PROPOSAL for a RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES on a Community programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development
Date: 1992-03-27
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU environmental policy, action programme, application of EU law, cooperation policy, environmental protection, rural development, sustainable development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

COM ( 92 ) 23

final

- VOL .

I

Brussels , 27 March 1992

PROPOSAL

for a

RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

on a Community programme of policy and
action in relation to the environment and sustainable

development

( presented by the Commission )

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PROPOSAI.

for a

RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

on a Community programme of pol icy and
action in relation to the environment and sustainable

deve I opment

THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES ,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Coa I and Stee I Commun i ty ,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Econom i c Commun i ty ,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Atom i c Commun i ty ,

Having regard to the draft from the Commission ,

Hav i ng
Par I

i ament ,

' regard

to

the

opinion

of

the

European

Having regard to the opinion of the Economic and Social
Comm i ttee ,

amended

i sh i ng the European Economic
Whereas the Treaty estab I
Act ,
by
Community ,
as
for
and
explicitly
and
for
implementation of a Community policy on the environment ,
and lays douun the objectives and principles iuh i ch should
govern such policy ;

European
development
deve I opment

provides
prov i des

Single

the

the
the

- 2

the

Whereas
Community relating to the environment shall
following objectives :

down | that

Treaty

lays

action

by

the
have the

to preserve , protect and improve the quality of the
env i ronment ,

to contribute towards protecting human health ,

to ensure a prudent and rational
natural resources ;

utilization of

a

7

on

on

has

the

the

Treaty

signed

February

Union
as

European
1992

at
Whereas
Maastricht
principal
objective the promotion of sustainable growth respecting
includes among the activities of the
the environment ,
Union
environment ,
in
policy
a
specifies that this policy must aim at a high level of
that environmental protection requirements
protection ,
and
must
the
integrated
definition
implementation
that
and
contribute to
Community policy on the environment must
promoting measures at international
level to deal with
regional or worldwide environmental problems .

other Community policies

sphere

into

the

be

of

of

of

of

of
of

and

the

1973 ^)
1973' ' *

Representatives

Whereas the Declaration of the Council of the European
the
Communities
Governments of the Member States , meeting within the
November
Council .
22
the
the
November
22
Council ,
a European Communities programme of
implementation of
action on the environment ; whereas the action programme
was extended and supplemented for the period 1977 to
the
1992
the
Representatives of the Governments of the Member States ,
of
1977 ^),
meeting
1977(2 ), of
7 February 19B3 < 3 )

of
and of 19 October 19S7 < 4 );

the Council ,

resolutions

17 May
17 May

within

Counci I

called
called

for
for

the

and

the

by

of

( 1 ) OJ N " C 112 . 20 . 12 . 1973
( 2 ) OJ N * C 139 . 13.6.1977
( 3 ) OJ N * C 46 . 17.2 . 1983
( 4 ) OJ N' C 328 . 7.12.1987

3

the Heads

the Declaration of

State and
Whereas
of 26 June 1990 calls
Government , meeting in Council ,
for a further action programme for the environment to be
elaborated on the basis of the principles of sustainable
and
development , preventive and precautionary action ,
shared responsibility ;

of

Whereas the said Declaration also acknow I edges the wider
responsibilities of the Community and its Member States ,
as one of the foremost regional groupings in the world ,
to
and
in
concerted
working with other
effective action at global
developing
industrialised
countries to overcome their special difficulties ;

level ,
and

promoting

countries ,

assisting

leading

play

role

a

adopt

Whereas the Community’s credibility and effectiveness at
this wider level depends in large measure on the ability
for
to
implementation and enforcement by its Member States ; and
whereas , therefore , the internal and external dimensions
of Community environment policy are inextricably linked ;

environmental

progressive

measures

in

the

with

conformity

of
Whereas ,
subsidiarity , many aspects of the policy and specific
actions to which the Programme " Towards Sustainability”
at levels other
will give rise fall to be carried out
than those involving the powers , duties and competences
of the European Communities .

principle

Whereas the strategy advanced in the Programme relies on
other
of
satisfactory
relevant policies and on the complementarity of measures
and - actions at different
levels so as optimise their
effectiveness ;

environment

integration

and

4

by

the

Commission

ACKNOWLEDGES that the Programme " Towards Sustainability "
the
presented
objectives and principles set out in the Declaration of
the Heads of State and Government of
the Community
meeting in Council on 26 June 1S90 and in thB Treaty on
European Union signed at Maastricht on 7 February 1992 ;

closely

follows

ACKNOWLEDGES that many current forms of activity and
development are not environmentally sustainable ;

ENDORSES , accordingly , the Programme’s general objective
of
and
development towards more sustainable forms ;

progressively

orientating

activity

human

AGREES that the achievement of sustainable development
will require significant changes from current patterns
of development , consumption and behaviour ;

DECLARES that such changes cannot be ach i eved w i thout a
sharing
Community ,
national , regional ,

local and even personal levels ;

responsibi I ity

global ,

at

of

Insofar

as

environment

and

development

w / thi n

the

E uropean Commun 1 1 1 es are concer ned :

NOTES the Report on the State of the Environment which
in conjunction with the
the Commission has published
Programme ;
previous
that
positive
notes
action programmes have made on certain environmental
problems ; notes that the end of the time-frame of the
current action programme on the environment coincides
with the completion of the Internal

MarKet ;

impact

the

5

however ,

that the current measures do not
CONSIDERS ,
to meet the increased pressures
appear to be sufficient
on the environment
in consequence of
likely to arise
current and anticipated trends in economic and social
and
activity within the Community and the political
economic developments in Central and Eastern Europe and
at wider international level ;

AGREES that a more progressive and better co-ordinated
policy and strategy for the environment and sustainable
development is

called for ;

and

ENDORSES the strategy of tackling key sectors in a co ¬
manner
ordinated
that,
because of their
importance throughout the
Community special attention should be directed towards
the industry , energy , transport , agriculture and tourism
sectors ;

comprehensive
impact and

agrees

and

levels of society in a
AGREES that involvement of all
AGREES that involvement of all
spirit of shared responsibility will require a deepening
and broadening of the range of instruments to complement
normative legislation including ,

in particular ,

market-based
fiscal incentives ;

instruments ,

including

economic

and

information , éducation and training ;

financial support mechanisms ;

NOTES the objectives , targets , actions and time-frames
and cons i ders that they
i nd i cated
offer
sustainable
development ;

i n the Programme ;
basis

towards

moving

sound

for

a

B

not

be attained within

NOTES , that sustainability of activity and development
this
will
Programme and , consequently ,
more
progressive measures will probably be necessary beyond
the year 2000 in order to hand on the environment to the
next generation in a fit state to maintain public health
and social and economic welfare at a high level ;

that further ,

of
still

life-span

the

NOTES , also , that while many of the measures and actions
ars set within a time-frame which extends to 2000 , and
even beyond ,
it is intended to undertake a review of the
Programme before the end of 1995 ;

that
CONSIDERS
measures
on
implemented ,
. impi emented ,
Commission
Comm i ss i on

and

in

order

to
environment

the
cooperation
coopérât i on

the Member

ensure
are
procedures
States

more

that

Community
effectively
the
further

between
be

should

improved .

Insofar

as . environment

and

development

at

wider

International

level are concerned ,

to

the

successful

positively

negotiation

ASSERTS that the Communities will contribute actively
and
and
implementation of global strategies to deal with such
problems and
issues as climate change , deforestation ,
biodiversity and energy and to programmes of sustainable
development particularly in the developing countries and
in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the
association
framework
agreements ;

co-operation

their

and

of

Programme

NOTES that many of the i nterna I Commun i ty measures in
the -
wasteful
designed
consumption of resources and , thereby , will contribute
to greater efficiency
in resource management at wider
international level ;

reduce

are

to

7

LOOKS to the forthcoming United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development to provide a framework for
the promotion of policies and programmes designed to
improve the quality of human life worldwide through more
equitable distribution of natural resources , alleviation
of poverty , food security and improved health standards
and I

i f e expectancy ;

and ,

In the llght of

the foregolng

SUBSCRIBES to the necessity for a programme of policy
and action in relation to the environment designed to
achieve a sustainable development path ;

APPROVES
Programme
Comm i ss i on ;

the

general

" Towards

approach
Sustainability”

and

strategy
presented

of
by

the
the

INVITES the Commission to come forward with appropriate
proposals to give effect to the Programme insofar as it
pertains to action at Community level ;

decide

the
UNDERTAKES to
Commission as expeditiously as possible so as to respect
the relevant objectives , targets and t ime-f rames . set out
in the Programme ;

submitted

proposals

on

by

on

and

all

Community

Member States ,
CALLS
enterprise
relative
their
to
responsibilities to protect the environment for this and
in
to
generations
future
implementing this Programme .

Institutions ,
accept

citizens

their

part

play

full

and

ISSN 0254-1475

COM(92) 23/1 final

DOCUMENTS

EN

01 14

Catalogue number : CB-CO-92-148-EN-C

ISBN 92-77-42765-5

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
L-2985 Luxembourg

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN CQMVTUNITIES

COM ( 92 ) 23

final

VOL . II

Brasse I s , 27 March 1992

TOWARDS

SUSTAINABILITY

A European Community Programme
of Policy and Action in relation to
the Environment and Sustainable Development

VOLUME II

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

1 . Over the past

two decades four Community
action programmes on the environment have
given rise to about 200 pieces of
legislation
covering pollution of the atmosphere, water and
soil , waste management, safeguards in relation to
chemicals and biotechnology, product standards,
envi ronmental impact assessments and protection
ofnature. The Community's 4th Action Programme
on the Environment has not been completed - it
runs up to the end of 1 992 - and its impact will not
be known for some years to come. While a great
deal has been achieved under these programmes
and measures, a combination of factors calls for a
more far-reaching policy and more effective
strategy at this juncture :

(i)

a new Report on the State of the Environment
published in conjunction with this Programme
indicates a slow but relentless deterioration of the
general state of the environment ofthe Community
notwithstanding the measures taken over the past
two decades, particularly as respects the issues
referred to in para 16 below;
the Report also
shows up significant deficiencies in the quantity,
quality and comparabi lity of data which are crucial
for environment-related policies and decisions. In
this context it is of the utmost importance that the
European Environment Agency become
operational .

(ii)

the present approach and existing measures are
not geared to deal with the expected growth in
international competition and the upward trends
in Community activity and development which
will
impose even greater burdens on natural
resources, the environment and, ultimately, the
quality of life;

(iii) global concerns about

the climate change /
deforestation / energy crisis, the seriousness and
persistence of problems of underdevelopment
and the progressof political and economic change
in Central and Eastern Europe add to the
responsibility of the European Community in the
international field .

2.

The newTreatyon European Union, signed by all
Member States on 7 February 1 992 has introduced
as a principal objective the promotion of
sustainable growth respecting the environment
(Art 2).
includes among the activities of the
Union a policy in the sphere of the environment
(Art. 3 (k)), specifies that this policy must aim at a
high level of protection and that environmental

It

protection requirements must be integrated into
the definition and implementation of other
Community policies (Art. 1 30r.2). ThenewTreaty
also attaches special value to the principle of
subsidiarity (Art. 3b), and states that decisions
should be taken as closely as possible to the
citizens (Art. A). Furthermore, the Community
policy on the envi ronment is requi red to contribute
to promoting measures at
level to
deal with regional or worldwide environmental
In this latter context the
problems (Art.130r.l ).
Community will endeavour to find solutions in
the field of development and environment at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June
1992 .

international

All human activity has an impact on the biophysical
world and is, in turn , affected by it. The capacity
to control
this interrelationship conditions the
continuity, overtime, of different forms of activity
and the potential
for economic and social
development. Within the Community, the long¬
initiatives
term success of the more important
such as the Internal Market and economic and
monetary union will be dependent upon the
sustainability of the policies pursued in the fields
transport, agriculture and
of industry, energy,
regional development; but each of these policies,
whether viewed separately or as it interfaces with
others,
is dependent on the carrying capacity of
the environment

The achievement of the desired balance between
human activity and development and protection
requires a sharing of
of the environment
responsibilities which isboth equitable and clearly
defined by reference to consumption of and
behaviour towards the environment and natural
resources. This implies integration of environment
considerations in the formulation and
implementation ofeconomic and sectoral policies,
in the decisions of public authorities, in theconduct
and development of production processes and in
It also implies
individual behaviour and choice.
effective dialogue and concerted action among
partners who may have differing short-term
priorities; such dialogue must be supported by
objective and reliable information.

As usedinthe Programme, the word "sustainable"
is intended to reflect a policy and strategy for
continued economic and social development
without detriment to the environment and the
natural resources on thequalityofwhich continued
human activity and further development depend.
The Report of the World Commission on
( Brundtland)
Environment and Development

3 .

4 .

5 .

B

9 .

defined sustainabledevelopment as "development
which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs*.
It entails preserving the
overall balance and value of the natural capital
stock, redefinition of short, medium and long¬
term cost/benefit evaluation criteria and
instruments to reflect the real socio-economic
effects and values of consumption and
conservation, and the equitable distribution and
use of resources between nations and regions
over the world as a whole . In the latter context, the
Brundtland Report pointed out thatthe developed
countries, with only 26 % of the world population,
are responsible for about 80 % of world
consumption of energy, steel and other metals,
and paper and about 40 % of the food .

6.

Following are some of the practical requirements
for achieving sustainable development :

since the reservoir of raw materials is finite, the
flow of substances through the various stages of
processing, consumption and use should be so
managed as to facilitate or encourage optimum
reuse and recycling, thereby avoiding wastage
and preventing depletion of the natural resource
stock;

10

production and consumption of energy should be
rationalized ; and

consumption and behaviour patterns of society
itself should be altered .

7.

8.

is clear that sustainable development

It
is not
something which will be achieved over a period
as short as that covered by this Programme.
'Towards Sustainability" should be seen ,
accordingly,
as an important step only in a
longer-term campaign to safeguard the
life of the
environment and the quality of
Community and, ultimately, our planet.

The Community's Role in the Wider
International Arena

In the early stages, Community policy and action
on the environment were mainly focussed on the
solution of particularly acute problems within the
Community. Later there was a clearer recognition
that pollution did not stop at its frontiers and that
to intensify co¬
therefore,
it was necessary,
operation with third countries. In recent years, the
evolution has gone a step further and it is now
generally accepted that issues of a global nature -
climate change, ozone depletion, diminution of

□

biodiversity, etc.
ecological balance of our planet as a whole.

- are seriously threatening the

These issues are to be addressed at the highest
the United Nations Conference on
level at
Environment and Development(UNCED). Just as
the 1 972 UN Conference in Stockholm created a
new awareness and concern about
the
level , so too
environment at broad international
can UNCED bring global political will and
commitment
to effective action into a new
dimension . Apart from the expected adoption of
framework conventions on climate change and
biodiversity and of principles on conservation
and development of forests, UNCED should pave
the way forward by adopting :

* An “ Earth Charter* or Declaration of basic rights
and obligations with respect to environment
and development;

* An agenda for action , “Agenda 21” , which will
constitute an agreed work programme of the
international community for the period beyond
1 992 and into the 21 st century.

In the declaration on the environment made in
Dublin in June 1 990the European Council stressed
the special responsibility of the Community and
its constituent Member States in the wider
international arena when
it stated that “ the
Community must use more effectively its position
of moral, economic and political authority to
advance international efforts to solve global
problems andtopromote sustainable development
andrespect (or theglobal commons". In conformity
with the said declaration, the Community and the
efforts to
Member States must
promote international action to protect
the
environment and to meet the specific needs and
requirements of its partners in the developing
world and in Central and Eastern Europe.

increase their

The credibility of the industrialised world ,
including the Community, from the viewpoint of
developing countries will be commensurate with
the extent to which it puts its own house in order.
In adopting and implementing this Programme,
the Community will be in a position to offer the
leadership foreseen in the Dublin Declaration.

The New Strategy for Environment
and Development

1 1 The approach adopted in drawing up this new
policy programme differs from that which applied
in previous environmental action programmes :

*

•

•

*

It
focuses on the agents and activities which
deplete natural resources and otherwise damage
the environment, rather than wait for problems to
emerge;

14

It endeavours to initiate changes in current trends
and practices which are detrimental
to the
environment, so as to provide optimal conditions
for socio-economic well -being and growth for the
present and future generations;

The success of this approach will rely heavily on
the flow and quality of information both in relation
to the environment and as between the various
actors, including the general public. The rdle of
the European Environment Agency is seen as
crucial
in relation to the evaluation and
dissemination ofinformation, distinction between
real and perceived risks and provision of a scientific
and rational basis for decisions and actions
affecting the environment and natural resources .

It aims to achieve such changes i n society's patterns
of behaviour through the optimum involvement
of all sectors of society in a spirit of shared
responsibility,
including public administration,
public and private enterprise, and the general
public (as both individual citizens and consumers);

15

In relation to the motivation of the general public,
the main tasks will fall to levels other than the
Community level . The Commission , for its part,
will commit its information services to a campaign
of environmental
information and awareness¬
building.

Responsibility will be shared through a significant
broadening of the range of instruments to be
applied contemporaneously to the resolution of
particular issues or problems;

The importance of education in the development
of environmental awareness cannot be overstated
and should be an integral element
in school
curricula from primary level onwards.

1 2 For each of the main issues, iong-term objectives
are given as an indication of the sense of direction
or thrust to be applied in the pursuit of sustainable
development, certain performance targets are
indicated for the period up to the year 2000 and
a representative selection of actions is prescribed
with a view to achieving the said targets. These
objectives and targets do not constitute legal
commitments but, rather, performance levels or
achievements to be aimed at now in the interests
of attaining a sustainable development path .
Neither should all the actions indicated require
legislation at Community or national level . (Note:
substantial disparities and short¬
Because of
comings in both the quantity and quality of data
available,
not been possible to have
homogenous levels of precision in the objectives
and targets included in the Programme).

it has

Environmental Challenges
Priorities

and

16

The Programme addresses a number of
issues : climate change ,
environmental
acidification and air pollution , depletion of natural
resources and biodiversity, depletion and pollution
of water resources, deterioration of
the urban
environment, deterioration of coastal zones, and
is not an exhaustive one but,
waste . This list
pursuant
it
comprises matters of particular seriousness which
have a Community-wide dimension , either
because of Internal Market, cross-boundary, shared
resource or cohesion implications and because
they have a crucial bearing on environmental
quality and conditions in almost all regionsof the
Community.

to the principle of subsidiarity,

1 3 The Programme takes account of the diversity of
situations in various regions of the Community
and, in particular, of the need for the economic
and social development ofthe less wealthy regions
of the Community. It aims to protect and enhance
the inherent advantages ofthese latter regions and
to afford protection to their more valuable natural
assets as a resource-base for economic
development and social
improvement and
In the case of the more developed
prosperity.
regions of the Community, the aim is to restore or
maintain the quality of their environment and
natural resource base for thei r continued economic
activity and quality of life.

17

These issues are addressed not so much as
problems, but as symptoms of mismanagement
and abuse. The real
"problems", which cause
environmental loss and damage, are the current
patterns of human consumption and behaviour.
Withthisdistinction in mind and with due respect
to the principle of subsidiarity, priority will be
given to the following fields of action with a view
to achieving tangible improvements or changes
during the period covered by the Programme :

* Sustainable Management ofNatural Resources:
soil , water, natural areas and coastal zones

Ш

* Integrated Pollution Control and Prevention of

the Internal Market.

Waste

* Reduction in the Consumption of Non-

Renewable Energy

20. The three pillars on which the environment/
industry relationship will be based will be :

* ImprovedMobilityManagemenfincludingmore
efficient and environmentally rational location
decisions and transport modes

* Improved resource management with a view to
both rational use of resources and improvement
of competitive position ;

* Coherent packages of measures to achieve
improvements in environmental quality in urban
areas;

* Improvement ofPublic Health and Safety, with
special emphasis on industrial risk assessment
and management, nuclear safety and radiation
protection.

Selected Target Sectors

18. Five target sectors have been selected for special
INDUSTRY,
attention under this Programme :
ENERGY , TRANSPORT, AGRICULTURE and
TOURISM . These are sectors where the
Community as such has a unique role to play and
where a Community approach is the most efficient
level at which to tackle the problems these sectors
cause or face. They are a Iso chosen because of the
particularly significant impacts that they have or
could have on the environment as a whole and
because, by their nature, they have crucial roles to
play in the attempt
to achieve sustainable
development. The approach to the target sectors
is designed not only for the protection of public
health and the environment as such, but for the
benefit and sustainability ofthe sectorsthemselves.

Industry :

1 9 . Whereas previousenvironmental measures tended
to be proscriptive in character with an emphasis
on the "thou shalt not* approach, the new strategy
leans more towards a "let's work together*
approach . This reflects the growing realization in
industry and in the business world that not only is
industry a significant part of the (environmental )
problem but it must also be part of the solution.
in particular, a
The new approach implies,
reinforcement of the dialogue with industry and
the encouragement, in appropriate circumstances,
of voluntary agreements and other forms of self¬
regulation .

Nevertheless, Community action is and will
continue to be an important element
in the
avoidance of distortions in conditions of
competition and preservation of the integrity of

* Use of information for promotion of better
consumer choice and for i mprovement of public
confidence in industrial activity and controls
and in the quality of products;

* Community standards for production processes

and products;

In developing measures toensure the sustainability
of the industrial sector, special consideration will
be given to the position of small and medium
enterprises and to the matter of international
competitiveness.

In mid-1992 the Commission will publish a
comprehensive Communication on international
competitiveness and protection of
the
environment .

Energy :

21 . Energy policy is a key factor in the achievement of
sustainable development. While the Community's
energy sector is making steady progress in deal ing
with local and regional environmental problems
such as acidification, global
issues are daily
growing in importance. The challenge of the
future will be to ensure that economic growth,
efficient and secure energy supplies and a clean
environment are compatible objectives.

22. The achievement of this balance

requires a
strategic perspective well beyond the period
covered by this Programme. The key elements of
the strategy up to 2000 will be improvement in
energy efficiency and the development ofstrategic
technology programmes moving towards a less
carbon-intensive energy structure including,
in
particular, renewable energy options.

Transport :

23 . Transport is vital to the distribution of goods and
services, to trade and to regional development.
Present trends in theCommunity'stransport sector
are all
greater inefficiency,
congestion , pollution , wastage of time and value,
damage to health, danger to life and general
economic loss. Transport demand and traffic are

leading towards

□

expected to increase even more rapidly with the
completion ofthe Internal Market and the political
and economic developments in Central and Eastern
Europe.

24 . A strategy for sustainable mobility will require a
combination of measures which includes :

* improved land-use/economic development
planning at local , regional , national and trans¬
national

levels;

* improved planning, management and use of
transport
infrastructures and facilities ;
incorporation of the real costs of both
infrastructure and environment in investment
policies and decisions and also in user costs;

(both as regards agricultural products and wider
trade agreements). It is not only environmentally
desirable,
therefore, but also makes sound
agricultural , social and economic sense to seek to
strike a more sustainable balance between
agricultural activity, other forms of rural
development and the natural
resources of the
environment.

27. The Programme builds on the Commission's
proposals for reform of
the CAP and for
development of the Community's forests so as to
work towards a balanced and dynamic
development of the rural areas of the Community
which will meet the sector's productive, social
and environmental functions.

* development of public transport and

Tourism :

improvement of its competitive position;

* continued technical

improvement of vehicles
and fuels; encouraged use of less polluting
fuels;

* promotion of a more environmentally rational
including changes in

use of the private car,
driving rules and habits.

In conjunction with this Programme ,
the
Commission has published a more comprehensive
Communication dealing with transport and the
environment and the need to aim for sustainable
mobility.

Agriculture :

25. The farmer is the guardian of the soil and of the
countryside. Improvements in farming efficiency,
improved
increased mechanisation levels,
transport and marketing arrangements, increased
international trade in food produas and feedstuffs
have all contributed tothe fulfillment ofthe original
Treaty objeaives of assuring the availability of
food supplies at reasonable prices, the stabilization
of markets and a fair standard of living for the
agricultural community. At
the same time,
however, changes in farming praaices in many
led to
regions of
overexploitation and degradation of the natural
resources on which agriculture itself ultimately
depends : soil , water and air.

the Community have

26.

In addition to environmental degradation , serious
problems have emerged in the case of commodity
overproduction and storage, rural depopulation,
trade
the Community budget and international

28. Tourism is an important element in the social and
economic life of the Community.
It refleas the
legitimate aspirations of the individual to enjoy
new places and absorb different cultures as well
as to benefit from activities or relaxation away
from the normal home or work setting. It is also an
important economic asset to many regions and
cities of the Community and has a special
contribution to make to the economic and social
regions. Tourism
cohesion of the peripheral
represents a good example of the fundamental
link which exists between economic development
and environment, with all the attendant benefits,
tensions and potential conflias. If well planned
and managed, tourism, regional development and
environment proteaion can go hand in hand.
Respect
for nature and the environment ,
particularly in coastal zones and mountain areas,
can maketourism both profitable and long-lasting.

29 . The World Tourism Organisation predias

a
significant
increase in tourism aaivity to and
within Europe during this decade. Most of this
increase is I i kely to take pi ace i n the Mediterranean
Region, and in particular types of locations such
as historic towns and cities, mountain areas and
coastal zones . UNEP 's Blue Plan on the
Mediterranean predicts a doubling, at least, of
solid wastes and waste waters resulting from
tourism by the year 2000, and a potential doubl ing
in the land occupied by tourist lodgings.

30. The European Community supports tourism
through its i nvestments i n necessa ry i nfrastruaures;
it can also serve as a "facilitator'
in relation to
other interests. But, in a praaical refleaion ofthe
principle of subsidiarity and the spirit of shared
responsibility, it is mainly at levels other than that

□

ofthe Community that the real work of reconciling
tourism activity and development and the
guardianship of natural and cultural assets must
be brought
i.e. by
Member States, regional and local authorities, the
tourism industry itself and individual tourists.

into a sustainable balance,

The three main lines of action indicated in the
Programme deal with

• diversification of tourism activities,

including
better management ofthe phenomenon of mass
tourism, and encouragement of different types
of tourism;

• qualityoftourist services, including information
and awareness- building, and visitor
management and facilities;

• tourist behaviour, including media campaigns,
codes of behaviour and choice of transport.

Broadening the Range of Instru¬
ments

31 . Previous action programmes have relied almost
exclusively on legislative measures.
In order to
bring about substantial changes in current trends
and practices and to involve all sectors of society
in a full sharing of responsibility, a broader mix of
instruments is needed. The mix proposed can be
categorised under four headings :

(i)

Legislative instrumentsdesigped to set fundamental
levels of protection for public health and the
environment, .particularly in cases of high risk, to
implement wider international commitments and
to provide Community-wide rules and standards
necessary to preserve the integrity of the Internal
Market;

(ii) Market-based instruments, designed to sensitize
both producers and consumers towards
responsible use of natural resources, avoidance of
pollution and waste by internalising of external
environmental costs (through the application of
economic and fiscal incentives and disincentives,
civil
liability, etc) and geared towards "getting
the prices right" so that environmentally-friendly
goods and services are not at a ma rket d i sadvantage
vis-^-vis polluting or wasteful competitors.

(iii) Horizontal, supporting instruments including
improved base-line and statistical data, scientific
(as
research and technological development,
respects both new less-pollutingtechnologiesand
technologies and techniques for solving current
environmental problems)
improved sectoral and
spatial planning, public/consumer information

0

and education and professional and vocational
education and training.

( iv) Financial support mechanisms : besides the
budgetary lines which have direct environmental
objectives, such as LIFE,
the Structural Funds,
notably ENVIREG, contribute significant amounts
to the financing of actions for the improvement of
the environment. Moreover, the new Cohesion
Fund decided upon at
the Maastricht Summit
aims at cofinancing projects which are intended
to improve the environment
in Spain , Greece,
Portugal and Ireland . Article 1 30r.2 of the new
Treaty provides that environment policy must aim
at a high level of protection based on the
precautionary principle and preventive action,
taking into account the diversity of situations in
the various regions of the Community, and that
environment policy must be integrated into the
definition and implementation ofother Community
policies.
it will be necessary to
ensure that all Community funding operations,
and in particular, these involving the Structural
Funds, will be as sensitive as possible to
environmental considerations and in conformity
legislation . By way of
with environmental
qualification it must be recalled here that the new
Treaty provides,
that without
prejudice to certain measures of a Community
the Member States are responsible for
nature,
financing and implementing environment policy.

In this context,

in Art 130s.4,

The Principle of Subsidiarity

32. The principleofsubsidiarity will pi ay an important
part in ensuring that the objectives, targets and
actions are given full effect by appropriate national ,
regional and local efforts and initiatives. In practice
it should serve to take full account of the traditions
and sensitivities of different
the
Community and the cost-effectiveness of various
actions and to improve the choice of actions and
appropriate mixes of instruments at Community
and/or other levels .

regions of

The objectives and targets put forward in the
Programme and the ultimate goal of sustainable
development can only be achieved by concerted
action on the part of all the relevant actors working
together in partnership. On the basis ofthe Treaty
on the European Union (Art. 3b), the Community
will take action, in accordance with the principle
of subsidiarity, only if and insofar as the objectives
of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently
achieved by the Member States and can therefore,
by reason of the scale or effects of proposed
action, be better achieved by the Community.

33 . The Programme combines the principle of
subsidiarity with the wider concept of shared
responsibility; this concept involves not so much
a choice of action at one level to the exclusion of
rather, a mixing of actors and
others but,
instruments at the appropriate levels, without any
ca 1 1 ing into question ofthe division of competences
between the Community,
the Member States,
regional and local authorities.

and experience and at the development of common
approaches at practical level , under the supervision
of the Commission .

( iii) an Environmental Policy Review Croup,
comprising representatives of the Commission
and the Member States at Director-General
level
to develop mutual understanding and exchange
of views on environment policy and measures.

Table 1 8 ofthe document and the "actors" column
oftheothertablesindicaterespectivelythemanner
inwhichthevariousactorsareintendedtocombine
and the different actors considered most relevant
for the implementation of specific measures.

Making the Programme Work

34 . Uptothe present, environmental protection in the
Community has mainly been based on a legislative
approach ("top-down ").
The new strategy
advanced in this Programme implies the
involvement of all economic and social partners
The complementarity and
(" bottom-up").
effectiveness of the two approaches together will
depend, in great measure, on the level and quality
of dialogue which will take place in pursuance of
partnership.

35 .

Inevitably, it will take some considerable time for
the current patterns of consumption and behaviour
to turn inthedirection of sustainability. In practical
terms, the effectiveness ofthe strategy wil I depend ,
for the foreseeable future, on the inherent quality
of the measures adopted and the practical
arrangements for their enforcement. This will
require better preparation of measures, more
effective co-ordination with and integration into
other policies, more systematic follow-up and
stricter compliance-checking and enforcement.

36. For these reasons - but without prejudice to the
initiative and its
Commission 's right of
satisfactory
responsibility
satisfactory
the
implementation of Community rules -
followingad hoc dialogue groups wil I be convened
by the Commission :

to ensure
to ensure

(i)

a General Consultative Forum comprising
representatives of enterprise, consumers, unions
and professional organisations, non-governmental
organisations and local and regional authorities;

(ii ) an Implementation Network comprising
representatives of relevant national authorities
and of the Commission in the field of practical
implementation with Community measures;
it
will beaimed primarilyat exchange of information

37 . These three dialogue groups will

serve,

in a
special way,
to promote greater sense of
to promote greater sense of
special way,
responsibility among the principal actors in the
responsibility among the principal actors in the
partenariat, and toensure effective and transparent
partenariat, and toensure effective and transparent
application of measures. They are not intended to
application of measures. They are not intended to
duplicate the work of committees established by
Community legislation for the purposes of follow¬
up in respect of specific measures,nor by the
Commission in relation to specific fields of interest
such as
tourism
consumer protection ,
development etc . nor by Member States for
implementation and enforcement of policy at
national level . Finally, they will not substitute the
existing dialogue between industry and the
Commission, which it is intended to strengthen in
any event.

Review of Programme

is essentially targeted
38. While the Programme
towards the year 2000,
it will be reviewed and
" rolled-over" at the end of 1995 in the light of
improvements in relevant data, results of current
research , and forthcoming reviews of other
Community policies e.g.
industry, energy,
transport, agriculture, and the structural funds.

Conclusion

39 . This Programme itself constitutes a turning point
for the Community. Just as the challenge of the
1 980s was completion of the Internal Market, the
reconciliation of environment and development
is one of the principal challenges facing the
Community and the world at large in the 1 990s.
"Towards Sustainability" is not a programme for
the Commission alone, nor one geared towards
environmentalists alone. It provides a framework
for a new approach to the environment and to
economic and social activity and development,
levels of the
and requires positive will at all
political and corporate spectrums, and the
involvement of all members of the public active
as citizens and consumers in order to make it
work.

0

40. The Programme does not purport to "get everything
right". It will take a long time to change patterns
of behaviour and consumption and to attain a
sustainable development path . The Programme,
accordingly,
is intended primarily to break the
current trends. The bottom line is that the present
generation must pass the environment on to the
next generation in a fit state to maintain public
health and social and economic welfare at a high
level . As an intermediate goal , the state of the
environment,
the level and quality of natural
resources and the potential for further development
at the end of this decade should reflea a marked
improvement on the situation which obtainstoday.
The road to sustainability may be long and
difficult... but the first steps must be taken NOW!

Structure of the Document

41 . The document is divided into three parts, the two
main parts being related to internal and external
aaions . This distinaion is made so as to reflea
what can politically and legally be done within
the Community itself
in accordance with the
powers and procedures incorporated in the
Treaties, and what
the Community and its
constituent Member States can contribute or
achieve in partnership with other developed and
developing countries in relation to global or
regional issues and problems.

