GREEN PAPER on the impact of Transport on the Environment - A Community strategy for "sustainable mobility"
Date: 1992-04-09
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU environmental policy, EU programme, environmental impact, greenhouse gas, pollution, pollution control measures, reduction of gas emissions, sustainable mobility, traffic regulations, transport regulations

COMVIISSION  OF  THE,  EUROPEAN  COI\MUNITIES 

COM(92)  46  final 

Brussels,  20  February  1992 

GREEN  PAPER 

on 

The  lnapact  of  Transport  on  the  Envlror.nent 

-~-

A Community  strategy  for  •sustainable  mobility• 

(Communication  from  the  Commission) 

........  .. 

.... 

, .. 

Green  Paper 

on 
The  Impact  of  TransPort  on  the  Environment 
A COmmunity  strategy  for  •sKstainable 1ft0bility• 

I. 

GENERAL 

INTRODUCTION 

a.  Pre I iminary  comments 

b.  Historical  background 

I I. 

PROBLEMS  AND  ISSUES 

a.  Current  issues 
b.  The  role  of  transport 

c.  Impact  of  transport  on  the  environment 

I I I.  ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT 

a.  Operational  pollution 

b.  Land-use  and  intrusion 

c.  Congestion 
d.  Risks  inherent  to  the  transport  of  dangerous  goods 

e.  Conclusions  of  assessment 

IV. 

ECONOMIC  TRENDS 

a  Trends  and  forecasts 

b.  Structural  changes 

c.  The  user's  choice 

V. 

A COMMON  STRATEGY 

a.  A global  approach 
b.  Balance  sheet  of  Community  action 

c.  'Sustainable  mobility'  and  future  transport 

development 
d.  A new  framework 

page 

1 

2 

6 

7 

8 

11 

25 

29 
32 

34 

36 

38 

39 

43 

45 

49 

53 

I. 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

a.  Preliminary  comments 

1.  The 

impact  of  transport  on 

the 

scrutiny 
in 

in 
the  Community. 

close 
particularly 
env i ronmenta I  issues  -
led 
approach  to  environmental  problems. 

to  a  growing  awareness  of 

the  environment 
i ndustr i a Ii sed  wor  Id 
The 

is  coming  under 
and  more 
g loba I  nature  of 
such  as  the  "greenhouse  effect"  - has 
the  need  for  a  world-wide 

This  global  approach  in  turn  has  high I lghted  the  need  to  focus 
on  the  causes  of  environmental  problems  in  a  different  manner. 
It  is  no  longer  considered  sufficient  to  assess  the  primary  or 
immediate  causes,  but  to  go  to  the  very  root  of  the  problem  -
human  behaviour.  Thus, 
the  Bergen  DeclarationC1)  stresses 
that  "unsustainable  patterns  of  production  and  consumption, 
particularly  in  industrialised  countries,  are  at  the  root  of 
numerous  env i ronmenta I  prob I ems,  not ab I y  foreclosing  opt ions 
by 
for 
resource 
"the  attainment  of  susta i nab I e 
base".< 1) 

future  generations 
It  warns 

depletion  of 

that 

the 

deve I opment. . .  requires  fundamenta I  changes 

in  human  va I ues 

the  environment  and 

in  this  respect  high I lghts 

in  patterns  of  behaviour  and 
towards 
consumption ... 11 <1>  and 
the  need 
"to  reduce  the  harmful  effects  of  the  transport  sector  on  the 
environment  by  promoting  fast,  safe,  and  convenient  urban  and 
car 
regional 
low 
traffic"  (1).  Also  noted, 
transport  demand. 

and 
the  need 

services 
is 

to  encourage 

transport 

reducing 

urban 

2.  Hence,  a  number  of  human  activities,  of  which  transport,  has 
come  under  close  scrutiny.  Indeed,  transport  is  increasing I y 
being  qualified  as  a  human  activity  with  a  negative  impact  on 
the  environment.  A  clear  illustration  of  this  is  the  concern 
about 
the 
the  env i ronmenta I  nuisance  and  damage  caused  by 
high  level  of  traffic  in  sensitive  geographical  areas  such  as 

(1)  Bergen  Ministerial  Declaration  on  sustainable  Development 

ECE  Region,  16  May  1990,  p.  2,  4  and  11. 

in  the 

- 2  -

the  Alps,  as  well  as  in  densely  populated  areas,  particularly 

large  conurbations. 

This  view  is  also  endorsed  by  the  Group  Transport  2000  Plus  in 

its  report  "Transport 

In  a  Fast  Changing  Europe",  which 

identifies  transport  as  a  major  contributor 

to  energy  and 

environmental  problems  since  it  is  one  of  the  main  consumers 

of  fossil  fuels  and  is  responsible  for  considerable  nuisance 

and  damage  to  the  environment<1>. 

b.  Historical  background 

3.  Fol  lowing  the  declarations  at  the  Paris  Summit 

in  October  1972 

a  decisive  political  impetus  was  given  to  consideration  of  the 
in  planning  the  socio-economic  development  of  the 
environment 

Community.  As  a  result,  the  Commission  adopted  a  first  Action 

Programme  on 

the  Environment  for 

the  period  1973 

to  1977. 

The  main  concern  was  to  ensure  the  proper  functioning  of  the 

Common  Market 

by 

amongst  others 

introducing  harmonised 

standards  for  consumer  products. 

Hence,  for 

the  transport  sector  this  programme  provided  for 

technical 

improvements  of  noise  and  gaseous  emissions  of 

motor  vehicles  as  wel  I  as  for  the  maximum  content  of  lead  in 
fuel. 
in  the  area  of 
marine  pollution  resulting  from  sea  transport.  The  programme 

It  also  provided  for  specific  action 

already  drew  attention  to  transport  problems 

in 

the  urban 

environment. 

4.  The 

second  Action  Programme 

for 

the  period  1977 

to  1981 

continued  the  same  line  of  action. 

It  concentrated  as  far  as 

transport  was  concerned  on  marine  pollution,  measures 

to 

reduce  noise  from  motor  vehicles,  motor  cycles  and  aircraft. 

(1)  Group  Transport  2000  Plus,  Transport 

December,  1990. 

in  a  Fast  Changing  Europe, 

- 3  -

The  third  Action  Programme  for  the  period  1982-1986,  however, 
the  general  philosophy. 
Introduced  a  new  dimension 

Into 

Environmental  policy  was  to  be  motivated  by  the  fact  that  the 

environment  itself  contains  the  I imits  to  further  economic  and 

social  development 

.  This  Action  Programme  stressed  the  need 

for  a  greater  awareness  of  the  environmental  dimension 

in  the 

area  of  transport.  Vehicle  emissions, 

aircraft  noise  and  the 

environmental 

impact  assessment  of 

infrastructure  projects 

were  earmarked  as  priorities. 

5.  It  is  only  in  the  fourth  Action  Programme  for  1987-1992  that 
the  interaction  between  transport  and  the  environment  Is  duly 

recognised  as  being  of  a  wide-ranging  nature. 

This  new  approach  was  the  result  of  the  Single  Act  which 

in 

Article  130  R 

provides 

that 

environmental 

protection 

requirements  sha 11  be  a  component  of 

the  Community's  other 

policies.  This  approach  was  endorsed  in  the  Declaration  by  the 

European  Counci  I  of  June  1990,  which  stresses  the  need  for 

sustainable  and  environmentally  sound  development  as  advocated 

in  the  1987  Report  "Our  Common  Future"  by  the  World  Commission 

on  Environment  and  Development  (the  Brundtland  Report). 

6.  A  more  specific  response 

in  this  direct ion  was  given  by  the 

Commission 

in  April  1989,  when 

it  was  deemed  necessary 

to 

reflect  on  the  relationship  between  environmental  policy  and 
the  field  of 
other  Community  pol lcies, 

in  particular 

in 

the 
this  exercise  provided 
transport.  The 
guide I ines  for 
to 
in 
examine  the  impact  of  transport  on  the  environment  in  a  global 

outcome  of 
further  work 

this  area  with  a  view 

and  coherent  framework. 

7.  This  Green  Paper 

is 

the 

logical 

follow-up 

to  that 

initial 

response  as  well  as  to  the  world-wide  concern  about  a  number 

of  g loba I  env i ronmenta I 
issues.  The  Community  posit ion  on 
'global  warming'  as  reflected  in  the  Conclusions  of  the  Joint 

Energy  and  Environment  Council  of  29  October  1990  on  Climate 
Change  Policy  and  its  commitment  to  the  stabilisation  of  co2 

-

4  -

emissions  by  the  year  2000  and  the  possibility  of  reductions 

thereat ter  confirms 

this  concern  as  we 11  as 

the  need  for 

action. 

This  Green  Paper  is  also  in  line  with  the  guidelines  on  urban 

transport  policy  set  out  in  the  Commission  Green  Paper  on  the 

Urban  environmentC1)  and  takes  account  of  the  need  to  create 

new  opportunities  for  the  peripheral  regions  so  that  they  may 
share  fully  in  the  prosperity  of  the  Single  Market  as  set  out 
in  the  Commission  Communication  'Europe  2000•.(2) 

It 

is  also  a 

response 

to 

the  Resolution  adopted  by 

the 

European  Parliament 

in  September  1991,  which  calls  upon  "the 

Commission  to  submit  to  the  Council  a  framework  programme  for 

optimum  environmental  protection 
market. 11 <3> 

in 

the  European 

transport 

8.  This  Paper 

is  also  in  line  with  the  forthcoming  Fifth  Action 
Programme  on  the  Environment  "Towards  Sustalnabi I ity",  which 
outlines  a  new  pol Icy  and  strategy  for  the  protection  of  the 

environment  and  natural 

resources  and 

the  achievement  of 

sustainable  development. 

The  approach  adopted  differs 

fundamentally 

from 

that  of 

previous  Environmental  Action  Programmes,  since  it  focuses  on 
the  agents  and  activities  which  deplete  natural  resources  and 

damage  the  environment.  Its  objective  Is  to  initiate  changes 
in  current  trends  and  practices  which  are  detrimental  to  the 

environment,  so  as  to  ensure  socio-economic  we I I-being  and 

growth  for  present  and  future  generations.  Such  changes  are  to 

be  achieved 

through  shared  responsibi I ity, 

involving  pub I ic 

administrations,  public  as  wel  I  as  private  enterprise  and  the 

general 

pub I i c, 

in 

accordance  with 

the  principle  of 

subsidiarity. 

(1)  [COM(90)218  final  of  27  June  1990] 
(2)  [COM  (91)  452  final  of  7  November  1991] 
(3)  PE  145.075/end  of  September  1991 

- 5  -

The  Fifth  Action  Programme 

focuses  on 

five  main  economic 

"target"  sectors,  including  the  transport  sector,  and  includes 

actions  designed  for  the  protection  of  the  environment  as  wel  I 

as  for  the  benefit  and  sustainable  development  of  the  sectors 

themselves. 

Th is  Paper  converts  and  adapts 

the  objectives  and 

targets 

included 

in 

the  Fifth  Action  Progranune 

into  a  global  and 

coherent  strategy  for  the  transport  sector. 

9.  This  Green  Paper  provides  an  assessment  of  the  over a I I  impact 

of  transport  on  the  environment  and  presents  a  Common  strategy 

for  "sustainable  mobility•  which  should  enable  transport  to 

fulfil 

its  economic  and  social 

role  while  containing 

its 

harmful  effects  on  the  environment. 

The  purpose  of  the  Paper  is  to  initiate  a  public  debate  on  how 

to  achieve  the  objectives  of  such  a  strategy  which 

is  to  be 

subseQuently  fully  integrated  into  the  forthcoming  White  Paper 

on 

the 

future  development  of 

transport  policy 

in 

the 

Community. 

The  principle  of  subsidiarity  will  play  an 

important  part 

in 

ensuring 

that 

the  strategy 

is  given 

its 

ful  I  effect  by 

appropriate  national,  regional  and  local  initiatives. 

Clearly,  many  of  the  areas  discussed  in  this  Paper  are  areas 

in  which  the  Community's  contribution  wil I  not  be  legislative 
- but  may  be  in  the  research  field,  in  standard  setting,  or  in 

the  definition  of  objectives.  The  legislative  role  may 
cases 
authorities.  The  purpose  of 

to  Member  States,  or 

local  or 
to 
is 

this  Paper 

fall 

to 

in  such 
regional 
initiate 

discussion,  rather 

than 

to  programme  a  series  of  Community 

legislative  acts. 

- 6  -

11.  PROBLEMS  AND 

ISSUES 

a.  Current  Issues 

10.  The 

1989 

and 

1990 

Scientific  Assessments 

of 

the 

I ntergovernmenta I  Pane I  on  CI  imate  Change 

(I PCC)  has  drawn 

wor  Id-wide  attention  to  the  causes  and  consequences  of 

the 

"greenhouse  effect".  Although  scientific  evidence  is  not  yet 

conclusive  as  to  the  scale  of  the  problem,  there  is  general 

agreement 

that 

the 

high 

atmospheric 

concentrations  of 

"greenhouse  gases"  wi  I I  have  an  effect  on  the  earth's  climate, 

causing  the  "warming"  of  the  globe  and  the  ensuing  rise  in  the 

average  sea  levels. 

Energy-generation,  industry  and  transport  have  been  identified 

as  the  major  sources  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  the  main  man 

made  "greenhouse  gas". 

11.  The  depletion  of  the  ozone  layer,  which  reduces  the  protection 

of  the  earth  against  ultra-violet  radiation  from  the  sun, 

is 

caused  by  emissions  of  chlorofluorocarbons  (CFCs)  and  halons. 

The  direct  contribution  of  transport  to  this  phenomenon  is  due 

mainly 

to 

the 

refrigerated 

transport  of  goods  and  air 

conditioned  vehicles. 

No 

less 

important  but  more  restricted 

in 

its  geographical 

range  is  the  phenomenon  of  "acid  rain",  which  affects  animal 

and  plant 

I ife  and  corrodes  bui I ding  materials.  Transport 

contributes  to  "acid  rain"  through  sulphur  and  nitrogen  oxide 
emissions. 

12.  Other  current 

issues 

in 
the 
organic 
compounds  and  nitrogen  oxides,  with  harmful  effects  on  human 

the  bu i Id-up  of  ozone 
the  emission  of  volatile 

troposphere,  caused 

inc I ude 
by 

health 

and 

animal 

life.  Transport  contributes 

to 

this 

phenomenon. 

- 7  -

13.  Al  I 

these 

cur rent 

issues 

concern  different 

forms 

of 

atmospheric  pollution. 

Another  current 

issue 

is  that  of 

the  damage 

to  which 

the 

urban  environment 
one  of  the  root  causes  of  present  urban  degradation. 

is  exposed.  Transport 

is  considered  to  be 

b.  The  role  of  transport 

14.  For 

the  purpose  of  this  Green  Paper 

transport 

includes  the 

carriage  of  goods  and  persons  by  any  mode  of  transport  -

road, 

rail,  inland  waterways,  sea  and  air-,  private  or  public,  for 
the  purpose  - private  or 
payment  or  not, 
commercial.  Traffic 
the  physical 
transport. 

irrespective  of 
represents 

resu It  of 

Transport  ls  vital  to  both  our  economic  and  social  wel  I  being. 
It  is  vital  to  the  production  and  distribution  of  goods  and 
services  as  wel  I  as  to  trade  and  regional  development. 

15.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  1950's  transport  has  made  a  major 

contribution 

to 

economic 

growth 

and 

has 

enabled 

the 

achievement  of  economies  of  scale 

in  production  and,  by 

increasing  competition  in  hitherto  protected  markets,  has  led 

to  a  wider 

range  of  choice  for  both 

the  producer  and 

the 

consumer  with  direct  and 

indirect  effects  on  the  qua I ity  of 

Ii fe. 

