FIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE
Date: 1988-11-29
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: air transport, biotechnology, competitiveness, energy policy, information technology, new technology, quality of life, renewable energy, research and development, telecommunications

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

COM(88 ) 647 final

Brussels , 29 November 1988

13

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I

FIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE

( presented by the Commission )

FIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN EUROPE

1

HIGHLIGHTS

1 .
This report is a first response to the request of the
European Parliament for regular reviews by the Commission of the
state of science and technology in Europe .

the

Parliament

It draws on wide-ranging sources of information and assessment ,
technology
notably :
administrations in the member states , the committees specifically
established to advise the Commission on research requirements ,
the views
on Community
the independent evaluation panels
programmes , systematic monitoring of the scientific and technical
press and scientific meetings , as well as ongoing work in other
international organisations .

science

itself ,

and

the

of

Commission

The
during
Thereafter it should be published at two-yearly intervals .

intends

update

report

the

to

1989 .

for

The main aim of the report is to provide a factual
2 .
the
further
outside
and
basis
and
institutions ,
science
Community
in
technology and how best they can be satisfied .
It does not ;
however , attempt to identify at what level or in which framework
at national or at transnational level action in specific fields
could most beneficially be taken .

both
Europe 's

inside
needs

reflection ,

on

3 .
can be summarised as follows :

The tentative picture emerging from this first report

European

( i )
situation by increased efforts

A good deal has already been done to improve
the
spending on
research and development and in improving industrial performance
through innovation .
But the efforts are still unbalanced and
fragmented . Three Member States ( Germany , France and the United
Kingdom ) account for three-quarters of total spending on R and D
in the Community ; and regional variations are acute . Cooperative
transnational actions ( Community programmes , EUREKA , COST , ESA ,
CERN etc )
the total
research effort ;

small percentage of

for only a

account

in

2

( ii )

European efforts are in case well below
those of our major competitors ( the USA and Japan ) who are both
spending
own
remedy
also threatened by the new
weaknesses .
efforts of emerging science and technology powers ( the NICs in
particular ) ;

and
Europe 's

position is

action

taking

their

more

also

to

2

( iii )

Europe faces three main challenges :

°

°

increase

to
pursue ,
technological and economic options ;

to
necessary ,

its
where

capacity

develop
its

and
own

strengthen

to
international
competitiveness , especially in those fields
which will take on increasing importance in
the future ;

its

to meet the social need for improved quality
of life .

( iv )
the resources to meet these
challenges .
It is rich in scientific talent and organisational
• ability . And in its present economic situation it can afford to
The question is how to get the best out of
invest more in R&D .
these resources and in which areas to focus the effort .

Europe has

( v )

imbalance

overcoming

Getting the best out of European efforts
entails addressing a series of issues : ensuring that science and
understood and accepted at all levels of European
technology are
society ;
better
coordination and by ensuring an adequate basis for technological
progress in the less-favoured countries and regions ; encouraging
the spread of technology skills throughout society ; attracting
more private sector finance and facilitating the diffusion of
technology throughout industry ;
links between
industry and universities f as well as exploiting the scope for
international
are
evident mutual benefits .

encouraging the

fragmentation

collaboration

where

those

areas

there

and

by

in

3

As far as research areas are concerned , the
report highlights five areas of major relevance to the European
economy :

< vi )

3

-

-

information
a
and
particular research effort is needed to improve the
situation of the European semiconductor industry .

telecommunications

technology

-

new materials and technologies for use in manufacturing
superconducting materials are particularly
industry -
promising .

- aeronautics ,

where

Europe

faces

a

particular

compétitive challenge .

- biology and biotechnology which offer the prospect of
major transformations in industry and agriculture as
efforts ,
as
well
however ,
gene ¬
mapping , neurobiology and biotechnology applications .

medical
the
needed on basic

Specific
plant biology ,

in
are

field .

where

Europe

energy ,
on
remains
outside sources of supply - fusion is important for the
longer-term and carefully targetted research on new and
renewables
the
shorter-term .

technologies

dependent

energy

highly

saving

and

in

In terms of the quality of life there are major research needs in
the fields of environment , health research and industrial , road
research
and
requirements have a global dimension . Europe has the capacity as
well as the need to make a major contribution to the study of
Global Climate change .

environment

nuclear

safety .

some

the

of

In

Underpinning these efforts in specific fields Europe must sustain
and develop
research to provide the
seedcorn for new technological openings .

capacity

basic

its

in

4 .

There follow summaries of each chapter of the report .

4

I : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL NEEDS

Despite substantial progress in recent years ,

5 .
Europe
remains weak in a number of the science-based sectors which are
This specific weakness reflects a
growing rapidly world-wide .
technological dependence in key areas .
Electronic components is
a particularly important case .

4

of

new technologies .

The more traditional sectors of manufacturing industry continue
to account for higher shares of GDP than in the USA and Japan .
Some of them have made real progress in modernising through the
application
example .
Others , such as the paper and board processing industry , or parts
Even
of the machine-tool industry have been less successful .
through
those
their
automation
increasing
automobiles )
One successful company strategy in a number of
competition .
industries has been to seek the capture of the top-end of the
market through technology .

position
face

innovation

radically

improved

Textiles

that

have

( eg .

one

and

is

Major efforts continue to be needed to improve the technological
European industry and to seize the opportunities
position of
offered
Progress
scientific
by
towards completion of the Internal Market will help to create the
right framework conditions .
But it needs to be accompanied by
specific efforts in the RTD field .

technological

advance .

and

Improvement in the quality of life - the environment ,
6 .
concerns
are
increasingly
-
health ,
throughout Europe .
Developments in science and technology are
opening up new opportunities for tackling these problems in an
effective and economic manner .

important

safety

also

needs

Europe

capability

broadly-based
respond

and
a
7 .
of
technological
to
This
increased competitiveness and a better quality of life .
means being able to choose and to develop its own technological
A fundamental research
options where this seems appropriate .
capability is particularly important .
Fundamental research is
increasingly recognised internationally as the provider of new
openings and ideas and a key factor in conditioning the pattern
of economic and social development longer-term .

scientific

needs

twin

the

to

The acquisition and maintenance of such a broadly-based
8 .
scientific and technological capacity
is , however , increasingly
expensive : science is developing at an accelerating pace with
ever shorter periods of time over which to depreciate investment
the most cost -
in R&D .
avoiding
effective

importance of
of

This
solutions

organisation

underlines

R&D ,

the

the

to

S

5
fragmented efforts .
It also means that the broadest possible
market is needed for the commercialisation of the products of
research and development .

II : EUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE

9 .
European efforts have to be set against the changing
Our main competitors ( the USA and
international environment .
Japan ) have been making their own adjustments to changing needs
while new players are becoming increasingly important or could be
so over the coming years ( the NICs , the Soviet Union , China ).

10 .
European spending on R&D is still well below that of
the USA in absolute terms and below the USA and Japan as a share
of GDP .
US spending in volume is 1.75 times that of the Member
States of the European Community combined , and research intensity
( R&D spending as
in the
in Japan .
Community compared with 2.8%
Germany alone has
comparable to
Even when defence spending is excluded US
Europe 's competitors .
expenditure
European
remains
average .

in the USA and 2.6%

a proportion of GDP )

a research intensity

significantly

is only 1.9%

higher

( 2.8% )

than

the

In both the USA and Japan business also invests and carries out
more of the R&D than in Europe .

Both the USA and Japan have larger numbers of research scientists
and engineers in their labour forces ; the growth in Japan has
been striking .

The United States

The high level of defence R&D in the USA , half of which
11 .
potent factor in mobilising
is contracted out to industry , is a
resources .
The precise level of spin-off to the civil sector
from military R&D in general and from SDI in particular , is hard
to assess .
But there have been undoubted major benefits in the
fields of materials , aircraft engineering , vehicle technology ,
computer technology and systems engineering .
The shift during
the 1980s of much military R&D towards development work tailored
to
fundamental and applied research has ,
however , raised some concern in the USA about reduced industrial
impact .

the needs

of more

has

This

coincided

12 .
the
competitiveness of US industry and US technological dependence ,
notably vis - ci -vis Japan .
The Reagan Administration has taken
initiatives to encourage American industry to cooperate in the
face of this challenge and to increase the transfer of knowledge
from Federal programmes to industry .
These have been combined
with a more restrictive approach to the wider availability of the
results of research .

worries

about

with

б

in

the

concern

A third

13 .
a
shortfall of perhaps 500,000 scientists and engineers by 2010
and the pattern of university
because of demographic trends
enrolment .
One issue is the encouragement of foreign students
( especially those from the Pacific Basin ) to stay on in the USA
At the post-doctoral level there are likely to
after graduation .
skilled R&D personnel from
be increased pressures
abroad , especially from Europe .

the prospect of

" poach "

USA is

to

Japan

of

The

basic

research

importance

be
14 .
recognised in the USA : it is the only sector of Federally-funded
civil R&D to have increased in recent years .
In Japan , where
economic success has been founded essentially on the absorption
technology , efforts are now under
and transformation of foreign
reflecting a
way to build up a capacity in basic research ,
perception
new
up
will
technological options for Japan in the longer-term and enabling
it to stay one step ahead .
Already Japan has strengths in , for
example biotechnology , new materials and neuro-computing .

essential

continues

opening

that

this

be

in

to

This interest in basic research ,
concern about the closed nature of
technology system ,
collaboration , including the Human Frontier Science Programme .

and the need to respond to
the Japanese science and
to new openings in international

has

led

Emerging Science and Technology Powers

15 .
The most dynamic NICs are planning a substantial growth
in R&D spending and strategies for the development of large cadre
of highly qualified personnel , as they themselves face challenges
Korea in particular is
from other industrialising countries .
making efforts in this direction .
Other emerging science and
technology powers include Taiwan , India , Brazil and Israel .

7

China is making particular efforts to improve its science and
technology capability and major research programmes have been
launched ."

■ – - - - – . -.

~

~

7

the
in
establishment
for
in ,

largest
Developments
Union ,
significant
scientific
the
achievements
technology ,
aspects
mathematics and theoretical physics , will depend heavily on the
success
of the policy of restructuring ( perestroika ) and its
impact on the deployment of scientific resources to the civil
economy .

Soviet
in
example ,

which
world
of

has
and
space

the

Ill : MOBILISING EUROPE 'S RESOURCES

R&D spending ( public and private )

16 .
Within Europe there are major national differences in
levels of investment in R&D ; in the relative importance of the
public and private sectors ; and in the distribution of resources
among research sectors .

Three countries
( Germany , UK and France ) account together for
over three-quarters of total public and private spending on R&D
Germany has by far the highest
in the European Community .
research intensity and the highest number of researchers in its
Industry also plays a bigger role in both the
labour force .
financing and execution of R&D in Germany than elsewhere .
In the
less favoured Member States the public sector is by far the
predominant source of R&D finance .

Regional disparities are larger still .

17 .
intensity is
themselves
technology
regions is much wider than the economic gap .

and much greater at a sub-national
the
gap

The gap in R&D
12:1 between the Member States
level .
This
less-favoured

of the order of

developed

between

and

the

Government policies and public funding

18 .
grown during the
tailing off .

In the majority of Member Sates public R&D budgets have
although there has been some recent

1980s ,

8

Defence R&D is particularly important in the United
19 .
. and France
Kingdom ( around 50%
Elsewhere the
( 34% ), and to a lesser extent Germany ( 12.5% ).
The wide
shares are much smaller and in some cases negligible .
differences in defence R&D make coordination of national policies
on dual-use technologies particularly difficult .

the total public finance )

of

8

Some countries give particular emphasis to the public
20 .
funding of basic research ( Germany , France and the Netherlands in
particular ).
the
rising cost of basic research , increased emphasis on measurable
cost-effectiveness and urgent need to improve competitiveness
have led to a new emphasis on industrially-oriented research .

public expenditure constraints ,

In others ,

European Coopération and Coordination

The experience has been overwhelmingly positive .

Transfrontier cooperation in Europe , involving industry
21 .
as well as universities , has increased significantly in the past
few years .
The
Community 's own cost-sharing programmes have been overscribed ,
reflecting a widely felt need for collaboration , especially at a
The
time when pressures on national budgets have been growing .
involving
experience of
800
organisations ,
further
is
-
evidence of this thirst for a transnational approach .

213 announced projects
industrial

EUREKA -
two-thirds

them

of

The

total
programmes

these cooperative ventures

The share of the total European research effort that is
22 .
however ,
handled through
the
through
small .
total
Community 's
of
estimated EC public and private spending on civil research .
Even
taking into account the other major European ventures - EUREKA ,
ESA , CERN , EMBL etc . - the vast bulk of research continues to be
financed and carried out at national level , a large share of it
through national budgets .

equivalent

cost
is

supported

projects

remains ,

about

of

to

4%

to

The

need

identify

23 .
excessive
duplication and overlap occur among these national efforts is
Efforts are being made within CREST to improve the
pressing .
In the
information base and to " confront " national policies .
light of further progress in this forum , the Commission intends
to focus particular attention on duplication and overlap in its
forthcoming reports on the state of science and technology .

precisely

where

IV : RESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE

24 .
challenges described in Chapter I :

research

needs

The

of

9

Europe

reflect

the

three

to improve international competitiveness , notably in

the context of the completion of the Internal Market ;

to respond to the needs of society by improving the

quality of life ;

to increase the Community 's capacity to develop and
pursue , where appropriate ,
its own technological options ,
drawing on the opportunities offered by a solid fundamental
research capability .

It concentrates on
The following is not an exhaustive list .
areas where particular efforts are needed to complement or to
supplement ongoing or planned activities by industry and by
public bodies ( national and transnational ).