42 . Part I summarises the state of the environment in
the Community and growing threats to its future
health (Ch . 1 ) and sets out a new strategy designed
to break the current trends and to set a new course
for sustainable development (Ch . 2). The strategy
entails aaive involvement of all the main aaors in
society (Ch . 3) using a broader range of instruments,
including market-related instruments and
improved information, education and training
(Ch . 7) so as to achieve identifiable orquantiflable
improvements in the environment or changes in
consumption and behaviour (Ch. 5).

43 . A special, concentrated, effort will be made in the
case of five target seaors of Community-wide
significance (Ch. 4) and in relation to the avoidance
and management of risks and accidents (Ch. 6).

44 .

In an effort to be both concise and as clear as
possible, the measures which together constitute
the aaion programme are set out in a series of
though not
tables which are predominantly,
entirely, homogenous.

These tables are struaured so as to indicate :

* the long-term objeaives in the various fields;
* the qualitative or quantitative targets to be

attained by the year 2000;

* the specific aaions required to be taken;
* the time-frame proposed for such aaions;
* the aaors or seaors of aaivity which will be

called upon to play a part.

Pursuant to the principle of subsidiarity, the lead
r6le is indicated by the use of an italic type-face
e.g. MS. .

45 . Finally , Part

I attempts to indicate how
responsibility can in praaice be shared (Ch. 8)
and the measures proposed to ensure satisfaaory
implementation and enforcement (Ch . 9).

46 . Part II summarises the environmental threats and
issues in the wider international sphere (Ch. 10)
and what will or can be done by the Community
and its constituent Member States in the context of
international and bilateral co¬
both general
operation (Ch. 11 and 12, resp.)
in relation to
global and regional
issues and to environment
and development issues in developing countries
and Central and Eastern Europe. Chapter 1 3 deals
with the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development which will take
place in June 1 992 . It also refers to the correlation
between the internal and external dimensions of
the Community's policy on the environment.

47 . Partlll is quite short and very general , dealing with
the seleaion of priorities (Ch. 1 4), the question of
costs (Ch. 1 5) and the intention to carry out a mid¬
term review of the Programme in 1995 (Ch . 16).
While in a document which puts forward a policy
and strategy aimed at breaking trends there is less
a question ofseleaing priority aaions than defining
a "critical path ", nevertheless, the Programme does
include a listing of horizontal measures and fields
of aaion which require to be accorded priority.
On the question of costs the document points to
thedifficultiesof undertaking such exercise (partly
because of the traditional praaice of treating the
environment as an infinite source of free raw
materials and waste sinks, and partly because not
enough has been done to determine the real costs
of "non-action *) and puts forward a 5-point plan
to devise appropriate costing mechanims for the
future .

10

CONTENTS

Executive Summary

Introduction: The Challenge of the "90s"

PART I : A Policy and Strategy for the Environment and Sustainable
Development within the European Community
The State of the Environment : Progress and Prospects

1 .

2 .

The Fifth Programme: A New Strategy for the Environment and
Sustainable Development

3 .

The Actors :

3.1 Public Authorities
3.2 Public and Private Enterprise
3.3 The General Public

4.

Selected Target Sectors :

4.1 Industry
4.2 Energy
4.3 Transport
4.4 Agriculture
4.5 Tourism

5 .

Thèmes and Targets of the Programme

5.1 Climate Change
5.2 Acidification and Air Quality
5.3 Protection of Nature and Bio-diversity
5.4 Management of Water Resources
5.5 The Urban Environment
5.6 Coastal Zones
5.7 Waste Management

6.

Management of Risks and Accidents :

6.1 Industry-Related Risks
6.2 Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
6.3 Civil Protection and Environmental Emergencies

7.

8.

9.

Broadening the Range of Instruments :
7.1 Improvement of Environmental Data
7.2 Scientific Research and Technological Development
7.3 Sectoral and spatial planning
7.4 The economic approach : getting the prices right
7.5 Public information and éducation
7.6 Professional éducation and training
7.7 Financial support mechanisms

Subsidiarity and Shared Responsibility

Implementation and Enforcement of the Programme within the
Community

Page

3

15

21

23

25

26

26

27

27

28

28

31

33

35

38

41

41

43

47

49

51

53

54

57

57

60

63

64

64

65

66

67

68
69
70

73

75

0

PART II : The Communities' Role in the Wider International Arena

Introduction

10. Environmental Threats and Issues

10.1 Global Issues
1 0.2 Problems of Regional or Local Concern

11 .

International Co-operation

11.1 The Community's Position on the Major Issues
1 1 .2 Other Priority Issues of Major International Importance
1 1.3 Global Partnership
1 1 .4 Régional Co-operation
1 1 .5 Institutional Issues

12. Bilateral Co-operation

12.1 Developing Countries
12.2 Central and Eastem Europe

13. UNCED: The United Nations' Conference on Environment and

Development

PART III : Priorities, Costs, Review

14. Sélection of Priorities

15. The Question of Costs

1 6. Review of the Programme

Conclusion

79

81

82

82

82

84

84

85
85

86

86

87

87
89

92

93

95

96

97

98

Tables

Energy consumption projections for 201 0 and their implications
Energy (Measures required up to 2000)
Transport (Objectives, measures and instruments)
Agriculture and Forestry (Objectives, measures and instruments)
Tourism (Objectives, measures and instruments)
Programme framework for selected target sectors
Climate change (Objectives, targets and measures up to 2000)
Acidification (idem)
Air quality (idem)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0 Nature and biodiversity (idem)
1 1 Water quantity and water quality (idem)
12 Noise ( idem)
1 3 Coastal areas (idem)
1 4 Waste management (idem)
1 5 Kisk management (idem)
16 Nuclear safety (idem)
17 Horizontal measures ( idem)
1 8 Examples of Shared Responsibility
1 9

International environmental issues (Objectives, targets measures up to 2000)

Sustainable development

Figures
1
1
2a. A Regulatory Process to promote environmentally friendly and competitive industry
2b. The potential of Consumer Power to influence manufacturing processes and products
Acidification in the European Community 1 990
3
Acidification in the European Community 2010: Conventional Wisdom scenario
4
Acidification in the European Community 2010: High Prices scenario
5
Nature Conservation ( Diagram)
6
7
Urban Environment (Diagram)
8 Waste Management ( Diagram)
Existing Chemicals ( Diagram)
9
10 Acidification in Europe 1990
1 1 Acidification in Europe 2000

Page
32
33
35
37
39
40
42
46
46
48
50
51
53
56
59
62
72
74
91

Page

24

30

30

42

44

44

47

52

55

58

88

88

13

List of Abbreviations Used

Organisations, Associations etc.
ACP

African , Caribbean and Pacific countries

ALA
ALA

Asian and Latin American countries

Best available technology

BAT

CAP

European
Agricultural Policy

Community 's

Common

RIVM

CEE

Central and Eastern European countries

CITES

Convention on International Trade in
Endangered SpeciesofWild Fauna and Flora

EAGGF European Agricultura ! Guidance and

Guarantee Fund

OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development

PHARE A programme of Assistance for the
restructuring of the Economies of Poland
and Hungary, initially, and now extended to
other Central and Eastern European countries

R & D

Research and Development

(Maps) Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en
Milieuhygiene (National Instituteof Public Health
and Environmental Protection, The Netherlands)

SME
SME

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

toe
toe

UN
UN

tons of oil équivalent

United Nations Organisation

EC

ECU

EEA

(Tables) refers to action at Community level

UNCED United Nations Conférence on Environment
and Development ( Riode Janeiro, June 1992)

European Currency Unit

(Tables) European Environment Agency

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNDRO United Nations Disaster and Relief

EFTA

European Free Trade Association

Organisation

EIA

EIB

Environmental Impact Assessment

UN-ECE United Nations Economie Commission for Europe

European Investment Bank

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

ERDF

European Regional Development Fund

WHO World Health Organisation

ESF

FAO

European Social Fund

Food and Agricultural Organisation

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEF

Global Environment Facility

IIASA

International
Analysis (Austria)

Institute for Applied Systems

IMO

International Maritime Organisation

IPC

Integrated Pollution Control

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

LA
LA

(Tables) refers to actions at Local and Regional
Authority Level

leq dB(A) Mean Sound level related to man

MS
MS

(Tables ) refers to actions at Member State level

NGO

Non Governmental Organisation

Chemical Formulae and References

CO

Carbon Monoxide

co2

CFC

сн4

Carbon Dioxide

Chlorofluorocarbon

Methane

GMO

Genetically Modified Organism

НС

Ν2Ο

NOj

NOx

NH 3

O,

so2

Hydrocarbon

Nitrous Oxide

Nitrogen Dioxide

Nitrogen Oxides

Ammonia

Ozone

Sulphur Dioxide

voc

Volatile Organic Compound

14

INTRODUCTION

15

The Challenge of the 1990s

As far back as 1972 , when the Communities first
the
became involved in environmental protection ,
Heads of State and Government of the Member States
declared that :
declared that :

"Economic expansion is not an end in itself... it should
result in an improvement in the quality of life as well
as the standard of living"

havetofaceuptothechallengesoffurtherenlargement.
It will have to take account of political and economic
changes which are occurring in Central and Eastern
Europe and of the need to develop the European
Europe and of the need to develop the European
Economic Area . The Community is also committed to
the
reviewing its approach to the Structural Funds,
Common Agricultural Policy, Transport Policy and
Energy Policy.
Energy Policy.

Just as in the 1 980s the principal challenge faced by
the European Communities was the completion of the Developments at Global level
Internal Market, so now in the 1 990s the challenge is
to graduate to a development path which will be
sustainable.

Community HeadsofStateandGovernmentrecognised
this challenge during their Summit in Dublin in June
1990 where they stated :

"We recognise our special responsibility for the
environment both to our own citizens and to the wider
world. We undertake to intensify our efforts to protect
andenhance the naturalenvironmentofthe Community
itself and the world of which it is part. We intend that
action by the Community and its Member States will be
developedona coordinated basis and on the principles
of sustainable development and preventive and
precautionary action... The objective of such action
must be to guarantee citizens the right to a clean and
healthy environment... The full achievement of this
objective must be a shared responsibility. "

There is growing worldwide concern at the continuing
deterioration of the state of the environment and the
life-support systems. A
serious degradation of global
crucial element of the Community's strategy for the
1 990s, developed in more detail in this document,
is
to promote policies and programmes that will improve
the quality of human life worldwide through a more
equitable distribution of natural resources.

The drive to raise iivmg standards, alleviate poverty,
increase life expectancy and improve food security
places a considerable burden on the world 's natural
resource base. The Community is conscious of the faa
that, along with other industrialised countries, its own
340 million inhabitants currently consume a
disproportionate share of the world's resources. Per
capita consumption of energy in the Community for
example, although half that of the USA and Canada, is
over 1 0 times greater than that of many developing
countries. Achild born in the Community will consume
over 20 times as much of natural resources over its
lifetime as a child born in the majority of developing
ntetime as a cnna Dorn in tne majority or developing
countriesfalthough still halfthatofan American child).

Tho
nf ‘ttato anH c~/wpmmpnt wpnt nn tr> act thp
The Heads of State and Government went on to ask the
Commission to take account of this approach in its
preparation of the Fifth Action Programme on the
Environment. This document is the response to that
request and is designed to spell out a strategy and Many of the measures foreseen in this Programme are
designed to reduce wasteful consumption of resources
programme for environmental action to the end of the
and to increase productivity within the Community. It
present century and beyond.
will nevertheless require great ingenuity and creativity
to service the additional needs of both the developed
Developments within the Community -"K'' “wS
Developments within the Community
imply in some instances
Withinthetime-frameofthisProgrammegreat changes
resource base. This will
profound changes in consumption patterns and
are envisaged. Development of the Internal Market in
Europe and the need to achieve economic and social
lifestyles,
cohesion have major
implications in relation to
environment policy as indeed was recognised in
the Single European Act : the increased economic Towards Sustainable Development
growth expected will be unsustainable unless
environmental considerations are taken into account,
not so much as a potential limiting factor, but rather as
an incentive to greater efficiency and competitivity,
with particular reference to the wider international
market-place

All human activity, economic and socio-cultural, either
Al I human activity, economic and socio-cultural , either
prospers or founders on the quality of the relationship
prospers or founders on the quality of the relationship
between society and the natural world. Development
between society and the natural world . Development
'S "real" only if it improves the quality of life. The 1 987
Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development - generally referred to as the Brundtland
Report-urgedthathumanactivityshouldfollowapath
At the same time, the Community is moving towards
closer economic and monetary union and will probably which sustains human activity progress for the entire

0

planet into the distant future. In this context sustainable
development was defined as
"development which
meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs".
It entails preserving the overall balance and
value of the natural capital stock, redefinition of short,
medium and long-term cost/benefit evaluation criteria
and instruments to reflect the real socio-economic
effects and values of consumption and conservation ,
and the equitable distribution and use of resources
between nations and regions over the world as a
whole.
In the latter context, the Brundtland Report
pointed out that the developed countries, with only
26 % of the world population, are responsible for
about 80 % of world consumption of energy, steel and
other metals, and paper and about 40 % of the food .

The following characteristics of sustainable
development were identified :

it maintains the overall quality of life;

-
- it maintains continuing access to natural

resources;

- it avoids lasting environmental damage.

In more prosaic terms it has been defined by the
admonition : "Don't eat the seed corn which is needed
to sow next year's crop". Such a definition is useful in
injecting an important dose of realism into the debate
on sustainability.
the
concept of sustainability is ultimately linked very closely
to a society's or region's prospects of continued
development and success and, in the case of individual
enterprises, even their profit and loss accounts.

In practical

therefore,

terms,

Building on Solid Foundations
It is important to bear in mind that in moving towards
sustainable development the Community is not starting
from zero. The strategy and programme set out in this
document have been built on what has already been
achieved both at the Community level and in the
Member States. The Community has had an
environment policy for almost twenty years, despite
the fact that the environment was not mentioned in the
original Treaties.
In that time, significant advances
have been made in terms of both elaboration of an
extensive legislative framework in the Member States
and actual improvements in environmental protection
and quality.

Since 1972 there have been four Community action
programmes01 on the environment which have given
rise toabout 200 piecesof legislation covering pollution
of the atmosphere, water and soi I , waste management,
safeguards in relation tochemicals and biotechnology,
product standards, environmental impact assessments
and protection of nature. Much has been achieved
over this period but the current pace of change and the
additional pressures which are being or will be imposed
on the environment and the natural resource stocks as

18

a result of completion of the Internal Market and
political and economic developments in Central and
Eastern Europe and further afield call for even more
effective measures.

Institutional Developments

At institutional level , the extraordinary growth in publ ic
awareness, scientific perception and political
importance of environment issues was reflected in the
Treaties by the insertion through the Single European
Act, of a separate Chapter on the environment and the
inclusion of a significant environment element in the
key article relating to the completion of the internal
market. These modifications provided,
for the first
time, a statutory mandate, objectives and criteria for
Community policy and action in the field of the
environment .

The new Treaty on European Union, which was signed
by al I the Member States on 7 February 1 992, contai ns
a number of provisions which will bring care for the
environment into a new dimension :

among the Principles, Article 2 refers to the
promotion of "a harmonious and balanced
development of economic activities, sustainable
and non-inflationary growth respecting the
environment

Article 3(k) provides that
the activities of the
Community shall include a policy in the sphere of
theenvironment; Article 7 30r.2provides, inter alia ,
thatthispolicyshallaimat a high level of protection
and that it shall be based on the precautionary
principle;

Article 130r,2 goes on to stipulate that
environmental protection requirements must be
integrated into the definition and implementation
of other Community policies;

Article 3b attaches special value to the principle
of subsidiarity while Article A states the objective
of having decisions taken as closely as possi ble to
the citizens.

for

costs

Moreover Article 1 30s.5 addressesthe case of measures
the
involving disproportionate
public authorities of a Member State. This article
reflects the need to take into account economic and
social cohesion in the formulation of environmental
policy. This need is also recalled in Article 130r.3
according to which,
in preparing its policy on the
environment, the Community shal I take account of the
economic and social development of the Community
as a whole and the balanced development of its
regions.

01

OJ N°C 112 , 20.12.1973 - N° C 139, 13.6.1977 - N° C 46, 1 7.2.1983 - N° C 328, 7.12.1987

In addition, the agreed changes in the Community's
decision-making procedures providing for majority
voting by the Council of Ministers on most environment
issues and the strengthening of the role of the European
in this sector through the co-decision
Parliament
procedure should improve the efficiency and the quality
of the legislative process in the future.

What is NEW about this Programme?
In facing up to the environmental challenges in this
final decade of the millenium and in endeavouring to
move towards a sustainable development path it is
necessary to focus on the agents and activities which
damage the environment and deplete the natural
resource stock rather than wait, as has been the tendency
in the past, for problems to emerge. As previously
stated, this will require significant changes in current
patterns of human consumption and behaviour. These
objectives cannot be met by action at Community level
alone, but ratheron the basisofasharing ofresponsibility
at all levels of society including governments, regional
and local authorities, non-governmental organisations,
financial institutions, production, distribution and retail
enterprises and individual citizens.

While it is appropriate that the strategy and programme
should be prepared at Community level , since it is the
sole point at which all
the required measures and
the practical
actions can be brought
implementation thereof wi 1 1 fall to be carried out at the
appropriate levels in a complementary manner and in
accordance with the ability to act. The basic strategy
therefore is to achieve full integration ofenvironmental
relevant policies through the active
and other

together,

the main actors in society
participation of all
(administrations, enterprises, general public) through
a broadening and deepening of the instruments for
control and behavioural change including, in particular,
greater use of market forces.

The Challenge of the 1990s
The attainment of sustainable development calls for a
far-sighted, cohesive and effective approach.
It will
demand considerable political and practical
commitment over an extended time-frame . The
Community, as the largest economic/trading partner in
a world where it is increasingly seen that growth has to
be environmentally sustainable, must exercise its
responsibility to both present and future generations .
To this end it must put its own house in order and
provide an example to developed and developing
countries alike in relation to the protection of public
health and the environment and the sustainable use of
natural resources .

The Dublin Declaration states that "the environment is
dependent on our collective actions;
tomorrow's
environment depends on how we act today". There is
now a perceptible feeling throughout the Community
and further afield that many of the great environmental
struggles will be won or lost during this decade; and
that by the next century it could be too late.

WE CANNOT AFFORD TO WAIT
AND BE WRONG !

• •••

19

PART I

A Policy and Strategy for the
Environment and Sustainable
Development within
the European Community

21

Chapter 1 :
The State of the Environment: Progress and Prospects

Mediterranean Region, with severe outbreaks now
occurring annually . Further pressure from
recreational and associated second-home
is giving rise to deterioration in
development
upland and mountain regions.

: The difficulties in
The Urban Environment
the demands of
reconciling the need to meet
modern commerce and transport with the desire
to provide a good quality living environment are
steadily growing with resulting congestion ,
pollution, noise, deterioration of streets, public
places and architectural heritage and general loss
of amenity.

Waste Management : Despite Directives going
back to 1 975 on waste in general , on toxic and
hazardous wastes and on transfrontier shipment
of wastes, management of the Community's
enormous waste stream is far from being under
control . Recycling and reuse options have not
been developed beyond the infancy stage in most
areas. Deficiencies in waste handling arrangements
pose a threat not only to the environment but
cou Id have undesi rable i mpl i cations in the context
of completion of the Internal Market,
of completion of the Internal Market.

A strategy for the future cannot be constructed without
analysing what the present situation is and what has
occurred in the past. In conjunction with the publication
of the 5th Programme, and underpinning its essential
strategy, an up-dated Report on the State of the
Environment
is being published . Among the main
conclusions which can be drawn from that Report are
the following:

Atmospheric Pollution : Some progress has been
made in reducing emissions of sulphur dioxide
lead and CFCs, but
and suspended particulates,
serious problems continue toexist or are emerging
as respects on one hand , a numberof "greenhouse*
gases such as, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides,
ozone and methane, and on the other hand, air
quality problems, especially in urban areas.

Aquatic Pollution : Some progress has been
achieved with point sources of
inland water
pollution , but this is being more than offset by
increased pollution from non-point sources,
notably agriculture. The quality of waters is under
threat and there is growing eutrophication of both
fresh waters and marine waters . The Directive on
groundwater is not achieving its objectives and
these resources are under growing threat from
both overexploitation and pollution . In the case of
marine waters,
pollution from certain organic wastes, heavy metals
and radioactive discharges, but severe pressures
persist, particularly in the Mediterranean Region,
the North Sea and the Baltic Sea .

Soil Degradation : The Directives
on waste
management, on the use of sewage sludge in
agriculture and on use of nitrates on land and
certain aspectsofthe "Seveso* Directiveon major
accident hazards of certain industrial activities
have made or will make relatively good
contributions to the protection of soils. However,
land and excessive
over-intensified use of
application of chemical fertilizers , pesticides and
herbicides, and ground drainage and clearance
activities are causing deterioration of soils,
including contamination , acidification ,
desertification and erosion, in many areas.

Nature Conservation : Despite the Directive on
Wild Birds and the Conventions of Bonn and
the pressures on unique or endangered
Berne,
biota and their habitats are increasing. Intensified
agriculture is one of the most important causes of
reductions in biological diversity.
Economic
developments and erosion are causing a steady
deterioration of the coastal environment. Forest
fires have devastated many parts of the

there have been reductions in Some Disquieting Trends
Some Disquieting Trends
The Report on the State ofthe Environment also clearly
indicates some trends which,
if not satisfactorily
contained , could have significant negative
consequences for the quality of the environment as a
whole. For example,

•

Energy: a 25% increase by 2010 if there is no
Energy: a 25%
change in current energy demand growth rates,
change in curre
resulting, in turn, in a 20 % increase in EC carbon
resulting, in turn
emissions (reference year 1 987)

Transport : a 25% increase in car ownership and
a 17 % increase in mileage by 2000 (reference
year 1 990);

Agriculture: a 63% increase in fertilizer use
between 1970 and 1988 ;

Waste: a 13% increase in municipal waste over
the last 5 years, despite increased recycling of
paper, glass, plastics;

Water, a 3 5% i ncrease in the Community's average
water withdrawal rate between 1 970 and 1 985;

Tourism : a 60% increase in Mediterranean tourism
projected by 2000 (reference year 1 990).

23

Need for a new impetus
The previous four Community action programmes and
the measures taken to implement them have had
considerable merit in formal or legal terms and have
achieved certain environmental
improvements in
objective terms. Furthermore, many of the actions
decided upon to date still have some time to run before
they show thei r fu 1 1 effects on the general state of the
environment.

not being fully implemented throughout
the
Community, many of the existing instruments are not
satisfactorily coping with current
levels of
environmental degradation . Moreover, most of them
have not been designed to meet the additional burden
expected to emanate from the upsurge of economic
activity followingon completion of the Internal Market
and concomitant energy, transport and other demands,
and the changes which are occurring in Central and
Eastern Europe.

Nevertheless, whether because they have not had
sufficient time to show full results or because they are

The time has come for Community environmental
policy to move into a new gear!

FIGURE 1 : SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Air quality management
Water resources management
Soil quality maintenance
Nature , landscape , conservation
Energy security and efficiency
Demographic management
( incl . urban env., public health and safety)
Waste management

VALUATION
&
PRICING

MANAGEMENT
OF
RESOURCES

I

O*

SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

\

MOBILITY
MANAGEMENT

INFORMATIOI'
EDUCATION

TRAIN ING

Physical planning incl. EIA
Infrastructure planning
incl. modal choice and EIA
Traffic management
Vehicle pollution control

PRODUCTION
AND SERVICES
SECTORS

Location (ind . EIA)
Operation licences (BAT)
Pollution controls ( IPC , info , audit)
Environmental accounting
Technological development
Product policy
IndustriaJ waste management

0

Chapter 2 : The Fifth Programme:
A New Strategy for the Environment and
Sustainable Development

The overal I objective ofthe Community is the improved
its citizens. Together with
and continued welfare of all
political , economic and monetary union the Internal
Market is designed to hold constituent Member States
and thei r peoples together and to motivate and provide
the framework for their socio-economic growth. The
long-term success of the Internal Market will be
dependent upon the relative contributions of the
industrial , energy,
regional development and
agricultural policies and the ability of the transport
policy literally to deliver the goods. All ofthese policies
are interdependent;
the ultimate limiting factor for
continued efficiency and growth as they interface with
one another is the tolerance level of the natural
environment.

Behind the strategy set out in this Programme is the
ultimate aim of transforming the patterns of growth in
the Community in such a way as to reach a sustainable
development path. Among other things this implies
that

it be recognized that continued human activity
and further economic and social development
depend on the quality of the environment and its
natural
resources and on their satisfactory
guardianship;
since the reservoir of raw materials is finite, the
flow of substances through the various stages of
processing, consumption and use should be so
managed as to facilitate or encourage optimum
reuse and recycling, thereby avoiding wastage
and preventing depletion of the natural resource
stock;
the behavioural
trends of citizens within the
Community should reflea an appreciation that
natural resources are finite and that one individual 's
consumption or use ofthese resources must not be
at
the expense of another's; and that neither
should one generation's consumption be at the
expense of those following.

The implementation of such a strategy of sustainable
development will require a considerable change in
almost all major policy areas in which the Community
It requires that environmental proteaion
is involved .
requirements be integrated into the definition and
implementation of other Community policies, not just
for the sake of the environment , but also for the sake
of the continued efficiency of the other policy areas

themselves. The interdependence of the various policy
areas, resources and sectors is depicted in Figure 1 over.

In accordance with the European Council 's Declaration
“The Environmental Imperative" the guiding principles
for policy decisions under this Programme derive from
the PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH and the concept
of SHARED RESPONSIBILITY,
including effective
implementation of the "Polluter Pays Principle".

This Programme continues to address major
environmental
issues such as climate change,
acidification, water pollution , soil degradation and
erosion, waste management, etc. However,
rather
than be directed solely at these issues, the strategy of
the Programme is to create a new interplay between
the main groups of ACTORS (government, enterprise,
public) and the principal ECONOMIC SECTORS
(industry, energy, transport, agriculture and tourism)
through the use of an extended, and integrated, range
of INSTRUMENTS . This can best be done efficiently
within the Community framework. Without an overall
Community framework within which all these activities
can be integrated and coordinated there is a danger
that the actions carried out by individual Member
States or regions, or by other actors will not have their
full
the integrity of Community
achievements or actions in other policy areas, notably
the Internal Market, could be called into question.

impact, or that

For each of the main issues, long-term objectives are
given as an indication of the sense of direaion orthrust
to be applied in the pursuit of sustainable development,
certain performance targets are indicated for the period
up to the year 2000 and a representative seleaion of
actions is prescribed with a view to achieving the said
targets. These objeaives and targets do not constitute
legal commitments but, rather, performance levels or
achievements to be aimed at now in the interests of
attaining a sustainable development path . Neither
should all the aaions indicated require legislation at
level .
Community or national

Sustainable development is a goal which will not be
achieved over this Programme alone, but if effeaively
implemented, the Programme should mark a significant
step on the way towards it

25

Chapter 3 : The Actors

Up to now, Community action programmes on the environment have largely been based on legislation and
controls involving government and manufacturing industry. The concept of shared responsibi lity requires a much
more broadly-based and active involvement of all economic players including public authorities, public and
private enterprise in all its forms, and, above all , the general public, both as citizens and consumers. The ultimate
objective in the involvement of and interplay between these economic players (and in the employment of a
broader range of instruments which will
is to strike a new
balance between the short-term benefit of individual persons, companies and administrations and the longer-
term benefits of society as a whole. The principle of subsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibility, which
will be applied in the endeavour to strike this new balance, are discussed in Chapter 8 below.

in particular, market-related incentives)

include,

3.1 Public Authorities

is equally important

The r6le of government is a determinant not only in
in
It
relation to legislation.
economic planning and in setting conditions for
economic development,
land use management,
accessibility of information, education and training,
market influence through taxation pol icies on products
(e.g. tobacco and fuels), etc Further, while there are
substantial differencies in the system of public
administrations in the Community,
in most member
states the public authorities also act as operators of
public enterprises, such as road networks,
railways,
airports, and the electricity production sector. In the
general endeavour to achieve sustainable development,
Governments have parti cu larly onerous responsi bi I ities
both in respect of state owned and controlled activities
and also in creating the necessary framework and
conditions, in providing incentives and in removing
obstacles so as to enable the individual and private
enterprise to play their respective roles.

Local and regional authorities have a particularly
important part to play in ensuring the sustainability of
development through the exercise of their statutory
functions as "competent authorities" for many of the
existing Directives and Regulations and in the context
of practical application of the principle of subsidiarity.
Some fields where local and regional authorities can
play a decisive role are :

Spatial planning: application of sound planning
principles so as to safeguard areas of value,
to
including nature reserves and landscapes,
improve urban fabric and circulation, and to
optimise energy and transport efficiency;

Economic development: most authorities have
some function in stimulating
economic
development in their areas. An appropriate degree
of prudence can ensure sustainable use of the
that economic
resources necessary for
development to take place and to prosper;

Infrastructural development: local and regional
authorities are primarily responsible for the
planning, provision and management of roads ,
water supplies, waste water treatment etc. and,

26

accordingly, are particularly well placed to
influence the location, type and impact of physical
development;

Control of
through
Industrial pollution :
responsible use of planning permissions, emission,
discharge and operating licenses , clean
technologies, right of access to environmental
information etc;

Waste management : strict application of the
recognised ranking order in waste management -
prevention , re-use and recycling, combustion as
fuel , disposal by incineration and landfill - would
serve both to reduce waste disposal problems and
to save energy and raw materials.

Transport: transport and traffic plans should be
fully integrated into the overall planning process;

Public information, education and training : local
and regional authorities, on the basis of existing
public access to
Community legislation on
environmental information , can facilitate greater
public involvement in environmental protection
and in the improvement of public confidence;
those which have direct responsibilities in the
field of education have particular opportunities
and responsibilities in respect of public awareness
and behaviour;

Internal auditing: administrations need tocritically
analyse their own operations, e.g. pubiicservic.es,
siting of offices, purchasing policies, choice of
vehicles and equipment, energy conservation ,
environmental auditing and communication of
information to the public.

Where applicable, Central Government should appiy
the above principles and measu res to their own
administrations and decisions 'e.g . planning ,
information, education ,
internal auditing).
training,
Finally,
it will be imperative to commit the necessary
resources at central , regional and local levels to ensure
practical

implementation .

3.2 Public and Private Enterprise

Dependingon their nature, virtually all enterprises use
natural resources for their processes and products,
create various types and quantities of waste, and
contribute to the pollution of air, water and soil .
In
limited cases only have the long term costs of these
resources and of the pol I ution so far been i nterna I ized
in the costs of operating a plant or in the price of the
final product or service. It is clear that the perpetuation
of this situation is not viable on either economic or
environmental grounds. There is a growing awareness
that industry's own interest is at stake :
increasing
demand for clean technologies and products will
create new market opportunities, with particular
advantages for innovational companies; industry also
sees the advantages in terms of savings on resources
and energy, where environmental considerations are
integrated into management policy. Nevertheless it
remains for the Community and the Member States to
determine the framework and conditionsfor sustainable
development.

In this Programme five areas of activity are singled out
as target sectors. These sectors represent a large share
of the overall economic activity; their co-operation
and attitude is vital
the way towards
to paving
sustainability. Notwithstanding the choice of certain
key sectors, it should be clear that all enterprise will be

expected to participate in the effort to move towards
sustainability. The instruments to be developed and
put in place will be designed to generate the broadest
possible response.

A comprehensive policy relating to consumer products
will be important if market mechanisms are to help
change human behaviour towards the environment. In
particular, it is essential that enterprises become more
conscious of the extent to which their products and
packaging become waste, and that
they accept
responsibility for such waste . The proposed
Community-wide eco-label should encourage industry
to design and manufacture products which have
impacts. Policies should be
reduced environmental
developed in a way which will also serve to facilitate
consumers in making informed choices on the basisof
safety, quality, durability and general environmental
implications. In this context the retail sector will have
to take up its part of the responsibility.

Financial
institutions which assume the risk of
companies and plants can exercise considerable
influence - in some cases, control
- over investment
and management decisions which could be brought
into play to the benefit of the environment.

3.3 The General Public

Each member of the general public has a number of
crucial roles to play :

as an individual who may be concerned about the
qualityofthegeneral environment, personal health
and the quality of life of succeeding generations,
and as a responsible citizen having the possibility
of influencing policies and decisions;

as a direct producer of pollution and waste within
the home, as an employer or employee, as a
commuter and in the pursuit of leisure interests;

as a consumer of goods and services, since the
causesof and sol utions to envi ronmenta ! problems
are often a function of consumer choice .

Before the individual can playhis/her full potential role
in practice, a number of conditions have to be met :
good knowledge and information is essential to relate
an individual 's activitiesto environmental pollution or
protection as the case may be; awareness campaigns
will be needed to remedy this situation. Good intentions
will not produce the desired results unless alternatives
exist, forexample, separate col lections ofwaste, reliable
public transport systems, etc.

With respect to the choice of products and services,
certain practical obstacles will have to be overcome :
the more ecological
friendly product may not be
available where one normally does the shopping, or,
if available, the price may be higher than the more
polluting ones.
(It is clear from the example on the
differential pricing of unleaded and leaded fuel that, if
the price is attractive, the consumer has incentive to
make a choice in favour of the environment). And, in
order to gain and retain the confidence of consumers,
environmental claims must be well founded and be
accompanied by neutral
information regarding the
characteristics of products.

The active involvement and participation of non¬
governmental organisations ( NCOs), both environment
and consumer oriented, as well as trades unions and
professional associations will be crucial to the general
process of awareness-bui Idi ng, to the representation of
public interest and concern, and to the motivation and
engagement of the members of the general public
themselves.

