GREEN PAPER ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT: COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND PARLIAMENT
Date: 1990-06-27
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: architectural heritage, energy consumption, environmental policy, urban centre, urban economy, urban habitat, urban infrastructure, urban problem, urban transport, urbanisation

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN  COMMUNITIES 

COM(90)  218 

f i n al 

B r u s s e l s,  27  June  1990 

GREEN  PAPER  ON  THE  URBAN  ENVIRONMENT 

Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  Council  and  Parliament 

TABLE OF CONTPHJS 

INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER ONE : THE FUTURE OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 

1. City and  Urbanization 

The spread of urbanization 
The city as a project 
The essence of a European approach 
The role of c 111 es 
Creativity 

2. The Urban Environment 

The comp I ex i ty of the urban env I ronment 
Urban pol lution 
The bu i 11 env I ronment 
Nature in the city 

3. The Root Causes of Urban Dégradât Ion 

Functional Ism 
Production and organisation of work 
Distribution and conception 
Hote I s, restaurants and hous i ng 
Tour I sm 
Commun I cat Ion and mob 111 ty 

1 

6 

6 

7 
7 
8 
9 

9 

10 

11 

14 

22 

25 

25 

26 
26 
27 

28 

29 

29 

CHAPTER TWO:TOWARDS A COMMUNITY STRATEGY FOR THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT...31 

1. Targets for Urban Environmental  Improvement 

2. Constraints on effective environmental management 

3. Guiding Principles for Urban Environmental  Improvement 

4. Instruments of Community Action 

5. Areas of Action 

5.1. Urban p I ann ing 
5.2. Urban transport 
5.3. The protection and enhancement of the historical 

her i tage of European c i t i es 

5.4. Protection and enhancement of the natural environment 

within our towns and cities. 

5.5. Water management 
5.6. Urban Industry 
5.7. Urban energy management 
5.8. Urban waste 
5.9. Comparative information on the state of the urban 

env I ronment 

31 

32 

34 

35 

39 

40 

42 

46 

47 
48 
48 
49 
51 

52 

5.10. Informat ion  in It lat Ives 
5.11 .Social  Initiât Ives 
5.12. Interregional  co-operat ion 

6.  Resume of priority suggested  lines of action 

7.  The next steps 

52 

53 
54 

54 

57 

Appendix  1 : Articles of Treaty covering environment 

-  1 -

INTRODUCTION 

Dealing with  the problems of  the urban environment  requires going 
beyond  sectoral  approaches.  However  useful  and  necessary  the 
setting  of  targets  for  air  quality, water  quality,  maximum  noise 
levels,  etc.  In  Directives  and  Recommendations,  finding  lasting 
solutions  to  the  environmental  problems  facing  our  cities 
requires  a  wider  view  of  their  origins.  This  means  addressing 
not  Just  the  proximate  causes  of  environmental  degradation,  but 
examining  the social  and economic choices which  are  the  real  root 
of  the problems. 

The  problems of  the cities  are an early warning  signal  of  a more 
deep-seated  crisis which  will  force us  to  rethink  current  models 
of  organisation  and  urban  development.  Of  course,  not  all 
European  cities  suffer  Identical  problems, given  their  different 
levels  of  economic  and  social  development,  different  economic 
functions, and geography.  But  they  have much  In common. 

This  Green  paper  is  Intended  as  a  first  step  towards  debate  and 
reflection, and attempts  to  identify possible  lines of  action. 

It may  be asked why  the Commission of  the European Communities  is 
taking  up  the  problems of  the cities and  their  environment.  Why 
can  these  problems  not  be  addressed  and  solved  at  the  local 
level? What  contribution can  the Community  possibly  make 7 

It  is  important  to  recognize  that  the  majority  of  Community 
policies  have,  directly  or  indirectly,  an  influence  on  urban 
areas.  Article  130r  of  the  Treaty  as  amended  by  the  Single  Act 
makes  allowance  for  Community  action  for  the  protection  of  the 
Environment  which  must  Include  the  potential  of  such  action 
within  urban  areas.  The  full  text  of  which  is  Include  in 
Appendix  I of  this document. 

There  are  a  number  of  existing  Community  actions  which  are 
targeted  at  the  urban  environment  -  its  air,  water,  noise  and 
waste  -  and  hence  at  the  quality  of  life  in  the  cities 
themselves.  There  are  also  Community  activities  helping  to 
preserve  the  architectural  heritage  which  constitutes  the 
cultural  and  artistic  wealth  of  our  cities.  Community  funded 
investments  and  programmes  through  both  the  Regional  Development 
and  Social  Funds  also  have  a  considerable  impact  on  cities  in 
less developed  areas  and  those  suffering  from  industrial  decline 
and high  unemployment 

Moreover, many  sectoral,  industrial  and  research  policies  of  the 
Community  in  such  areas  as  transport,  energy  and  social  affairs 
do  have  a  bearing  on  the  development  of  our  cities.  There  is a 
need  to make  sure  that  these  Influences  are  fully  recognized  and 
control led. 

-  2 -

The  primary  focus  for  action  to  Improve  the urban  environment  is 
clearly  the  Individual  city.  But  achieving  major  Improvements 
will  require  action  at  national  and Community  level  as well, with 
roles and  responsibilities assigned  to each within  a  framework of 
cooperative  partnership.  At  the Community  level,  It  Is  Important 
that  the  various  sectoral  policies  take  due  account  of  the 
problems  of  the  urban  areas  and  converge  into  a  Community 
strategy  for  Europe's cities. 

In  fact,  the  need  for  an  Integrated  approach  to  the  urban 
environment  is  already  stressed  In  the  Fourth  Environmental 
Action  Programme  (1987-1992),  which  states  that  "One  priority 
will  be  to  consider  to  what  extend  the  Community's  existing 
structural  funds  (and  notably  the  European  Regional  Fund)  could 
be  directed  to  comprehensive  environmental  programmes  In  inner 
city  areas.  It will  therefore  be of  special  importance  to ensure 
that  an  adequate  level  of  funding  is  available  to  enable  the 
Community 
public 
authorities  and  local  industry,  in  urban  renewal  schemes  which 
take  full  account  of  both  environmental  and  regional  policy 
requirements".  This may  require a special  financial  facility. 

participate 

adequately, 

along 

with 

to 

The  Programme  also  commits  the Commission  to present  a  report  to 
the Council  "which will  examine  how  the public and  private  sector 
and  other  interests  can  work  together  towards  the  rehabilitation 
of  certain  urban areas...". 

Moreover,  solving  the  problems  of  the  city  would  make  a  major 
contribution  to  solving  the  most  pressing  global  environmental 
problems, notably  the greenhouse effect  and  acid  rain.  For  it  is 
In  the  cities  that  we  find  the  greatest  concentration  of 
population  and  economic  activity  -  and  hence  of  emissions.  And 
it  Is  the  cities  which  make  the  crucial,  long-term  and  often 
Irreversible  decisions  on  infra-structure  investments  in  energy 
supply, waste  and water  treatment, and  transport. 

A Community  role  in urban environment  would  also meet  the  growing 
demand  by  the  cities  themselves  for  greater  opportunities  for  an 
exchange of  Information and  practical  experience.  The  Commission 
recognizes  that  other  organisations,  particularly  the  Council  of 
Europe,  have  for  some  time  been  encouraging  interregional 
cooperation  on  urban  issues.  In  the  development  of  Community 
policies  and  programmes,  the  Commission  will  take  note  of  the 
work  already  achieved,  such  as  initiatives  on  urban  renovation 
and  protection  of  historic  buildings,  or  planned  by  the  Council 
of  Europe  to  ensure  that  Initiatives  are  complementary  and  not 
duplicative. 

The  Commission  can  play  a  crucial  role  in  facilitating  such 
exchanges.  However  diverse  in detail, Europe's major  cities  face 
common  problems.  But  frequently  they know  little of  each  other's 
experiences  and  projects.  The  preparation  of  this  Green  Paper 
showed  clearly  that  the  cities  look  to  the  Community  to  remedy 
this situât ion. 

3  -

Methodology 

This  Green  Paper  was  conceived  as  an  instrument  for  identifying 
the  full  range of  difficulties  confronting  Europe's  conurbations, 
so  as  to  devise  adequate  solutions  to  real  problems.  We  have 
thus  organized  a  wide  consultation  with  those  responsible  for 
managing  urban  problems,  with  technical  experts,  and  with 
academics  and  professionals concerned  with urban  Issues. 

For  this  purpose,  six  International  conferences  were  organized 
around  the  following priority  themes : 

(1)  Disused  Industrial  Areas 

Derelict  industrial  sites  in cities  with  an  industrial  past 
can  provide  a  strategic  opportunity  to  establish  services 
and  infrastructure  linked  to  the  centre.  Examples  are 
Milan's  PlrelIi-Blcocca,  Turin's  Lingotto,  the  new  projects 
for  the  Industrial  zones  of  Bilbao,  Rotterdam,  Birmingham, 
Barcelona  and  others. 

RededIeating  such  sites often  involves projecting  a new  role 
and  image  for  the  city  to make  it attractive  for  productive 
and  residential  investment  -  an  opportunity  for  new  ideas 
and  a  stimulus  for  innovation.  Where  some  industrial 
activities remain, old  and new  functions of  the city  need  to 
be  harmonized. 

Two conference  were dedicated  to this theme, one  In Brussels 
(June  1989)  and  one  In  Terni  (December  1989)  concerned 
specifically with  the problems of  steel  towns. 

(2)  The Urban  Periphery 

Urban  growth  has  spawned  vast  built-up  areas  which  lack 
essential  qualities  we  associate  with  cities 
history, 
functional  differentiation,  cultural  and  other  forms  of 
infrastructure  -  in  short,  a  recognizable  and  unique 
individuality with which  the citizen can  Identify. 

These  monotonous  areas  lay  siege  to  the  more  structured 
parts  of  the  city.  They  often  harbour  poverty,  crime  and 
drug  abuse,  problems  of  our  modern  society  subject  to 
increasing  attention  from  authorities  at all  levels. 

The  conference  of  Louvain  (October  1989)  dealt  with  this 
theme  of  urban  "fragmentation"  and  provided  examples  of 
projects  which  revitalized  such  areas  and  established 
functional  and  formal  links  with  the  centre,  transforming 
them  from  faceless dormitories  to organic  parts of  the city. 

-  A 

-

In  the  coming  years,  a  great  deal  of  planning  and  financial 
resources  will  be  devoted  to  these  two  great  challenges  : 
derelict  land  and  urban  sprawl.  More broadly,  the  city  Inherited 
from  the  19th  century  offers great  opportunities  for  renewal:  Its 
barracks,  hospitals,  railway  stations,  abattoirs  and  other  19th 
century  relics  can  be  replaced  or  put  to new  uses  to  Improve  the 
qua IIty of  our  cities. 

(3)  The  Quality  of  the  Urban  Environment,  Public  Spaces  and 

Green  Areas. 

The  "empty"  spaces  -  the  squares,  parks  and  similar  areas 
which  lend  character  to  our  cities  -  are  being  assailed  by 
the  motorcar  and  bill  boards,  while  in  the  periphery  these 
urban  features  may  be  lacking  altogether.  Creating  a 
quality  environment  requires  more  than  putting  out  few 
benches,  potted  plants  and  waste  baskets  in  pedestrian 
areas.  It calls  for  a comprehensive  approach. 

The  conference  held 
series  of  ongoing 
and Rotterdam. 

in  Rome 
exper iments 

(December  1989)  examined  a 
in  Britain,  Barcelona,  Rome 

(4)  Urban  Pollution  in Northern  and  Southern  Europe 

Two  conferences,  one  in  Avignon  (December  1989)  and  the 
other  In Bremen  (January  1990),  looked  at  the  practical  and 
Immediately  pressing  problems  of  the  urban  environment  and 
possible  Community  help  in addressing  these; 

With  one of  the conferences  dealing  with  the problems  of  the 
southern  cities,  and  the  other  with  those  of  the  North,  a 
comparison  became  possible,  taking  into  account  differences 
which  went  beyond  climate  to  include  those  of  history, 
culture  and  society.  Both  conferences  dealt  with  air  and 
noise 
and 
contaminated  soils. 

urban  waste 

pollution, 

disposal, 

water, 

These  six  conferences  have  been  extremely  useful  in preparing  the 
Green  Paper.  They  combined  firsthand  observation,  information 
about  ongoing  projects  and  the collection of  recent  data. 

Finally,  it  is  Important  to stress  the  horizontal  approach  which 
has guided  the preparation  of  this Green  Paper.  Treating  each  of 
the  factors  threatening  the  city  environment  in  isolation  leads 
to  short-term  solutions  -  mere  palliatives  or  simple  delaying 
action.  Thus,  it  is  not  enough  to  worry  about  air  quality  only 
when,  as  happens  every  winter,  inversion  renders  the  air  of  many 
cities  unbreathabie.  This  leads  to  "emergency"  measures  which 

-  5  -

fall  to  address  basic  causes.  What  is  needed  is  a  critical 
analysis  of  urban  structures,  their  functioning  and  mode  of 
development  :  It  Is here  that  the  remedies  to  improve  the  urban 
environment  need  to be  sought. 

What  Is  clear,  however,  Is  that  the  cities  will  continue  to  be 
crucial  to  the  further  economic  and  social  development  of  Europe. 
Technological  change  may  seem  to  Indicate  otherwise.  The  old 
steel  or  shipbuilding  towns  like Liverpool. Sheffield,  Lille,  the 
Ruhr,  and  Genoa  do  Indeed  suffer  the  effects  of  structural 
change.  Non-urban  areas  of  economic  activity, 
linked  to 
electronics,  are  emerging,  for  example  In  Flanders,  southern 
France  or  the  Tiber  region  near  Rome.  Moreover,  global 
in  the  global  village  allows  decentralized 
communication 
activities  ranging  from  financial  services,  to  research  and 
Integrated  production directed  by  a distant  computer. 

information 
But,  paradoxically,  the  ease  of  long-distance 
Increases  the need  for  face-to-face  contacts.  The  cities  provide 
this  through  their  density  and  through  their  role  as  transport 
"hubs".  The  creative development  of modern  products  and  services 
requires  the  presence  of  a  large  variety  of  specialized  inputs 
which  the  cities  most  easily  provide.  "Culture"  Is  now 
recognized  as  a  factor  which  extends  beyond  private  life  to 
playing  a crucial  part  in economic  creativity. 

Most  European  cities  have  stopped  growing  and  -  like  an 
individual  in mid-life  -  have  begun  to  reflect  on  their  purpose, 
their  assets  and  their  choices  for  the  future.  There  are 
exceptions  to  this  In  the  South, where  rural  migration  continues 
to  swell  the  population  of  some  cities;  and  in  cities  like 
Berlin,  which  are  coping  with  new  migrants  of  a  different  sort. 
But  even,  and  perhaps  especially,  in  these  cities  under  stress, 
basic  questions  concerning  the  quality  of  the  environment  are 
being  posed. 

In general, however, population  growth  has stabilized.  Attention 
Is shifting  from  creating  new districts  to  Improving  and  renewing 
existing  ones.  This  process  Involves  more  than  ecology  in  the 
strict  sense, but  architecture  itself.  The  historical  centres of 
our  cities  have  been  savaged  by  the  Intrusion  of  anonymous  boxes 
In  the  International  style.  Re-creating  harmony  with  the  old 
means  more  than  mimicking  superficial  stylistic  elements.  It 
requires  respect  for  fundamental  traditions  In  the  choice  of 
materials,  diversity  of  buildings  and  multiplicity  of  purposes. 
Mere  zoning  must  be  replaced  by  developing  the  city  as  a  project 
which  assure  a new quality of  social  and economic  life. 

-  6 -

CHAPTER  ONE  : THE FUTURE OF THE URBAN  ENVIRONMENT 

1. City  and  Urbanization 

From  the  Middle  Ages  to  modern  times,  Europe's  social,  cultural 
and  economic  development  has  been  based  on  the  city  .- the  power 
of  the  Italian  city-state,  the  prosperity  of  the  Hanse  towns  and 
Europe's  great  port  cities,  the  sway  of  the  capitals  of 
principalities  and  kingdoms,  the  creativity  of  university  towns 
such  as  Bologna,  Prague,  Paris or  Colmbra.  European  cities  show 
the  traces  of  struggles  between  city  and  country,  rulers  and 
ruled,  rich  and  poor  -  testimony  to  their  role  In  social  and 
political  development  which,  as  Leipzig  proved 
in  1989, 
cont inues. 

Their  common  history  has  given  European  cities  a  common  face  : 
the  small  streets  and  alleys  of  Mediaeval  centres;  the  grand 
works  of  18th  century  princes;  the  great  transformations  of  the 
19th  and  early  20th  centuries;  the  growth  of  suburbs  and 
dormitory  towns,  Joined  later  by  giant  shopping  centres;  the 
decline  of  centres  as  dwellings  for  middle  and  upper  income 
groups  in a  number  of  cities  in favour  of  specialised  commercial 
and  administrative  activities;  and  finally  the  invasion  of 
traffic  congestion,  urban  motorways,  and  uniform  and  mediocre 
architecture  In centre  and  periphery  alike. 

As  we  move  towards  the  21th  century,  Europe's  cities  will 
continue  to be  the main  centres of  economic  activity,  innovation 
and  culture.  Managing  the  urban  environment  and  the  quality  of 
life  of  its  citizens  therefore  goes  well  beyond  concern  for  the 
physical  well-being  of  the  Community's  urban  population.  At 
stake  is  the  quality  of  "civilization"  in  its  most  practical 
manifestations of economic,  scientific and social  performance. 

Can  we  speak  of  "cities"  or  must  we  think  In  terms  of  "urban 
areas"?  Using  the  vocabulary  of  the  past  may  impede  our 
understanding of  new  realities.  The wider  term  seeks  to describe 
the  modern  phenomenon,  where  a  historic  centre  -  itself  greatly 
changed  -  Is  surrounded  by  a  periphery  of  high-rise  dormitories 
or  suburban  houses.  Urban  areas  are  divided  and,  at  the  same 
time,  linked  by  a  network  of  communication  -  motorways  and 
railways which  allow  constant  movement  of  people  and  goods. 

