  conflicts  and  natural  disasters  can  wreck  development  plans.  The  explicit 
consideration  of  the  risk  of  natural  and  manmade  disasters  when  formulating  development 
programmes  can  greatly  increase  their  chances  of  success. 

In  practice,  however,  such  risks  have  in  general  not  been  considered  explicitly  in  macro-
economic planning, nor in the preparation of structural adjustment  programmes.  Yet, a recent 
study on crises forcing  the adoption of IMF stabilisation  programmes  in Africa  indicates  that 
drought  or other  natural  disasters  had  been  "an important,  perhaps  dominant"  factor  in  over 
one third  of  these  programmes. 

At the macroeconomic  level  three basic  principles  should  therefore  be borne  in  mind: 

(i) 

(ii) 

economic  reform  programmes  should  take  account  of  the  vulnerability  of 
countries  to  disasters,  natural  or  manmade.  This  should  influence  both  the 
pace  of  reform  and  flexibility  in the utilisation  of  performance  indicators. 
good economic management in countries prone to disasters requires  systematic 
provision  for  resources  and  capacities  to  improve  disaster  preparedness.  This 
should  be  reflected  in  the  government  budget  and  taken  into  account  when 
preparing  economic  reform  programmes. 
economic  reform  programmes  must  ensure  that  basic  social  services  (health, 
education,  water  supply  and  sanitation)  continue to receive  adequate  funding. 

11 

For the  Community,  this  also means  that risk  and vulnerability  should be taken  into  account 
in programming  of  Community  assistance. 

The following  sections  look in more detail  at practical ways of addressing the risk of  natural 
and  manmade  disasters  in development  policies  on  a sectoral  basis. 

3.2 

The sectoral  context 

In  practice,  all  sectors  must  deal  with  risk  and  vulnerability.  Here,  two  sectors  -  food  and 
health  - are given  as examples, bearing  in mind their particular  importance within the  LRRD 
context. 

3.2.1 

The  Food Sector: Food Aid  and Food Security 

3.2.1.1 

General  Orientations 

The Community food aid and food security contributions are growing in importance within its development aid policy 
and the Development  Council Resolution  of 25 November  1994 has confirmed  the following  orientations: 

integration  of the  role  of  food  aid  as  one  component  of  long term  food  security  (at  household, 
national  and regional levels)  in food  insecure countries; 

the inclusion of food security policies within the general framework  of poverty alleviation and their 
long term impact in  development; 

the need for  sectoral policies to meet food  security  objectives  and to develop coherent  long term 
food  security  strategies; 

the reinforcement  of the linkage  between emergency, rehabilitation and  development  operations; 

3.2.1.2 

Emergency-Rehabilitation-Development:  a dynamic approach to 
food  crises. 

Community  food  aid  and  food  security  operations  are  frequently  confronted  with  complex 
situations  in  which  different  types  of  crisis  exist  alongside  one  another.  These  reflect  the 
extent  to  which  the  conditions  of  supply  (availability  of  supplies  in  the  marketplace)  and 
demand  (level  of  income giving  access  to food)  have deteriorated.  A simple  structural  food 
shortfall  combined  with  balance  of  payments  difficulties  can  quickly  turn  into  a situation  of 
endemic  poverty  where  the population  is  totally  dependent  on  aid  for  its  survival. 

Food  security  should  therefore  be  defined,  not  in  static,  but  in  dynamic  terms,  as  a  set  of 
supply and  demand conditions  (availability of food  and access to it) providing a starting point 
from which urban and rural households can begin to build up reserves (stocks, cattle, savings), 
develop  more reliable  means  of  production  or ways  of  increasing  their  income  and  organise 
a  more  reliable  social  safety  net.  The  upshot  of  all  of  these  steps  is  to  reduce  people's 
vulnerability  to food  crises.  Below  a certain threshold,  however, urban and rural  households 
are obliged  to  eat into their reserves, fall  back on their support  network  or even  sell off  their 
means  of  production  -  in  short,  increase  their  level  of  vulnerability. 

Above  this  threshold,  people  are  embarked  on  a  development  pattern,  which  well-designed 

12 

aid  (which  does  not  include  food  aid  in  kind)  can  help to  speed  up. 

Below  this  threshold,  however,  a process  of  impoverishment  takes  place which  can  lead  to 
economic and social degradation, extreme dependency and increased mortality, which become 
more  difficult  to  reverse, the  longer  it  is  allowed  to continue.  This  is the  prevention  or  risk 
reduction  phase.  At this  stage, food  aid  and food  security operations  should  aim  at reducing 
the  level  of  social  and  economic  vulnerability  to  food  crises, which  in  turn  will  reduce  the 
risk of food  emergencies.  Rapidity is crucial as ill-considered  or belated responses can  result 
in  greater  dependence.  The  lack  of  success  in  reversing  the  tide  of  growing  dependence, 
caused by increasing social breakdown, partly explains why a number of cases have remained 
bogged  down  at the  humanitarian  aid  stage. 