27

Chapter 4 : Selected Target Sectors

As indicated in the Chapter on ACTORS above (see Public and Private Enterprise) five targe: sectors are selected
for special attention under this Programme. These sectors have been chosen because they are sectors where the
Community as such has a unique role to play and where a Community approach is the most efficient way to tackle
in an overall way the problems these sectors face. They are also chosen because of the particularly significant
impacts that they have or could have on the environment as a whole and because , by their nature, they have
crucial rbles to play in the attempt to achieve sustainable development. These factors are more fully dealt with
in Chapter 5 and in the material which follows immediately below on the target sectors themselves.

4.1 Manufacturing Industry

The industrial sector accounts for approximately 25%
of the Community's wealth and industrialization is a
key element of development strategy both within the
Community and at wider international level . But in its
exploitation of natural
resources, consumption of
energy, production processes and generation of both
pollution and wastes, the industrial sector is among the
principal causesofenvironmental deterioration . Insofar
as the environmental consequencesofindustrial activity
may exceed the tolerance level of the natural resource
base it can limit or block further industrial development
in a locality or region .

One of the primary goalsof the Community's industrial
policy is to create the framework and conditions for a
strong,
innovative and competitive industrial sector
thereby ensuring the competitivity and sustainability
of Europe's industries in the global market-place. It is
not in the overal I interest of the Community to sacrifice
long-term economic and social rewards for the sake of
short-term financial gains.

Previous environment measures have tended to be
proscriptive in character, with an emphasis on the
"thou shall not* rather than the "let's work together"
approach. As a consequence, there has been a tendency
to view industrialization or economic development
and environmental concern as being mutually hostile.
Against the background of deepening concern for the
environment and natural resources, and realisation of
the negative economic effects of environmental
degradation, it is now clear that envi ronmental ly sound
industry is no longer a matter of luxury but rather a
matter of necessity. It isequally clear that many sectors
of industry are themselves becoming more appreciative
of their relationship with and responsibility for the
environment and the natural resource base. One of the
key messages of this Programme is that in the field of
environment,
industry must not only be part of the
problem but also part of the solution.

In order to ensure that optimum conditions exist for
continued economic growth within the Community
and that Community industry can identify the necessary
long-term strategies to remain economically

n»

(SEC(91)629),1 9.4.1 991

competitive it isessential to view environmental quality
and economic growth as mutually dependent. For
industry, a soundly based, comprehensive environment
policy can contribute to optimisation of resource
management , public confidence building and
development of market opportunities. Many of the
new clean and low-waste technologies not only reduce
pollution substantially, but economize on the
consumption of raw materials and energy to such
extent that cost savings can more than offset initial ,
investment costs and thereby reduce unit
higher,
production costs. A case in point is represented in the
development and use of new techniques in the field of
genetic engineering and biotechnology : these offer
for useful applications in
considerable potential
agriculture ,
food processing , chemicals and
pharmaceuticals, environmental clean-up and the
development of new material and energy sources. In
recognition of the importance of this particular sector,
the Commission published a Communication in 1 991
promoting a competitive environment for industrial
activities based on biotechnology within the
Community01 .

The combination of an advanced technological society
with a vigorous, creative and adaptive manufacturing
base which lies at the coreofthe European Community's
economic well-being and underpins its political
stability, can bring about better distribution, better
communications, greater personal choices and should
ultimately guarantee better health and an improved
quality of life.

Under this Programme the dual approach of high
environmental standards combined with positive
be
incentives to even better performance should
applied in a coordinated manner to the different points
in the research-process-production-marketing-use-
disposal chain where industry, and industrial products,
may impact upon the Community's environmental
resource base. For successful translation of this sequence
into a sustainable one, the environment has to be part
of education and vocational training for all the actors
involved in the chain, with special emphasis on
researchers and production engineers.

Θ

A new sense of direction and thrust will be given to the
environment/industrial policy interface by the institution
ofa comprehensive, integrated "package" of measures,
including existing provisions, comprising the following
elements :
elements :

a strengthening of the dialogue with industry;
a strengthening of the dialogue with industry;

improvement of physical and strategic planning
including assessment of environmental
implications of plans and programmes;
implications of plans and programmes;

improved management and control of production
processes including a system of licensing linked
to integrated pollution prevention and control ,
environmenta ! auditing, effective environment
valuation and accounting, useof best available
technology, and introduction of market-based
pricing systems for consumption and use of
natural
In setting standards and
conditions, due accountwill be taken of the lead-
time needed to facilitate investment decisions;
time needed to facilitate investment decisions;

resources.

higher, more reliable product standards designed
to ensure that the environmental impact of products
during their whole life cycle is minimised using,
interalia,aCommunity-wideecological labelling
system.;
System .;

encouragement ofvoluntary agreements and other
forms of self-regulation;
forms of self-regulation;

effective waste management
ideally should
commence with the control of production
processes; in this respect it is to be expected that
the package of measures indicated for the
production aspects will have a significant impact
on both quantities and types of waste generated;
include
other elements
reclamation of waste products by original
producers or importers (which would also improve
waste handling), continued research intorecycling
and reuse technology, with pilot projects in these
areas; and norms for industrial waste incinerators
and iandfill sites todeal with threats posed by final
disposal ofwastes;
disposal of wastes;

in the strategy will

*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Figures 2a anc/2boverleaf indicate how manufacturing
industrywill berequiredorencouragedbytwodifferent,
but complementary forces to move towards
environmentally-responsible production processes and
products.
products.
Figure 2a shows how various legislatively-based rules,
standardsand procedures will be applied to thedifferent
stages of the authorisation - production - appraisal
chain so as to create a self-perpetuating inducement to
progressively apply ever-improving standards,
Figure 2b has consumer awareness and choice as its
Figure 2b has consumer awareness and choice as its
central strength . The cycle is market-driven , self-
regulatory and self-perpetuating. As indicated it would
serve not only the private consumer but also other
companies wishing to gain or enhance their own eco-
rating. Thepotentialeffectivenessofthismodeldepends
ontheavailabilityofchoiceandofobjectiveappraisal
and information,

In consideringthis package to ensure the sustainability
of the industrial sector and to provide for continued
industrial and economicgrowth, special consideration
industrial and economicgrowth, special consideration
will be given to the position of small and medium
enterprises and the matter of
international
competitiveness.

Small and Medium Enterprises
In relation to small and medium enterprises
discrimination in respect of the measures outlined may
not be either desirable or necessary on the grounds,
inter alia, that

pollution isnotthe prerogative of large installations;
in aggregate, small plants also cause their share of
pollution and waste;

many survive on the demand created by large
firms which will be obliged to tighten up their
processes and meet the overall criteria of the
ecological labelling system;

in competition for investment finances, small and
medium enterprises cannot afford to be at a
disadvantage vis-S-vis their larger rivals.

Neverthelessasfaraspossibleaspecialeffortwillneed
to be made to avoid disproportionately burdensome
financial or legal constraints which
administrative,
finally, it is essential that the general public and
the social Dartners are enabled to become more might impede the creationor development of SMEs. As
the social partners are enabled to become more might impedetne creationor development or oMts. AS
far as ongoing control measures are concerned, for
actively involved in the development and practical
example, it may be possible in appropriate instancesto
this means that
implementation of policy :
provide for some variations in the timeframes for
individuals be given all the relevant information
adaptation or implementation (subjectto normal Treaty
necessary to enable them to exercise informed
requirements).
choices as consumers; they must also have access
it may be possible to
provide direct practical assistance, including provision
toenvironmental ly relevant data (e.g. inventory of
ofexpert services, training programmes, etc. However,
émissions, environmental audits, disclosure of
it should be borne in mind that their very size generally
environmental issues in the accounts ofenterprises)
givesSMEsagreaterlevelofflexibilityandadaptability;
to enable them to monitor the performance of
adherence to the state ofthe art would, in many cases,
industryand regulations alike.
give them an edge in highly competitive markets or,
indeed, open new markets.

In other cases,

29

FIGURE 2a : Regulatory Process to Promote Environmentally - friendly and Competitive Industry

Public Authorities
General Public

^ <EIA>

í

LOCATION

Structural Planning
Physical Planning

PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL

Env. Audit
Inventory of emissions
discharges and wastes
Tradeable Permits

Managemem

Investors
Financiers , Insurers L
|>^ Public Authorities «

General
Public

/
/

Operating Conditions
(ind. BAT)
Emissions Limits
Tradeable Permits

RENEWABLE
OPERATING
LICENCE

PRODUCTS

Product Standards
Ecological Labelling
Packaging

Standards-

Institutes
Consumers

J * vv* , n

/•'VKT-T

Public Authorities
General Public
(consultations)/

PRODUCTION
PROCESSES

Integrated Pollution Control
Inventory of emissions ,
discharges and wastes

Management
Public Authorities

FIGURE 2b:The Potential of Consumer Power to Promote Ecologically-Sound Manufacturing

Processes and Products

Production
Process

Product

Environmental
Audit

Ecological
Label

c
O
c 4
3
OT E
•§ 2
© ©
tr ce

Consumer Awareness
and Cholce

Company Image
Market Share
Liability Rating

Tu»

Inventory of emissions ,
discharges
and wastes

Public Listing of
:
"Clean" / " Dirty"
Companies

i

L

Θ

International Competitiveness
On the question of international competitiveness, the
perceived conflict between environmental protection
and economic competitiveness stems from a narrow
view of the sources of prosperity and a static view of
competition . Rather
than reduce competitive
advantage, stringent environmental requirements can
actually enhance it by triggering upgrading and
innovation . Those countries which have the most
rigorous requirements mostly lead in exports of the
affected products and technologies . With particular
reference to the issue of global competitiveness, the
decision by Japan 's Ministry of International Trade and
Industry (MITI ) to launch an action programme for the
21st Century entitled 'The new Earth 21 " requires a
firm response from the Community if our competitive
position in the global market-place is to be maintained.

one of the objectives of

Turning environmental concern into competitive
advantage is
'Towards
Sustainability". By aiming at reduction and elimination
of pollution and at prevention, recycling and reuse of
waste rather than just abatement or clean-up and by
creating a broader mixof instruments, including market
incentives,
thereby avoiding constraints on the
technologies used to achieve higher standards,
environment policy can stimulate investment,
innovation and competitiveness rather than stifle them.

In mid-1992 the Commission will submit a
comprehensive Communication to the Council of
Ministers on industrial competitiveness and protection
of the environment which will
further develop this
theme and propose areas for action in the industrial
field .

4.2 The Energy Sector

The Community's energy sector continues to be
confronted with local and regional environmental
problems such as acidification . In addition , concerns
about the global aspects of energy policy and their
effects on the environment are growing in importance.
A long-term strategy must be devised which ensures
that solutions for one problem do not exacerbate
another. The global challenge of the future will be to
ensure that economic growth, efficient and secure
energy suppl ies and a clean environment are compatible
objectives. Energy policy,
therefore, will be a key
factor in the achievement of sustainable development.

it will

Recent UN projections relating to the world population
rise from 5 billion people in 1990
are that
towards 10 billion in 2050. Consequential energy
projections indicate that energy demand will increase
from around 9 billion tons of oil equivalent (toe)
in
in 2050 under a
1990 towards 20 billion toe
conventional wisdom scenario or towards 13 billion
toe under a high energy efficiency scenario.

Even though there will be regional adjustments of the
energy shares'1 ’, these developments will still have a
quite drastic impact on the environment at large.
In
both energy scenarios the projected use of coal will
in considerably increased emissions of
result
greenhouse gases,
in particular C02. The lower level
(1 3 billion toe) would result in a 60% increase of C02
emissions on global

level .

there is a breakthrough in the development and
penetration of alternative energy technologies such as
renewables (biomass, solar, wind etc.). The high
efficiency scenario will require a dramatic change in
attitudes to energy use and would force industrialized
countries to achieve even higher efficiency gains than
during the period 1 975-85.

Global energy and environmental improvements can
only be realized if major improvements are also
achieved in the developing countries and in Central
and Eastern Europe . A critical issue in this context isthe
need to transfer finance, technology and know-how to
those countries to hel p them to control the evol ution i n
their energy demand whilst safeguarding their right to
sustainable development . The Community has
already indicated its commitment in these areas in
the conclusions of the Council of Ministers
( Environment) of 12 December 1991 relating to the
United Nations' Conference on Environment and
Development The European Energy Charter which
expresses interdependence in the energy field and
awareness of the shared responsibility for supply and
for the environment, can also make an important
contribution. The countries of Central and Eastern
Europe would obtain the assistance they need for
economic recovery and for obtaining energy supplies
under conditions allowing a cleaner environment, a
better balance between different energy sources, and
a more efficient use of energy.

The projected future energy growth based on the
conventional wisdom scenario would create
considerable stresses for security of energy supply.
These would be particularly severe in those developing
countries which do not have indigenous energy
resourcesand the aim would probably be unachievable
uniess there is a different approach to nuclear power,
to greater use of waste related energy sources or unless

On the EC level , the Commission in 1990 presented
four scenarios identifying the range of influences at
work which could affect thedirectionofenergy demand
and supply over the longer term®. Of these four
scenarios, the two most contrasting paths along which
our energy future may develop are of
immediate
importance for strategy formulation: a conventional
wisdom scenario and a high prices scenario. These

m
®

The developing countries will account for 46%, the currently developed world 1 6% (41 .6% in 1 990) and
the Central ancl Eastern European countries 1 1 % (24% in 1 990).
Energy in Europe, Energy for a new century: the European perspective, July 1990

31

scenarios do not yet take account of the unification of
Germany. For a number of reasons induding this, the
scenarios are at present being updated . The results of
this revision will be available by mid-1992 .

Explanation of Scenarios and their implications
Scenario 1 , otherwise referred to as the "business
as usual * scenario with low economic growth and
no new major environmental and energy policy
initiatives.

Scenario 4, otherwise referred to as the "high
prices" scenario with same growth as under
scenario 1 , but with rapid increase of energy
efficiency, a significant increase in nuclear power,
gas-fired plants replacing coal-fired units plus an
increased energy price to consumers through for
example, an energy/carbon tax.

On the basis of these scenarios, the estimates for
total EC-12 energy consumption ( in million toe)
and emissions into the air ( in million tons) in 201 0
would be;

TABLE 1

Consumption

CO,

SO,

NOx

1148.33

2738

1223

10.38

1376.59

314325

6.56

7.85

975.59

2098.37

4.32

4.35

1990

2010

Scenario 1
(conv.wisd .)

2010
Scenario 4
(high prices)

On the bases of the predictions offered, only
Scenario 4 or a simi lar one would meet the agreed
COj stabilization target for 2000 by reference to
1 990 levels and could achieve further reductions
of the order of 25% by the year 201 0 on the basis
of present day knowledge and anticipated
technology,
and considerable structural and
behavioural changes.

SO, emissions have been i n ded ine sinee the beginni ng
of the eighties and will continue to fall substantially in
the future as a consequence ofCommunity and national
environmental
legislation , energy efficiency
improvements and the use of cleaner fuels. NOx
emissions will also be reduced up to the year 2010,
though, less drastically than S02 emissions. However,
even these reduced SO., and NOx emissions are
expected to cause environmental problems in many
areas of the Community on national , regional and
urban levels by exceeding critical acidification loads
as shown under paragraph 5.2 of the Chapter on the

Themes and the Targets of this Programme. Therefore
even greater efforts are required to reduce emissions to
sustainable levels. In the casefo NOx, some additional
reductions can be realized in the power generating
sector and manufacturing industry; considerably greater
reductions could be achieved in the transport sector,
mainly through structural and behavioural changes.
For S02 the greatest scope for reductions on present
the power generating sector (where
levels lies in
certain regulatory measures are already in force, but
not yet fully implemented) and in the manufacturing
industry sector.

The achievement of practical results in the field of
energy requires a strategic perspective wel I beyond the
year 2000. The key elements of any strategy for the
short-to-medium term would be an improvement in
energy efficiency and the development of strategic
technology programmes,
including R & D, moving
towards a less carbon-intensive energy structure
including,
in particular, renewable energy options.
These elements have already been the subject of a
Communication from the Commission to the Council
in November 1 989 "Environment and Energy"01. The
Commission in another Communication "A Community
Strategy to limit Carbon Dioxide emission and to
improve energy efficiency"® has made a number of
proposals which have received the general support of
the Council . Among the measures envisaged within an
overall strategy are the introduction of economic
instruments, which would require that the real costs of
consuming energy are passed on to the user
( for example through a CO/energy tax); better
information, education and training for end-users;
agreements with industry relating to codes of conduct
(at EC level, codes of conduct have already been
concluded in the electricity, coal , oil and natural gas
sectors) and improvement of efficiency ; energy
efficiency standards for all kind of products and
appliances, energy saving programmes and building
insulation standards (in conformity with the already
adopted SAVE and PACE Programmes); further study
on the environmental aspects of nuclear energy;new
energy technologies and the promotion thereof (on the
basis of the THERMIE and JOULE Programmes) and
further promotion of use of renewable energy (as has
been proposed in the ALTENER Programme).

The task for the future is to vigorously implement the
programmes mentioned and, where necessary,
to
review, intensify and enlarge them.

Table 2 sets out the measures necessary up to the year
2000, the instruments needed to be developed as from
1 993 , and the actors involved, in order to make the first
important steps to the achievement of a sustainable
energy policy.

32

01 COM (89) 369 of 8 February 1 990
®

SEC (91 ) 1 744 final of 1 4 October 1991 .

MEASURES UP TO 2000

INSTRUMENTS

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

Table 2 : ENERGY

awareness building and incen¬
tives aimed at sustainable en ¬
ergy use and behavioural
changes

* information to , education and training of end-users

1993 onwards

* agreements with industry on efficiency
' codes of conduct to be adopted by the actors concerned

ongoing
ongoing

energy efficiency programmes

ongoing
1993 onwards

ongoing

* économie and fiscal instruments
* removal of restrictive rules

Implementation of PACE , SAVE and national efficiency
Programmes , including :
least cost planning
*
* energy efficiency standards for appliances , products

and vehicles

* efficiency standards for energy technology
' buildings insulation standards
* minimization of methane leakages from natural gas

distnbution systems

MS + EC + public +
Energy sector
MS + Ind + EC
Energy sector + MS +
Ind + EC
EC + MS
MS + EC

EC + MS + Ind +
Energy sector
Ind + Energy sector
EC + MS -rind +
Transport sector
EC + Ind
MS + Ind + EC
MS + Energy sector

technology programmes

Implementation of THERMIE and JOULE Programmes ,
including :
* RAD of new energy technologies and promotion and

ongoing

EC + MS + Ind +
Energy sector
Kj

use thereof

* RSD on renewables (i.e. biomass )

promoticnal programme

ALTENER : promotion of renewable energy
* Pilot projects and standardisation

1993 onwards

nuclear safety programmes

Study on safety and waste aspects of nuclear energy

ongoing

id

id

EC + MS + Energy
sector

4.3 The Transport Sector

Transport is vital to both our economic and social well ¬
being. It is essential to the production and distribution
of goods and services, as well as to trade and regional
development. Transport has made a major contribution
to economic growth in the Community. It has enabled
the achievement of important economies of scale in
production and led to increased competition .
In the
Community,
the transport sector accounts for
approximately 10% of the Cross Domestic Product
and represents 9% ofemployment (these figures include
transport for own account of both goods and persons
as well as the production of transport means and
creation and maintenance of infrastructure).
Since
1 970 the overall annual growth in inland transport has
averaged 3,1% for passengers and 2,3% for goods.
Both in absolute and relative terms the increase in road
transport has been much higher than for the other
inland transport modes. Since 1 980 the increase in air
passenger transport has averaged 6,2% per annum.

Despite the crucial importanceof the sector, asituation
has been allowed to evolve in many parts of the
Community, especially in the largerurban and industrial
areas and along many of the principal traffic arteries,
wherein imbalances in terms of disproportionate
mobility by road, excessive traffic and congestion ,
uncoordinated infrastructure planning as well as
inefficient use of existing transport capacity are

symptomatic for the transport market and has already
led in many areas to a form of rationing by congestion.

Present trends in road and air transport are all leading
towards even greater
inefficiency , congestion,
pollution, wastage of time and value, damage to health,
danger to life and general economic loss. Physical
constraints - mainly environmental constraints- are
such that it will not be possible in the future as it was
in the past, to base transport policy on the demand side
of the equation.

Transport is never environmentally neutral , since all
modes of transport have varying degrees of impact on
the environment. Emissions of transport - primarily
road and air traffic - represent a very high share of the
overall emissions : about 90% of all
lead emissions,
about 50% of all NOx emissions and about 30% of all
In urban areas, traffic causes almost
VOC emissions.
100 % of the CO emissions, 60% of HC and NOx
emissions, 50% of particulate emissions, and about
1 0% of S02 emissions. Transport emits 22% of all C03
emissions. Of this, 80% emissions arise from road
transport and more than 55% for the private car alone.
Furthermore, the transport sector - in particular, road
and air traffic - is reckoned to be the biggest contributer
to the problem of noise.

33

Recent EC legislation on exhaust emissions of cars and
trucks will result in a substantial reduction of pollution
by individual vehicles. However because of the
projected increases in the volume of cars used, the
mileages driven and increases of road freight traffic,
the transport sector's share in overall emissions will
increase from 22 to 24% of C02, from 4 to 1 2% of S02
and from 58 to 59% of NOx and thereby will offset any
potential reductions attributable to the introduction of
the new emission standards.

Transport demand and traffic are expected to increase
significantlywith the completion ofthe Internal Market,
the political and economic developments in Central
and Eastern Europe and the development of
the
European Economic Area . The efficacity and
sustainability of transport policy itself in the future will
be in direct proportion to the quality ofthe relationship
between transport and the environment.
It will be
essential to pursue a strategy aimed at reducing - or at
very least containing - the overall impact of transport
on the environment .

limit

In particular it wil I be necessary to reduce operational
pollution ,
infrastructural
the impact of
development on land use" 1 , reduce traffic and
congestion (especially in urban areas) and prevent or
reduce risks inherent in the transport of dangerous
goods and wastes. The Commission has recently
published a Communication on transport and the
inter alia,
environment® _
environment® _
proposes a strategy for "sustainable mobi lity" involving
a combination of :

, which,

*

*

improved land-use/economic development
local , regional , national and trans¬
planning at
national
levels, to reduce the need for mobility
and allow for the development of alternatives to
road transport;

improved coordination in the planning of and
in transport infrastructure networks
investment
incorporation of the real costs of
and facilities;
both i nfrastructure and envi ronment in i nvestment
policies and decisions and in user costs and
charges;

improvement of competitive position of
environment- friendly modes, such as railways,
inland and sea navigation and combined transport;

development of urban transport, which gives
priority to collective transport and to adequate
link-up between the different stages of journeys;

continued technical improvement of vehicles and
fuels;

*

promotion of more environmentally rational use
of the private car, and changes in driving rules and
habits, including speed limits.

transport,

Implementation will be a matter for all
levels of
admi nistration and society, right down to the individual
car owner - a true sharing of responsibilities. But
effective results will ultimately depend on the
complementarity of measures and efforts. For instance,
private driving habits are largely a function of effective
choice which is dependent upon the availability of
alternative modes of
the quality of
infrastructure, the cost of parking etc. Information and
education programmes alone will achieve relatively
little if the effective choice is restricted. Likewise,
professional road hauliers will have little option but to
continue to use the road system so long as the location,
delivery times and condition of cargoes cannot be
guaranteed by other modes of transport.
In this
connection, the rai Iway system will only play afull rC>le
in the servicing of the Internal Market, if a satisfactorily
coherent Community-wide network can be created
between the various national or semi-state railway
companies and if there is some form of integrated
logging and tracking system where goods, materials
and waste cargoes are concerned . Optimisation of
transport modes and infrastructure facilities, networks
and investments can serve private, corporate, national
economic,
Internal Market and environmental
protection interests side-by-side.

Table 3 givesan indication of measures and instruments
needed, the actors involved on different levels but
acting in partnership, and the time-frame envisaged .

0

Excluding the surface area of intersections, junctions and carparks, the road network takes up about 3,1 % of the Community's total
area; excluding land used for railway stations and marshalling yards, the railway network takes up 0,1 % of land.
COM (92) 46 final of 20 February 1992 : Green paper on the impact of Tranport on the Environment, a Community strategy for
•Sustainable mobility-

®

Table 3 : TRANSPORT

MEASURES UP TO 2000

INSTRUMENTS

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

(a )
Infra ¬
structures

- Land-use planning
-

Infrastructure investments urban transport ,
trans-shipment
rail enhancement ,
goods handling , inland water ways /sea traffic
Infrastructure charging

facilities ,

-

b) Fuels &
vehicles

Progressive technical improvement of vehicles :
fuel
- exhaust and noise emissions ,

consumption , performance , final disposal

EIA
Structural Funds

Road taxes and cSfferent forms
of Fload pricing

régulation

- R4D
-
- vehicle testing (contr.techn)
- Recyding of parts
- Fiscal incentives

Composition 4 consumption of fuels :
- alternative fuels , cleaner fuels
- complete move to unleaded petrol by 2000

- R4D
- Fiscal incentives
-

régulation

( c ) User
Behaviour

- driver information 4 education on a more

rational use of the car

- campaigns in me<Sa , speed
limits and other physical
constraints

2000

1995

1993
ю

before “95
2000
before 08
2000

2000

before 05

2000
1995

ongoing

-

improved public/collective transport

-

investments ,
plans

land-use

2000

- discouragement of road traffic in cities
- development of économie and fiscal

incentives

- charges , high parking fees ,
- car pooling e.g. positive
discrimination (lower tolls)
of car poolers

- development of
infrastructures

inter active communication

-

logging
tracking
and
systems, electronic home ,
video conferences

before *95
id

ongoing

MS/LAs
MS/ LAs +
EC

MS + EC
id

Industry* EC
EC + MS
MS * EC
Industry
MS * EC

Industry* EC
MS * EC
EC * MS

LAs/MS + EC +
NGOs

LAs'MS + EC
Transp .
authorities
LAs* MS
Public
Toll operating
Companies,
Public
EC + MS +
Industry

4.4 The Agriculture Sector

Agriculture, together with forestry, occupies more than
80% of the territory of the Community. Traditionally,
the farmer is the guardian ofthe soi I and the countryside.
By careful husbandry, including integrated crop and
livestock farming and waste management, farmlands
are passed in sound condition from one generation to
the next Agriculture has shaped and indeed continues
to shape the European countryside and has set much of
the foundation of European culture.

Just as in the case of manufacturing industry and
transport, however, the agricultural sector and farming
practices have undergone significant modernisation
and change during this century, and more particularly
over the last forty years. Among the factors which have
brought change are the drift of rural populations to
cities and towns, increased mechanisation , improved
transport, improvements in seed qual ity, crop protection
and animal strains , international trade and competition
in food products and feed-stuffs.

Against this background, the Community's Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been developed and
adapted so as to fulfill the objectives of the Treaty of
assuring the availability of food supplies at reasonable
prices, the stabilisation of markets and a fair standard

of living for the agricultural Community. However,
while the achievement of these objectives has been
greatly promoted by the CAP'S price support
mechanisms, the same instruments are now seen to be
having some less positive side-effects.

in turn ,

One of these effects has been an over-emphasis in
some areas on production levels with consequential
is leading to
This,
over-intensification.
overexploitation and degradation of the natural
resources on which agriculture itself ultimately depends:
soil , water and air.
In crop production, systematic use
of plant protection products has led to a relative
resistance in parasites increasing the frequency and
the cost ofsubsequenttreatments and causing additional
soil and water pollution problems. In certain areas of
the Community, large quantities of fertile top soil are
lost every year because of erosion due to inappropriate
management of the land .
In livestock farming, animal
diseases have become more difficult to deal with, as
genetic uniformity and concentration in space of
holdings have increased. Animal wastes create more
and more problemsofwater and soil pollution. Ground
clearance and drainage are causing depletion of
wetlands and reducing biodiversity. Excessive use of
nitrogenous and phosphate fertilisers causes

35

eutrophication in surface waters in many regionsof the
Community;
the resulting algal blooms disturb the
oxygen levels ofthe water with dramatic consequences
for fish , feeding matter and the ecosystem in general as
well as the use of the water for drinking and recreation
purposes. Even in cases where specific regional or
horizontal measures are introduced for soil protection
their success is often compromised under the pressure
of other market or structural measures. For example,
efforts to protea heatherland and combat erosion in
northern countries can fail because of overgrazing as
a result of the headage payment schemes, particularly
in the sheep seaor.

Apart from the environmental degradation incurred ,
the present system generates surplusses at high costs to
the Community budget without improvingthe income
situation of the European farmers. Given all of these
circumstances, it is not only environmentally desirable,
but it also makes sound agricultural and economic
sense to seek to strike a more sustainable balance
between agricultural aaivity and the natural resources
of the environment.

This appreciation is clearly reflected in recent
deliberations on the reform ofthe Common Agricultural
Policy which, interalia, have indicated that "producing
more" cannot be any longer considered as the central
point of Community policy. The Commission's 1 991
Refleaion Paper on the development and future of the
CAP*11 recognised the need to encourage extensifi cation
with the objea of not only reducing surplus produaion
but also of contributing to an environmentally
sustainable form of agricultural produaion and food
quality and formalising the dual role offarmersasfood
producers and guardians of the countryside. The
Commission's subsequent proposals'21 include an agri -
environmenta! aaion programme which encompasses
types of financial assistance designed to
several
encourage farms to operate their land holding in an
environmentaly-friendly way.

Forestry
In many regions of the Community, forests are not only
a determinant faaor for the envi ronment, with different
ecological and social funaions, but are also a matter
ofconsiderable economic importance. The Community
as a whole is the second greatest consumer of timber
in the world. Of a total annual consumption of some
200 million m J, Community production yields
approximately 100 million mJ i.e. it is only 50% self-
sufficient at present

Notwithstanding this situation , the Community forests
have long been negleaed. Today, nearly 40% of the
is suffering various degrees of ill-health caused
total
mainly by acidification; IIASA studies'31
indicate EC
(excluding Spain) harvest-loss attributable to air
poi lution of the order of 30 mil I ion m3 per annum, with
an estimated value of some 1 0 billion ECU . In addition,
about 1 % of total forest area is destroyed each year by
forest
this being in the
Mediterranean Region.

the vast bulk of

fires,

in 1989,

Against this background the Community,
adopted a forestry policy*41 designed to :
protea the forest heritage against
acidification and fire;
improve the produaivity of forests;
develop forest and forest-related activities,
especially in rural areas;
promote afforestation on agricultural

threat

land.

from

However, over the period covered by this Programme,
it will be necessary to look beyond the concerns and
aaions referred to above and to draw a closer link
between the Community's internal timber produaion
and consumption patterns and its moral and political
obligations to work towards the solution of global
concerns about deforestation .

Long term objeaives, medium term targets and
measures needed in relation to agriculture and forestry
are given in Table 4.

36

COM (91 ) 1 00 final oM February 1991
COM (91 ) 258 final of 11 July 1991
IIASA : International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria: Executive Report 17, February 1991 .
COM (88) 255; C. |. N° LI 65 , 1 5.6.1 989

“
,31
141

T»Ne 4 : AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

Maintenance of the basic
natural processes indispen¬
sable for a sustainable
agricultural sectornotably by
conservation of water, soil,
and genetic resources

Standstill or reduction of nitrate
levels in groundwaters.
Reduced incidence of surface
waters with a nitrate content
exceeding 50 mg/1 , or giving rise
to eutrophication oflakes and seas.

Strict application of the nitrates directive

1994 =>

MS + AGR

Setting of regional emission standards for
new lifeslock anils (NHj) and silos (silage)

Ongoing

MS + LAs

Réduction programme for phosphate use.

1995

EC + MS

Decrease in the input of
chemicals to the point that
none of these processes be
affected.

Equilibrium between input
of nutrients and the absorp¬
tion capacity of soils and
plants.

Rural environment ma ¬
nagement permitting the
maintenance of biodiversity
and natural habitats and
minimising natural risks (e-g.
terosion.avalanches)and fires

Stabilisation orincrease oforganic
material levels in the soil

Allocation of premiums and other
compensating payments to be subject to
full compliance with
environmental
legislation

1995 =»

EC
MS + LAs +

AGR

Significant reduction of pesticide
use per unit of land under
production and conversion of
farmers to methods of integrated
pest control, at least in all areas of
importance
nature
conservation.

for

- Registration of sales and use of

Ongoing

EC+A/S+AGR

pesticides

- Comrol on sale and use of pesticides
- Promotion of “Integrated Control" (in
particular training activities ) and
promotion of bio-agriculture

1995
1992 =»

EC+A/S+AGR
EC+MS+AGR

15% of agricultural area under
management contracts

Programmes for agriculture/snvironrnem
zones with premiums co- financed by
FEOGA

1992

A/S+EC

Protection of all endangered domestic
animal races

Ongoing

MS

Management plans for all rural
areas in danger

Re-evaluauon of license conditions for
irrigation and of slate aids for drainage
schemes

1995

MS + EC

Optimisation of forest area
as to fulfill all their functions

Increase of forest plantation ,
including on agricultural land;

Training of farmers , promotion of
exchange visits between regions with
comparable environment management
situations

New afforestation and regeneration of
existing forest , favouring the most
adequate means for the environment (slow
growing trees, mixed afforestation);

1992 =»

EC+MS+LAs

Ongoing

EC+MS+LAs +
foresl-owmrs

Improved protection (health and
forest-fixes)

Further action against forest-fires

id

id

37

4.5 The Tourism Sector

Tourism is an important element in the social and
economic lifeoftheCommunity. It reflects the legitimate
aspirations of the individual to enjoy new places and
absorb different cultures as well as to benefit from
activities or relaxation away from the normal home or
work setting. It is also an important economic asset to
many regions and cities of the Community and has a
special contribution to make to the economic and
social cohesion of the peripheral regions. Tourism
represents a good example of the fundamental
link
which exists between economic development and
environment, with all the attendant benefits, tensions
and potential conflicts. If well planned and managed,
tourism,
regional development and environment
protection can go hand in hand. Respect for nature and
the environment, particularly in coastal zones and
mountain areas, can make tourism both profitable and
long-lasting.