Transport  has  also  contributed  to  the  significant  growth  of 
tourism,  which  accounts  for  over  5  X of  GDP  and  provides  over 
8  million  Jobs. 

16.  In 

the 

Community 

contributes 
approximately  7%  to  the  Gross  Domestic  Product  and  represents 
to  10X  and  9X 
7%  of  employment<1>.  These 

figures  go  up 

transport 

sector 

the 

respectively,  if 

transport  for  own  account  of  both  goods  and 

persons  as  we 11  as 

the  product ion  of 

transport  means  and 

infrastructure  are  included<2>. 

(1)  Group  Transport  2000  Plus,  op.cit,  p.  5. 
(2)  E.  Jacobs,  Le  marche  europeen  unique  :  un  defi  pour 

la  pol itique 

des  transports,  1990,  p.  4-5. 

- 8  -

the 

to  OECD 

estimates 

According 
including  pollution,  congestion  and  accidents  -
in  the  case  of 
road  transport  could,  however,  be  as  high  as  5%  of  Gop(1). 
This  estimate  does  not  represent 
the  ful I  external  cost  of 
transport  since  it  does  not  cover  all  forms  of  environmental 

socio-economic  cost 

impact  - namely  the  cost  of  the  "greenhouse  effect"  - and  is 

I imited  to  only  one  transport  sector. 

17.  Technological  developments  since  the  beginning  of  the  1950's 

have  enabled  people  to  travel  more  Quickly,  more  often  and 

over 

longer 

di stances,  breaking 

down 

economic, 

soc i a I, 

national,  ethnic  and  geographical  barriers. 

These  developments  have  led  to  the  mass  movement  of  people  and 

have  greatly  affected  behaviour  patterns  and  the  general  way 

of  I ife,  particularly  in  industrialised  countries.  The  advent 

of 

the  motor 

car 

and 

its  widespread  availabi I ity  have 

encouraged  a  way  of 

I ife  where  people 

feel  entitled 

to 

mob i I i ty  and  the  absence  of  a  private  means  of  transport 

is 

often  felt  as  a  handicap  since  it  reduces  access  to  available 

amenities. 

c.  Impact  of  transport  on  the  environment 

18.  For  the  purpose  of  this  paper  environment  includes  the  QUal  ity 

of 

Ii fe, 

Ii vi ng  conditions  of  human  beings  and  the  natura I 

environment  with  su i tab I e  habitats  for  an ima Is  and  p I ants. 

The  Qua I i ty  of 

avai labi I ity 

Ii fe 

long-term 
in  sufficient  Quantity  and  of  adeQuate  Qua I ity 

determined 

the 

by 

is 

of  resources  such  as  water,  air,  land  and  space  in  general  as 

wel  I  as 

raw  materials. 

It  also 

includes 

the  natural  and 

cultural  heritage. 

19.  Apart 

from 

initiatives 

in 

the  shipping  sector 

to  prevent 

damage  to  the  marine  environment,  the 

impact  of  transport  on 

the  environment  was,  unti I  recently,  viewed  mainly  in  terms  of 

atmospheric  pollution  and  noise  emissions. 

(1)  OECD  (1988) 

Transports  et  Environnement,  Paris,  1988,  p.  11. 

- 9  -

Efforts  to  control  atmospheric  pollution  caused  by  transport 

concentrated  only  on  emissions  of  certain  pot lutants  emitted 

by  motor  vehicles.  Emission  standards  were 

introduced 

in 

Industrialised 

countries 

for 

carbon  monoxide 

(CO), 

hydrocarbons 

CHC), 

nitrogen 

oxides 

CNOx> 

and 

diesel 

particulates.  The  Community  adopted 

legislation 

to 

reduce 

vehicle  emissions  as  wet  I  as  to  encourage  the  use  of  unleaded 

petro I.  Community  standards  have  been  regu I ar I y  adapted  to 

technological  progress. 

20.  In 

the  case  of  noise  emissions, 

introduced 
cycles  and  aircraft.  The  Community  adopted 

industrialised  countries 
for  cars,  buses,  goods  vehicles,  motor 
I imits  on  noise 

I imits 

emissions  for  goods  and  passenger  veh i c I es,  as  we I I  as  for 

motorcycles,  and  introduced  legislation  for  the  phasing  out  of 

the  noisiest  aircraft.  No 

I imits  were 

introduced  for  noise 

emissions  from  railways. 

21.  This  approach  was  one-sided,  since  these  measures  were  I imited 

largely  to  vehicle  emissions  and,  thus,  were  confined  to  only 

one  aspect  of  the  impact  of  a  single  transport  sector  on  the 

environment. 

However,  a 11  power-driven  transport  affects  the  environment 

and  generates  pollution.  The 

impact 

is  not 

I imited 

to 

atmospheric  pollution  and  varies  in  scale  and  range  according 

to  the  mode  of  transport. 

22.  Thus,  in  order  to  ensure  the  widest  possible  assessment  of  the 

impact  of  transport  on  the  environment  the  analysis 

in  this 

Green  Paper 

is  based  on  a  number  of  criteria  related  to  the 

qua I i ty  of  the  environment  as  defined  above.  These  er i ter i a 
impact  of  transport  on  air,  water  and 
include  the  operational 

soil  as  well  as  the  qua I ity  of  life,  the  impact  of  transport 

infrastructure  on  space, 

the  consequences  of  congest ion  as 

- 10  -

inherent 

the  risks 

transport  of  dangerous 
wel  I  as 
goods.  The  analysis  also  provides  an  assessment  of 
the 
specific  problems  caused  by  transport  and  traffic  in  the  urban 
environment. 

the 

to 

- 11  -

Ill.  ENVIROt<MENTAL 

IMPACT 

23.  Since  transport  has  a  wide-ranging  impact  on  the  environment, 

the  present  analysis  is  based  as  stated  above  on  a  number  of 

er i ter i a  re I ated  to 

the  qua Ii ty  of 

the  environment.  These 

include  operat iona I  pollution, 
risks  inherent  to  the  transport  of  dangerous  goods. 

land-use,  congest ion  and 

the 

a.  Operational  pollution 

24.  Operational  pollution 

is  caused  by 

the  actual  use  of 

the 

different  means  of  transport.  It  affects  the  air,  water  and 

soil  and  produces  noise  and  vibrations.  The  effects  in  many 

instances  are  long-term  and  cumulative,  although  those  caused 

by  noise  and  vibrations  are  of  an 

immediate  and 

transient 

nature. 

"Air" 

25.  "Air  pollution" 

is  caused  by 

the  emission  of 

chemical 

substances 

into  the  atmosphere  which  alter  its  composition, 

with  harmful  effects  for  human  health,  animal  and  plant  life. 
The  effects  of  some  pollutants  remain  within  the  vicinity  of 
thus  have 
the  source,  where  concentrations  are  highest,  and 
lead  emissions.  The 
mainly  a 

impact  as  in  the  case  of 

local 

vicinity  of 

the  source,  as 

effects  of  other  pollutants  are  suffered  wel  I  beyond 

the 
the  case  of  so 2  emissions, 
which  contribute  to  "acid  rain".  Pollutants  can,  however,  also 
the  case  of  co 2  and  other 
the  whole 
the  climate  of 

have  a  "global".  impact  as 

in 

in 

greenhouse  gases,  which  affect 
p I anet. 

- 12  -

26.  Emissions  from 

transport  sources 

include 

the  fol  lowing  air 

po I I utants: 

.  carbon  dioxide  cco2 >  emitted  by 

the  combustion  of  fossil 

fuel 

carbon  monoxide  (CO),  hydrocarbons  (HC)  and  volatile  organic 

compounds  (VOC),  resulting  from  incomplete  combustion 

.  nitrogen 

oxides 

(NOx> 

generated 

at 

high 

combustion 

temperatures 
lead 

(Pb),  ethylene  dibromide  and  dichloride  added 

. 

to 

gasoline  to  attain  the  desired  octane  rating  and  greater 

volati I ity  of  combustion  by-products 

.  sulphur  dioxide  cso2>  due  to  the  higher  sulphur  content  of 

diesel 

.  fine  particles  present  in  diesel 

.  formaldehyde  and  other  aldehydes 

Carbon  dioxide,  methane  and  nitrous  oxide  contribute  directly 

to 

the  "greenhouse  ef feet"  whereas  nitrogen  oxides,  carbon 

monoxide  and  hydrocarbons  contribute  indirectly. 

Sulphur  dioxide 

and  nitrogen  oxides  contribute 

to 

the 

phenomenon  of  "acid  rain". 

voes  and  nitrogen  oxides  contribute  to  the  build-up  of  ozone 
concentrations  in  the  troposphere. 

Hydrocarbons,  voes, 

I ead,  a I dehydes,  ethy I ene  di bromide  and 

dichloride  have  potential  carcinogenic  effects,  whereas  lead, 

carbon  monoxide  and  diesel  particles  are  general IY  detrimental 

to  human  health. 

27.  Air  pollution  caused  by 

the 

transport  sector 

exclusively  related 

to 

the  consumption  of 

is  almost 
- mostly  non 

energy.  According  to  Eurostat  figures  for  1988 
renewable  -
energy 
reached 
transport 
211.53  MTOE  (1)  <- 29.8%  of  total  final  energy  consumption). 

consumption 

sector 

the 

in 

(1)  Mi  I I ions  of  tonnes  of  oi I  eQuivalent. 

- 13  -

This  is  comparable  to  the  energy  consumption  of  industry  which 

represents  one 

third  of 

final  energy  consumption 

in 

the 

Community. 

Within  the  transport  sector  84.4  X  was  used  by  road,  11.1%  by 

aviation,  2.5%  by 

railways  and  2.0%  by 

inland  waterways. 

Therefore, 

it 

is  usefu I 

to  compare  energy  consumption  for 

different  means  of  transport. 

28.  Although 

the  results  of  comparative  research 

in  this  field 

should  be 

interpreted  with  caution,  they  nevertheless  give  a 

indication  of  the  energy  "greediness"  of  the  different 
clear 
means  of  transport  as  shown  for  passenger  transport  in  table  1 

and  figure  1. 

In 

fact 

in 

the  passenger  sector 

they  reflect  mainly 

the 

different  basic  assumptions  concerning 

i.a. 

the 

type  of 

vehicle/train/aircraft 

taken 

as 

reference, 

the  driving 

circumstances  in  the  case  of  road  vehicles,  the  average  speed, 

the  average  energy  consumption,  the  total  passenger  capacity, 

the  occupancy  rate,  the  production  structure  of  electricity 

for  electric  powered  trains. 

It 

is  clear 

that 

the  average  occupancy  rate,  which  varies 

largely  from  one  mode  to  another,  Is  one  of  the  key  variables 

i ntermoda I  comparisons.  Therefore, 

in 
give  a  comparison  of 

tab I e  2  and  figure  2 
for 

the  specific  energy  consumption 

different  transport  modes  at  different  occupancy  rates,  namely 

25%,  50%,  75%  and  100%. 

29.  In  order  to  make  a  fair  comparison,  the  energy  intensiveness  -

also  referred  to  as  specific  energy  consumption  -
in  megajoules  of  primary  energy, 

taking  into  account 

is  measured 
losses 

occurring  during  the  production  and  transmission  process,  per 

passenger-km. 

- 14  -

The  main  concluslons  on  the  basis  of  table  2  and  f lgures  1 

and  2  are  that 

.  for 

the  private  motor  vehicle 

there 

is  a  considerable 

difference  between  smal  I  and  large  vehicles; 

within  each  mode 

the  energy  effectiveness 

is  commensurate 

with  the  occupancy  rate; 

of  all  modes  the  specific  energy  consumption  is  the  highest 

for  airplanes; 

compared  to  high  speed  trains  energy  consumption  is  twice  as 
high  for  aviation; 

.  at 

full 

capacity 

railways  and  buses  have 

the 

lowest 

consumption. 

30.  The  latter  is  particularly  important  in  the  case  of  rush-hour 

traffic  where  the  occupancy  rate  of  cars  is  very 

low  (between 

1  and  1.2  passenger/car),  the  driving  circumstances  and  hence 

the  real  energy  consumption  due  to  congestion  very  unfavorable 

the  occupancy 

and 
trains  and  buses  very  high 
(sometimes  exceeding  100%  of  seating  capacity).  Although  there 

rate  of 

is  no  significant  difference 
in  energy  consumption  between 
ra i I ways  and  buses  operating  at  fu I I  capacity,  qua Ii tat i ve 
time  and 
aspects  such  as  seating  comfort, 
rel iabi I ity  are  usually  an  advantage  for  the  railways. 

speed, 

travel 

31.  For 

freight 

transport 

the 

same  considerations 

regarding 

intermodal  comparisons  hold  as 
the  case  of  passenger 
transport.  Nevertheless  the  results  give  an  indication  of  the 

in 

scale  of  energy  greediness. 

Moreover 
activities, 
refrigerator  by  van  to  the  customer's  home 

transport 
from 

freight 
going 

door-to-door 

covers 

a 

heterogeneous 
a 
de Ii very  of 
in  the  city  centre, 

very 

- 15  -

over 

long  distance  transport  of  steel  coi Is  by  40  tonnes  5-

ax le  art I cu lated 

lorry  to 

intercont lnental 

transport  of  cut 

flowers  by  air.  Table  3  and  figure  3  give  an  indication  of  the 

energy  consumption  for  different  means  of 
under  different  circumstances. 

inland  transport 

32.  Railways 

and 

inland  waterways 

have 

the 

lowest 

energy 

consumption  at  around  0.6  MJ/tonne-km. 

For  4  and  5-axle  articulated  heavy  goods  vehicles  (with  a  ful I 

load  on 

the  return  Journey) 

the  energy  consumption  would 

appear  to  be  only  slightly  higher  than  for  railways  and  inland 

waterways 

(0.7  MJ/tonne-km).  However, 

the  present  market 

organization  gives  rise 

in  practice 

to  considerable  empty 

running  and  a  load  factor  between  50%  and  70%  would  be  a  more 

realistic  basis  for  an 
these 
conditions  energy  consumption  is  significantly  higher  for  road 

intermodal  comparison.  Under 

haulage.  Removal  of  existing  restrict ions  on  market  access 
could  greatly  contribute  to  energy  efficiency. 

In  the  case  of  light  goods  vehicles  the  specific  high  energy 

consumption  (between  4  and  8  MJ/tonne-km  at  ful  I 
to  the  high  value/high  volume/low  weight  nature  of  the  goods. 

load)  is  due 

33.  The  total  amount  of  co2  released  into  the  atmosphere  by  the 
transport  sector  in  1986  reached  about  577  Mtons  or  22.5%  of 
total  co2  emissions  in  the  Community  (1) 

The  breakdown  of  this  total  output  according  to  the  different 
means  of  transport  reflects  the  share  of  each  means 
in  the 
total  energy  consumption  of  the  transport  sector. 

(1)  CEC,  Energy 

in  Europe,  Energy  for  a  new  century 

the  European 

perspective,  special  issue,  July  1990,  p.  228. 

- 16  -

Means  of  transport 

Share  in  total  C02  emissions 
by  transport  sector 

1.  Road:  total 

- private  car 
-
-

goods  vehicles 
buses  +  coaches 

2.  Aviation 

3.  Ra i I ways:  total 

-
-

passengers 
goods 

4. 

Inland  waterways 

5.  Other  transport 

55.4% 
22.7% 
1.6% 

2.8% 
1.1% 

79.7% 

10.9% 

3.9% 

0.7% 

4.3% 

Source:  Consultant  TNoC1) 

The  private  car  alone  accounts  for  more  than  55%  of  the  total 
co2  emissions  of  the  transport  sector. 

Almost 

three  quarters  of 

road  and  rail  have  their  origin  in  passenger  transport. 

the  total  co2  emissions  for  both 
(See 

figure  4). 