The  rehabilitation  phase  consists  of  restoring  productive  capacities  and  providing  everyone 
with  a  certain  access  to  basic  means  of  production  (lands,  seeds,  tools).  In  view  of  the 
complexity  of crises, only  interventions  which  are adapted  to each type of crisis  can  provide 
an adequate response to crises of different  natures.  No food  aid and food  security  action  can 
be viable  if  it  is  not  closely  associated  with  development  operations  capable  of  reactivating 
the process  of  income  creation  and  development.  For this  reason, it is  essential  to establish 
a global  policy  framework  and common strategy. 

3.2.1.3  Food Security  in the framework  of  Prevention/Mitigation of  food  crises 

Economic  instability  within  some countries  can lead to food  insecurity  and  eventually  social 
conflict.  Such "potentially at risk" countries merit particular attention and should be the target 
of measures which contribute towards improved food  security. Such measures essentially  aim 
at  promoting  household  food  security  at  local,  national  and  regional  levels;  they  thereby 
permit  a reduction  in vulnerability  during times of crisis and facilitate  the implementation  of 
rehabilitation  and  development  operations.  Gender  issues  are of  particular  importance  due 
to  the  potential  for  disaster  in  the  absence  of  a  system  of  distribution  which  effectively 
reaches  the  intended  beneficiary  population. 

Amongst the food  security  assistance programmes  which  can contribute to crisis  prevention, 
one may  cite: 

village  food  stocks  as  well  as  national  and  regional  food  security  stocks; 

actions  in support  of  emergency  planning;  livestock  production;  rural  credit; 
added  value  to  local  production;  risk  reduction  mechanisms;  support  to 
agricultural policies; promotion of private sector;  local and interregional trade; 

labour  intensive  projects,  employment  generation  schemes 

establishment  of  information  systems  (data  bases,  early  warning  systems) 
which  principally  aim  at detection  of food  crises  sufficiently  early  to  be  able 
to  supply  food  aid  in  a timely  way. 

One of the key elements for  crisis prevention and for the efficiency  of assistance  programmes 

13 

(emergency  aid,  rehabilitation)  is  the  availability  and  quality  of  Information  Systems.  The 
collection,  processing  and  distribution  of  information  and  analyses  of  higher  risk  countries 
allows for the strengthening of early warning capacity and  the identification  of the best  form 
of  responce  to  be  provided. 

The  Commission  intends  to  expand  for  the  most  food  insecure  countries,  its  capacity  to 
collect,  process  and  analyse  information  through  the establishment  of  information  networks 
which will  be based  on i)  existing  information  systems  and  ii) a European  team  of  experts. 
The  aim  of  the  system  is  to  provide  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  relevant  information  for 
decision  making  at the time  of  crises. 

3.2.1.4 

Organisational/Procedural  Aspects 

Community  policy  in the area of food  aid  is structured  around  (i) the integration  of food  aid 
as a long term  food  security  instrument  within the overall  of the Community's  development 
policy  framework;  and  (ii) the  insertion  of  food  aid  as one of  the  elements  of  humanitarian 
aid  policy. 

The  division  of  responsibilities  between  the  different  services,  both  from  the viewpoints  of 
Community  development  policy  and  that  of  humanitarian  aid  is  based  on  the  following 
principles: 

food  aid actions which are specifically  humanitarian in character are under the 
responsibility  of  ECHO; 

food  aid  actions  of  a  developmental  or  structural  character,  support  for  food 
security  or other food  aid  actions which  include a developmental  element,  are 
implemented  by  the  Food  Aid/Food  Security  Unit  in  agreement  with  the 
competent  geographical  services; 

in  case  of  serious  food  crises  or  humanitarian  crises  with  an  important  food 
element,  the entirety  of  Community  aid  instruments will  contribute towards  a 
intervention,  such  intervention  being  assured  by  the  Food 
coordinated 
Aid/Food  Security  Unit  in  the  case  of  food  crises,  and  by  ECHO  for 
humanitarian  crises. 

a permanent coordinating  mechanism is ensured between the services  in order 
to  guarantee  a maximum  coherence  and  coordination,  and  to  permit  the  most 
efficient  and  smooth  transition  between  humanitarian  actions  and  those  of 
rehabilitation  and  development. 

Presently  existing  arrangements  allow  for  the  establishment  of  a  policy  framework,  or  a 
common  strategy  well  suited  to  the  reality  of  each  country,  the  establishment  of  a body  of 
procedures  for  appraisal,  management  and  follow-up,  as  well  as  the  build  up  of  internal 
expertise  in  areas  as  complex  and  diverse  as  early warning  systems,  harvest  estimates,  food 
product  markets  (Community  and  international),  transport,  storage,  etc. 