Within the EC, tourism represents 5.5% of GDP,
around 5% of export earnings and 6% of total
jobs,
including more than 7 million full-time jobs. The
development of the tourist sector is ratherdiverse in the
Community. Over the last decade tourist activity has
gone up by an average of 1 4% of total nights spent. The
increase is much more than average in the southern
part of the EC. In the Alpine regions tourism has risen
sharply to about 50 million people every year. As
income levels and leisure time increase over the next
decade, substantial growth is anticipated. This will
have its effect over the whole of Europe with an
emphasis on coastal and mountain zones, with the
Mediterranean region taking a large share. Income
increases are expected to trigger more second hoi idays,
which may be short but are expected to take place in
environmentally high quality surroundings.

The Mediterranean basin accounts for 35% of the
international tourist trade and is the world's leading
tourist area . According to the UNEP Blue Plan"1, the
number of tourists in the Mediterranean region could
grow to as many as 380-760 million per year in 2025,
depending on the economic growth rates. This
development would
be in addition to predicted
demographic changes in the area . 1 60 million ofthese
tourists in the year 2000 and 260 million in the year
2025 would visit Mediterranean coastal areas, as
compared to 55 million in 1984 and around 100
million in 1990 . Estimates of the World Tourism
Organisation confirm the projections of the Blue Plan.
Both indicate that up to 90% of any increase could
accrue to Community Member States in the region .
Such increases would require double the occupation
of space by the year 2000 alone; the solid waste and
waste water generated could more than triple by the
year 2025 .

transport

These developments will have major implications for
the environment, imposing tremendous pressures on
facilities, coastal and mountain
habitats,
land, energy and water resources, and waste water
treatment facilities, particularly at periods of peak
demand. The coastal zones especially will face severe
problems.

Overall environmental
targets and longer term
objectives directly related to tourism (other than
otherwise required noise, water and air quality
standards) are difficult to define since tourism can
have both positive and negative effects on the
environment and is very dependent on the individual
consumer choice. The i mpact of tourism depends very
much on the type of tourism, the behaviour of tourists
and the quality of the tourist services. Most of the
pressures on the environment stem from the mass
tourism in coastal and mountain areas, which is likely
to increase considerably over the next decades. It will
be necessary therefore todevelop national and regional
integrated management plans for coastal and mountain
areas .

Elements in these strategies which directly relate to the
interaction of tourism and environment would be
controls on land use, the setting of strict rules on new
illegal housing,
constructions, and fight against
management of private traffic flows to and in the
tourist areas, diversification of tourism , strict
implementation and enforcement of environmental
standards on noise, drinking water, bathing water,
waste water and air emissions (including emissions in
the hinterland of the tourist areas), creation of buffer
zones around sensitive areas such as wetlands and
dunes, better dispersion of summer holidays, awareness
building and education of local people and tourists,
and education and professional
training of people
involved in the management of the areas involved.

The realisation of such strategies will rely principally
on measures to be taken by regional and local
authorities, and the tourism industry. A Community
Action Plan to Assist Tourism published by the
Commission® includes a number of specific measures
designed to link environmental protection and tourist
development e.g.

inventories of tourism resources in the Member
States;
improved staggering of holiday^seasonal spread
of tourism;
practical guides for the tourist industry and pilot
projects in environmental tourism;
development of a code of conduct for tourists;

38

n >
UNEP'S Mediterranean Action Plan
® COM (91 ) 97 final of 24 April 1991

exchangesof information and experience in visitor
management;
environmental awards and prizes.

tourism ,

It is essential to place future growth of tourism within
the framework of sustainability. If well planned and
controlled ,
regional development and
environment protection can go hand in hand . Recent
examples such as the algal plague in the Adriatic Sea,
which cost an estimated 1,5 billion ECUs in lost
revenue from tourism and fishing in 1990,
indicate
clearly that the environment constitutesa very important

economic resource, requiring to be well maintained
and protected . Sustainable tourism, based on respect
for nature and the environment can make a positive
contribution to the prosperity not only of the tourist
industry as such, but also of the surrounding regions
and towards the economic and social cohesion of
peripheral areas.

Table 5 gives an overview of the elements of a strategy
on tourism, indicating which instruments need to be
developed within what
time-frame and by which
combination of actors and target groups.

OBJECTIVES

MEASURES UP TO 2000

INSTRUMENTS

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

Table 5 : TOURISM

improved control on land use
strict rules for new constructions

-
-
- management of traffic flows to in and from

1993 onwards
id

LAs

LAs

id

MS + LAs

tourist areas

- visitor management ; exchange of expertise
- pilot models of sustainable tourism
- strict

implementation and enforcement of
environmental standards on noise, drinking
water, bathing water, waste water treatment and
air emissions

1992-1993
id
ongoing

id

id

MS + LAs + HC

- creation of buffer zones around sensitive areas

1993 onwards

MS + LAs

- development and promotion of code of conduct
- mulü-media campaigns + conférences
- EC transport policy + national transport polides

1993 - 1995
id
1993 onwards

MS + LAs +

Tourist /nd. + EC

EC ♦ MS

- economic incentives such as COj/energy tax

and road pricing and encouraged use of public
transport

1993
1993 onwards

EC + MS
MS + EC

- co-operation and exchange of information

• national plan + régional plans
- EC -Regional Development Fund
- EC tourism action plan
- EC tourism Advisory Committee

before 1998

before 1995
id

id
id

MS + EC +
Tourist Ind .
LAs + MS + EC
LAs + MS + EC
LAs + MS + £C
LAs + MS + EC

- brochures
- professional training
- pilot projects
. professional training and education exchange of

best practice

1993 onwards
id

Ind. + LAs
id

id
id

id
MS + LAs + EC
+ Ind

Type of tourism

* Better management of

mass tourism

* National and regional
integrated management
plans for coastal and
mountain areas

Behaviour of tourists

• building environmental

awareness

• liberalisation of air and
- TGV -

coach transport
network

• increase of marginal costs
of use of private car and
promotion of alternative
transport modes

• better

dispersion

of

holidays

• diversification of tourism
(including rural and cultural
tourism)

Quality of
services

tourist

* promotion new forms of
tourism which care for the

environment

* careful

sélection

of

accommodation

• building of environmental
awareness of people
involved in management of
tourist areas

* building environmental
awareness of local people
and tourist services

39

Summary

It
is appropriate to reiterate, at this point, that the
designation of certain key target sectors is not intended
to indicate an exoneration of other actors or sectors -
ALL public and private enterprise is called upon to take
up a due share of the responsibility forgetting the new
strategy under way and putting the overall programme
into effect.

The strategic approach to the m3in target sectors is
summarised in Table b.The succeeding chapters of this
document set out detailed objectives, targets and time -
frames in respect of reductions of environmental impact
and an expanded range of instruments designed to
bring about the necessary changes in behaviour and
trends.

T»ble 6 : PROGRAMME FRAMEWORK FOR SELECTED TARGET SECTORS

INDUSTRY

ENERGY

TRANSPORT

AGRICULTURE

TOURISM

Integrated Pollution
Control
• operating licenses
- emission inventory
- env . audits
- env. charges
- Clean and low waste

technology'

Réduction In Pollution

Cleaner Cnrs & Fuels

- specifictargets forCOj,

- emission limit values

Ecologically sustainable
farming
- extensificaüon

SOr NOx

- econ & fiscal incentives
- safe disposai of nuclear

waste

- économie

fiscal

- réduction of cheinicai

incentives

- vehicle testing
- réduction ofévaporation

inputs

- organic farming
- consumer information

- econ & fiscal incentives

SusLTourtan , Land - use,
Infrastructure
- diinking water
- baihing waier
- waste management
- sustainable mobility

S

£ I

C M

T P

O A

R C

A T

L S

Reduced Waste/ Better
Waste Management

Development
Renewable Sources

R&D and promotion of :
- biomass, wind , wave ,
solar, hydro, geothermal

of

Rationalisation

of

Forest Development

Infrastructure

- network planning
- inter-modal choice

- bottlenecks

- communications

- systematic planting
- fire protection
- sustainable harvesting

Protection of Coastal
Zones & Natural, Man ¬
made or Built Amenities

- désertification
- cultural heniage
- forest fi res

- nature tr?ils

- inventory of wastes
- econ & fiscal incentives
- deposit/retum system
- high standards

for

disposai

- cavil liability

Ecologlcally - frlendly
Products

- eco-label
- product standards
- consumer information
- ux differentials

Réduction in Energy
Consumptlon
- econ & fiscal incentives

- cons . info & educ.
- SAVE, THERMIE, JOULE
- regulatory instruments
• volunL agreements

Improved
Behaviour

Driver

Rural Development
- land

management

- info & éducation

control

- econ & fiscal incentives

- choice of modes
- traffic management

* rural tourism
- inland fishing

Broader

Consumer

Choice

- broader
options

choice

of

- betler information
- betlerseasonal spreadof

tourism

N3 .: The instruments indicated above are not exclusive to the sectors in which they appear, they have been inserted in the sectors in respect of which

they have the most obvious potential*

40

R

K

S

O

u

R

C

E

S

E

H

Λ

V

I

O

U

R

Chapter 5 :
The Thèmes and Targets of the Programme

!n this Chapter a number of themes are addressed . These are not intended as an exhaustive list of issues to be
tackled within the Community over the period covered by the Programme. Rather, they represent matters of
particular seriousness which have a Community-wide dimension, either because of Internal Market, cross¬
boundary, shared resource or cohesion implications and because they have a crucial bearing on environmental
quality and conditions in about all regions of the Community.

Under each of the themes,
long term objectives are given as an indication of the sense of direction or thrust to
be applied in the pursuit of sustainable development. Given the present state of knowledge and particularly the
absence of parameters for sustainability, these objectives are generally expressed in qualitative as distinct from
quantitative terms .

As intermediate goals, certain targets are indicated, to be achieved within specified time-frames up to the year
2000 . These do not constitute legal commitments but, as the term "target* implies, performance levels or
achievements to be aimed at now in the interests of attaining a sustainable development path.

The actions indicated for each theme represent a non-exhaustive list of measures to be taken in order to realize
targets set for the period up to 2000.

Finally,
the tables indicated which sectors/actors are seen to be most directly responsible for the actions
described . In most cases an effort on different levels will be necessary to execute the set of actions needed to tackle
a problem . This aspect is dealt with in greater depth in Chapter 8.

5.1 Climate change

While global in character , the climate change predicted
as a consequence of
increasing atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouses gases will also pose
serious problems for the Community itself (frequency
of extreme meteorological events, sea level rise, heat
and drought spells, etc .). Carbon dioxide (C03),
chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs) nitrous oxide (NjO) and
methane (CH4) are the main agents of the greenhouse
effect.

The level ofC02 has risen mainly because ofthe burning
of fossil fuels (energy sector,
industry and transport)
and deforestation . The rises in the amounts of CFCs are
due entirely to industrial production since there are no
natural sources. Methane gases mainly come from
agriculture (cattle and certain crops), energy (natural
gas leakages) and waste sites.

In 1990 a comprehensive report assessing the nature
and the consequences ofglobal warming was publ ished
by the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC)m. In it, Commissions are identified as being the
main contributory factor to the green-house effect In
this respect, the Community's decision to stabilize
COj emissions at 1 990 levels by the year 2000 is an

important first step towards dealing with the problem,
an approach followed by most developed countries.
Recently the Commission presented to the Council of
Ministers
a Communication on a strategy on the
reduction of COa emissions and on the improvement of
energy efficiency, including Community-wide carbon-
cum-energy taxes designed to achieve these ends®.

The Community has already set targets for the phasing
out of CFCs and halons even ahead of those set out in
the Montreal protocol.

In order to devise correct counteracting or adaptive
measures, more has to be known about the possible
impacts of climate change on various sectors of the
European environment, and also about
the socio¬
economic consequences of any measures that may be
taken. The problem is particularly important since it is
closely linked to some of the other themes which
follow and to various Community policies (research,
agriculture, energy, transport).

Against this background Table 7 indicates overall
objectives, targets for the year 2000, types of action
required and the main sectors involved.

n>
05

IPCO Reports of Working Groups, 1 990; Supplementary Report, 1 992, WMO/UNEP
SEC (91 ) 1744 final of 14 October 1991

41

OBJECTIVES

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME FRAME SECTORS

T»ble 7 : CLIMATE CHANGE

CO,

no exceedence of
natural absorbing
capacity ofplanet
earth

• stabilization on 1990 levels #)
(progressive reductions »t the
horizon 2005 and 2010 (")

• Energy conservation measures e.g.

continuous

- env. benign energy use
- bchavioural changes
- économie and fiscal mcasures

• Improvemeniofenergyefficiencye.g.

id

- RAD
- infrestructurai changes
- change in transport modes
- économie and fiscal measurea

Energy
Transport
Industry
Public

Energy
Waste
Transport
Industry
Consumer

* Fuel substitution low&rds less or no
CO, émittin g sources (renewables,
natural gas etc.) e.g.
-R AD
- infrestructurai changes
- économie and fiscal measurea

id

Energy

• Inventory of data

before 1994

Energy
Agriculture
Waste

Industry

Methane
(CH.)
N il r ou s
oxide (N,0)

CFCs

+

carbon -
te&adiloride
+ Halons +
Ш
ukhloKthane

HCFCs etc

no emissions
of ozone
layer depleting
substances

* measurestobeidentifiednodater
than 1 994 and applied (possibly
reduction targets)

* phase oui before 1.1.1996

(except for some essential uses)

* limitation of use to maximum
5% of 1990 CFC use levels

#)
N.B.

(1)

targets already set by the EC
The EC commits itselftohelp and support countries which seek for it, in their aim for stabilization and reduction measures inrelation to green house gases. The following
measures could be used : debt trading, technology transfer, general trade arrangements, participation in global financial mechanisms.
Conclusions of the Joint Energy / Environment Council of 29 October 1 990.

FIGURE 3 : DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 1990

il

V

t

UJ

T­

u

%

J

c

/

42

!

y

J

I
)

'W

e

A

RIVM / CCE

D;tl;t :
ex Cril.Loads
I990
Reuion :
EUROPE

NOEXCEEOANCE

<
s

CD *
CD *

s

i

200 00

500 oo

1000 00

2000 00

7000 00

Unit : eq/ha.yr

DhjM^iK'

*( iirulunt-d *

| Vj |,- 4.6. | 99 |
Kt-nurk rxcr* Crrt.Ws

1990

5.2 Acidification and Air Quality

Acidification is due in considerable measure to the
combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural practices
and has damaging effects on forest ecosystems,
lakes,
other surface and ground waters and soils. The main
acidifying substances are sulphurdioxides (SO^),
nitrogenoxides ( NOx), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), including hydrocarbons (HCs) and ammonia
(NH}). NOx, HCs and VOCs create products such as
ozone (O,)
these in turn
through photo-oxidation;
contribute considerably to damage of crops and
vegetation, and human health (smog-periods).

Recent studies in the framework of the UN Economic
Commission for Europe have shown that it is possible
to indicate for certain typesof ecosystems (and through
that, certain areas in Europe)
the levels and loads of
deposition which they can sustain without detrimental
effects (critical loads, see explanatory box on page 45).

Figure 3 gives an indication of the exceedances of the
critical
loads in 1990 in Europe as a whole resulting
from deposition of S02 and NOx from Community
sources alone .

Figure 4 indicates that the S02 and NOx emissions
resulting from scenario 1
(conventional wisdom) will
exceed the critical loads in large parts of the EC. This
piaure does not take into account the extra load of
acidifiying substances resulting from ammonia
emissions.
is clear, that under scenario 1 , the EC
would not be heading in the direaion of sustainable
energy use .

It

The computer calculations on the basis of the IIASA-
RAINS model (see explanatory box) for scenario 4 are
more promising but scenario 4 would still not result in
a sustainable situation by 2010 in all regions of the
Community (see Figure 5). Here again, effeas resulting
from ammonia emissions are not taken into account
The message to be derived from this is that emissions
and depositions in many regions of the Community
require that the striaest possible measures be applied ,

ie. even beyond the 65% reduction in S02 emissions
and the 60% reduction in NOx emissions, which
would result
from development on the basis of
scenario 4 (As has been indicated inthe chapter on the
energy sector, the Commission has presented four
scenarios on the future energy demand in the EC. An
update of these scenarios is in progress; the results are
expected by mid-1 992).

However, in the case of the less developed regions of
the Community and certain regions which are in the
course of economic restructuring -
the so-called
Objectives 1 and 2 regions for the purposes of
disbursement of
the Community 's Regional
the levels of acidification (by
Development Fund -
reference to their current emission and deposition
levels, and relatively small impact on deposition levels
in the rest of Europe) would allow for considerable
extra development in these regions on the basis of the
in areas
EC legislation already adopted. However,
within these regions where critical
loads are already
being exceeded or are likely to be exceeded, the same
stria measures as elsewhere should be applied.

From the point of view of facilitating optimal
development in these regions and greater economic
cohesion,
introduaion of striaer measures would
allow even greater scope for development in terms of
both scale and continuity. Secondly, the lower energy
demand and higher energy efficiency envisaged under
scenario 4 , would also serve to improve the
competitivity of these regions both within the EC and
internationally.

Table Sgi ves an i ndi cat ion of the overal I EC targets and
instruments which should be aimed for by the year
2000 on the way towards a sustainable situation .

Table 9 indicates the measures needed to guarantee
levelsof air quality which are not detrimental to health
and environment.

43

FIGURE 4: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2010 ON BASIS OF

THE "CONVENTIONAL WISDOM" SCENARIO (see explanatory box on page 32)

»

. J ■

#1
т

fl

jS.

>■'

ИЙ»^§1

iV'i

./

«3

/

j

/

/

tr .

ИШ

\

Λ

/
s-J/-

'N.,

RIVM / CCE

exce.ss CL
Conv.w is 2010
Région :
EUROPE

pTTyj NO EXCEEOANCE

í
S
O
I 4
r
ЩЬ
CD 4
1
ÊSá)

200 00
50000
tooo oo
200000

S

2500 00

Unit : eq/ha. yr

/■

nKisclìlc: \ X \\ KXM»
l>.iU : 27 . 1 1.IWI
lUnurk : CI . vxerv* fcuro »
et MISS, or l \\ in 2010

FIGURE 5: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2010 ON THE

BASIS OF THE "HIGH PRICES" SCENARIO ( see explanatory box on page 32)

K

»

j-yî»,

LtH

)

/

/

RIVM/ CCE

D;ii;r.
ex CL HP 2010

Reiiion :
EUROPE

] NO FXCEEDANCE
I s
) i
CD ^
] s
CH *
1 s
I 5

20000
500 00
1000 00
200000
250000

''М-ч.

-

v

Unit : eq/Ha.y'

f^\

1

>7i,' :T -\_

3

/

/

/

Si

Θ

UiWik- A:HPK\m
I hiK*: 27.il.IWI
Uvimirk : CI . exccv» Kim » >
cm INS. HP in 2010

 
Explanatory Notes

Critical Loads

Critical loads have been defined as quantitative estimates of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which, according to
present knowledge, significant harmful effects on specified elements of the environment do not occur. Significant harmful effects
are assumed to occur when critical values of chemical compounds in forest soils and freshwaters are exceeded.

A European map of critical loads has been developed at the Coordinadon Center for Effects (CCE) at the Insdtme for Public Health
and Environmental Protecdon (RIVM) in the Netherlands on the basis of the EMEP grid system ( 150kmxl50kms) and the co­
operative mapping exercise undertaken by nadonal administradons in 1990 in the framework of an UN-ECE programme.

"Mapping Critical Loads in Europe” , J-P. Hettelingh, R. Downing, PAM. de Smet, 1991 , CCEIR1VM.

The RAINS model

This is a simulation model specially developed, using GEOMAN software, at the International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis in Laxenburg, Austria (HASA). RAINS stands for "Regional Acidification Information and Simulation”.

As used for this Programme, the RAINS model combines information on long-range transboundary air pollution provided by
EMEP (the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme of UN-ECE) with
-

information about cunem and projected energy use, agricultural activity and emissions of S02, NO, and NH3 on a country-by-
country basis;

- emission control technologies and abatement costs;
- current plans for reductions of S02 and NOi by the year 2000.

Alcamo.J., Shaw, R., and llordijk, L„ eds. (1990). The RAINS Model ofAcidification: Science and Strategies in Europe, Kluwer,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

The Maps used in the Programme

The maps found in this document indicate the extent to which actual and projected depositions of S02 and NO, exceed determined
critical loads .

These exceedances reflect the difference between the CCE/RIVM critical loads maps for Europe and maps of acidifying
depositions of S02 and NO, developed for EC-12 and whole of Europe using the RAINS model referred to above. The two energy
scenarios used are taken from the Commission’s Communication “Energy in Europe: Energy for a New Century” (July 1990).
While the aforementioned energy scenarios, when jxiblished, did not take account of the re-unification of Germany, the maps
provided in this Programme relating to the pan-European situation do take account of the current plans for reductions of S02 and
NO, up to the year 2000 in the former GDR.

Acknowledgement
The European Commission wishes to acknowledge the facilities and assistance afforded by the Coordination Center for Effects
at RIVM in the preparation of the maps used in this programme.

45

Table 8 : ACIDIFICATION

OBJECTIVE

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS + TIME-FRAME

SECTORS/ACTORS

NOxl )

no

• stabilization atEC level émissions in

* actions listed in Table 7 on global scale

exceedance

1994 ( 1990 level) #)
* 30% réduction in 2000

also apply for NOx and SOx

SOx 1 )

NH, (ammonia)

ever

of

criticai

* 35% at EC level réduction of
émissions in 2000 ( 1985 level)

* proposals forproductsiandardsforcoal,
fuel oils and residuals before 1995

• variable targets in accordance with

problems identified in regions

• Inventory of NH^ emissions + trends
before 1994 ; standards on new farm
buildings before 1996

General
VOCi

* 10% reduction of man made

loads and

emissions in 1996

* 30% réduction ( 1990 level) in 1999

* reductions in transport sector - idem in
industry solvents and paints , and
chemical industry

Dioxins

levels

* 90% reduction of dioxins emissions
of identified sources by 2005 ( 1985
levels)

* Directive (revision) on standards for
municipal waste incineration plants
before 1994

Energy
Transport
Agriculture
Industry
Tourism
EC + MS + Energy
and Industry

MS + LAs + EC
EEA + AGRI

EC + MS +
Industry

EC + MS

* proposal for Directive on incineration

EC + MS

of hazardous waste: 1992

Heavy metals

* at

least 70% reduction from all
pathways ofCd , Hg and Hr emissions
in 1995

* Integrate*! pollution control and rcvised

BAT

EC + MS + LAs +
Industry

I)
1 )

Target already set by EC
b 1990 the Commission has presented a set of scenarios on energy demand and supply and their consequences for NOi. SO, and CO, emissions. On the basis
of computer calculations with the RAINS model, regions listed under objectives 1 and 2 of the Structural Funds would still have room for considerable
development from the point ofview of acidification. However, where areas within these regions would reach or exceed the critical loads, further reductions over
and above those provided for in the existing EC legislation will require to be introduced, b all other EC- regions the reduction targets as listed should apply without
any exceptions requiring a substantial decrease in energy demand through higher efficiency and increased energy savings.

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

Table 9: AIR QUALITY

* All

should

people

be
effectively protected against
recognized health risks from
Air Pollution

* implementation and enforcement
of existing legislation on SO,,
NO,, Lead, Particulates and Black
Smoke

* identification of existing or potential

before 1995

problems

• proposais for amendmentsofexisting

id

legisUUen

EC + MS +
EEA
EC + MS

* Permitted concentration levels
of air pollutants should take
into account the protection of
the environment

* Extension of the list of
regulated substances which
cause pollution and danger to
public health
the
environment

and

* WHO values become mandatory

at EC level

For Ozone (O,):
• for health protection: current
levels if not exceeding the mean
value over 1-hour of 175 pg/m 5
and the mean value over 8-hour
of 110 j!g/m*

• for protection of vegetation : a
200 pgjm’ mean value over 1 -
hour and a 65 pg/m’ mean value
over 24 hours should not be

exceeded

For Carbonmonoxide
Cadmium (Cd):
• knowledge of existing levels and

(CO) and

setting of norms

• compliance with norms for

concentrations

For other substances, such as heavy
metals, organic compounds and
deposition of Sulphur and Nitrogen:
* knowledge of existing levels

* different targets according to
different existing situations

0

* Air quality monitoring and control of
concentration levels with regard to
norms on all substances covered by
legislation

not later than
1998

MS + LAs
+ EEA

* Directive

in 1992

£C + MS

* identification of potential or existing

before 1997

problems

EC + MS +
EEA

* identification of potential or existing

before 1999

id

problems

species,

5.3 Protection of Nature and Bio-diversity
Since the Industrial revolution and more particularly
ilution and more particularly with consequential extinction in the case of some
over the past half-century, mankind has been whittling
f, mankind has been whittling
away steadily attheecological baseofthe living world.
igical baseofthe living world.
In many instances the damage being carried out to
Jamage being carried out to
complex living systems is irreversible.
is irreversible.

The Community strategy will be aimed at
the
maintenanceofEuropeanbiodiversityprimarilythrough
sustainable land management in and around habitats
In spite of measures taken by international agencies,
of Community and wider importance. An interrelated
-n by international agencies,
the Community and individual member states,
the
the
network of habitats, based on the concept for Natura
dividual member states,
major threats to nature conservation and maintenance
Dnservation and maintenance
2000 , should be created through the restoration and
of biodiversity persist and in some areas are increasing.
Jin some areas are increasing, maintenance of habitats themselves and of corridors
Habitats are converted to human uses and the species
between them. The creation and maintenance of this
) human uses and the species
that occupy them are made homeless. Much of the
networkwillbeverymuchdependentonhowcarefully
tade homeless. Much of the
development which has occurred and is continuing to
transport, agricultural and tourist policies are shaped
occurred and is continuing to
take place is in contradiction to mankind's fundamental
and pursued in the future.
ion to mankind's fundamental
desire to live in harmony with nature and to enjoy and
derive pleasure from it.

Figure 6 outlines the strategic approach to protection
of nature and biodiversity.

The case for preserving nature and biodiversity goes
beyond this: in the first place, it is a necessary element
in the overall maintenance of the ecological balance;
furthermore, nature provides an invaluable genetic
bank which is essential
to medical , biological ,
agricultural and other scientific progress.

For most wild species of flora and fauna the splitting up
and isolation of habitats, mainly because of
infrastructural worksfincluding high-tension electricity
cables), pose the greatest threat. If habitats become too
small and if connecting zones between them are
blocked or lost, essential migration may be precluded,

Table 1 0 sets out the targets for 2000 and the instruments
necessary in the short run to have the Network and the
surveillance of the European biodiversity partly
operational in the year 2000 .

Apart from protecting nature and bio-diversity in the
large-scale dimension which is inferred in the
preceeding paragraphs, it behoves national , regional
and local authorities, enterprises,
landowners and
householders to maintain and enhance the natural
beauty, parks and gardens in their own jurisdiction or
neighbourhood .

FIGURE 6 : DIAGRAM ON NATURE CONSERVATION

NATURE CONSERVATION

INFORMATION

I

- Public awareness programme
- Environmenlal Education

1

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

I

LAND USE MANAGEMENT

SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

- ELA for programmes etc.
- Reform of Structural Funds
- Reform of CAP
- New sustainable policy for

SUSTAINABLE USE
OF SPECIES

- Tcairism
- Transport
- Energy
- Extractive industries
- Forestry

- Trade régulation
- Sustainable fishing
- Sustainable breeding and use
of exploitable species

CONSERVATION OF
NATURAL HABITATS

- European Network based on Habitat
directive (Natura 2000)
- LIFE (ACNAT-MEDSPA-NORSPA)

PROTECTION OF
ENDANGERED SPECIES

- Habitat Directive
- LIFE (ACNAT)
- Birds Directive
- CITES

MONITORING AND JNVENTORY

ENVIRONMENT AGENCY

47

Table 10: NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY

TARGETS UP TO 2000

INSTRUMENTS

TIME ER AME

SECTORS/ ACTORS

Maintenance of biodiver¬
sity through sustainable
development and manage¬
ment in and around natural
habitats of European and
global value: and through
control of use and trade of
wild species

1 . Maintenance or restoration of
natural habitats and spedes
ofwild fauna and flora at a
favorable conservation status

• Habitat directive

1992 =>

• Updating of Directive 79/409/

ongoing

EEC on wild birds

Agriculture Forestry,
Fisheries Transport
Tounsm Energy Industry

EC.M5.LAf.NGOs .
Farmers

EC + MS + LAs

2. Creation of a coherent
of

network

European
protected sites

* setting of

criteria

for
identification of habitats ,
buffer zones and migratory
corridors

- Natura 2000 : flagship
programmes of
carefully
selected and managed natural
areas within the EC

3 . Strict control of abuse and

trade of wild species

• action programmes for the
efficient conservation and
the sites
monitoring of
designed for Natura 2000

• Inventory .

monitoring
systems , and recovery plans
and
endangered
for
overexploited species

* regulations

concerning
Internal and International trade
of endangered species

* International Conventions
(Biodiversity, Alpes , Regional
agreements under Bonn
Convention)

* Reform of CAP (notably zonal
programme* for support of
environmentally friendly
agricultural practices)

1992-1993

Id + N'GOs + Farmers

1991-1993

1991-1992

Id

Id

1992 =>

Id + UNEP (OTES)

1992 =>

MS + EC + UNEP
(CITES + BONN
CONVENTION)

ongoing

EC, MS , LAi

* Environmental assessment oi

1995 ==>

MS. LAs , EC

plans and programmes

• Programmes for promorion of

1992 =>

Id + NG0s

public awareness

* Measures to maintain and

progressive

EC, MS + forest-owners

protect forests

H

5.4 Management of Water Resources

Water is one of the elementary sources of life. Water
quality is also an indicator of the general quality of the
natural environment. Without water, a harmonious
and sustainable maintenance or development of socio¬
economic activities is not possible. Good quality
water is available only in limited quantities at a given
time and place. According to recent Eurostat/OECD
statistics,
the mean annual withdrawal per capita
(including water for irrigation purposes) for EC-12 has
risen from 590 mJ in 1 970 to 650 m* in 1 975, 750 mJ
increase of
in 1980 and 790 mJ in 1985 - an overall
about 35% over a period of 1 5 years. Withi n the EC, the
annual withdrawal rate per capita varied from 200-
300 mJ
in Italy,
in Luxembourg to 1000-1200 mJ
Portugal and Spain in the late 1980s. For the purposes
of improving the quality of life and as a condition for
achieving sustainable development, it is essential to
secure sufficient water of adequate quality throughout
the Community without upsetting the natural
equilibrium of the environment

Community policies, accordingly, must aim at

prevention of pollution offresh and marine surface
waters and groundwater, with parti cular emphasis
on prevention at source;

restoration of natural ground and surface waters
to an ecological ly sound condition, thus ensuring
( inter alia) a suitable source for extraction of
drinking water;
ensuri ng that water demand and water supply are
brought into equilibrium on the basis of more
rational use and management of water resources;

Manufacturing industry (processing), the energy sector
(cooling), the agricultural sector (irrigation) and the
tourism sector (dri nking and bath ing) are very dependent
on the availability of good quality and sufficient
quantities of water, but are at the same time the main
contributors to the pollution of water.

Table 1 1
indicates the overall objectives on water
quantity and water quality to be realized in the long
term, the targets to be reached i n the year 2000 and the
actions needed in the shortterm. They are in line with
the programme of action outlined in the The Hague
Declaration on the future Community Groundwater
Policy as agreed at the EC Ministerial Meeting on 26
and 27 November 1 991 l,).

***

as confirmed by a Council Resolution on 12.12.1991 , OJ N C 59, 6.3.1992

49

Table 11 : WATER QUANTITY AND WATER QUALITY

OBJECTIVES

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIMEFRAME

ACTORS

Quantitative
Aspects

Groundwater &

Surface fresh

water

Sustainable use of
fresh water resources

: demand for water
should be in balance
with its availability

•

permanent

- Preveni
ovcrdraft
Intégration of resource
conservation
and
conservation
sustainable use criteria into
othcrpolicics , including , in
particular, agriculture and
land use planning, but also
industry (development,
location and production
procedures)

- Mariced reduction ofpollu ¬
tion of both groundwater
and fresh surface water

- Groundwater : to prevent
all pollution from point
sources and to reduce
pollution from diffuse
sources according to best
environmental practices
available
and
best
technology

Qualitative
Aspects

Groundwater

- To maintain the
quality ofuncontami-
nated groundwater
- To prevent further
contamination of
contaminated
groundwater

- To restore contami ¬
nated groundwaterto
a quality required foi
drinking water pro¬
duction purposes

Surface water

- Fresh water

- Marine water

- Surface water: quality
improvement towards a
better ecological quality
and safeguard of high
quality where it exists

- Marine water : objectives
and actions similar to the
North Sea conference to
other sensitive sea areas of
the EC

To maintain a high
standard of ecological
quality with a biodivers¬
ity corresponding as
much as possible to the
unperturbed state of a
given water

Reduction ofdischarges
of all substances , which
due to their
toxic
persistence or accumu¬
lating impact could
negatively affect
the
environment, to levels
which are not harmful
to a high standard of
ecological quality of all
surface waters

50

- Collection and updating of data

1992/3

MS+LAs

on groundwater
- Monitoring and

control

by 1995

id.