"The  other  pollutantsn 

34.  Within 

the  context  of 

the  CORINAIR  programme  a  detailed 

analysis  on  a  Community-wide  basis  is  available  for  NOx,  voe 
and  so2  emissions  by  road  transport.  Only  partial  data  are 
available  for  railways  and  none  for  inland  waterways,  shipping 

and  aviation. 

The  share  of  road  transport 
NOx,  27.1%  for  voe  and  2.9%  for  so2 . 

(See  table  4) 

in  total  emissions  is  53.6%  for 

The  share  of  private  cars  and 

light  commercial  vehicles  for 

the 

total  emissions  by 

road 

transport 

is  55.6% 

for  NOx, 

66.9%  for  VOC  and  49.5%  for  S02.  (See  table  4) 

( 1) 

TNO  Pol  icy  Research,  Possible 
Limiting  co2  Emissions 
the 
August  1991,  p.  6-7. 

in 

Community  Measures  Aiming  at 
Transportation  Sector,  Delft, 

- 17  -

The  share  of  road  transport  in  total  CO  emissions  is  estimated 

at  around  74%.  Data  for  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  show  that 

wel  I  over  80%  is  attributable  to  the  private  car<1>. 

35.  For  particulates 

and 

lead, 

comprehensive  data  are  not 

available.  Data  for  Germany  show  that  transport  is  responsible 

for  13%  of  total  particulate  emissions,  for 

the  Netherlands 

the  share  is  as  high  as  22%,  of  which±  30%  is  attributable  to 
the  private  car<1>. 

As  far  as  lead  is  concerned  data  for  the  Netherlands  attribute 

to  road  transport  a  share  of  87%  of  tot a I 

I ead  emissions,  of 

which  94%  is  caused  by  the  private  car<1>. 

36.  With 

regard  to 

the  specific  problems  related  to  the  urban 

environment, 

it 

is  worth  mentioning  that  of  al I  pollutants 

released  into  the  atmosphere  by  road  transport  a 

large  part 

(26%  for  NOx,  61%  for  VOC) 

is  emitted  on  urban  roads,  as 

data  for  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  show<1>.  (See  table  5). 

This  is  not  surprising,  since  energy  consumption  and  emissions 

of  pollutants  differ  according  to  the  driving  circumstances. 

As  shown 

in  table  6  for  the  different  means  of  road  transport 

energy  consumption  and  emission  are  significantly  higher  in  an 

urban  context. 

37.- No  comprehensive  Community  data  are  available  for  the  share  of 

the  other  means  of  transport  in  the  emissions  of  the  different 

pollutants.  However,  figures  for  the  UK  show  that  97%  of  non 
methane  voe  is  caused  by  road  transport,  2%  by  rai I  and  1%  by 
transport ,  3%  by 
shipping;  95%  of  NOx 

is  caused  by 

road 

rai I,  1%  by  air  and  1%  by  shipping<2>.  For  aviation  it  is  not 

specified  whether 

the  NOx 

emissions 

include 

tropospheric 

pollution,  which 

is  an  area  where  research 

is  still 

in  an 

(1)  Prognos,  Evaluation  of  External  Costs  related  to  Road  Transport  : 
Heavy  Goods  Veh i c I es  (HGV)  of  Minimum  12  Tonnes  Gross  Veh i c I e 
Weight  (GVW),  Basel,  January  1991,  tables. 
Engineers, 

Institution 

of  Civil 

Pollution 

(2)  The 

and 

its 

Containment,  London,  1990,  p.  46. 

- 18  -

early  stage. 

Aircraft  emissions  are  becoming  a  matter  of  growing  concern, 

particularly  those  produced 

in  the  mid  to  upper  troposphere. 

It 

is 

thought 

that 

the 

impact  of 

"greenhouse  gases", 

particularly  NOx• 

is  much  greater  than  If  produced  at  ground 

level. 

38.  The  social  costs  of  atmospheric  pollution  take 

into  account 

the  cost  of  health  problems:  effects  on 
the  respiratory 
system,  toxicity  due  to  lead  accumulation,  the  loss  of  human 

productivity  due  to  morbidity  and  mortality  and  the  damage  to 

bui I dings. 

Although  results  vary,  probably  because  of  differences  in  the 

methods  of  estimation,  an  average  cost  of  0.3  to  0.4X  of  GDP 

seems  to  emerge.  According  to  a  German  study  91X  of  the  costs 
can  be  attributed  to  road,  4%  to  rail,  3X  to  inland  waterways 

and  2%  to  air<1>. 

'Water" 

39.  "Water  pollution" 

is  caused  by 

the  direct  or 

Indirect 

discharge 

dangerous 
biological  agents  and  genetically  modified  organisms  and 

substances, 

including 

chemical 

of 

micro-organisms,  into  the  aQuatic  environment  resulting  in  the 

a Iteration  of  the  qua Ii ty  or  nature  of  the  water  ecosystems 

with  detrimental  effects  on  human  health  or  animal  and  plant 

Ii fe. 

Transport  contributes  Indirectly  to  ground  water  pollution 
through  vehicle  emissions  and  aircraft  emissions  at  take-off 

and 

landing.  Transport  accidents 

involving  dangerous  or 

polluting  goods  can  have  direct  or 
water  ecosystem. 

indirect  effects  on  the 

(1)  Group  Tran~port  2000  Plus,  op.  cit., 

figure 

16,  quoting 

·Frau.enhofer  Institute  Kar 1·.,r,uhe .. 

- 19  -

Transport  contributes  directly 

to  surface  water  pollution 

through  operational  discharges  from  barges  and  other  vessels 
through  accldental  discharges  of 
dangerous  or 

as 

as  wel  I 
polluting 

goods  carried  by  inland  waterways. 

40.  "Marine  pollution"  Is  caused  by  the  discharge  -

intentional  or 

accidental 

of  chemical 

substances, 

including  dangerous 

biological  agents  and  genetically  modified  organisms  and 

micro-organisms, 

into 

the  sea  or  estuaries  with  harmful 

effects  for 

the  marine  ecosystems  resulting 

in  hazards 

to 

human  health  and  to  animal  and  plant  I ife. 

Sea 

transport 

affects 

the  marine 

environment 

through 

operational  pollution  in  the  form  of  intentional  and  routine 
loading  and 
discharges  caused  by  operational  fall  out  and 

unloading  of  cargo  as  well  as  through  discharges  of  dangerous 

or  polluting  goods 

in  the  case  of  accidents  at  sea  and 

in 

ports.  Eighty  percent  of  all  oil  pollution  of 

the  marine 

environment  is  caused  by  operational  pollution. 

"Soll" 

41.  "Soi I  pollution"  consists  of  a  change  In  the  qua I ity  or  nature 

of  the  soi I  or  its  general  degradation,  caused  by  chemical  or 

physical  interference.  Since  the  soi I  acts  both  as  a  reservoir 

and  filter  for  water  and  provides  storage  of  primary  mineral 

water,  its  contamination  by  harmful  substances  or  the  general 

degradation  of 

its  physical  or  chemical  structure  can  have 

far-reaching  direct  as  well  as  indirect  effects  on  human  I ife 
as  wel  I  as  plant  and  animal  I ife. 

The  close  interaction  between  the  ecosystems  of  soil,  air  and 

increases  the  vulnerability  of  the  soil  and  widens  the 

water 
range  of  the  potential  effects  of  soi I  pollution. 

- 20  -

42.  Transport  contributes 

indirectly 

to  soil  pollution 

through 

operational  discharges  and  directly  In  the  case  of  accidental 

discharges  of 

dangerous  or  polluting  goods.  Transport 

infrastructure  can  affect  the  ecological  balance  of  the  soil 

with  repercussions  for  the  ecosystems  of  water  and  air. 

"Noise" 

43.  "Noise"  consists  of  a  number  of  tonal  components  which  have  a 

harmful  effect  on  human  beings  and  can  be  more  or 

less 

intolerable  due  to  the  discomfort,  fatigue,  disturbance  and, 

in  some  cases,  pain  it  may  cause.  Depending  on  its  intensity 

and  nature, 

the  effects  of  noise  can 

range 

from  mere 

discomfort  to  various  psychological  and  pathological  reactions 

and  vary  according  to  the 

information 

imparted  by 

the  noise 

signal  and  the  nervous  state  and  activity  of  the  receiver. 

Over  the  last  two  decades  noise  has  increased  considerably  due 

to  the  growing  spread  of  urbanization,  the  greater  mobi  I ity  of 

goods  and  persons  and  the  far-reaching  mechanization  of  most 

human  activities. 

44.  Noise  emissions  and  their 

impact  differ  from  one  transport 

mode  to  another. 

The  overal I  noise 

level  of  road  traffic  can  be  broken  down 

into  engine  noise,  rolling  noise  (from  tyres  on  the  road)  and 

other  intermittent  noise.  Under  normal  traffic  conditions  the 

presence  of  lorries  significantly  increases  average  levels  of 

both  noise  and 
Psycho-sociological  studies  have  shown 

the  number  and 

intensity  of  noise  peaks. 
the  noise  of  a 

that 

single  lorry  is  equivalent  to  that  of  six  passenger  cars 
terms  of  perceived  annoyance. 

in 
intermittent 

On  roads  with 

traffic  the  equivalence  can  be  as  high  as  10  to  15  cars  for 

- 21  -

one 

lorryC1>.  Depending  upon  traffic  conditions  for  a  single 

lorry  the  "drive-by"  noise,  which  increases  with  the  speed  of 

the  vehicle, 

is  between  6  and  12d  B  (A)  (1)(2)  higher 

than 

that  of  a  single  car.  The  annoyance  is  generally  qualified  in 

terms  of  the  population  exposed  to  noise 

levels  exceeding  a 

certain  desirable 

I imit  value  -

55  leq  dB  (A)  (2)  for  new 

residential  areas  and  65  leq  dB  (A) 

in  general .<3> 

45.  In  the  Community,  according  to  OECD  figures,  the  percentage  of 

population 

exposed 

to 

road 

transport 

noise 

above 

55  leq  dB  (A)  varies  from  34%  (Denmark) 

to  74%  (Spain)  and 

for  levels  above  65  leq  dB  (A)  from  4,1%  (Netherlands)  to  23% 

(Spain).  The  degree  of  urbanization, 

the  population  density 

and 

the  structure  and  density  of 

the 

road  network  are 

important  elements  which  influence  the  annoyance  level. 

46.  Noise  emissions  from  trains  are  caused  by  wheel/rai I  contact, 
route  and 

the  engine,  aerodynamics,  structures  along 

the 

ground  vibrations.  The  noise 

from  wheel/rai I 

interaction 

increases  with  speed.  In  the  case  of  highspeed  trains  another 

important  source  of  noise  is  the  contact  between  the  overhead 

catenary  and 

the  train  pantograph.  Although  only  a 

I imited 

number  of  OECD  data  are  aval lable  on 

railway  noise, 

the 

percentage  of  population  exposed  to  railway  noise  above  55  leq 

d  B  (A) 
in  the  Netherlands  (no  figures  available  for 
other  Member  States)  and  above  65  leq  dB  (A)  varies  from 

is  6% 

(1)  DELSEY,  J.,  (INRETS),  Nuisances  from  Heavy  Goods  Vehicles,  ECMT, 

Paris,  January  1991,  p.  2. 

( 2)  d  B  (A):  dee i be I ,  A-weighted:  unit  of  measurement  of  sound 

which  greater  emphasis 
frequencies  to  which  the  human  ear 
The  d  B  (A)  measure  is  the  most  usual 
and  control  activities. 

is  givon 

in 
to  medium  and  high 
is  most  sensitive. 
in  noise  abatement 

Leq: 

"equ i va I ent  sound  I eve I " ,  gives  the  aver age  sound  I eve I 
over  a  given  period  e.g.  a  full  day  or  during  daytime 
from  8.00  to  20.00. 

(3)  ECMT,  Transport  Pol  icy  and  the  Environment,  Paris,  1990,  p.  23. 

- 22  -

0.3%  (United  Kingdom)  to  1,7%  (Germany).  The  proportion  of  the 

population  exposed  to  railway  noise  depends  on  the  Importance 

of  ra i I ways 

in  re I at ion 

to  other  modes  of 

transport, 

the 

density  of  the  railway  network  and  topographical  factors. 

47.  The  main  source  of  aircraft  noise  are  the  sound  emissions  from 

the 

reactors,  which  at 

take-off  can  exceed  120  dB  (A). 

According 

to  OECD 

figures, 

the  percentage  of  population 

exposed  to  aircraft  noise  above  55  leq  db  CA)  varies  from  36% 

(Netherlands)  to  1.7%  (Denmark)  and  above  65  leq  dB  from  1% 

(Germany)  to  0.3%  (Denmark).  The  annoyance  caused  by  aircraft 

noise  depends  mainly  on  the  siting  of  the  airport  and  on  air 
traff lc  density. 

48.  There  are  no  data  available  for  noise  emissions  from  ships  and 

barges  since  the  annoyance  factor  is  virtually  neg I igeable. 

49.  In  calculating  the  social  cost  of  noise  for 

inland  transport, 

loss  of  productivity,  health  care,  effects  on  property  values 

and 

loss  of  psychological  wellbeing  are  taken 

into  account. 

Estimates  for 

the  tot a I  soc i a I  cost  hover  around  O. 1%  of 

GDP,  64%  of  which 

is  attributable  to  road  traffic,  26% 

to 

aviation  and  10%  to  rai 1<1>. 

Overall 

road  has  the  biggest  impact  on  the  qua I ity  of  I ife  in 

terms  of  noise  emissions. 

"Vi brat Ions" 

50.  "Vibrations"  consist  of 

low  frequency  movements  of  physical 

matter.  The  effects  on  humans  and  fauna  are  broadly  similar 

to  those  of  noise.  Vibrations  also  have  harmful  effects  on 

soi I,  buildings  and  infrastructure,  which  can  range  from  mere 

cracks  to  structural  damage. 

(1)  Group  Transport 

2000  Plus,  op.  cit., 

figure  16,  quoting 

Frauenhofer  Institute  Karlsruhe. 

- 23  -

51.  Road  vibrations  are  caused  almost  exclusively  by  heavy  goods 
vehicles  driving  on  roads  which  are  structurally  or  in  lay-out 
unsuitable  for  such  vehicles.  These  are  mainly  roads  which  are 
not  motorways,  giving  access  to  or  passing  through  large  and 
small 
thus,  of  particular 
towns  and  v t I I ages,  where  streets,  bu i Id i ngs  and 
concern 
underground  services  are  vulnerable 
to  damage.  Vibrations 
become  worse  as  the  state  of  the  road  deteriorates. 

conurbations.  Vibrations  are, 

in 

52.  Railway  vibrations  are  determined  by 

there 

the  train.  Thus, 

local  ground  conditions, 
the  track  bedding  system  as  wel  I  as  the  weight 
,  suspension 
is  a  major  difference 
and  speed  of 
between  passenger  and  freight  trains.  Passenger  trains  with 
their  I ighter  axle  loads  and  sophisticated  suspension  systems, 
even  at  high 
that  are 
perceptible  at  a  distance  of  25  m from  the  track  side.  Freight 
loads  and  simple  suspension 
trains,  however,  with  high  axle 
systems  are  the  major  cause  of  railway  vibrations. 

cause  vibrations 

rarely 

speed, 

53.  Vibrations  caused  by  aircraft  on  the  ground  have  not 

led  to 
is  overpowered  by 

major  concern  since  this  type  of  nuisance 
the  noise  emissions  of  the  engine. 

54.  There  are  no  standards  yet  for  acceptable  levels  of  vibration 
for  any  of  the  modes  of  transport,  which  makes  it  difficult  to 
assess  the  scale  of  the  problem. 

Reduction  of  operational  pollution 

55.  In  order 

to 

reduce 

the  different  aspects  of  operational 
pollution,  the  "best  avai I able  technology"  should  be  appl led 
to  al I  transport  means  including  fuel  quality  and  alternatives 
as  well  as  to  infrastructure. 