In the present situation,  it is necessary  to progressively  harmonise structures  and  procedures 

14 

for  management,  control  and follow-up  of all food  aid/food  security operations.  The  unified 
nature of our  policy,  the common  regulatory  framework,  a coherent  overall  strategy  adapted 
to  each  geographical  area  should  ensure  a coherent  approach  for  our  interventions,  the  best 
use  of  resources,  the  reinforcement  of  expertise  within  the  Commission  as  well  as  the 
improved effectiveness  and efficiency  of Community aid, notably within the RRD continuum. 

3.2.2 

The  Health Sector 

Health  is  at the  centre of  all  emergency  situations  (natural  disasters  or man-made  conflicts). 
Reliefs  primary objective  is to cover essential needs of populations  affected  by crisis:  saving 
lives  and  reducing  human  suffering  through  appropriate  medical  care  is  a basic  component 
of  this  relief  strategy.  The  nature  and  quality  of  response  to basic  health  care  needs  linked 
with  emergency  situations  will  depend  on  effectiveness  of  existing  health  structures: 
weaknesses  in  terms  of  organisation  of  health  services,  availability  of  essential  médecines 
(including  vaccines)  could  make  the  crisis  worse  (for  instance  influence  the  spread  of 
epidemics). Also  inequity  or  inaccessibility  to health  services  for  important  segments  of  the 
population  could  lead  to  social  discontent  and  eventually  to  civil  unrest.  In  this  context  the 
need  for  early  gender  analysis  to  identify  differing  needs  and  constraints  is  acknowledged. 

Moreover,  poor  conditions  or  performance  in  terms  of  environmental  health  (for  instance 
limited access to water and sanitation, poor housing conditions or structural malnutrition) will 
also  constitute  aggravating  factors  in  emergency  situations. 

Structural  support to the health sector should therefore  take into account more  systematically 
prevention  and  management  of  emergency  situations. 

3.2.2.1 

General  Orientations 

In the  health  sector,  the  new  policy  orientations  and  strategic  priorities  laid  down  for  the  Community  and  Member 
States  (Council  Resolution  of  May  1994)  are  based  upon  the  following  essential  objectives: 

-  support  to  the  development  of  an  environment  more  favourable  to  health 

- support  to the organisation  of health  systems with priority  to the  development  of basic and  primary  health 

services 

-  strengthening  of  preventive  activities 

-  more  rational  and  equitable  mobilisation  of  national  resources 

-  support  to  institutional  reform  through  reinforcement  both  at  central  level  (planning,  legislation, 
management)  and  at  regional  and  local  level  in  order  to  improve  national  health  coverage 

-  support  to  community  initiatives  in  health 

Through  actions  in  support  of  these  objectives,  more  emphasis  should  be given  in  assisting 
countries  to: 

-  better  identify  risks  and  risk  factors,  foresee  the  onset  of  crisis  or  emergency 
situations 

15 

-  prevent  the outbreak  of  crises  or  reduce the  extent of  emergency  situations. 

-  facilitate  and  accelerate  the return  to  a normal  situation  after  the crisis. 

3.2.2.2 

Better identify  the risks and foresee  crisis  situations 

This  consists  essentially,  through  the transfer  of  knowledge  and experience, of  methods  and 
techniques, and through permanent dialogue, to help countries to build up their own capacities 
to  analyse  situations,  evaluate  and  foresee  risks  and  future  prospects.  Depending  upon  the 
particular  requirements  of  each  country,  particular  assistance  can  be  given  to  the  following 
elements: 

(i)  development  of  epidemiological  surveillance,  establishment  of  health  information 
systems  and  early  warning  systems. 

Such support aims to assist the country to plan and implement simple low cost systems, which 
are  sufficient 
to  collect,  process  and  distribute  epidemiological  data  (also  including 
demographic data, sociological  information,  data on health services, nutritional situation etc). 
At  the  same  time  it  consists,  particularly  through  training  programmes,  to  develop  local 
capacity  to  analyse  data  and  foresee  risks. 

(ii) development of capacity to identify  risk factors  and the most vulnerable areas  and 
populations:  specific  attention  should  be  paid  on population  in urban  settings  and  to 
the urban  poor  in  particular,  as well  as the  specific  needs  of women  and  children. 

This  implies  the  development  of  national  research  capacity  through  training,  institutional 
support,  and  more  direct  organisational  support  and  financing  of  studies  and  surveys. 

3.2.2.3 

Contribute  to prevent the outbreak of  crises  and/or reduce the extent 
of  emergency  situations 

Efforts  should  be  directed  to  reduce  the  factors  and  sources  of  risk  and  to  improve  the 
organisational  capacities  to  respond  more  rapidly  and  efficiently  in  crisis  or  emergency 
situations. 

In the  short  term: 

- support to the establishment of basic structure, methodologies and means to intervene 
rapidly  in  epidemic  situations.  Methodologies  for  rapid  assessments  of  health  needs 
in emergency situations have been developed by different  organisations  (ICRC, WHO 
etc..)  which  should  be  disseminated  at  country  level  for  appropriation  by  relevant 
national  authorities. 