-

measures on groundwater
Integrated water management
and protection ,
including
legislation

• Measures to protect and

rehabilitate aquifers

• Measures to promote more

effective water use

mid 1993

id

id

• Economic and fiscal measures

ongoing

EC+MS+
LAs

MS

M5+EC+

sectorsv LAs
MS + LA» +
EC

- Groundwater and surface fresh
water - strict implementation
of the existing directives on
urban waste water and nitrate
pollution to reduce the input of
nutrients to the soil, water and
sediments .
With regard to fresh water
examination of the need for a
directive
phosphate
on
reduction.

- Elaboration of further specific
emission standards encourag¬
ing the development of
production processes and
performance standards for
products to prevent foreseeable
negative effects on water (use
of best available technology
combined with target standards
to be achieved later)
Influence standardization
bodies byparticipation ofwater
industry where concerned
- Proposals for progressive
replacement of harmful
pesticides and progressive use
limitations

•

- Economic and fiscal measures

- Surface fresh water : proposal
for a directive to be presented.
Member Slates programmes
for all waters taking into
account their specific situation;
practical measures, partly
financed through national
environment protection funds

- Marine water : further to the
measures to achieve a high
ecological quality and to
reduce surface waterpoUurion:
* Proposals an maritime trans¬
port preventing environmental
from shipping
damage
activities (oil spills,
loss of
cargo, reduction ofoperational
pollution) to be developed
* Surveillance erf geographic
appropriate

zones with
monitoring techniques

* Proposal for a directive on the
reduction of operational and
accidental pollution from small
tonnage boats

* Economic and fiscal measures

continuous

MS+LAs

1995

EC

1992 =»

EC+MS+
Industry +
standardi¬

zation
bodies
(e.g.CEN)

id

id

1993

£C+MS

ongoing

1992

1997

MS + LAs
♦ EC
BC+MS

MS

1993 =>

EC+MS

ongomg

MS

1993 =>

EC+MS

ongoing

MS + EC

5.5 The Urban Environment

In the Community, about 80% of the population lives
in cities and towns. The urban areas are thus the places
where the problems of the environment touch most the
qualityof lifeofcitizens. Demographic trends, including
population, household sizes and space occupancy
point towardsever-increasingpressuresin urban areas.
Pursuant to the principle of subsidiarity, responsibility
for the quality of the urban environment and for
undertaking necessary remedial or improvement
measures wil I be a matter for the competent a uthorities,
primarily the local authorities. As far as the Community
legislation
is concerned, some of the environmental
(e.g. Directives on municipal waste incinerationni and
waste water treatment®) and many of activities it
undertakes through the Structura I Funds lead inevitably
to its playing an important role in the development of
cities. The purpose of the Community policy must
therefore be to encourage local authorities to rise to the
challenge that the environmental problems of many
cities and towns pose today, and to assist them to find
the best way of doing this.

Transport, energy, industry and in some cases tourism
are the key sectoral activities which impact on the
quality of the urban environment, and which also
stand to gain significantly from more rational planning
and sustainable management of urban areas. In 1 990,
the Commission published a Green Paper on the
Urban Environment® which suggested a possible range
of actions in relation to, inter alia,

town and country land-use planning
optimal management of industrial and economic
growth, energy consumption, and waste
rationalization of urban traffic including the
improvement of public transport facilities
protection and enhancement of the historical
heritage of cities and towns and provision ofgreen
spaces.

In Figure 7an overall diagram is given which indicates
clearly the complexity of the urban environment
situation and the actors on the scene. As far as the
concept ofshared responsibi I ity is concerned, much of
the effort wi II fa 1 1 to the industri al, busi ness and transport
sectors and to individual citizens/consumers.

With regard to the matter of objectives, targets and
actions,
it is clear that the quality of the environment
in urban areas will benefit from the goals and measures
outlined in the tables on the principal target sectors
and those on air, water and waste. Table 12, hereunder
deals with one of the most pressing problems in urban
areas and which is not directly covered in the other
tables referred to - noise. More than 16 % of the
population suffers at night time from noise levels,
mainly resulting from road and air traffic, over leq 65
dB(A)w. This causes serious health risks. The primary
objective should be to remedy this situation, before
tackling other levels.

OBJECTIVE

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME-FRAME

SECTORS/ACTORS

Table 12 : NOISE

* no

person
should be ex ¬
posed to noise
levels which
endanger
health
and
quality of life

Night-time exposure levels in Leq
dB(A):

* exposure of the population to noise
levels in excess of 65 should be phased
out; at no point in time a level of 85
should be exceeded

• proportion of population al present
exposed to levels between 55-65
should not suffer any increase

* proportion of population at present
exposed to levels less than 55 should
not suffer any increase above that
level

Transport +
Industry

* inventory of exposure levels in the EC

before 1994

EEA + MS + LAs

• noise abatanenl programme lo be set up

before 1995

MS + LAs

• further reductions of noise emissions
(cars,lrucka,aircraft,cranet,mowers ,
etc .) Directives to be presented
progressively , aiming at
imple ¬
mentation not later than 2000

before 1995

EC * MS *
Industry

* standardization of noise measurement

continuons

EEA + EC + MS

and ratings

• measures to influence behaviour, such
as driving cars, flight procedures ,
industrial processes operating at night
time

• measures related to infrastructure and
physical planning, suchas betterzoning
around airports, industrial areas, main
roads and railways

id

id

MS * LAs * EC

MS + LAs

51

™
®
.
'
m

O) N° L 1 63 , 89/369/EEC and OJ N° L 203 , 89/429/EEC
O) N°L 135, 30.5.1991 , 91/271/EEC
toon
COM (90) 218 of 27 June 1990
Source: ECMT report on Transport policy and the environment, OECD, Paris, 1990

„rrn D •,

FIGURE 7 : URBAN ENVIRONMENT ( DIAGRAM)

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

TOURISM
Cultural héritage
Mobility

•r i r

T

TRANSPORT
Physical planning
Public transport
Mobility

I

T

INDUSTRY
ENERGY
Physical planning

T

URBANISATION
Démographie aspect
Built-up environment
Poverty

« JT.

\

\ m
'
Congestion ^ VI

Noise

ь

Air quality

/

/

Soil contamination

'kV/,

ih
ï

\

\ ■
\

Waste

water

/

/

waste vr *;

(management)
/

/

\

\

Water
quality

/ Degradation of \
nature

URBAN
ENVIRONMENT

52

5.6 Coastal Zones

The Community's coastal zones constitute a unique
environmental heritage, with irreplaceable ecological ,
cultural and economic resources. The whole of the
Community's marine resources depends on its
environmental quality, and moreover
this natural
interface between land and sea is characterized by
the
extreme fragility. As an indication of scale ,
Community has about 58.000 kilometers of coastline
excluding small islands and inland seas.

The pressures exerted on our coasts are increasing :

coastal regions are striving to make good their
lagging development;
they are subject to incessant net démographie
gains;
coastal tourism is increasingly popular, and can
be subject to significant seasonal fluctuations.

These and other pressures result in the reduction of
open spaces and natural sites and
substantial
modifications to the landscape; they can also give rise
to conflicts in land and sea use, and competition
between local and regional authorities.

The Commission 's Communication " Europe 2000"1”
deals at some length with the environmental i mportance
and development potential ofcoastal zones and islands.
It points out that in many coastal regions, particularly
the natural assets of the
the less developed ones,

"( 1 )

environment constitute a key aspect of
their
development potential ; but that, at the same time,
these natural assets are severely threatened by
urbanisation, and the tourism,
industry,
energy, agriculture and fisheries sectors, although in
the case of the latter sector, a conservation strategy is
embodied in the Community's Common Fisheries
Policy.

transport,

The Council ofMinisters(Environment), in a Resolution
adopted on 25 February 1 992l2), has requested the
Commission to propose an overal I Community strategy
for the integrated management of coastal zones, with
a view to
providing a coherent environmental
framework for integrated and sustainable forms of
development. The proposed strategy will cover the
entire ambit of the coastal zones, including fore-shore,
coastal waters and estuaries, together with coastal land
influence.
up to the limit of the marine or coastal
Certain R & D activities, such as those under the
Community's Environmental Research, MAST and
FAR/AIR programmes will provide a scientific basis for
sound ecological management of these zones.
In
appropriate cases, the Community could give financial
support from the Structural Funds, for example in the
context of the proposed Objective 6, to the effective
implementation of the strategy.

Table 13 indicates the main elements which will be
incorporated in the strategy.

OBJECTIVE

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

INSTRUMENTS

TIME-FRAME SECTORS/ACTORS

Table 13 : COASTAL ZONES

* sustainable de ¬
of
velopment
coastal zones and
their resources in
accordance with
the carrying capa¬
city of coastal
environments

• higher priority to the environmental
needs of coastal zones, through inter
alia, better coordination between
relevant EC policies and between
policies at the EC, national and regional
levels

* operational framework for integrated

planning and management

• development of criteria for a better
balance of land use and conservation
and use of natural resources

* awareness raising of the public,
competent authorities and economic
sectors

01 COM (91 ) 452 final, 7 November 1 991
® OJN°C 59, 6.3.1992

a

* framework

integrated
of
management plans on appropriate
levels

before 1998

MS + LAr + EC

• better know-how and exchange of

continuous

MS + LAs + EC

experience

• creation and improvement of data

bases and relevant indicators

* pilot projects on integrated

management of coastal zones

before 1995

MS + LAs + EC

1993-1994

MS + LAs + EC

* - information campaigns

1992 =»

- éducation
- professional training
- Financial support for demonstration
projects and innovative approaches
(LIFE)

* Improvement of criteria to ensure
sustainability of projects and
programmes (incLEIA)

MS + LAs + EC
Tourist sector
Transpon
Enterprises
Agricultura
General public

1993 =»

MS + EC

53

5.7 Waste management

The problems to which waste gives rise are both
specific and relatively complex : waste is not only a
potential source of pollution it can also constitute
secondary raw materials. The choice of priorities in
this sector has direct economic and environmental
consequences and is of direct relevance not only to
environment policies but to technology, economic
and consumer policies.

Management ofwaste generated within the Community
will be a key task of the 1 990s. Current upward trends
in waste generation must be halted and reversed in
terms of both volumes and environmental hazard and
damage. A Community strategy for waste management
to the year 2000 has already been published"1 and
endorsed by the Council®. The strategy includes a
hierarchy of waste management options in which
primary emphasisis laid on waste prevention, followed
by promotion of recycling and reuse, and then by
optimisation of final disposal methods for waste which
is not reused. Figure 8 i ndicates the strategi c flow-chart
for waste management

This strategy will be pursued and reinforced under this
Programme. In particular more attention will be given

to the prevention of waste and solving the waste
problems at source, the encouragement of re-use and
recycling of waste by, inter alia, separation at source,
prioritisation of waste streams and the encouragement
of a rational network of disposal
facilities. Further,
application of lifecycle analysis will be promoted so as
to encourage the intervention of all people concerned
in order to attain targets to be achieved within a limited
period. Hazardous waste requires particular attention
in relation both to preventing waste and encouraging
maximum recycling and the development of an EC-
wide infrastructure for safe disposal .

Economic and fiscal
instruments such as charges and
levies will be applied, whereever appropriate. The
legislative package of measures on waste management
also requires to be rounded off by the adoption of
specific directives on packaging, the incineration of
and toxic wastes, on the control and
industrial
recuperation of landfill sites, and a more general
directive on civil liability for damage.

Table 14 indicates overall objectives, targets for the
year 2000 and the actions required in the short term.

54

SEC (89) 934 final , September 89

01
® Council Resolution of 7 May 1 990 OJ N° C1 22

FIGURE 8:

STRATEGIC CHART FOR A COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT POLICY ON HAZARDOUS AND OTHER
WASTES

I THE PRINCIPLES

V

EVALUATION OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT
POLICY WTTH RESPECT TO THE PRINCIPLES

Feedback
- Improvement of régulations ,
instruments and action

PREVENTION of
the production of
waste

By Technologies :
Qean Technologies
By Products :
Ecolabel & Product
criteria
By Avoidance :
Re-use
By
changes :
Producer and Con ¬

Behavioural

sumer

RECOVERY of
the waste produced

Safe DISPOSAL

and

Segregation
sorting
Separate collection
Material recycling

Réduction of dis ¬
posai

Energy recovery

Stricter standards

I

II THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

III THE OBJECTIVES

IV THE ACTIONS

GENERAL APPLICATION
Framework Directive on Waste

SPECIFIC APPLICATION
A. On specific types of wastes :

Strict implementation of Com ¬
munity legislation through :

Directive on Hazardous Waste

Regulation on the Control on
shipments of waste

Directives on :
Waste ofls
- PCBs and PCTs
• Sewage sludge
- Packaging
• Batteries

Priority waste streams:

- Used tyre*
- Haloganated Solvents
- Used cars

Proposal of Directive on Civil
Liability for damages to the en¬
vironment

- Démolition waste
- Hospital waste
- Municipal waste

Reiiable Data on :
- Waste production & character¬

istics

- Waste treatment facilities

Waste management

B. On spécifie types of waste :

management operations

Minimization of movements of

Directives and technical standard:
for :
Waste Incineration (Municipal anc
Industrial Waste)
Landfill disposai

waste

Establishment of recycling cir¬
cuits and opening of market op¬
tions for recycled materials

Development of data basis on:
Waste production & character¬
istics

- Waste treatment facilities

Establishment of Integrated
waste management systems :
plans , network, facilities

Development of ecological bal ¬
ances for evaluation of waste
management alternatives

Development & application of
economic instruments
specifically designed towards
waste management
Development and promotion of :
- Clean Technologies
- Ecoproducts
- Segregation <fe sorting systems
- Rccycling circuits
- Safe disposal processes

Implementation of self-suffi ¬
ciency and proximity principles

Development of product specifi¬
cations to provide the use of re¬
cycled materials

Development & application of
community instruments for fi¬
nancial support :
- LIFE ( ACE , NORSPA ,

MEDSPA)
- Regional funds
- Research & development funds

55

Table 14 : WASTE

OBJECTIVES

EC TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

ИМЕ-
FRAME

SECTORS/
ACTORS

Municipal
waste

* overall target: rational
and sustainable use of

resources

9 prevention of waste
(closing of cycles)
• maximal recycling and

reuse of material

• safe disposal of any
waste which cannot be
recycled or reused in
following ranking order.
• combustion as fuel
• incinération

- landfill

Hazardous

waste

* prevention of waste
(closing of cycles)
* maximal reuse/recy¬

cling of material

* safe disposal of any
waste which cannot be
recycled or reused fol¬
lowing ranking order
- combustion as fuel
- incinération
- landfill

Industry
Agriculture
Transport
Energy
Tourism
EC+MS+LAs
Industry
EC+MS+LAs
Industry
Ind + Public+
EC+MS+LAs
EC+MS+LAs
Ind+NGOs +
Public

• waste management plans in

• landfill Directive opera¬

bcforc 1995

Member States

tional

• directive on packaging

1995

opérational

* cleaner technologies +

progressive

ongoing

• stabilization of quantities of
waste generated at EC average
300kg/capita ( 1985 level™);
on a country by country basis
no exceedance of 300 Itg/
capita

• recycling/ reuse of paper, glass
and plastics of at least 50%
(EC average)

• Community-wide , infrastruc¬
ture, for safe collection , sepa¬
ration and disposal

• no export ouiside EC for final

dispôsal

* recycling/reuse of consumer

products

• market for recycled materials
* considérable réduction of
dioxin émissions (90% ré¬
duction on 1985 levels by
2005)

product design

* policy on priority waste
streams, stop on landfill
for specific wastes (leg ¬
islation + voluntary
agreements)

* reliable EC-data on waste
generated, collected and
disposed

* system of liability in

place

* économie incentives and in¬
struments (tnci. deporit retum
Systems + vol. agreemmts)
* standards for dioxin
emissions from munici ¬
pal waste incineration

• no export outsideEC for final

• landfill Directive opera¬

before 1995

disposal

* waste management plans iet

up in Member States

• EC-wide^nfrastructure for
safe collection, séparation and
disposai

• market for recycled materials

donal

• Directive on incineration
of hazardous waste op¬
erational

• policy on priority waste
streams, stop on landfill
for specific waste
* cleaner technologies
* reliable EC-data on waste
generated, collected and
disposed

* setting up of bourse de

déchets

1995

EC+MS+LAs
+ EEA

2000

EC * MS

ongoing

MS + EC +
Ind.

before 1994

£C+MS+LAi

1995

ongoing

ongoing
1995

EC+MS+LAs
Indusuy
EC+MS+LAs
Industry

EC+MS+lnd
+LAs+NGOs+
Public
Ind. + EC+MS
£EA+MS+LAi
EC+Ind

before 1995

EC+MS+lnd

m Based on EUROSTAT and OECD statistics

* system of liability in

2000

EC + MS

place

* inventory of rislcs
* économie inceatives md b-
«ramena, bd.vol igreemani

1995
ongoing

EC+MS+Ini
MS + EC +
Ind.

56

Chapter 6:
Management of Risk and Accidents

Without prejudice to the overall objective of sustainable development, it is essential that over the remainder of
this decade, the assessment and management of risks and the response to accidents and catastrophies should be
improved considerably. Set out below is a summary of the main risk areas to which priority will be given under
this Programme.

6.1 Industry - Related Risks

Protection of the environment and human health
requires that industry-related risks be tackled on a
number offronts - general industrial activities, chemicals
controls, biotechnology and product-labelling. A
considerable amount of progress has been made as
respects both legislation and controls in pursuance of
the previous Community action programmes on the
environment, notably

*

*

*

Directive 82/501 /EECm on industrial accident
hazards, more general ly referred to as the "Seveso"
Directive ;

Directive 67/548/EEOa and subséquent amending
Directives on the classification and labelling of
dangerous substances;

Directives on noxious emissions to air, discharges
to water and management of toxic and dangerous
wastes;

Directive 90/21 9/EEC(J> regulating the use of
genetically modified micro-organisms in research
laboratories and industrial production plants, and
Direaive 90/220/EEC4' to ensure appropriate risk
assessment and management when genetically
modified organisms are released into the
environment;

Nevertheless, much remains to be done, especially in
respect of chemicals and biotechnology.

Chemicals have become a virtually indispensable part
of modem life. Almost all produas contain some
chemicals or are processed or wrapped by means of
chemicals. More than 7 million chemicals are now
identified; about 100,000 are in current use to
manufacture produas. Apart
from the increasing
number of chemicals, there has been a phenomenal
growth in the quantities produced. For example, global
produaion of organic chemicals alone has jumped
from 7 million tonnes in 1950 to 63 million tonnes in
1970 and to over 250 million tonnes at present. Most
chemical agents are potentially hazardous if incorrealy
applied or if released in large quantities either by
design or accident. Moreover, many chemicals tend to

continue as polluting agents long after their original
purpose is served . The most important industrial uses
of chemicals are in the processing of paper products,
primary metals and food products, petroleum refining
and the manufacture of textiles, transport machinery,
rubber and
electrical machinery and equipment,
plastics.

Some of the more beneficial aspects of the new
techniques of genetic engineering and biotechnology
have been referred to in Chapter 4.1 . However, there
are concerns that this new technology might entail
potential risks not only related to human health, but
also for the total environment . There could be a risk
that the widespread use and release of novel , genetically
modified organisms could upset the delicate balance
existing in nature or even have evolutionary impacts.
Consequently, sound management of biotechnology
both within the European Community and beyond is a
must .

Regulation ofbiotechnology cal Is for a delicate balance
between public health/environmental concerns and
research/industrial interests. TheCommunity has taken
a clear, preventive approach in adopting legislation to
establish a common set of environmental
risk
assessment requirements and safety measures. This is
intended to protea the health of citizens and the
environment, as well as ensuring a single unified
market for biotechnology.

The Community has also taken steps to mobilize the
considerable technical potential available in the
European standardisation bodies in pursuit of effeaive
application of biotechnology and in support of
the standardisation programme will be
legislation;
extended to include methods for identification of
GMOs, standard testing methods for evaluating
environmental impaa and risk and common evaluation
protocols.

Figure 9 overleaf provides a flow diagram showing the
process for dealing with existing chemicals. Priority
aaions to be taken over the remainder of this decade
in respect of
risks, chemicals and
industrial
biotechnology are set out in Table 15, below.

0 )

а

a

a

O) N° I 230, 5.8.1982
O) N° L 1 96, 16.8.1967
OJN°L 117,83.1990
OJN-L117, 8.5.1990

57

FIGURE 9 : FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SELECTION PROCESS FOR DEALING WITH EXISTING CHEMICALS

2000 High Production Chemicals

- Data collection (up to 1993)

- preliminary assessment

200 Priority Chemicals

- detailed assessment,

(25 per year for 8 years)

50 Chemicals

Subject to

comprehensive

risk réduction

programmes

before the

year

2000

0

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

MEASURES

TIME-FRAME

ACTORS

Table 15 : RISK MANAGEMENT

(a ) Industrial

Activité

- Management
of Industrial
Risks

- General

Environment
Controls

(b) Chemicals

Control

Improved safety standards

Comprehensive appraisal ofexperience within
the framework of D.82/501

Development of safety management
standards

Report to Council and Parliament, including
any necessary programme of action

1993/4

1995

EC

EC

Improvement in , and harmonisation
of, implementation measures

Development of standards for risk assessment
and management

ongoing

Standards
Institut es

100% coverage of dangerous
establishments

Compréhensive review of implémentation

1994 , 1998

EC

Improved management and procedural
standards

Development of Standard for envirenmental
management systems

ongoing

Standards
Insliiutes

Eco-audit (progressive)

1994 =>

Enterprise

Data
Collection

Effective notification procedure for
all chemicals

Notification of all new chemicals

Data collection of all existing chemicals.
Council regulation on existing chemicals

ongoing

1992 =»

EC, MS.
Industry
EC, MS.
Industry

Hazard
Identification

Maintenance/improvemeni of existing
classification cn Lena

Continual update in the light of scientific and
technical progress

ongoing

EC MS.

Extension of list of classified substances

ongoing

Mamjactwas
+ importers

Risk
Assessment

Common principles for assessments

Amendment of Directive 67/548/EEC

1992/3

EC

Assessment of 2000 high production
volume chemicals

Council regulation on existing chemicals

1993 =»

Assessment of 500 active substances
in non-agricultural pesticides

Council Directive on non-agricultural
pesticides

Risk
Management

Strengthen links between classification
and control measures

Establish the Advisory Committee on
chemicals risk reduction

Risk reduction programmes for 50
priority chemicals

Legislation + voluntary agreements

1994 =»

1992

1994 =»

EC, MS.
Industry

EC, MS.
Industry

EC +
Indusuy

EC, MS,
Industry

Risk
Réduction

(с ) Що-
technotoev

- Risk manage¬
ment
for
Contained Use
ofGMOs

• Risk manage¬
ment
for
of
release
GMOs to the
environment

1 00% coverage of all installations and
activities

Effective safety measures for use of
GMOs in research 4 industry

Effective approval procedure for all
releases in the Community, both for
research and industry

Oversight of export of GMOs to third
countries

Comprehensive review of implémentation

ongoing

EC

Development of more detailed criteria

1992 =»

EC + MS

Comprehensive review ofimplementation and
technical adaptation

ongoing

id

Proposai for rtgulaiory instrument

1992

EC

• Risk

assessment

Common approaches and principles
for environmental risk assessment

Development
methodologies

of

risk

assessment

1993 =»

Common
identification methods , etc .

testing

methods ,

Assessment and common acceptance of
methods

1993 =>

EC + MS +
Standards
Institutes
(e-g.CEN)

Safe transport of GMO’s

EC législation

1992

EC + MS

(d) Protection of
mimais nsrd
for ctDerimen-
tal Dtmxw^i

Réduction
in
animal experi-
mentuion

50% reduction in the number of
vertebrate
for
animals
experimental purposes

used

Directive 86/609/EEC
(see also Maastricht Declaration on the
protection ai animais)

ongoing

EC, MS,
Industry

59

6.2 Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection

The Euratom Treaty lays down the Community's
objectives and tasks in relation to the peaceful use of
nuclear energy. Nuclear safety has received special
attention in recent times both inside and outside the
Community. The increasing credibility of Community
actions in the aftermath of the Chernobyl accident, the
Transnuclear affair and , more recently, the financial
and technical assistance
provided towards
improvement of safety measures in the nuclear reactors
of the countries of the former Soviet Union and Central
and Eastern Europe have increased the pressure on the
Community to provide leadership in the field of nuclear
safety.

Within the Community itself, nuclear electricity
generation at present accounts for about 34% of the
total electricity supply produced by about 1 32 power
stations throughout six Members States of the
Community. This share is larger in Europe than in any
other part of the world and reaches proportions of 60
and 70% respectively in Belgium and France. For the
foreseeable future nuclear installations will continue
to be an important source of energy in the European
Community, especially in view of its potential
to
guarantee independance from third countries for our
energy supply and to avoid the environmental impacts
of more traditional energy sources, notably coal and
oil . Accordingly, a continued effort in nuclear safety
and radiation protection , as well as appropriately safe
arrangements for management of nuclear waste and
decommissioning of obsolete plants, will be necessary.

In recent times there also has been increasi ng evidence
of a radiological significance of exposure of
the
populationto indoor radon concentrations. In February
1990,
the Commission issued a Recommendation
following the principles laid down by the International
Commission on Radiation Proteaion ( ICRP) taking
account of the most recent data on radon111.

In order to deal in a global way with all these types of
exposures, the Euratom Treaty calls on the Community
to establish uniform safety standards to protea the
health of workers and of the general public and ensure
that they are applied. This task includes regulatory,
technical and informative aspeas.

Basic safety standards were first issued in the form of
Direaives in 1959. These provide the basis for a
comprehensive Community policy on radiation
proteaion, especially as the basic safety standards
apply to praaically any aaivity which might involve a
risk to the population ,
to workers and to the
environment, caused by irradiation or contamination.
These standards apply at present to about 900,000

workers throughout the Community in different sectors
using ionising radiation , such as the nuclear power
industry and medical ,
industrial and research
applications.

Because nuclear research and nuclear technology are
areas of rapid change and since there are still many
developments to come in radiobiology and radio
pathology,
it has always been considered important
that the safety standards be kept up to date. They have
been updated several times since 1 959, the last occasion
being in 1984 . The Commission has submitted a
proposal to the Council of Ministers for a Directive to
update the basic safety standards and to provide a
rigorous system of prior authorisation and control of
movements of radioactive wastes from origin to final
destination point121.

Following the accident at Chernobyl in April 1 986 the
Community adopted common food controls131 in order
both to protea the health of the Community's citizens
and to avoid internal
trade conflias. A Council
the
Regulation of March 1990“’ provided for
continuation of these controls and established a
mechanism to govern the progressive return to normality
thereafter. Regulations have also been made in regard
to intervention levels for all potentially important
radionuclides in foodstuffs, including baby-foods, dairy
procedure and liquid foodstuffs, to be applied in the
event of any future accidents. The set of rules now in
force are reckoned to constitute a complete proteaive
system as far as food stuffs are concerned .

The Chernobyl accident also demonstrated that the
provision of information at international , national and
local
level had to be improved. Two major measures
taken by the Community in this respea since then are

(i) A rapid information system, ECURIE, established
in December 1987(S); this system is compatible
with an analogous system set up by IAEA in the
frame of the Convention on early notification of
nuclear accidents.

(ii) A Direaive, adopted in November 198914*, on
informing the general public about health
proteaion measures in the event of a radiological
emergency;
this Direaive and a subsequent
Communication define the content of the
information to be provided to the population
under normal circumstances and in case of an

emergency.

The Community has also undertaken a series of
measures in the area of public information that include
the publication and distribution of handbooks,

60

0)

m
®
a
*•
"
"

OJN°L 80, 273.1990
Council Directive 92/3/EURATOM of 3 February 1992
OJ N° L 371 , 30.12.1987 - OJ N° L 21 1 , 22.7.1989 - OJ IM° l 101 , 13.4.1989
OJN°L 82, 293.1990
OJN°L 371 , 30.12.1989
OJN°L 357, 7.1 2.1989

brochures and videos aimed at media professionals
and the public at large.

it

It is particularly important to the nuciear energy sector
that public confidence in it be maintained or even
enhanced . For this purpose it is essential not only that
the industry operates to acceptably high safety standards
but also that
is seen to do so. This will require
widespread public information from credible sources.
The national authorities and the utilities themselves
have the primary role in this regard . However, the
Euratom Treaty entitles the Commission to verify the
operation and efficiency of environmental monitoring
facilities installed in Member States. This right was
exercised occasional ly in the early sixties. In December,
1989 the Commission decided to resume its activities
in this field.To date , visits have been made at the
Philippsburg nuclear power station (Germany) and at
the facilities for controlling the environmental
radioactivity of the Luxembourg Ministry of Health;
this programme will be stepped up considerably in the
period up to 2000.
for
measuring discharges of radioactive effluents and for
environmental monitoring will be carried out at the
request of a Member State or on the initiative of the
Commission . Particular importance will be attached to
the inspection of facilities associated with sites of
major public concern .

Inspections of equipment

Nuclear installations of the first generation are at this
stage becoming obsolete or are programmed to be
decommissioned in the near future. Since this process
will continue as long as nuclear power plants are used
for energy production, it is imperative that satisfactory
radiation protection criteria for dismantling nuclear
installations,
including the recycling of the materials
and for restoration of nuclear sites be adopted and
implemented as a matter of considerable urgency.

Among the various actions aimed at
improving
preparedness in the event of a nuclear accident, a
number of Community initiatives on mutual assistance
in the case of a nuclear accident or radiological
emergency are already under way. They include regular
meetings of experts to work towards better utilization
ofavailable resources in the event of a nuclear accident
or radiological emergency. A first draft of an inventory
of the resources available to counteract the effects of
occurrences of this type has already been prepared.
Apart from performing specific tasks, the meetings are
in themselves creating a ready network of
correspondents from the competent authorities of the
Member States to provide for optimum mutual
assistance within the Community should the need
arise.

A special effort will be made in the field of information
and education of the public on radioactivity and
radiation protection aspects. In particular, in primary
and secondary education, pedagogical support material
will be made available for teachers in an extended
project. Suitable training of young scientists, medical
personnel and other workers dealing with ionizing
radiation will continue to play an important role in
radiation protection . Several support actions are at
present under consideration,
including a training
brochure for transport workers who transport
radioactive material or waste, a videotape for general
practitioners and graduating medical students on
radiation protection in radiodiagnosis,
informative
brochures for dentists, etc.

in the field of management of radioactive
Finally,
wastes a number of signals indicate that the time has
come to initiate work on a Community-wide strategy
that embraces all types of radioactive waste including
industrial and sanitary waste generated outside the
nuclear fuel cycle. Such strategy should have as an
overriding goal of assuring the protection of the
environment, workers and population includingfuture
generations. The preparatory work will
take into
consideration the existing Community instruments as
well as the implication of the Internal Market for the
management of radioactive waste.

A key element ofthe strategi c plan wi 1 1 be a Community
Directive that will modify the basic safety standards for
radiation protection to cover transfers of radioactive
wastes. The Directive is already in an advanced state
of preparation and will extend to radioactive waste the
existing Community provisions on shipments of
hazardous waste. According to the proposal under
discussion all movements of radioactive waste will be
submitted to a rigorous system of authorisation and
control from their origin to their final destination.

Table / 6 indicates the objectives, targets and measures
toapplyovertheremainderofthisdecade. In summary,
the Community will continue to improve standards of
nuclear safety and radiation protection in order to
maintain its excellent
record ; and as an essential
complement,
the Community will continue to
contribute to mitigation of the consequences of the
Chernobyl accident and to upgrading the safety of
nuclear installations in the countries of the former
Soviet Union and in Central and Eastern Europe. This
latter aspect is dealt more fully with in the chapter
dealing with international co-operation.

61

Table 16 : NUCLEAR SAFETY

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

MEASURES

TIME - FRAME

ACTORS

(a ) Upgrading of
safety measures

Update existing Community Basic
Safety Standards according to the
1990 ICRP recommendations

Amemiment of Directive 80/83 6ÆURA TOM

1992 =>

EC, MS

Keep BSS up to date with scientific
developments and latest ICRP
recommendations

As above

ongoing

ECMS

Harmonise Community nuclear
safety requirements

Develop and implement CouncO decision of
25.07.1975

ongoing

£CMS

Extend Community safety culture to the
countries of the former Soviet Union
and Central and Easton Europe

- Technical Assistance Programmes
- Extend G-24 coordination to include the

1991 =>

1991 =>

EC, MS, Ind.
EC. G-24

countries of the former Soviet Union

International Framework Conven-
don

Active supportto the IAEA in the preparatory
work

1992 =»

EC, IAEA

Réactivation of a Treaty provision

-Define vérification objectives and goals

1991 =»

EC

-Implemenlation

ongoing

EC + MS

Complete BSS to include transfers
of radioactive waste

Supplément Amendment of Directive
80/836/EURATOM

1992 =>

EC, MS

Strategic management plan for all
radioactive waste

Radiation protection education in
primary and secondary school

Improve quality of public
information

Establish, adopt and implement strategic plan

1992 =»

- Handbook for teachers

■Brochures, videos

Standing conference on health and safety in
the nuclear age

Preparation and publication of a journalist's
guide to nuclear power

Recommendation for a harmonised approach
to public information on indoor radon
exposure !