Improving Competitiveness

There are significant

25 .
research needs in five ares :
industrial
information
materials and technologies , aerospace , biological sciences and
energy .

telecommunications ,

technology

and

The European information technology industries are in
26 .
better shape than at
But the
the beginning of
negative balance of trade in IT products is large ( 13.4 milliard
US$ in 1986 ), reflecting dependence in the fields of electronic
components in particular .

1980s .

the

Research is needed to give Europe the capacity to master and
develop the next generation of memory chips based on circuity for
A significant cross-border
feature series below 0.5 micron .
collaborative project ( JESSI ) is currently under discussion among
European manufacturers .

Progress is also needed in software and advanced information
processing and in peripherals ( flat panel displays and optical
storage technologies ) where Europe 's position is weak .

More basic research is required on questions such as the security
computer languages and machine ¬
and reliability of computers ,
learning ; as well as prenormative work to prepare the integration
of IT systems designed for a wide range of services ( intelligent
banking and financial services etc .).

ro

In telecommunications Europe 's relatively favourable
27 .
position
the
could - be
electronic components sector , the spiralling costs of R&D and new
technological and market challenges ( such as the digitalisation
of networks , developments in broadband networks ).

by - continuing weakness

threatened

in

10

Research • is needed on a wide front , including better network
opto-eletronic
management
components ; new materials and software tools .

electronic

specific

systems ;

and

28 .
A significant research effort will also be required in
the development , coordination and integration of technologies for
the application of IT and telecommunications , including language
technologies .

industry

Manufacturing

29 .
of
Community GNP and employs 75% of the industrial work force of
A general need is to ensure the diffusion and
some 41 million .
application of available new technologies by this sector .
In
parallel a major research effort continues to be necessary to
open up new technological possibilities for European industry and
to solve particularly pressing problems .
Areas of particular
interest include :

currently

provides

30%

*

*

*

*

*

techniques for quality control ( which can cost up to
25% of company turnover )

techniques for shapinq , joininq and assembly

surface treatment to prevent corrosion ( which can cost
up to 4% of GNP )

powder technology , which is a particularly large and
high-value market

other high-value materials , such as metal composites
( already being developed for ceramic-reinforced light
alloy pistons )

A concerted
particularly necessary .
mobilised in the USA and Japan .

research effort on

is
Large financial resources are being

superconducting materials

°

norms and standards .
number of areas , including lasers .

Prenormative work is needed in a

30 .
In aeronautics the European industry has had major
successes , capturing ( 1980-1986 ) 23% of the civil and 27% of the
military world market .
But sharply increasing competition can be
expected over the next 10-15 years , not only from the USA but

11

also from Japan and industrialising countries such as Korea and
The - US remains in -a - particularly favourable position
Brazil .
because of the large home market and the spin-off from military
programmes .

11

future

success

commercial

The
European
aeronautical
In order to
industry will depend heavily on advanced technology .
prepare for the 1990s and beyond Europe the need is for broadly-
based collaborative efforts focussed on aerodynamics and flight
mechanisms , materials , acoustics , computation , airborne systems
and
and
manufacturing technologies .

integration

propulsion

equipment ,

design

and

the

of

for

The

social

future

market

biotechnology

is
31 .
difficult to quantify precisely ;
but worldwide the biological
sciences are recognised to offer the prospect of major economic
" clean "
( through
and
productivity ;
transformations
progress
science ;
improved understanding of the brain , with its implications for
computer
and
psychiatry ) .

environmentally
industrial

and
chemistry

pharmaceuticals ,

impacts
of

agricultural

and medical

psychology

products

design

impact

well

its

as

on

in

as

Four areas of research merit particular attention :

basic plant biology .

Without a better understanding of
*
key structures and functions within plants it will not be
possible
application
technology ;

significant

advances

make

to

in

and

plant
to

gene-mapping of complex organisms .

°
For agriculture and
industry the detailed mapping of the genes of important
essential
microbial
For
complement
medicine , a better understanding of the human genome is as
necessary to the continuing process of medicine as knowledge
This is laborious
of human anatomy is to its present state .
are
efforts
and
underway .

Europe has experience on which to build ;

international

animal
on

expensive

biology .

species

Major

work .

basic

plant

work

the

an

is

*
coordinate some national actions ;

neurosciences , where efforts are already under way to

and

research

industrial

applications .
°
Particular
the
by
pharmaceuticals industry to maintain its good competitive
position , in the face of growing competition and the cost
and time-scale needed for the development of new products .
Research is also needed on improved food technologies and on
nutrition itself .

agro-industrial
will

efforts

needed

be

12

The energy markets are currently slack , with plentiful

32 .
supplies on world markets .
on third countries for supplies , particularly of oil , which is
still the largest single element in the Community energy balance .
There is
a continuing need to ensure adequately diversified
energy supply and efficient energy use and to reduce as far as
possible the impact of energy supply and use on the environment .
Two lines of research remain of particular importance :

But Europe remains . heavily dependent -,

12

controlled nuclear fusion , which offers the prospect in
*
the
acceptable ,
next
practically inexhaustible , geographically independent source
of supply .

Europe is already playing a leading role ;

environmentally

century

an

of

research on selective non-nuclear energy technologies
*
and technologies for improving energy use which offer the
best prospect of exploitation on a wide scale .

Improvincr the Quality of Life

devising

Science and technology have fundamental roles to play
33 .
in
policies .
Continuing research efforts in Europe are needed under three
interdependent headings :

environmental

effective

rational

and

- understanding the basic phenomena
- detection and interpretation of environmental changes
- prevention .

many

complex

A scientific approach to understanding the complex interactions
the
sub-systems
of
the
atmosphere ,
been
water ,
basic
ago .
unthinkable
mathematics , in analytical techniques and technologies ( including
remote sensing from space ), together with the huge capacity to
handle information through advanced computing , now makes this
possible .

stratosphere ,
have
in

would
progress

soil ,
a

decades

inland

( the

sea )

few

But

the

the

Some of the problems are particular to Europe in a regional sense
Action is under way both
and require European level efforts .
EUREKA
COST
programmes ,
Community
through
projects .
the
The
most
an issue with truly global
" greenhouse effect ",
important
Europe
dimensions .
contribution to the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
( Global Change ).

Good coordination among these projects is essential .
complex

global
is
capacity

of
however ,
the
has

to make an

climate

change

issue

well

and

as

as

13

34 .
In the field of health , Europe is faced with sharply
rising health care costs (a world-wide phenomenon ); a " greying "
of its population , with the consequent increase in age-related
diseases ; and growing problems posed , in particular , by AIDS and
cancer .

13

European research in the medical field suffers from particular
This is an area where the value of concerted
fragmentation .
national
action
clearly
across
The essential need is for more of the same in
demonstrated .
as well as continuing
tackling the problems described above ,
research on medical technology .

frontiers

already

been

has

In the field of industrial technologies and materials
35 .
R&D
increasing attention will have to be given to safety issues .
has an important role to play in the development of common safety
standards in particular for new technologies such as lasers .

of

the

potential

development

contribution

road-safety
The
the
through
infrastructure to support it , is also considerable .
Cooperative
efforts are already under way in Europe to address these issues
( the DRIVE programme in the Community , and PROMETHEUS and other
There is an obvious need for good
projects inside EUREKA ).
coordination among .All these projects to ensure optimal resource
allocation .

" intelligent "

long-term

R&D

and

the

car

to

of

Continuing attention will need to be paid also to work
36 .
on the safety of nuclear fission .
In addition to research on
reactor safety , the safety of the fuel cycle , radioactive waste
management and storage , the safety of dismantling nuclear plants
at the end of their lives , a particular effort will be required
to increase public confidence about radiation protection .
, This
requires both research work itself and efforts by the scientific
community to present the issues in a wav which is accessible by
the general public .

37 .
Bioethics are attracting growing attention world-wide .
A particular effort is needed at Community level in particular
because of the importance for the Internal Market of a harmonised
regulatory
juridical
considerations must accompany science and precede technological
development .

environment .

societal

Ethical ,

and

Fundamental Research - the Essential Underpinning

14

38 .
up
significant new opportunities through progress in mathematics ,
physics , chemistry and the earth sciences .

Fundamental

continuing

research

open

to

is

The theory of non-linear mathematics - pioneered in Europe - has
all -
pervasive applications , opening up prospects such as the
or
optical
significant
internal
combustion engine .

of
functioning

modelling
the

advanced
in

climatic
of

improvements

computer ,

change

the

some

weaknesses :

In physics there are strong points in the European situation , but
also
and
technology , for example , are not on a par with those in the USA ,
despite some significant multinational efforts .
Europe occupies a good position both in basic chemistry and on
the market for chemistry-based products .
But there is a problem
in recruiting a sufficient number of high quality students .

efforts

science

laser

the

on

In earth sciences good European coordination is being assured by
In oceanography the USA is
the European Science Foundation .
leading the
such as the study of the
field .
coastal zone , the interface between the ocean and the atmosphere
will be pursued through the Community 's MAST programme and the
EUREKA project EUROMAR .

Some aspects ,

Earth observation from space is of major potential significance
for the earth sciences .

ESF ,

Within Europe there are already several multinational
39 .
ventures for the common pursuit of Big Sciences ( CERN , ESO , ESA ,
amongst
etc .)*.
EMBL ,
Increased collaboration with
them , which must develop further .
Community programmes is also desirable
so as to maximise the
industrial and commercial spin-offs .
Space research is one area
of particular importance .

There is growing collaboration

advanced

There are also outstanding questions related to access
40 .
the
to
development of expensive scientific instrumentation .
Given the
cost of sophisticated facilities it is not feasible to imagine

middle-size

research

devices

Europe

and

in

CERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research
ESO

- European Organisation for Astronomical Research

in the Southern Hemisphere

- European Space Agency

ESA
EMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory
ESF

- European Science Foundation

15
that they can be available in every European country . Particular
attention will be needed to provide a framework for cooperation
among national teams .

V : KEY ISSUES FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN EUROPE

41 .
broader policy questions of particular importance :

Alongside the research needs themselves there are some

( i )

the balance of effort between fundamental and applied
research across Europe

of

One

this

theme

report

sound capacity in
fundamental research is essential to Europe in its pursuit of
This is an area where
technological and economic independence .
public authorities have a particularly important role .
But in
the funding and execution of basic research industry too has
evident self-interest .
In the USA much of this research is
funded by industry .

that

is

a

( ii ) the links between industry and the universities

These have been growing world-wide , with industry driven
increasingly to tap scientific knowledge and universities driven
by financial constraints .
The trend is a desirable one , with two
caveats : namely , that it should not jeopardise the pursuit of
fundamental research in universities and that restrictions on the
dissemination of research results should be minimised .

( iii )

broadening and deepening the technology culture

The most successful economies in recent years have been
those that have sought actively to develop on a broad base the
human skills required both to research , to develop , to apply and
to use technology .
Europe as a whole
Japan is the best example .
There is shortage firstly , of skilled
is in a weaker position .
manpower trained to use the new technologies ; while the output of
to develop and apply the
research
engineers
technologies
added
that the brightest and the best in Europe are
difficulty is
often attracted across the Atlantic .
Particular attention will
be needed to ways of increasing the supply of skills and to
provide an environment in Europe that is attractive to highly

and
insufficient

scientists
is

countries .

many

An

in

16

qualified
This
mobility of research workers between European countries .

scientists .

removing

means

the barriers

16

to

( iv )

Public acceptability of science and technology

Public concern about new technologies is often based on fear
It is important both for democracy and for the
of the unknown .
pursuit of scientific knowledge that popular understanding of the
issues
will help to ensure that
informed choices are made and a sound regulatory environment
The information effort in many European countries
established .
is still inadequate .

should be

improved .

This

( v )

Encouraging the private sector to invest more

Industrial

investment

countries .

European
insufficiently
essentially national .
transnational
innovation .

level

developed

to

still

The
in

in R&D is
venture
many

low in many
are
markets
are
they
Action is needed at national and at
for

countries

capital

improve

finance

access

too

and

the

to

( vi )

The Diffusion of Technology

needs

Europe

Here Japan in particular has a head-start .

As well as opening up new frontiers through research and
the
to
development ,
technologies that are already coming on the market or are about
to do so .
Some
have made considerable
Member States
Others less
efforts to promote a wide diffusion of technology .
Community-level action has a helpful role to play ( notably
so .
spread
the
SPRINT
information
of
research and development .

( in particular Denmark )

done
the results

programme ).
about

technologies

But more

available

exploit

rapidly

be
and

could

more

to

( vii )

Policy Coordination and ( viii ) Cohesion

Particular efforts are needed to improve the coordination of
science and technology policies in Europe .
At the same time
steps must be taken to improve the RDT fabric in the less -
to enable them to achieve a level of
favoured regions so as
excellence comparable to that of the more developed .
This cannot
be done without the provision of
infrastructure and trained
personnel .
social policy instruments could be
appropriately used to this end .

Regional and

17

( ix )

Cooperation with Third Countries

17

and

Science

technology

international
The
commodities and further internationalisation is inevitable .
issue is how best to organise cooperation in such a way that it
can be a " positive-sum " game in which everybody benefits .
The
approaches must depend on the situation of individual countries
or regions .

increasingly

are

The European Community has a particular interest in close science
and
good
other
bilateral
established
relations
agreements as well as EUREKA .

technology
are

links
already

countries

through

where

COST ,

EFTA

with

There is scope for improved cooperation with the USA .
It would
also be appropriate to take advantage of Japanese openings to
examine the scope for mutually beneficial cooperative ventures ,
especially those involving expensive , long lead-time research .