This  will  require  stricter  gaseous  emission  standards  for  al I 
fuel 
types,  for  motor  vehicles,  (cars,  commercial  vehicles, 
buses  and  coaches),  motorcycles,  aircraft,  ships  and  barges, 
vehicles, 
stricter  noise 

for  motor 

standards 

emission 

- 24  -

motorcycles,  trains  and  aircraft,  stricter  standards  for  fuel 
quality  and  blo-fuels,  stricter  energy  efficiency  requirements 
for  motor  engines,  aircraft  engines,  motorcycle  engines,  ship 
and  barge  engines  as  we I I  as  new  noise  design 
requirements 
for  roads,  railways  and  runways. 

56.  The  "best  available 

reduce  atmospheric 
technology"  should 
pollution,  noise  emissions,  vibrations,  fuel  consumption  and, 
thus  contribute  to  the  reduction  of  operational  pollution  by 
making  the  various 
transport  means  more  environment-friendly, 
particularly  in  the  road,  sea  and  aviation  sectors. 

The  wide-spread  use  of  electric  vehicles  for  both  goods  and 
passenger  transport  and  of  hybrid  (fuel/electricity)  buses  in 
cities  and  towns  should  affect  atmospheric  and  noise  pollution 

in  the  urban  environment.  On  a  more  global  scale  a  switch  to 
electric  vehicles  should  affect  dependancy  on  oi I  supplies. 

57.  In 

for 

I imits 

the  case  of  road  transport  environment-fr i end I y  and  safe 
type  of 
speed 
vehicle, 
traffic  environment  wl  II 
contribute  to  the  reduction  of  noise  and  vibrations  as  well  as 
fuel  consumption  and  gaseous  emissions,  particularly  co2 . 

road  vehicles  according 

the  specific 

road  and 

the 

to 

58.  Effective 

implementation  and  enforcement  of  these  standards 
wi  I I  require  continuous  periodical  checking  in  order  to  ensure 
that  they  are  not  infringed. 

the 

introduction  of  env I ronmenta I 
Th Is  can  be  achieved  by 
criteria  in  road  and  air  worthiness  testing  of  all  vehicles, 
including  motorcycles,  and  aircraft  as  wel  I  as 
the  use  of 
technical  devices,  such  as  speedl imiters,  to  ensure  compliance 
with  imposed  speed  I imits. 

- 25  -

These  standards  wl  II  also  require  continuous  updating  in  order 
to  ensure  that  they  keep  up  with  technological  and  technical 
the  ob J ect i ve  of  "best 
progress  and 
available  technology". 

thus  cont i nue 

to  meet 

59. 

furthered  by 
the 
the 

This  WI  11  be 
for 
development 
performance 
of 
infrastructure  as  wel  I  as 
technologies 
vehicles.  This 
funding  and  providing  f i sea I 
projects. 

such 
In 

improvement 
different 

the 

the  promotion  of 
of 
transport  modes 

research  and 
environmental 
and 
energy 
electricity-driven 
encouraging 
i ncent i ves  for  specif i c  R  &  D 

the  promotion  of  new 

achieved  by 

and 

bio-energy 

as 
turn  can  be 

60.  The 

new 

and 

standards 

dead I Ines 

introduction  of 

for 
to  present 
implementation  should  provide 
time 
"target"  values  and  dates  for 
fiscal 
incentives  should  encourage  the  user  and  the  operator 
to  opt  for  the  technically  most  environment-friendly  vehicle, 
the 
aircraft,  vessel,  motorcycle, 
"target  date." 

the  opportunity 
industry.  At 

fuel  before 

train  and 

the  same 

incentive  for 

"Targets"  can  be  set  in  such  a  way  that  legislation  provides 
an 
industry  to  keep  up  with  technological  and 
scientific  progress,  while  the  "guided"  choice  of  the  user 
these 
and  operator  can  put  pressure  on 

industry 

to  meet 

"targets". 

b.  Land-use  and  Intrusion 

61.  Transport 

infrastructure 

has 

impact  on  the  environment 

irreversible 
land 
and 
to  the  scare i ty  of  I and.  Thus, 

intrusion.  The 

impact  of 

a 

and 

permanent 

in  terms  of 

of ten 
land-use 
land-use  varies  according 
infrastructure  w i  I I  not  have 

- 26  -

the  same 

impact 

in  the  urban  environment  as  it  does 

in  less 

densely  populated  rural  areas. 

In  highly  populated  areas  infrastructure  can  cause  obstacles 

to  the  mobility  of  pedestrians,  isolate  physically  as  well  as 

socially  sections  within  the  larger  urban  area,  create  visual 

barriers, 

exacerbate 

existing 

traffic 

nuisances 

and 

disturbances  and  disrupt  day-to-day  social  and  commercial 

activities. 

62.  Transport 

infrastructure  also  determines  the  development  of 

the  urban  and  suburban 

landscape, 

influences  the  social  and 

architectural 

homogeneity  of  cities 

and 

towns, 

reduces 

available  I iving  space  and  "green"  belts. 

Transport  infrastructure  encroaches  on  the  landscape  :  it  can 

disrupt  or  destroy  natural  habitats  as  wel  I  as  cause  permanent 

damage 

to  areas  of  high 

landscape  value, 

leading 

to  a 

deterioration 

in 

the  ecological  balance  with  particular 

significance  for  the  wildlife. 

63.  There  are  no  comprehensive  data  available  on  the 

land  taken 

up  by  the  infrastructure  of  the  different  modes  of  transport 

in  the  Community.  However,  on  the  basis  of  the  length  of  the 

different  infrastructure  networks,  it  is  nevertheless  possible 

to  work  out  a  broad  estimate  of 

the 

land-use<1> 

for  each 

transport  mode. 

According 

to  Eurostat 

in  1986 

the  Community 

road  network 

consisted  of  30,237  km  of  motorways  and  2,549,907  km  of  other 

roads,  the  rai I  network  of  70,911  km  of  single  track  I ines  and 

54,918  km  of  double 
network  (including  natural  waterways)  consisted  of  21,634  km. 

inland  waterway 

I  ines  and 

track 

the 

(1)  Assumptions  concerning  the  average  width  of 

- Roads 
- Railway  lines 
Forward  Studies  Unit,  Transport  and 
p.  24. 

11.22m 
5.61m 

the  Environment,  op.cit., 

- 27  -

64.  The  Community  road  network  would  thus 

take  up  a  surface  area 

of  28,949  km2  or  1.3%  of 

the 

total 

land  area  of 

the 

Community.  This  does  not 

inc I ude 

the  surf ace  area  used  for 

intersections  and  Junctions  nor  car  parks.  The  parking  space 

for  a  single  car 

in  purpose-built  ground  level  car  parks  can 

be  as  much  as  17  m2(1) 

(including 

the  space  needed 

for 

turning  and  driving). 

65.  For 

the  Community 

railway  network  the  corresponding  figures 

are  706 

km2  or  0.03%  of 

the 

total 

land  area  of 

the 

Community.  These  figures  do  not  take 
for 
comparison  for  commuter 

I and  used 
railway  stations  and  marshal ling  yards.  A  capacity 
the  rush  hour  shows 
traffic  during 

into  account 

that  a  double  track  railway  line  can  move  the  same  number  of 
people  (±  6500  passengers)  per  hour  as  a  motorway.C2) 

66.  It 

is  not  possible 

to  estimate 

the 

land-use 

for 

inland 

waterways  since  there  are  no  data  available  for  the  average 

width  of  the  different  types  of  canals  and  the  inland  waterway 

networks 

in 

the  Community  also 

includes  natural  waterways 

such  as  rivers  and  streams.  There  are  no  global 
available  on 

figures 
the  Community. 

for  airports 

land-use 

the 

in 

However,  the  land-use  for  an  airport  can  range  from  200  to  400 

ha  for  the  smallest  regional  airports  to  1500  to  2000  ha  and 
over  for  hubsC3>.  A  few  examples  ii lustrate  this  :  Paris-Orly 

1500  ha.  Brussels-Zaventem  1600  ha,  Amsterdam-Schiphol  1800  ha 
and  Paris-Roissy  3100  ha. 

Ll•ltatlon  of  land  Intrusion 

67.  In  order  to  I imit 

land  intrusion  of  infrastructure  it  wil I  be 

necessary 

to  ensure 

ful  I  use  of  existing 

infrastructure 

capacity  as  well  as  plan  strategically  expansion  of  existing 

( 1) 

(2) 

(3) 

CEC.  Pol  icy  and  Provision 
1989,  Annexe  2,  p.  20. 
Fondation  Roi  Baudouin, 
Bruxelles,  Janvier  1991, 
Mens  en  Ruimte,  Etude 
decembre  1989,  p.  19. 

for  Cyclists  in  Europe,  Brussels, 

Mobilite, 
p.  86. 
thematique  du  proJet  TGV,  Bruxelles, 

transport  et  environnement, 

- 28  -

infrastructure  networks.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  limit 
in 
the 

particularly 

transport 

increase 

demand, 

in 

encumbered  sectors. 

68.  This  can  be  achieved  by 

.  efficient  and  optimal  use  of  existing  transport  capacity 

.  traffic  management  schemes  which  spread  more  evenly  the  flow 
of  traffic,  particularly  in  the  road  and  aviation  sectors 

.  coordination  of 

regional 
development,  taking  account  of  the  impact  on  the  environment 

infrastructure 

planning 

and 

.  strict 

implementation  and 

the  environmental 
impact  assessment  of  new  projects,  policies,  plans  and 
programmes  which  affect  transport  demand 

follow-up  of 

.  conversion  of  relinquished 

infrastructure  for 

the  use  of 

"soft"  transport. 

69.  Market  organisation  should  al low  for  efficient  and  optimal  use 
of  existing  transport  capacity  and  thus  encourage  a  shift  from 
encumbered  sectors  to  sectors  where  there  is  excess  capacity, 
particularly  from  road  to  rail,  combined  transport  and  inland 
waterways 
to  collective 
Infrastructure  planning  should  be 
transport 
coordinated  in  order  to  contribute  to  that  objective. 

for  goods  and 
for  persons. 

from  private  car 

70.  Ful  I  implementation  of  the  freedom  to  provide  services  and  the 
elimination  and  prevention  of  distortions  of  competition, 
in 
accordance  with  the  objectives  of  the  Treaty, 
together  with 
the  introduction  of  environmental  charges  or  taxes  related  to 
operational  pollution  should  contribute  to  a  more  balanced 
the 
distribution  of 
reduce 
different 
existing  pressure  on 
the  most 
encumbered  sectors. 

the  existing  volume  of  traffic  between 

transport  sectors.  This 

infrastructure  capacity 

turn  should 

in 

in 

- 29  -

c.  Congestion 

71.  "Congestion"  Is  a  recurrent  temporary  phenomenon  of  variable 
durat Ion,  caused  by  an 
lmba I ance  between  the  demand  for  and 
supply  of  transport  infrastructure  capacity,  which  results  In 
is 
an 
characteristic  of  urban 
recently  of  air 
traffic. 

capacity.  Congestion 

traffic  and  more 

overburdening 

existing 

of 

important 

consequences  of 
The  most 
reduction  of  capacity  and  mobility, 
consumption  and  operational  pol lutlon, 
time. 
wellbeing,  a  drop  in  Income,  production  or  leisure. 

congestion 
include 
increase  of  energy 
inefficient  use  of 
loss  of  comfort  and  personal 

It  can  also  cause  a 

72.  Available  data  on 

the  social  and  economic  cost  of 

congestion  indicate  a  cost  of  £10  to  15  billion  per  year 
Great  Brlta1n<O 
Nether I ands.  By 
use,  the  cost  of  congest ion 
high  as  4  bill ion  gui lders<2>. 

road 
in 
the 
in  car 
in  the  Nether I ands  cou Id  be  as 

the  year  201 o,  w I th  a  70X 

1  billion  guilders 

increase 

and  of 

for 

for 

the  costs  of  congestion 

in  Europe  have  been 
In  aviation 
estimated  at  us  $1  ,510  mi  I I ion 
the  year  1988.  These 
figures  include  for  the  airlines  increased  operating  expenses 
for  crew  and  other  personnel, 
fuel,  salaries 
(additional 
maintenance,  excess  interest,  ... >  and 
increased  f I eet  size 
cost  as  we 11  as  the  costs  to  air 11 ne  passengers  in  terms  of 
time<3>,  with  considerable  repercussions  for 
value  of 
the  tourist  industry. 

lost 

(1)  PIARC-Technical  Committee  on  Roads 

in  Urban  Areas,  Reduction  of 
Car  Traffic  in  City  Centres,  Pre-Congress  Report,  Marrakesh  1991, 
p.  8. 

(2)  Second  Chamber  of  the  States-General,  Session  1989-1990,  Second 
Transport  Structure  Plan,  part  d  :  Government  Decision,  Transport 
in  a  Sustainable  Society,  p.  5. 

(3)  PlaningsbUro  Luftraumnutzer 

ciation,  The  crisis  of  European  air  traffic  control 
Solutions,  p.  26-27. 

:  The  German  Airspace  Users  Asso 
:  Costs  and 

- 30  -

consumption 

to 
the  aviation 
Fuel 
technology  and  flying  conditions  (load  factor,  flight  prof I le, 

sector 

linked 

is 

in 

weather  conditions,  congestion).  As  shown 
in  figure  5  fuel 
consumption  is  mainly  determined  by  flying  conditions  of  which 
waiting  before  take-off,  ho Id i ng  before  I anding  and  tax 11 ng 
after  arrival  are  due  to  congestion. 

73.  A  supply-side  solution  to  the  problem  of  congestion  does  not 
necessarily  restore  the  medium  and  long  term  capacity  balance 
and  does  not,  therefore,  necessarily  reduce  the  effects  of  the 
the  road  sector,  for  example,  can 
phenomenon.  Congest ion 
tool  of  dissuasion,  since  the  available 
represent  a  useful 
time-budget  of  the  road  user  might 
lead  him/her  to  seek  more 
efficient  alternatives  in  the  form  of  collective  transport. 

In 

Reduction  of congestion 

74.  Traffic  and  congestion  are  interrelated  phenomena.  Changes  in 

the  volume  of  traffic  wl  I I  affect  congestion. 

reQuire  a  drop 

transport  demand 
imp roved  occupancy.  This  can  be  achieved  by  a  more 
towards  mob 11  I ty  for  both 
in  the  mobi  I ity 

Traffic  reduction  will 
and/or 
env i ronmenta 11 y  rat iona I  approach 
goods  and  persons  and  wi  11 
patterns  of  users  and  operators 

reQuire  changes 

in 

industrial  planning  can  contribute  to  changes 
patterns 

in 
Urban  and 
mobility 
of 
telecommunications.  Emphasis  on  proximity  and  accessibility 
should  contribute  to  traffic  reduction  and  encourage  the  use 
of  so-cal led  "soft"  means  of  transport,  cycling  and  walking. 

the  wide-spread 

use 

can 

as 

75.  The 

road  and  aviation  sectors  are 

the  most  sensitive 

to 

congestion. 

- 31  -

the  road  sector 

I arge  conurbations  and  access  routes  to 
In 
large  conurbations  are  most  affected  by  excessive  traffic, 
particularly  dur Ing  so-cal led  peak  times.  Congest ion  can  be 
reduced  by 

.  adequate  collective  transport  systems 
.  high  occupancy  rate 
.  traff lc  management  schemes 
.  road  pricing 
.  reduced  accessibi I ity  to  congested  areas 

for  motorcars. 

a 

shift 

encourage 

improvement  of 

76.  Such  measures  should  contribute  to  the  reduction  of  the  volume 
of  traffic  as  well  as  to  the 
its  fluidity. 
Their  effects  can  be  reinforced  by  transport  policy  measures 
transport, 
which 
particularly 
traffic  and  more 
specifically  during  certain  periods  of 
the  day  and  certain 
times  of  the  week  and  year.  This  shift  will  be  made  easier  by 
a  proper 
link-up  of  the  different  stages  of  a  Journey  :  from 
point  of  departure  (home/office)  to  metro/bus  stop  to  train 
station/airport  to  metro/bus  stop  to  final  destination. 

for  urban  and 

inter-urban 

collective 

towards 

77.  In 

the  aviation  sector  hubs  are  particularly  sensitive  to 

excessive  traffic.  Congestion  can  be  alleviated  by 

efficient  air  traffic  control  systems 

.  regional  distribution  of  traffic 
.  seasonal  distribution  of  holiday  travel 
.  rational  use  of  aviation  and  airport  capacity 
.  best-in-class  performance  of  airports. 