1992

ongoing

ongoing

1992

1993

EC, MS.
Indusuy

EC, MS

id

EC

EC

EC

(b) Vérification of
monltoring Ins ¬
talla lions article 35
- EURATOM

(c) Strategy on
waste manage ¬
ment

(d) Enhancement
of public Informa¬
tion and education

(e) Adequate train¬
ing In radiation
protection

Improve quality of ionising of
different professional groups

Courses in different fields of radiation
protection and nuclear safety

1992 =»

EC

0

6.3 Civil Protection and Environmental Emergencies

During the period of this Programme, this aspect of the
Community's activity will be stepped up both as a
practical contribution to the creation of a People's
Europe and, more importantly, to reflect political and
economic developments within and outside the
Community .

Two particular aspects will determine the choice of
priorities in this area :

firstly, the need to improve the general state of
readiness and the operational capacity of civil
protection services for the purposes of securing
human safety in the event of natural and
technological disasters;

secondly, the need to improve emergency response
in the face of growing risks arising from large
industrial concentrations, and the production,
storage and transportation of toxic or hazardous
substances and wastes;
in addition, there is a
special need to intensify international co-operation
to improve response mechanisms in the case of
grave environmental catastrophies such as forest
fires and oil spills which, because of scale, often
exceed the capacity of a single state to respond
effectively.

Inoperational terms, itwill be necessary to pressahead
with further improvement and refinement of the
mutual assistance procedures and arrangements in

respect of both natura I a nd technologica I catastroph ies,
including accidental pollution ; optimisation of
interventions in the case of emergencies and
catastrophies in third countries will require improved
coordination of the efforts of the Member States within
the Community and increased co-operation with
international organisations ( IMO, UNEP,
pertinent
UNDRO, etc). More satisfactory mobilization of both
personnel and material resources could be achieved
by
*

the establishment of Task Forces to respond to
different types of emergency;
increasingthe range and quality oftraining courses
and simulation exercises;
improving information and communication
systems for more rapid and efficient transmission
of information, instructions and decisions between
the key players in emergency situations.

*

*

The Community - with the Commission acting as
facilitator - will continue to develop and improve the
present
information network and operational
procedures. Furthermore, a renewed effort will be
made in the matter of public awareness and education.
The designation of the 1 2-month period from June
1993 as European Year of Civil Protection will offer an
important and timely boost in this regard. Activities
launched in anticipation of and during that year will be
continued systematically at least up to the year 2000
when the UNs international decade on prevention of
natural catastrophies closes.

63

Chapter 7: Broadening the Range of Instruments

One of the principal strengths of the European Community, as distinct from other international institutions such
as the United Nations agencies and OECD, is that it is a legislative body; when it acts in a legislative capacity
its measures are binding on its constituent Member States. Under the first four action programmes, Community
activity has predominantly been in the form of Council Directives and Regulations. A great majority of the
measures adopted have been designed to respond to clearly identified problems or to apply controls to certain
impact
processes or activities, though there are notable exceptions, such as the measures on environmental
assessments, protection of wild fauna and flora and access to environmental information . Many of the Directives
serve the dual purpose of protecting the environment and eliminating distortions of competition within the
Internal Market

As a consequence of this legislative activity, the Community and its constituent Member States have achieved
a significant degree of success in containing threats to public health and the environment, which cannot be
ignored and should not be understated , and now have a body of law which, though relatively young and far from
complete, provides a very solid foundation forthe further steps which require to be undertaken in theyears ahead.
There will be a continuing need for legislative measures at Community level , particularly in respect of

the establishment of fundamental
Community commitments to wider international agreements; and
common standards and/or controls which may be deemed necessary or expedient to preserve the integrity
of the Internal Market.

levels of environmental care and protection;

But it is not feasible to adopt a Directive or Regulation which says :"Thou shalt act in a sustainabie manner". Also,
because ofthe broad scope of many of the present-day environment issues and the threats to our biosphere posed
by current trends in political , economic and social life,
it is imperative to focus on the causes of environment-
based problems in a different manner. It is essential to go to the root of these problems - human activity, human
values in relation to the environment and natural resources and human behaviour and consumption patterns.

In order to bring about substantial changes in current trends and practices and to involve all sectors of society,
in a spirit of shared responsibility, a broader mix of "instruments' needs to be developed and applied .
Environmental policy will rest on four main sets of instruments: regulatory instruments, market-based instruments
instruments and voluntary agreements), horizontal supporting instruments
(including economic and fiscal
(research, information, education etc.) and financial support mechanisms. The following elements are important
to the creation of an extended package : a fuller list of objectives, targets, time-frame and relevant actors is set
out at the end of this Chapter - see Table 17 .

7.1 Improvement of Environmental Data
from (a)

Satisfactory guardianship of the environment,
conception of policies to the adoption and application
of de facto measures, can ultimately be assured only if
thequantityandqualityofrelevantinformationisgood
enough . Better knowledge and understanding of the
fundamental laws which govern the performance and
evolutionary processes of nature under the influence
of natural phenomena and human interventions are
indispensable. Knowledge of nature and natural
processes is still limited; the ongoing scientific debate
the greenhouse effect and its possible
about
consequences offers a striking example of this.

Work on the preparation of the Report of the State of
the Environment published concurrently with this
Programme has hightlighted the lacunae and
deficienciesintheavailableenvironmental information
in the Community and the Member States :

0

in most Member States there is a number of
different institutions or organisations involved in
data collection and analysis; differences in
nomenclatures, criteria, methodologies and
interpretation militate against both compatibility
and comparability, whether at national , regional
or Community levels;

(b)
(b)

there is a serious lack of base-line data, statistics,
there is a serious lack of base-line data, statistics,
indicators and other quantitative and qualitative
indicators and other quantitative and qualitative
required to assess environmental
material
required to assess environmental
material
conditions and trends, to determine and adjust
conditions and trends, to determine and adjust
public policies and to underpin financial
public policies and to underpin financial
investments;
investments;

(d there is an almost complete absence of the more
(d there is an almost complete absence of the more
precise, quantitative data on human interventions
precise, quantitative data on human interventions
and influences on the environment which are
and influences on the environment which are
needed for meaningful modelling exercises and
the optimisation of policy and large-scale
investment decisions;

(d)

information which is available is often not
processed or presented in a suitable form for
potential end-users - administrations, enterprises
and general public - and does not take account of
the different
levels of sophistication or
simplification required, nor ofthe fact that different
types of decision require different types or levels
of information .

In the light of the foregoing, and bearing in mind the
relationship between good decisions and good
information, it is imperative that under this Programme
a high level of priority be assigned to
•

filling the current gaps in base-line data on the
environment and improving their compatibility,
comparability and transparency;
standardisation of scientific and technical aspects
of
information retrieval , collation and
interpretation to opti mise the val ue and usefulness
of data obtained at and between different
administrative and business levels and between
different geographical regions and levels;
exploiting and strengthening the experiences and
capacities of the European statistical system to
deliver environmentally relevant statistics on a
regular basis, which will be comparable to and
linked to the traditional official statistics in the
economic and social fields;

•

•

*

increasingthe frequency and improvingthe quality
ofstate ofthe environment reports at local, regional ,
national and Community levels.

The European Environment Agency : an essential tool

Improvement of environmental
information will
demand a combined effort on the part of all relevant
bodies and levels of administration working in an
effective partnership. Against this background it was
decided to establish a European Agency for the
Environment and the European Environment
Information and Observation Network ( 1 ). The task
assigned to the Agency is to supply those concerned
with the Community Environment policy,
in the
Community Institutions or in the Member States, with
reliable information, comparable across the European
territory. This information will describe the quality and
sensitivity of the environment, as well as the pressures
bearing upon it The Agency will operate in conjunction
with EUROSTAT and the R & D arms of the Commission .
The r6le of the European Environment Agency is seen
as crucial in relation to the evaluation and dissemination
of information, distinction between real and perceived
risks and provision of a scientific and rational basis for
decisions and actions affecting the environment and
natural resources. It is imperative, accordingly, that the
Agency become fully operational as a matter of
considerable urgency.

7.2 Scientific research and technological development
Whilegovemment,enterpriseandconsumersrepresent matters of bio-ethics, formulation and promotion of
priority research programmes, exchanges of data and
the essential economic players whose decisions can
benefit or impact upon the environment, the range of
results and technology transfer,
options which can be brought
into play will rely
heavily on the success in identifying cause and effect
relationships and in finding appropriate scientific and
technological solutions. In Chapter 2 it is recognised
that the ultimate limiting factor for economic and
social development is the tolerance level ofthe natural
environment. Concepts such as environmental
tolerance and resilience, risk, impact, etc, which are
essential
in the formulation of policy, can only be
defined and utilized by understanding fundamental
environmental processes operating at the key spatial
and temporal scales, and how these are altered by
human activity. In each ofthe sectors addressed in this
Programme, particular attention needs to be paid to
opportunities for improving the environment and the
However, it is clear that a substantially increased and
management of the natural capital stock through the more coherent R & D effort is required in order to
address the more far-sighted, cohesive and effective
better use ofexistingtechnologies and the development
strategycontainedinthisPolicyandAction Programme.
and use of new or improved ones.
In essence, EC-level R & D must provide direct support
for the following objectives, inter alia,

The Community already has a significant involvement
in research and development related to environmental
problems and issues. Programmes such as Environment
and Marine S&T include basic and strategic studies of
global change,
its possible impacts, ecosystem
dynamics, natural and technological risks as well as
through cleaner
improvement
environmental
technologies, waste management and mitigation of
industrial accident risks. Other R & D programmes,
such asthose on biotechnology, agro-industry, energy,
industrial materials and information technologies, all
contain workontheirrespectiveenvironmental aspects.

Considerable achievements have already been made
in the development of clean technologies and genetic
engineering, forexample, but a wealth ofopportunities
and potential new industries awaits exploitation. For
the most part, this field will need to be tackled at
company, regional and national levels. The Community
for its part, can make important contributions in the

-

.

Provision of a scientific basis for evaluating state of
Provision ofa scientific basis for evaluating state o
the environment and improved early warning of
the environment and improved early warning of
environmental problems.Thisimpliesdevelopment
environmental problems. This implies development
indices, advanced
of environmental baselines,
indices, advanced
of environmental baselines,
monitoring and assessment systems, etc.
monitoring and assessment systems, etc.

65

(1 )

Council Régulation EC/1210/90; OJ L120of 11.05.1990

Improved understanding of basic environmental
processes and the impacts of human activities.
Here, long-term strategic research is required to
elucidate global change, its possible impacts and
to define the conditions for environmentally
sustainable development.

Development of a sound basis for regulatory and
market related instruments. This would comprise
essentially pre-normative R & D concerning public
health and safety, environmental risks and impact
assessments, environmental audits, chemicals
control, etc.

Development and application of techniques for
reduction and mitigation of
prevention ,
impact. This would include
environmental
advances in environmental biotechnology, new

materials, new and cleaner processes, improved
waste management and prevention of industrial
accidents. Work in this area will be directed
primarily towards the target sectors identified in
Chapter 4.

Finally,
the relationships and linkages between
environmental policy and supporting R & D must be
substantial ly strengthened . In order to ensure maximum
gain from R & D activities,
improved information flow
and feedback between R & D and policy formulation
wi II be required, as well as a more adaptable approach
to R & D so as to enable it to respond more directly and
flexibly to changing policy requirements. Reciprocally,
it will be important to devise mechanisms whereby
policy formulation and implementation can respond
to changes in scientific knowledge and technological
capability.

7.3 Sectoral and Spatial Planning

Sound land-use and structural planning can provide
the framework and the ground-rules for the socio¬
economic development and ecological health of a
country, region or locality. In the endeavour to achieve
sustainability, the planning functions and the public
authorities in whom responsibility is vested must ensure
an optimisation of the "mix* of industry, energy,
leisure and tourism,
transport, human habitation,
ancillary services and supporting infrastructure which
is consistent with the carrying capacity of the
environment.

Integrated planning of this kind will be a particularly
important element in the drive for economic and social
cohesion in the Community. The achievement of the
various mixes required in different areas and
circumstances and at different population levels
demand an advanced level of planning and co¬
ordination within the Member States .

The establishment of an appropriately comprehensive
planning/development/environmental protection
framework calls for the application of the principle of
subsidiarity through decision-making at
the most
appropriate level, for example:

at Member State or Community level where
national and regional economic development
plans or global issues are in question;
at the level of natural geographical or regional
units where regional development, pollution or
river-basins are involved and for
inter-urban
transport;

0

level

at
local
geographical

for
impact.

issues which have limited

land-use and structural
Within the Community,
planning generally follows an identifiable sequence
starting with national or regional economic plans and
ending with local physical development and
environmental protection plans. The sequence has
two principal components - the upstream policies or
plans including control principles and statements of
intent, and the downstream programmes and projects
which form the basis of action . Given the goal of
achieving sustainable development
it seems only
logical, if not essential , to apply an assessment of the
environmental
implications of all relevant policies,
plans and programmes.

The integration of environmental assessment within
the macro-planning process would not only enhance
the protection of the environment and encourage
optimisation of resource management but would also
help to reduce those disparities in the international
and inter-regional competition for new development
projects which at present arise from disparities in
assessment practices in the Member States.

Fi na I ly, i n pursua nee ofthei r commitment to i ntegration
of policies, the Commission and the Members States
have already undertaken - at the Maastricht Summit -
to taken full account of environmental impact and the
pri nciple of sustainable development in the formulation
and implementation of measures.

7.4 The Economic Approach: Getting the Prices Right

*

makeprovisionintheiraccountsforenvironmental
risks and future environmental expenses,

Although the value of many environmental assets is
difficult to measure in monetary terms and , in the case
of particularly important or rare elements should not
be priced in any event, valuations, pricing and
accounting mechanisms have a pivotal role to play in
theachievementofsustainabledevelopment. Economic
take
valuations can help economic agents to
environmental
investment or consumption decisions. Where market
forces are relevant, prices should reflea the full cost to
society of produaion and consumption, including the
environmental costs.

Among the measures required to be taken in order to
determine environmental costs with a view to more
environmentally effeaive pricing mechanisms are:

evaluation of the natural and environmental
resource stocks ofthe Member States in economic

Use of economic and fiscal incentives
Use of economic and fiscal incentives
In order to get the prices right and to create market
In order to get the prices right and to create market
based incentivesforenvironmentallyfriendlyeconomic
based incentives forenvironmentally friendly economic
behaviour, the use of economic and fiscal instruments
behaviour, the use of economic and fiscal instruments
impacts into account when they take will have to constitute an increasingly important part
will have to constitute an increasingly important part
of the overall approach. The fundamental aim of these
of the overall approach. The fundamental aim of these
instruments will be to internalize all external
instruments will be to internalize all external
environmental costs incurred during the whole life-
environmental costs incurred during the whole life-
cycle of products from source through produaion,
cycle of products from source through produaion.
distribution , use and final disposal , so that
environmentally-friendly products will not be at a
competitive disadvantage in the market place vis-^-vis
In this
produas which cause pollution and waste.
respea, two options are possible : a pricing approach
and one related toquantity. While the Community and
the Member States are currently engaged in the former,
it will be important to study also the extent to which
possible options such as tradeable permits could be
utilized to control or reduce quantities.
It will be of
increasing importance to ensure that the range of
instruments will be applied in a cost effeaive way so
as to avoid unnecessary adjustment costs to the
economy of the Community to minimise adverse
distributional consequences and to achieve optimum
environmental benefit In developing such instruments,
it will also be important to consider not only the
potential impaa on the local and wider environment
butalsotheireconomicefficiency and regional impact

terms;
development of renewable resource indicators
for Member States (and,
in appropriate cases,
regions)
to show the rates at which natural
resources are used and renewed including
availability and use of water resources, soil
formation and erosion , growth and harvesting of
forests, regional fish populations and catches, etc;
extension and adaptation of the traditional tools
of economic statistics on the basis of research at
national and European level ,
including
modification of key economic indicators, such as
GNP, so as to reflea the value of natural and
environmental
resources in generating current
for
and future incomes and to account
environmental losses and damage on the basis of
assigned monetary values;
development of meaningful cost/benefit analysis
methodologies and guidelines in respea of policy
measures and aaions which impinge on the
environment and the natural resource stock;
redefinition of accounting concepts,
rules,
conventions and methodology so as ensure that
the consumption and use of environmental
resources are accounted for as part of the full costs
of produaion and refleaed in market prices. Such
measures must include appropriate checks and
controls so as to ensure market transparency and
fair competition.

To maintain or improve enterprise awareness of
environmental issues, to ensure that all environmental
expenses and risks are taken into account, and to
facilitate a stewardship funaion of accounts on
environmental topics, enterprises should:
*

disclose in their annual reports details on their
environmental policyandaaivities, and the effects
thereof;
disclose in their accounts the expenses on
environmental programmes (this requires a clear
definition of such expenses);

*

A first important category of economic instruments
consistofchargesand levies. They are well understood
and used, for instance in the field of water pollution.
They have been developed in the past primarily to
create the necessary funds for clean-up operations and
infrastructures such as water treatment installations,
and will remain important for these and other similar
purposes such as waste disposal. However, in line with
the polluter-pays principle, such charges should be
progressively reorientated towards
discouraging
pol lution at source and encouragi ng clean produaion
processes, through market signals.

Responsibility for charges and levies on emissions
from stationary sources traditionally has been a task for
national and local authorities. According as such
charges
become more widespread and have real
environmental impaa and, in consequence, generate
greater financial
income, some intervention at
Community level may be necessary to ensure that
charging systems are designed in a transparent and
comparable way, and to ensure that distortions of
competition within the Community are avoided (e.g.
in the cases of water and air pollution), especially
where emissions or discharges from mobile sources
are concerned.

67

As a second category,
incentives can exert
fiscal
considerable influence on patterns of consumption
and behaviour. Environmental considerations are
in the fiscal area
already being taken into account
within the Community : ready examples include the
differentiated duties being applied by the Member
States in the case of unleaded and leaded petrol , the
proposal for a Council Directive on excise duties on
motor fuels from agricultural sources1’ 1 and the energy/
carbon tax envisaged in
the Commission
Communication "A Community Strategy to limit carbon
dioxide emissions and to improve energy efficiency"®.

This evolution will be encouraged over the period
covered by this Programme with a view to an overall
modernisation and rationalization of fiscal systems to
render them more responsive to the need to protect the
natural resource base and the environment.
In this
regard,
it is now widely accepted as economically
more efficient to tax those activities which damage the
including the
economic resource structure,
environment, and to reduce the burden of those taxes
which can have a negative effect on employment and
investment. Every care should be taken, however, to
avoid increases in the overall burden of taxation .

State aids,
involving direct and indirect subvention
systems, form a third category ofeconomic instruments.
The Commission has already adopted a framework for
environmental state aids in order to guarantee an
orderly system in the Community which is compatible
with the "polluter pays principle". This framework will
be updated to take into consideration not only the
growing importance of subsidies for particular typesof
environmental expenditure, but also to ensure the
integrity of the Internal Market

Fiscal déductions to encourage investments in
environmental equipment and clean production

processes constitute a particular category of state aids
which is coming into increasing use.
Such fiscal
incentives can be very effect:ve in speeding up the
introduction of clean capital equipment, and should
be encouraged to facilitate
transition
towards sustainability.

the critical

A fourth category of market-based instruments to be
developed inthe Community isenvironmental auditing.
In the first instance this has to be seen as an internal
management tool which should indicate performance
on resource management including use of raw materials,
energy consumption, productivity levels and waste. It
should highlight areasof risk, indicate performance on
risk prevention and management and audit levels of
safety and hea'th in the work place. For shareholders,
financial and insurance institutions such
investors,
resource-based audits would provide a performance
indicator as important as traditional financial accounts.
For public authorities and the public at
large,
environmental audits will provide both a compliance
and performance indicator which can provide a boost
to overall public confidence.

Lastly, an integrated Community approach to
environmental liability will be established. The concept
of "shared responsibility" has an important dual aspect.
On the one hand, it is important to share responsibility
for preventing further damage to the environment. On
the other hand, there is also the need to protect the
common interest in the environment by making sure
that, if damage to the environment does occur,
it is
properly remedied through restoration. Liability will
be an essential tool of last resort to punish despoilation
of the environment In addition - and in line with the
objective of prevention at source - it wi 1 1 provide a very
clear economic incentive for management and control
of risk, pollution and waste.

7.5 Public Information and Education

The success of the drive towards sustainability will
depend to a very considerable extent on the decisions,
actions and influence of the general public. But, while
level of
surveys show a high , and increasing,
environmental awareness among the general public,
the public is considerably lacking in essential
information. In addition to having access to available
information under Council Directive
environmental
90/31 3/EEO,)
(due to come into force 31 December
1 992) and a right to involvement in the assessment of
environmental effects of major projects, it is essential
thatthe citizen be enabled to participate in the process
of setting conditions for operating licenses and
integrated poll ution control, and be facilitated in judging
the actual performance of public and private enterprises
through access to inventories of emissions, discharges
and wastes and to environmental audits.

As regards general
information, a comprehensive
strategy will be required to inform the public at large,
the social and economic partners, regional and local
authorities and non-governmental organisations of the
objectives and targets of Community environment
policy and of their respective responsibilities and
potential contributions. This strategy will provide for
the creation of structures facilitating the participation
of citizens and actors in the Commission's actions in
this field. These structures could be set up on regional
and/or local level , taking into account the experiences
information
of existing networks (the centres for rural
and the local urban initiative centres).

The individual, as a consumer, can make a fully
informed and rational choice only if the product
information with which he/she is provided covers all

68

σ >

Ш

0)

COM (92) 36 final, 28.2.1992
SEC (91)1744 final, 14.10.1991
OJN°L 158/56, 23.6.90

relevant aspects such as performance,
reliability,
energy-efficiency, durability, running costs, etc, and if
this information is given in a neutral form, supported
by effective and dependable guarantees . The
Community-wide eco-label will make a contribution
in this respect, but it, too, will require to be developed
within the short-to- medium term and combined with a
more global approach to consumer safety and
environmental protection .

The importance of education in the development of
environmental awareness cannot be overstated and
should be an integral element in school curricula from
primary level onwards.

The starting point for joint action by the European
Community and the Member States in the field of
environmental education is the Resolution on
Environmental Education of the Council and the
Ministers of Education meeting within the Council of
24 May 1 98801. The Resolution states - inter alia - that:

"the objective ofenvironmental education is to increase
the public awareness of the problems in this field, as
well as possible solutions, and to lay the foundations
for a fully informed and active participation of the
individual in the protection ofthe environment and the
prudent and rational use of natural resources ".

This Programme calls for a speeding up of substantive
implementation of the Resolution. Without prejudice
to the Member States' prerogatives in the field of
education, environmental studies - whether separate
or integrated into natural and social science studies or
amalgamated with other studies in preparation for
everyday life (such ascivics, politics, industrial relations,
hygiene and health care) - should be included in all
primary and secondary school curricula by the year
2000 at the latest and be listed as a formal examination
option as soon as possible after that date.
In order to
work towards those goals it will be necessary to
initiate, without delay, the establishment of university
teacher training
courses and summer-schools,
programmes and the publication and development of
environmental literature and teaching aids.

7.6 Professional Education and Training

Current and projected trends in structural and
technological change, in market supply and demand,
and in market competition can be attributed to a
significant degree to a user-driven market which
increasingly is demanding quality in all aspects of both
products and services. The response to this demand is
dictated by the level of skills and "know-how" within
the manufacturing and service sectors. Furthermore,
empirical data in respect of Europe and the U.S.A.
indicate that there is a close correlation between the
proportion of population who undergo a high standard
of professional and vocational education and training
and regional prosperity; that in such regions there
tends to be a demand for higher quality; and that
producers of goods and services in those regions are
competitive in wider, even global , markets.

These factors, among others, are indicative ofthe need
for new or additional ski Its or training in administrations
and in manufacturing and service industries if both the
Community's environmental and Internal Market
objectives are to be met. Specific skills and training
requirements emerging from studies (e.g. the FAST
programme) made across the Community include ;

In the public sector,

policy, structural and project decision-making
and management;
management of water resources;
energy conservation and waste disposal in pub ic
institutions (hospitals, power stations, public
offices, plant and machinery);
monitoring ofstandards ofadherence to legislation
arid operating conditionsand of ievelsof pollution;

OJN°C 177,6.7.88

operation of sewage plants and waste water
treatment facilities;
environmental impact assessment.

In the private sector, additional skills and training
required at all
levels, managerial and operational ,
include

in manufacturing industry :
research and
development, process management, energy
efficiency, exploitation of biotechnologies,
prevention, reuse, recycling and safe disposal of
wastes, containment and rehabilitation of
contaminated sites, transport operations, vehicle
maintenance and fuel conservation ;
in agriculture, horticulture and forestry : nature
conservation and management, ecologically
sustainable farming practices, agricultural and
horticultural advisers, waste management ,
integrated pest control, erosion control and
prevention and control of fire,
in the services sector : environment consultancy
(legal and technical), provision and dissemination
of information and knowledge (especial to SMEs),
environmental impact assessments, environmental
accounting and auditing, cleaner and more
efficient transport and better qual ity tourist services
and information.

In terms of occupations, the needs include biologists
and chemists, geologists and land surveyors, architects
and land-use planners, civil, mechanical, electrical
and production engineers, and environmental
technicians, operatives and training specialists.

69

7.7 Financial Support Mechanisms

Within the overall context of sustainable development,
conservation of natural resources and prevention of
pollution and waste and effective application of the
'polluter pays principle' the policies and actions set
out
in this Programme should pay for themselves.
Tenaciously pursued, they should increase industrial ,
economic and social efficiency and prosperity at no
greater cost than more wasteful current practices.

As a matter of principle, financial
interventions from
Community or public funds must not have the effect of
diminishing the fundamental
responsibility of the
relevant economic 'actors' and must not provide an
alibi for failure to integrate the environmental dimension
into production processes, into choices of individual
behaviour and into relevant economic and sectoral
policies and programmes. Further, the fact that there
are financial
interventions must not create any
misunderstanding that sustainable development is more
expensive or less cost efficient than a laissez-faire
approach.

Nevertheless, certain current and prospective financial
mechanisms have, and will continue to have, a
significant input into the achievement of objectives of
the Programme.

The Structural Policies
The Community's Structural Funds - that is to say the
European Regional Development Fund ( ERDF), the
European Social Fund ( ESF) and the guidance element
of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee
Fund ( EAGGF)
- are applied in the Community to
strenghten economic and social cohesion and benefit
the poorer regions of the Community. A major reform
of their operation was agreed in 1988; the financial
resources available for assisting the weaker regions
have been both increased and concentrated on specific
objectives. The budget is being doubled in real terms
between 1987 and 1993; in 1992 it represents about
27 % of the overall Community budget.

Of these Funds,
the ERDF at present makes the most
important contri bution towards economic development
intervention in the financing of
through its direct
productive investments and infrastructures. Many of its
interventions have consequences for the environment
Within the ERDF, funds devoted to 'environmental
projects' have risen considerably from around 100
MECU per year in 1985-87 to some 700 MECU per
year under the present programme (in 1991 prices),
partly as a consequence of ENVIREG and other
Community initiatives. The ESF, in its support oftraining
and job-creation, and the EAGGF in its interventions
on rural development and eco-farming also contribute
tothe protection and improvement ofthe environment

70

In addition to the 'environmental' expenditure referred
to, the Community Support Frameworks which form

the contracts between the Member States and the
Commission (as fund managers) require conformity
legislation and assessment of the
with environmental
environmental
impact of projects. However where
models of regional development overemphasi ze short¬
term economic growth there can be environmental
side effects which are not consistent with the goal of
sustainable development. Yet more emphasis will be
given, accordingly,
to assessment of the wider
implications of plans, programmes and projects for
the environment and the sustai nability ofdevelopment.

Forthcoming Review of the Structural Policies
In the further reform of the Structural Funds,
the
Community will aim to promote development which
will be sustainable in pursuance of Article 2 of the new
Treaty. In th is context Fund-assisted development shou Id
be based on the intrinsic strengths and natural resources
of the designated regions and be geared towards high
quality processes and products. This implies both a
greater
level of integration of the environmental
dimension into the Fund processes themselves - with
the environment beingtreated as a mainstream concern
of the development process - as well as improved
coordination and synergy between the different funds.
Such an approach will be fundamental for the longer-
term economic and social cohesion of the Community.

In the case of the ERDF, Fund-assisted development
will take account of the environmental
implications.
Member States wi 1 1 be encouraged to take an integrated
approach, taking full account of the environmental
impact at an early stage in the formulation of plans and
programmes and avoidi ng environmental degradation
that could be irreversible or would require costly
corrective action in future .

the ESF, this Programme stresses

As regards
the
importance which attaches to education and training
including indications of professional and
aspects,
vocational expertise which will be needed for its
effective implementation. In the context of the review,
and in conjunction with the Task Force on Human
Resources, Education, Training and Youth, the ESF will
give increased support to job-creation and training
related to environmental activities that
facilitate
sustainable regional development

The opportunities and incentives to promote responsible
management of land, forest and eco-systems through
both the EAGGF and ESF will increase according as the
Common Agricultural Policy is reoriented towards a
better balanced and more dynamic management of
rural areas ofthe Community. As a general principle to
be applied in the long-term re-structuring of the CAP,
entitlement to Community support will progressively
become conditional on exploitation of agricultural
and other rural
resources in an environmentally
acceptable way, and eventually in a way which

enhances and improves the quality of
environment and the countryside in general .

the rural

Finally, as respects the Structural Funds in general ,
there is a need for more integrated planning and
networking, especially where the integration and
cohesion of peripheral regions are concerned - this is
a theme which will is pursued further in the framework
of the " Europe 2000" exercise” 1.

Community Financial Instrument forthe Environment
( LIFE)
While the philosophical concepts of environmental
responsibility and sustainable development are quite
widely accepted, they still remain rather abstract for
the vast majority of economic actors. Whether as
administrators, entrepreneurs or consumers, they may
not understand how they are expected to translate
concepts into everyday actions.
In this context, the
principle tasks of LIFE will lie in

defining and promoting models of production and
behaviour which are in line with the principles of
sustainable development;
practical demonstration of the technical viability
and economic efficiency of chosen models and
actions;
supporting specific demonstrations, pilot projects
and horizontal information, education and training
designed to infl uence the economic actors through
the use of practical examples; and,
strengthening administrative structures.

Up to now, these types of actions have been pursued
in a rather disparate fashion through a collection of
small-scale financial instruments-MEDSPA, NORSPA,
ACE and ACNAT. LIFE is designed to achieve an
effective integration and increased efficiency of the
foregoing instruments through better co-ordination of
procedures and better all-round management

Institution of a Cohésion Fund
Article 130d ofthe Treaty on European Union provides
for the establishment, before 31 December 1 993 , of a
Cohesion Fund forthe making of financial contributions
to projects in the fields of environment and trans-
European networks in the area oftransport infrastructure.
The potential beneficiaries are Greece, Ireland, Portugal
and Spain . The very nature of the Fund presupposes a
high level of Community intervention (85 to 90 %). The
Cohesion Fund will add a new dimension to the
economic and social cohesion effort. The new Fund
will be to these States what the Structural policies are
to the regions.

It is envisaged that Cohesion Fund financing will be
subject to two conditions :

Firstly, the projects to be considered must derive
their origins from Community legislation. For

ni COM (91 ) 452 final , 7.1 1.1991

projects in the field of environment this means
that they must result from a Community decision
which implies disproportionate costs for the public
authorities of the Member State in question . In this
way the Cohesion Fund will help the poorer
Member States to effectively apply Community
environmental legislation .

The second condition is prior adoption by the
Council of an economic convergence programme.
Implementation of this programme will be
monitored by the Community in the context of
multilateral surveillance provided for in Article
104c of the Treaty.

in the
The Commission will be presenting a proposal
course of 1992 for a Regulation on the establishment
and operation of the Fund .

In 1983 , a

The European Investment Bank
Environmental protection has constituted an important
for
criterion for EIB project selection and appraisal
most of the last twenty years.
formal
declaration of intent on environmental policy was
made by the EIB of a " Declaration of Environmental
Policies and Procedures relating to Economic
Development", together with the World Bank, regional
development banks, UNEP, UNDPand the Commission
the EIB became a
of the European Communities;
member of the Environmental Committee of the
International Development Institutions (CIDIE).

the Board of Governors

laid down the
In 1984 ,
foundations of Bank policy enabling it to intervene in
favour of environmental ly-related projects throughout
the entire Community. Since 1988 the Bank has
maintained cooperation with the World Bank within
the framework of the Environmental Programme for
the Mediterranean (EPM). One result ofthis co-operation
is the Mediterranean technical assistance programme,
METAP, whose objective is to function as a catalyst for
in the region . Further
environmental
opportunities for increased cooperation are envisaged
- for instance, cofinancing investment within ENVIREG.

investment

For its operating purposes the Bank has adopted an
environmental definition which covers water-related
projects, solid waste disposal, air pollution control,
heritage conservation and certain urban pollution-
reducing projects. Notwithstandingthis rather restrictive
definition there has been both a sharp increase in Bank
lending in Member Countries in recent years (rising to
1 5% of total lending in 1 989) and a widening of types
investment covered . The
of environmental
environmental content of the Bank's lending varies
among the Member States (from 2% - 3% in Portugal
and France to 44% in Germany), reflecting, among
other factors, the Bank's range of lending possibilities
in these countries.