As far as developing countries are concerned Europe has a role to
play in tackling the specific problems of medicine , agriculture ,
energy
wider
consequences for the LDCs of scientific advances in materials and
need
of
biotechnology
consideration in Europe as well as at an international level .

significance

environment

which

face .

will

also

they

and

are

and

The

the

Further reflection is needed on the potential scope for RTD
cooperation with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , given the
new developments in relations across the European continent ; and
also on the appropriate form for scientific cooperation with the
NICs .

( x )

Avoiding technological protectionism

The

and

longer-term benefits

an
international level can only be fully realised if the transfer of
knowledge
the
is
" industrialisation " of research and the growing importance of
science to trade flows has increased the pressure to restrict
information in order to preserve competitive edge .
flows
Policy developments in the USA in this respect will need to be
carefully monitored .

RTD cooperation at

facilitated .

technology

But

of

of

18

FIRST REPORT ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE

MAIN REPORT

MAIN REPORT

INTRODUCTION

- background
- objectives
- structure
- inputs

I.

SCIENCE , TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
NEEDS

Science , technology and the economy

( i )
( ii ) Science , technology and the consequences of growth

and change

II .

EUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FROM A COMPARATIVE
PERSPECTIVE : TRENDS IN OUR MAIN COMPETITORS

( i )
( ii )
( iii )
( iv )

Comparative trends in Science & Technology
Trends in the USA
Developments in Japan
A changing international environment

III . MOBILISING EUROPE ' S RESOURCES

( i )
( ii )

( iii )

At a national level
European cooperation both at Community level
and outside the Community ( notably , EUREKA )
Policy coordination

IV .

RESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE

1 .

IMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS

Information Technologies and Télécommunications
Industrial Materials and Technologies
Aeronautics
Life Sciences and Technologies
Energy

Pages

1-3

4-10

4
7

11-31

11
19
25
28

32-48

32
42

46

49-86

50-72

51
57
61
62
67

19

2 .

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR EUROPE 'S CITIZENS

73-80

The Environment
Health Research
Safety
Bioethics

73
77
78
8 Q

3 .

FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH - THE ESSENTIAL UNDERPINNING

81-86

Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
Earth Sciences

83
83
84
85

V.

KEY ISSUES FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN EUROPE

87-102

The Balance and Organisation of Research

87 - 90

( i )
( ii )

The balance between basic and applied research
The links between industry and universities

87
88

Education and Information

90 - 93

( iii )
( iv )

Broadening and deepening the technology culture
The public acceptability of science & technology

90
92

Industry and the Private Sector

93 - 96

( v )

( vi )

Encouraging the private sector to invest more in
R&D
The diffusion of technology

93

95

Policy Coordination and Cohesion within Europe

( vii )
( viii )

Increasing coordination among national policies
Improving the cohesion of the Community

The External Aspects

97-99

97
97

99-102

( ix )
( x )

Encouraging cooperation in RTD with third countries 99
101
Avoiding technological protectionism .

20

ANNEXES

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS

AERONAUTICS

BIOLOGY

NON-NUCLEAR ENERGY

CONTROLLED NUCLEAR FUSION

ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

FISSION ENERGY-SAFETY

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 .

9 .

10 .

BASIC SCIENCE

11 .

SPACE

12 .

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY POLICIES AND TRENDS IN THE MEMBER STATES

13 .

REGIONAL TRENDS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

14 .

COMPARATIVE TRENDS IN THE USA , JAPAN AND EUROPE .

FIRST REPORT ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE

INTRODUCTION

The Background and Objectives

In

its

1 .
technological
challenge facing Europe *■ , the European Parliament invited the
Commission to give an account of the European situation in the
for
and
various
considering future policy requirements .

technology

science

recent

report

fields

basis

most

the

on

of

as

a

2 .
The importance attached by the Parliament to this issue
reflects a widespread recognition of the vital role which science
and technology must play in the future of Europe 's economy and in
the
European
prosperous
Community .
That recognition is enshrined in the Single European
Act itself .

construction

successful

and

of

a

the

the

new

success .

European

tackling

Community ,

constraints

During the past few years real progress has been made
3 .
in
European
on
governments have launched , both inside and outside the framework
transnational
initiatives
of
cooperation among researchers in universities , industry and the
At the Community level there has been a
public sector itself .
towards
new
in
improving
particular )
current
Framework Programme 1987-1991 provides for particular efforts in
these
EUREKA has
provided further evidence of the interest in and benefits from
transnational cooperation in Europe .

on
industrial
as

Community efforts ,

the quality of

competitiveness

( ESPRIT ,
life .

development

Alongside

oriented

research

emphasis

areas .

foster

BRITE

well

the

The

and

to

as

that
4 .
preliminary report ares

Against

background

the

aims

of

this

first

°

to draw up a balance-sheet of progress

so

far

in

Comparative study of the technology level of Europe ,
USA , Japan and the Soviet Union , Michel Poniatowski ,
President of
Research and
the Committee on Energy ,
Technology , European Parliament , 15 June 1987 .

22

improving Europe 's position in science and technology ;

2

*
which
reducing
technological dependence and
economic competitiveness and the quality of life ;

to consider the main research needs and opportunities
of
attention
improving

particular

Europe 's

require

context

the

in

and to identify the main science policy issues facing

°
Europe over the coming years .

The report is not limited to a review of Community activities in
the fields concerned or to the planning horizon of the current
Framework
specific
Programme
proposals for Community action .
The aim is rather to provide the
factual basis on which to consider what needs to be done in
Europe , without at this stage attempting to identify what should
be done at national , what is more appropriate for action in a
transnational
most
framework
effectively be done at Community level .

specifically

( 1987-1991 );

might

make

what

does

nor

or

it

The report highlights the importance for the future of
5 .
adequate efforts in basic research alongside and in support of
the application of scientific knowledge and technical know-how to
the solution of the main economic and societal questions facing
research
Europe .
( education ) and downstream ( innovation and technology transfer ).
It pays particular attention to the opportunities and needs
arising from the completion of the Community 's Internal Market in
1992 .

questions

addresses

upstream

also

of

It

The

Commission

and
6 .
preliminary report during the course of 1989 in the light of the
reactions to it from the Parliament , from national policy-makers
and
educational
from
community .
Thereafter it will publish similar factual analyses
at two-yearly intervals .

scientific ,

industrial

intends

update

wider

first

this

und

the

to

The structure

7 .

The report has five chapters :

and

Chapter I recalls briefly the central role played by
science
social
development , and some of the central issues affecting
applied research ,
the links between basic research ,
innovation and competitiveness .

technology

economic

and

in

Chapter II summarises recent policies and developments
outside Europe , concentrating on the USA and Japan , but
also examining briefly the situation and prospects in
the emergence of new
the

as well as

Soviet

Union

23

science and technology powers •
and
actions
Chapter
transnationally , in Europe to mobilize its resources in
the field of research and technological development
( RTD ) .

nationally

surveys

taken ,

III

3

Chapter IV considers the main requirements for research
to improve Europe 's competitive position , notably in
the context of the completion of the Internal Market ;
to respond to the needs of society through improvements
Europe 's
in
capacity to pursue its own scientific and technological
options where necessary , by reducing its dependence on
others .

the quality of

to increase

life ;

and

Chapter V outlines the main issues for science policy
in Europe during the coming years .

The Inputs

evaluation

independent

The analysis in the report reflects a multiplicity of
8 .
It draws heavily on the advice of the special groups
inputs .
established to advise the Commission on R&D trends , needs and
priorities ( CODEST , CREST , IRDAC , and the Advisory Committees on
the coordination of individual research projects and programmes );
programmes ;
the
systematic monitoring of scientific and technical literature and
the views of researchers and research
professional meetings ;
consultants ;
users
as well as
science and technology administrations
the
the
advice
" customers " for and the " producers " of research ; as well as the
It also takes fully into account the
European Parliament itself .
work
international
other
undertaken
fields
similar
organisations , such as the OECD .

in Member States ;
both

in industry and universities ,

departments

Commission

concerned ,

Community

panels

the

by

on

in

of

Except where otherwise stated , the figures given are averages for
the European Community .
cases data for Spain and
Portugal are not yet available ; while data for Luxembourg are
limited .
There are often wide variations around the average ( see
Chapter III ).

some

In

Some gaps in data available from the Member States have placed
limitations on the depth of the analysis in Chapter III
of
These limitations should be remedied in future
national trends .
reports in the light of the ongoing discussions and analysis of
national policies within the framework of CREST . As stated later ,
the Commission intends to concentrate in more detail on trends
and policies in the Member States in future reports on science
and technology in Europe .

24

I

SCIENCE , TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL NEEDS

4

Science , technology and the economy

Economic Trends

Community 's

In its analysis ^ of the economic benefits of completing
1.1 .
the
Commission
market
underlined the importance to economic growth and competitiveness
advanced
the
of
economic
the
of
to
technologies ,
Community 's performance in these fields .

incorporating
attention

of
weakness

sectors
and

European

internal

results

drew

the

the

sectors

For these

" high technology "

1.2 .
( electrical and
electronic goods ; office and data-processing mechanisms ; chemical
and pharmaceutical goods ) world demand has been growing at around
twice the rate of that for manufactured products as a whole .
Yet
these sectors account ( 1985 ) for only 22.4% of the value-added of
the whole of Community industry , as against nearly 29% in the USA
Moreover , the share has been growing
and more than 28% in Japan .
more
its major
either
competitors : between 1979 and 1985 it grew by 3% a year in the
Community , compared with 3.7% in the USA and 17.1% in Japan .
The
differences between Europe and Japan are particularly striking in
the case of electrical and electronic goods ,
where Japanese
domestic demand grew by nearly 21% , and European demand by 3.5% .

Community than

slowly

the

in

in

of

Table 1.1

Evolution of volume of domestic demand by industrial branch in the EC, the United States and Japan ( 1973-85, average annual rate of growth )

%

£UR

USA

Strong demand sectors

Office and data-processing machines
Electrical and electronic goods
Chemical and pharmaceutical products

Moderate demand sectors

Rubber and plastic products
Transport equipment
Food , beverages, tobacco
Paper and printing products
Industrial and agricultural machinery

Weak demand sectors

Metal products
Miscellaneous manufactured products
Ferrous and non-ferrous ores and metals
Tcutilcs. leather, clothing
Non -metallic minerals (construction materials )

5.0

9.0
3.5
5.3

1.2

2.8
1.7
1.2
1.6
- 0.1

- 0.Ì

- o.s
- 0,6
0.6
- 0.2
0.1

5.2

6.S
7.2
2.3

2.8

5.4
2,7
0.4
2.9
5.6

0.5

- 0.4
2,1
- 1.8
2.0
1.7

lí .!

7.2
20.7
9.9

it

2.0
5.2
0.0
2.7
5.6

2.i

3.4
1.9
2.0
2.2
l.l

Me

lh<r
iK«n JV. (–Kék iknunJ )

.«• J..ule4 U.IO .ho« .. -fcKh

Уо(|ПК1. С(ИК1т«|НМ1

.. OCCO court* oc bc-ocrt Itn.rtlMI . rtcrctcd t>T «*>« ">*» iV-

(>> «Ou.ul IV. ( rtuulc.c Jcm.ftJI. . ~l 6 , krt.

^

The Economics of 1992 , European Economy n*35 , March 1988 .

25

5

and

other

1.3 .
In terms of exports the Community has also been losing
ground in the case of electronics and electrical equipment , in
and
office
of
forms
cars
information technology .
The only high growth sectors where the
Community has maintained a favourable position on export markets
Japan in particular has
are chemicals and pharmaceuticals .
high-technology
to
the
push
continued
products .
Between 1979 and 1985 Japan increased its world market
share by nearly 12% for electrical and electronic equipment , by
over 9% for cars and by 5.5% in information technology and office
automation ^ .

machinery ,

transport ,

export

ahead

in

of

At the same time the Community has been increasing its
1.4 .
dependence on imports of such products .
Imports from outside the
Community have been growing more quickly than intra-Community
trade in office machinery and information technology , electrical
end electronic
machinery and transport equipment .
Again , only the chemical and pharmaceutical industries among the
trade
high growth
dependence reflects an underlying technological dependence in
certain sectors :
for
example , European dependence on
components has been increasing
despite the improvements in the performance of the IT industry as
a whole .

information technology ,

perform well .

the case of

equipment ,

increase

sectors

This

in

in

x

the

combined .

A number

1.5 .
While in the high growth industries Europe continues to
be underrepresented , traditional manufacturing industry remains
The Community accounts for some 35% of the GDP of
significant .
the EC -USA-Japan triad , but in 1986 it produced 44% of the cars ,
42% of the steel and 40% of the textiles and clothing of the
three
have
of
improved their position during the past few years by large-scale
investment in new technologies and major research efforts ( Table
1.2 .).
Others , such
the paper and board processing industry or parts of the
as
Even those
machine-tool industry , have been less successful .
that
and
their
automation ( especially automobiles where productivity has grown
by over
the prospect of increasing world
30%
1980-87 )
One successful company strategy . in some industries
competition .
has been to seek to capture more of the top-end of the market
through the application of new technologies and their integration
into the products .

Textiles and automobiles are two examples .

innovation

traditional

position

improved

through

sectors

have

face

1.6 .
Europe 's interest lies in both reducing its dependence
on the third countries in the high growth sectors and harnessing

as the export of the USA ,
Market share is defined
Japan or EC - 10 to the rest of the world compared with
exports of OECD countries as a whole to the rest of the
world .

26

the new technologies to improving the competitiveness of
traditional industries .