The  availability  of  highspeed  train  services  can  serve  as  an 
alternative  to  short  haul  flights  and, 
thus,  contribute  to 
reducing  airport  congestion. 

- 32  -

78.  A  reduct ion 

In  traff le  wi  11  contr lbute  to  the  reduct Ion  of 
its  side 
operational  pollution  as  wel  I  as  congestion  and 
the  pressure  on  existing 
effects. 
infrastructure  capacity,  particularly  in  the  road  and  aviation 
sectors.  I ts  ef fee ts  w i 11  be  most  far-reaching  for  the  urban 
env I ronment. 

It  will  also 

reduce 

increase 

79.  In  the  case  of  congestion,  particularly  in  urban  and  suburban 
areas,  infrastructure  planning  should  not  necessarily  seek  to 
in  certain  instances 
in  capacity,  since 
promote  an 
in 
transport  demand  and 
this  might  boost 
long-term 
the  case  of  road 
In 
exacerbate 
transport. 
the 
link-ups 
the  different  modes  might 
infrastructure 
In  certain 
contribute  to  solving  the  problem  of  congest Ion 
instances  by  making  alternative  transport  more  accessible. 

the  problem,  particularly 

adequate 
of 

networks 

However, 

between 

the 

d.  Risks  Inherent  to  the  transPort  of  dangerous  goods 

80.  The  release  of  certain  chemical  substances  can  cause  air, 
water  and  soi I  pollution  with  extremely  harmful  effects  for 
human  life  as  well  as  animal  and  plant  life.  The  carriage  of 
such  goods,  thus,  represents  a  risk  for  the  environment. 

involving  dangerous  or  polluting  goods, 
A  transport  accident 
Including  dangerous  biological  agents,  genetlcal ly  modified 
organisms  or  micro-organisms,  can  cause  major  env I ronmenta I 
damage  if  these  goods  are  discharged  into  the  environment.  The 
damage  wi  I I  depend  upon  the  nature,  characteristics  and  volume 
of  the  substances  thus  released. 

81.  Transport  accidents  involving  dangerous  or  polluting  goods  can 
term 

affect  the  ecosystem  of  water,  soil  and  air  with 
direct  and  Indirect  effects  for  human,  plant  and  animal  I lfe. 

long 

- 33  -

Technical 

fal lure 

In  a  vehicle  can  have  out-of-proportion 

effects  as  was  illustrated  in  1983,  when  due  to  brake  fa I lure, 

a  10t 

lorry  carrying  a 

load  of  dangerous  chemicals  crashed 

into  several  vehicles  in  the  vicinity  of  Huy  (Belgium).  This 

caused  the  discharge  of  corrosive  liquids  into  the  environment 
Injured,  four  burnt  cars  and 
and  resulted  in  five  deaths,  21 

extensive  damage  to  buildings  and  the  environment. 

82.  Ace i dents  at  sea,  such  as  those  of  the  Amoco  Cadiz  and  the 

Torry  canyon,  can 

lead 

to  major  disasters  for 

the  marine 

environment.  The  Exxon-Valdez  accident  in  1989  resulted 

in  a 

sp i I I  of  1O.8  mi  I I ion  ga I Ions  or  35, 000  tonnes  of  o I I  with 

major  and 

long  I ast i ng  effects  on  the  marine  environment  as 

well  as  on  plant  and  animal  life  along  the  coast.  The  actual 

damage  to  fisheries,  water,  wildlife  and  land  is  estimated  by 
American  sources  between  2.5  and  5  bi II  ion  u.s.s. 

Other  dangerous  goods  can  have  equally  damaging  effects, 

particularly  in  the  case  of  toxic,  explosive  or  radioact Ive 

materials. 

Reduction  end  prevention  of  risks  Inherent  to  the  transport  of 
dangerous  goods 

83.  In  order 

to  prevent  and  reduce 

the  risks 

inherent 

to  the 

transport  of  dangerous  goods, 

it  wl  11  be  necessary  to  make 

this 

type  of 

transport  safer  and  al low 

for 

immediate  and 

appropriate  intervention  in  the  case  of  accidents. 

This  will  require 

.  Minimum  requirements  for  the  safe  carriage  of  all  types  of 

transport  of  dangerous  goods . 

.  Spec i a I  training  requirements  for 

those 

in  charge  of  the 

transport  of  the  goods. 

- 34  -

.  Un I form  marking  of  a I I  dangerous  goods  for  a I I 

types  of 

transport . 

.  Introduction  and  use  of  telematics  for  transport  management 

of  dangerous  goods . 

.  Comprehensive  safety  instruct ions  for 

the  hand Ii ng  of  the 

goods  during  their  transport . 

.  General  safety  reQuirements  for  the  packaging  of  dangerous 

goods  and  for  the  means  of  transport. 

General  transport  safety  measures,  particularly  in  the  road 
and  maritime  sectors, 
for 
commercial  vehicles  carrying  dangerous  goods  as  well  as  the 
use  of  speed  I imiters. 

including  safe  speed 

I imits 

Such  measures  should  prevent  risks  and  reduce  or  contain  the 
potential  harmful  effects  in  the  case  of  transport  accidents. 

e.  Conclusions  of  assessment 

to 
infrastructure  on 

84.  The  assessment  of  the  impact  of  transport  on  the  environment 
impact  of 
its  operational  pollution, 
the 
according 
transport 
conseQuences  of 
the 
congestion  and  the  risks  linked  to  the  carriage  of  dangerous 
impact  differs  ·for  each  transport 
goods  has  shown 
sector . 

that  the 

space, 

.  Operational  pollution  is  the  key  component  for  al I  transport 
the  road,  sea  and  air 

sectors,  but  more  particularly  for 
sectors . 

.  Land-use 

ranks  as  second,  particularly 

in 

the 

road  and 

ra i I way  sectors. 

- 35  -

.  Congestion,  although 

important,  constitutes  a 

secondary 
factor  which  exacerbates  operational  pollution  and  puts 
is 
pressure  on 
particularly  important  in  the  case  of  road  and  air  transport 

infrastructure 

capacity. 

existing 

It 

and  In  the  case  of  road  transport  the  effects  are  heightened 
in  the  urban  environment . 

.  The 

to 

risks 

inherent 

the  carriage  of  dangerous  goods 
constitute  an  important  potential  impact  on  the  environment. 
This  aspect  of 
the  volume  of 
dangerous  goods  carried  by  a  particular  transport  sector. 

linked 

impact 

the 

to 

is 

85.  The 

impact  of  al I 

transport  sectors 

includes 

in  different 

degrees  these  four  components . 

.  Operational  pollution, 

congestion 
inherent  to  the  transport  of  dangerous  goods 

land-use, 

risks 
and 
together  as 

well  as  Individually  rank  highest  for  road  transport. 

.  Land-use 

in 

the  case  of  sea  and  air 

is  of  a 
totally  different  nature  to  that  of  road  and  rai I  transport. 
This  in  turn  affects  the  nature  of  congestion  and  the  way  it 
can  be  control led. 

transport 

- 36  -

IV. 

ECQNQMIC  TRENDS 

a.  Trends  and  forecasts 

86.  The  size  and  scale  of 

the 
environment  Is  a  function  of  the  volume  of  transport  and  the 
transport 
activities  of 
Is 
the  factors  which  determine  transport 
essential 

each 
to  analyze 

sector.  Therefore, 

transport  on 

impact  of 

the 

It 

demand. 

both 
Transport  demand 
general  reflects  the  level  of  economic  activity. 

freight  and  passengers 

for 

-

in 

87.  s i nee  1970  the  annua I  economic  growth 

in  the  Community  has 

averaged  2 .6% 

in  rea I  terms.  Economic  forecasts  expect  th Is 

trend  to  continue  until  at  least  the  end  of  the  century. 

For  the  period  1970-1988  the  overall  annual  growth 
in  Inland 
transport  averaged  3.1X  for  passengers  and  2.3X  for  goods. 
This  growth  was  not  spread  evenly  between 
the  different 
sectors.  Thus,  the  increase  in  road  transport  both  in  absolute 

and  relative  terms  has  been  much  higher 
inland 

transport  sectors 

(see  figure  6).  Since  1980 

the  other 
the 

than  for 

in  a Ir  passenger  transport  has  been  highest  of  a I I 
increase 
with  an  average  growth  rate  of  6.1X  per  year.  (see  tables  7 

and  8).  The  growth  in  tourism  has  contributed  to  this  trend  . 

88.  The  completion  of  the  Single  Market  together  with  the  creation 

the  European  Economic  Area. 

of 
developments 
Monetary  Union  wl  11 
activity  in  the  Community 

the  po I it i ca I  and  economic 
in  Eastern  Europe  as  wel  I  as  Economic  and 
level  of  socio-economic 
in  the  short  and  medium  as  well  as 

influence 

the 

the  long  term.  The  expected  increase  in  economic  activity,  as 
wel  I  as 
is  I ikely  to 
boost  transport  demand.  (see  Table  9) 

intra-Community  and  external 

trade 

in 

- 37  -

89.  In 

the  "business  as  usua I"  scenar lo  < 1 >  road 

transport 

in 

the  Community  will  continue  to  increase  significantly. 

Road  haulage  is  expected  to  Increase  by  42X  between  1990  and 
2010,  from  805  to  1.139  billion  tons-km  by  2010,  whereas  rail 
same 
increase  by 
transport 
period. (1) 

should  only 

33X  during 

the 

90.  Although 

the  year  2010,  demand 

the  total  populat Ion  of 

the  Community  wl  11 
for  passenger 

remain 
stab le  unt i I 
transport 
will  be  influenced  by  changes  in  the  demographic  environment, 
the  share  of  female 
the  workforce, 
including 
the  size  and  number  of 
participation 
households, 
lengthening  of  active 
retirement. 

the  size  of 
in 

the  age  structure, 

the  workforce, 

the 

The  stock  of  private  cars  should 
increase  by  45X  from  115 
leading  to  a  car 
mi  I I Ion 
ownership  of  503  cars  per  1000  inhabitants  by  2010  against  381 
at  present.Cl) 

in  1987  to  167  mi  11  ion  by  2010, 

91.  The  specific  fuel  consumption  of  cars  should  Improve  from  9.3 
to  7.8  1/100  km  by  2010.  The  average 
1/100  km  at  present 
annual  mileage  per  car  should  decrease  from  14,400  km/year  in 
the  total  car  mileage 
1990  to  13,400  km/year  by  2010,  but 
from  1,727 
increase  by  25X  between  1990  and  2010, 
should 
bll lion  km  in  1990  to  2,166  bi Ilion  km  in  2010.<1> 

In  the  same  scenario  passenger  transport  by  air  is  expected  to 
increase  by  74X  between  1990  and  2010.<1> 

(1)  Energy 

for  a  New  Century.  The  European 
Perspective,  Special  Issue,  Brussels,  July  1990,  Technical  Annex. 

In  Europe,  Energy 

- 38  -

b.  Structural  changes 

of  major  structural 

92.  over  the  I ast  two  decades  the  economy  has  been  undergoing  a 
number 
far-reaching 
consequences  for  transport  demand.  Transport  prices,  which  so 
far  have  not  reflected  all  external  and  internal  costs,  have 
contributed  to  these  changes. 

changes,  with 

from 

basic 

the  structure  of 

industrial  production  has  been 
93.  Firstly, 
shifting 
high-technology 
industry 
production  of  high  value/low  volume  goods.  Moreover  high 
a 
industry 
technology 
geographical  shift 
industrial 
spaces"  in  Southern  Europe. 

the  Community 

the  so-cal led 

undergoing 

towards 

towards 

"new 

is 

in 

94.  The  ever  growing  importance  of  the  service  industry  is  another 
major  structural  change.  The  service  sector  represented  58%  of 
in  the  Community  in  1985.  This  share  is  expected  to 
total  GDP 
go  up  to  66%  by  the  year  2000.  The  trend  is  to  concentrate  new 
service  activities  in  the  core  regions  of  the  Community,  where 
they  wi  I I  put 
the  already  congested 
transport  networks. 

further  pressure  on 

95.  Manufacturing  technology  is  also  undergoing  rapid  and  radical 
inventory  management 
changes.  The  "Just-in-time"  methods  of 
to  sma I I er  and  more  frequent  shipments,  shorter 
are  I ead i ng 
I ead 
in  door-to-door  de I i ver i es.  The 
more  versatile  customer-orientated  production  methods  also 
frequent  deliveries  of  smaller  shipments. 
in  more 
result 
Transport  demand 
thus,  becoming  more  sophisticated  and 
is, 
more  special lsed. 

t i mes  and  an 

increase 

96.  The 

improvement  of  communication  networks  has  in  turn  lead  to 
a  wider  geographical  dispersal  of  economic  activity  a~d  more 
sophisticated  and  more  versatile  production  systems.  The  trend 

- 39  -

towards  sub-production,  as 

for  example 

in 

the  motor-car 

industry,  is  leading  to  a  large  number  of  interplant  flows  of 

commodities  and  personnel.  Data  convnunications  make  it  further 
possible  to  separate  the  so-cal led  "back-office"  routine  work 
from  central  management  activities. 

97.  These  structural  changes  have  furthered  the  changes 

in  scale 

and  size  of  undertakings,  in  the  siting,  the  range  and  nature 

of  operations,  which  in  turn  have  resulted  in  a  concentration 

of  production  in  the  most  favourable  locations. 

Al  I 

these  factors  affect 

the  demand 

for  goods 

transport, 

the  emphasis  from  volume 
tonnage, 
total 

to  frequency  and  speed, 
shifting 
shipment 
and 
boosting 
frequency  as  wel  I  as  speed,  but 
reducing  average  shipment 
size.  The  qua I itative  aspects  - speed,  rel iabi I ity,  frequency, 
f lexibl I ity  - are  thus  gaining  in  importance. 

average  distances 

c.  The  user•s  choice 

98.  The  analysis  by  a  consultantC1)  of 

the  different  factors 

which  determine 

the  choice  of 

transport  mode 

and 

their 

relative 

importance  provides  the  fol lowing  evidence  on 

the 

user's  choice  of  transport  mode. 

"Frelght" 

99.  For 

the  transport  of  goods  the  user's  choice  is  based  on  a 

number  of  criteria,  including 

.  the  value/weight  ratio  of  the  commodity 
.  the  cost  of  transport  including  terminal,  transshipment  and 

I ine-haul  costs 

.  the  speed  and  reliability  of  delivery 

(1)  Erasmus  Universiteit  Rotterdam,  Factors  Influencing  Mode  Choice, 

final  report,  Rotterdam,  September  1991. 

- 40  -

.  the  qua I ity  of  service, 

Including  safe  transport  of 

the 

goods 

.  the 

administrative 

and 
information  on  the  whereabouts  of  goods 

efficiency 

availability 

of 

.  the  distance  and  door-to-door 

Journey 

t i me 

C I nc I ud I ng 

loading/unloading  time) 
.  the  available  alternatives 
.  avallabi lity  of  and  access  to  infrastructure 
.  the 

related 

of 

services 

availability 
distribution,  ... ). 