In the medium  term: 

-  to  encourge  social  cohesion  through  improved  physical  and  financial  accessibility 
to  health  services.  In  this  context,  support  to  the  efficient  supply  and  distribution 
channels  for  essential  medicines,  including  vaccines  could  improve  the  quality  of 

16 

response to emergencies, (epidemics...).  At the same time support to  decentralisation 
and  to  district  health  policy  allows  an  improved  health  coverage  in  times  of  crisis, 
enabling  minimum  supplies of  services  to be guaranteed  (e.g. Zaire).  Further  efforts 
should  be developed  to improve  access  and  coverage  in periurban  areas,  taking  into 
account  gender  and  child  specific  needs. 

In the  long  term: 

- to  create  a more  favourable  environment  for  health,  to  develop  primary  prevention 
e.g.  by  improving  access  to  drinking  water,  nutrition  standards,  urban  development, 
education,  promotion  of women  etc. 

3.2.2.4 

Facilitate  the  return to  a "normal" situation 

Rehabilitation  and  development  strategies  in a post  emergency  situation  should  be based  on 
an  analysis  of  the  health  sector  in  order  to: 

- identify  weaknesses  in the structure, organisation and performance  of health  systems 
brought  to  light  during  crisis  situations 

-  evaluate the responses  and  actions  financed  during  emergency  situations  as well  as 
the roles  and  performance  of the different  actors  (Government  - NGO  -  international 
organisations). 

On  the basis  of  this  information,  a rehabilitation  strategy  can be sketched  out covering  long 
term  requirements  for  restructuring  the  sector  (improvement  of  environmental  health 
organisation  of the health  system,  medicines,  human  resources)  as well  as  immediate  needs 
to  respond  to  demand  for  health  services.  This  may  imply  the  follow-up  of  assistance, 
financed  under  emergency  aid,  notably  through  NGO's  adapting  their  programmes  and 
strategies  towards  restructuring  of  the  health  system. 

4. 

MAN-MADE  EMERGENCIES  : A  POLITICAL APPROACH3 

The  process  of  economic  development  necessarily  involves  social  and  political  changes, 
superimposed upon often rapidly evolving demographic and environmental situations.  In such 
a dynamic process, the costs an benefits  of change may be unequally  distributed  amongst  the 
population.  In the absence of specific  mechanisms to address the grievances of groups which 
perceive they have been adversely  affected,  and means to deal with such issues, tensions  can 

3  This section contains some relevant key ideas of the Communication from the Commission to the 
Council on "The European Union and the issue of conflicts in Africa: Peace-building, conflict prevention and 
beyond", adopted by the Commission on 6 March 1996. 

17 

rapidly  build  up,  often  aggravated  by  natural  disasters,  ethnic  differences  or  economic 
dislocations.  In such circumstances these tensions can easily degenerate into violent  conflict. 

The  growing  number  of  violent  conflicts  since  the  end  of  the  cold  war  represents  a  major 
challenge to the international community. Most of these conflicts  are intra-state wars, directed 
mainly  against  civilians  and  often  fought  by  militias  that  are  difficult  to  control.  These 
conflicts  result  in  increasing  human  suffering  and  loss  of  life,  the  creation  of  massive 
movements of refugees,  devastating  effects  on local and regional economies  as well as on the 
environment,  and  serious  threats  to  the viability  of  neighbouring  countries  and  populations. 
They  can  even  lead  to  the  implosion  of  states  and  major  humanitarian  tragedies. 

Even  though  the  means  available  to  the  European  Union  are  limited  compared  to  the 
magnitude of the task of effectively  preventing, managing, and resolving violent conflicts, the 
Union  should  aspire  to maximise  its  leverage  through  an  optimal  use  of  its  instruments  and 
resources.  This  approach  should  be  pro-active  because the  European  Union  has  not only  an 
important  interest  but  also  an  important  potential  for  actively  addressing  this  issue.  The 
approach  should  be  comprehensive  in  so  far  as  the  European  Community,  within  its 
competencies, should  address  the entire  cycle  of  conflict  and peace. 

While  the  European  Union  has  to  be  prepared  to  respond  to  situations  of  violent  conflicts 
rapidly and in a reasonable manner, it goes without saying that effectively  preventing  conflicts 
is  better  than  responding  to  their  consequences.  As  no  amount  of  humanitarian  aid  and  no 
effective  peace-keeping  operation  will  solve  a  crisis  of  peace  and  security,  justice  and 
resources  in  a  sustainable  way,  there  is  a need  to  try  to  go  beyond  ad-hoc  decisions  and  a 
policy  of  damage  limitation.  Furthermore,  responding  to  the  effects  of  violent  conflicts  has 
become  an  extremely  costly  endeavour. 
In view of all these  considerations, the prevention of violent conflicts  should be at the centre 
of a comprehensive response of the European Union towards the problem of violent  conflicts. 