0

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME-FRAME ACTORS

Table 17 : HORIZONTAL MEASURES

UMTCOVEMENT
OF DATA

- Improvemenl of Base line data

• Community

programme

for

1992 =»

EEA + fiC

environmental slansuci

* National statistics on environment
* Regional and Community statistics

- Development of Environmental Indicators

* Indicators ofgeneral progress and trends

- Regular assessment ofquality and progress

* National and Community reports on

the state of the environment

1995
1995

1995
1997
1995

2000

• Inventory of polluting emissions and

• Published inventories (progressive)

1994 =»

• New R A D programme

1992/96

2- SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
AND TECHNO-
LOGICAL DE-
VELQPMENT

discharges , and waste

- Considérable reinforcementof investmenu
in general environment + energy R+D
- Specific programmes as low carbon
technology, biomass, and other renewable
energies

- Extended programmes on biotechnology,
including its use in integrated pest control
in agriculture

- Expanded

programme

technologies, recycling
recyclable and reusable materials

on

clean
technologies ,

3 . SECTORAL
AND SPATIAL
PLANNING

Integrated socio-economie
plans

development

• Integrated Regional Development Plans
• Integrated Transport Management Plans

up to 2000

* Integrated Coastal Management Plans
* Integrated Transport Plans for 2010
* Environmental Impact Assessment at

planning and at project level

* EIA applied to ERDF - aimed

programmes + projects

4 . GETTING

Evaluation of environmental resource stock

• Preliminary guidelines

linked to “Improvement of Data”

RIGHT
a) Evaluation and
accounting

Development of renewable resource
indicators

* “Shadow” GNP tables showing natural
resource values

1993
1995

EC
EJEAM.C, MS

1995 =»

MS + EC

Modification of key economic indicators

• Formai GNP tables

1999 =*

id

CostArenefu analysis

* Development + implémentation of a
programme intemalizing

cohérent
extemal costs

1992 =»

MS * /nd.

Institutions of environmental
accounting mechanism

* Consultations with professional

organisations

• Community guidelines

1992

1993

Disclosure of environmental issues in the
accounts of enterprises
Instruments

professional organisations

• EC Directive

* Parallel accounts in companies

2000 =»

* Consultation with MS, Industry and

1992/3

b)Fiscal

incentives

Intégration of environment protection
requirentents irtto fiscal polides

* Promotion of fiscal incentives for

environment

c)Charges

Improved transparency of charging systems

* Review ofmuons! md local levies and charges
- collation of data

d)Sta!e aids

Application of polluter pays principle

* Comprehensive review of State Aids
in environment field

1992/3

EC + MS

e)Other

economic and
market related

mstramenu

- Environmental Audit of all major public

* Directive on Eco-audits

and private enterprises

Ecoaudits

* Consultations with MS, Industry and

insurance institutions

* Initiation of scheme of performance
Bonds in respect of covenants and
license conditions

1992
1994
1992/3

1995

EC + MS +
Accounlants
EC + MS, LAs
+ Enterprise
A/5+LAS +
Insurance
companies

MS

EC

EC
EC

MS

EC

EC,
Enterprise

Enterprise
+ MS+EC
id

id

id

MS, LAs, EC
MS, LAs, EC

MS , LAs, EC
MS, LAs. EC
MS, LAs, EC

MS, LAs, EC

1993

1995

1993

1992 =»
1994

1998
1997
1995 =»
ongoing
1993 =»

EC

Accountants
*Profess.
Bodies* EC

ECJvCJndustry
AProf.Bodies
EC+MS

MS * EC

MS + LAs
EC

1994

1993

1993

OBJECTIVES

TARGUES UP TO 2000

ACTIONS

TIME-ERAME ACTORS

Table 17 : HORIZONTAL MEASURES

- Integrated li Ability and joint responsibility

• Directive on civil liability for damage

1993 =»

- Deposit/Refund systems

S. PUBLIC
INFORMATION
AND
EDUCATION

- Improved level of general information

- Specific information campaigns on

selected themes

- Improved Consumer information

- Integrated environment into all primary

and secondary school curricula

caused by waste

• Discussion document on civil liability

and joint responsibility systems

• Adoption of EC regulation

• Progressive unplementaijoo

Reports on progrès s and effecliveness

• Public access to environminfo
• Regular slate -of-environment reports

• Waste.energy consumption ,

transport
(to be decided by Environment

etc.
Policy Review Group)

1992

1995

ongoing
1995/8

1993

1995

1992 =>

• Ecological labelling
• Integrated EnvironmcntaUConsumcr

1993

1998

Safety label

* Report on current situation and proposal

1992

on developments

* Programme of pédagogie research
• Adoption of general guidelines
* Préparation of books/leaching aids
• Training of teachers
• Integration into school curricula
• Programme of seminars , summer

schools , colloques

• Annual update of progress

1992/3
1993
ongoing
1993 =>

2000

1993 =>

1993 =>

1992

1993 =>

I

I
i

£C + MS

EC

EC + MS

MSJ-nterpr
EC + MS

LArMSMC
LAs.MS

EC, MS.
public
utilities

EC. MS
ECMS.
Standards
Institutes
EC

MSEdJnsJBC
MS
Enterprise
Edite. Insis .
MS
MSXduc.
In sis .

EC

EC

National
EducJnsts.

id

Educ . Insis .
Enterprise

6. PROFES ¬
SIONAL
EDUCATION
AND

- Integration of environmental studies in a
representative proportion of third level
institutions

• Report on current situation for all sectors
• Incorporation of environment studies

- Vocational training programmes for
agrono¬
foresters and other appropriate

technicians, machine operators ,
mists.
workers and trainers

• Idem of environment faculties

id

• Pedagogic research , preparation

of

1992 =»

books and leaching aids

• Professional training courses , seminars
and workshop for planners , accountants ,
auditors

* Co-ordination among professional
institutes , development of guidelines
and procedures

1992 =>

EC ♦ Prof.

Bodies

- Ongoing programme of

courses and
seminars for policy planners, transport
managers , agricultural advisers , tourism
operators

• Idem

id

id

7 . FINANCIAL

MECHANISMS

Full
integration of environmental dimension in
disbursement ofstructural funds (with effect from tbe
ratification of tbe new Treaty)

• Take account of environmental impact

1993 =»

MS. LA ».
EC

FEOGA aid to be orientated to favour
sustainable, integrated farming and nira1
development

LIFE to be developed as a “booster
mechanism’* for
effective implémentation of environment
policy

• Progressive re-oncntation pnee lo

1992 =»

EC

income supports

* Land management contracts
• Rural Development Programme
• Forest Development Programme

1992 =»
Progressive
id

• initiation of LIFE
• Comprehensive review and extension

1992

1995

as appropriate

MS + EC

id
Forest Enter-
prises. MS+EC
EC + MS

id

New Cohésion Fund

• Special boost for air, waste water, waste

1993-1998

EC * MS +

New financial support mechanisms to
assist SME’t

* Compréhensive survey of difficultés

199203

and needs

treatment etc .

• Comprehensive review of State Aids in

1993

environment field

LAs

ECjVfS,
bdustry
Organisations
EC

Chapter 8: Subsidiarity and Shared Responsibility

the Community will

The principle of subsidiarityhas been given a place of
prominence and general application in the new Treaty
on European Union . Article A refers to the process of
creating an ever closer union among the peoples of
Europe, * in which decisions are taken as closely as
possible to the citizen On the basis Article 3b of the
new Treaty,
in
accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, only if
and insofar as the objectives of the proposed action
cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States
and can therefore, by reason of the scale or effects of
proposed action, be better achieved by the Community.
In drawing up this Programme, an attempt has been
made to translate the principle of subsidiarity into
operational terms.

take action,

Since the objectives and targets put forward in the
Programme and the ultimate goal of sustainable
development can only be achieved by concertedaction
on the part of all the relevant actors working together
in partnership, the Programme combines the principle
of subsidiarity with the wider concept of shared
responsibility. This latter concept involves not so much
a choice of action at one level to the excusion of others

but, rather, a mixing of actors and instruments at the
appropriate levels, without any calling into question of
the division of competences between the Community,
the Member States, regional and local authorities. For
any one target or problem, the emphasis (actors and
instruments) could lie with the Community/national/
regional government level and for another with the
regional/local/sectoral level or atthe level ofenterprise^
general public/consumers.

The practical application of the principle of subsidiarity
and shared responsibility will also involve respect for
the current (Art. 130r.4) and proposed (Art 130s.4)
stipulation that without prejudice to certain measures
of a Community nature,
the Member States must
finance and implement environment policy.

to indicate the
Table 18 represents an attempt
complementarity of actions at different levels within
framework of subsidiarity and shared
an overall
responsibility.
In other tables of the Programme the
"actors " column indicates the different actors
considered as most relevant to the implementation of
specific measures.

73

Table 18 : EXAMPLES OF SHARED RESPONSIBILITY

EC

(*)Mexnber State and
Régional Govemmenls

Local + Régional
Authorities

Enterprises

General Public /
Consumer

Planning
- Economic and

social development

- Physical planning

Directive
EEC (EIA)

85/337/

;

- Networks

EUTJ

of KWI , nol .

coramufuca- \

Demand - distribution

Demand > infraslruc- NGO
turc

EIA - public par-
ticipation

::

R ÄD pogr<ffnroc*,

i:

ForalpomtsTrrxoon- Emission coctroU En?.' R

& 0

/ trcstnfeBf/l;:ßm%* :*: BSotechrKtlogy . f !

Integrated pollution controls

h •

•;■■:■: T -

.

-ï

Fiscal incentives Na ¬
tional waste mgt plan s

Waste prevention
policie.

BSSWfflSSSi

Consumer demand
ECO-labels

B iss em ht » t i on
Co^ordin ation j Admitri structures;
1 Natìoswl ; statistica!
^EXEunbnat statisti
iSj&bwgtïtomifcs®

•

;

chiatton»: ài-' I ' ^cu!nEf>‘ InsUmtft/

stasmenL; disserrisi

|. 'mvestment

NGOs
cidzens , consumera

concemed

Остапс/ог^гаДмпс* 3
;
«-:* ея-Лггжтегйа!

Trades Unions

RAJ2
• Media

- Processes

- Products

Communicative
- Information

- Education

- Training

Market-based
- Codes of conduct
(vol . agreements)

- Resource Mgt (env.

audit)

reçu

P&JûêÛ

Sectoral agreements ;
Own Service Audit

Own activity audit ;
operating licenses

mmS-iLÜd

Investors , public ,
consumerinfonnalian

- Ecological labels

- Financial supports -
(incL state aids)

«id of EC tausncsftl

ί «
■ννι

<d.

tr&i

Habitats directive,
ACNAT, NATURA
2000, Rural Dcvelopt

Normative
- Env. protection

- Internai Mkt

- Implémentation of
Internat, agrs*«"

*-«_

Spsnaï pîim* Local

NGOs/publicdemand
for facilities & qual ¬
ity of life

Demand for avoid ¬
ance of trade barriers

Demand for consumer
choice

• Leid Rôle, WÊÊ

* Complemcnury Rôle ,

- Position of influence

(•)

It is appreciated that, because of differences in the constitutional and instutional arrangements in the Member States, competences are
not shared in a common manner. Accordingly, as the title indicates, this table is intended to provide theoritical examples of shared
responsibility which are not intended to inferfere with existing divisions of competences. The reference to Regional Governments is
used to cover sub-national governments such as the Lander in Germany and the regional administrations in Begium , Italy and Spain
which have certain exclusive competences in the fields of policy dealt with in this Programme.

Ξ

Chapter 9: Implémentation and Enforcement

Satisfactory implementation and enforcement of the
policy, strategy and measures set out in this Programme
atall levelsof society will be imperative ifthe objectives
of environmental protection , sustainability of socio¬
economic activity and development and the integrity
of the Internal Market are to be achieved . Ultimately,
measures designed to faci I itate sustainable development
and involving all economic actors through the
application of a broad range of instruments should be
self-enforcing. For the foreseeable future, however,
the likelihood isthattheeffectivenessof implementation
will be closely related to the quality of the measures
themselves and of the arrangements for their
enforcement.

In the past, a number of factors has contributed to
problems of implementation, including

a lack of overall policy coherence, partly due to
an evolving, sometimes shifting, agenda as the
scope of environmental policy grew, and partly
because much of the environmental
legislation
was developed in an ad hoc manner;
the narrow choiceof instruments, whereby perhaps
too great a reliance was placed on regulation of
the "command and control " type;
the need for unanimous agreement within the
frequently necessitating
Council of Ministers,
political compromise, has resulted in some cases
in measures which are difficult to put i nto practical
operation;
the preponderant recourse to Directives as the
form of legal
instrument has often given rise to
difficulties in their incorporation into quite widely
differing national statutory codes and
administrative procedures with consequential
problems of
interpretation and practical
implementation;
management inadequacies at all administrative
levels, from Community down to local authorities.

It is important to learn from these past experiences and
to take appropriate steps to improve this particular
aspect of pol icy. Among the reforms which are requi red
are better preparation of measures, including improved
consultation arrangements, more effective integration
with complementary measures, better practical follow¬
up to legislative measures, both administrative and
operative, and stricter compliance checking and
enforcement.

environmental and consumer organisations and
relevant Directorates-Generalofthe Commission;
it
is envisaged that this Forum will act as an
umbrella organisation, with specialist subgroups
set up as necessary to deal with specific topics or
issues. The common interest in moving towards
sustainability and the need to increase levels of
awareness and consensus in the application of
shared responsibility underline the importance of
this Forum .

ii . AN IMPLEMENTATION NETWORK comprising
representatives of relevant national authorities
and of the Commission in the field of practical
implementation of Community measures;
it will
be aimed primarily at exchange of information
and experience and at the development of common
approachesat practical level , under the supervision
of the Commission . Without prejudice to the
specific responsibilities and prerogatives of the
Commission in regard to implementation and
enforcement under Articles 155 and 169 of the
the Network can help to promote
Treaty ,
consistency in the practical application of
Community policy and rules as between the
involve,
Member States. This will
inter alia,
information on technical
exchanges of
developments, compliance initiatives and
precautionary actions. Member States might also
avail of the Network's expertise or assistance for
advice on local or national compliance
mechanisms, audits and reporting arrangements.

iii . AN ENVIRONMENT POLICY REVIEW CROUP
comprising representatives of the Commission
and the Member States at Director-General level
will be established to develop mutual
understanding and exchange of views on
environmental policies and measures.
It will be
modelled on the Committee of Directors-General
of
Industry which has been operating very
effectively for a number of years past One of its
essential purposes is to fill the gap resulting from
that communications between the
the fact
Commission and the Member States on
environment issues have largely been confined to
deliberation of specific proposals within the
Counci I and exchanges in relation to infri ngement
proceedings.

In order to institute these reforms,
establish the following ad hoc dialogue groups:

it is intended to

i
i

A CONSULTATIVE FORUM will be established
to provide for consultation and information
exchange between the industrial/production
the business world, regional and local
sectors,
authorities, professional associations, trade unions,

in a special
These three dialogue groups will serve,
way,
to promote a greater sense of responsibility
among the principal actors in the partenariat, and to
ensure effective and transparent application of
measures. They are not intended to duplicate the work
of committees established by Community legislation
for the purposes of follow-up in respect of specific
measures,nor by the Commission in relation to specific

75

fields of interest such as consumer protection , tourism Integration of Policies
development , etc . nor by Member States for
implementation and enforcement of policy at national
level . Finally,
they will not substitute the existing
dialogue betweenindustryandtheCommission, which
it is intended to strengthen in any event.

In pursuance ofthe Treaty (Article 130r.2) and the
objective of sustainable development ,
the
environmental dimension will be fully
incorporated into all other Community policies;

*

Among the practical reforms to be undertaken will be:

Improvement in Legislation
*

a more careful choice and preparation of
instruments:
the legislative approach may not
always be the best choice as a first step even
though it may have an essential role to play in the
longer term;

*

*

*

relevant legislative measures and standards should
benefit from prior consultation ofthe Consultative
Forum and, before finalisation of content, should
be subjected to an "enforceability assessment";

*

legislation should incorporate
environmental
specific enforcement provisions, notably where
standards are prescribed;

there should be a practical follow-through on all
new legislation in terms of training programmes,
seminars and workshops;

an assessment of
the implications for the
environment will be made in the course of
drawing up Community policies and legislation
with special care taken in the areas of internal
market,
industrial , energy,
trade,
agriculture, transport, regional development and
tourism;

international

Member States should undertake similar
integration by applying environmental
impact
assessments to their own plans and programmes .

Non-compliance with EC and national legislation
can result in damage to the environment as well
as to property both in the physical and in the
it can also create distortions in
financial sense;
competition between enterprises. In this context,
the provisions of Article 1 71 of the new Treaty in
regard to action by the European Court in the
event of non-compl iance, i ncl udi ng the possibi I ity
of imposing a lump sum or penalty payment,
could have an important incentive or corrective
effect.

Implémentation
*

Directives adopted at Community level must be
transposed in national legislation within the time-
frames decided by the Council ;

*

*

Clean-up programmes and monitoring plans
Clean-up programmes and monitoring plans
agreed in Council must be put
in place in
agreed in Council must be put
in place in
conformity with the time-frames adopted;
'
conformity with the time-frames adopted;

All Member States that have not already done so
All Member States that have not already done so
should establish enforcement bodies and
should establish enforcement bodies and
procedures to ensure full and equal compliance
procedures to ensure full and equal compliance
with both legislative and authorisation-associated
with both legislative and authorisation-associated
requirements;
requirements;

Involvement ofthe Public
*

Given their right of access to environmental
information (Directive 90/31 3/EECP the public
must be enabled to participate as fully as possible
in the decision making processes for construction
authorisations, operating permits,
emission/
discharge licences, etc; they have a direct interest
in the quality of their living environment, and in
addition, can provide an important spur to good
performance by companies in their area - perhaps
even as employees or managers; this principle
must also apply for information at the disposal of
Community institutions;

The reporting requirements of various Directives
and Regulations,
recently rationalized by a
composite Directive on reporting01, must be
assiduously adhered to;

*

Because of the implications for the relative
competitiveness offirmswithinthe Internal Market,
as wel I as for the purposes ofappl yi ng the "pol I uter
pays principle* a comprehensive review of fines
and penalties applied in different parts of the
Community will be carried out before end-1 993;

legislation and ,

Optimum transparency as regards implementation
of
in particular, as regards
authorisations for emissions into the environment
must be assured .

76

n) OJN°L377, 31.12.1991 , 91 /692/EEC
® OJN° LI 58/56, 23.6.90

An accessible and efficient complaints facility
should be developed at local , regional and national
to improve confidence between public,
level
competent authorities and industrial or business
establishments. In this context, complaints should
be considered less a nuisance than a resource.
They are an indication to enforcement agencies of
something amiss and can keep the competent
authorities in touch with the realities of situations
from which they may be geogra ph i cal I y remote or
which they are not in a position to monitor on a
continuing basis.

*

Individuals and public interest groups should
have practicable access to the courts in order to

ensure that their legitimate interests are protected
and that prescribed environmental measures are
effectively enforced and illegal practices stopped .

Environmental Liability
*

the Commission has already proposed a Directive
in regard to civil
liability for damage to the
environment caused by waste*”;

•

•

as soon as practicable the Community will
establish a mechanism whereby damage to the
environment is restored by the person or body
who is responsible for the damage incurred ; care
wi 1 1 have be taken that the 'pol I uter pays pri nciple*
is fully respected;

where the author ofenvironmental damage cannot
be readily identified -for instance in the case of
pollution from diffuse sources- other mechanismes
for liability-sharing should be devised.

Involvement of the European Environment Agency
Under the terms of the instituting Regulation , the issue
as to whether the Agency should have a r6le in

monitoring implementation of Community measures,
was postponed for decision in the context of a review
to be conducted after its first two years of operation .
However, as a generator of environmental data, as a
body charged with ensuring the quality and
comparability of data and as producer of state-of-the-
environment reports, the Agency will have a key rble
to play in the area of implementation and enforcement
in any event.

Reports on implementation
Finally, the Commission will continue to provide reports
to the Counci I , the European Pari i ament and the general
publicon the extent and quality of implementation and
enforcement throughout the Community. According
as the quantity and quality of information is improved
in consequence of improved reporting by the Member
States and avai labi lity of more dependable data through
the European Environment Agency, together with the
potential experience and observations of the proposed
Network on practical
implementation of Community
measures, these reports will serve both as a performance
indicator and as an incentive mechanism for general
improvement of implementation and enforcement.

*”

O.J. N° C251 of 4 October 1 989.

77

PART II

The Communities' Role in the
Wider International Arena

79

The Communities' Role in the Wider International Arena

In the early stages, Community policy and action on the environment were mainly focussed on the solution of
particularly acute problems within the Community. Later there was a clearer recognition that pollution did not
stop at its frontiers and that it was necessary, therefore, to intensify regional and international co-operation to
combat transboundary pollution . In recent times, the evolution has gone a step further and it is now generally
accepted that problems of a global nature are seriously threatening the ecological balance of our planet as a
whole. Global issues relating to the environment and natural resources have now become so important that, in
the run-up to 2000, they could be an important determinant of the ways in which international relations will
develop - economically, politically and in security terms. This appreciation is now formally recognized in Article
130r.1 of the new Treaty on European Union which includes among the Community's environment policy
objectives the promotion of measures at international
level to deal with regional or world wide environment
problems.

The scale, scope and nature of environmental and natural resource problems today is mainly due to the
unprecedented level of socio-economic development during this present century, and particularly over the
period since the end of World War II. The world is on history's steepest growth-curve : this century alone, the
world's population has tripled; about four-fifths ofthis growth has taken place since 1 950. Over the next 50 years,
population levels are expected to double and even with only a very modest improvement in living standards there
could be as much as a five-to-ten fold increase in economic activity touching all the key sectors, notably energy,
transport, industry, construction and agriculture.

These trends pose a threat to nations' economic potential, their citizens' health, their internal political security
and, in the case of global warming, their very existence.

In the Dublin Declaration, the European Council stressed the special responsibility of the Community and its
constituent Member States to encourage and participate in international action to combat global environment
problems. It stated that "the Community must use more effectively its position of moral, economic and political
authority to advance international efforts to solve global problems and to promote sustainable development and
respect for the global commons".

81

Chapter 10: Environmental Threats and Issues

10.1 Global issues

Four major problems are an increasing cause of global
concern and call for a coherent and effective response
as a matter of urgency :

1991 by UNEP1” indicates that the depletion of the
ozone layer over many parts of the globe is twice as
serious as hitherto believed .

Climate Change
Emissions from many different human activities are
dramatically increasing atmospheric concentrations
of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide. Notwithstanding some scientific
uncertainty, experts agree that these changes in the
composition of the Earth's atmosphere are resulting in
a process of global warming with many associated
risks - raising of sea levels, climatic disturbances,
drought and desertification - which could
have
enormous implications for social and economic life.

Ozone Layer Déplétion
A broad scientific consensus has emerged that several
man-made chemicals especially CFCs - are responsible
for the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer
which protects the Earth's surface from ultraviolet
radiation . This is one of the few areas where a
comprehensive remedial strategy including legal and
financial measures - has been developed . Now however
the situation appears to be more grave than previously
thought. Scientific evidence published in December

Biodiversity Loss
Biodiversity is subject to increasing pressures mainly
due to the disruption ofecosystems and the destruction
of habitats. According to some estimates up to 100
species could be lost every da/3. Apart
from its
ecological
the erosion of the Earth's
biological heritage could have serious economic effects
since the potential todevelop new products, especially
food and medicines,
is undermined as animal and
plant species disappear.

implications,

Déforestation
Deforestation levels are causing increasing alarm,
particularly
in tropical and subtropical rain-forest
areas : according to official FAO data, deforestation is
now progressing at the rate of 1 7 million hectares per
annum . This trend can aggravate other global
environmental problems because of the role forests
play as a sink for C02 and as a reservoir for biological
diversity.
In addition , about 2,5 million native
inhabitants of the forest areas depend on their natural
surroundings for food, fuel , furniture and clothing.

10.2 Problems of Regional or Local Concern
Atmospheric pollution, deterioration of the marine
, deterioration of the marine
>n and desertification, unsound
environment , soil erosion and desertification, unsound
management and disposal of hazardous wastes and
asal of hazardous wastes and
rial risks, rapid urban growth,
toxic chemicals, industrial risks, rapid urban growth,
iter resources etc. pose grave
degradation of freshwater resources etc. pose grave
;s which have to be faced up to
problems and challenges which have to be faced up to
rid if sustainable, ecologically
in many parts of the world if sustainable, ecologically
sound development is to be achieved. Of course, the
o be achieved. Of course, the
scale and extent of these problems vary according the
e problems vary according the
particular economic and demographic situation in
nd demographic situation in
each region or country.

Central and Eastern Europe
In many parts of Central and Eastern Europe
environmental degradation is extremely severe. Past
socio-economic structures and policies inculcating
centralised planningandabsenceofpublicparticipation
have contributed to the emergence of a situation
characterized by inefficiency, wasteful practices and
high pollution levels,

Developed Countries
xne progress has been achieved
In the OECD countries some progress has been achieved
ic types of pollution and
in combating specific types of pollution and
ition, but there are still many
environmental degradation, but there are still many
ich will have to be urgently
outstanding issues which will have to be urgently
?d in respect of theCommunity
addressed (as is indicated in respect of the Community
:rs).
It is clear however that the
in the preceding chapters).
It is clear however that the
main challenge these countries will have to face will
:ountries will have to face will
be to effect a substantial change in consumption
itial change in consumption
e their share in the use of the
patterns so as to reduce their share in the use of the
ces, while at the same time
world's natural
resources, while at the same time
ovement of the quality of life.
ensuring a steady improvement of the quality of life.

The Developing Countries
But it is in the developing countries that environmental
problems are most serious. Soil degradation and
desertification, destruction of habitats, over-exploitation
ofnatural resources, deterioration of human settlements
and degradation of fresh water resources rank among
the developing nations' most pressing environmental
problems. Population pressure and poverty are key
factorsintheemergenceofunsustainabledevelopment
patterns in many ofthese countries. Population growth
places burgeoning demands on their fragile resource
base forthe provision of basic needs : an adequate diet,
potable water, energy, shelter and material goods. At
the same time, the dire economic position in which
they find themselves may force these countries to

82

I

01
“

UNEP: Scientifîc A&sessement of Ozone Déplétion, 17. 12.1991
Whereas only 1 S million species are known today, some estimates put the total number of possible species at 1 0 times that amount.
The daily loss rate indicated above has been estimated on the basis of this higher Figure for total species.

adopt short-term ecologically harmful strategies in the
endeavour to increase foreign exchange revenues
needed to service immediate needs. Lack of adequate
institutional and regulatory controls, combined with
the limited availability oftechnical , human and financial
resources exacerbates local and regional difficulties
and problems.

83

Chapter 11 : International Co-operation

It goes without saying that no single nation alone, nor group of nations, can provide effective solutions to these
problems. Rather, it is essential to secure a high degree of international cooperation and mutual understanding
between nations and groups of nations if the world community is to have any real chance of finding just and
sustainable solutions and of achieving both intergenerational and intragenerational equity - not only in
environmental terms but also economically and politically.

Over the past twenty years, the Community has been playing an important part in international action in the field
of the environment. The Community is a contracting party to some 30 conventions and international agreements,
and is actively supporting the work of different international and regional institutions, such as UNEP, UN-ECE,
OECD and the Council of Europe . In pursuance of its obligations under the Treaty, as amended by the Single
European Act, and under Article 130r.1 of the new Treaty on European Union, the Community's involvement
in international environmental action will be stepped up over the period covered by the Programme.

in order to maintain their evolution potential ;
the
diversity of the species themselves; and lastly the
varietyofthe ecosystems in which they aretobe found ,
Ex-situ conservation should be regarded as a
complement to in-situ conservation and never as a
substitution toit. The convention on biological diversity-
should also addressthe questions concerning access to
biogenetic resources and control of biotechnological
risks .

11.1 The Community's Position on the Major Issues
the Community 's
iate change ,
As regards climate change ,
the Community 's
commitment to stabilise C02 emissions at 1 990 levels
bilise C02 emissions at 1990 levels
by the year 2000 with further reductions thereafter is
/vith further reductions thereafter is
the basis for its position in the ongoing negotiations to
ition in the ongoing negotiations to
draft a framework global Convention on cl imate change.
lobalConventiononclimatechange.
complementary protocols to define
The elaboration of complementary protocols to define
gets and commitments on carbon
targets and commitments on carbon
specific global
ks", particularly forests, on the basis
emissions and "sinks", particularly forests, on the basis
of such framework must also be accelerated . The
rk must also be accelerated . The
Convention should set an ultimate global objective of
stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the global climate, within a time
frame sufficient to al low ecosystems to adapt natural ly.
It should also take into account the common , but
differentiated, responsibilities ofthe Parties, recognizing
that the manner in which they will have to implement
their commitments may depend on their level of
development and greenhouse gas emissions.

The envisaged declaration at UNCED on the
management and development of all forests - temperate,
boreal and tropical - should incorporate a commitment
to conclude an international Convention on forests at
In addition the active
the earliest possible time.
participation of the ITTO and GATT will be necessary
in order to address the particular issue of international
trade in tropical timber with a view to reconciling
imperatives and legitimate trade
environmental
activities in the meantime. Assistance in the forestry
sector requires co-operation and coordination . A
revamping of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, with
an emphasis on a country-driven rather than a donor-
driven approach, will help countries to plan and
manage their own forest resources in a sustainable
way.

The Community is a contracting party to the Vienna
Convention for the protection of the ozone layer and
to the Montrea I Protocol on substances that deplete the
ozone layer. The Community has decided to introduce
unilateral control measures which are more severe
than those in the Protocol . In view of the new scientific
evidence available the Community would support a
bringing forward of the phasing-out schedule agreed
in June 1990, and urge all parties to the Montreal
Protocol to adopt more stringent measures along the
lines of the Community regulation.

The convention to be adopted on biological diversity
at UNCED should recognize that the conservation of
biological diversity for the benefit of present and
future generations is a common responsibility of
mankind, and should ensure its protection at three
different levels : genetic diversity within each species,

84

In conformity with the mandate given by the European
Council and the G-7 economic summit, the Commission
has launched a pilot project for the conservation of the
largesttropical forest ofthe world. This is an exceptional
initiative to which the Commission is participating
with the Brazilian Government and the World Bank,
and involving a total amount of250 million USdollars.
This enables the Community to adopt a positive stance
in the run-up to the UNCED Conference (Rio, June
1 992). It is hoped that the resu Its of the programme can
be successfully applied to other regions.

The Community is in the process of formally adopting
a new regulation to bring its legislation into line with
the existing "Prior Informed Consent" procedures in
the case of international trade in toxic chemicals and
pesticides. The elaboration of
legally binding
international agreementsaimedatupgradingthestatus
of the UNEP London Guidelines for the exchange of
information on chemicals in international
trade, as
well as of the FAO Code of Conduct on distribution of
pesticides would mark a major step forwards. The
establishmentofPriorlnformedConsentprocedurestoreduce
the risks associated to international
trade in genetically
modified organisms would also be highly desirable.

11.2 Other Priority Issues of Major International Importance
The Community should strengthen its invt
The Community should strengthen its involvement in
all relevant
initiatives to protect region ;
initiatives to protect regional seas and
all relevant
In add il
international water courses .
In addition to its
international water courses .
participation in existing agreements for the
participation in existing agreements for the protection
ofthe Mediterranean and the North Sea, the <
ofthe Mediterranean and the North Sea, theCommunity
intends soon to become a contracting p
intends soon to become a contracting party to the
Helsinki Convention on the protection of
Helsinki Convention on the protection of the marine
environmentintheBalticSeaArea.Itisalsop
environment in the Baltic Sea Area. It isalso participating
in the negotiations for the eleboration of a
in the negotiations for the eleboration of a framework
convention on the protection and use oftrar
convention on the protection and use oftransboundary
lakes, as
water courses and international
lakes, as well as of a
water courses and international
number of agreements on several European
number of agreements on several European river basins,
including the Danube basin . A convention
including the Danube basin . A convention on the Elbe
was signed by the European Community together with
Germany and the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic
in 1990, and one on the Oder will be signed shortly.
The Community is actively supporting,
through its
MEDSPA programme, the Environmental Programme
for the Mediterranean launched jointly by the World
Bank and the EIB . This plan provides a good example
of interinstitutional co-operation for the protection of
the environment which could be extended to other
regions.

As regards hazardous wastes, efforts will be directed
towards ensu ri ng the widest possible appl ication ofthe
provisions of the Basle Convention, and towards the
adoption of a specific Protocol to the Convention on
liability and compensation . At the same time,
the
export of hazardous wastes to countries that do not
have the facilities to treat and dispose of the wastes
under the same stringent conditions as apply in the
country oforigin should be banned in accordance with
regional
the Lom£ convention and other relevant
conventions .

11.3 Global Partnership

The ongoing negotiations on global environmental
issues are increasingly demonstrating that a joint effort
by both industrialised and developing countries is
required to establish and execute a coherent and
Its
effective strategy to respond to these challenges.
scientific and technological co-operation must be
strengthened in order to reinforce endogenoustechnical
capacities, flow of know-how and technologies must
be accelerated with the active involvement of all
relevant actors, particularly the business community.

financial

High priority must be attached to the creation of new
resources to cover the
and additional
supplementary costs which might fall on developing
countries in consequence of internationally agreed
measures to protect the global environment.
In its
conclusions on UNCED of 12 December 1991 , the
recognised that new and
Environment Council
additional
resources are needed to assist
developing countries to deal with global environmental
externalities.
the Global
It was also stressed that
Environmental Facility (GEF) should play a leading
role as the multilateral financial mechanism in the

financial

resolution of environmental problems of global
significance in developing countries, although its
structure and procedures should be developed and
adjusted so as to take into account the needs of the
participating partners. The Community, as such, should
be party to the GEF in order to optimize efficiency in
the application ofCommunity funds already committed
for global and environment-related projects.

level . Against

this background,

Recent experiences have shown that
trade and
environment related issues are becoming increasingly
important as environmental policies and strategies are
strengthened and extended at both national and
international
is
essential to accelerate the dia logue on the i nterli nkages
between environmental and trade policies in all relevant
international fora, especially in the GATT. This dialogue
should be one of the main priorities on the post-
Uruguay Round agenda, and recognizingthat uni lateral
use of trade instruments for environmental purposes
should be avoided in principle, should focus on the
role of international trade in promoting sustainable
development.

it

85

11.4 Regional Co-operation

is particularly important

It
to strengthen regional
cooperation to tackle specific transboundary problems,
The introduction of environmental considérations into
regional co-operation instruments and the
establishment and effective enforcement of appropriate
legal agreementsare needed to preventthetransposition
of environmental problems or transfers of pollution
from one country to its neighbours. A high priority
shouldthereforebeattachedtotheadoptionofeffective
rules for the management and protection of shared
environmental
resources for the prevention of
detrimental transboundary impacts, and agreements

on civil liability and compensation for environmental
damage.