(packaging, 

100.  The 

transport  of  goods,  however,  needs  to  be  viewed  as  an 
integral  part  of 
the  production  and 
logistics  of 
distribution  process.  The  logistics  may  vary  for  the  different 
stages  in  the  goods  flow,  depending  primarily  upon  the  nature 
of  the  goods. 

the 

(I) 

transport 

raw  materials, 

is  usually  "point 

to 
For 
point",  generally  between  a  I imited  number  of  suppliers 
is  predominantly  by  road  and  Inland 
and  customers.  It 
waterways, 
the 
market.  Transport  costs  constitute 
the  determining 
factor  in  the  user's  choice. 

ra i I  taking  up  on I y  a  sma I I  share  of 

(ii)  For 

is 

products, 

transport 

semi-finished 

"convergent",  generally  between 
supp I i ers  and  a  sma I I  number  of 
transport 
logistics  being 
reliability  of  delivery  are 
choice  of  mode. 

usual IY 
large  number  of 
a 
I arge  customers.  The 
the 
those  of  "Just-In-time".  Speed  and 
the 

the  key  elements 

predominantly 

service 

road, 

by 

in 

Is 

(iii)  For  finished  products,  transport  is  usually  "divergent", 
between  a  large  number  of  suppliers  and  customers.  It  Is 
to  a  lesser  extent  by  air.  A 
predominantly  by  road  and 

- 41  -

combination  of  quality  of  service,  speed  and  reliability 
as  well 
related  services 
determine  the  choice  of  mode. 

the  availability  of 

as 

(iv)  For 

, 

consumer 

goods, 
between  a 

transport 
"very 
I arge  number  of  supp I i ers  and 
divergent 11
customers.  The  service  is  predominantly  by  road.  Speed 
and  re Ii ab i Ii ty  are  the  key  factors 
in  the  cho Ice  of 
mode. 

is  usually 

"Passengers" 

101.  The  user's  choice 

in 

the  case  of  passenger 

is 
influenced  by  three  sets  of  factors  :  the  characteristics  of 
the 
the  different  modes, 
decision-maker,  the  nature  of  the  Journey. 

socio-economic  status  of 

transport 

the 

(i) 

The  characteristics  of  the  different  modes  Include  the 
travel  time  and  the  monetary  cost. 

*The  travel  time  Is  usually  divided  into  two  components 
:  in-vehicle  time  and  out-of-vehicle  time.  The  out-of 
is  often 
time  spent  on  waiting  and  walking 
vehlcle 
rated  as  more  uncomfortable  and  inconvenient  than  in 
vehicle  time. 

*  The  monetary  cost 

Is  usua I I y  the  out-of-pocket  cost 
(fare  for  pub I ic  transport,  petrol  costs,  tolls  and 
parking  charges  for  private  cars).  Fixed  costs  such 
as  depreciation  and 
insurance, 
annual  road  tax  appear  to  have  little  or  no  effect  on 
the  user's  short-term  choice. 

interest  charges, 

Other  determining  characteristics  are 
the 
punctua I i ty. 

physical 

system, 

comfort,  safety, 

transparency  of 
status, 

- 42  -

Ci  i) 

I lfecycle  stage  of 

the  household, 
Income,  age,  sex, 
I I cence, 
occupa t I on,  educa t I on,  possess I on  of  dr Iv i ng 
car  ownership  and 
residence  are  the  main  elements  of 
the  socio-economic  status  of  the  decision-maker  which 
Influence  his/her  choice. 

ind iv i dua Is  may  be  more  sens It i ve 

For  physical,  economic  or  social  reasons,  certain  groups 
of 
than  others  to 
the  transport  mode.  Thus, 
specific  characteristics  of 
low  income  agents  respond  more  readily  to 
travel  costs, 
working  mothers  to  travel  time,  etc ... 

(iii)  The  nature  of  the  Journey  is  characterised  by  the  travel 
purpose  (work,  study,  shopping,  social  visit,  holiday, 
... ),  distance,  time  of  departure  and  arrival,  day  of 
the  week, 
year.  Certain 
characteristics  of  the  mode  of  transport  may  be  more 
important  for  certain  types  of  Journeys  :  for  work  and 
business  Journeys  travel 
time  and  reliability  are  more 
important 

than  monetary  costs. 

season, 

time 

the 

of 

is  subject 
to  a  number  of 
102.  The  user's  choice,  however, 
constraints  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  availability 
of  specific  modes  and  the  awareness  of  alternatives.  The  key 
be 
element 
the 
the 
lack  of 
aval I ibl i I ity  of 

decision 
a  motor  vehicle.  Habit 

to 
and 

appears 

process 

in 

from  private  car 

information  about  alternative  modes  may  prevent  a  person  from 
to  rail,  bus  or  underground, 
switching 
suggests 
especially 
reliable 
that 
information  about  collective 
the 
user's  choice  In  the  long  term. 

the  short-term.  Evidence,  however, 
and 
influence 

the  wide  availiblllty  of  effective 
transport  can 

In 

It  is  also  important  to  note  that  the  availability  of  a  motor 
in  terms  of 
vehicle  affects  the  mobility  pattern  of  the  user 
the  frequency  and  distance  of  the  Journeys  :  users  with  easy 
access  to  cars  cover  more  than  four  times  the  mileage  of  those 
without  cars. 

- 43  -

V. 

A COMMON  STRATEGY 

a.  A global  approach 

103.  The 

assessment 

never 
environmentally  neutral.  Thus,  since  existing  trends  indicate 

transport 

shown 

that 

has 

is 

that  transport  and  traffic,  particularly  in  the  road  sector, 

wi  11  cont lnue 

to  grow  over 

the  next  decades  and 

that 

the 

demand  for  transport  services,  al I  things  being  equal,  wi  11 

increase, 

the 

impact  of 

transport  on 

the  environment  wi  11 

become  more  significant. 

It  is,  therefore,  essential  that  the 

Community  adopt  a  Common  strategy,  which  aims  to  reduce  or  at 

least  contain 
the  overall 
environment  in  a  global  and  coherent  manner. 

impact  of 

transport  on 

the 

104.  Such  a  strategy  wi  11 

require  a  global  approach 

in  order  to 

ensure  that 

transport  cont i nues  to  fu If i I 

its  economic  and 

social 

functions  under 

the  most 

favourable  environmental 

conditions,  while  safeguarding  the  freedom  of  choice  for  the 

user.  A  global 

approach 

should 

also 

ensure 

that 

it 

contributes  to  social  and  economic  cohesion  in  the  Community 
and  to  the  prosperity  of  the  peripheral  regions. 

Moreover,  a  g loba I  approach  shou Id  ensure  that 

the  strategy 

covers 

a I I 

aspects  of 

the 

impact 

and, 

thus, 

reduces 

opera t  i ona I 

po I I u t  ion, 

s I ows 

down 

unnecessary 

transport 

demand,  reduces  traffic  and  congestion  and  promotes  efficient 

use  of  existing 

transport 

and 

infrastructure  capacity, 

guarantees  safer 

transport  of  dangerous  goods  and 

reduces 

pressure  on  the  infrastructure  capacity  of  the  most  encumbered 

sectors. 

105.  A  strategy  based  on 

a  global 

approach  would 

promote 

'sustainable  mobility'  by 

integrating 

transport 

into  an 

overal I  pattern  of  sustainable  development  which  would  seek  to 
"meet 
the 
ability  of  future  generations  to  meet  their  own  needs"C1)  and 

the  present  without  compromising 

the  needs  of 

(1)  The  World  Commission  on  Environment  and  Development,  "Our  Common 

Future",  1990,  p  43. 

- 44  -

would,  thus,  be  In  line  with  the  objectives  and  targets  of  the 
forthcoming  Fifth  Action  Programme 
A  new  Strategy  for 
Environment  and  Development  - "Towards  Sustainability". 

106.  The  Commission 

is  aware 

that  adequate  protection  of 

the 

environment  is  not  possible  by  reliance  only  on  technological 

progress  and  technical  measures.  Evidence  of  this  is  given  by 

the  Commission  Communication  of  September  1991,  "A  Community 
Improve 
Strategy  to  Limit  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  and 
Energy  Efficiency"Cl>. 

to 

strategy  presents 

and 
a  wide 
This 
initiatives,  including  the  need  to  study  the  possibility  of  a 

range  of  measures 

new 

fiscal 

instrument 

in 

the 

form  of  a  co2/energy 

tax 

applicable  to  all  non-renewable  energy.  Given  the 

low  price 

elasticity  of  demand  for  private  road  transport  the  proposed 
co21energy 
additional  pol icy  measures,  both  regulatory  and  economic. 

tax  wi  11 

transport 

require 

sector 

the 

In 

107.  The  same  approach  is  adopted  for  urban  transport  in  the  Green 
Paper  on  the  Urban  Envlronment<2>  where  it  Is  recognised  that 
environment-friendly  vehicles  would  bring  some  relief,  but 
that  It  is  also  necessary  to  initiate  a  significant  shift  in 
favouring  public  over 
the  balance  between  transport  modes, 
impact  of  motor 
private  transport  and  reducing  the  level  and 

traffic  in  inner  cities. 

108.  A  strategy  based  on  a  global  approach  wi  I I 

different  kinds  of 

initiatives 

thus  require 
standardization,  market 

organization  and  cost-charging  measures  as  we I I  as  research 

Initiatives. 

(1)  SEC  (91)  1744  final 
(2) 

[Com(90)218  f lnal  of  27  June  1990] 

- 45  -

b.  Balance  sheet  of  Community  action 

109.  The  Community  has  already  to  a  large  extent  been  guided  by  the 

principles  of  'sustainable  moblllty'. 

(I)  ·standardisation  .easures· 

110.  A  large  number  of  standardisation  measures  have  already  been 
adopted  in  order  to  ensure  a  better  environmental  performance 
of  the  different  transport  means  as  wel  I  as  the  safer  carriage 
of  dangerous  goods. 

They  include 

.  gaseous  emission  standards  for  petrol  and  diesel  engines 
.  noise  standards 

for  aircraft,  motor  vehicles  and  motor 

cycles 

.  standards  for  sulfur  content  of  diesel  fuel 
.  air  qua I ity  I imit  values  and  guide  values  for  sulfur  dioxide 
and  suspended  part i cu I ates  and  air  qua Ii ty  standards  for 
lead  and  nitrogen  dioxide 

.  harmonisation  of  weights  and  dimensions  for  heavy  goods 

vehicles 

.  int roduct ion  of  ABS  systems  for  heavy  goods  veh i c I es  and 

trailers 

.  introduction  of  speed  I imiters  for  certain  types  of  heavy 

goods  vehicles  and  buses 

requirements 

for  drivers  of 

training 
dangerous  goods 
notification  procedure  for  ships  carrying  dangerous  goods  in 
bulk 

lorries  carrying 

.  notification  procedure  for 

the 

transfrontier  shipment  of 

hazardous  wastes  within  the  Community 

- 46  -

.  mandatory  environmental 

impact  assessment  for  infrastructure 

projects 

mandatory  avai labi I ity  of  unleaded  fuel. 

111.  The  Commission 

has 

supplemented 

the  existing  Community 

legislation  with  additional  proposals. 

These  include 

updating  of  gaseous  and  noise  emission  standards  for  motor 
vehicles 
standards  for  railway  noise 

checking  of  gaseous  emissions  in  road  worthiness  test 

.  extension  of  environmental 

impact  assessment 

.  extension 

of  notification  procedure 

to  ships 

carrying 

dangerous 

and  polluting  goods 

in  containers, 

tankers, 

tanker-lorries 

.  obligation  to  designate  a  risk  prevention  officer  for 

the 

transport  of  dangerous  goods. 

(II)  ·Market  organisation  .easures· 

112.  The  Community 

has 

a  number  of  market 
organisation  measures  which 
introduce  the  freedom  to  provide 
services  in  the  transport  sector  as  wel  I  as  measures  which  aim 

already 

adopted 

to  eliminate  or  prevent  distortions  of  competition  in  order  to 

achieve  a  better  uti I isation  of  existing  transport  capacity. 

These  include 

intra-Community  road  hau I age  and  road  passenger 

.  access  to 
transport 
I imlted  cabotage  in  the  road  sector 

.  cabotage  in  the  inland  navigation  sector 
.  I imited  access  to  railway  infrastructure  and  market 
.  access  to  regional  airports 

reduced  constraints  on  access,  fares  and  capacity 

in 

the 

aviation  sector 

- 47  -

.  coordination  of  scrapping  schemes  for  inland  navigation 
.  freedom  to  provide  maritime  services 
.  state  aid  measures  for  combined  transport 
.  Community  financing  of  infrastructure  projects. 

113.  The  Commission  has  submitted  to  the  Council  additional  market 

organisation  measures. 

These  Include 

extension  of  cabotage 
sector 

in  maritime  transport  and 

the  road 

.  further  reduction  of  constraints  on  access,  capacity  and 

fares  in  the  aviation  sector . 

.  improvement  of  competitive  position  of  railways. 

(Ill)  ·cost-charging  .easures· 

114.  The  Commission  has  already  proposed  measures  which  take  better 

account  of  the  external  costs  of  transport. 

These  include 

.  infrastructure  charging  for  heavy  goods  vehicles 
.  harmonisation  of  excise  duties  on  mineral  oi Is. 

Also,  the  1991  Commission  Communication  "A  Community  strategy 
to  Limit  Carbon  Dioxide  Emissions  and 
Improve  Energy 
Efficiency"  includes  a  chapter  on  fiscal  measures  which  refers 
to 

to 

.  the  possible  use  of  tax  differentiation  for  vehicle  taxation 
so  as  to  take  account  of  the  impact  of  motor  vehicles  on  the 
environment  (gaseous  emissions,  noise, ... ) 

the  possible 
introduction  of  a 
the  use  of  non-renewable  energy 
the  reduction  of  the  "greenhouse  effect". 

tax  on  co2  emissions  and 
in  order  to  contribute  to 

- 48  -

(Iv)  ·Research  Initiatives· 

115.  A  number  of  act ions  and  research  projects  covering  certain 
impact  of  transport  have  already 

aspects  of  the  environmental 

been  initiated. 

These  include 

*  BRITE/EURAM 

in 

(Basic  Research 

Industrial  Technology  for 
Europe  &  European  Research 
:  R  &  D 
programme  to  strengthen  the  competitiveness  of  the  European 
manufacturing  industry  in  world  markets  and  to  establish  the 
the  development  of  new 
necessary 

technological  base  for 

in  Advanced  Mater i a Is) 

products  and  processes. 

*  CORINE  CCoord i nation  of  Information  on 

the  Env I ronment) 

programme  to  collect  information  on  the  levels  and  sources, 
including  road  transport,  of  air  pollution. 

*COST  (European  Cooperation 

technical  research) 
including 
projects 
(COST  302,  303) 

in  the  field  of  scientific  and 
framework  for  research  cooperation, 
vehicles 
on 

environment-friendly 

*  DRIVE  (Dedicated  Road  Infrastructure  for  Vehicle  Safety 

in 
:  R & D programme  to  develop  and  validate  tools  and 
Europe) 
strategies  for  demand  management,  to  reduce  congestion,  to 
the 
improve 
road  safety, 
the 
impact 
environmental 
appl lcation  of  transport  telematics. 

transport  efficiency  and 
through 
road 

road 
of 

transport 

*  EURET 

(Specif lc  Research 

and  Technological  Development 
Programme  in  the  field  of  Transport)  :  research  programme  to 
optimize  network  exploitation  and  transport  logistics  and  to 
reduce  harmful  externalities. 

- 49  -

supply) 

*JOULE  (Joint  Opportunities  for  Unconventional  or  Long  Term 
R  &  D  programme 
Energy 
to  develop  energy 
technologies  that  take  account  of  new  and  renewable  energy 
sources,  to  increase  security  of  supp I y  and  reduce  energy 
imports  and 
to  environmental  protection, 
including  reduction  of  co2  emissions. 

to  contribute 

*  SAST 

(Strategic  Analysis 

in  Science  and  Technology) 

programme  to  identify,  amongst  others,  the  extent  to  which 
technological  development  can  contribute  to  the  reduction  of 
the  impact  of  transport  on  the  environment. 