6

its

The Characteristics of the Emerging Industries

The

characteristics

1.7 .
and
of
their contribution to overall economic growth and development
have been the subject of considerable enquiry during the past few
years ^ . Recent trends in these sectors in the European Community
are
EC
the
Industry : 1989 " which will shortly be published by the Commission
and to which reference is made in more detail in Chapter IV
below .

the emerging

" Panorama of

forthcoming

industries

in detail

analysed

in

a

to

of

the

degree

results

" generic "

embodying

significant

One fundamental characteristic of the emerging industries is that
they are heavily " science-based " or " science-related ", with their
products
of
Secondly , they reflect the
advanced research and development .
emergence
pervasive
with
new
technologies
Thirdly , they are calling on the expertise of an
applications .
increasing range of scientific disciplines .
Fourthly , some of
the new fast growing sectors demand a much closer and more
interactive
and
between
norm .
has
commercial
Biotechnological products and technologies have been described ,
for example ,
the laboratories ".
Fifthly , however , the pace of economic growth is linked to the
generic
diffusion ,
technologies by smaller innovating firms , alongside the major
enterprises with their large R&D resources and the contribution
of universities and research institutes .

" growing directly out of

fundamental
hitherto

research
the

modification

relationship

application

production

been

than

new

and

of

as

Technology and Economic Growth

of

The

importance

technology

to diminish over

than
technology

underlying
1.8 .
scientific disciplines to growth , trade and welfare is certain to
The
grow rather
information
as
applications of IT permeate industry , households , transport and
On one estimate ^ the electronics industry, with
communications .
an output value estimated at US$ 485 milliard in 1985 ( or 4.7% of
Free World GNP ) is likely to reach 8% by 2000 ; another expects
the share of telecommunications in developed countries 'GNP to

coming years .
from

revolution

the
is

over ,

far

and

the

4

For example " The contribution of Science and Technology
to
OECD
Economic
SPT/Min ( 87)2 ,

Growth
7 October 1987 .

Development ",

Social

and

5 Futurible . Paris Dec 1986 .

27

Table 1.2 .

(Index 1980 = 100)

Processed foodstuffs

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Chemicals

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Plastics

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Leather

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Paper and board
Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Textiles

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Footwear

Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Glass, ceramics
Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Machinery
Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Transport equipment
Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Audio/video/photo equipment
Imports
Exports

Intra-EC trade

Source : Eu• rostat (rounded figures ).

Extra-EC Imports and Exports by Branch, Evolution Since 1980

1982

- 119

136

131

126

118

128

118

115

120

99

119

144

123

125

125

113

124

120

116

143

119

112

122

108

135

128

119

129

139

135

141

139

124

1985

155

183

185

203

187

197

186

178

186

146

211

210

175

220

187

165

204

170

181

271

151

162

186

143

226

171

189

202

181

172

215

222

202

1987

127

159

209

185

160

206

184

157

219

150

216

234

180

216

234

165

186

201

173

216

201

145

164

183

236

155

232

190

159

239

232

207

252

1987 value
(billion ECUs)

12.9

13.2

22.3

19.7

32.0

44.9

8 ^

14 t

29.6

5 9

3 . .9

5.2

14.6

7.2

15.1

25.8

19.3

35.9

2.8

3.6

5.6

2.3

6.5

9.3

60.5

85.8

91.1

19.5

43.8

64.9

18.2

14.6

16.7

and

grow to 7-10% by the early 1990s ( compared with 5% in the USA in
1985 , and 3% in Japan and Europe )
Biotechnology is likely to
impact on a large number of economic sectors within the next
thereafter ,
could
decade
affecting the chemical and pharmaceutical industries , agriculture
and food and energy .
New materials could induce major savings in
resources and change the basis of comparative advantage between
traditional raw material producers and countries that depend on
imports .

influence

rapidly

spread

its

7

In

this

rapidly changing world economy ,
on

will
feedbacks between the progress of

growth and
1.9 .
successful
competitiveness
scientific
interaction and
knowledge
market
of
opportunities and needs (" market pull "), the pervasive diffusion
available
of
technologies as well as
the opening up of new technological
frontiers .

identification

modification

increasingly

knowledge

(" science

push "),

access

depend

and

the

of ,

to

of

The Commission 's analysis of

the costs of non -
1.10 .
Europe shows that progress in removing market barriers within
Europe will of itself play an important role in creating the
conditions for the Community to improve its competitive position .
It will encourage some integration of companies , laying the basis
for pooling of R&D resources to achieve the
" critical mass "
required to take major new steps forward in generic technologies .
It will
consequent
encouragement of innovation .
But , the creation of the internal
market in alone will not solve the problems of competitiveness .
Progress in this direction must be accompanied and encouraged by
adequate public policies on R&D that take account of the new
realities ( the ever-closer links between science , technology and
the market-place ) and that create the right framework conditions
in which these links and interactions can best be established .

competition and

encourage

more

also

the

Science , technology and the consequences of growth and change

Improving Europe 's industrial competitiveness is not in
1.11 .
any case the only issue to which science policy can and should
make a major contribution .
The pressures of technological change
also have important social consequences , in terms of the pattern
economic
distribution
of
opportunity across Europe , and consequent implications for the

employment

wealth

and

and

the

of

M et al .

" Telecommunications Development in
Borrus ,
Comparative Perspective : The New Telecommunications in
Europe ,
Berkeley Round Table on
Japan and the US ",
Industrial Economy , California 1985 .

29

economic and social cohesion of the European Community .
They
also raise issues of an environmental and ethical .nature , as well
The challenge for
for international relations .
as new questions
science policy is to help find solutions for the problems posed
by scientific and technical advances as well as to help seize the
opportunities which they offer .

8

the

that

will

effect of

The effect of the new technologies on employment over
1.12 .
A number of studies
the longer-term is not yet well understood .
on
technologies
net
suggest
in
advances
employment
relatively
be
than
rather
new materials
biotechnology and
reduce employment .
is obvious that there are major
strucural adjustments within any economy and adverse effects for
some regions and industries .
Europe has been less
successful so far than the USA and Japan in translating economic
growth
High
unemployment may itself create resistance to the diffusion of
technologies
the absence of
policies to mitigate the effects , encourage a Luddite approach to
new technology .

information
small 7 .
could

And
increase ,

opportunities .

labour-saving

employment

Moreover ,

growth

into

that

and ,

But

the

are

it

of

in

1.13 .
Similarly , there is a risk that technology will be seen
as the cause and not the cure for environmental problems unless
public
the
application of scientific knowledge and technological resources
to the solution of the problems of atmospheric pollution , waste
disposal and safety , and to prevention of environmental damage .

encouraging

policies

focussed

sharply

are

on

1.14 .
Advances in medical and biological sciences offer the
prospects of major improvements in health and agriculture over
the coming years .
But there are important ethical issues posed
by genetic engineering , and some evidence of public concern about
the effects on the environment and the risks to health of certain
experiments in biotechnology .
A considered approach to these
issues must be an integral part of European efforts to ensure an
adequate S&T base .

The external aspect is also of major importance .

1.15 .
The
mastery of technology and the promotion of scientific advance in
Europe have consequences not only for our competition with our
major industrial trading partners but also for the trade and
development of the developing countries .
Biotechnology may offer
us the prospect of more efficient agriculture in the longer-term ,
producing
market
requirements and reducing the risks of surpluses of unwanted

correspond

precisely

crops

more

that

to

For example , OECD Employment Outlook , Paris 1986
Freeman & Soete :
- An Assessment ", April 1985 .

" Information Technology and Employment

30

9

It

products .
agriculture and medecine .
other hand ,
countries that are exporters of traditional materials .

World
transform
The advance of new materials , on the
is likely to have consequences for those developing

should

Third

help

also

to

1.16 .
Through the Single European Act the Governments of the
Community 's Member States have expressed their commitment to the
the environment and to a more economically and
protection of
socially
the
have
importance of the external aspects of Community policy in the
field of R&D .
The final chapter of this report outlines how
these commitments can be reflected in and supported by science
and technology policy itself .

underlined

cohesive

Europe .

They

also

The Changing Scientific Environment

1.17 .
Science policy has also to take account of the other
factors , namely : the accelerating pace of scientific discoveries ;
the increasing cost of research ; and the trend towards a more
pluridisciplinary approach to research , in which the traditional
boundaries between sectors are breaking down and more integrated
systems are developing .

Chemistry provides a vivid example .
growth in new compounds which are now doubling in number every
6-7 years compared with every 40 years in the 1940s .
At the same
time chemists are now using more and more sophisticated and
costly instruments and analytical aids
spectroscopic
instruments , the electron miscroscope , synchroton light , etc ) and
calling increasity on the help of information technology .

There has been an explosive

( lasers ,

All this means that financial resources have to be depreciated
over a shorter space of time and directed at an ever-growing
This has major implications for science
number of problems .
It underlines the
policy both at national and at European level .
need for the most rational use of resources ( financial , human and
physical ) by the avoidance of duplication and pooling , and it
research
poses
in
also
It
priorities
highlights the importance for industry of having a large enough
market
in which to sell the products of research and thus to
achieve a rapid depreciation of expenditure .

definition
the
in

the
than

problems

funding

public

acute

past .

more

for

of

31

10

Science and Technology are vital in
Europe 's
the completion of
have a major contribution
societal needs of the European
and safer environment and better health care .

competitive position in the context of
the Internal Market .

They also
to offer in meeting the

improving

society for a cleaner

The mastery of science and technology is essential
to reduce technological , and thus economic dependence
and to allow Europe to be able , where it wishes to do
so , to make its own technological choices .

The translation of these economic and social needs
into specific requirements for research is con¬
sidered , sector by sector , in Chapter IV .

But science and technology are increasingly expensive
as science develops at an accelerating pace .
of research are placing an increasing strain on the
financial capacities of individual companies or
Member States .
be used to the best effect .
these resources may offer major advantages .

The resources devoted to science must

Further pooling of

The costs

32

II

EUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FROM A COMPARATIVE

PERSPECTIVE :
TRENDS IN OUR MAIN COMPETITORS

11

of

in

be

of

can

The

measured

vis - ci -vis

performance

Europe
terms

its
resource

major
2.1 .
inputs
competitors
( financial and human )
to science and technology , quantifiable
scientific and technological outputs , and the administrative and
policy framework within which science and technology develop .
a short analysis of the trends in
This chapter begins with
by whom , what scientific
inputs
(
personnel
and in proxy measures of output
patenting activitiy , technological trade balance , technological
The comparison is between Europe® , on the
balance-of -payments )
one hand , and the USA and Japan , on the other .
The chapter then
examines recent policy developments in the USA and Japan before
concluding with a short survey of trends in some emerging science
and technology powers .

are available )

spent on R&D ,

( how much is

.

assembled

2.2 .
The chapter draws heavily on available comparative data
drawn up by the OECD , on more detailed data for Community Member
States
European
Communities , and on a comparative study of the Community , USA and
Japan , prepared for CREST in the context of discussions on the
coordination of national R&D policies in Europe^.
This latter
study forms the basis for annex 14 .

Statistical Office of

the

the

by

In commenting on policy developments the chapter concentrates on
recent trends .
of R&D in the USA and Japan can be found in the annex .

More detailed on the structure and organisation

( i )

COMPARATIVE TRENDS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

possible ,

Where
Community on
Portugal .
available .

data

are
the basis of estimates

enlarged
for Spain and
In most cases data for Luxembourg are not

given

the

for

" The European S / T " Space " in the International Context :
Resources
Community
Conditions
Competitiveness ", Working paper prepared for COPOL 88 ,
29 Feb . 1988 .

and

for

33

The level of funding

12

2-3 .
only for 1985 .
( civil and military )
European Community and 2.9 times that of Japan :

Fully comparable data on total spending on R&D exist
These show that in absolute terms total spending
1.75 times that of the

in the USA was

Table 2.1 .

Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D
Mio ECU current ( ppp )

EC ( 12 )

48,072 *

76,250 **

USA

76,722

134,645

Japan

25,136

48,056

estimates
estimates
Luxembourg

for Belgium and
Belgium ,

for

•

Portugal . Excludes Luxembourg

Spain

and

Portugal .

Excludes

1981

1985

*

* *

Source :

Commission services estimates and Table 2 of OECD " Main
Science and Technology Indicators ", Paris 1988 .

In terms of spending as a share of GDP the USA is also in the
leading position :

Table 2.2 .

Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D as
a percentage of GDP

1985

EC ( 12 )

1.9

USA

2.8

Japan

2.6

Only one Community country ( Germany ) has an R&D intensity^-
in 1987 ) that is comparable to that of the USA or Japan .
The level elsewhere varies between 2.3%
( Netherlands ) down to

( 2.8%
2.1%
( UK and France ),
for some smaller Community

1% or less

10

Share of R&D spending in GDP .

34

The US figures are , however , bolstered by the high
countries .
level of spending on defence R&D .
If defence expenditure is
excluded , the share of US GDP devoted to R&D drops to about 1.9% ,
that of the Community ( where military R&D accounts for some 25%
of the total Government expenditure on R&D ) falls to 1.4% , while
that of Japan ( where military R&D expenditure is prima facie
negligible ^* ) is almost unaffected .

13

In

on

all

R&D

areas

three

spending

2.4 .
grown
significantly throughout the 1980s , but the growth has been more
marked in the US and Japan than the Community .
Between 1981 and
1985 , R&D intensity rose by an average annual rate of 1.8% in the
Community , by 2.6% in the USA and by 4.1% in Japan .
The Japanese
figure is even more striking , bearing in mind that the growth of
US
been
period
subsequently
If defence expenditure is excluded ,
concentrated on defence R&D .
Japanese growth in total R&D spending ( public and private )
is
estimated to have been more than twice that of the USA and Europe
( 9% as against 4% )*^.

spending

during

that

and

has

has

Expenditure and Execution ; the contribution of public and private
sectors

In terms of the relative financial contributions of
2.5 .
public and private sectors to R&D , the Community lies between the
USA ( where the public sector share is highest ) and Japan .
But in
most Community countries there is a significantly lower level of
industrial involvement in the execution of R&D programmes than in
either the USA or Japan .