There  are  no  clear  limits  to  the  periphery,  nor  is  its  structure 
sharply  defined.  At  the  extreme,  "urban  areas"  negate  the 
concept  of  the  city  Itself  : they  become  "post-urban"  phenomena, 
far  removed  from  the  traditional  Image of  the  pre-industrial  and 
even  19th  century  city.  Some  experts  at  the OECD  or  UN  dispense 
with  the  notion  of  "urbs"  altogether  and  prefer  to  speak  of 
"human  settlements",  no  doubt  In distinction  to  nature  reserves 
or  uninhabitable geological  features. 

-  7 -

The spread of  urbanization 

More  than  as  a  concept  of  settlement,  urbanization  can  be 
understood  as  a  pattern  of  Individual  and  social  behavior 
social 
Information 
Consumption 
relationships  are  no  longer  those  of  the  neighbourhood  or  the 
extended  family  of  the  pre-lndustrial  village.  In  this  sense  a 
single urban  life-style characterizes much of  the  Community. 

patterns, 

networks 

and 

European  cities also  resemble  each other  for  a different  reason  : 
they  Increasingly  harbour  the poorest  members of  society  In  inner 
city  ghettos  or  slums  at  the  periphery.  Yet  this  phenomenon 
creates  its  own  diversity,  as  former  city  dwellers,  rural 
migrants,  European  and  non-European  newcomers  live  In  sometimes 
uneasy  co-existence.  Rural  and  "foreign"  life  styles  blend  only 
slowly  Into  the  uniformity  Imposed  by  modern  production  and 
consumption,  and constantly  renew  the rich diversity which  is one 
of  the assets of urban  life. 

The  city  as a project 

Has  the  spread  of  "urban  areas" and  life-styles made  the  concept 
of  the  "city"  irrelevant  ?  True, with  a  few  exceptions,  today's 
cities  have  little  In  common  with  their  18th  and  19th  century 
predecessors.  Yet  the  past  decades  have  seen  a  rediscovery  of 
the  value  of  urban  living  and  a  growing  appreciation  of  the 
importance of  quality of  life  in the cities of  Europe. 

In part  this  reflects  the  failure of  the  periphery  : the  absence 
of  public  life,  the paucity  of  culture,  the  visual  monotony,  the 
time  wasted  In  commuting.  By  contrast,  the  city  offers  density 
and  variety-,  the  efficient,  time-  and  energy-saving  combination 
of  social  and  economic  functions-,  the chance  to restore  the  rich 
architecture  Inherited  from  the  past.  "Urban  areas"  are  a 
statistical  concept.  Cities are projects  for  a new style of  life 
and  work.  "City"  Is the  right  word  to use when  speaking  of  urban 
ecology. 

The  Single  Market  accelerates  economic  activity  and  the  process 
of  Internationalization,  with  consequences  for  the  social 
cohesion, economic  functioning  and  quality of  life of  the  cities. 

The  role  of  some  cities  as  centres  for  tertiary  activities  is 
being  accentuated. While  this  Is encouraging  economic  development 
and  Job creation  it  is also often  reinforcing  the pressure on  the 
centres  from  office  construction  and  traffic  nuisance,  reducing 
the  diversity  of  city  life  and  confirming  the  exodus  to  the 
suburbs  which  leaves  the  remaining  dwellings  to  the  poor  and 
migrants, with enclaves  for  the  rich. 

Other  cities  may  find  themselves  outside  the  zones  of  modern 
economic  development.  These  Includes  towns  which  scarcely  took 
part  In  the  industrialization  of  the  19th  and  20th  century,  and 
those  specialising  in  Industries  which  are  now  of  declining 
importance  in the advanced  world. 

-  8  -

Both  accelerated  development  and  economic  decline,  over  which 
they  sometime  have  little control, confront  city  authorities  with 
difficult,  sometimes  Impossible,  tasks. 

There  Is  today  undoubtedly  increased  competition  for  Investment 
among  localities  of  all  kinds,  including  cities.  Centrally 
located  cities  are  undoubtly  benefitting  from  the  enhancement  of 
the  international  service  economy.  In  other  cities  concern  for 
Job  creation  is  leading  city  authorities  to  offer  not  only  tax 
advantages  and  green  field  sites, but  they  also often  repeat  the 
mistakes  of  the  past 
in  permitting  development  of  poor 
envIronmentaI  qua 11ty. 

The essence of  a European  approach 

Two  elements  form  the  basis  for  a specifically  European  approach 
to  cities.  The  first  is  that  the  European  city  can  still  be 
saved.  The  problems  It  shares  with  cities  In other  continents, 
rich  and  poor  alike -  traffic  congestion, slums  in the centre  and 
periphery,  Inadequate  Infra-structure,  pollution  -  are  present 
there  in  extreme  forms  rarely  matched  in  Europe.  The  worst 
sources  of  pressure  on  cities  -  population  growth  and  rural 
migration  - are  largely,  If not  completely,  things of  the past  in 
Europe,  leaving  only  economic  growth,  which  can  yield  the 
financial  and  technological  means  to  correct  the  damage  It  may 
cause. 

The  second  specifically  European  element  is Europe's  traditional 
commitment  to what  Is now called  "social  cohesion".  The  problems 
of  poorer  regions  spill  over  to  cities  In  the  Community  and  it 
is  here  that  efforts  to  create  more  equal  and  decent  living 
conditions  must  Increasingly  concentrate.  Cities  have  been  -
and,  as  Eastern  Europe  demonstrates,  continue  to  be  -  where 
democracy  develops.  In  the  West,  "Stadtluft  macht  frel"  -  the 
city'8  air  sets  you  free  -  has  found  a  new  meaning  for  those 
escaping  a  life without  Jobs or  prospects. 

It  Is  Europe's  prosperity  and  Europe's  economic  failures  which 
put  pressures  on  the  cities.  Similarly,  it  is Europe  as  a  whole 
which  benefits  form  the economic  efficiency,  social  stability  and 
beauty  of  successful  cities.  In  cooperation  with  national  and 
local  authorities  the  Community  can  and must  make  a  contribution 
to 
common 
patrimony 
responsibiIity. 

and  meeting 

a  common 

improving 

a 

-  9  -

The  role of  cities 

Urban  growth  results  from  a  combination  of  economic,  social 
cultural  and  political  dynamics  : 

-  the  economic  dynamic  : the  city  is synonymous  with  proximity, 
providing  the multiple contacts and activities that make  It an 
information  hub  and  creative  centre.  It  is  this  ability  to 
assemble  the  economic  actors  involved  in  all  stages  of 
production,  research  and  consumption  that  draws  firms  to  the 
urban  centres. 

populations 

-  the  social  dynamic  : the  city  brings  together  a  wide  variety 
of  social  facilities  (nurseries,  hospitals,  social  service 
agencies,  etc.) whose  role  is becoming  increasingly  important 
as 
underemployment, 
marginalized 
unemployment  and  poverty.  Indeed,  the concentration of  social 
problems  makes  It  possible  to  define  and  pursue  specific 
rather  than  general 
remedial  policies.  The  city  also 
concentrates  employment  opportunities;  this  is  one  of  its 
great  attractions.  More  generally,  the  city  represents 
choice  : of  social  relations, education, services  and work. 

are 

by 

-  the  cultural  dynamic  : as  in the social  sphere of  which  it  is 
a part,  the city's cultural  role depends on density,  proximity 
and  choice.  These  factors  facilitate  the  "production"  of 
culture  as  much  as  its  "consumption".  In  addition,  the 
historic  heritage  of  the  city  allows  unique  economic 
activities  linked  to culture,  including  tourism. 

-  the  political  dynamic.  More  than  any  other  place,  the  city 
must  respond  directly  to  demands  by  Its  citizens  for  "good 
government".  It  Is  a  place  where  direct  participation  is 
possible  and  Increasingly  practiced,  and  where  the  individual 
can develop most  freely  his sense of  personal  and civic  value. 
It  Is  not  by  accident  that  citizen,  citoyen,  clttadlno,  or 
BUrger  denote  the political  sovereign  in our  languages. 

Creativity 

The city's economic  and  social  importance  ultimately  rests on  the 
ease  of  communication  offered  by  spatial  density  and  the  sheer 
variety  of  people  and  Institutions  which  can  exploit  this 
opportunity.  The  telephone  and  data-link  are  no  substitute  for 
many  kinds  of  communication  which  go  beyond  the  exchange  of 
information; on  the  contrary,  efficient  electronic  communication 
increases  the  demand  for  face-to-face  contacts.  This  Is 
especially  true  for  collective  decisions  based  on  qualitative 
Judgments  and  for  exchanges  of  Information  which  yield  the 
unexpected,  even  unsought  answer  from  which  true  innovation 
results.  Physical  movement  and  telecommunication  services  go 
hand  In hand  to help  create  the environment  which  attracts  both 
business  and  residents  to work  and  live  in cities. 

- l o 

short, 

in 
scientific, 
organisational,  social  and  intellectual  creativity  which  Is one 
of  the motors of  development  in the post-industrial  age. 

communication 

urban 

yield 

the 

The  enemies  of  this  source  of  creativity  are,  on  the  one  hand 
undifferentiated  suburban  sprawl  in  quasi-rural  settings  which 
isolate  the  Individual; and  highly  specialised  land-use  policies 
within cities which create  functional  enclaves and social  ghettos 
where  like  speaks  to  like  : university  campuses  at  the  city's 
edge, banking  districts  at  the centre,  industrial  zones  deprived 
of  simple  services  and  far  from  habitations.  Both  suburban 
sprawl  and  specialisation  are  linked  to  the  urban  environment  : 
they  exist  because  they  provide  escape  or  protection  from  urban 
blight,  poverty 
the  diverse, 
multifunctional  city of  the citizen's Europe  is thus a social  and 
economic  project  for which  "the quality of  life"  Is not a  luxury 
but  an essentla I. 

and  pollution.  Re-creating 

There  is  no  alternative  to  a  commitment  to  urban  Europe. 
Statistics showing  the  reduction of  some cities' populations  are 
cited  as  evidence  of  their  decline.  But  the  suburbs  which 
received  such  migration  continue  to  depend  on  the  cities  for 
their  social  and economic  vitality. 

Indeed, while  in some  cities  the move  to the suburbs  continues  -
with  the centres  taken over  by  low-Income families  living next  to 
office  enclaves  -  in others  the convenience  and  stimulus of  life 
in  the  city  is being  rediscovered.  For  this  trend  to  continue, 
the noise which  drives people  to the quiet of  the country must  be 
reduced,  the  air  improved,  the  open  spaces  redeemed  from  being 
parking  lots  and  traffic  islands.  This  is described  in  greater 
detail  in  the  following  section. 
The  last  section  examines  the 
deeper  causes  of  urban  degradation, which  requires  new  thinking 
at all  levels of  policy  making. 

2. The Urban  Environment 

The urban  environment  has always known difficulties. Noise  was a 
problem  in  ancient  Rome;  traffic  blocked  the  streets  of  18th 
century  Paris;  the  19th  and  20th  centuries  have  witnessed  a 
proliferation  of  analyses  of  the  pollution  and  nuisances 
besetting  the  lives of  urban  residents,  particularly  the  poorer 
among  them. 

The quality of urban  life has  Improved considerably  over  the past 
century.  It was not until  the end of  the 19th century  that  homes 
were  connected  to supply  mains  and  sewers.  And  it was  not until 
the  1950's  that  most  cities  acted  to  reduce  the  air  pollution 
from  domestic  coal  heating.  These  improvements  are  reflected  in 
Increased  life expectancy,  lower  Infant mortality  rates, etc. 

Numerous  problems  remain,  but  they  are  often  less  obvious  and 
therefore  generate  little  concern.  City-wide  sewer  systems  have 
Improved  urban  sanitation  but  pollute  the  rivers  and  oceans 
beyond  the  city's  edges.  Some  types  of  pollution  are  highly 
visible only  In certain parts of  the city. 

-  11  -

Others  -  such  as  air  pollution  caused  by  Industry  and  cars, 
airplane  noise,  etc.  -  may  be  underestimated  because  they  are 
only  apparent  at  certain  times or  for  short  periods. 

The  effects  of  many  of  these  pollutants  are  long  term,  and  In 
some  cases  are  more  easily  observed  In  the  damage  they  do  to 
nature  or  to  buildings  than  In  the  slow  deterioration  they  cause 
human  health. 

Yet  the  health  of  urban  Inhabitants  is  becoming  a  subject  of 
Increasing  concern.  Dense  urban  traffic  is one  source  of  health 
hazards.  Carbon  monoxide  from  vehicle  exhaust  may  build  up  in 
tunnels  or  underground  garages.  This  can  cause  respiratory 
system  damage,  inhibit  oxygen  absorption  by  hemoglobin  and  cause 
brain  stroke  in the  elderly. 

Hydrocarbons  resulting  from  Incomplete  combustion  react  with 
other  pollutants  in  the  presence  of  sunlight,  resulting  in 
reaction  products  that  cause  eye  Irritation  and  respiratory 
system  damage.  They  also  react  with  NOX  to  produce  ozone,  which 
produces  painful  breathing,  coughing  and  impairment  of  the  immune 
system. 

Lead  is  also  a  serious  pollutant  emitted  by  motor  vehicles,  but 
legislation  requiring  lead-free  petrol  should  deal  with  this 
source. 

Indoor  pollution  Is a major  source  of  health  problems,  the  scope 
of  which  is  Just  beginning  to be understood.  Lead  paint  In older 
housing  has  led  to numerous  cases of  poisoning  in children.  On  a 
much  wider  level,  asbestos  -  widely  used  a  insulation  -  has 
become  a  serious  cause  for  concern.  Inhalation  of  asbestos 
fibres  causes  severe  lung  damage  and  a  rare  -  and  incurable  -
form  of  cancer.  This  has  engendered  a  hot  debate  as  to  whether 
asbestos  already  In  place  should  be  removed  or  is  less  of  a 
hazard  if  left  untouched. 

Other  building  materials  contain  dangerous  substances  such  as 
formaldehyde,  mineral  fibres,  mercury,  and  radon.  The  toxic 
effects  of  these  have  been  aggravated  by  the  tendency  towards 
tight  insulation. 

At  a  psychological  level,  noise  may  pose  a  significant  health 
hazard  to  the  urban  dweller,  creating  stress-related  physical 
symptoms  and  reducing  the  overall  quality  of  life  in  the  city, 
Increasing  aggressive  behavior.  It may  also cause  hearing  loss. 

2.1. The  complexity  of  the urban  environment 

The  problems  facing  the urban  environment  are  legion  and  varied. 
For  convenience  of  exposition  we  discuss  them  under  three 
headings  : 

-  12 -

-  Urban  pollution  : air, water, noise, soil,  waste 
-  The built  environment:  roads, streets, buildings, open  spaces, 

recreational  areas. 

-  Nature  : greenery  and wildlife  In the  city. 

In  focusing  on  Individual  problem  areas,  It  Is  Important  not  to 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  "urban  system"  Is a  complex  and 
interrelated  whole.  A diagrammatic  representation of  some of  the 
main  cause-and-effeet  relationships  Influencing urban  development 
and  the urban  environmental  system  is set  out  in Figure  1. 

The extent  of  these  interrelationships demonstrates  the  potential 
danger  of  ad  hoc  decision-making  : the solution  to one  problem  is 
often  the  cause  of  another.  Effective  management  of  our  urban 
environment  requires  a strategy  based on an overview of  the  urban 
system,  with  integrated  decision-making  in key  areas.  Few  cities 
posses  an  administrative  structure  that  can  ensure  such 
integration,  most  critically  between  land  use  and  transportation 
planning.  While  the  city  is the main  focus  of  economic  activity 
and  the  associated  pressures  on  the  environment,  it  cannot  be 
analysed  in  isolation  from  the  region within  which  it  is  located. 
The  interrelations  between  the  city  and  Its  hinterland  requires 
therefore  that  policies  should  be  generated  within  a  broad 
context  which  has  a  concern  for  the  planning  of  the  region  as  a 
who Ie. 

-  13  -

Figure 1 

Relationships within the Urban system 

-  14 

2.2. Urban  pollut ion 

growing 

Urban  areas,  by  their  very  nature  as  centres  of  population  and 
economic  activity,  show  high  concentrations  of  pollutants.  Yet 
despite 
into 
and 
environmental  issues,  there  is a  lack  of  comparable  data  on  key 
indicators.  Even  where  data  are  available, 
environmental 
comparison  and  interpretation  may  be  complicated  by  differences 
in data  collection  and measuring  techniques. 

extensive 

attention 

research 

Scientific  research  has,  however,  clearly  established  the 
negative  effects  on  health  of  air,  water  and  noise  pollution, 
inadequate  waste  disposal  and  contaminated  soils.  Hence,  the 
Commission  has  over  the  past  decade  established  a  number  of 
environmental  quality  objectives.  The  Issues  involved  in each  of 
these  areas  are discussed  in the sections  below. 

2.2.1. Air  pollution 

Urban  areas  are  subject  to  a  wide  range  of  pollutants.  The 
health  effects  of  these  pollutants,  some  which  are  carcinogens, 
include  respiratory  diseases  and  eye  and  skin  irritation.  In 
addition,  they  erode  the built  environment  and  damage  the  natural 
environment.  Most  air  pollutants  stem  from  three  sources 
industry,  motor  vehicles  and  the  burning  of  fossil  fuels  for 
heating or  electricity  generation. 

The  contribution  of  industrial  sources  to  air  pollution  varies 
considerably  from  one  town  to  another,  depending  on  density  and 
type  of  industry  in an  area,  its precise  location  and  the  extent 
to which  It has adopted  measures  to control  emissions or  disperse 
them  beyond  the  local  environment.  The  effects  of  severe  air 
pollution  can  be  devastating 
smog  caused  by  S 02  emissions 
caused  the death  of  5000 people  in London  In 1952. 

Industrial  pollution  is  however  exclusively  an  urban  problem, 
however.  National  and  international  emission  standards  are  often 
set  to  address  wider  problems  such  as  acid  rain  and  the 
greenhouse  effect,  rather  than  the  urban  environment.  It  is  as 
much  through  ambient  "limit  values"  for  air  quality  as  through 
source  emission  standards  that  industry's  contribution  to  urban 
pollution  is  regulated. 