Given  the  complexity  of  the  issue  of  conflicts,  an  analytical  distinction  between  different 
situations  of  conflict  and  peace  seems  helpful.  While  in  each  of  these  situations  specific 
measures  move  to  the  forefront,  it  should  be  clear  that  in  practice,  there  is  no  clear-cut 
dividing line between the different  situations  and different  measures. As it will be  impossible 
to develop an overall blueprint for  action, the following  survey of measures that the European 
Community  could take, support or advocate  is  intended  as  a general  political  orientation. 

Situation without obvious tension 
This is the situation where the country is seemingly stable and largely quiet but where (structural) 
sources of potential  conflict  may be  discerned. For example, the  constant  marginalisation  of an 
important minority or the use of repressive instruments in the absence of effective  mechanisms for 
the peaceful  conciliation  of divergent group interests. 
Immediate aims 

Peace-building: Establishment  - under respect  of democracy and 
fundamental  human  rights  - of viable political  and  socio-economic 
structures (mechanisms of peaceful  conciliation of interests, viable 
democratic models and so on). 
Targeted assistance incl. training, education, social and economic 
cohesion, strengthening human and social development, democracy 
building, good governance and civil society, institution building etc., 
political dialogue, watching changes, voicing concerns. 

Instruments 

18 

Situation of tension 
This  is the situation  where  conflict  in  society  become  clearly  apparent  (social  unrest,  armed 
opposition, mass demonstrations etc.). The gravity of the situation depends not only on the events 
themselves but also on the existing political and power structures (Is the 'opposition' able to present 
negotiable demands? Is the government in a position to fulfil  them? And so on). 
Immediate aims Conflict  prevention (in the strict sense): Reduction of tensions; prevention of 

full  outbreak of hostilities. 

Instruments  Political dialogue with the parties concerned  (missions, preventive diplomacy); 

advocacy of specific  measures (incl. preventive deployment of troops) and/or of 
specific  solutions to the problems; (threat of) sanctions; deployment of observers; 
own and contribution to other humanitarian / emergency aid (also to prevent 
refugee flows for economic reasons). Peace-building measures could continue to 
apply and could even be intensified.  They will have most effect  if targeted to the 
heart of the conflict  (easing the economic situation of a marginalized group while 
offering  assistance to the government to find a sustainable solution, for example). 

Open conflict 
Immediate aims  1 Conflict  management: Reducing the threat of vertical and horizontal  escalation 

Instruments 

(incl. the reduction of immediate human suffering  and the handling of the 
refugee problem). 
Threat of sanctions (incl. to third countries), political dialogue, own and 
contribution to other humanitarian / emergency aid, (advocacy of) preventive 
military intervention; observer missions. 

Immediate aims 2 Conflict  resolution: Ending the hostilities and starting peace 

Instruments 

negotiations. 
Sanctions, political dialogue, advocacy of specific  solutions, support for peace 
initiatives, (advocacy of) peace-enforcement. 

Post-conflict situation 
This is the situation where there is no longer organized armed violence. A cease-fire  or a peace 
agreement might of might not yet have been already signed. In any case, the consequences of the 
war are still present and obvious in a large part of the society (refugees and ex-combatants still in 
the progress of re-integration etc.), and it is still uncertain if the situation will deteriorate (back into 
the phase of tensions or open conflict) or improve (towards a situation without obvious tensions or 
structural stability). 
Immediate aims  Conflict  resolution / peace-building:  Successful  peace negotiations, return to 

normality 

Instruments  Demobilisation and disarmament, repatriation and re-integration, de-mining, 

post-conflict  relief  and humanitarian aid, rehabilitation, peace-building measures 
(see above), political dialogue, advocacy of specific  solutions, watching changes, 
confidence building measures, (support for) conflict  resolution  initiatives, re 
building of government structures. 

Central to a comprehensive  approach  and a more effective  engagement  in the field  of  conflict 
prevention  is  a  broad  definition  of  the  term:  "Conflict  prevention"  should  not  only  be 
understood  as  easing  a  situation  where  an  outbreak  of  violence  is  imminent  (  =  conflict 
prevention  in  a  narrow  sense)  but  also  as  preventing  the  occurrence  of  such  a  situation  (  = 
conflict  prevention in a wider sense). Activities of conflict  prevention  in a wider sense should 
be summarized under the term peace-building. Defined  as such, a policy of conflict  prevention 
would  apply  mainly  in  a  situation  of  tensions.  Peace-building  measures,  by  contrast,  could 
apply in all phases  of conflict  and  peace. However,  as peace-building measures  will  generally 
embrace  projects  and  programmes  with  the  longer-term  aim  of the  stabilization  of  societies, 
their  impact  will  be  greatest  in  non-violent  situations. 