*SAVE 

(Specific  Action  of  Vigorous  Energy  Efficiency) 

programme  of  energy  conservation  measures,  amongst  others, 
in  the  transport  sector. 

*STEP  (Science  and  Technology  for  Environmental  Protection)  : 
R  &  D  programme 
technological 
support  for  the  environmental  pol icy  of  the  Community  and  to 
promote  the  Quality  of  environmental  research. 

to  provide  scientific  and 

*  THERMIE 

(Promotion  of  European  Energy  Technologies) 

to 

promote 

technologies, 
innovative 
programme 
dissemination  and  market  penetration  of  energy  technologies, 
to  encourage  greater  use  of  new  and  renewable  energy  sources 
environmetal 
and 
protection. 

efficiency 

improve 

energy 

energy 

and 

to 

c.  ·sustainable  llOblllty•  and  future  transport  development 

116.  These  measures  and  initiatives  go  some  way 

towards  resolving 
the  areas  of  conflict  between  transport  and  the  environment. 
However,  on 
in 
in  view  of 
transport  demand  and  traffic,  they  wi  I I  not  suffice. 

the  expected  growth 

their  own, 

- 50  -

through 

the 
The  gains  achieved 
freedom  to  provide  services  and  the  elimination  of  distortions 
the  overall 
of  competition  are 
increase  in  mob ii ity  due  to  the  growth  in  economic  activity. 

technical  standardisation, 

to  be  overtaken  by 

likely 

117.  Even 

the 

the 

'acquis'  were 

to  be 
'best  available 

the 
supplemented  by 
if 
the 
and 
technology' 
introduction  of 
for  noise  and 
strictest  possible  environmental 
and 
gaseous 
a I ternat i ves  as  we I I  as  measures  to  enforce  and  check  their 
implementation,  the  gains  thus  achieved  could  easily  be  offset 
in  traffic  and  congestion  as  illustrated  under 
by  the  growth 
point  91. 

fuel  Quality 

efficiency, 

emissions, 

standards 

fuel 

118.  A  Common  strategy  for 
additional  initiatives. 

·sustainable  mob/ I  lty'  wi  11 

require 

Such  initiatives  should  focus  on 

.  market  organisation  measures  which  further 

the  freedom  to 
provide  services  and 
the  elimination  of  distortions  of 
competition,  while  aiming  more  specifically  at  encouraging 
the  more  environment-friendly  modes  as  wel  I  as  efficient  use 
of  existing  capacity 

.  additional  risk  prevention  measures  In  order  to  ensure  safer 

carriage  of  dangerous  goods 

traffic  management 
congestion  and 
the 
improve  efficiency  of  transport  operations 

to 
schemes 
introduction  of  advanced  telematics  to 

in  areas  most  vulnerable 

the  use  of  fiscal 
influence 
the  user 
technology 
cleaner 
transport  modes. 

instruments 

and  economic 
and  operator's  choice 
the  more 
and 

to 
favour  of 
environment-fr i end I y 

in  order 

in 

- 51  -

119.  In  order 

investment  should  be  guided 

to  reinforce  these  Initiatives  pub I le  and  private 
transport, 

towards  col lectlve 

whereas  urban,  industrial  and  commercial  as  well  as  regional 

development  p Ianni ng  shou Id  be  geared 

towards  reduc Ing 

the 

need  for  mobility.  At 

the  same  time  infrastructure  planning 

should  be  made  subject  to 

restrictions  on 

land  intrusion  as 

we 11  as  to  strict  env i ronmenta I 

impact  assessment  procedures 

at  both  the  strategic  and  project  stages,  including  evaluation 

of  alternative  options. 

120.  Coordination  of  such  measures  and  intiatives  wi  I I  be  essential 
the 

the  characteristics  of 

their  adaptation 

as  wl  II 

to 

different  transport  sectors.  At  the  same  time  it  wil  I  also  be 

to  ensure 

necessary 
the  effects 
resulting  from  the  different  measures  should  remain  compatible 
economic 
with 

the  overall  objective  while  allowing 

interaction  of 

that  any 

for 

eff iclency  and  commercial  viabi I ity  of 

transport  and 

the 

freedom  of  choice  of  the  user  and  operator. 

It  will  also  be 

necessary  to  take  due  account  of  the  possible  effects  on  smal  I 

and  medium  size  undertakings.  Equally 

important  will  be  the 

need 

to  ensure 

that 

the  peripheral 

regions  share 

in 

the 

prosperity  of  the  Single  Market. 

"The  role  of  the  user  and  operator• 

121.  A key  element  in  any  strategy  which  is  to  prove  effective  wi  I I 

be  the  behaviour  of  the  user  and  operator. 

the  dominance  of 

Given 
the 
impact  on 
its 
the  vo I ume  of  road 
environment  and 
traffic,  it  will  be  essential  to  influence  the  behaviour  of 

road 
the  expected  growth 

transport, 
in 

the  road  user,  particularly  the  private  car  owner. 

As  shown  above  the  key  factor 

in  the  decision-maker's  choice 

of  mode  is  the  availability  of  a  motor  vehicle,  which 

in  turn 

affects  the  mobi  I ity  pattern  of  the  user.  This  becomes  al I  the 

- 52  -

more  important  in  view  of  the  expected  growth  in  car  ownership 

which  could  be  as  high  as  one  car  for  every  two  citizens  in 

the  Community  by  the  year  2010. 

122.  A  strategy  which  seeks  to  influence  human  behaviour 

towards 

mob i I i ty  w I I I  need 

to  focus  on 

the  attitude  of 

the  user 

towards  the  car. 

The  user 
an 
environment-friendly  and  energy  efficient  vehicle,  alternative 

encouraged 

to  opt 

should, 

thus, 

for 

be 

modes  of  transport, 

including  "soft"  means  of  transport,  as 

wel  I  as  a  rational  use  of  the  motor  car. 

123.  This  could  be  achieved  by  fiscal 

incent Ives,  efficient  and 
accessible  collective  transport,  restricted  vehicle  access, 

I imited  parking  faci  I it ies 

in  city  centres  but  strategically 

placed  car  parks  al lowing  for  adequate  I ink-up  with  collective 

transport. 

integrated 

urban 

and 

suburban  planning 

and 

improved  facl I ltles  for  "soft"  users. 

Such  actions  would  be  more  effective 

if 

reinforced  by 

information,  public  education  and  publ le  awareness  campaigns. 

124.  The  user  is  also  a  consumer  and  as  consumer  should  be  given 

adequate  and  accurate 

information  about 

the  environmental 

performance  of  veh i c I es  so  that  an  env i ronmenta 11  y  rat iona I 

choice  is  possible. 

125.  As 

seen  above 

the  user's  choice,  when 

It  comes 

to 

the 

transport  of  goods, 

is  influenced  by  a  number  of  criteria  of 

which 

in  the  majority  of  cases  speed  and  reliability  are  the 

most 

important.  This  to  a 

large  extent  determines  the  user's 

choice  of  operator. 

In  order  to  encourage  more  environment-friendly  transport  of 

goods  It  will  be  necessary  to  off-load  the  increase  in  demand 
the  road  onto  other  sectors  by  providing  alternatives 
from 

equal IY  attractive  to  road  haulage. 

- 53  -

This  wi  11 
require  more  efficient  rai I  services  for  goods, 
better  access  to  combined  transport  and  improved  transshipment 

facilities,  improved  quality  of  service  and  reliable  door-to 
door  travel  time  for  inland  navigation  and  coastal  shipping. 

to  opt 

126.  At  the  same  time  the  operator  should  be  encouraged  and  in  some 
instances  compel  led 
"clean" 
vehicle,  aircraft,  barge,  ship  and  train  and  make  full  use  of 
Infrastructure  capacity.  Fiscal  and 
existing  transport  and 
economic 
selective 
restrict ions  on  access  to 
infrastructure  can  contribute  to 
this,  as  wel  I  as  reduce  the  demand  for  transport. 

as  general 

technically 

incentives 

as  well 

and 

the 

for 

d.  A new  framework 

127.  Although  the  Community  has  recognised  the  need  for  a  coherent 
the 
the 
and  global 
environment, 
for  a  Common 
is  as  yet  no 
strategy  aimed  at  'sustainable  mobility'  in  the  Community. 

approach 
there 

transport  on 

impact  of 

framework 

to 

Such  a  framework  wi  I I  require  coordinated  examination  of 

.  measures 

laying  down  strict  environmental  standards  for 
motor  vehicles,  motorcycles,  aircraft,  barges,  ships,  trains 
and  fue I  qua Ii ty  as  we I I  as  measures  to  enforce  and  check 
their  implementation 

environmental  measures 
laying  down  strict  air  and  water 
qua I ity  standards  as  wel  I  as  strict  limit  values  for  air  and 
water  pollutants  supplemented  by  measures 
to  check  and 
enforce  their  implementation 

.  transport  policy  measures  which 

implement  the  objectives  of 
the  Treaty  as  well  as  Community  policies  adopted  to  fulfil 
these  objectives  and  ensure  efficient  and  optimal  use  of 
existing  transport  capacity  for  the  different  modes,  allow 

- 54  -

environment-friendly  modes,  such  as  railways,  inland  and  sea 

navigation  and  combined  transport, 

aviation  and  ensure 

that 

transport  contributes 

to  compete  with  road  and 
to  co2 

stabi I isation  in  the  Convnunity 

.  an  overall  action  plan  for  the  transport  of  dangerous  goods 

which  wi  I I  ensure  that  these  goods  are  carried  in  the  safest 
possible  manner  throughout  the  Community 

.  fiscal  and  economic  instruments  and  a  framework  for  the  use 
in  the  transport 
to  promote  environment-fr i end I y  transport 

of  such 
sector 

the  Member  States 

instruments  by 

in  order 

and  ensure  that  external  costs  are  included  in  the  price  of 
transport 

.  guidelines  for 

the  development  and  assessment  of  Community 

infrastructure  projects  which  would  discourage  unnecessary 

transport 

demand 

and 

encourage  where 

appropriate 

the 

development  of  alternatives 

to 

road 

transport, 

such  as 

railway, 
urban  and  inter-urban  collective  transport 

inland  waterways  and  combined  transport  as  well  as 

guidelines  for  the  conversion  and  upgrading  of  relinquished 
'soft' 
infrastructure,  particularly 

the  purpose  of 

for 

transport 

guide I ines  for  the  development  of  urban  transport  which  give 
'soft'  transport  and  to  adequate 
priority  to  collective  and 

I ink-up  between  the  different  stages  of  urban 

journeys  as 

wel  I  as  to  easy  access  to  and  from  inter-urban  transport 

.  guldel ines 

for 

'soft' 

tourism  which  promote 

the  use  of 

environment-friendly  transport 

.  guide I ines 
programmes 
transport 
friendly 

the 

for 
which 

promote 

technology  and 

development  of  Community 

the 

deve I opment 

research 
'c I ean' 
the  marketing  of  environment 
rape  seed 
(ethanol, 

of 

fuels, 

such  as  bio-fuels 

- 55  -

dlester,  etc ... ),  natural  gas 
including  hybrid  (fuel/electricity)  buses  as  wel  I  as 

and  electric  vehicles, 
the 

development  of  eff iclent  traffic  management  schemes 

.  minimum  consumer 

information 

requirements  concerning 

the 

environmental  performance  of  motor  vehicles 

.  guidelines  for 

information  campaigns  on  the  environmentally 
rational  use  of  the  private  car  which  draws  the  attention  of 
the  user 
such  as 
to  environment-friendly  alternatives 
collective  and  'soft'  transport. 

128.  The  results  of  this  examination  should  provide  the  framework 
for  a  Common  strategy  of  'sustalnable  moblllty',  which  should 
the  environment,  while 
transport  on 
contain 

Impact  of 

the 

transport 

to  fulfi I 

to  continue 

allowing 
its  economic  and 
social  functions,  particularly  in  the  context  of  the  Single 
Market,  and  thus  ensure  the  long  term  development  of  transport 
in 
It  should  also  contribute  to  social  and 
economic  cohesion  in  the  Community  and  to  the  creation  of  new 
opportunities  for  the  peripheral  regions. 

the  Community. 

the  user,  this 
While  safeguarding  the  freedom  of  choice  for 
framework  should  identify,  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of 
subsidiarity,  the  responsibi I ity  which 
the  different  actors 
in  order  to  achieve  the  objective  of  the 
will  have  to  assume 
strategy. 

129.  The  purpose  of  this  Green  Paper  is  to  initiate  a  public  debate 
on  the  Issue  of  transport  and  the  environment  and  the  proposed 
strategy  for  "sustainable  mob/ I /ty".  This  should 
involve  the 
views  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  the  European  Par I iament  and 
the 
the  Economic  and  Social  Committee  as  wel  I  as  those  of 
from 
social  partners.  The  debate  should  also  draw  views 

- 56  -

international  organizations  and  associations  and  a  response 
from  the  general  public, 
including  industry,  transport  users 
and  operators,  environmental  protection  groups,  regional  and 
local  authorities. 

The  outcome  of  the  debate  should  provide  an  insight  into  the 
way 
in  which  it  will  be  possible  to  achieve  the  objectives  of 
"sustainable  mobility"  and  how,  according  to  the  principle  of 
subsidiarity,  the  different  actors  are  to  contribute  to  the 
strategy. 
the 
forthcoming  White  Paper  on  the  Future  Development  of  Transport 
Pol  icy. 

should  also  provide 

a  blueprint 

for 

It 

* 

* 

* 

IA8LE  1 

PASSENGER  TRANSPORT 

PRIMARY  ENERGY  CONSUMPTION  FOR  DIFFERENT  TRANSPORT  UODES 

Mode 

Total  seating 
capacity 
per  unit 

Energy  use 

f  lnal  energy 
per  100  km 
(1) 

In  MJ  primary 
energy/ 
vehicle  km 

1.  Gasol lne  car 

<  1. .. 
1.4  - 2.0 
>  2.0 

2.  Dlesel  car 
<  1.4 
1.4  - 2.0 
>  2.0 

3.  Ra I I ways 

Intercity 
Super  sprinter 
Suburban  electrical  llne 
High  speed  train  300  km/h 
type:  Brussels-Paris 
High  speed  train  300  km/h 
type:  London-Paris 

...  Bus/car 

Double  decker 
Bus 
Minibus 
Express  car 

5.  Air 

Boeing  727 

6.  •soft•  transport 

eye I Ing 
walk Ing 

.. 
.. 