Air  pollution  problems  related  to  city  transport  and  buildings 
are  more  closely  linked  to  the  internal  functioning  of  the  city. 
The  contribution  of  these  energy-using  activities  to  the  levels 
of  particular  pollutants  is set  out  in Table  1. 

- 15 -

Table 1 

Sources of Air Pollution 

Sector 

C02 

S02 

NOX 

Energy generation 

37.5 

(of which elec. gen.) (29.3) 

Industry 

Transport 

Others 

Total 

18.6 

22.0 

21.9 

100 

7 1 .3 

( 6 1 . 5) 

15.4 

4 .0 

9 .3 

100 

28.1 

( 2 4 . 6) 

7 .9 

5 7 .7 

6 .3 

100 

(2.7 bill.t.) 

(14  m i o . t) 

( 9. .8 

m i o . t .) 

Source : Energy 2010 (1989) 

As  this  table  shows,  depending  on  the  energy  source,  space 
heating  can  be  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  air 
pollution.  In Dublin, for example, domestic  heating  is a major 
source of  S02  and  particulates.  A gradual  move  away  from coal 
has alleviated  some of  the worst effects of particulate  and  S02 
pollution  at  the  local  level.  However, a shift  to electricity 
does  not  solve  the  problem  at  the  global  level, owing  to  the 
pollution  resulting  from most  forms of  electricity  generation. 
In this wider global perspective, the use of all forms of fossil 
fuel  contributes  to  problems  of  acid  rain  and,  by  increasing 
C02  levels (see Figure 2), to the greenhouse effect. 

Figure  2 
C02 Emissions, Europe 12 (1980-2010) 
By  sector 

Mt/yesr 

Source:  Energy  in  Europe  :  Major  Themes  In  En^gy 

Directorate  General  for  Energy,  Sept.  1989. 

- 16 -

While  the worst  problems of  local air pollution caused by heating 
have  been  solved,  they  have  been  replaced  by  increased  levels of 
transport  pollution.  Automobile  engines  are  major  sources  of 
NOX,  CO, particulates  and  lead.  As to C 02  for  Instance,  It Is 
worth  noting  that  almost  half  of  transport  combustion  is 
estimated  to  be  due  to  urban  traffic.  In  many  cities,  the 
transport  sector  is responsible for almost 90% of carbon monoxide 
emissions.  Figure  3 shows  the growth of car ownership  in recent 
years and projections  in the short and medium  term which  indicate 
that  this significant  growth  is likely to continue. 

Figure 3 
Car Ownership 1970 - 2010 

c ors  per 

1000 

inhabitants 

EUROPE  12 

500-

400  < 

300 

200-

too 

0-

sis 
>»cu—-;. 

... 

4« i-

• U-
yrj^^i 

Wl^"^ 

ya\. 

2< 

ity*' 

1 

1 
1970  1*75  IMO  IMS  19*0  l»S  2000  2005  2010 

r— 

—1 

1— 

1 

1 

1 

\-

Source  : as Figure 2 

The  Community  has over  the past  decade  established  air  quality 
directives  related  to a number  of key air pollutants  : S 02 and 
particles,  N02,  etc...  These  directives  have  established  both 
limit  values  -  a  critical  value  for  human  health  -  and  guide 
values  -  a  value  set  as  the  objective  for  environmental 
Improvement  to  prevent  any  long-term  Impact  on  health  and the 
qua Iity of  IIfe. 

While  Information  Is  not  available  across  the  Community  to 
demonstrate  the  Impact  of  these  directives  and  associated 
directives  aimed  at  controlling  Individual  emission  sources, 
Figure  4  demonstrates  the effectiveness  of  measures  to  reduce 
less 
S02  and  NOX.  Progress 
Impressive.  The  introduction  of catalytic  convertors  In all new 
cars  In 1992/93 will  reduce pollution by individual  vehicles, but 
Increases  In road  traffic  and traffic  congestion,  including  both 
private  cars  and  road-handled  freight  traffic,  may  well  offset 
this  reduction. 

In  NOX  reduction  has  been 

- 17 

Figure 4 

S 02 and NOX Emissions 
Source : as Figure 2 

S 02  Emissions for Europe 12 

NOX  Emissions  for  Europe 12 

By  sector 

By  sector 

Ml/yao 

Mt/yaar 

ess 

' 

I  1«*Wr,/0.»».«. n 

BS  nw  a ^ . » » .»  CD 

I M > M« 

d 

i  T.*ii«ry/o*»..*i« 

ESZ  Tianatwt 

ES  O I K ». 

In  a  number  of southern  European  cities,  such  as Athens and 
Naples,  there  has been  significant 
increase  in  most  air 
pollutants  and a corresponding  reduction  in air quality.  This 
can be traced to the major  growth  in population of these  cities, 
due to an exodus  from  the rural  areas of Southern  Europe. The 
growth  of urban  industry  and vehicle  emissions  in Athens, for 
example,  has been  so great  that  the authorities  have  had  to 
Introduce a system  whereby  vehicles  are only  permitted to enter 
the city  centre on alternate days - and not at all when  pollution 
levels exceed  safety  limits. 

These  measures  have  only  succeeded  In preventing  the situation 
from  worsening.  They  cannot  be  considered  as  long-term 
solutions. 

Air  pollution  problems  In urban  areas are often  aggravated by 
combinations  of climatic  and geographic  factors  which  act  to 
concentrate  pollutants  In the  city and prevent  their  dispersion 
and  dilution  Into  the wider  atmosphere.  Such  effects are 
described in Diagram 1. 

- 18 -

Diagram  1 

The Concentration of Urban Pollution 

10-C 

Air tenperaturt 

Under  normal  conditions, the pollutants emitted  In hot gases  rise 
higher  the more  they  come  into  contact  with  colder  air  masses 
(normal  diffusion  situât ion). 

In  certain  circumstances  (e.g.  nocturnal 
radiation),  the 
temperature  at an altitude of a few hundred  metres  is higher  than 
the ground-1eve I temperature. 

The  upward  movement  of the pollutants  is then  arrested  and they 
are  trapped  In an  inversion  layer  which  acts as a heat  cover.  If 
there  Is no wind  the pollutants  Increase  considerably. 

Apart  from  such  cases of  local  pollution,  pollutants and all the 
chemical  compounds  arising  from  them  may  be  carried  into  the 
atmosphere  by  the wind  over  long  distances  before  returning  to 
the ground  mixed  with  rain water, snow, mist and fog. This  cross-
frontier  phenomenon  of  the  long-range  transfer  of  pollution  Is 
commonly  referred  to as acid  rain. 

"Heat Island" 
pbsoonsDOD 

Winter  d e ar 
«fcy 
Bo wind 

S«C 

Gaidar  air  E^2>-

Iuverslon  IJBSJSOC 

qryifVyr»  a ir 

»«c 

o«c 

Colder 
oountryside 

countryside 

Heat  ifslnni 

Built-up  areas are "heat  Islands" at the break of day, while the 
sorrounding  countryside  cools  down. The hot air rises,  causing a 
depression  drawing  in  the  colder  air  of  the  surroundings. 
Pollutants  emitted  on the periphery  are transported  towards the 
built-up  area,  increasing  the  pollution  levels,  sometimes 
substant iaily. 

Source:  French  Environment  Ministry,  June 1989. 

-  19 -

While  cases  such  as Athens  are widely  known,  it would  be wrong  to 
assume  that  cities  in  Northern  Europe  do  not  have  critical 
problems  as well.  While  data obtained  by monitoring may  indicate 
an  overall  improvement,  the  use  of  average  figures  from  a 
restricted  number  of  recording  stations may  well  be obscuring  the 
presence  of  harmful  concentrations  at  certain  specific  times  and 
locations.  In  Brussels,  for  example,  rush  hour  traffic  in  road 
tunnels  results  In  pollution  levels  many  times  the  limit 
recommended  by  the World  Health  Organisation. 

2.2.2.  Noise 

Noise  is  the  most  "urban"  or  all  forms  of  pollution,  affecting 
both  the  health  and  the quality of  life of  its citizens. The  most 
significant  noise problems  stem  from  various means of  transport  -
road  traffic  (especially  motorcycles),  aircraft,  railways-  and 
from  building  sites.  Community  action  on  noise  has  focused  on 
combatting  noise  generated  by  the  worst  Individual  sources  -
e.g.,  aircraft,  building  sites  and  motor  vehicles  (as  well  as 
dealing with  noise  in the work  place). 

Important  as  these  improvements  have  been  in  reducing  the  noise 
of  extreme  individual  offenders,  the  overall  noise  problems 
created  by  the  sum  of  "normal"  cars,  planes  and  trains  has 
hardly  been  tackled.  The  likely  increase  in  traffic  in  the 
coming  years will  exacerbates  the problem  of  urban  noise. 

The Community  proposes  noise  standards  for motor  vehicles  as part 
of  the  norm-setting  process  of  the  Single  Market.  These 
standards  have progressively  been  Improved,  but  arguably  still  do 
not  require  producers  to  incorporate  the  best 
available 
technology  to  reduce  noise  generation.  While  more  stringent 
standards  will  clearly  increase  costs,  these  must  be  weighed 
against  the  benefits  deriving  from  reduced  noise  nuisance.  The 
use  of  economic  Instruments  might  be  worthy  of  consideration  In 
this  area. 

Yet  even  stringent  standards  for  individual  vehicles  cannot 
substitute  for  a  broader  approach  to  traffic  management.  Where 
they  have  been  tried,  so-called  traffic-calming  schemes  have  been 
and 
successful.  Reduced 
integrated  traffic-light  controls  have  been  introduced  on  local 
initiative  and  are  effective  provided  the  restrictions  are 
subsequent I y enforced. 

restrictions 

limits, 

speed 

road 

A  major  constraint  on  schemes  designed  to  reduce  the  level  of 
noise  In  cities  Is  the  absence  of  a  generally  accepted  noise 
quality  standard.  Various  Member  States  have  adopted  noise 
target  levels,  but  these  rarely  have  legislative  status.  The 
Commission  is studying  the  concept  of  setting  limits  for  ambient 
noise  levels  as  a  quality  target  similar  to  those  set  for  air 
poilut ion. 

-  20 -

This  would  recognise  the  importance  of  action  aimed  at  assisting 
the  significant  numbers  of  people  living  In areas  where  they  are 
subject  to  levels of  noise  which  affect  their  health  (by  causing 
stress  or  disturbing  sleep).  It  Is often  the  poorer  sectors  of 
our  society,  living  In  the  worst  housing  conditions,  who  are 
subjected  to  the  highest  ambient  noise  levels. 

2.2.3.  Water 

Historically,  the  process  of  population  expansion  and  industrial 
development  in urban  areas  has  proved  disastrous  to  the  quality 
of  the  rivers  which  flow  through  them.  As  towns  ceased  to  rely 
on  their  rivers  as  a  source  of  water,  the  rivers  became  waste 
receptacles,  subjected  to  an  Increasing  volume  and  variety  of 
effluent  harmful  to both  water  quality  and  wildlife. 

A  further  aspect  of  this problem  is  that  sewage  systems  designed 
and  built  in  the  late  19th  century  are  still  in  use  in  many 
cities.  Present  polluting  discharges  are markedly  different  from 
those  of  the  last  century,  both  In  their  concentration  of 
substances  and  In  volume  of  flow.  Moreover,  older  sewers  are 
frequently  in  poor  repair  and  the  cost  of  replacing  them  is 
prohibitively  expensive. 

The  urban  environment  itself  causes  problems  for  sewage  systems 
and  their  receiving  waters.  The  city's  impermeable  surfaces 
telescope  urban  runoff  following  rainfall,  both  in  terms  of  the 
peak  discharge  and  the  length  of  time  needed  to  reach  that  peak. 
In certain  cases,  Increased  urbanisation  in a  catchment  area  can 
Increase  the  downstream  flood  risk.  Indeed,  the  canalization  of 
many  urban  rivers  exacerbates  this  situation.  It should  also  be 
noted  that  the  runoff  from  tarmaciced  surfaces  will  carry  with  it 
a cocktail  of  pollutants normally  present  on urban  surfaces. 

While  water  treatment  prior  to  reuse  is  usually  adequate  to 
ensure  conformity  with  Community  water  quality  standards,  the 
amenity  aspect  of  water  quality  has  received  comparatively  little 
attention.  Where  significant  improvements  have  been  achieved,  it 
has  often  been  In cases  where  the  quality  of  a  river  has  become 
an  issue  of  civic  pride,  associated  with  the  image  of  the  city. 
This  Is very  much  the case  for  London  and  the River  Thames, which 
has  received  considerable  investment  for  improvements  over  the 
past  few  decades  and  Is now  claimed  to  have  one  of  the  cleanest 
estuaries  in the world. 

Rivers  such  as  the  Rhine, which  are  influenced  by  a  large  number 
of  towns  and  cities  in  various  States,  demonstrates  the  impact 
cities  may  have  on  each  other,  as  well  as  the  need  for 
cooperative  action  at  the  international  level. 

- 21 -

2.2.4. Waste 

As with other  forms of pollution, the specifically urban problems 
related  to  waste  result  from  a  combination  of  high  population 
density  with  a  wide  variety  of  economic  activity  : hospitals, 
large  and  small  produce  markets,  debris  from  demolition  and 
packaging  discarded  by transporters, retailers, and shoppers, to 
mention a few. 

The  local  authorities must  in fact solve three related  tasks 

- street  cleaning 
-  refuse collection 
- waste disposal 

The  disposal  of  vast  and  ever-growing  volumes  of  domestic and 
industrial 
waste  poses  an  enormous  problem  for  those 
administering  Europe's  cities.  Table 2  indicates  the volumes of 
waste  generated  and  how  these  are  treated,  by  country.  The 
simple  solution  of  landfill,  even  In  controlled  conditions,  is 
becoming  Increasingly  difficult  for many  cities,  either  because 
of  the scarcity  of available  land within  reasonable  distance of 
the  city  or  as  the  result  of  opposition  from  residents  In 
surrounding areas. 

Table 2 
Urban Solid Waste Treatment, Selected Countries, 1985/1986 

R.S.U. 

DUMPING 

Million T.  Legal / Illegal 

INCINE-  OTHERS 
RATION 

NATION 

Denmark 

Holland 

France 

Sweden 

Germany 

1.4 

4.4 

17.0 

— 

32,0 

22 

53 

44 

80 

70 

90 

— 

— 

10 

— 

— 

— 

— 

United Kingdom 

20.0 

Belgium 

3,2 

70/80 

Italy 

Spain 

Greece 

Ireland 

15,0 

10.0 

— 

110.0 

30 

55 

— 

80 

65 

— 

20 

35 

70 

37 

36 

35 

27 

9 

20 

11 

5 

— 

8 

10 

10 

5 

3 

5 

10 

4 

15 

— 

Source : Recupero  Aliumlnio  in Forma  dl  Lattlne,  Conzorzlo del 
Produttorl dl contenltorl  in AI lumlnlo-Bresso (Ml) - IT. 

-  22 -

Incineration  is  proving  to  be  a  problematic  alternative,  it  is 
difficult  to  find suitable  sites and  their  partly  toxic  emissions 
have  led  to  Community  legislation  setting  emission  limits  for 
municipal  Incineration  plants.  Progress  In  waste  reduction  and 
recycling  has  been  achieved  In some Members  States,  particularly 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  but  even  the  most  optimistic 
estimates  generally  give  a  30%  reduction  as  the  highest  target 
that  can  be  achieved. 

The  Commission's  recently  published  waste  management  strategy* 
sets  two  priorities  :  prevention  and  recycling.  Prevention  is 
above  all  a  matter  for  Industry.  For  instance  changes  in 
packaging  could  greatly  ease  urban  cleaning  and  waste  management 
problems.  For  urban  authorities  recycling  Is  a  major  option. 
This  requires  sorting  at  source  (and  the  necessary  containers), 
and  specialized  collection  services.  Future  planning  parameters 
for  large  apartment  and  office  buildings  can  also  incorporate 
facilities  for  sorting waste  for  recycling  purposes. 

2.2.5. Sol I poI lut ion 

The  pollution  of  soli  by  indiscriminate  tipping  of  toxic 
substances  is  now  recognised  as  a major  concern  in urban  areas. 
While  there  is  increasing  interest  to  reclaim  existing  land 
within  urban  areas,  soils  contaminated  by  decades  of  tipping 
prevent  the  reuse  of  such  land  for  either  habitation  or  new 
economic  activities. 

Given  the  local  and  very  specific  character  of  each  Individual 
case,  It  is difficult  to  establish  general  policies or  technical 
solutions.  Yet  while  the  Immediate  impact  of  contamination  Is 
often  local,  there  is a medium-term  threat  to  groundwater. 

2.3. The  built  environment 

While  the  landscape  of  the  countryside  Is  formed  by  natural 
features,  the  townscape  Is  formed  by  buildings,  with  trees  and 
green  spaces  providing  Important  accents.  The  environmental 
quality  of  townscape  Is  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  subjective 
taste.  Nevertheless,  most  people  show  a  similar  appreciation  of 
the quality  of  towns and  cities - historical  buildings  and  street 
patterns, open  spaces  and  trees,  activity. 

The  historical  centres  of  European  cities,  where  they  remain 
Intact,  represent  an  important  link with  the  city's  past  culture 
and  heritage.  In a world  Increasingly  dominated  by  international 
styles  of  architecture  and  building  technology,  historical 
centres  provide  a  unique  sense  of  place  which  differentiates  one 
town  form  another. 

*SEC 89(934)  final  : Community  Strategy  for Waste  Management. 

-  23 

The  past  few decades  have  seen major  changes  In the planning  and 
management  of  our  cities.  Most  have  undergone  a  process  of 
suburbanization,  with  fewer  and  fewer  people  living  In  the 
genuine  centres, which  are  Increasingly  taken over  by offices and 
shops. 

Enormous  development  pressure  from  these  activities  has  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  much  of  the  historical  fabric  of  our 
cities,  which  has  been  replaced  with  new  buildings,  often  of 
Indifferent  -  If  not  poor  -  quality.  Very  little  of  the 
construction  of  the  present  period  is  likely  to  be  regarded  by 
future generations as being  the stuff of which heritage  is made. 