19 

A  policy  of  peace-building  and  conflict  prevention  is  not  necessarily  dependent  on  the 
adoption  of  new  programs  or  the  creation  of  new  institutions.  First  and  foremost,  it 
necessitates  the  adaption  of  a peace-building  approach  in the sense that  all  measures  should 
take the structural  root-causes  of  violent  conflicts  into  consideration,  and  should  be  targeted 
at  the  stabilization  of  societies  ('targeted  assistance^,  in  particular  at  the  imbalance  of 
political  and  socio-economic  opportunities  between  different  (regional,  ethnic, religious  etc.) 
identity  groups  within  a  given  state,  the  absence  of  viable  mechanism  for  the  peaceful 
conciliation  of the divergent  interests  of these groups, the need for  a government  that  enjoys 
widespread  legitimacy  among  the  population,  and  for  consensus  on  key  'national'  issues. 

The  design  of  such  measures  or  programs  will  be greatly  facilitated  if  a  countrv-bv-countrv 
analysis  of  structural  root-causes  of conflicts  has  led  to the  establishment  of  comprehensive 
policy  frameworks  that  could  point  to  specific  measures  or  priority  areas  for  particular 
countries  and  regions,  be  it  in  a  stable  situation,  a situation  of  conflict  or  in  a  post-conflict 
situation. As peace and security are closely interlinked with economic and social  development, 
an  adequate  combination  of  political,  economic,  legal,  social,  environmental  and,  as  far  as 
helpful  and feasible,  also military  measures of stabilisation should be considered  within  these 
frameworks. 

The  establishment  of  comprehensive  policy  frameworks  will  be  facilitated  through  the 
adoption of an ultimate policy goal, a policy goal that gives a common header to the  different 
'economic'  and 'political' goals  (development,  democracy, human rights  etc.) of the  European 
Union's  policies. Given the fact  that (i) experience shows that lack of  development  is not the 
only  major  source of violent  conflict;  that (ii) the general EU foreign  policy  aims  that  can be 
deducted from the Treaties and the declarations of the European Council could be summarized 
as  helping  to  foster  peace  and  stability,  development,  democracy  and  the  respect  of  human 
rights; that  (iii)  those  aims  are  interdependent/mutually  re-enforcing;  and  that  (iv)  sustained 
development is  often  interpreted  in a narrow  economic  sense, the ultimate  policy  goal  could 
be  summarized  under  the term  structural  stability. 

Structural  stability  is to be understood  as  a term denoting  a dynamic situation,  a situation  of 
stability able to cope with the dynamics inherent in (emerging) democratic societies. Structural 
stability  could  thus  be  defined  as  a  situation  involving  sustainable  economic  development, 
democracy  and  respect  for  human  rights,  viable  political  structures,  and  healthy  social  and 
environmental  conditions,  with  the  capacity  to  manage  change  without  to  resort  to  violent 
conflict.  Working towards structural stability would mean the targeted reinforcement of those 
factors  that enable  peaceful  change. 
Operating  with  the  term  structural  stability  in  no  way  implies  a  major  departure  from  the 
current policies of the European Union. As it goes without saying that economic  development 
and prosperity  are major  factors  for  ensuring non-violent  change, sustainable development is 
a central  objective  for the attainment of  structural  stability. 
Operating  with  the  term  structural  stability  rather  means  to  give  expression  to  the  fact  that 
working towards  economic development  alone is insufficient  for  an effective  policy of peace 
building and conflict prevention, that the policy goals sustainable development, democracy and 
human  rights, viable political  structures, healthy  social  conditions  and healthy  environmental 
conditions  are  interdependent  which  implies  the  need  for  a comprehensive  approach. 

20 

A  pro-active  and  effective  policy  concerning  the  issue  of  violent  conflicts  requires  a  major 
effort  of  international  coordination  and  cooperation.  Access  to and  exchange  of  information 
and  analysis, and  the integration  of  the people  concerned  into the necessary  discussions,  is a 
major  problem  that  needs  to  be  tackled.  Within  the  European  Union,  it  needs  also  to  be 
ensured that the common development policy is complementary to the policies by the Member 
States,  as  laid  down  in the EC  Treaty. 

The inclusion of conflict  analysis and prevention within the policy frameworks  will also have 
implications  within  the CFSP process. Coherence  with CFSP should  be ensured  at all  levels. 
The  difficulties  of  arriving  at  a  coherent  Common  Foreign  and  Security  Policy  of  the 
European  Union  should  not  be underestimated  in this  regard.  In  order  to  address  this  issue 
one should envisage an enhancement of the Union's capacity to analyze root-causes of  conflict 
for  an  effective  utilization  of  targeted  assistance. 

Another  key  aspect  of  both  man-made  and  natural  emergencies  is  their  regional  dimension. 
which  may  require  specific  policy  actions  at  a  regional  level.  For  example,  conflict  in  one 
country  may spill over into its neighbours, lending to political and ethnic tensions  in  addition 
to massive movements of refugees.  In such circumstances, support must be provided, not only 
to  the  crisis  country  but  also  to  those  neighbours  affected  by  the  crisis. At  a political  level, 
support  can  be  given  to  regional  or  sub-regional  initiatives  launched  by  the  countries 
themselves,  with  the  aim  to  address  crisis  situations  through  political  interventions. 