In this context, the Community must actively support
regional initiatives in these areas, especially within the
UN-ECEand the Council of Europe, by participating in
impact
the new convention on environmental
assessment
in the
in a transboundary context,
negotiations on prevention and control of
transboundary effects of industrial accidents and
deliberations on civil
liability for damage resulting
from activities dangerous to the environment.

11.5 Institutional Issues

The solution ofthe emergingenvironmental challenges
requires the improvement and strengthening of existing
international
institutions, in particular UNEP, as well
as enhanced coordination between them to ensure
optimum use of resources.

Particular emphasis should be put on achieving a
better scientific understanding of ecological processes
and on improving the collection and dissemination of
environmental information, with a view to providing a
sound basis for international action in this field . To this
end the possibility of creating an international network
of environmental agencies should be considered.

it must be said that the rapid development of
Finally,
international environment law which has taken place
over the past two decades has not a I ways been matched
by a corresponding effort to implement the existing
is
conventions and agreements. For this reason,
essential toestablish appropriate mechanims to monitor
compliance with regional and international
environmental agreements. Questions relating to
prevention and settlement of environmental disputes
have also to be addressed, ensuring the partici pation of
all relevant international actors.

it

86

Chapter 12 : Bilateral Co-operation

Environmental concerns are now being reflected in the bilateral co-operation links established between the
Community and its partners all over the world . Co-operation with other industrialised countries, with a view to
achieving a better coordination ofenvironmental policies and a more effective response to common environmental
challenges has been steadily increasing particularly through active participation in the work carried out by the
OECD . At
the existing mechanisms for consultation and exchange of information on
environmental issues between the Community and its major industrialised partners, namely USA, Canada, Japan
and Australia, need to be substantially reinforced . In the pan-European context, the agreement on the European
Economic Area calls for a progressive convergence of environmental policies in the Community and in EFTA
countries. This convergence should be progressively reflected in international fora, where the positions adopted
by both groups of countries already reflea similar concerns and objeaives.

the same time,

Environmental co-operation with industrialised countries should be reinforced and extended. It is particularly
important to achieve a closer convergence of environmental policies, especial ly as regards those measures which
might have a significant impaa on the competitive position of industry.
is essential to avoid that the
implementation of involving environment policies would have a detrimental effea on the competitiveness of a
country or of a group of countries vis- it -vis its industrialised partners.

It

It is clear however that particular priority should be attached to the reinforcement of environmental co-operation
in view of the extremely severe environmental
with developing and Central and Eastern European countries,
situation these countries are confronted with .

12.1 Developing Countries

The Community is committed to assisting developing
countries in addressing the increasingly grave
environmental problems they face and in achieving
sustainable development. At present,the Community
and its Member states contribute about 47% of total
official development assistance, representing 0,45%
of GDP (over twice the percentage of funds provided
by either the USA or Japan). The Community and
Member States will continue to intensify their efforts:
apart from the additional
financial resources which
will be required to promote the developing countries'
participation in measures aimed at the solution of
global environmental problems,
is necessary to
increase official development aid and to mobilise new
financial resources, especially private ones, to finance
sustainable and environmentally sound development
programmes and projects. The Community and its
Member States reaffirmed in December 1991 their
commitment to reach the accepted UN target of 0,7 %
of GN P for overseas development aid , in order to assist
developing countries in the implementation of
sustainable development policies at the national level .

it

Furthermore, coordination between Community aid
andtheindividual bilateral programmes of the Member
States has been strengthened over time to ensure a
coherent and effaive response to partners’ needs . The
Community is also working towards ever-closer
coordination over long-term aid programming in the
belief that
its partners should not be faced with
conflicting advice, priorities and administrative
procedures from the various donor agencies within
Europe. Such coordination also extends to other
multinational donor institutions.

üj

OJN*L229, 17.M i 9 >

The African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries
At Community level , a significant effort has been
undertaken over the past years to increase the resources
available for co-operation with developing countries,
and to make them more concessional . A comprehensive
co-operation relationship with APC countries has been
established since 1 963 . Environmental proteaion and
sustainable development are playing an increasingly
important part in this relationship. These issues are at
the very core of the Lom£ IV Convention which was
signed in December 1989 and came into effea in
September 1 991 {1 ). The Convention stresses that :

'development shall be based on a sustainable
balance between its economic objeaives,
the
rational management of the environment and the
enhancement of natural and human resources ...
priority must be given to environmental proteaion
and the conservation of natural resources, which
are essential conditions for sustainable and
balanced development from both the economic
and human viewpoints... co-operation shall entail
mutual responsibility for preservation of the natural
heritage.'

A specific title ofthe Convention lists the mai n princi pies
and priorities for ACP/EC environmental co-operation,
and includes provisions for the saeening of all projeas
and programmes for their environmental
impaa, on
the furnishing of adequate information on pesticides
and other toxic chemicals, and measures prohibiting
the export of radioaaive and hazardous waste from the
Community to the APC States.

87

FIGURE 10: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM ALL EUROPEAN SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 1990

Й1ν'·1

RIVM / CCE

Data :
ex CL .s 1990
Emiss.Europe
Reuion :
EUROPE

s

}

1

/

I
I

*

'4

x
• n

\

l

%

η

©

Sli

m

ξ.
s

ild

Si

4

a

/

I

*

20000

PT~~1 fcO EXCEEDANCE
Kl s
S
£~\ *
I
I S
□ 5
I s
I
s
s
Hfl s

200000
10000 00

500 00
1000 00

Unit : eq/lia.yr

l>.Hf 4.f». 1991
kv-m.»rk r\c . C'r»l.l.«»i«l**
1990 KmisvKiimpr

FIGURE 1 1 : DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EUROPEAN SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2000 ON BASIS OF THE
EC "HIGH PRICES' SCENARIO AND THE EXPECTED REDUCTIONS IN THE OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

>

»

I

t
»
i

А

§

minPTJitêfÊli•;rt.

m

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;

77

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fcAétfïSBl

m

\ :

a

88

RIVM/CCE
Data :
exe. I % Cl . or
HP-dcp. in 2000
Region :
EUROPE

□

NO EXCEE0ANCE

S

EH3 4

i

i

200 X

500 00

1000 00

2000 00

7000.00

Unil: eq /ha yr

I XxiM-lïlc : •l uinhiiutl *
Uitc : 27.11.1991
I
Hvin ork : m Cl . CNCCSS O
Hl'-hurup. drpn. ilt 2IMNI

As for the financial resources, the Community will
make available to its ACP partners within the context
of Lom6 IV Convention ,
1 2.000 MECU for the most
part in the form of a subvention , phased over a period
of 5 years. Between 1 986 and 1 989, 230 projects for
combatting desertification were financed amounting
to 1 . 700 MECU . To this, one must add projects for the
management of mari ne resources, for the promotion of
renewable energies and other similar interventions.
Following the first assessment of indicative programmes
of Lome IV, it is expected that an amount of 400 MECU
per annum will be allocated to environmental
programmes.

The Asian and Latin American ( ALA) countries
The evolution in the environmental dimension in the
in the evolution in
Lom£ Conventions has its parallel
policy orientations governing co-operation with the
ALA countries. Under new guidelines established at
the beginning of 1991 , environmental protection is
listed among the priority areas for co-operation . At
least 10% of the total amount available for technical
and financial co-operation with ALA countries (2750
MECU in the period 1991 /95) must be allocated to
environmental projects. The new guidelinesalso stress
the need to integrate environmental evaluation in the
development process as a whole, with the aim of
ensuring long-term protection of the natural resource
base and sustainable development.

The Non-Community Mediterranean Countries
Similarly, the renewed policy orientations in respect of
co-operation with non-Community Mediterranean
foresee a
Countries for the period 1992/1996
reinforcement of regional co-operation in the field of
the environment. Regional projects in this area - e.g.
fight against marine pollution and management of
coastal areas - will be implemented by means of
horizontal co-operation outside bilateral agreements.
An important part of the Mediterranean horizontal
allocations of 230 MECU will be devoted to
environmental projects including,
in particular,
demonstration and training projects. The El B isexpected
to allocate some 1 .800 MECU in loans to the region
coveri ng the enti re range of projects proposed, i ncl ud i ng
environmental projects referred to.
In addition ,
environmental protection is one of the main priorities

for the allocation of funds under the bilateral financial
protocols ( 1.075 MECU in budgetary appropriations
and 1.300 MECU in ElB 's loans). MEDSPA, an
funding programme which enables
environmental
expenditure on technical assistance in non-Community
Mediterranean countries can also contribute in this
area. Taken together, the above elements comprise a
coherent set of financial
instruments which could
significantly contribute to implementing the
commitments and objectives agreed by the riparian
States, the Community, the EIB and the World Bank
when adopting the Nicosia Charter (1 990).

it

is clear that

The Question of Priorities
Although the setting of priorities for cooperation in the
field of the environment with our APC, ALA and
Mediterranean partners must be the result of a bilateral
dialogue which takes account of the specific needs
and priorities of each country,
for
environmental co-operation to work effectively
particular emphasis must be put on institution building
and on the improvement of endogenous technical
capacities in the developi ng countries. No programme
of assistance will be successful if the recipient country
lacks the skills, management, and organizational ability
to formulate and implement appropriate environmental
protection and sustainable development policies. The
reinforcement of scientific and technological co¬
operation with developing countries is of
vital
importance; existing programmes for joint research
and train ingin the environment and development field
should be continued and extended .
In the allocation
of funds and in the choice of projects, high priority
should also be accorded to programming which are
crucial for the development process, such as energy
efficiency and development of renewable energy
sources, combating and reversal of land degradation ,
desertification and deforestation, and protection and
management of fresh water resources.

the Community will

Finally,
establish appropriate
environmental safeguards at both programme and
project levels , as recognized , inter alia, in the Lom£ IV
Convention and in the Resolution on environment and
development adopted by the Development Council in
May 1 990" 1.

12.2 Central and Eastern Europe (CEE)

The momentous political changes in Central and Eastern
Europe have had a major impact on the international
political agenda, with environmental issues featuring
very high on the list of priorities for discussion . The
improvement of environmental standards and the
protection of human health and qual ity of I ife has been
highlighted by the new democratic governments as a
priority to be addressed in parallel with the process of
economic reform and liberalization .

Environmental degradation in many CEE regions is
severe;
in some areas the damage already incurred
may be irreversible. Although the extent and type of
degradation varies from country to country, and from
region to region, common problems prevail . These
problems include extensive acid rain damage to forests
(up to 75% of Pol ish forests are said to be affected), and
the poisoning of complete river systems (the water of
the Vistula is unfit even for industrial use). There is a
permanent high risk of serious industrial accidents
particularly in the nuclear and chemical fields.

89

01

Council Resolution 6723/90 of 29.5.1990

Many of the problems have a regional , transboundary
dimension : the Vistula basin covers most East European
the Elbe crosses the Czech and Slovak
countries,
the Danube basin
Federal Republic and Germany,
covers most of the southern countries : their pollution
spreads into the Baltic, the North Sea and the Black
Sea . Figure 10 indicates the relative impact of
depositions of SO^ and NOx in Europe resulting from
emissions from Europe as a whole in 1990. The
importance of taking a pan-European view in the case
of these depositions can be deduced from Figure 1 1
which indicates the projected depositions in 2000 on
the basis of the most stringent scenario for the EC (see
''acidification') and expected reductions in Central
and Eastern European countries ( based on present
undertakings).

Association Agreements
On 31 December 1991 the Community concluded
Association Agreements with Poland , the Czech and
Slovak Federal Republic and Hungary. They provide
the long-term framework within which relations
between the Community and these countries will
develop includingenvironmental co-operation . Similar
Agreements with Roumania and Bulgaria are currently
being negotiated . Trade and Co-operation Agreements
with the Baltic States and Albania, which will also
contain environmental provisions, are in preparation .

PHARE Environment Sector Strategy and Regional
Programmes
Since the very beginning, environmental protection
has been an integral part of the Community's PHARE
programme ofassi stance for economic reform i n Central
and Eastern Europe. Originally geared to help Poland
and Hungary, the programme now includes the Czech
and Slovak Federal Republic, Roumania, Yugoslavia
and Bulgaria.

The 1990 PHARE environment programmes were
launched in Poland (22 Mecu), Hungary (25 Mecu),
the Czech and Slovak Republic (30 Mecu) and in the
ex-GDR (20 Mecu). Since these programmes compri sed
a relatively large number of different project activities,
PHARE- financed technical assistance teams were set
up in the respective Environment Ministries to assist
with programme preparation and implementation. The
experience of the PF1ARE 1990 programmes, based
largely on 'project shopping lists', underlined the
need for a more strategic approach to the environmental
problems of the region .

Consequently an 'Environment Sector Strategy for
CEE', covering a 3-year period,
prepared by the
Commission, has been endorsed by both the G-24
Environment Working Group and the Environment
Ministers' meeting at Dobris Castle in june 1 991 . This
strategy identifies a number of policy objectives and
including public awareness building,
priorities
strengthening and expansion ofthe institutional , policy
and regulatory frameworks and transfer of information

and technology. This strategy provides the foundation
for the 1991 PHARE Environment Programmes for
Poland (35 Mecu), Hungary ( 10 Mecu), Roumania (2
Mecu), Bulgaria ( 15 Mecu ) and the Czech and Slovak
Federal Republic (5 Mecu ).

In view of
the transboundary nature of most
environmental problems, the first regional environment
programme under PHARE , with a Community
contribution of 20 Mecu , was launched in 1991 . This
programme includes initiatives for the Danube Basin ,
the Black Triangle, the extension of CORINE activities
to CEE, a Report on the State of the Environment in
Europe and applied research .

budget

Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
Under the PHARE Environment Programme, 15 Mecu
have been allocated from the 1991
to a
Regional Nuclear Safety Programme . The Technical
Assistance Programme for the former USSR countries
includes an energy sector programme which provides
53 MECU towards the management and safety of their
nuclear installations . More wide-ranging possibilities
will be offered by the recent co-operation agreement
with the former USSR countries on nuclear safety as
well as from the Eurpean Energy Charter and
consequential Protocols .

Looking to the Future
The task facing these governments is mountainous.
Substantive,
lasting, progress will only be possible
with assistance from the outside, especially from the
Community. During the period covered by the current
Environment Sector Strategy major changes in policy
will be determined ,
institutional and regulatory
frameworks and capabilities strengthened, and the link
between environmental and economic reform
investment needed to
reinforced . But the financial
reduce pollution to critical load levels and to move to
the sustainable use of natural resources in CEE will
require resources which are clearly well beyond those
available under the PHARE and other G-24
Programmes.

Consequently, as we move towards the year 2000,
it
will increasingly be the private and public sectors in
assume
the CEE countries themselves that must
responsibility for generating the required investments
needed to reduce pollution at source. This will require
fundamental changes in pricing policies, substantial
investments in new equipment and technologies, and
even the complete closure of some of the very worst
polluting production units.
Extensive credits and
forward-looking lending policies on the part of both
national and international banking institutions will be
called for.
the role of the recently
established European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development ( EBRD) will be crucial ; indeed the EBRD
has already launched its first lending programmes in
the environment sector in the CEE .

In this context

90

T»ble 19 : INTERNATIONAL EN VIRON MENTAL ISSUES

OBJECTIVES

TARGETS UP TO 2000

MEASURES REQUIRED

PRINCIP1-E ACTORS

1 . Préservation oi
Bio -

Global
diverrity

* no further deterioration of ecosystems
and habitats necessary to maintain
diversity of species and within species

* Global Convention on Biodiversity

International Community

• National and Regional Strategies on

All Countries ( EC +- MS )

2. Control of

• Stabilisation of COj emissions ai 1990

Global Warm *
in g

levels

* Limitation or réduction of CH4 émissions

* Increased energy effiency

• Prolection/enhancement of Greenhouse

gases reservoirs/sinks

Biodiversity
- préventive approach , EIA
- inventories
- protection of forests , wetlands and other
species - rich ecosystems

* Increased technical and financial Assistance

to Developing Countries

• Valuation of biological resources
• Global Gimate Change Convention

- Protocol on CO, émission réductions
- Protocol cn limitation of CH4 emissions
• Increased technical and financial Assistance

to Developing and CEE Countries

* National and Regional Strategies including

- Inventories of Greenhouse gases + sinks
♦ Increased energy effiency
• Promotion of renewable sources of energy
- Economic/ftscal incentives

Industrialized Countries
(including EC)
id
International Community

Individual States ,
Regions , including EC + MS

3 . Protection of
Ozone Laver

• Phase-out of production and use of CFCs,
Halons , Carbontetrachloride and I.I.I.
tri chi ore thane

• Full implemcntation of Montreal Protocol
(incl. technical and financial assistance )

* Review of scientific data and response
• EC Régulations

International Community

id

EC + MS

4 . Protection of

• Maintcnance/reinstalement of forests at

• Global agreemenlon protection, development

Forests

least at 1990 levels

and management of forests

International Community
+ ITTO

* Substantia] reafforestation programmes
for tropical , temperate and boreal forest

areas

• Integrated

protection / sustainable

management of forest areas

• Implementation of forest provisions in global
conventions on biodiversity and climate
change

id

1 O “Target 2000" on timber trade

• 1 1
• Reduced limber consumption,

including
promotion of recycling of paper and board
international

• Restructuring of relevant

Producing + importing
countries, ITTO, EC, GATT
id
International Community

organisations e.g. ITTO, TFAP, UNEP

• National

strategies

for promotion ,

All countries

enhancement and protection of forests

• Finalization of pilot programme on Brazilian
rain-forest; extension to other forest areas
• Increased technical and financial assistances

to developing countries

Brazil , EC, World Bank,
G-7, other countries
International Community
EC

• Monitoring of global forest coverage ,

id

including remote sensing

5 . Promotion of
sustainable
development

* Relief of pressure on the environment in
developing countries resulting from
population growth and poverty

• Adoption and implementation of “Agenda 21”
• Effective implémentation of provisions on

UNCED participants

sustainable development in Lomé IV

EC + ACP

• Integration of environmental objectives
and criteria into macro-economic reform

programmes

• Solution of critical problems for the
development process in developing
countries and in Central and Eastern
Europe

- energy demand and supply
- îand dégradation + désertification
- water resources

• Effective implementation of environmental
guidelines for co-operation between EC and
ALA countries

• Effective implementation of NicosiaQiarter
• PHARE national and regional programmes
• Increased technical and financial assistance
to all developing countries for die formulation
and implementation of national and regional
programmes for sustainable development
- institutional strengthening
- financial resources
- scientific and technical
operation and assistance

transfer, co ¬

• Increased public health and environmental

awareness
- govemement, local and rcgio?ial authority

and corporate decision-makers

- general public

EC + ALA

Mediterranean Countries
EC, EIB , MAP. World Bank
International Community
EC , World Bank , G-24 , EIB ,
Multinational
companies , financial
institutions , Research
and Technological Bodies

International Community
Individual countries
NGOI

* Codes of conduct for enterprise*

• Investment
for:'vr <

in environmental cleanup in
-. med countries

International Community
EC , MS, Enterprises
irtemaria Caanmty, BC.ftlARE, Warid
JUL dfi. BcRD, Frspai inaoskn

91

Chapter 13 :
UNCED : The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development

Just as the 1972 Conference in Stockholm created a
new awareness and concern about the environment at
broad international
level, so too can the 1992 UN
Conference in Rio de Janeiro bring global political will
and commitment
to effective action into a new
dimension . The basic aim of the Conference is to
elaborate strategies and measures to halt and reverse
the effects ofenvi ron mental degradation and to promote
sustainable and environmentally sound development
in all countries. It should therefore mark the transition
from a model ofdevelopment almost exclusively aimed
at promoting economic growth towards a model
environmental protection and rational
wherein
management of natural
resources will be taken on
board as integral componentsofdevelopment patterns.

1991 ,

The Community and its Member States are actively
participating in UNCED's preparatory process.
In
the Commission tabled a
October
communication to the Council ("A common platform
: Guidelines for the Community for UNCED 1 992"(1 ))
proposing some basic orientations to guide the
the Conference . This
Community 's stance at
communication provided the basis for the adoption of
the Council 's conclusions of 12 December 1991 on
UNCED, where it was particularly stressed that,
although sustainable development is important to all
countries, whateverthe present stateoftheireconomies,
there is a special responsibility on the more developed
countries, not only to pursue sustainability themselves,
in a fair and
but also to assist other countries,
trust and
constructive partnership based on mutual
equity, to make progress in the same direction.

Apart
from the expected adoption of framework
conventions on climate change and biodiversity and of
a statement of principles on conservation and
development of forests ( including a commitment to
conclude a legally binding instrument at the earliest
possible time) UNCED 's output should include two
key elements :

*

*

An “Earth Charter* or Declaration of basic rights
and obligations with respect to environment and
development.
An agenda for action, “Agenda 21 “, which will
constitute the agreed work programme of the
international community for the period beyond
1 992 and into the 21 st century.

It
is clear that the outcome of UNCED will deeply
influence the Community's actions, policies and
objectives in the years to come . The implementation
of the principles and measures to be agreed at the
Conference will require, first of all , a reassessment of
the Community's own internal policies; secondly, in
conformity with the Dublin Declaration ,
the
Community must continue its efforts to
promote
international action to protea the environment and to
meetthe specific needs and requirements of its partners
in the developing world and in Central and Eastern
Europe.

In the case of the link between the ACP countries and
the Community under the Lom£ Convention ,
the
UNCED process will deepen joint reflection on future
programmes and will help to promote mutual priorities
in matters of protection and conservation of the
environment .

The internal and external dimensions of Community
environment policy are inextricably linked .
Both
aspects will have to be duly integrated to build up a
coherent and effective response to the complex
problemson UNCED's agenda. Whateverthe remaining
uncertainties about
the extent and depth of the
environmental damage we are inflicting upon our
planet, the overwhelming evidence is that the threats
and risks posed by current trends in consumption and
behaviour are much too great to justify.

92

m

SEC (91 ) 1693 final , 30.10.1991

PART NI

Priorities, Costs, Review

93

Chapter 14 : Selection of Priorities

Because this Programme is as much about policy and
strategy designed to change current trends as about
specific actions, and because it is based on the principle
ofsubsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibil ity,
there is less a question of selection of priorities than a
choice of critical paths. Clearly,
in the case of some
long-term objectives, as could apply in the transport
and energy sectors for example, certain steps have to
be taken as a matter of priority now in order to produce
In
the desired results over an extended time-frame.
cases involving interaction between the public and
private sectors,
rules or
establishment of guidelines by the former may be a
prerequisite for actions by the latter, thereby indicating
different time-frames and priorities in a common field
of action .

the determination of

Horizontal Measures
In order to change patterns of consumption and
behaviour in society so as to make them compatible
with the concept of sustainability' it will be necessary
to strike a new balance between the perceived short¬
term benefits of individual persons or bodies and the
long-term benefit of society as a whole. While the
regulatory approach will continue to have an important
funaion it would not be able to achieve the desired
balance without the addition of complementary
measures. To this end ,
the following horizontal
measures are accorded priority :
*

Improvement of Data : basic information , trends,
indicators;
Getting the Prices Right : internal isation ofexternal
costs through valuation and costing mechanisms,
incentives,
cost/benefit analysis, economic/fiscal
environmental auditing, civil liability, etc.;

*

*

*
*

Information , Education and Training of all
economic actors including policy-makers,
planners, managers, workers, consumers;
Full IntegrationofEnvironmentandOtherPolicies
Stria Implémentation and Enforcement

Priority Fields of Action
In the endeavour to move towards a more sustainable
balance between human aaivity and socio-economic
development and the resources and regenerative
capacity of nature, priority is accorded to the following
fields of aaion :
*

Sustainable Management of Natural Resources:
soil , water, natural areas and coastal zones
Integrated Pollution Control
Prevention and Management of Waste
Reduaion in the Consumption of Non-Renewable
Energy

*
*
*

* More Efficient Management of Mobility
Improvement of the Urban Environment
*
Improvement of Health and Safety, with special
*
risk assessment and
emphasis on industrial
management, nuclear safety and radiation
proteaion .

It will be noted that,
in keeping with the principle of
subsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibility
which permeates this Programme, many ofthe specific
aaions envisaged will fall to be carried out at levels
other than that of the Community. Furthermore,
pursuant to Treaty requirements on integration of
environment into other policies, some of the above
priority areas will fall to be pursued partly, or primarily,
within the ambit of policies such as those on agriculture,
energy and transport.

95

Chapter 15 : The Question of Cost

General considérations
One of the major shortcomings of economic policy in
the past has teen its failure to take into account or
measure accurately the full external costs imposed on
the environment . Historically, the Earth's eco-system
has been treated as an infinite source of raw materials,
energy, water etc.

Society's i ncome (or GDP) was seen to depend on ly on
capital and labour resources . However, it is now clear
that society's income today and in the future and the
sustained production of goods and services depend
not just on the availabilityofcapitalandlabourbutalso
on natural and environment resources. Failure to
properly account for, cost and value the environment
and environment policy may lead to a wholly
misleading understandingof society's wealth, its income
and its real sustainable development potential .

Policies which are designed to promote economic
development are doomed to eventual failure if they do
not include the environmental din tendon as an integral
component . The climatic changes, acidification ,
desertification,
flooding, toxic waste and pollution
which are causing so much concern today can all be
traced back, to one extent or another, to short-sighted
actions for economic gain which failed to take the
longer-term environmental costs into account. Just as
a sound business enterprise endeavours to maintain
and increase its capital value and invests in facilities,
expands production , buys new equipment and
improves the quality of its services in order to protect
its long-term health, so also Planet Earth requires
certain types of 'investments'
in order to maintain
itself as a healthy ecosystem and to ensure long-term,
sustainable, economic growth . Future generations
depend on the investments we make now. Failure to
make these investments in due time could ultimately
put whole regions and ultimately civilization itself out
of business.

Practical Difficulties in Costing the Environment and
its Preservation
Firstly, it is not possible to indicate the potential "cost”
of the Programme as a whole to the Member States, the
regional and local authorities and the economic actors.
If the concept of sustainable development has any
credibility, the ultimate benefits should outweigh the
so-called costs over time;
in this context, the new
Treaty (Article 1 30r.3 ) requires that the real cost of
non-action be taken i nto account i n any su ch equation;
if the costs of 'non-action' are not taken into account,
tend to be biased against a
decision-making will
sustainably optimal policy response. However,
in
practical terms, a number of major difficulties arise :

( i )

the physical state of

Information about
the
environment is often lacking or insufficient. There
is uncertainty about the tolerance limits of the
environment .

( ii ) Thecostsofenvironmental damage or the benefits
of repairing the environment or costs of "non-
action " are difficult to assess, with practical
techniques only just beginning to emerge.

( ii i) The val ue ofthe environment to future generations
requires the choice of an appropriate discount
rate, itself a potentially controversial

issue.

iv) Unlike business which uses money as a common
unit of measurement, there is no "numeraire" for
environmental variables. This means it is difficult
to weigh up true opportunity costs of improving
one environmental variable against another. Also
because some environmental threats may damage
human health and, secondly, because ultimately
all environmental variables interl ink, environment
" holistic "
policy requires an integrated or
approach.

(v) Community public policy choices are governed
not just by environmental costs and benefits (even
if measurable) but by other principles enumerated
in the Treaty (e.g. precautionary and preventive
principles, social cohesion etc.)

Also, there should be a clear understanding that certain
aspects of the environment are or can be "priceless"
and thereby not susceptible to normal economic costing
mechanisms such as cost-benefit analysis or the free
play of market forces e.g. an adequate quality level of
drinking water,
the last giant panda or elephant, the
singing of birds, aspects of cultural heritage. Where
satisfactory economic evaluation and costing is not
possible, qualitative evaluation is an indispensable
tool for acceleratingthe full integration ofenvironmental
considerations into the decision making process and
transition towards sustainable development To this
end, instruments such asenvironmental indicators and
environmental
impact assessments should be further
developed and refined .

None of this is to deny the importance of costing
environmental policiesand programmes. In accordance
with the Treaty, an analysis of the potential costs and
benefits of action and non-action will be undertaken in
developing specific formal proposals within the
Commission . In developing such proposals every care
will be taken as far as possible to avoid the imposition
of this disproportionate costs and to ensure that the
benefits will outweigh the costs over time.

96

In this latter respect,

Future Perspectives on Costing
As soon as may be possible, then, a broad and balanced
approach to the design and the choice ofenvironmental
priorities must be elaborated , based on the fullest
possible assessment of all relevant costs and benefits.
In the same vein, the selection of instruments should be
targets to be
such as to allow given environmental
reached with least costs.
the
measurement of costs should include the administrative
or resource costs carried by the public sector and an
economic evaluation of the diminution of the natural
resources stock as well as the compliance costs faced
by enterprises and private households. The following
5-point plan is advanced as a package to be pursued
during the term of the Programme in order to come to
terms with the difficulties outlined above and to devise
an appropriate and effective costi ng mechanism which
will serve the dual
requirement of environmental
protection and sustainable development :

*

As a matter of priority, improved information on
the state ofthe envi ronment, appropriate indicators
and tolerance capacities must be made available
to policy makers in order to better define
sustainable development parameters.

Further intensive research efforts are needed to
value and account
for the environment ;
international coordination and burden-sharing
should be encouraged wherever possible in this

domain . Appropriate discount rates should be
chosen to safeguard the rightsof future generations
with due allowance for uncertainty and risk.

A Community cost-benefit methodology should
be drawn-up as a matter of urgency which could
be applied to all projects and policies with an
environmental dimension . Consideration should
be given to whether the costs of "shadow"
environmental
restoration projects should be
included in economic cost-benefit analyses and
under what conditions such shadow projects
should be given preference (e.g. in conditions of
great uncertainty).

All Community environmental policies and other
policies havingan environmental dimension must
be costed as comprehensively as possible, taking
i nto account al I costs and benefits of " action " and
" non-action" in conformity with Article 130r of
the Treaty. Where possible priorities should be
determined on the basis of where benefits are
highest.

Environmentally adjusted ( i.e. to take account of
resource stock of air, water, soil ,
the natural
landscape, heritage etc) national accounts should
be available on a pilot basis from 1 995 onwards
for all Community countries, with a view to formal
adoption by the end of the decade .

Chapter 16 : Review of the Programme

The road to sustainable development both within the
Community and beyond will be a long one. This
Community Programme isintented to initiate changes
in behaviour and trends at Community level ,
in the
Member States, in the business world and at the level
of the ordinary citizen . The approach adopted
throughout is to determine
*

objectives, either specific or general , pointing
towards a sustainable development path;
targets for the period up to 2000 so that there will
be either a quantifiable or qualitative measure of
progress; and
actions to be taken in the short-to- medium term to
initiate the journey and/or to accelerate progress.

*

*

Becauseof inadequaciesin base-linedataand projected
trends there are bound to be uncertainties about the
validity of certain targets or the urgency of certain
actions. However, the Heads of State and Government
of the Community have determined that, in aiming for
sustainable development, the precautionary approach
should apply.

While this Programme adopts the end of the decade as
its horizon , the present intention is to have it "rol I over"
at an intermediate stage . Apart from the expected
improvement in relevant information and availability
of results from the Community's current
research
programme on the environment 0990-94), there will
be major reviews of Community policies on industry,
energy, transport, agriculture and the Structural Funds
over the next few years.

Applying the analogy of a large ship, which takes
considerable time and space to manoeuvre, the 1 992 -
95 phase should be viewed as a priming period,
changing the sense of direction and commitment, and
the 1 996-2000 phase as getting the operation under
full steam. Accordingly, a comprehensive reappraisal
of the situation will be undertaken and an up-dated
report on the state of the environment and a review of
the policy-cum-strategy set out in this Programme will
be published before the end of 1 995 .

97

Conclusion

We are at a turning point
in the integration of
issues into the other policies of the
environment
Community. The impact of the Internal Market, the
need to put sustainable development at the heart of
other policies and to set an adequate example to the
rest of the world require a major change in approach.

This Programme itself constitutes a turning point. It sets
out for the first time both a strategy and timetable for
the actions necessary to ensure that the Community
itself moves towards a sustainable economy, and for
assisting less-developed neighbours to do so also. This
Programme is not merely a task for the Community
institutions: it will require the full partnership and full
support of al I the actors necessary to make it work. The
Community can only provide the framework.

The achievement of this Programme and its objective
of sustainable development constitutes one of the
major political and economic challenges for the
Community between now and the year 2000. It is the
basis for the 'more enlightened and more systematic
the
approach to environmental management" that
European Council
in June 1990 felt was urgently
required. To fail to rise to this challenge would not only
be detrimental to the present generation but would
also constitute a grave disservice to future generations.
its citizens must take their
The Community and all
responsibilities in their own hands.
It is above all a
shared responsibility which requires collective action.

THE ENVIRONMENT IS DEPENDENT ON OUR
COLLECTIVE
TOMORROW 'S
ENVIRONMENT DEPENDS ON HOW WE ACT
TODAY.

ACTIONS ;

98