Quantification  of  this  destruction  on  a  European  scale  is 
difficult, since official  classification and  listing systems vary 
widely.  The  U.K.  has  one  of  the  most  exhaustive  such  systems, 
with  several  hundred  thousand  buildings  listed  according  to  set 
criteria  related  to  their  age  and  condition.  The  Netherlands 
also  has  a wide  classification  scheme  for  individual  houses.  In 
Italy, whole  historical  centres are classified  by  local  ordinance 
and national  law.  Belgium,  In contrast, has far  fewer  classified 
buildings and uses more  restrictive  criteria. 

While classification of  a building does not  necessarily  guarantee 
Its protection, an exhaustive  listing process does have  the merit 
of  ensuring  that  the  heritage  value  of  a  historic  building  is 
reasonably  weighed  against  any  proposals  for  redevelopment.  At 
the  International  level,  recognition  of  the  Importance  of  areas 
is provided  by  the Council  of  Europe  Diploma  system.  While  this 
does  not  provide 
legislative  protection,  It  undoubtedly 
influences  local  decision-making. 

Unfortunately,  the  problems  faced  by  the  historical  centres  of 
our  cities are not  restricted  to those of demolition and  renewal. 
While  the  more  affluent  either  stayed  or  are  returning  to  the 
centre,  m IddIe-1ncome  families  continue  to  move  to  suburban 
areas,  with  large  parts  of  inner  city  housing  given  over  to 
rental  accommodation  for  the  less affluent  groups of our  society. 
While  such  housing  is conveniently  located,  close  to  employment 
opportunities  In  the  city  centre,  the  revenue  generated  by  these 
buildings  is often not  considered  sufficient  to maintain  them, or 
is not used  for  that  purpose.  The result  Is decay. 

Historical  buildings are also threatened  by  the high  level of air 
pollution  In  European  cities.  Buildings  are  not  only  being 
covered  by  layers  of  soot  from  particulate  pollution,  but 
chemical  reactions  with  pollutants  such  as  S02  cause  a 
deterioration  In  the  structure  of  stone.  This  is  particularly 
serious  and  expensive  to  remedy,  in  the  case  of  the  decorative 
carvings on  the more  Important  public buildings and monuments. 

The  growth  of  car  ownership  and  urban  traffic  also  poses 
considerable  problems  for historical  towns centres, which usually 
have  narrow  street  patterns  quite unsulted  to motor  vehicle  use. 
Even  cities  such  as  Paris,  historically  subject  to  urban 
planning,  Including  the  Introduction  of  wide  boulevards,  have 

-  24 -

found  that  current  levels  of  traffic  significantly  exceed 
capacity.  Apart  from  the  physical  problems  caused  by  traffic 
congestion, parking  In streets and  squares  not  designed  for  such 
use  is extremely  Intrusive  visually  and  disrupts  pedestrian  use 
of  the street. 

It  is  fair  to  say  that  In  the  past  decade  there  has  been  a 
greater  recognition  of  the  importance  of  historical  town  centres 
-  the pace of  demolition  has slowed,  and  a number  of  restoration 
schemes have been undertaken. 

Traffic  calming  measures  and  pedestrian  zones  in  parts  of  the 
city  centre  have  been  widely  adopted  and  have  proved  popular, 
with  citizens  enjoying  a  safer  and  more  relaxed  shopping 
environment.  Nevertheless,  pressures  arising  from  development, 
derelict  areas and  the  Impact  of motor  vehicles continue, and  the 
future of parts of  the historical  centres of many  European  cities 
still  hangs very much  In the balance. 

The  same  pressures  also  have  often  resulted  in  the  loss of  open 
space within  city  areas  to parking  lots or  road-widening  schemes. 
High  property  values  make  it  extremely  difficult  for  public 
authorities  to  acquire  land  for  the  creation  of  new  public  open 
spaces  in city  centres,  Just  as citizens are becoming  more  aware 
of  the  Importance  and  value of such space. 

One  possible  approach  to  this problem  is through  the  intelligent 
management  of  the  abandoned  land  that  exists  in  all  cities. 
Changing  patterns  of  employment,  manufacturing  and  freight 
transport  have  left  their  mark  on  the  physical  structure  of  our 
cities  -  predominantly  In  the  form  of  wide  swaths  of  derelict 
land  comprising  abandoned  docks,  factories  and  barracks.  While 
some  cities  have  undertaken  Imaginative  renewal  projects  which 
demonstrate  the  potential  of  these  areas  to  create  a  new  image 
for  the city, others  have  left derelict  land untouched  - a blight 
on  the urban  environment. 

Ironically,  the problems associated  with  the built  environment  of 
our  cities  are  not  restricted  to  the  adaptation  -  poor  or 
otherwise  -  of  historical  towns  to  20th  century  life-styles. 
Equally  serious problems  have  been  identified  In some of  the new 
developments designed  to replace  inner city schemes. 

The  late  1950s  and  1960s  saw  a  Europe-wide  trend  towards  the 
construction  of  massive  public  housing  schemes  on  the  edges  of 
our  town  and  cities, often  involving  high-rise  blocks  of  flats. 
Far  from  urban  facilities, poorly  served  by  public  transport  and 
frequently  Inadequately  maintained,  these  areas often  became  the 
slums of  the  late 1970s and  1980s.  The absence of  commercial  and 
economic  activities  and  opportunities  in  these  areas  has 
contributed  to  high  unemployment  levels  and  has  tended  to 
restrict  further  the  mobility  and  opportunities  of  their 
inhabitants. 

-  25 -

2.4. Nature  In the city. 

The  value  of  natural  features  within  urban  areas  has  long  been 
recognised.  Parks,  gardens  and  avenues  of  trees  have  been 
traditional  features  of  town  design.  The  visual  contribution  of 
such  features  is extremely  significant;  even  a  very  small  number 
of  mature  trees  considerably  softens  the  harshness  of  an 
otherwise  totally  built  environment.  In addition,  such  features 
have  a  symbolic  value  for  many  city  dwellers,  providing  a 
psychological  link to nature  and  the countryside. 

In  recent  years,  a  widening  Interest  In  nature  conservation  has 
led  many  people  to  explore  the  habitats  and  wildlife  of  their 
immediate  urban  and  suburban  surroundings.  Areas  of  abandoned 
land  and  seminatural  habitats  have  often  proved  to  be 
surprisingly  rich  in  their  variety  and  abundance  of  wildlife. 
The  Importance  of  such  natural  habitats  In urban  areas  has  grown 
as  increasing  pressure  has  been  placed  on  wildlife  in  the 
countryside  by  the  use  of  Intensive  agricultural  practices  over 
the past  few decades. 

In a  number  of  cities, detailed  inventories  of  wildlife  habitats 
have been  drawn up and  active volunteer  groups  formed,  seeking  to 
protect  these  sites  from  development  and  ensure  their  sound 
management.  While  in  absolute  terms  such  sites  may  not  always 
have  a  wildlife  value  comparable  to  that  of  a  truly  natural 
habitat,  their  location  in or  close  to  urban  population  centres 
gives  them  a  special  value  and  relevance.  They  also  form  an 
important 
resource  for  educational  activities  and  nature 
famiIlarization. 

A general  Increase  in  leisure  time has made citizens  increasingly 
aware of  the value and  Importance of  such open  spaces  in or  close 
to  the  city.  As  land  use  within  the  city  changes,  public 
authorities  frequently  have  the opportunity  to create  new  public 
spaces.  But,  as  already  stated,  this  Is often  a costly  exercise 
due  to the value of  such  land  for development  purposes. 

Open  spaces  and  seminatural  habitats  on  the  city's  edge,  with 
ease of  access  for urban  residents, are also of great  importance. 
Many  cities- such  as Brussels, Berlin and Luxembourg  - have  large 
areas  of  forest  adjacent  to  city  boundaries;  these  provide  a 
habitat  for  wildlife  and  recreational  opportunities  and  are  a 
resource  for  commercial  forest  production.  With  the  priorities 
for  agricultural  production  changing  within  the  Community,  the 
concept  of  developing  such  areas  adjacent  to other  cities  merits 
considérât ion. 

3. The Root Causes of  Urban  Degradation 

The  city's  problems  are  hidden  by  its obvious  improvements  -  in 
the health of  Its  Inhabitants, better  equipped  housing,  shiny  new 
buildings  and  motorways.  The  notion  that  collateral  effects  are 
a  necessary  "price  to  be  paid"  may  seem  persuasive.  Moreover, 
negative  effects,  while  no  less  "real"  than  these  Improvements, 

-  26 -

take much  longer  to become  visible -  rising  crime, chronic  health 
problems,  the  gradual  build-up  of  traffic,  noise  and  pollution-, 
they  thus  rarely  produce  the  clear  moment  of  crisis  which  Is 
usually  required  for  political  action. 

be 

cannot 

However,  the  political  maturity  of  a  society  is measured  by  Its 
ability  to  think  In  the  long  term.  European  unity  Itself  Is  an 
example.  This 
and 
technocratic  projects  which  fail  to  Inspire  large  parts  of  the 
population.  The  European  city  cannot  be  saved  by  regulation  or 
money  alone.  Its  improvement  requires  above  all  a  broad 
understanding  of  the  deeper  causes  of  Its  problems,  forming  the 
basis  for  a  consensus  which  allows  local,  national  and  European 
action  towards  a  shared  goal.  This  will  entail  the  exchange  of 
ideas and  cooperation  between  cities on  a wide  front. 

bureaucratic 

achieved 

by 

These  causes  frequently  are  to  be  found  In  the  way  we  organise 
work,  production,  distribution  and  consumption,  and  in  often 
rigid  and  outdated  notions  of  planning.  These  -  and  other  -
causes  interact,  reinforcing  each  other.  The  enumeration  below 
does not  Imply  a hierarchy. 

Functlonalism 

Current  urban  planning  often  still  reflects  the  principles  of 
functional ism  expounded  In  "The  Charter  of  Athens",  theory  of 
planning  set  out  In  the  1940's,  and  also  to  be  found  in  the 
earlier  British  Garden  Cities  movement.  Both  these  theories 
expounded  the  merits  of  a  system  of  town  planning  based  on  a 
rigid  compart Imenta Iization  and  location  of  activities  on  the 
basis  of  function.  Thus,  housing,  Industry,  commercial  areas, 
green  spaces, etc.  are  all  physically  separated  and  linked  by  an 
extensive  road  and  transport  network.  Functional  separation  may 
sometime  be  useful  when  applied,  for  example,  to  industry.  In 
other  areas,  however,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Karl  Gruber,  the 
practice  of  strict  zoning  Ignores  the patrimony  and  geographical 
reality  of  the  city.  "Functional  exactness"  destroys  the 
flexibility  of  the  city  and  Its  buildings;  these,  conceived  as 
architectural  objects, are unable  to adapt  to changing  conditions 
and  therefore  prevent  the  city  from  functioning  as  a  dynamic, 
organic  whole. 

Production  and  the organisation of  work 

While  even  the  industrial  city  was  largely  an  extension  of  the 
traditional  town,  the  Internationalisation  of  the  economy  has 
caused  a break  with  the past.  Investments  - and  their  location  -
are  made  from  distant  headquarters  with  scant  regard  for  local 
effects.  Products  are  conceived  in  one  place  and  made  in 
another. 

City  planning  is  often  orientated  towards  the  encouragment  of 
development  : new commun I cat Ion  Infrastructures,  Industrial  parks 
and office  buildings,  frequently  replacing  Inner  city  housing. 

-  27 -

Each  city  seeks  to  attract  corporate  headquarters,  international 
Institutions,  International  service  activities  and  industrial 
Investment.  This  Is  now  taking  place  In  a  context  of  Increased 
competition  between  cities.  In all  this the environment,  and  the 
quality  of  life of  the  Inhabitants, often come a poor  second. 

At  the same  time  It must  be recognised  that  environmental  quality 
is  an asset  In  international  competition.  Farsighted  cities  are 
seeking  to  attract  high  value-added  activities  by  Increasing  the 
quality of  life  in the city or by establishing attractive  science 
parks - with  Increased  tourist  revenue  as a bonus. 

Firms, research  centres  and other  institutions  seeking  to  recruit 
the  top  personnel  and  skilled  workforce  on  which  their  success 
depends  Increasingly  take  the attractiveness of  a  potential  site 
as seriously  as  its conventional  efficiency.  The environment  and 
quality  of  life  for  inhabitants  and  for  promoting  economic 
development  should  therefore  be a primary  Issue for  city  planning 
and  management. 

Distribution and  consumption 

The  age  of  mass  consumption  has  had  a  profound  impact  on  the 
spatial  organisation  of  the  city.  One  such  phenomenon  is  the 
large shopping  mall  at  the far periphery, accessible on I y by  car; 
similarly,  the  access  routes  to  the  city  are  lined  with 
speciality  shops,  garishly  advertised,  whose  collective  visual 
Impact  is  more  reminiscent  of  the  industrial  zone  than  of  the 
traditional  High  Street. 

Meanwhile,  high-class  shops  take over  the most  picturesque  parts 
of  the  old  centre,  depriving  its  Inhabitants  of  shops  for  their 
daily  needs.  Other  central  areas  are  taken  over  by  pedestrian 
zones, crammed  with  a narrow  range of  clothing  and similar  shops, 
which  reduce  variety  and  convenience  for  Inhabitants  and  attract 
large amounts of  traffic  to surrounding  parking  garages. 

There  Is  thus  a  link  between  single-purpose  public  spaces  and 
urban monoculture  generally: the pedestrian area  creates  shopping 
precincts;  the  urban  motorway,  office  ghettos.  What  is  lost  is 
the  equilibrium  resulting  from  many  uses  and  many  modes  of 
transport  co-existing:  the  pedestrian,  cyclist  and  public 
transport  creating  a  multifunctional  environment  which  neither 
depends on nor  totally excludes  the private driver. 

-  28 -

Hotels, restaurants  and  housing 

Hotels  and  restaurants  can be an extension  of  city  life, oriented 
to  serve  local  Inhabitants.  To  an  Increasing  degree,  however 
they  are mere  extensions of  the office culture, serving  its needs 
but  crowding  out  local  Inhabitants  and  attracting  traffic  to  the 
centre. 

Increasingly,  the  centres  are  Inhabited  by  three  groups:  older 
people  with  modest  means,  Immigrants,  and  young  professionals, 
well-off  and without  children, benefitting  from  private or  public 
urban  restoration  In what  is known as  "gentrif I cat ion". 

The  neighbourhoods  surrounding  the  centre,  built  in  the  second 
half  of  the  19th  century,  show  a  greater  diversity  of  age  and 
social  groups. They  are, however,  assailed  by  traffic  passing  to 
the centre, and  by encroachments  from office  development. 

Further  on  the  periphery,  housing  estates  often  represent 
extremes  of  monoculture,  both  as  regards  the  social  status  of 
their  inhabitants  and  the  absence  of  multiple  urban  services  and 
activities. 

While  the  growth  of  these  dormitory  towns  can  in  part  be 
explained  as a  response  by public authorities to a pressing  need, 
they  also  follow  a  doctrinaire  view developed  before  World  War I 
which  saw  the  "garden city"  as an  Ideal. This  attempt  to  provide 
the  city's 
has 
unfortunately  too  often  resulted  In  urban  sprawl  and  further 
décentraiIzation. 

Inhabitants  with  air,  quiet 

and  space 

The  price,  however,  Is  the  need  for  a  massive  transport 
Infrastructure  whose main effects are  felt  by districts closer  to 
the  centre;  and,  for  the  individual,  long  travelling  times. 
Moreover,  suburban  housing  Is nothing  If not  self-sufficient.  Its 
gadgets  are  an  effective  substitute  for  services  exhanged  within 
neighbourhoods -  and  hence contribute to  Isolation. 

These  effects  have  contributed  to create a movement  of  "return  to 
the city".  Impatience with  long commuting  times and  the desire  to 
profit  from  the  cultural  diversity  of  the  city  are  reinforced  by 
two  contemporary  needs  : as  Industry  and  services  Increasingly 
work  around  the clock, key  technical  personnel  or  executives  must 
be  Instantly  available.  In addition,  the  frequent  uprooting  from 
house  and  social  life  associated  with  increased  Job mobility  can 
be  avoided  by  living  in or  close  to  the  centre.  The  demand  for 
attractive  urban  housing  suitable  for  families  is beginning  to be 
met  by  a  still  often  experimental  supply  of  roads  with  traffic 
restrictions where  children can play  and  adults mingle, small  but 
well-planted  parks  and  play  areas,  replanted  courtyards,  roof 
gardens, etc. 

-  29 -

These  experiments  show  that  the  "mixing"  of  urban  uses  -  of 
living,  moving,  working  -  Is  possible  and,  Increasingly 
necessary.  This  new  concept  takes  as  Its  model  the  old* 
traditional  life  of  the  European  city,  stressing  density! 
multiple  use.  social  and  cultural  diversity.  Different  social*, 
professional  and  age groups  living together  also create  the basis 
for  a  civil  coexistence  which  Is  undermined  by  growing  mutual 
Ignorance and  distrust. 

from  vandalism  and  crime  provoked  by 

However,  the  housing  estates  of  the  periphery,  increasingly 
suffering 
limited 
occupational  choice,  monotony  and  isolation  also  have  to  be 
urbanized 
in  this  new-old  pattern:  by  creating  greater 
heterogeneity,  centres  of  greater  density,  life,  and  variety  of 
uses. 

Tour 1sm 

The  constant  increase  In tourism  in certain  cities  characterized 
by  a  very  rich  cultural  heritage,  numerous  examples  of 
outstanding  architectural  beauty  and  sophisticated  or  specific 
types of  urbanization may,  In the absence of  effective  controls, 
undermine  the  quality  of  life  of  the  inhabitants.  Historic 
centres are being  turned  into monofunctional  areas as a result  of 
the  proliferation  of  hotels,  the  rise  in  property  values,  the 
disappearance  of  corner  shops,  overcrowding,  and  the  relocation 
of small  firms,  including craft  businesses.  This  transformation, 
disrupting  the  fragile  equilibrium  of  the  urban  environment,  is 
bound  to  affect  the  overall  dynamics  of  historic  centres,  since 
an  excessive  concentration  of  visitors  may  result  In  the 
deterioration of  the  heritage  itself. 