4 

4 
4 
4 

563 
147 
300 

375 

700 

100 
48 
20 
46 

167 

1 
1 

7.5  I 
8.6  I 
13.4  I 

5.9  I 
7.2  I 
9.6  I 

1.527.7  kwh 
459.6  kwh 
749.1  kwh 

2.500  kwh 

.-.150  kwh 

45.6  I 
36.7  I 
18.5  I 
29.9  I 

2.61 
2.98 
4'.65 

2.26 
2.76 
3.65 

160.9 
48.4 
78.9 

268.65 

4'37.08 

17 ... 0 
14.02 
7.08 
11 • .-3 

760.7  I 

242.82 

0.06 
0.16 

Source:·OECD.  Rapport  final  sur  les  defall lances  du  March'  et  de  1·1nterventlon  des 

pouvolrs  publics  dans  la  gestlon  des  transports.  Paris.  Novembre  1990;  and 
Mens  en  Rulmte.  op.cit •• 

(1)  Conversion  coeff lclents 

1  MJ  primary  energy• 

used: 

0.0287356 
0.026178 
0.031328 
0.0949487 

petrol 
diesel 
kerosene 

kwh 

IA8LE  2 

PASSENGER  TRANSPORT 

SPECIFIC  ENERGY  CONSlAIPTION  FOR  DIFFERENT  TRANSPORT  ..x>ES 
AT  DIFFERENT  OCCUPANCY  RATES 

(In  MJ  primary  energy/passenger-km) 

MODE 

OCCUPANCY  RATE 

25X 

SOX 

75X 

100X 

1.  Gaso 11 ne  car 

<  1.-4 
1.-4  - 2.0 
>  2.0 

2.  Diesel  car 

<  1.-4 
1.-4  - 2.0 
>  2.0 

3.  Ra I lways 

Intercity 
Super  sprinter 
Suburban  electrical  I lne 
High  speed  train  300  km/h 
type:  Brussels-Paris 
High  speed  train  300  km/h 
type:  London-Paris 

...  Bus/car 

Double  decker 
Bus 
Minibus 
Express  car 

2.61 
2.98 
4.65 

2.26 
2.76 
3.65 

1.14 
1.31 
1.05 

2.86 

2.50 

0.70 
1.17 
1.42 
0.95 

1 .31 
1.-49 
2.33 

1.13 
1.38 
1.83 

0.57 
0.66 
0.59 

1.-43 

1.25 

0.35 
0.58 
0.71 
0.50 

0.87 
0.99 
1.55 

0.75 
0.92 
1.22 

0.38 
o . .c.c 
0.35 

0.96 

0.83 

0.23 
0.39 
O • .C7 
0.33 

0.82 
0.75 
1.16 

0.57 
0.69 
0.91 

0.29 
0.33 
0.26 

0.72 

0.62 

0.17 
0.29 
0.35 
0.25 

5.  Air 

Boeing  727 

6.  •soft•  transport 

eye I Ing 
walk Ing 

5.78 

2.89 

1.9.C 

1.-45 

0.06 
0.16 

source:  Computation  based  on  table  1 

TA&LE  3; 

FREIGHT  TRANSPORT 

ENERGY  CONSUMPTION.FOR  DIFFERENT  MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT 

Vehicle  characteristics  Gross 
weight 
tonne 

Fuel  consumption 
1/100  km 
Ca 1 lowlng  for  part 
load  and  empty 
running) 

Specific  energy  consumption 

MJ/tonne  km 

1)  .B.21.sl 
5- Axle  articulated 
4- Axle  articulated 
3- Axle  articulated 
4- Axle  rigid 
3- Axle  rigid 
Heavy  box  van 
Medium  van  city  traffic 

2)  Ra I lways 
Bulk  freight  traff lc 
Wagon  load  traff lc 
(Including,  collection. 
delivery  to  terminals 
and  marshal I Ing) 

38 
32 
20 
20 
16 
3.5 
1.75 

n.a. 
n.a 

43.5 
35.3 
29.5 
28.5 
23.5 
18.5 
15.5 

n.a. 
n.a 

5M(2l 
1.38 
1.35 
1.50 
3.11 
1.80 
8.11 
16.00 

70S(2l 
0.99 
0.96 
1.07 
2.22 
1.28 
5.80 
11.43 

tOMC2l 
0.69 
0.67 
0.75 
1.55 
0.90 
4.06 
8.00 

0.6 
1.0 

3)  lnl1n~ !!lllCDYI 

n.a. 

n.a. 

0.6 

( 1) 

Source 

Dr.M.  Waters.  Review  of  TRRL  and  other  Research.  U.K.  Road  Transport 
Contribution  to  Greenhouse  Gasses,  1990  and  for  (1),  Fondatlon  Roi  Baudouin, 
op.  cit •. 

(2)  load  factor 

TAQLE  1 

EMISSIONS  OF  voe.  S02  AND  NOx  BY  ROAD  TRANSPORT 

FOR  THE  YEAR  1985 

CATEGORY 

I 

I 

voe 

S02 

In  X of  total  by  road  transport) 

NOx 
( 

•  Automobiles~  light  duty  vehicles 
•  Motorcycles 
•  Heavy  duty  vehlcles  and  buses 
•  Other  (deposits  of  llquld  fuels.  service 

stations  evaPoratlon> 

55.6 
0.2 
14.2 
o.o 

66.9 
9.9 
8.2 
15. 0( 1) 

II 

19.5 
0.8 
49.5 
0.2 

TOTAL 

In  tonne/year 

In  X of  total  emissions  by  all  activities 

5,328,952 
5 .592. 104 
------ ------- -------
27 .1 

394,776 

53.6 

2.9 

source  CORINAIR,  20-11-90 

(1)  of  which  evaporation  alone  accounts  for  6,BX  of  total  emissions  by  road 

transport 

.  TAQLE  5 

POLLUTION  BY  ROAD  TRANSPORT  ON  DIFFERENT  ROAD  CATEGORIES 

Pollutant 

GERMANY  <cars  only) 

In  X  on 

NETHERLANDS  (all  vehlcles) 

In  X  on 

urban  roads  motor  ways  Other 

non-urban 

urban  roads  motor  ways  Other 

non-urban 

co 

N02 

S02 

voe 

43.7 

21.7 

35.9 

59.8 

Particulates 

33.8 

25.9 

410.6 

28.2 

15.2 

32.4 

30.4 

37.7 

35.9 

25.0 

33.8 

53.8 

26.3 

410.7 

60.8 

57.5 

17.9 

416.7 

n.a. 

14 .9 

20.0 

28.3 

27.0 

; 

n.a. 

24.3 

22.5 

Source 

PROGNOS.  op.  cit. 

TA8LE  6 

ENERGY  DEMAND  AND  EMISSION  INDICATORS  IN 

ROAD  TRANSPORT  UNDER  DIFFERENT  DRIVING  CIRCUMSTANCES 

Type  of  vehicle 

Specif le 
consumption 
1/100  km 

Emission  of  pollutants  (In  g/vehlcle  km) 

co 

NOx 

HC 

C02 

S02 

Particulates 

- Private  car 

Petrol 

Dlesel 

- Bus 

urban 
non-urban 

urban 

non-urban 

urban 
non-urban 

- Delivery  van 

urban 

non-urban 

-lleavy  goods  vehicle 

- ]rf:Jtorcycle 

urban 

non-urban 

urban 
non-urban 

Source 

DG  XVI  I 

11.6 
5.3 

9.4 
5.8 

33.0 
32.0 

16.0 
n.a. 

n.a. 
33.0 

6.0 
3.5 

45.0 
12.5 

1.7 
0.7 

1.2 
1.6 

0.8 
1.7 

6.4 
1.3 

0.5 
1.0 

315 
160 

331 
201 

18.0 
3.8 

15.5  12.0  1158 
2.7  1123 
15.0 

-
-
0.08 
0.06 

1.70 
1.50 

55.4 
n.a. 

3.0 
n.a. 

498 
6.0 
n.a.  n.a. 

0.18 
n.a. 

n.a. 
8.0 

n.a. 
17.5 

n.a.  n.a. 
2.8  1158 

n.a. 
1.59 

15.6 
8.5 

0.1  14.0 
4.7 
0.2 

163 
106 

-
-

-
-
0.40 
0.23 

n.a. 
n.a. 

n.a. 
n.a. 

n.a. 
n.a. 

-
-

TAQLE  7 

GAS  TURBINE  AERO-ENGINE  EMISSION 

Emissions  (grams  per  kilogram  of  kerosene) 

Operation  phase 

Engine  power  CX) 

Idle 

Approach 

Cruise 

Take-off 

5 

30 

60 

100 

co 

5 

5 

0 

0 

HC 

NOx 

20 

2 

0 

0 

?l 

5 

10 

20 

40 

Source 

Air-Line  Business.  The  Magaslne  for  Alrllne  Management  •  October  1990,  p.  27. 

IA8LE  8: 

EVOLUTION  OF  TRANSPORT  IN  THE  COt&IUNITY 

1970-1988 

Transport  In  blll. 
tonne-km  or  pass-km 

Yearly  growth 
In  S 

Market  share  In 
tonne-km  or  pass-km 

1970 

1988 

1970-1988 

1970 

1988 

1.  INLAND 

Frelght 

•  Road 
. Inland  waterways 
•  Ra 11 

389.1 
103.1 
207.0 

772.6 
103.2 
176.6 

Total 

699.2 

1,052.4 

Passengers 

•  Road: 

•  Rall 

private  car/bus 

1,590.6 
181.1 

2,826.3 
229.7 

Total 

1,772.9 

3,055.7 

3.9 
0 
-0.9 

2.3 

3.2 
1.3 

3. 1 

55.7 
14.7 
29.6 

73.4 
9.8 
16.8 

100.0 

100.0 

89.7 
10.3 

92.5 
7.5 

100.0 

100.0 

2.  A!.B. 

Frelght 

Passengers 

3.  MARIIIME 

Freight 

Passengers 

-

-

117.9 

2s4 .a< n 

-
4_7(2) 

55(3) 

100(4) 

1.2(5) 

-

-

-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

Source:  CEMT,  Consultants. 

(1)  Figure  for  the  year  1985 
(2)  Figure  for  the  period  1970-1985 
(3)  Figure  for  the  year  1975 
(4)  Figure  tor  the  year  1989 
(5)  Figure  for  the  period  1975-1989 

TAQLE  9:  EVOLUTION  OF  ROAD  VEHIQ.ES  AND  ROAD  TRAFFIC  IN  THE  COt&IUNITY 

1970-1987 

1970 

1987 

Yearly  growth 
1970-1987 
In  X 

- Passenger  cars  In  use 

(In  thousand) 

- Goods  vehicles  In  use 

(In  thousand) 

57.459 

116.947 

4.3 

7.419 

12,881 

3.3 

- Vehicle-km  passenger  cars 

C In  bll I Ion> 

760.5 

1,399 

3.7 

- Vehicle-km  goods  vehicles 

C In  bll 1 Ion) 

157.6 

275.4 

3.3 

source:  OECD,  Environmental  data,  compendlwn  1989. 

TAQLE  10 

FORECASTS  FOR  THE  TRANSPORT  SECTOR  IN  THE  cnAIUNITY 

UP  TO  1995 

1995 
( I n  b I I I I on) 
tonne-km  or 
passenger-km 

Forecast 
yearly  growth 
1989-1995 
In  X 

Total 

Total 

1.  INLAND 

Freight 

•  Road 
.  Inland  waterways 
.  Ra 11 

Passengers 

•  Road 
•  Rall 

2.  A.lB. 

Freight 

Passengers 

3.  MARITIME 

Freight 

Passengers 

1.002 
n.a. 
210 

n.a. 

3.712 
295 

4'.007 

20.5 

4'53. 4' 

n.a. 

n.a. 

3.8 
n.a • 
2.2 

n.a. 

2.9 
3.3 

2.9 

5.5 

5.2 

n.a. 

n.a. 

Source:  Europe  In  1995.  Economic  outlook  by  sector.  April  1991. 

Figure  1 

SPECIFIC  ENERGY  CONSUMPTION  OF  DIFFERENT  MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT 

Passengers 

MJ 
primary 
energy/ 
passenger-km 
(100  X  occupancy) 

1.5 

.. 

.. 

1 

0.5 

.. 

1.4'5 

0.75 

0.69 

0.62 

0.29 

0.29 

lnter 
c I ty 
train 

bus 

diesel 

high 
speed  car 
train 

gaso-
1 I ne 
car 

aircraft 

Figure  2 

SPECIFIC  ENERGY  CONSUMPTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT  AT  DIFFERENT 
OCCUPANCY  RATES 

Passengers 

MJ  primary 
energy/passenger-km 

\ 
\ 

6 

5 

3 

2 

1 

\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 
\ 
' ... 

' 

,_ 

............  ..... 

............ 

.... _ 

25 

50 

75 

100 

occupancy 
rate  (in  X) 

aircraft 
gaso I i ne  car 
diesel  car 
ra i  I  ways 
highspeed  train 
bus 

- Boeing  727 
2 .o  cc 
- 1. 4  -
- 1.4  - 2.0  cc 
-
intercity 
- London  - Paris  model 
bus  with  48  seats 

............. 

1 

I 

ft 

I 

I 

t 

I 

Figure  3 

SPECIFIC  ENERGY  CONSUMPTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT 

·Freight 

MJ  primary 
energy/tonne-km 

2.5 

2 

.. 

.. 

1 

2.22 

1.55 

0.99 

1.0 

0.6 

0.6 

0.69 

rall 
bulk 

land 
water-
ways 

artlcu- artlcu-
lated 
lorry 
100  x 
load 

lated 
lorry 
70  x 
load 

ra 11 
wagon 
load 

rigid 
lorry 
100  x 
load 

rigid 
lorry 
70  x 
load 

[articulated  lorry  - 5  axle  articulated  38  tons] 

[rigid  lorry 

- ~axle rigid  20  tons] 

Figure  4 

CONTRIBUTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT  TO  THE  TOTAL 

C02  OUTPUT-< 1 )  OF  THE  TRANSPORT  SECTOR 

IN  THE  CCU.CUN I TY 

Passengers  and  Freight 

X of  total 
co2  output 
of  transport  sector 

55.~ 

50 

.. 

40 

.. 

.. 

30 

20  -

10  -

private 
car 

-

22.7 

1.6 

I 
I 
buses 

goods 
vehicles  + 

coaches 

10.9 

avla-
tlon 

1.1 

4.3 

I 2 .s I 

I 

0.7 
...... 
Inland 
trains  water-

I  I 
passen- freight 
ger 
trains 

ways 

other 
trans-
port 

( 1 ) 

co2  OUTPUT  OF  THE  TRANSPORT  SECTOR 
TOTAL  C02  EMISSIONS  IN  THE  COMMUNITY. 

IN  1986  •  557  MTONS  OR  22 • 5  X  OF 

Fi 9ure  5 
-----

FUEL  CONSUMPTION  if  JET-AIRCRAFT 

8000 
in  Ki lo-
gramm 

Ideal  Conditions: 

7000 

- no  load 
- no  waiting  before  takeoff 
- no  headwind 
- no  taxiing  after  arrival 
- optimal  flight  profile 

6000 

Least  ideal  conditions: 

- max.load 
- 30  min.  waiting  before 

5000 

takeoff 

- strong  headwind 
- 30  min.  holding  before  landing 
-

tong  taxiing 

Modern  technology: 

Airbus  310  or  320 
MD-80,  Boeing  7371300 

Outdated  technology: 

Boeing  707,  DC-8, 
Boeing  727,  Boeing  7371100, 
DC-9/30 

L.000 

3000 

2000 

10000 

6000 
4000 
2000 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I I 

I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
, .... ·.-I 
- "/-
/ 
/ /  .. _.;' 

/ 

/ 

. > e/ ./()()0 

~ 

.  _,  ~" 
/ v 
'~r  •ocl! 

llf!W'7 

saStJO 

1
I 
I 
I 

,,  'If/JOO 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

I 

I 

I 

"']Oo 

~~ ooo 

BRU-LON 

BRU-ATH 

BRU-NYC 

ideal  conditions 

least  ideal  cond1 t  ions  ___  _ 

._.. _ - ---

modern  technology 

outdated  technology 

P_M_/7_1_1991 

Figure  6 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  MARKET  SHARES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT 
. INLAND  TRANSPORT  SECTORS 

Freight 

Market  share 
In  X 

100  ~ 

50  ~ 

73 • .C 

...... 
:55.7: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 

...... 
:29.6: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 
: 

16.8 

I 

I 
ROAD 

I 

I 
RAIL 

market  share  In  1970 

-------market  share  In  1988 

...... 
:1.C.7: 
: 
: 

i 

I 

,9.8 

I 

INLAND 
WATERWAYS 

ISSN 0254-1475 

COM(92) 46 final 

DOCUMENTS 

EN 

14  07 

Catalogue number: Cl:J .. (~0-92-062-EN-C 

ISBN 92-77-41382-4 

Office fo•.  O!fidal Publications of the Buropean C.oill.lllwilllet; 
L-2985  I ;nxembourg