Around one-half of US spending on -. R&D is financed from public
sources , and throughout the 1980s this government spending has
been growing steadily , driven by sharp increases in military R&D ;
private sector spending has been less buoyant .
But more than 70%
of R&D has continued to be carried out by industry , given that a
large share of military R&D is subcontracted to the private
sector .

Methods of calculating military R&D expenditure are not
uniform .
Official figures may underestimate Japanese
military R&D spending compared with those of European
countries .

Estimate made in COPOL study - see footnote 9 .

35

In Japan , on the other hand , industry both finances and carries
out the bulk of R&D .
Less than 30% of Japanese R&D is financed
70% being financed and executed by the
by the public sector ,
private sector , especially industry ; and in the natural sciences
the figures are even further weighted towards industry .
In the Community around 45% of spending is financed from public
But only Germany and Belgium have shares of R&D carried
sources .
out by industry that are on a par with Japan and the USA .

14

R&D personnel

scientists

The trends in the overall levels of expenditure are
2.6 .
The proportion of
parallelled by those as regards R&D personnel .
engineers
is
labour
research
the
and
significantly higher in
the USA and Japan than in European
countries , even when allowance is made for differences in data
Moreover , the proportion has been growing much more
coverage .
rapidly in Japan .
In absolute numbers the USA has a much larger
R&D workforce ( 825,000 in 1986 ) than either the Community ( an
estimated 500,000 ) or Japan ( now up to 400,000 ).
But the US
figure has been relatively stagnant , while that of Japan has
increased steadily and sharply*-*.

force

in

It is worth noting that the US figure is less than half
of some estimates made of Soviet R&D personnel by the
US National Science Foundation ( see source to table 2.3 .)

36

Table 2.3 .

15

Scientists and engineers in R&D as a
proportion of the total labour force 1965-86

USA

Japan
- nos per

Germany
10,000 labour force .

France

UK .

1965

1970

1975

1980

1984

1985

1986

64.7

64.1

55.3

60.0

65.1

67.4

69.0

24.6

33.4

47.9

53.6

62.4

63.2

22.7

30.8

38.6

n.a .

49.1

21.0

27.3

29.4

32.4

41.2

n.a .

n.a .

19.6

n.a .

31.1

n.a .

34.2

32.8

n .a .

n.a .

n.a .

n.a .

Source :

National Science Foundation , International Science
and Technology Update 1987 .

Figures include all scientists and engineers engaged in R&D on a
full-time
persons
primarily employed in R&D , and UK where data include only the
Government and industry sectors .

include

except

Japan ,

where

basis

data

The output from R&D

a )

applied research

Three measures can be used together to provide a proxy
2.7 .
" productivity "
patenting
for
the
activity ,
and especially patenting in the USA as the largest
single world market ; the technological balance-of payments ( ie .
and
royalties
receipts
licences ); and the balance of trade in high-technology goods .

expenditures

related to

patents ,

applied

namely :

R&D ,

and

of

2.8 .
In terms of the total numbers of patent applications
and those granted domestically , Japan now ranks above the USA and
Europe .
In terms of those registered with foreign patent offices
it ranks third after the USA and Germany , and the number of

37

foreign registered patents has been increasing steadily .
In
terms of the granting of patents in the USA , the Japanese share
and Germany alone among the
has doubled since the mid-1970s ,
larger European countries has maintained its position :

16

Table 2.4 .

US patents granted to inventors in various
countries , 1975 and 1985

Total

USA

Japan

Germany

France

UK

Other

Source :

1975

100

64.9

8.8

8.4

3.3

4.2

10.4

1985

100

53.8

18.6

9.6

3.3

3.4

11.2

Derived from Appendix '.Table 6-11 of Science and
Engineering
Science
Board , Washington DC .

Indicators ,

National

1987 ,

The growing importance .of Japan is underlined , moreover , by the
number of citations of Japanese patents registered in the US ,
which provide an indication of the quality of applied research
output ^.

2.9 .
The picture emerging from analysis of technological
balance-of -payments data is less clear cut ; but the trend has
In
been towards a reduction in the negative Japanese balance .
1985 Japanese sales of licences , patents etc . were equivalent to
, and more
about four-fifths of her expenditure in the field *

This is considered further in recent work by Pavitt &
Patel : Measuring Europe 's Technological Performance :
Results
Policy
Studies , 1988 .

Prospects ,

European

Centre

and

for

Table
Indicators 1981-87 ", Paris 1988 .

" Main

OECD

of

48

Science

and

Technology

38

recent data suggest that the gap has closed about to zero .
The
figures on trade in high-technology goods , as indicated in the
previous chapter , underline this growing technological strength :

Table 2.5 .

Export / Import ratios in selected high-technology goods .
1981 and 1986

17

1981

1986

Japan USA

FRG

Fr

UK

Japan USA

FRG

Fr

UK

Office
mach .
&
computers

Comm . Equip .
fielectronic
components

Scientific
Instruments

2.75

3.23

0.93

0.73

0.68 6.63

1.11

0.92

0.7

0.79

6.59

0.70

1 . 13

1.14

0.96 8.95

0.61

1.14

1.22

0.82

6.59

0.97

1.42

0.76

1.01 6.75

0.61

1.49

0.78

0.88

Drugs

0.28

2.27

1.77

1.99

2.61 0.30

1.42

1.71

1.90

2.21

Electrical
Transmis­
sion
Equipment

Aircraft
& parts

4.32

2.3

2.07

1.49

1.44 4.56

0.97

2.00

1.21

1.23

0.08

3.76

0.78

1.19

1.56 0.09

2.48

0.78

1.56

1.91

Source :

OECD " Main Science and Technology Indicators 1981-87 ",
Paris 1988 .

In all sectors the Japanese ratio has been growing while the US trade
position has been weakening .

39

( b )

Basic Research

18

for

Proxies

include ,
2-10 .
notably , Nobel Prizes ( for natural sciences and economics ) and
numbers of publications of scientific papers .
Here Europe is in
a much stronger position , and that of Japan much weaker but
already improving significantly .

the output

research

basic

of

Between 1946 and 1987 US scientists won 196 Nobel Prizes and
European ones ( EC-12 and EFTA ) 105 , while Japan had 5 .

Compared with aggregate expenditure on R&D the shares of USA and
W. Europe in scientific publications are somewhat larger , and that
The difference is even more marked in
of Japan somewhat lower .
the share of
But more significant is the
increasing share of Japan and the declining share of the USA ,
citations
while
held
relatively
the UK share being
compensated by the growth of those of France , Germany and other
countries :

papers
and
decline of

share
with

citations .

W. Europe 's

steady ,

of
the

total

has

Table 2.6 .

Distribution of published scientific work

Japan

USA

W. Europe

1973

7.1

54.4

38.5

TOTAL

100

1982

10.1

51.1

38.8

100

Source : Patel & Pavitt , Research Policy n*16 ( 1987),Table 18

W. Europe
Finland , Italy , Netherlands , Sweden , Switzerland , UK .

comprises

Belgium ,

Denmark ,

here

France ,

Germany,

40

( ii ) TRENDS IN THE USA

19

In

1986

2.11 .
the US balance -of - trade in high technology
goods became negative for the first time , reinforcing a growing
concern about the ability of US manufacturers to compete on world
markets , the dependence of the US economy on overseas suppliers
of key technologies and , specifically , the increasingly dominant
between
role
increasing
industrial
performance has prompted questioning inside and outside Congress
about
the
organisation of R&D spending ,
led to new R&D policy
initiatives both domestically and internationally .

apparent
and

expenditure ,

discrepancy

expenditure

weaknesses

and has

spin-off

defence

The
R&D

played

Japan .

about

from

the

by

on

in

The Federal Budget - defence and civil expenditure

Between FY 1980 and FY 1988 federal spending on R&D
2.12 .
grew by an estimated 26% in constant dollar terms*® .
But defence
R&D expenditure grew by 83% in real terms while civilian R&D
As a result of these divergent budget
expenditure fell by 24% .
trends , in FY 1988 defence accounted for about 67% of the federal
R&D effort , compared with 46% in FY 1980 .

Equally striking is that the fastest growing element of
2.13 .
Between 1980 and 1988 defence
defence R&D has been development .
development doubled
During the same period
Department of Defense funding of basic research spending actually
fell in real terms

terms .

real

in

For non-defence

2.14 .
quite the
A striking feature of the pattern of recent Federal
opposite .
spending is that , while spending on civil research has fallen
overall , spending on basic research has actually increased by
some 40% .
mathematics and
engineering :

notably in the physical

sciences ,

spending

picture

the

is

Figures are from " Research and Development FY 1989 "
American Association for the Advancement of Science ,
Report XIII , 1988 .

The attribution of particular projects to one category
or another is subject to question : some " development "
have undoubtedly had a more
projects ,
fundamental
trend
towards development is nevertheless striking .

for example ,
research

element

them .

The

in

41

20

Table 2.7 .

DS Defence and Non-defence R&D by
character of work

FT 1980
Actual

FT 1988
Estimated

( budget authority in billions )

DEFENCE R&D

15.0

Basic Research

0.6

Applied Research

1.9

40.3

0.9

2.6

Development

12.5

36.7

NON DEFENCE R&D

16.7

18.8

Basic Research

4.2

Applied Research

5.0

8.6

6.5

Development

7.5

3.7

Percent Change

Current $

Constant

$

83

11

-7

99

- 24

40

- 13

- 66

169

64

38

194

13

107

29

- 50

Source :

Table 3 of Research and Development FY 1989 . AAAS
the
American
Report
Advancement of Science , Washington DC 1988 .

Association

XIII ,

for

With the 1989 budget under pressure the Administration continued
to press for an increase in basic research of $600 millions .

42

2.15 .
in Table 2.8 .
the energy field ,
increasing expenditure on general science :

The breakdown of Federal spending by category is given
This demonstrates a flattening of expenditure in
rising expenditure on health research and

21

Table 2.8 .

DS Federal R&D expenditure

1972 - 1988 by area

Constant 1982 dollars

FY 1972

FY 1986

FY 1988

Defence
Non-defence
Space
Health
Energy
General Science
All Other

TOTAL

22.2
17.6
6.0
4.4
1.3
1.6
4.2

39.8

33.1
14.6
2.0
5.1
2.1
1.8
4.0

47.7

34.0
16 . 1
2.0
6.0
1.9
1.9
4.2

50.1

Source :

Table 1-4 of source to Table 2.7 .

The spin-off from military R&D

2.16 .
industrial spin-off from military R&D .

difficult

analyse

to

It

is

with

the
There have undoubtedly

precision

43

the

has

close

meant

products

industrial

22
been important spin-offs in the fields of materials , aircraft
engineering , vehicle technology , computer technology and systems
engineering from defence expenditure in general and from SDI in
particular .
Moreover , the fact that 45% of the work funded by
the Federal budget for R&D has continued to be carried out by
Federal
industry
research efforts and the continuing availability of ready markets
for
the more defence
research has been tailored to the needs of specific military
defence requirements in terms of weapons systems , communications
equipment and so on , the more doubts have been expressed inside
The Administra ¬
the USA about the broader industrial benefits .
tion has responded with a number of measures to increase the
potential benefits to industry and competitiveness from federal ¬
ly-funded
include ,
the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986 and the
notably ,
" Competitiveness Initiative " of 27 January 1987 , which provide a
new
Federal
laboratories and between them and universities and industry .

industry military

encouraging

involvement

cooperation

industrial

research ,

framework

These

among

R&D .

R&D .

for

But

in

of

The European situation with respect to spin-off and dual-use
technologies is considered separately in Chapter III .

Industrial R&D

Table 2.9 .

the breakdown of
2.17 .
industrial R&D spending by area .
Computers are the largest
single area , followed closely by the automotive industry , then
pharmaceuticals , chemicals and aerospace .

gives an estimate

of

44

Industry Spent! in >> for KM )

!>y business Week

Croup i ngs

! 986 ( in mi ]

l

i uns )

Z Chauve
from 1985

Table 2.9 .

Indus try

Aerospace
App I iances
Automot ive

cars , trucks
parts , equipment

Building Materials
Chemicals
Conglomerates
Containers
Drugs
Electrical
Electronics
Food and Beverage
Fuel
Information Processing

computers
office equipment
peripherals
software , services

Instruments :
Controls

measuring devices .

, Leisure Time Industries

Machinery

farm construction
machine tools , industrial

and mining
Metals and Mining
Miscellaneous Manufacturing
Oil Service and Supply
Paper
Personal and Home Care Products
Semiconductors
Steel
Télécommunications
Textiles , Apparels
Tire , Rubber
Tobacco

1986

$3,583.9
128.2

7,401.7
341.0
223.0
3,662.2
1,354.2
19.4
4,721.0
1,864.0
2,586.3
610.7
1,958.4

7,856.5
249.2
1,615.2
468.0

1,092.5
1,467.4

681.7

487.2
203.9
1,692.7 .
699.5
349.4
794 . 3
1,309.6
113.0
2,762.0
68.0
549.8
22.5

217.
1 37

157.
127.
82
62
127.
37.
177.
162
52
127.
- 117.

167.
12
92
172

27.
107.

- 77.

102
152
112
- 42 “
12
172
102
- 117.
12
- 82
62
42

107.

Total

$50,936.4

Source :

Based on " R&D Scoreboard , 1986"

( Business Week .

June 22 , 1987 ).

NOTE : Based on SEC data for companies reporting 1986 sales
of $35 million or more , and R&D expenses amounting to at
least $1.0 million or 1.0 percent of sales .