However,  the  cities  and  regions  attach  high  hopes  to  the 
development  of  tourism  and  leisure  activities.  It  is  therefore 
essential  that  a  planning  strategy  for  urban  tourism  be 
elaborated  In order  to avoid  the negative effects of  tourism  and 
to  channel  the  proceeds  Into  renovation  of  the  urban  fabric, 
restoration  of  the  cultural  heritage,  development  of  leisure 
facilities  and  green  spaces  and,  last  but  not  least,  Improvement 
of pub 11c spaces. 

Communication  and mobility 

Some  futurologlsts  have  concluded  that  modern  communications 
technology  could  allow  those  now  living  and  working  in congested 
cities  to  disperse  throughout  the  country.  Everything  argues 
against 
independent 
professionals  : the  sheer  number  of  people  relative  to  the  land 
available,  the  destruction  of  the  environment  Involved,  the 
Implied  waste of existing  urban  Infrastructure. 

such  a  vision  for  all  but  a  few 

Personal  mobility  thus  remains  an  essential  -  Indeed,  the 

-  30 -

essential  -  atrlbute  of  the  city.  As  argued  above,  spatial 
separation  dictated  by  functionalist  doctrine  leaves,  in  the 
absence 
little 
alternative  to the motor  car. 

networks, 

effective 

transport 

public 

of 

Yet  adding  roads,  tunnels,  etc.  to  accommodate  growing  traffic 
has  the  perverse  effect  to  slowing  It  down  during  construction, 
while  Increasing  pollution  and  noise  even  further.  Once  such 
Increases  to 
Infrastructure  is  completed,  traffic  quickly 
recreate  the  previous  levels  of  congestion.  For  the  centre, 
however,  the  increase  is  real  : pressure  on  space  for  parking 
spills over onto pavements, squares and parks. 

Outright  prohibition  of  the  car  is rarely  the  answer.  As  stated 
earlier,  It  may  accelerate  the  monofunetional  quality  of  the 
centre.  It may  force  detours  which  increase  overall  traffic  and 
hence  pollution,  or  shift  the  problem  of  parking  to  the  edge  of 
the protected  centre. 

Generally,  the objective must  be to make  the car  an option  rather 
than  a  necessity  which  is  created  -  indeed,  forced  on  the 
Individual  -  by  the  separation  of  the  city  into  monofunctlonal 
segments.  The  multifunctional,  creative  city,  which  is  also  the 
more  livable  city,  Is the  one  that  pollutes  the  least.  In  turn. 
by  limiting  the  car's  contribution  to  noise,  unsafe  streets  and 
air  pollution,  the  city's  attractions  can  grow  and  its  economic, 
social, and  cultural  potential  be realized. 

Concretely,  this  leads to three convergent  orientations: 

-  avoid  strict  zoning  In  favour  of  mixed  uses  of  urban  space, 

favouring  In particular  housing  In Inner  city  areas; 

-  defend  the architectural  heritage against  the uniform  banality 
of  the  International  style,  respecting  rather  than  Imitating 
A  .,  .: 
the old; 
-  avoid  escaping  the  problems  of  the  city  by  extending  Its 

periphery: solve  Its problems within existing  boundaries. 

Lastly,  It  Is  Important  to  stress  the  role  of  regulation  while 
warning  against  certain  modes  of  planning.  Regulation  regarding 
environmental  targets  Is  essential.  Planning  without  broad 
participation  by,  and  concern  for  the  city's  Inhabitants  will 
result  in  a  narrow  view  of  its  efficiency,  which  ultimately 
condemns  It to sterility. 

-  31  -

CHAPTER  TWO: TOWARDS  A  COMMUNITY 

STRATEGY  FOR  THE 

URBAN 

ENVIRONMENT 

1. Targets  for Urban  Environmental  Improvement 

The  primary  objectives  of  urban  environmental  policy  and 
management  are  the  creation, or  re-creation, of  towns  and  cities 
which  provide  an  attractive  environment  for  their  inhabitants, 
and  the  reduction of  the city's contribution  to global  pollution. 
However  Utopian  this  target  may  appear,  It  is  one  which  meets 
today's concerns  and  tomorrow's  responsibilities. 

The  analysis  of  the  previous  section  traces  urban  environmental 
problems primarily  to two factors. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  uncontrolled  pressure  placed  on  the 
environment  by  many  of  the  activities which  are  concentrated  in 
the cities. 

The  second  -  and  not  unrelated  -  factor  is  the  spatial 
arrangement  of our  urban  areas.  In the past  few decades, planning 
philosophy  and  development  practice  have  radically  altered  the 
organization  of  towns,  In  many  cases  giving  rise  to  an  almost 
clinical  separation of  land uses. This physical  separation, often 
between  areas  not  linked  by  public  transport,  has  required  urban 
populations  greatly  to  increase  their  mobility,  and  thus  their 
reliance  on  motor  vehicles  In  general  and  private  transport  In 
particular. 

This  has  in  turn  led  to  the  development  of  extensive  suburban 
residential  areas  which  are  economically  difficult  to  service  by 
public  transport.  The  environmental  implications  of  such  spatial 
reorganization of our  cities may  be seen  In terms of 

-  Adverse  effects  on  specific  areas within  towns  : congested  or 
decaying  city  centres; peripheries turned  Into dumping  grounds 
for  land  uses  considered  undesirable  for  the  city  -  waste 
tips,  Industry, social  housing-, 

-  Generally  high  levels  of  air  and  noise  pollution,  caused  In 

part  by  the mobility  Imposed  by spatial  differentiation. 

Moreover,  this  pollution  spills  over  Into  the  country  and  the 
global  environment. By  their  very  concentration, cities are major 
contributors  to  acid  rain  and  -  via  C02  emissions  -  to  the 
greenhouse  effect. Higher  smokestacks are  thus not  the  answer. 

-  32 -

Growing  concern  over  the  environment  In  general  and  the  urban 
environment  In  particular  has  led  public  authorities  at  all 
levels  to  Initiate  remedial  action.  While  such  actions  have 
undoubtedly  helped  to  Improve  environmental  quality  or  prevent 
Its further  deterioration, much  remains  to be achieved. There  are 
few  objective  measures  for  evaluating  the  environmental  quality 
of urban  life. But with growing  awareness of  the  Issues, citizens 
are  seeking  more  than  prevention  of  further  deterioration-,  they 
are demanding  positive  improvements. 

The  experience  provided  by  past  successes  and  past  failures 
provides  useful  guidelines  for  future  action. An  analysis  of  the 
efforts  made  during  the  past  few  years  to  tackle  urban 
environmental  problems  suggests  that  these  have  been  constrained 
by  a  number  of  important  factors  which  can  be  addressed  in  a 
Community  programme  of  action. 

2. Constraints on effective environmental  management 

There  is  growing  understanding  that  effective  environmental 
management  requires  replacing  the piecemeal  approach  to  problems 
by  a  high  degree  of  Integration,  if displacement  of  problems  is 
to be avoided. However,  issue  Integration must  also be matched  by 
procedural  integration  : between  policy-making,  problem  analysis 
and  Impact  assessment,  planning,  financing,  and  implementation  -
precisely  because  of  the wide  scope of  the  issues  involved.  Even 
at  the end of  the process, however, results will  be  transitory  if 
the  public  is  not  helped  to  acquire  the  awareness  needed  to 
recognize  environmental  problems  on  a  day-to-day  basis  and 
structures  found which  translate  this awareness  Into action. 

(1) Coordination 
This  Is  essentially  an  institutional  problem  which  affects  all 
levels  of  public  administration.  The  traditional  approach  to 
urban  environmental  problems  has  been  essentially  sectoral  -  In 
other words,  Individual  measures aimed at  reducing  the effects of 
specific problems. 

Yet  given  the  complexity  of  urban  systems,  decisions  made  In 
almost  any  Individual  sector  will  have  repercussions  elsewhere. 
The  division  of  responsibility  of  urban  management  between 
different  levels of  government  and  various agencies  operating  at 
the  local  level  Involves  difficulties  of  Integration  which  are 
both  "vertical" and  "horizontal". 

Few  cities  posses  an  institutional  framework  which  permits 
genuine  coordination of  Investment, development  and environmental 
decision-making. The  implications of  this are most  easily  seen  In 
respect  to  transport  planning.  Despite  their  significant 
environmental  Implications,  decisions  affecting  public  transport 
on  the  one  hand  and  road  construction  on  the  other  are  rarely 
Integrated  Into a single, comprehensive  transportation  strategy. 

(Ii) Resources 
While  limited  budgets  undoubtedly  constrain  many  environmental 
programmes,  environmentally  sensible  solutions  can  often  be 
achieved  by  the more efficient  use of existing  resources. 

-  33 -

v 

(III)  Information 
As  discussed  above,  the  lack  of  accurate  and  consistent  data  on 
many  environmental  factors  acts  as  a  constraint  on  programme 
development.  It  is  difficult  to  set  objective  targets  for 
Improvement  without  a  clear  recognition  of  the  scope  of  a 
particular  problem.  In the past  few years, greater  efforts  in the 
field  of  environmental  monitoring,  together  with  public  pressure 
for  access  to collected  data,  have  generated  demands  that  higher 
priority be given  to  Improvement  programmes. 

(iv) Technical  Knowledge 
With  the  growth  of  concern  for  environmental  issues,  there  has 
and 
been  concomitant 
technologies.  This  has  already  yielded  results  In many  areas  of 
noise  and  pollution  control,  which  will  gradually  be  implemented 
over  the  coming  years.  These  successes  have  made  clear  the 
importance  of  ongoing  research  and  development  In  environmental 
technology. 

In  environmental 

techniques 

growth 

(v) Problem  Displacement 
One  of  the  shortcomings  of  the  current  sectoral  approach  is that 
the  solution  to  one  problem  often  proves  to  be  the  cause  of 
another  one.  Thus,  the  construction  of  new  urban  roads  to  ease 
congestion  may  stimulate  more  traffic  and  thereby  Increase 
pollution.  Attention  must  therefore  be  paid  to  potential 
secondary  effects of  solutions. Electric  cars will  be quieter  and 
cause  less direct  pollution  than  motor  vehicles, but  the  problem 
of  C02  pollution  resulting  from  the generation  of  electricity  by 
burning  fossil  fuels  remains.  Most  electricity  in  Europe  is 
generated  in this way,  and  the  situation  Is not  likely  to  change 
in the near  future. 

(vl) Environmental  Improvement  vs Economic  Growth 
A  significant  restraint  on  many  measures  for  environmental 
Improvement  has been concern  for  their  Impact  on economic  growth. 
It  Is  not  surprising  that  economies  which  have  in  recent  years 
been  been  faced  with  high  Inflation  and  unemployment  are 
reluctant 
Industry  and  consumers  with  higher 
environmental  standards.  This  conflict  between  environment  and 
economy  is,  however,  a  false  one  since  In  the  long  term  the 
protection  of  environmental  resources  Is  a  basic  condition  for 
sustained  economic  growth,  which  can  itself  contribute  to 
environmental  improvement. 

to  burden 

In  the  short  term,  the  weakness  of  our  present  environmental 
legislation  and  policies  is such  that  economic  growth  is  likely 
to  lead  to  Increases  in  pollution  and  pressure  on  the 
environment.  Analysis  of  the  projected  future  patterns  of  growth 
within  the Cdmmunlty  Indicates  that  It  is  likely  to  cause  severe 
environmental  problems  related  especially  to  transport,  energy 
and  waste.  More  positive  measures  to overcome  these  impacts  are 
required  not  Just  to  protect  the  environment  but  also  to  ensure 
that  the  benefits  of  this  growth  are  sustained.  Economic 
Integration  provides  positive  opportunities  for  the  application 
of  environmental  Improvements  throughout  the entire  Community. 

- 34 -

ITttlî»  °ne ,°f  the  maJOr  d , f f , c u , t ,es  in judging  the balance 
between  environment  and  economic  development  concerns  the 
timescale.  Current  environmental  management  far  too  often 
responds to short-term  crises  rather  than  engaging  In long-term 
pIannIng. 

At  the heart  of the conflict,  however,  is the fact  that the 
market  economy  currently doesn't  "Internalize" the environmental 
costs.  It  does  however  have  the potential  to do so. While 
research carried out by the OECD, among other  organisations, has 
already  fully  documented  these  costs,  this  is yet to have a 
significant  Impact on public policy. 

Consumer and  producer  choices can be guided  through  economic and 
fiscal measures which rely on market  forces. Although  this policy 
option  is only  beginning  to be explored,  It has considerable 
potential as means of contributing  towards compatibility  between 
environment  and economic growth. 

3. Guiding Principles for Urban Environmental  Improvement 

From  this  discussion,  a  number  of  themes  arise  as  guiding 
principles  for  Community 
action  in  improving  the  urban 
envIronment. 

(I) Coordination-intégrât ion 
The  complexity and Interrelationships among  urban  problems  calls 
for  greater  Integration in policy and investment  decision-making 
to  economic  development,  social  policy  (the reinforcement of 
social  and economic cohesion), transport  and environment. 

(II) ResponslbiIity 
Accepting  responsibility for the consequences of our activities 
at  all  levels  - of the  Individual,  the company  and public 
administration - is an important  prerequisite for environmental 
Improvement. This In turn presupposes understanding and knowledge 
of  these  consequences,  which  Is often  lacking.  While  Informed 
choice  alone  will not solve  our  problems, it will  contribute to 
this end. 

For  the city  itself,  It  Is perhaps  useful  to  suggest the 
objective of the non-polluting city - assuming  the responsibility 
to  prevent  pollution of the surrounding  countryside. An example 
Is the project  "Seine Propre", by which  Paris aims to treat  100% 
of  the waste water  discharged  into the river Seine. 

(ill) Sustainabllity 
The 
long-term  objectives  of  environmental  and  economic 
sustainabllity  must be accepted  along  with  that of environmental 
quality  In the short  term.  The  World  Commission  on Environment 
and  Development,  in Its 1987 report,  commonly  known  as the 
Brundtland 
principle 
report,  developed  as  an  Important 
"sustainable  development":  that  the use of resources  and  the 
environment  should  not reduce  the potential  of these  resources 
for 
implications  for  urban 
environmental  management  need  to be explored  In detail. 

generations. 

succeeding 

Its 

- 35 -

(lv) Subsidiarity 
r!^,,nP,rt,vn C ,?l e^, , eS  sPe c , f , c a , |y  to  actions by the European 
TiïTrL r  n  d,Ôf,n,ng the d,V,s,on of  responsibilities  between 
different  levels  of  government,  It  assigns  a  role  to the 
Community  when  policy  objectives can best be achieved by acting 
at  the European  level.  The full  text of the Treaty which  covers 
Community  Involvement  In  environmental  matters  is set out In 
Append Ix I. 

With  reference to the urban environment, the basis for Community 
action Is to be found in: 

(a) The International  Implications of pollution originating  from 
urban  areas. Many of the activities which  cause  problems  within 
urban  areas  also  contribute  to  cross-border  air and water 
pollution  and to global  environmental  problems  such  as global 
warming. 

(b) The commonality  of problems  within  the urban  environment. 
This argues for cooperation among Member States in the search for 
solutions. 

(c)  Recognition  of a European  dimension of the historical and 
cultural  heritage of our  towns and cities. 

(d)  The  necessity  to  consider  potential  Impacts  on the 
environment,  and In particular  In urban  areas, of  Community 
poI icy  In a 11 sectors. 

4.  Instruments of Community Action 

City authorities, and the national  governments which  provide the 
legislative and financial  framework within which  cities operate^ 
have the major  responsibility to Improve the urban environment. 

The Community  already, through a variety of policies and actions 
has a significant  impact on urban areas. The main  instruments of 
Community  action are described below with reference to how  these 
are  already  being  used to contribute to the Improvement of  the 
urban environment.  In considering  how the Community  can usefully 
extend  its  activities  In this  policy  area,  these  are the main 
types of action which are available. 

(I) Legislation 
The  Community  has  assumed  a  major  role  in  environmental 
management  by  establishing  quality  objectives  and  emission 
standards  for a number  of environmental  factors - particularly 
air,  water  and  noise  pollution.  With 
Improvements  In 
environmental  technology,  emission  standards  will  have  to be 
continuously  reviewed  to ensure  that  they are In  line with the 
application of the best  available  technology. The Importance of 
this role has grown with  the approval of norms In the context of 
the Single Market. 

-  36 -

which 
Commun  ty  legislation  requiring  catalltyc  converters 
s gnlfleantly  reduce  emissions of  pollutants such  as  N02',  to  be 
fitted  to all  new cars sold  In the Community  from  1993  is a good 
example  of  legislation  which  will  contribute  to  improving  the 
urban  environment. 

The  Community  has  also  adopted  legislation  requiring  a  detailed 
environmental  Impact  assessment  for  major  development  projects, 
the  aim  of  which  is to ensure  that  decisions  are  made  with  fuli 
knowledge of  the environmental  Implications of  different  options. 

Consideration  Is  currently  being  given  to  the  possibility  that 
this  legislation  be  extended  to  require  such  an  analysis  for 
policies, plans and  programmes. This requirement  will  improve  the 
coordination  of  objectives  between  different  sectors  and  hence 
result  in  plans  and  policies  that  are  more  sensitive  to  the 
multiple needs of urban  dwellers. 

(ii) Recommendations and Guidelines 
While  in certain  areas  It  is  inappropriate  for  the  Community  to 
produce  a  legislative  framework,  the  commonality  of  problems 
between  Member  States  is  such  that  the  Community  is  an 
appropriate  forum  for  discussing  and  developing  guidelines  for 
action. 

(ill) Research, Demonstration and Training 
Improved  methods  and  techniques  of  urban  management  can 
potentially  benefit  the  entire  Community.  It  is  therefore 
appropriate  that  the  Community  financially  encourage  such 
experimentation  through  demonstration  and  pilot  projects  which 
might  serve  as models  for  wider  application.  In the  same  spirit, 
the  Community  can  serve  a  useful  role  in  disseminating 
Information  about  the  practical  results  obtained  to  date 
throughout  the  Community.  The  Community  is  already  active  In 
these ways  in many  areas of urban management. 