21 

ANNEX 

QUESTIONNAIRE 

on 
Linkages between Relief, Rehabilitation  and Development  (LRRD) Actions and  Programmes 
carried  out  by 
EU  Member  States  in Third  Countries 

This following  summary is intended as a guide to Member States replies to the questionnaire. 
All  Member  States  received  the  questionnaire  and,  where  possible,  the  replies  have  been 
completed  as  a  result  of  clarifications  provided  during  the  meeting  of  experts  held  on 
28/2/1996.  The summary is not intended to replace the full  replies, but has been prepared  so 
as to  facilitate  comparisons  and  to  convert  the  available  data  into a more  manageable  form. 
The summary follows exactly the format  of the questionnaire with the replies inserted in table 
form  underneath  the  questions.  The  following  general  comments  may  help  to  explain  the 
approach  adopted. 

Reference  statistics have been taken at face value; the only adjustment  has been to convert the 
different  currencies to ECUs.  As regards the organisational and budgetary aspects, it is  often 
the  case  that  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  acts  as  the  umbrella  organisation  for  all  aid 
operations, with  in reality  different  departments taking responsibility  for  different  aspects  of 
aid.  This is borne out by the replies to question 2.2 which indicate a greater divergence  than 
would  be  expected  from  the  replies  to  point 2.1.. 

Member States have not yet formulated  specific LRRD policies.  However, most have thought 
seriously  about  the issues and  many  are actively preparing  policy  documents.  Such  policies 
will  probably  be  inspired  by  actual  current  practice,  as  despite  the  absence  of  any  formal 
guidelines to ensure that  relief takes better  account  of development requirements, this  would 
appear to often  take place in practice.  Likewise, the absence of guidelines to ensure that risk 
and  vulnerability  be taken  into  account  have  not  prevented  Member  States  acting. 

Conflict prevention, on the other hand, appears to be an area where Member States have been 
quicker  to  formalise  and  most  replied  that  this  is  taken  into  account  in  the  design  of 
development  policy. 

Various  examples  have  been  provided  by  Member  States  and  those  which  feature  in  the 
summary  are  undoubtedly  only  a  small  portion  of  what  has actually  been  done. 

a 

1. 

REFERENCE  STATISTICS 

1.1 

Bilateral and multilateral  development aid (not channelled  through the EC and 
excluding  humanitarian  aid)  in  1994 and  1995. 

Member  State 

1994  (MECU) 

1995 (MECU) 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Netherlands 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

466 

449 

1135 

191 

6477 

4612 

8 

1845 

55 

1050 

186  * 

1084 

1300 

1732 

*  all  aid  (humanitarian  and  development) 

Figures  quoted  are  as supplied  by  Member  States 

N/A 

N/A 

1133 

192 

N/A 

N/A 

N/A 

N/A 

67 

470 

N/A 

1251 

1274 

1723 

2b 

1.2  Humanitarian aid in Third countries (excluding contributions to peace-keeping 

and  in-coming  refugees)  in  1994 and  1995 

Member  State 

1994 (MECU) 

1995  (MECU) 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Netherlands 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain  " 

Sweden 

8.7 

N/A 

103 

27.9 

18.5 

33.9 

5 

282 

7.1 

52 

3.2 

184.8 

213 

United  Kingdom 
1 
' 
I  • 
Figures  quoted  are  as supplied  by  Member  States 

8.4 

N/A 

111 

23.3 

18.8 

45.8 

N/A 

N/A 

6.9 

54 

N/A 

14.5 

161.5 

247 
1 

' 

& 

2. 

ORGANISATIONAL  AND  BUDGETARY  ASPECTS 

Please  provide  outline  of  the  organisational  structure  for  the  management  of 
humanitarian  and  development  aid  respectively.  In  particular, 

2.1 

whether  a  single  organisational  structure  exists,  or  whether  different 
ministries/departments  are  responsible  for  different  aspects. 
If  so,  please 
provide  details. 

Member  State 

Reply 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Different  departments 

Different  departments 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 

Ministry  for  Foreign  Affairs  - Dpt  for  Internat.  Dev.  Coop. 

Different  ministries  and  departments 

Different  ministries 

Mainly  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 

Netherlands 

Different  departments 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

Foreign  Affairs  Department  - Development  Cooperation  Division 

Different  departments 

Instituto  da  Cooperaçào  Portuguesa  (ICP) 

Administracion  Central  and  decentralised  cooperation 

All  aid  managed  by  Sida,  a government  authority  under  the 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 
Overseas  Development  Administration  - different  departments 

is 

2.2 

whether  humanitarian  and  development  aid  is provided  from  different  budget 
sources,  subject  to  different  procedures. 

Member  State 

Different  Budget  Source 

Different  Procedures 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Netherland 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No  -  international  development  N/A 

cooperation  budget  line 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes (under  review) 

3^ 

POLICIES 

3.1  Has your Government formulated specific policies on LRRD?  If yes, please give a 

brief description below. 