Promotincr Industrial Coopération

23

The

steps

taken

associations

Administrdtion

2*18 *
dlso
to
new
has
The first efforts in this
encourage inter-firm cooperation .
direction were taken under the Carter Administration through a
Then in 1984 the
limited relaxation of anti-trust regulations .
creation of
the
legalised
National Cooperative
precompetitive
purpose
cooperative
As a result a number of industrial R&D consortia have
research .
been
the
lay
in
Those most hotly-
foundations for regaining US competitiveness .
a Texas-based consortium in the micro ¬
debated is
electronics
support
( Department of Defense ) in an effort to improve semi-conductor
manufacturing technology , and to recapture part of the market
lost in Japan .

Research Act
the
for
resources

SEMATECH ,
field which is

receiving Federal

of
order

established

budget

pool

to

to

the

includes

long-standing

The framework for greater efforts in R&D by industry
2.19 .
also
Innovation
Research Programme which is intended to encourage R&D in small
high-technology business and to increase their involvement in
Under the Small Business Development Act
federal R&D programmes .
of 1982 all federal agencies with an extra-mural R&D budget in
excess of $100 million are required to assign up to 1.25% of
their budget to this goal .
In 1987 the total amount of research
by the companies aided under this scheme is estimated at $2
milliard .

Business

Small

of

the

philosophy

It is too early to judge the success of the various
2.20 .
One of the
initiatives to promote cooperation within the USA .
Competitiveness
results
Initiative , which is the subject of major controversy ,
seems
likely to be reduced scientific openness as a result of such
by Federal
as
measures
laboratories
selective
admittance by third country participants ,
reflecting concern
about the potentially negative effects of " leakage " as a result
of the openness of the US research community and society more
generally .

granting
contracting

exclusive
companies ,

licences
and

underlying

the
to

more

the

of

International Coopération in R&D

Such concern also has also led to a new approach to
2.21 .
international
The
growing costs of R&D and the severe budgetary pressures within
the USA have militated in favour of international collaboration ,
mega-
opening up

foreign participation

collaboration

science and

technology .

prospect

the

in

of

in

46

24

as

the

such

supercollider

superconducting

some
projects "
an international approach to the
elements in space research ,
But concern about
sequencing of the human genome and so on .
" leakage " has also led to an emphasis in the US approach to
" symmetrical
international
access "
ultimately ,
facilities ,
markets , as well as on the need for stronger measures to protect
intellectual property rights .
This new emphasis is reflected in
the recent agreement on cooperation in R&D between the USA and
Japan .

principle
results

programmes ,

cooperation

of
and ,

the

to

on

,

The Prospect of Growing Skill Shortages

a

and

declining

A further concern in the USA is about the longer-term
2.22 .
" output " of scientists and engineers .
As noted earlier , there
has been no growth in the share of R&D personnel in the labour
force for a number of years .
This seems likely to continue .
With a decreasing number of college-age students in the United
States
graduates
percentage of
choosing to study science and engineering one estimate*® suggests
a shortfall of more than 500,000 scientists and engineers by
Meeting this potential shortfall is seen to require action
2010 .
to encourage more women and minorities to train in science and
further encouragement of
engineering ,
foreign students to study and to stay in the United States*® , on
At the post-doctoral level , moreover , there will be
the other .
increasing
from
skilled
pressures
abroad .

personnel

" poach "

school

hand ;

high

R&D

one

and

the

on

to

America :

Changing
&
Engineering . Interim Report of the Task Force on Women ,
Minorities
and
Technology , Washington DC 1988 .

Handicapped

Science

Science

Face

and

the

new

The

in

of

See , for example Picking up the Pace - the Commercial
Challenge
on
Competitiveness , Washington DC 1988 .

Innovation .

American

Council

to

47

( iii )

DEVELOPMENTS IN JAPAN

The Organisation of Resources

25

2.23 .
In the space of 30 years ( 1955-1985 ) the Japanese share in
the total R&D expenditure of the six largest industrial countries
rose from an estimated 1% to 16% , placing it second only to the
; and the number of researchers has become the
United States
second largest in the free world .
As noted earlier , the bulk of
this effort has been in the civil R&D field , although Japanese
methods
may
underestimate the military effort relative to that of European
countries .
Certainly the Japanese have spent far from negligible
amounts on R&D oriented towards naval and airforce purposes .

expenditure

calculating

military

R&D

of

2.24 .
The private sector has accounted for by far the largest
share of the increase in expenditure , notably in the field of
Thus in 1986 the public sector accounted for
natural sciences .
only 17.6% of total R&D spending on natural sciences and • for
about
sector ,
personnel .
correspondingly , provided 82.4% of the funding and three-quarters
of the staff , with- industry accounting for close to 90% of the
private sector effort*^l .

private

R&D

The

the

25%

of

notably MITI ,

which has played a crucial role

2.25 .
however ,
This private sector effort has taken place ,
within the framework of a tradition of long-term and " consensus "
planning and linkages between industry , government Ministries and
agencies ,
in
coordinating
actions between industry , universities and other
government agencies and in helping to define long-term technology
Strategies covering 10-20 year periods are common
priorities .
and Japanese companies and
both in industry and government ,
government
of
agencies
" outlooks " on developments in R&D .
Industry has also benefitted
from a range of measures to encourage the allocation of resources
to R&D ( tax incentives , subsidies and conditional loans ) and from
concerted efforts to ensure the dissemination of R&D results
( each of the main Japanese Ministries responsible for research
appropriations - MONBUSHO , the Ministry of Education , the SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY AGENCY and MITI itself - has an agency of its own
concerned with dissemination and application of R&D results ).

developed

complex

network

have

a

Estimate
Technology , Science and Technology Agencies , Japan .

1987 White Paper on Science and

from the

Estimates made by EC Delegation , Tokyo .

48

Applied versus basic research

26

in

on

even

based

applied

more ,
on

industrial

supporting

and ,
policy

technologies

concentrated

seen
( notably information technology ) .

Historically , the bulk of the Japanese R&D effort has
2.26 .
on
research
applied
been
the
development ,
an
absorption and transformation of foreign technology .
From the
middle of the 1960s particular efforts were made ( notably through
the Large-Scale Project Programme ) to bring together researchers
from private industry and those in universities to give Japan a
leading
of
edge
strategic importance
To a
certain extent , as will be argued below , this emphasis has now
But technology adoption is still the main objective of
changed .
Still today expenditure
Japanese science and technology policy .
on
basic
dwarfs
development
According to the 1987 Survey of Science and Technology
research .
Research in Japan ^ 62.3% of total R&D spending in 1986 was
oriented towards development work , 24.4% to applied research and
13.3%
As might be expected the academic
institutions account for the major share of this basic research
But the
and industry for the bulk of the development work .
importance of industrial basic research has been growing :
in
total basic
1986 commercial organisations funded one-third of
research expenditure in the natural sciences .
Much of this is
application oriented .

to basic research .

research

applied

were

that

that

and

on

as

Table 2.10 .

Breakdown of Research Expenditure in the Natural Sciences by

Sector & Type FY 1986

%

Total

B
a
Research

s

i

c

Applied
Research

Development

Total
100
Commercial 100
Institutes
National
Research
100
Institutions
in -
Academie
stitutions 100

13.3
6.1

13.8
54.2

24.4
21.6

27.4
37.4

62 . 3
72.3

58.8
8.4

Source :

as footnote 22 .

The Present State of Science and Technology in Japan -
and
Summary
Technology
and
Coordination Agency , 1987 .

Science
Management

the
Research

of
Survey ,

Results

1987

the

the

of

49

27
These figures probably understate the trends .
There is much more
a new preoccupation in industry and
qualitative evidence of
government with Japan 's basic research capacity as a key factor
conditioning economic and social progress in the longer-term .
2.27 .
This preoccupation has been outlined roost vividly in
the 1987 and 1988 White Papers on Science and Technology from the
These reports
Japanese Science and Technology Administration .
demonstrate the progress already made by Japan in establishing
its scientific credentials through the contribution of Japanese
scientists to major scientific journals , but underline also the
weakness of basic research relative to industrial technology .
These shortcomings derive in part from the limited experience of
the part of most university-trained
on
fundamental
since the brightest are often snapped
engineers and scientists
The 1988
up by industry before completing research degrees .
Paper23 argues explicitly that Japanese research on basic science
is
of
and technology ,
is
it
though
compared
insufficient
and
research
development .
This , it is argued , reflects in part a low level of
It draws attention also to the
funding by public authorities .
less than satisfactory level of researchers with masters or
doctoral degrees ; the fact that there are fewer science graduates
than engineers ;
lack of large-scale research
a
facilities and data-bases .

high quality ,
application

and there is

research

some
with

of
on

International Coopération

2.28 .
A growing recognition of the importance for the longer -
term of more fundamental research , of the increasing interactions
technology development and industrial
between basic research ,
competitiveness , and of the current Japanese shortcomings in this
area have led to a new emphasis on international cooperation .

Measures have been taken to facilitate the participation of
foreign research workers in Japanese programmes .
The launching
of The Human Frontier Science Programme , which is intended to be
a new international framework for increased cooperation on basic
research in the field of biological sciences , is part of the same
scientific
drive
capacity and at the same time to respond to criticisms of the
closed
technological
One important issue for the future will be to ensure
system .
that the cooperation that ensues provides benefits to all the
parties concerned .

shortcomings

scientific

perceived

Japanese

remedy

nature

help

and

the

to

in

of

and

Technoloqy-
Trends
Developing Innovative Technologies to support the 21st
Century , MITI , September 1988 .

Industrial

Future

Tasks

in

50

( iv )

A CHANGING INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

28

2.29 .
Apart from the changing preoccupations of Europe 's two
main competitors ( industrial competitiveness in the USA , basic
research in Japan ), other factors could also impact significantly
on the international environment in which European science and
Particularly important
technology develop in the longer-term .
will be the future direction of the Soviet economy , on the one
hand ,
science and technology
policies in the newly-industrializing countries ( NICs ) and China
on the other .

and the longer-term results of

In

the Soviet Union today military R&D absorbes

a
2.30 .
dominant share of scientific talent and budgetary resources .
At
the same time science management has been plagued by the familiar
bureaucratic ills associated with the centralised command system
of organisation .
President Gorbachev 's efforts to reform and
modernise the Soviet economy , if successful , will inevitably mean
As a
some reallocation of scientific resources to civil uses .
over time the USSR could become an increasingly
consequence ,
important force in terms of science and technology .
The USSR has
a solid tradition of theoretical mathematics ; work is already
under way on the Fifth Generation Computer ; the Soviets already
have considerable expertise in areas such as space ,
advanced
materials and molecular biology .
They have already by far the
largest number in the world of scientists and engineers engaged
in R&D as a proportion of their labour force - on some estimates
Economic and administrative reforms
65% more than in the USA .
are likely to increase the effectiveness with which these human
and financial resources are deployed .

Asia

years ,

During

recent

concerns

European

industry

in
traditional

been
2.31 .
confronted with increased competitive pressure from the newly
This
industrialising countries
competition
steel ,
shipbuilding , automative industries ) as well as high tech sectors
( consumer
and
and
space
aeronautics ).
more serious as
This challenge will become even
the more established NICs have to face new competition from other
Indonesia , Malaysia ,
industrialising countries
Philippines ) with labour costs advantages on the one hand , and
offensive technology development strategies in the industrialised
countries on the other hand .

and Latin America .
( textiles ,

microelectronics ,

( e.g. Thailand ,

electronics ,

industries

has

IT

Therefore the most dynamic NICs are now planning a substantial
growth in R&D spending and a strategy for the development of
highly qualified personnel who will be very much on a par ,
scientifically , with their counterparts in the USA but at the
same time much cheaper ( because salaries will be lower )

.

51

29

and

cheap

of
Its

adaption

scientific

indigenous

This is particularly clear in the case of the Republic
2.32 .
Up to now Korea 's competitive advantage in , notably ,
Korea .
the electronics industry has been established on the basis of the
technologies ,
successful
existing
import
combined with
and
labour .
But efforts
research capacity , on the other hand , is limited .
are now under way to improve the available indigenous resources ,
notably through
an expansion of graduate school education in the
scientific fields , joint efforts among existing R&D institutes ,
universities and industry in relation to selective large-scale
R&D projects and some attempts to lay the foundations for a basic
is expected to grow from
research capacity .
2% of GNP to more than 3% by 1991 ; and the number of researchers
will grow from 13 / 14 per 10,000 of the labour force in 1987 to a
planned 30 in 2000 .
This reflects a growing perception that as
technology becomes more sophisticated an increasing scientific
and technical capacity is required to master , exploit and adapt
it .
Growing wage costs and currency appreciation have also
played a role in underlining the need for improved indigenous
scientific capacity .

ublic R&D spending

2.33 .
Other industrialising countries in Asia and Latin America
too have clearly recognised the importance for the longer-term of
scientific base and research capacity .
a solid indigenous
Since 1984 ,
a strong industrial restructuring effort has been
undertaken in Taiwan , aiming at giving priority to high tech
sectors , notably telecommunications , integrated IT systems and
With a US$ 663 million civil R&D budget in 1986 ,
biotechnology .
and more than 1% of GNP allocated to R&D , Taiwan is close to
Korean standards , including a high proportion ( 14 per 10,000 ) of
researchers in its population .

for

With the help of the World Bank , Brazil launched its ambitious
Programme
and
the
Technology ( PADCT ) in 1982 which was further extended in 1986 .
are supporting
R&D funds , which reach nearly 1%
projects in areas vital to economic development : biotechnology ,
chemistry and chemical engineering and geosciences .

of the GNP ,

Development

Support

Science

in

of

With 0.6% of GNP devoted to R&D and a considerable scientific and
technological potential , India is emerging as a nuclear energy ,
space and informatics international actor .