In the field of  Research, existing examples of  relevant  Community 
programmes  Include  the  "DRIVE"  programme  which  is developplng  a 
comprehensive  range  of  Instruments  for  the  provision  of 
Information services  to managers and users of  the urban  transport 
system.  It  will  provide  the  tools  for  Improved  planning  and 
management  of  traffic,  including  the  control  of  congestion, 
pollution  and  noise,  and  the  efficient  use  of  public  transport 
and  parking  space.  Research  is  also  being  carried  out  into  the 
Impacts  of  atmospheric  pollution  on  the  structure  of  historic 
buildings.  The  Community  Is  currently  supporting  pilot  projects 
in  a  number  of  areas  which  can  contribute  to  improve  the  urban 
environment,  Including  for  example  a network  of  12 cities  being 
supported  In the development  of urban energy  planning. 

(Iv) Financial  Assistance 
The  Community  already  finances  considerable  investment  in  urban 
areas through  the structural  funds, notably  the Regional  Fund, by 
loans  from  the  European  Investment  Bank,  loans  and  grants  from 
the ECSC and by other  financial  Instruments. 

-  37 -

Some of  these  Investments directly or  indirectly affect  the urban 
environment;  this  includes  direct  environmental  Improvements, 
recognised  as often  being  a precondition of  economic  development. 

The  reform  of  the  structural  funds  In  1988  has  brought  a  new 
dimension  to  their  Involvement  In  urban  areas.  This  reform  has 
emphasised  the  need  to concentrate  resources  In defined  priority 
areas and  to co-ordinate  the actions of  the various  funds. 

Submissions  for  support  are made within  the context  of  a Regional 
Plan.  After  négociation,  a  Community  Support  Framework  is 
established  which  forms  the  basis  for  financial  support.  For 
urban  areas, the  two following objectives are  relevant  : 

-  Objective  1  areas 

regions  whose  development  is  lagging 
behind  (I.e. where  capita  G.D.P.  is  less  than or  close  to 75% 
of  the Community  average). 

-  Objective  2 areas  : areas of  industrial  decline. 

Objective  1  areas  include  many  major  cities  and  urban  areas 
including  Athens,  Belfast,  Dublin,  Naples  and  Lisbon.  The 
Commission  has  influenced  the choice  of  actions  in  the  Community 
Support  Frameworks  for  Objective  1  regions.  These  regions  often 
lack  Infrastructure  such  as sewage  or  water  treatment  plants, or 
adequate  public  transport,  the  absence  of  which  affects  economic 
development  and  the  environment.  The  actions  for  these  regions 
under  the  CSFs  are  designed  to  improve  their  economic  potential 
while  at  the same  time  taking  account  of  the  environment. 

Examples  of  actions  for  cities  which  will  have  specific 
environmental  gains  include: 

-  the  Athens  metro  to  help  reduce  the  dependence  on  the  motor 
car  and  reduce  the chronic  levels of  air  pollution  in the city 

-  In  Lisbon,  under  the  programme  "Llsboa  Norte",  there  are 
proposals  for  water  and  sewage  works.  These  include  the 
construction  of  an  "Interceptor"  sewer  and  sewerage  treatment 
plants  and  the purification of water  from  industrial  areas 

-  in  Naples,  a  priority  has  been  given  to  linking  sewer  system 
with  treatment  plants  and  the  construction  of  a  new  water 
purification  and  sewage  treatment  plant. 

All  Objective  2  regions  are  characterised  by  the  decline  of 
traditional  industries  with  a  legacy  of  derelict  land  and 
contaminated  sites,  and  are  therefore  predominantly  urban.  A  key 
priority  under  the  Community  Support  Framework  for  Objective  2 
regions  is the  reclamation  and  redevelopment  of  former  Industrial 
sites.  Add itionnaly,  other  actions  deal  with  the  disposal  of 
waste,  treatment  of water  and  sewerage and  atmospheric  pollution. 
It  is estimated  that  20% of  current  funding  in these  areas  have a 
specific  environmental  benefit  orientation. Environmental  actions 
are  being  linked  with  other  actions  designed  to  create  jobs  and 
new opportunities. Some examples of  the type actions  intended  are 
as  fol lows : 

- 38 -

"  î«8tîrCh,..and  a d V , C e*  3S  W eM  as  m ô a s u re s.  specifically  linked 

and  BremenS)POSal  ^ 

r e c y c M ng  of  , n d u s t r |a«  waste  (UK, Spain 

-  Insistence  that  industrial  development  should  not,  where 
possible,  take place on "greenfield"  land. The CSFs stress the 
need  to redevelop  already  derelict  land (UK and Berlin). 

-  Emphasis on the development of public  transport  systems  rather 

than  further  road  infrastructure  spending (UK). 

-  Inclusion of measures  relating  to "clean  technologies"  in the 
research  and development  priority  (UK) and  Investment  aids to 
SME's for non-polluting production plants  (Berlin). 

-  Measures  to combat  atmospheric  pollution  (Spain). 

In  all,  about  40 percent  of  major  cities  of  the Community  are 
covered  by the actions of Objective  1 and 2 areas. Since many of 
the  problems  related  to  unemployment  and  re-trainlng  are 
concentrated  in urban  areas  so, too, is the action  through the 
Social  Fund. 

Support 

Frameworks, 

from  the  Community 

Apart 
Community 
initiatives  can  tackle  some  environmental  problems  as  well  as 
promoting  economic  development.  The RESIDER  programme  for steel 
areas or the RECHAR  programme  for coal  mining  areas are examples 
of  specific  programmes  which,  while  primarily  focussing  on 
combatting  the  severe  unemployment  created  by  the  decline  of 
these  industries, also  Include  Important  elements which  relate to 
the  Improvement  of the environment  and Image of these areas. 

Another  Community  Initiative,  ENVIREG,  allocates  500 MECU  over 
the  period  1990-1993  specifically  related  to  environmental 
actions  to  reduce  pollution  In  coastal  areas,  mainly  In the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  management  of  hazardous  and  toxic 
Industrial  waste  In  objective  1 areas.  A  priority  Is  in urban 
areas of  less  than  100,000  inhabitants. 

Under  article  10 of the ERDF  regulation,  urban  pilot  projects of 
an  Innovatory  character  and which  have  demonstrative  potential 
for  other  cities may be co-financed, for example  the London and 
Marseille pilot  actions  launched  In February 1990. 

The Regional  Development  Fund  Is, with few exceptions,  limited to 
those  areas  of  the  Community  which  are  considered  to  be 
economically  disadvantaged  and, within  these  areas,  to  projects 
which will  lead to economic  development. 

These  limitations  currently  prevent  the Community  from  assisting 
environmental  measures  In urban  areas not covered  by Objective 1 
and  2  and  projects  which  cannot  be  regarded  as  leading  to 

-  39 -

economic  development.  If  the  Community  wishes  to  be  able  to 
support  environmental  actions 
In  urban  areas  throughout 
Community,  It will, therefore, need  to consider  the creation of a 
new financial  faciIity. 

At  present  finance  available  for  specifically  environmental 
projects  is  very  limited.  The  "Medspa"  programme  is  the  most 
significant of  the current  proposals.  With a budget of 
9  million  ECU  In  1990  this  programme  is  intended  to  provide 
technical  and  professional  assistance  with  the  preparation  of 
plans  for  the  treatment  of  urban  sewage  and  waste  to  small 
communities,  with  less  than  100,000  population,  in  the 
Mediterranean Basin. 

(v) Economic and Fiscal  Measures 
The  scope  for  Community  action  to  encourage  environmental 
improvement  by  economic  and  fiscal  measures  has  yet  to  be 
explored 
incorporate 
environmental  quality  within  the economic  system  by  operating  on 
the  market  in  ways  which  encourage  environment  friendly 
production techniques and products. 

in  detail.  Such  measures  aim 

to 

(vi) Urban  Impact  Assessment 
The  Commission makes policy  In a wide  range of  sectors  which  may 
have consequences for  the urban environment. Such policies should 
be  carefully  analysed  to  ensure  that  adverse  effects  on  the 
environment  are avoided. 

5. Areas of Action 

The  first  chapter  of  this  document  has  identified  the  main 
problems  facing  urban  areas and  their  causes. The  limitations of 
the  existing  sectorial  approaches  to  the  solution  of  these 
problems have also been  identified.  In presenting suggestions for 
future  lines  of  action,  It  is  important  therefore  to  orientate 
these  towards  addressing  the  causes  of  the  problems  rather  than 
simply  their symptoms. This section discusses potential  solutions 
to  the  problems  and  from  these  identifies  a  range  of  suggested 
lines  for  future  Community  action.  These  suggestions,  which 
relate  to  actions  best  achieved  at  the  Community  level,  respect 
the principle governing  the role and  competence of  the  Community 
as set out  in the Treaty. 

As  discussed  In  the  first  section  of  this  chapter,  the  main 
targets  for  future  action  for  urban environmental  improvement  at 
all  levels are seen  to fall  into two priority areas: 

-  Policies  which  concern  the  physical  structure  of  the  city, 

specifically with  regard  to : 

-  Urban planning; 
-  Urban  transport; 
-  Protection and enhancement of  the historical  heritage; 
-  Protection  and  enhancement  of  the  natural  areas  within 

cities-, 

- 40 -

" 

IVMWi 
activities on the environment : 

C o n c e r n ed  w , th  reducing  the  impact  of  urban 

- Urban  Industry; 
- Urban energy  management; 
- Management of urban waste-, 
- Water  management. 

It  is also  Important  that  the  development  policies  in this  area 
are  based on accurate and comparative  data on the state of  the 
urban  environment.  Consideration  Is therefore  also  required of 
information  needs and how these are to be met. 

In  addition to these  main  priority  areas,  there  is also  scope 
for  the Community  to assist a range of Initiatives at the local 
and  regional  level  which can contribute to the improvement of 
the  environment  and quality  of  life  In urban  areas.  These 
include  initiatives  related to : 

-  information 
-  social  action 
-  interregional  co-operation. 

5.1. Urban  planning 

Encouraging  greater  diversity  and avoiding urban  sprawl. 

The strict  zoning policies of  the past  decades which  have  led to 
the  separation  of  land  use and the subsequent  development of 
extensive  residential  suburbs  have  In turn  stimulated  commuter 
traffic,  which  Is at the heart  of many  of the environmental 
problems currently  facing urban areas. 

We  therefore need a fundamental  review of  the principles on which 
town planning  practice has been based. Strategies which emphasize 
mixed  use and denser  development  are more  likely  to result In 
people  living  close  to work  places  and  the services  they  require 
for  everyday  life. The  car  can  then  become an option  rather  than 
a  necessity.  Strategies of this  kind  have  already  been  put  In 
motion  In countries  such  as The Nether lands;they  merit  wider 
considérât ion. 

Redeveloping  urban waste  lands 

The  many  tracts  of  abandoned  land,  disused  industrial  sites, 
railway  sidings,  docks  and military  facilities  in urban  areas 
offer  valuable  opportunities  for  redevelopment - saving  existing 
recreational  and open  space within  cities  and  Its outskirts  from 
encroachment  by development.  Many  cities  have  already  accepted 
this priority  In their  planning strategies. However,  the  problems 
posed  by contaminated  land  and complex  ownership  patterns are 
such  that  It  will  often  require  a  firm  lead  from  public 
authorities. 

-  41  -

Revitalizing  existing  city  areas 

by  carrying  out  environmental 

Revitalizing  existing  housing  areas  within  the  city  Is  also 
Important.  The  quality  of  life  In such  areas  can  be  dramatically 
and, 
Improved 
specifically,  by  reducing  the  noise  and  pollution  from  traffic' 
This  requires  local  strategies  that  give priority  to  the  needs of 
pedestrians  and  Inhabitants  rather  than  to  drivers  passing 
through  an  area. Such  environmental  Improvements may  well  provide 
the  Impetus  for  private  investment  In  improvement  of  housing 
stock. 

Improvements 

The  need  for  revltalIzation  Is not  restricted  to areas within  the 
city.  Many  urban  peripheral  housing  estates,  particularly  those 
constructed  as  social  housing,  are  showing  symptoms  of  urban 
decline  more  traditionally  associated  with  rundown  inner-city 
areas.  In  London  and  Marseille,  the  Commission  is  already 
Involved  In pilot  projects  aimed  at  Improving  economic  and  social 
development  In  such  areas.  The  problems  experienced  by  their 
inhabitants are often  aggravated  by  their  physical  isolation  from 
the economic,  social, commercial  and  cultural  life of  the  city. 

Expanding  the  uses  and  activities  of  these  areas,  and  thus  the 
opportunities available  to their  residents,  is part  of  a  strategy 
aimed  at  integrating  these  housing  estates  into  the  city,  and 
Improving  their  environment  and  the  quality  of  life  of  their 
inhabitants. 

Urban  design 

Urban  environmental  quality  is  as  much  a  product  of  building 
design  as  of  spatial  differentiation.  Protecting  the  visual 
quality  and  historical  identity  of  our  cities  thus  requires 
attention  not  only  to  the  protection  of  historical  buildings  but 
also  to the design of  new  buildings  being  inserted  into  the  urban 
fabric.  Urban  planning  should  therefore  Incorporate  this  third 
dimension, encouraging  architectural  innovation  but  ensuring  that 
new buildings are compatible with  existing urban  character  and  do 
not  destroy  or  render  useless  the city's open  spaces. 

Suggested  lines of  action  : 

should 

authorities, 

-  That  the  Commission,  in  cooperation  with  Member  States  and 
the 
local 
incorporation  of  environmental  considerations 
into  town 
planning  strategies  - a detailed  Investigation  and  elaboration 
of  the principles outlined  above. Such  guidelines will  attempt 
to  Influence  town  planning  practice  and  provide  an  important 
complement 
to  the  proposed  directive  on  environmental 
assessment  of  policies, plans  and  programmes. 

guidelines 

evolve 

for 

-  That  further  research  Into  the  treatment  of  contaminated 
soils,  which  so  often  hinder  redevelopment  of  existing  city 
sites,  be  encouraged. 

-  42 -

That  further  financial  assltance  be  given  to  pilot  projects 
aimed  at  revitalizing  less favoured  urban  areas  by  Introducing 
a  greater  mixture  of  uses  and  hence  access  to  urban 
facilities.  At  the  same  time,  such  actions  should  aim  to 
protect  and  assist  existing  residents  In  these  areas.  The 
Commission  should  also  consider  how  it can  extend  this  action 
building  on  lessons  learnt  from  these pilot  projects. 

The  Community  should  consider  the  question  of  whether  it 
wishes  to  extend  financial  support  for  urban  renovation  and 
environmental  Improvement  schemes  beyond  the  types  and  areas 
of  support  permitted  by  the  current  structural  funds  and  If 
so, how  this could  be  achieved. 

5.2. Urban  transport 

As  stressed  throughout  this  report,  the dramatic  rise  in  private 
vehicle  ownership  over  the past  few  decades  has provided  greater 
convenience  for many,  but  it has also  led  to congestion, negative 
impacts  of  urban  motorways,  loss of  open  spaces  to  parking,  air 
pollution  and  noise.  The  dramatic  increase  in  the  amount  of 
freight  moved  by  lorry  has contributed  to these problems  as well. 
Urban  traffic  is  a  major  contributor  to  acid  rain  and  the 
greenhouse  effect. 

There  Is  growing  recognition  that  the  situation  is  serious  and 
action  needed.  While  the  development  of  environment  friendly 
vehicles  could  bring  some  relief,  meaningful  solutions  will 
Involve  a  significant  shift  In  the  balance  between  modes  of 
transport,  favouring  public  over  private  transport  and  reducing 
the  level  and  Impact  of motor  traffic  In our  Inner  cities. 

At  the  Community  level  It  Is not  possible  to  provide  details  of 
the strategy  that  would  be appropriate  for  a particular  city. But 
It  Is possible  to  Identify a number  of  areas where progress  would 
contribute  to reducing  the  Impact of  vehicle  traffic on  the  city. 

(a) Private  Transport 

Improving  current  technology 

Existing  and  proposed  Community  legislation  seeks  to  apply  the 
best  available  technology  to  reduce  the  noise  and  pollution 
traditionally  associated  with  motor  vehicles,  notably  the  switch 
to  less  polluting  fuels,  tougher  standards  on  noise  levels  and 
the  use  of  catalytic  convertors.  These  controls  apply  to  new 
vehicles.  They  will  not,  however,  reduce  the  emission  of  C02, 
which  Is one of  the most  Important  greenhouse  gases. 

Moreover,  to  be  effective  these  measures  must  be  maintained 
throughout  the  life of  the  vehicle.  This  can  be  accomplished  by 
adding  environmental  conformity  controls  to  existing  technical 
(safety) controls. 

-  43 -

The  Commission  should  be  encouraging  research  into  the  further 
reduction  of  noise  and  pollution  from  motor  vehicles  and  keep 
under  review  its directives  In this area  to ensure  application  of 
the  results of  such  research. 

Even  within  existing  technology,  certain  vehicles  are  recognised 
as  less  environmentally  damaging  than  others.  The  Federal 
Republic  of  Germany  has  recently  adopted  a  differential  taxation 
system  related  to emission  levels. The  Commission  could  consider 
a wider  application of  such  a system  within  the  Community. 

authorities 

Public 
and 
maintenance  of  a  substantial  number  of  vehicles  within  the  urban 
areas  for  various  functions  should  set  an  example  both  In  the 
choice  and  the use  and maintenance  of  their  vehicles. 

acquisition 

responsible 

the 

for 

Electric  vehicles 

There  is a  growing  interest  in electric  vehicles  as  a  potential 
solution  to  the  noise  and  air  pollution  problems  posed  by  petrol 
and  diesel  engines. The Commission  has already  expressed  interest 
in  the  development  of  these  vehicles  and  has  assisted  in  the 
creation  of  an  Intercity  association  aimed  at  encouraging 
development  cooperation. 