Member  State 

Reply 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

LRRD working group set up to deal with coordination 

To be prepared 

Referred  to in Statement of Intent (Danish Development Policy 

towards the year 2000) 

Under preparation 

No 

Information document exists 

Not at present 

Netherland 

Yes -  1993 Policy document "Humanitarian Aid between 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 
Sweden 

United Kingdom 

Conflict  and Development" 

Policy review under way 

Under preparation (approval expected in April  1996) 

Focus on Angola and Mozambique 

Not at present 
No specific policies, but efforts  made to make humanitarian aid 
"development promoting".  Approach is also foreseen  in country 
strategies. 
Not yet, but under preparation 

& 

3,2 

Is there, in the administration of your government's humanitarian aid programmes, any 
guidelines or procedures for ensuring that relief take better account of development 
requirements  and  objectives  (e.g.  impact  analysis  of  humanitarian  aid  as  part  of 
operational procedures or evaluation)? 

Member  State 

Reply 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Concept of durable development 

Humanitarian aid tends increasingly to include development 
consideration (in policy papers) 

No (results evaluation humanitarian assistance available by mid-
1996) 

' 

No - in practice, this is the role of the "attachés" in the  field 

; 

, 

: 

_ 

—, 

, 

Yes - instructions issued in  1986 to all embassies (but only 

really covers straightforward  relief aid) 

Greece 

No 

Netherland 

Guidelines for  emergency & humanitarian aid in preparation -

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

includes criteria for  long-term effects  of interventions 

No 

Policy  guidelines from 1995 address these issues; specific 

guidelines are being  drafted 

No, but this occurs  informally 

Occurs  informally 

Policy and guidelines under preparation 

United Kingdom 

Exists internally, for rapid-onset disasters only 

I 

_ — —_ 

— —— 

I 

. . .. 

, 1. 

• 

i. 

' 

un 

. — — — _ — — »• 

II 

I 

w 

3.3  Does your Government have any guidelines or procedures for ensuring that risk and 
vulnerability are taken into account in the planning, programming and implementation 
of development aid? 

Member  State 

Reply 

Austria. 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

These factors  are taken into account 

Yes for bilateral aid 

Mentioned in the strategy papers - these factors  are taken into 

account in practice 

No, but these factors are taken into account 

Will be taken into account in policy review 

These factors  are taken into account 

No, but these factors  are taken into account 

Netherland 

The so-called "development test" - involving the evaluation of 

"risks" in the field  of poverty, environment and gender 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Yes 

' 

No, but these factors are taken into account 

Taken into account in country strategies 
Exists but will be further  developped 

3.4  Does the conflict prevention play a part in design of your Government's development 

policy. 

Member State 

Reply 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Yes - policy paper exists 

Yes - mentioned in strategy papers 

Yes - strategic outline paper 

Will play a more important role in the future; policy paper 

under preparation 

Greece 

Yes - in the majority  of cases 

Netherland 

Yes - see "Humanitarian Aid between Conflict and 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Development" 

Will become more important with policy review 

Yes_ 

. 

Yes - in practice support is linked to these issues 

Mainly through multilateral projects 

Sweden 
United Kingdom 

Yes - policy paper will be ready in November  1996 
Will play a larger role in the future/  draft  non-paper exists 

•

*> 

3. 

CONCRETE  EXAMPLES 

Please provide, if possible, some recent  examples of actions/projects/programmes,  funded  by 
your Government, involving linkage between relief, rehabilitation and development. If  useful, 
kindly  use the  format  annexed  to  this  questionnaire. 

Member  State 

Reply 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Guinea - move  from  crisis management  of  health  sector  to  a 
more  intersectoral  longer  term  approach 
Bosnia  -  evolution  of  building  project;  involvement  of  local 
population 

Netherland 

Transfer  of  responsibility  from  emergency  to  structural  depts.  in 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

Cambodia,  Palestinian  Entities, Eritrea  and  Angola 

Examples  of  integrated  projects  provided 

Rehabilitation  programmes  in  Mozambique 

Examples  in  Haiti, Angola,  Rwanda,  Guatemala  and  ex-
Yugoslavia 
Cambodia,  West  Bank  and  Gaza transferred  from  Humanitarian 
to  Development  department in  1995.  More aid to Angola  and 
Mozambique  now  comes from  development  budget 

Examples  in  both the way  all  assistance  is managed  within 
ODA, how  strategies  are  set  and  in the type  of  activities 
implemented  (Angola,  Sierra  Leone, Afghanistan,  Sri  Lanka,etc.) 
Case  study  1 :  Health  Transitions  Project  in Angola  : Managing 
the transition  between  emergency  aid and  development. 
Case  study  2  : The  Angola  Development  Fund  : Providing 
Development  Assistance  during  an  Emergency 

31 

ISSN 0254-1475 

COM(96) 153 final 

DOCUMENTS 

EN 

U 

Catalogue number  :  CB-C0-96-163-EN-C 

ISBN 92-78-02568-2 

Office  for Official Publications of the European Communities 

L-2985 Luxembourg 

&