Other developing countries which have clearly recognised the
importance for the longer-term of a solid indigenous scientific
base and research capacity include Israel , Hongkong , Singapore
and Argentina .
and
improvement
2.34 .
technological capacity is seen as fundamental to the achievement
and
of
goals
of

scientific
growth

of
economic

longer-term

ambitious

China

the

In

30

development .
Major research programmes have been launched , aimed
at catching up in the mastery of technology in seven main fields
technology ,
- biotechnology ,
lasers ,
information
robotics , energy and advanced materials .
Other programmes are
export
technological
aimed
industries and the level of scientific and technical education
more
the
international satellite launching market .

Already China

attempting

increasing

generally .

aerospace ,

inputs

enter

the

the

at

to

to

is

The longer-term consequences of

2.35 .
for the
advance of scientific knowledge and for the pattern of world
economic growth and trade are clearly impossible to predict .
But
the increasing importance attached to science and technology in
all
the emergence of
and the potential
significant new science and technology powers are factors which
European countries cannot ignore in their own approach to science
and technology policies at a national , European and international
level .

these trends

countries

these

for

53

Europe as a whole is spending less on R&D than its major
competitors ; and European industry much less .
Moreover , the share of research scientists and engineers
in the labour force is significantly higher in the USA
and Japan .

Despite its own problems of industrial competitiveness
the USA continues to benefit from major advantages in the
field of R&D ( market size , levels of military R&D expen¬
diture ) and renewed efforts are being made to maximise the
industrial spin-off from Federally- funded programmes ( in¬
cluding , notably , military R&D ) as well as to improve
interfirm cooperation .
towards tighter restrictions on the flow of scientific and
technical knowledge out of the USA .

There is also an increasing trend

position in applied research and

Japan for its part is now extending its expertise
into the field of basic research to complement its
strong
technological
This reflects not only a wish for greater integration into
the internationnal scientific community , but also the re¬
cognition that a capacity in basic research will be essen¬
tial in order to influence the direction of techno ¬
logical

development in the future .

development .

Other industrialising countries are also beginning to
develop an indigenous S /T capacity .
Europe faces major challenges from this changing inter¬
national environment .

31

54

III

MOBILISING EUROPE 'S RESOURCES

( i )

AT A NATIONAL LEVEL

32

a

of

by

has

RTD

the

This

more

1980s .

public

sector

during

budgets

policies

technology

themselves ;

redefinitions

3.1 .
A growing recognition of the challenges facing Europe has
already led to some considerable rethinking of national science
and
been
characterised
expenditure
priorities , both as between RTD and other public policies and
industrial
within
orientation in most countries ; a new focus on measures to improve
cooperation between industry and universities ;
a concern about
the pattern of higher education and training at one end and about
the pace of innovation at the other ; and the search for better
for
value
evaluating choices between funding priorities and the success of
programmes .
This process of reevaluation is still going on : in
the United Kingdom a major review of science policy has been
important
Spain
under
reorganizations of the administrative apparatus for dealing with
science policy ;
the
pattern of Federal spending with a greater priority now to be
given to space research .

Germany has witnessed recent changes

improvement

mechanisms

important

through

money

Italy

there

been

have

way ;

and

for

the

in

in

in

The Resources Applied to R&D

3.2 .
The picture varies considerably among Community Member
States in the share of national resources devoted to R&D ; in the
relative importance of the public and private sectors ; and in the
sectors to which resources are applied .

In terms of the R&D effort the total volume of spending is
3.3 .
the United Kingdom and
dominated by three countries : Germany ,
France which together account for over three-quarters of total
public and private spending on research and development in the
US
European Community .
and
Japanese
their own
observers
countries with these three countries , and especially with Germany
which accounts for around 30% of the total .

is characteristic of

the performance of

Indeed it
compare

to

All three countries , together with the Netherlands , have
3.4 .
higher than Community average shares of GDP allocated to R&D .
Once again the German position stands out from the others , with
some
France and Germany have been most
successful in increasing total expenditure , with increases in the
R&D intensity of their economies of
18% and 26% respectively
between 1975 and 1985 .

( 1987 ).

Both

2.8%

55

3.5 . :
At the other end of the spectrum lie Spain , Portugal and
Greece , with shares of R&D in GDP of respectively 0.7% , 0.4% and
In all of these countries public policy has emphasized
0.35% .
the need for increasing expenditure , but this appears so far to
have achieved significant results only in Spain , where even in
the mid-1980s the intensity of the R&D efforts was below 0.5% .

33

The remaining Community countries lie between these two
3.6 .
extremes .
Here Italy 's performance is the most striking , with
rapid growth in resources devoted to R&D throughout the 1980s .
In real terms total ( public and private ) expenditure on R&D grew
by well over 10% per year , pushing up the share of R&D in GNP to
around 1.5% in 1986 .
There is a policy objective to double this
figure by the early 1990s .

Table 3.1 .

The Intensity of R&D Spending by Member States :

R&D as a percentage of GDP
( 1987 or nearest year )

GERMANY
FRANCE
UK
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
DENMARK
ITALY
IRELAND
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
GREECE

1981

2.45
2.0
2.4
2.0
n.a
1.1
1.00
0.7
0.4
0.35
0.2

1987

2.8
2.35
2.3 *
2.3
1.5 *
1.3 *
1.5 +
0.8
0.7
0.4 **
0.35 +

Sources :

OECD and national
available .

data . Figures for Luxembourg not

*
**
+

1985
1984
1986

56

The significant differences among Member States are also
3.7 .
evident in terms of numbers of research personnel .
Table 3.2 .
shows that Germany and France together account for well over half
alone
of
providing some 35% .

personnel ,

Community

Germany

entire

with

the

R&D

34

Table 3.2 .

R&D Personnel ( 1985 )

Nos .
( 1000 )

% of

Community total
( EUR=100 )

Nos . per 1000
employed ( 1983 )

GERMANY
FRANCE
UK
ITALY
NETHERLANDS
SPAIN
BELGIUM
DENMARK
PORTUGAL
GREECE
IRELAND

398
270
174 *
118

61.5
32
32 **
20

9 * * *
6 **
6 ***

35
24
15
10.5
5.5
3
3
2
1
0.5
0.5

Source :

OECD and national data .

*
**
***

1986
1983
1984

4.8
3.9

2.7
3.7
1.0
2.6
2.7
0.7
0 . 6
2.8

( 1984 )

57

35

as

for

sources

funding

sectors

countries

R&D
of
the position also varies considerably .

In terms of the relative importance of the public and
3.8 .
as
private
In all
“ performers " ,
public
crucially
remains
Community
the
In only Germany and Belgium is public
important source of funds .
spending on R&D less than business expenditure .
The increase in
German expenditure on R&D , moreover , has been due more to growing
business expenditure than to public expenditure , and the private
sector has accounted as a result for a growing share of the total
R&D funding .
In Germany too a larger share of publicly-funded
research than in other Community Member States is carried out by
the private sector . In Italy and France , on the other hand , the
improvement in R&D intensity has been the result , principally , of
increased government expenditure .

sector

and

a

Table 3.3 .

Financing and Execution of R&D in
the Community , 1985

Financing
Shares in %

Execution
Shares in %

Business

Public Sector

Business

Public Sector

Other
( univers
etc )

( 66 ) *
49
61
26
49 *
41
45
45
50

BELGIUM
DENMARK
GERMANY
GREECE
SPAIN
FRANCE
IRELAND
ITALY
NETHER
LANDS
PORTUGAL n.a
UNITED
KINGDOM

46

( 34 )*
46
38
74
50 *
53
47
52
45

62
43

( 69 )*
55
72
n . a
( 40 )**
59
51
57
55

n . a
63

21
12
n.a

25

19

n.a
20

– ( 31 )* –
24
16
n.a
-- ( 60 ) ** –

- 49 --
– 43 –

16

26

n.a
17

Source :

OECD and National data - Figures for Luxembourg
available .

* 1983
** Estimâtes for 1987

58

Table 3.4 .

3.9 .
illustrates in summary from the differences
between Member States in their levels of R&D intensity ( both
total and industry-intensity ) and also in levels of employment in
of
“ technology-based "
Germany contrasts with that of the less-developed members of the
Community :

outstanding

industries .

position

The

36

Table 3.4 .

Indicators of RTD

EC ( 12 ) = 100

A

R&D Intensity
( total )

B
Business R&D
Intensity

C
" High Tech "
Employment

D

Composite Index

GERMANY
FRANCE
UK
NETHER
LANDS
BELGIUM
DENMARK
ITALY
IRELAND
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
GREECE

134
113
120
107

72
60
59
41
23
18
11

138
111
83
102

72
80
46
49

7.5

17
5

118.5
95
102
95

90
70
80
82
n . a

n . a

n . a

131
108
106
103

76
68
61
53
18
n . a

n . a

Sources

derived from STRIDE report , National Board for Science
and Technology , Dublin , November 1987 .

R&D Intensity = Total expenditure on R&D / GDP .
Business R&D Intensity = Business expenditure on R&D / Gross Value-Added .
High-Tech employment = employment in chemicals , man-made fibres , office
machinery and
rubber and
plastics , nuclear fuels - aggregated and expressed as a ratio to total
employment in all industries .
The composite index at D is a weighted
average of A,B and C.
Data are for 1983 and 1984 , except for Portugal ( 1982 ).

data-processing machinery ,

processing

of

59

Regional Differences in RTD Capacity

37

at

regional

situation

Their extensive

Such differences in R&D resources and their use are evn
3.10 .
In 1987 the
more striking if measured at the regional level .
Europen Commission invited a group of external experts to analyse
the
report ^
level .
( summarised at Annex 13 ) highlighted regional dispariries in R&D
spending and in technology levels that are much greater even than
those in terms of GDP per capita .
Even as between the Member
States themselves ( Table 3.4 .) there is a difference of 12:1 in
levels of R&D intensity and of 28:1 in the intensity of business
investment in R&D .
At a sub-national level the disparities are
much greater .
In terms of the intensity of business expenditure
on R&D , for example Oberbayern enjoys a score three times the
Community average , while in a number of regions in Italy , Spain ,
and
Greece
R&D
expenditure by the higher education sector are negligible .
The
conseguences for desirable policy approaches are discussed in
Chapter V.

expenditure

Portugal

business

both

and

on

It should be added , that the link between R&D intensity and rates
of economic growth is not a simple one , as the case of Denmark
illustrates .
Denmark has a lower than average level of R&D
But Danish policy ( cf.5.20 below ) has concentrated
intensity .
much effort on the diffusion and adoption of technologies , with
R&D resources directed to areas
in which Danish industry is
strong .
Denmark offers an interesting model of " small country "
or regional strategy .

Trends in R&D Policies and Public Funding

3.11 .
In the majority of Community Member States there has been
a real growth during the 1980s in the government appropriations
This has been most striking in the case of some of the
for R&D .
in
( notably Greece and
less
Spain )
France ,
increased R&D
each of which has
resources faster than GDP ( table 3.5 .)
Many of these countries
have increased public expenditure on R&D more guickly than public
expenditure overall .

Italy and

developed

countries

Denmark ,

and

Overall expenditure in the UK ,
has held
broadly stable in real terms for much of the 1980s , with some
redeployment of defence R&D expenditures to the civil sector .
In
Germany , as noted earlier , government appropriations have grown

on the other hand ,

Research and Technological
Less
Favoured Regions of the Community ( STRIDE ), and STRIDE-
Science and Technology for Regional
and
Development in Europe , 1987 .
Figures are from Tables
5.1 . and 5.2 . of the latter document .

Development

Innovation

the

in

60

-H

C

0

U'
1

General cha rac t e r i s t i c s of budget appropriations for R&O

in 1986

1
1

Belgium

Denmark

Germany
1 Greece
Spa i n

1

France

I reland

Italy

Netherlands

Portugal
United Kingdom

EUR 12

Government R&D ap ¬
propriations in
1986 at current
values and ex ¬
change rates

i
I

Í

( million ECU )

total

civil

Γ
I
¡

fl
H

1
1
II
i
a
E
5
!

i

653

509

1004 9

99

802

10273

116

4409

1705

92

6787

35492

64 2

507

8832

97

764

6935

116

4033

1658

92

3329

27003

European Communities

661

661

I

(!) Comparison of provisional budgets .

Government R&D

appropriât ions at

1980 prices

and
Annual average

exchange rates

rate of change

Contribution of
Member States to
the EUR 12 total

Ratio of govern ¬
ment R&D appro ¬
priations to
total budget

tRat io of govern -
jment R&D appro¬
priations to gros
domestic product

( X )

( X )

(X )

( X )

total

civil

1-86

86-87(1 ) 81-86

86-87(1 )

1.3

6.8

0.6

4.8

6.4

3.3

4.2

7.5

1.8

•

0.0

2.2

- 1.6

19.4

2.0

12.2

21.3

- 3.0

1.6

8.1

1.7

35.0

- 0.4

0.6

1.1

8.0

-0.1

5.4

6.4

5.1

4.2

7.0

1.8

«

0.5

2.7

- 1.2

19.5

1.9

12.7

17.3

- 7.3

1.6

8.8

1.5

35.0

- 3.3

0.3

81

2.4

1.0

30.3
0.3'

•

27.9

0.3

8.3

5.2

•

22.4

86

2.6

1.4

28.1

0.3

2.3

29.3

0.3

10.7

5.0

0.3

20.3

100.0

100.0

81

86

81

1.31

1.36

4.06

0.51

•

5.62

0.74

1.60

2.34

•

3.18

3.33

1.33

1.55

4.20

0.67

1 . 61

6.34

0.80

1.60

2.40

1 . 04

3.04

3.11

0.63

0.49

1.15

0 . 16

0.28

1.31

■

0.39

0.65

0.93

•

1.31

1.02

86

0.57

0.63

1.10

0.25

O.34

1.44

0.44

0.85

0.96

0.32

1.24

1.04

1

•

•

•

•

•

«

•

•

■

Source :

Government Financing . of Research and
Community Countries , Statistical Office of
Communities OS / 12 / 87

Development

in
the European

only modestly compared with private sector financing .
3.12 .
categories of
differences ( Table 3.6 .).