While  such  vehicles would  undoubtedly  contribute  significantly  to 
lowering  pollution  levels, they  cannot  be regarded  as an  absolute 
solution.  They  will  not  overcome  congestion  or  relieve  the 
pressures  on  urban  space.  Moreover,  they  rely  on  electricity 
largely  generated  by burning  fossil  fuels. 

Bicycles 

The  bicycle  Is  the  ultimate  environment  friendly  vehicle. 
However,  few  cities  have  seriously  attempted  to  incorporate  the 
bicycle  Into  an  overall  transport  strategy.  Indeed,  existing 
traffic  presents  pollution  and  safety  hazards  that  strongly 
discourage  the use of  bicycles within  the  cities. 

Pedestrtans 

discomfort 

The  hazards  facing  bicycles  are  equally  daunting  to  that  most 
private  means  of  transport  - walking.  In areas  of  heavy  traffic, 
the  pedestrian  is  assailed  by  noise  and  fumes,  leading  to 
immediate 
eye 
Irritations.  Moreover,  such  areas  tend  to  resemble  obstacles 
courses.  The  pedestrian  may  have  to  navigate  around  parked  cars 
blocking  crossing  and,  In  some  cases,  pavements,  avoid  metal 
poles  bearing  traffic  signs, traffic  lights, parking  meters;  rush 
across  streets where  the  "pedestrian walk" signal  may  be as  short 
as  four  seconds; watch  for  cars going  through or  turning  on  a red 
Iight, etc. 

respiratory 

long-term 

and 

and 

-  44 -

Too  often,  street  planning  focuses  on  the  efficient  circulation 
of  motor  vehicle  traffic,  leaving  pedestrians  to  fend  for 
themselves. Walkers must  be put  back  Into the planning  equation  -
not  as  an  endangered  species  to  be  set  aside  In  special 
pedestrian  areas, but  as major  users of  the city's streets. 

(b) PublIc  Transport 

While  the  contribution  of  public  transport  to  reducing  urban 
traffic  has  long  been  recognised,  few  cities  have  succeeded  In 
significantly  shifting  private  to public  transport. 

While  the use of  private cars has  Increased, public  transport  has 
remained  rather  static.  Experience  has  shown  strong  owner 
attachment  to cars - often  defying economic  logic - and  that  only 
a powerful  combination  of  Incentives and  restraints  can  shift  the 
balance  to  public  transport.  A  number  of  issues  call  for 
consideration  in this connection. 

(I) Public  transport,  land use and  transport  planning 

Urban  transportation  planning  should  consider  the  potential  of 
all  forms  of  transport  and  take  decisions  within  a  long-term 
strategy  which  relates  it  directly  to  land  use  planning  and 
includes  environmental  objectives.  At  present,  many  cities  seem 
to  take  Important  transportation decisions  in an  ad  hoc  response 
to  increased  demand. 

Thus,  the  response  to  Increased  car  traffic  has  too  often  been 
new  roads,  which  have  In  turn  encouraged  yet  more  traffic.  A 
policy  of  favouring  public  transport  must  inevitably  involve 
difficult  decisions.  Catering  for  all  the  demands  of  increased 
traffic  Is not  an adequte  response; congestion  represents  in some 
cases a useful  tool  of  dissuasion. 

(ii)  Improving  public  transport 

A  common  complaint  -  or  excuse  -  is  that  the  quality  of  public 
transport  makes  It  an  inconvenient  alternative  to  the  car. 
Clearly,  operators  face  significant  economic  problems.  Improved 
services  Imply  Increased  costs  for  vehicles,  rolling  stock, 
personnel  and  Infrastructure  such  as  track  and  passenger 
faciIities. 

Unless  such  decisions  are  taken  within  the  context  of  an 
Integrated  transport  plan  based  on  a  clear  decision  to  develop 
attractive  new public  transport  services as an alternative  to new 
roads,  there  Is no guarantee  that  Improved  services  will  attract 
a  sufficient  number  of  passengers  to cover  costs. Attention  must 
also be given  to  the potential  of park-and-rIde schemes and  links 
between  Intercity  transport  and  internal  networks. 

-  45  -

(c) Traffic  Management 

The  management  of  city  traffic  can  be  significantly  improved  by 
traffic  management  systems  which  can  Include  high  technolgy 
Information  and  Informatics  systems  such  as  are  currently  being 
developped under  the Commission's  DRIVE  research  programme.  While 
tradltlonnally  the  main  objective  of  traffic  management  has  been 
to  ease  congestion  and  improve  traffic  flow,  It  can  also  be 
applied  to  the  improvement  of  environment  conditions.  The 
encouragement  of  new  techniques  raises  therefore  the  question  as 
to  whether  they  are  to  be  used  to  encourage  more  traffic  or  to 
reduce  environmental  impact.  Traffic  management  policies  should 
give  full  weight  to  environmental  and  safety  considerations, 
taking  account  of  longer  term  implications  at  both  the  local  and 
global  level, while  still  reflecting  the need  for  mobility  which 
is essential  to  a  healthy  urban  economy.  Within  the  framework  of 
these  considerations,  the  aim  should  be  to  reduce  traffic 
congestion  but  not  encourage  greater  use  of  the  city  areas  for 
motor  traffic. 

A  variety  of  measures  which  restrain  the  use  and  impact  of  the 
private  car  are available. These  include  local  area  schemes  aimed 
at  traffic  calming,  Involving  speed  restrictions;  road  narrowing; 
and  pedestrian  zones.  Such  local  measures  if  well  designed  and 
Implemented,  are probably  the most  effective way  to reduce  noise. 
The  Netherlands  and  Germany  have  had  considerable  success  with 
these  techniques.  In  addition  to  encouraging  greater  use  of 
public  transport,  measures  of  this  type  form  an  integral  part  of 
schemes  to  revitalize  Inner  city  areas,  making  them  more 
habitable  and  "reclaiming  the street"  for  pedestrians. 

(d) Restrictions on  parking 

Parking  restrictions  have  a  major  dissuasive  effect  on  private 
car  use  within  the  city.  Attachment  to car  use  is often  so  great 
that  drivers  will  accept  considerable  Inconvenience  before  they 
are willing  to  change  to  public  transport.  In those  cities  where 
public  tansport  is  still  Important,  the  availability  of  parking 
Is severely  restricted,  either  by  accident  or  by  design. 

(e) Taxation of  road  use  In urban  areas 

A  number  of  cities within  the Community  are  proposing  the  use  of 
road  pricing  or  area  licensing  to  Influence  the  balance  of 
private  and  public  transport.  Such  measures  are  already  applied 
outside  the Community,  In cities  such  as  Singapore  and  Oslo.  The 
Justification  for  this  type  of  economic  Instrument  Is  that  It 
forces  the  user  more  directly  to  assume  the  wider  social  and 
environmental  costs  of  car  use. These  systems  have  the  potential 
to  discourage  car  use  and  to  contribute  financially  to  the 
development  of  alternatives  but  must  be  handled  sensitively  to 
avoid  negative  impacts on  the city  centre. 

-  46 -

Suggested  lines of  action 

The Community  should  : 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Encourage  city  authorities  to  Incorporate  decisions  about 
the  coordinated  future  development  of  public  transport  and 
road  construction  into  their  plans  for  land  use  and 
future 
transportation.  The  Commission 
submissions  for  structural  fund assistance  towards  transport 
Infrastructure  to demonstrate  that  such an analysis has been 
carried out. 

should  expect 

Encourage  innovative  approaches  to  the  use  of  public 
transport  and  the environmental  management  of  urban  traffic 
by contributing  to the cost of pilot projects and monitoring 
their  effects.  Research  programmes  should  attach  high 
priority  to environmental  considerations  and  should  include 
innovative  public  transport,  environmentally 
friendly 
vehicles  and  advanced  traffic  management  systems.  This 
should  not  lead  to  the  encouragement  of  the  greater  use  of 
urban  areas  for motor  traffic. 

Encourage  the  Community-wide  exchange  of  information  in 
urban  traffic management  to maximize  the benefits of  a wide 
range of experience. 

Consider  in  detail,  possibly  by  financing  pilot  projects, 
the  potential  for  using  economic  instruments  such  as  road 
pricing  to  help  solve  the  environmental  problems  generated 
by urban  traffic. 

5.3. The protection and enhancement  of  the historical  heritage of 

European  cltles 

The  historical  character  of our  European  town  and  cities -  their 
buildings,  monuments,  squares  and  street  patterns  -  establishes 
an  Identity  and sense of place specific  to  individual  cities. Our 
cities  are  an  important  symbol  of  the  Community's  rich  cultural 
diversity  and  its  shared  historical  heritage.  Interest  in 
protecting  a  city's  historical  character  Is  therefore  not 
restricted  to that  city's own citizens. 

The  development  pressures  of  the  past  several  decades  have 
gravely  threatened  Europe's urban heritage. Many  towns and cities 
have  introduced  planning  schemes  which  provide  significant 
protection  for  these  areas  and  encourage  their  restoration 
through  Imaginative  area  Improvement schemes. 

The Community  has to date played  a minor  role  In financial  terms, 
but  Important  In  terms  of  Increasing  the  public  awareness  of 
their  architectural  heritage.  This  role  Is  primarily  oriented 
towards  assisting  In  the  conservation  of  momuments  illustrating 
the  richness  and  the  diversity  of  the  European  architectural 
her itage. 

-  47 -

Suggested  lines of  action  : 

1. 

2. 

That  the Community  provides more substantial  finance  for  the 
conservation  of  historical  buildings  and  areas  of  European 
significance. 

That  consideration  be  given  to  the  potential  benefits  of  a 
Community  system  of  recognition of  the historic and  cultural 
significance  of  individual  buildings  and  parts  of  urban 
areas. 

5.4. Protection  and enhancement  of  the natural  environment  within 

our  towns and  cities 

With  growing  environmental  awareness  the  wealth  of  the  natural 
habitats  that  lie within  the confines of our  towns and  cities  has 
been  recognized.  While  the  value  of  such  areas  is  rarely 
comparable  to  that  of  more  natural  habitats  in  the  countryside, 
their  proximity  to  a  large  population  gives  them  a  special  value 
in  improving  the  quality  of  urban  life,  providing  opportunities 
for  informal  recreation  and  for  informal  education  in  natural 
history  and environmental  Issues. 

The  protection  and  improvement  of  open  spaces  and  habitats  and 
the  planting  of  trees  enhance  the  visual  pleasure  provided  by 
urban  areas,  and  can  also  help  to  combat  the  microclimatic 
effects  which  concentrate  pollutants  within  the  city,  and  the 
pollutants  themselves. 

Many  cities  have  adopted  "green  plans"  which  aim  to  protect  and 
enhance  the potential  of open  spaces and  to encourage  citizens  to 
plant  trees and  to carry out  other  environmental  improvements. 

The  growth  of  leisure  time  and  increasing  demands  of  space  for 
sports  and  recreation  has  placed  great  pressure  on  the  existing 
open  spaces  within  urban  areas. There  are  few  cities which  could 
genuinely  claim  to  have  made  adequate  provision  for  such  space. 
While  the  creation  of  new  urban  parks  poses  many  problems,  city 
authorities  should  be  encouraged  to  take  up  opportunities 
provided  by  derelict  and  unused  land.  In  many  European  cities, 
"recreation"  forests  on  the  edge  of  the  city  also  provide  very 
significant  recreation  opportunities  for  city  dwellers. 

Suggested  lines of  action  : 

1. 

2. 

The Commission  should  consider  a programme  of  pilot  projects 
across  the  Community  to  demonstrate  the  benefits  of  green 
plans  and  programmes  of  action. 

City  authorities  should  be  encouraged  to  review  their 
provision  of  public  open  spaces  and  seize  oppportunitles 
where  available  to extend  such  provision. 

-  48 -

5.5. Water  management 

A  current  proposal  for  a directive on  municipal  waste  water  sets 
the  objective  of  achieving  a  high  standard  of  treatment  for  all 
waste waters originating  from urban  areas. The necessity  for  this 
initiative,  as  well  as  the  improvements  It  could  potentially 
realize,  are  clear.  A  1984  survey  of  urban  waste  water  and 
treatment  facilities  In  10  Member  States  showed  that  less  than 
half  of  the  total  organic  load was being  treated  at  this  time. 

At  a more  fundamental  level, a project  is currently  under  way  at 
the  Commission  to  produce  a  directive  on  the  ecological  quality 
of  waters.  Unlike  previous  EC  quality  objective  directives,  this 
will  in principle  apply  to  all  Community  waters. Moreover,  It  Is 
likely  to  require  Member  States  to  put  improvement  programmes 
into  place  to  attain  specific  ecological  goals.  Although  this 
project  is still  In an  early  phase,  Its  impact  should  eventually 
be  to produce  major  biological  and aesthetic  Improvements  in both 
urban  and  non-urban  bodies of  water. 

5.6. Urban  industry 

Industry  is  a  major  source  of  air  and  noise  pollution  in  urban 
areas  and  surrounding  areas,  particularly  where  these  are 
residential. The  traditional  response  to this problem  has been  to 
relocate  Industry  to  the  urban  fringe  or  beyond.  This  policy  of 
"out  of  sight  out  of  mind",  while offering  some  Immediate  relief 
to  the  local  environment,  is not  a comprehensive  solution. 

For  large  industrial  operations,  such  moves  are  often  desirable, 
since  new  premises  facilitate  the  application  of  modern 
production  technology.  For  small  and  medium  sized  operations, 
where  individual  skills  are  often  more  Important  than  mass 
production  techniques,  such  a  move  will  frequently  entail 
considerable  financial  cost  as  well  as  limiting  access  to 
customers  and  suppliers, notably  of  services. 

While  It  is  true  that  some  Industrial  processes  are  undoubtedly 
best  located  away  from  other  land  uses,  existing  policies  have 
relied  too  heavily  on  exclusion  rather  than  compatibility.  The 
Commission  has  already  developed  a  range  of  directives  limiting 
Further 
emissions 
development  of  such  legislation  and  of  technical  applications  to 
avoid  these  nuisances  should  provide  a  more  flexible  framework 
for  local  planning  authorities  considering  the  location  of 
compatible  Industrial  activities  within  urban  areas. 

Industrial  operations. 

noise 

from 

and 

Such  Industries  can  be  of  benefit  to  local  Inhabitants  In 
providing  Job  opportunities  which  do  not  require 
lengthy 
commuting. 

-  49 -

Suggested  line of action : 

The Community  should  undertake measures  to promote  the growth  of 
small  and medium  sized entreprises  in a harmonious way within  the 
overall  fabric  of  the  urban  environment  and  should  provide 
assistance,  where  appropriate,  to  enable  them  to  comply  fully 
with  regulations  and  good  practice  In considerations  relating  to 
the environment. 

5.7. Urban energy  management 

Energy  consumption  in  urban  areas  is  closely  related  to  air 
pollution  from  transport, heating,  lighting  and  air  conditioning 
of  buildings. A more efficient  use of  energy  could  significantly 
help  In  reducing  urban  air  pollution  and,  consequently,  the 
cities'  contribution  to  the  greenhouse  effect.  As  transport  has 
been  discussed  in  detail  above,  this  section  focuses  on  energy 
use  within  buildings.  Potential  Improvements  in  this  area 
i ncIude: 

(a) BuiIding design 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  considerable  interest  in  the 
concept of ecological  housing - self-contained units which  create 
little  demand  for  energy  and  cause  minimal  damage  to  the 
environment.  Research  has  demonstrated  that  considerable  energy 
savings  may  be  achieved  by  incorporating  simple  "passive"  solar 
heating and other  energy-saving principles  in housing  design, and 
by  considering  factors  such  as  orientation  and  proximity  in 
producing  a more efficient urban  layout. 

(b) Standards of  insulation  In new construction 

The  technology  available  for  energy  conservation  -  wall 
insulation, double glazing, etc. -  is not being uniformly  applied 
in  new  building  construction  across  the  Community.  While 
geographic  differences  may  account  for  some  of  the  variation  in 
standards, the  Improvement  and harmonization of  such  standards  is 
worth  further  consideration.  Standards  and  regulations  for 
construction materials and  products  should  also be  put  in place, 
taking  Into  account  what  is  now  known  about  the  problems  of 
indoor pollut ion. 

(c)  Improvement of  insulation  In existing buildings 

While  there  Is  little  precise  information  on  the  insulation 
standard  of  the existing  building  stock within  the Community,  it 
is  fair  to  assume  that  it  is  for  the  most  part  quite  poor  and 
that  there  Is  scope  for  considerable  improvements  in  energy 
conservation  in this  area. Many  Member  States  now  encourage  such 
expenditure by  financial  and  fiscal  incentives. 

- 50 -

(d) Efficiency of heating  plant 

i?? 

The efficiency of individual  heating plants  is greatly  influenced 
°f  ma,ntenanc*-  m  the FRG,  property  owners are 
K,, 
obliged to have  their  furnaces checked on an annual  basis. It may 
be  possible  to  link  such  inspections  to fuel  supply  or  home 
Insurance  contracts. 

(e) Combined  heat  and  power 

Combining  district  heating  with  electricity  generation  Is highly 
efficient  in itself, while  the proximity of producer  to user  also 
reduces  energy  loss during  transmission.  The  Commission  has on a 
number  of  occasions  Issued  recommendations  supporting  such 
systems. 

(f) Heating/energy audits of buildings 

Energy  audits prior to a property  sale may be one  instrument for 
increasing  public  sensitivity  to  energy  consumption.  Such  a 
system  already  exists  In Denmark, where  it Is linked to the  role 
of a local  energy  consultant who provides advice on the costs and 
benefits of various energy  conservation  investments. 

(g) Energy  planning  in cities 

Energy  planning  in cities  can reduce  the energy  requirement 
considerably. 

This  Is a  preventive  means  of avoiding  pollution  at the same 
time.  It is based  on an analysis  of the energy  consumption 
structure  as well  as the possibilities  for exploiting  local 
energy  resources.  Integrated  energy management  concepts  resulting 
from  such  planning  Include  many  measures of the kind  mentioned 
under  points  (a) to (f) and  have generally  very  positive  effects 
on  the pollution  level  and economic  development  of  cities. 
However,  many  cannot  realise the  existing  possibilities  because 
they  are  Integrated In Institutional  frameworks which do not give 
enough  freedom  for  corresponding  energy policies to be developed. 

The Commission  Is already  promoting  energy  technology  projects  In 
many of the above areas. 

-  51  -

Suggested  lines of  action .-

1. 

2. 

That  the  Community  continue  and  Intensify  its  activités  in 
urban  energy  management,  seeking  in particular  to  encourage 
and  assist  the  cities  to  take  steps  towards  urban  energy 
planning  measures,  to  disseminate  useful 
advice  on 
appropriate means  in this  framework, e.g. on  building  design 
for  energy  saving  and  further  to demonstrate  the benefits of 
various energy  conservation  techniques by pilot  projects. 

legislation  on  product  norms  defines 
While  Community 
standards 
building 
Insulation 
for 
construction,  there  is  currently  no  Community  legislation 
requiring  that  specific  standards be actually  applied  in new 
construction.  While  the  Community  has  previously  made 
recommendations  in  this  area,  it may  now  be  appropriate  for 
the Community  to consider  legislation. 

materials 

for 

3. 

That  the  use  of  economic  instruments  to  encourage  energy 
conservation  in  buildings  be  the  subject  of  a  detailed 
report  and  proposal. 

4. 

That  public  authorities  be  encouraged  to  set  a  good  example 
by  the  adoption  of  energy  conservation  measures  in  the 
buildings  they operate. 

5.8. Urban  waste 

The  Commission  has  recently  published  a  comprehensive  strategy 
for  the management  of  urban  waste, placing  the major  emphasis  on 
the  avoidance  of  waste,  reuse  and  recycling  (see  Chapter  One, 
Section  2.2.4.).  The  strategy  Includes  a wide  range  of  proposals 
for  implementation. 

Its  main  orientation  have  been  approved  by  the  Council  of 
Ministers  at  their  meeting of  22-23 March  1990. 

We  do not  propose  to repeat  these proposals within  this  document, 
but  merely  to underline  the  close  link  between  that  strategy  and 
the  concepts  presented  In  this  Green  Paper.  The  following 
additional  proposals  Illustrate  the  link between waste  management 
and  the wider  Issues of  urban  management. 

Suggested  lines or  action  : 

1. 

The  Commission  should  encourage  city  authorities  to  take 
into  greater  consideration  constraints  linked  to  waste 
management  in  drawing  up  short  and  medium-term  plans  for 
urban  management:  designated  sites  for  collecting  sorted 
household  waste  and  setting up  treatment  plants. 

-  52 -

2.  The  Commission  should  encourage,  by  means  of  fInane I no 
research  and  projects  aimed  at  making  people  aware  of  thé 
Importance of  sanitation; developing urban  and  architectural 
design  that  favours  the sorting  of waste  at  source,  as  well 
as  sorted  collection;  finding  new  uses  for  urban  waste, 
particularly  that  resulting  from construction. 

3. 

The  Commission  should  encourage  the  exchange  of  Information 
and  experience  In  the  field  of  sanitation,  especially  as 
regards 
the 
population,  legal  Instruments  and  the  recycling  of  urban 
waste. 

technologies,  sensitization  of 

cleaning 

5.9. Comparative 

Information  on  the  state  of 

the  urban 

envIronment. 

As  discussed  above,  one  of  the  difficulties  in  producing  the 
analysis  section  of  this  paper  has  been  the  absence  of 
Information  of  many  subjects  which  permit  an  objective  and 
comparative  analysis  of  the  state  of  the  urban  environment. 
Improvements  in comparative  data are already  being  put  in hand  by 
programmes  within  the COR I NE project, particularly  related  to air 
quality  data.  It  is anticipated  that  the  programmes,  which  will 
be  taken  over  by  the  European  Environment  Agency,  will  improve 
knowledge  In  this  area.  Further  Improvements  will  however  be 
necessary  in other  subject  areas  if the Commission  is to  have  an 
adequate  Information  base  for  the  further  evolution  of  urban 
environment  policy. Such  information should  be made  available not 
only  to policy makers but  also  to  Individual  citizens. 

Suggested  line of  action  : 

That  the  Commission  consider  how  it can  improve  the  availability 
of  comparative  data  on  the  state  of  the  urban  environment.  This 
could  be  achieved  either  by  giving  the  new  Environment  Agency  a 
specific  remit  In  this  respect  or  by  supporting  the  development 
of  such  data  systems  within  a  research  Institute  or  university, 
or  a network  of  such  Institutions. 

5.10.  Informations  Initiatives 

The  urban  environment  Is primarily  the  concern  of  all  those  who 
live  and  work  In  the  cities  and  without  whose  participation  no 
urban  policy  can  succeed.  These  urban  actors  -  Inhabitants, 
shopkeepers, 
contribute  to  urban  deterioration,  but  they  also  suffer  Its 
effects  and  benefit  from  improvements. 

consumers,  manufacturers, 

groupings 

trade 

-  53  -

In  Implementing  an urban  environmental  policy,  It would  be  in the 
Community's  interest  to  create  structures  to  encourage  dialogue, 
thinking  and  cooperation  among  the  actors  within 
shared 
Individual 
cities  and  among  the  cities  themselves.  Such 
structures  would  also  serve  to  facilitate  the  exchange  of 
Information  and  opinion  with  the  Community. 

Suggested  lines of  action  : 

The  Commission  should  help  the  envisaged  creation  of  a  network 
for  urban  local  Initiative  centres.  These  centres  should  be 
organized  in  cooperation  with  those  public  agencies  that  already 
exist  to  provide  information  and  planning  for  the  urban 
environment.  A  certain  number  of  such  centres  are  being  planned 
this  year  as  pilot  projects  In various  cities. The  role  of  these 
centres would  be  to : 

1. 

2. 

3. 

different 

Inform 
the 
Community's  policies  and  measures  and  how  these  apply  to  the 
various  factors  that  make  up  the urban  reality, 

the  population 

sectors  of 

of 

Stimulate  and  facilitate  dialogue,  shared  planning  and 
cooperation  among  urban  groups, with  a view  to  improving  the 
urban  environment; 

Facilitate  the  exchange  of  information  among  the  cities  of 
the  problems  they  face  and  of  their  experience  in  dealing 
with  these  problems. 

5.11. Social  initiatives 

Efforts must  be made  to ensure  that  the  least  privileged  sections 
of  the  population  are  not  isolated  In  the most  run-down  areas  of 
cities. 

Preventive  social  policies  are  possible  in  the  context  of 
operations  to  protect  the  physical  environmental  and  should 
comprise  both  social  integration  measures  and  job  schemes,  e.g. 
in connection  with  the  restoration of  subsidized  housing. 

Suggested  lines of  action -. 

1. 

2. 

The  Commission  will  support  recruitment  and  vocational 
training  schemes  in  keeping  with  environmental  protection 
which  create  an economic  and  social  development  dynamic. 

The  Commission  will  encourage  technical  assistance  to  pilot 
projects  and  the  transfer  of  know-how  to  involve  the  least 
privileged 
the 
environment. 

In  the  protection 

groups 

social 

of 

-  54 -

5.12.  Interregional  co-operation 

The  Commission  supports  and  co-finances  a  wide  range  of  schemes 
for  Interregional  co-operation  and  the  development  of  networks. 
Cities  are  benefitting  from  actions which  Involve  close  contacts 
with  regional  and  local  authorities  and  their  representative 
bodies  -  Assembly  of  European  Regions,  Council  of  European 
Municipalities  and  Regions  of  Europe  and  International  Union  of 
Local  Authorities. 
A  number  of  Initiatives  have  been  lauched 
which  Include  for  example  co-financing  of  the  POLIS  project 
(related  to  Improved  traffic management) under  a group of  cities 
known  as  "Eurocltles"  and  a  co-operation  project  involving  10 
ports  in relation  to action on marine pollution. 

Suggested  line of action : 

That  the  Commission  should  continue  to  support  such  actions  and 
seek where appropriate  to extend  co-operation  and  the exchange of 
information between  cities. 

6. Resume of priority  suggested  lines of  action 

This  section  pulls  together  the  suggestion  lines  of  action  for 
the following key priority  areas. 

Urban planning 

Suggested  lines of action : 

authorities,  should 

1. That  the  Commission,  in  cooperation  with  Member  States  and 
the 
local 
incorporation  of  environmental  considerations  into  town 
planning  strategies - a detailed  investigation and  elaboration 
of  the principles outlined above. Such guidelines will  attempt 
to  influence  town  planning  practice  and  provide  an  important 
complement  to  the  proposed  directive  of  environmental 
assessment  of policies, plans and programmes. 

evolve  guidelines 

for 

2. That  further  research  Into  the  treatment  of  contaminated 
soils,  which  so  often  hinder  redevelopment  of  existing  city 
sites, be  encouraged. 

3. That  further  financial  assitance  be  given  to  pilot  projects 
aimed  at  revitalizing  less favoured urban areas by  Introducing 
a  greater  mixture  of  uses  and  hence  access  to  urban 
facilities.  At  the  same  time,  such  actions  should  aim  to 
protect  and  assist  existing  residents  In  these  areas.  The 
Commission  should  also  consider  how  It can extend  this action 
building on  lessons  learnt  from  these pilot projects. 

-  55 -

4. The  Community  should  consider  the  question  of  whether  it 
wishes  to  extend  financial  support  for  urban  renovation  and 
environmental  Improvement  schemes  beyond  the  types  and  areas 
of  support  permitted  by  the  current  structural  funds  and  if 
so, how this could  be achieved. 

Urban  transport 

Suggested  lines of  action : 

The Community should : 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Encourage  city  authorities  to  incorporate  decisions  about 
the  coordinated  future  development  of  public  transport  and 
road  construction  into  their  plans  for  land  use  and 
transportation.  The  Commission  should  expect 
future 
submissions  for structural  fund assistance  towards  transport 
infrastructure  to demonstrate  that such an analysis has been 
carried out. 

Encourage  Innovative  approaches  to  the  use  of  public 
transport  and  the environmental  management  of  urban  traffic 
by contributing  to the cost of pilot projects and monitoring 
their  effects.  Research  programmes  should  attach  high 
priority  to environmental  considerations  and  should  include 
innovative  public  transport,  environmentally 
friendly 
vehicles  and  advanced  traffic  management  systems.  This 
should  not  lead  to  the  encouragement  of  the  greater  use  of 
urban areas  for motor  traffic. 

Encourage  the  Community-wide  exchange  of  information  in 
urban  traffic management  to maximize  the benefits of  a wide 
range of experience. 

Consider  in  detail,  possibly  by  financing  pilot  projects, 
the  potential  for  using  economic  instruments  such  as  road 
pricing  to  help  solve  the  environmental  problems  generated 
by urban  traffic. 

The  protection  and  enhancement  of  the  historical  heritage  of 
European cities 

Suggested  linos of  action : 

1. 

2. 

That  the Community  provides more substantial  finance for  the 
conservation  of  historical  buildings  and  areas  of  European 
significance. 

That  consideration  be  given  to  the  potential  benefits  of  a 
Community system of  recognition of the historic and cultural 
significance  of  Individual  buildings  and  parts  of  urban 
areas. 

-  56 -

Protection and  enhancement  of  the natural  environment  within  our 
towns and cities 

Suggested  lines of action : 

1. 

2. 

The Commission should consider  a programme of pilot  projects 
across  the  Community  to  demonstrate  the  benefits  of  green 
plans and programmes of action. 

City  authorities  should  be  encouraged  to  review  their 
provision  of  public  open  spaces  and  seize  oppportunitles 
where available  to extend such provision. 

Urban  Industry 

Suggested  lines of action : 

The  Community  should  undertake measures  to promote  the  growth  of 
small  and medium  sized entreprises  in a harmonious way within the 
overall  fabric  of  the  urban  environment  and  should  provide 
assistance,  where  appropriate,  to  enable  them  to  comply  fully 
with  regulations  and  good  practice  in considerations  relating  to 
the environment. 

Urban energy  management 

Suggested  lines of action : 

1.  That  the  Community  continue  and  intensify  its  activités  in 
urban  energy  management, seeking  in particular  to  encourage 
and  assist  the  cities  in order  to  take  steps  towards  urban 
energy  planning  measures,  to  disseminate  useful  advice  on 
appropriate means  in this framework, e.g. on building  design 
for energy  saving and  further  to demonstrate  the benefits of 
various energy  conservation  techniques by pilot  projects. 

2. 

for 

insulation 

While  Community  legislation  on  product  norms  defines 
building 
standards 
construction,  there  Is  currently  no  Community  legislation 
requiring  that  specific standards be actually applied  in new 
construction.  While  the  Community  has  previously  made 
recommendations  In this area,  it may  now  be  appropriate  for 
the Community  to consider  legislation. 

materials 

for 

3. 

That  the  use  of  economic  instruments  to  encourage  energy 
conservation  In  buildings  be  the  subject  of  a  detailed 
report  and proposal. 

4. 

That  public  authorities  be encouraged  to set  a good  example 
by  the  adoption  of  energy  conservation  measures  in  the 
buildings they operate. 

-  57 -

Urban waste 

Suggested  lines or  action 

1. 

The  Commission  should  encourage  city  authorities  to  take 
Into  greater  consldration  constraints  linked  to  waste 
management  in  drawing  up  short  and  medium-term  plans  for 
urban  management:  designated  sites  for  collecting  sorted 
household waste and setting up treatment plants. 

The  Commission  should  encourage,  by  means  of  financing, 
research  and  projects  aimed  at  making  people  aware  of  the 
importance of  sanitation; developing urban and architectural 
design  that  favours  the sorting  of waste  at  source, as well 
as  sorted  collection;  finding  new  uses  for  urban  waste, 
particularly  that  resulting  from construction. 

3. 

The  Commission  should  encourage  the exchange  of  information 
and  experience  in  the  field  of  sanitation,  especially  as 
regards  cleaning 
the 
population,  legal  instruments  and  the  recycling  of  urban 
waste. 

technologies,  sensitization  of 

7. The next  steps 

This  document  represents  the  first  manifestation  of  the 
Commission's  commitment  to  achieve  real  improvements  in  the 
quality of urban environment  within  the Community. The  Commission 
is keen  to  see  as  wide  as  possible  discussion  of  the  ideas  and 
suggestions set out  in the document. 

In addition  to  its discussion by  the European Parliament, Council 
of Ministers and  Economic and Social  Committee, the document will 
be  sent  to  the  Mayors  of  major  towns  in  Europe  and  to 
professional  and  voluntary  groups  Interested  in urban  management 
issues for  their comments. 

Following detailed study of  the results of  this consultation, the 
Commission  will  consider  which  of  the  suggested  lines of  action 
merit  further  action  and  fall  within  the  Community's  competence 
and how  this can be best  achieved. 

The  implementation  of  such  proposals  will  ensure  that  there  is 
co-operation  with, but  no duplication  of  the  activities of  other 
International  organisations  active  in  the  field  of  urban 
environment, seeking, whenever  possible, common  action. 

* * * * * * * ** 

58 

APPENDIX  I 

ARTICLES OF TREATY COVERING ENVIRONMENT 

Subsection VI -  Environment 

Article 25 

A  Title  VII  shall  be  added  to  Part  Three  of  the  EEC  Treaty, 
reading as fol lows : 

TITLE VII 
ENVIRONMENT 

Article  130 R 

1.  Action  by  the  Community  relating  to  the  environment  shall 

have the following objectives : 

(I) to  preserve,  protect  and  improve  the  quality  of  the 

env i ronment; 

ii) to contribute  towards protecting  human health; 

iii) to  ensure  a  prudent  and  rational  utilization  of  natural 

resources. 

Action by  the Community  relating  to the environment  shall  be 
based  on  the  principles  that  preventive  action  should  be 
taken,  that  environmental  damage  should  as  a  priority  by 
rectified  at  source,  and  that  the  polluter  should  pay. 
Environmental  protection  requirements  shall  be  a  component 
of  the Community's other policies. 

3. 

In  preparing  its  action  relating  to  the  environment,  the 
Community  shall  take account of : 

I)  available scientific and  technical data-, 

ii)  environmental  conditions  In  the  various  regions  of  the 

Community; 

iii) the  potential  benefits  and  costs  of  action  or  of  lack  of 

act ion; 

(iv) the  economic  and  social  development  of  the  Community  as  a 

whole and  the balanced  development of  its regions. 

_ 59 _ 

4. The Community  shall  take action relating  to the environment  to 
the extent  to which  the objectives  referred  to  in paragraph 1 
can be attained  better  at Community  level  than at  the  level  of 
the  Individual  Member  States.  Without  prejudice  to  certain 
measures  of  a  Community  nature,  the  Member  States  shall 
finance and  implement  the other measures. 

the 

5. Within  their  respective  spheres  of  competence,  the  Community 
and  the Member  States shall  cooperate with  third countries and 
with 
organizations.  The 
arrangements  for  Community  cooperation  may  be  the  subject  of 
agreements  between  the  Community  and  the  third  parties 
concerned,  which  shall  be  negotiated  and  concluded  in 
accordance with Article 228. 

International 

relevant 

The  previous  paragraph  shall  be  without  prejudice  to  Member 
States' competence  to negotiate  in international  bodies and  to 
conclude  international  agreements. 

Article  130 S 

The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal  from  the Commission 
and after  consulting  the European Parliament  and  the Economic and 
Social  Committee, shall  decide what  action  is to be  taken  by  the 
Community. 

The  Council  shall,  under  the  conditions  laid  down  in  the 
preceding  subparagraph,  define  those  matters  on  which  decisions 
are to be taken by a qualified majority. 

Article  130 T 

The  protective  measures  adopted  in  common  pursuant  to  Articfe 
130 S  shall  not  prevent  any  Member  State  from  maintaining  or 
introducing  more  stringent  protective  measures  compatible  with 
this Treaty. 

ISSN 0254-1475 

COM(90) 218 final 

DOCUMENTS 

EN 

is 

Catalogue number : CB-CO-90-276-EN-C 
ISBN 92-77-61187-1 

PRICE 

1-30  pages: 3.50 ECU 

per additional 10 pages: J .25 ECU 

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 
L-2985 Luxembourg