As far as the distribution of public funds among different
concerned there are again wide

expenditure is

38

Even between the three largest spenders ( Germany , France and the
UK ) there are major divergences as a consequence in the first
place of defence expenditure , which accounts for 51% of total
expenditure in
in
34%
Germany .

in France and for 12.5%

the UK ,

for

The

research .

non-oriented

In the civil sector , the most important categories of expenditure
are , generally , research financed from general university funds
and
Belgium
concentrate much of their R&D support in the universities , and
Germany and Denmark also give above-average shares of
total
public funding for research to higher educational institutions .
In the United Kingdom , on the other hand , the percentage of funds
going to the universities for research purposes is well below
average and
that to finance non-oriented research significantly
below and declining ; while in France the picture is mixed , with
university-funding below average but support for non-oriented
research high .

Netherlands

and

of

these

shares

categories

on energy

Germany and

spend
Outside
higher- than- average
environmental
research ; Italy has focussed in the past a particular resource
Greece ,
( notably nuclear energy )
effort
Ireland and Portugal on R&D to improve agricultural
Denmark ,
productivity .
But generally the most important growth sector
during the 1980s has been R&D on industrial technologies , where
Italy ,
there have been major investments by Germany , France ,
Spain , Ireland and Denmark in particular .

Netherlands

the
funds

research ;

public

on

This latter feature of R&D budgets is associated with the
3.13 .
greater general industrial orientation in public R&D policy than
hitherto .

This has been characterized by :

measures to encourage higher levels of spending on
*
research and development by industry itself .
Practically
all Member States now provide some form of tax relief for
R&D
in addition ,
industry on
As
financial incentives in the form of grants or loans .
noted above ,
in particular ,
the Netherlands and Germany ,
have witnessed a steady and significant growth in industrial
R&D spending ;

Many offer ,

investment .

*
technologies

the targetting of financial support on specific

with

major

industrial

high
applications .

62

Os
CNI

Breakdown of provisional R&D budge t s by objectives in 1986 and 1987 ( X )

L'
r »

the eiMH

NABS Objectives

i
} .
1 . CsølOMtlon end fiøloltetton øf
1
1
2 . Infrestructgres end generel
j
j
i
1
i
J

lend-vt* ølinning
3 , Control øf environnent et
pollution
hg««* heelth

6 . Protection end i«prove*ent of

5 . Production, distribution «nd re -
t * e«ø l utilization of Änfrgy
4 . Agrlculturtl productivity «nd

ttOinelogy
Industriel productivity
ttchnolog/

d . Soefel structures « od rela ¬

tionships

■ 9 . Ciøloret løn ind eiploltetlon of

SPIC «

!
1
1

j
I

'0 . leseerch financed fro« generel
university funds
11 . Mon-orlcnt«d r« »*«, ch

i
j
J
! 12 . Other reseerch

!

Totil f incnçlng et civil « 19

1 U. 9«t«nef

Totil financing

e

c / ce

c

Ud 12

I960

198 2

1986

1982

1 986

31
1

0,6

0,6

5,8

‘,1

0,7

0,6

5,3

2.6

56 , a

51,6

1,9

1,5

1,6

2.2

1.4

3,5

8,7

3,4

1.8

2,2

1,7

3.6

»,1

•

3,4

2,5

0,6

2,4

2.1

10,1

7,2

i
!
1
1

i

1

1982

■·'
°' ;
*' *
3,0

7,3

7,4

–

X

oe

1986

1982

1986

1982

c *

s

1994

1982

1996

1982

re

1996

1982

l.j

2.4

1,5

3.3

4.7

7,0

Μ

2.3

1,3

4.4

‘.4

8.5

2,1

1 .»

3.3

3.0

10,5

2.0

1 .»

1.7

J ' J .·

3,2

«.7

2.0

5.5

0,4

3,4

7,1

0,3

2.1

»,3

.

· 7,4

5.3

3,‘

0.4

4.0

2,4

3,4

'2,3

24 .»

24,0

4,7

2,2

0.2

2.0

6,6

3.1

6,7

1.5

3,2

0,5

3,8

7,1

3,6

end

26,7

33.7

12,8

13,7

14,2

i2,a

20,6

14.2 ..

1‘,3

15,3 ·

»,7

11,2

17,1

21.5

12,1

0,6

1,1

-

i,4

-

100,0

-

100,0

1,1

1.5

•
1.8
.

1
1
1
1
1
-f-
1
100 , C
1
1
1

loo,:

j

1

2,2

*,6

22,1

11,3

0,8

2,1

5,4

23,0

10,7

1,1

0.7

7,3

0,5

»,8

4,3

3,1

3,4

2,6

2.3

4,3

2,3

..

6'‘

4 .» .

«

0,4

7,3

0,4

0.»

‘.8

0 ,»

8,8

22,8

22,3

27,5

32,1

31,8

31,5

26 ,»

25,3

18 ,:

17,5

20,5
4.3

2 3,6

3,8

19,7

. 22.3

-

-

11.8

0,1

12.3
0,1

*,1
2.2

4,7
0,2

20,6
2.2

6,5

3.4

2 .»

5.8

11,8

15,1

1,2

75,1

74,1

78,5

78,7

»7,5

»7,4

87,6

* 7,5

77,1

77,7

» 4,2

91,1

6»,0

24,7
100,0

23,7' .
100,0

1.5

■

* 00,0

1 , 1
100,0

1

1

0,5

100,0

0,4

100,0

12 .*
100,0

12,5
100,0

2 .»

• 100,0

2,3

100,0

5,8

100,0

j

8,9

100.0

31,0.

100,0

34,1

100.0

1 S

3,2

0,4

3,6

4.7

3,6

10,6

2,7

5 .»

12.0

li , 7

1.0

65,9

C/5
0
e
n
n
0

it

Breakdown of provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1986 and 1987 ( X )

n n o
ooo

if £

c c n
3 3 3
t- H * 3
ft rt 0
f- < 3
0
rr
cn n
0 m
o c 2
W3 ^
£Ugso P- 5
Mt 2.
oo cn £

c/i
<1 o
S "

>-•
in po
rt 0
h- in
o n>
cu 0
f- M
o
o :r
fh

2 §
® 0-

O o
^ (D
<
II (1)
•? t–
0 0
«S

n n
o n
TS
to
Cu
t–
D 3

NABS objectives

R

r

NL

PO

I

JK

1986

1987

1986

1987

1986

1987

1986

1987

1986

1987

1 . Exploration and exploitation of

the earth

2 . Infrastructure * and general

land-use planning

3 . Control of envi ronment a l

po 1 1 ut i on

4 . Protection and improvement of

human health

S. Production , distribution and ra ¬
tional ut i l i ist ion . cf energy
6 . Agricultural productivity a«d

technology

7 . Industrial productivity

and

technology
tionships

9 . Exploration and exploitation of

space

10 . Research financed fror, general

university fundi
11 . Non-oriented research
12 . Other research

0,7

3,9

0,8

4,9

1,2

27,3

26,1

8,0

1,1

23,9

2,2

.

¡1
¡j
!
¡j

0,6

4,2

1,0

, 3,9

1,1

0,9

1,0

4,4

1,1

17,4

3,7

19,1

24,2

27,2

10,0

1,4

0,8

.

0,9

4,5

11,1

3,5

0,6

4,2

,3,0

2,2

4,6

4,4

0,6

4,6

.

3,1

2,5

4,0

4,3

19,1

14,8

17,6

2,3

6,9

9,3

3 / 5

2,9

2,4

2,8

40,7

10,3
4,4

8 . Social structures and relc -

1,1

■

1,2

10,2

9,0

8,9

3,0

0,2

5,0

10,5

3,4

0,2

4,7

14,4

■14,2

6,2

1,3

I

7,3

0,2

-

35,5

1,8
is;s

23,0

28,6

31,9

43,1

30,5

14,9

15,3

2,4

•

“

7,0

0,2

6,6

1,9

?/3
4,3.

0,5

19,5 .

6,8
0,3

1,7

1,4

0,7

3,7

4,6

4,6

6,7

1,3

1,8

V .

1,6

1,5

3,3

3,6

4,3

9,9

1,2

2,6

Total financing of civil RID

100,0

100,0

91,6

92,2

97,4

97,2

100^0

100,0

48,4

13 . Defence

Total f inane ing

-

-

100,0

100,0

8,4
100,0

7,8

100,0

1

2,6

2,8

-

-

100,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

51,6
100,0

I

3,3

ok
F
cr
r–
Ol
o

48,8

ui
UJ

o
O'
51,2
·
«
100,0 ■ s
§

n

3
'rt
3'
c
n>
a.

of particular
Information technology has been the
attention in most countries
national
policy initiatives in the 1980s included the Plan d' Action
de
Information
in
Stimulation Plan in the Netherlands , the Alvey Programme in
the UK .
These are now being phased out , to a large extent
superseded by transnational actions ( see 3.49 below );

( early examples of

Electronique

Filifere

France ,

focus

the

39

has

been

*
measures to promote better technology transfer - the
dissemination of research findings to industry .
Generally
this
civilian
research efforts .
But in the UK earlier this year a scheme
launched
was
to
R&D by
the
increase
encouraging industry to make greater use of the technical
expertise and facilities of defence research establishments ;

( the Civilian
spin-off

Industrial Access Scheme )

from defence

concentrated

industry

results

the

to

on

of

a

on

new

emphasis

*
government
research bodies , higher education institutions and industry .
In the United Kingdom , for example , the LINK initiative was
launched
collaborative
programmes between the three parties in pre-competitive but
industrially-relevant research .

cooperation

encourage

December

between

1986

in

to

3.14 .
A sharper focus on industry-oriented R&D has meant also
a greater emphasis in public support on more " down-stream " R&D ,
with more immediate commercial application .
The picture varies a
good deal across the Member States ,
but in many the balance
between support for basic research and applied research has
Public expenditure constraints ,
shifted in favour of the latter .
the rising cost of much basic research , and increasing emphasis
on measurable cost-effectiveness have all contributed to this
trend in a process that has been dubbed " the shift from science
in some countries ( France , Germany ,
to technology policy " 25 .
Netherlands ), non-oriented research continues to be given a high
alongside
level
pre-competitive
industry-oriented R&D .
In the United Kingdom , on the other hand ,
the public funding of basic research has been downgraded relative
to the financing of pre-competitive applied R&D , this reflecting
a
of
concern
translating British invention into innovation .

particular

difficulty

priority ,

perceived

support

about

for

the

of

UK

25

See STRIDE report .

65

Duplication and Overlap

40

Outlines of the situation in each of the Member States
3.15 .
are given in the short synopses that follow .
More detail is to
be found in Annex 12 , which reflects the ongoing work within
CREST to compare natipnal policies and identify potential areas
This process , which is discussed further below
for cooperation .
It is already
under Policy Coordination , is not yet complete .
clear , however , that there are areas where duplication of effort
and overlap do exist .
One aim of subsequent reports on the state
of science and technology will be to highlight these areas .

Dual Use Technologies

in

One

this

context

question

difficult

" dual-use "

technologies .

the
3.16 .
difference among Member States in the organisation of R&D on so -
in
called
the
of
technological
sectors
requirements
sensor and signal / image processing ,
affect several key areas :
complex system design and information processing , man-machine
interfaces , vehicle technology , advanced design and manufacturing
optoelectronics /
technology ,
medical
bioelectronics ,
technology ,
and energy
conversion .

The common features
the defence and civil

electrical and mechanical engineering ,

microelectronics /

communications ,

electronics /

materials ,

advanced

is

The development of
funded in
Europe through defence and /or civil R&D programmes , depending on
the country and the degree of resources devoted to military R&D .

these dual-use technologies

is

to

and

need

improve

between

coherence

( manpower

The
defense
programmes , where they overlap , in order to optimise the use of
at
financial )
resources
national level ( cf . 3.13 above ) and mechanisms are i implemented in
the principal countries to avoid unnecessary duplication and
promote technology transfer from civil to defense and vice versa .
These efforts to promote the optimal use of resources at national
level are reasonably successful in some areas but more remains to
be
to
technology transfer remain significant .

duplications

recognised

barriers

where

civil

other

areas

been

done

has

and

in

or

66

41

European

However , the most significant duplication arises not in
3.17 .
national programmes but between European countries .
the
extent that civil applications are taking the lead in driving the
development of several dual-use technologies , civil programmes to
promote
particular
Community programmes and EUREKA contribute to a more efficient
Their impact is however , inevitably
use of resources ( see below )
limited , given their size and scope .
In those technological fields which are more driven by defence
applications ,
much remains to be done to establish effective
cooperation between countries .

technological

cooperation ,

To

in

civil

defence and

Another trend which is important in discussing the harmonisation
broad
research efforts
of
competitive technology base is the escalation of the cost of
developing
led
defence departments in Europe to reduce their support for some
on
dual-use
military-specific developments (a trend observed in the USA - cf .
Chapter II ) .

producing military

to establish a

technologies

concentrate

equipment .

resources

their

This

and

and

has

to

While this trend reduces the risk of duplications between civil
and defence programmes , it also implies that an additional effort
by industry or through civil programmes is needed to maintain a
broad competitive technology base in Europe .

67

BELGIUM

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 104.5 Billion ECU ( at current prices and

CROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 1,542.6 Hio ECU ( est .)

( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 1.48 X ( est .)

( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 49,112 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 652.6 Hio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :

1 . 33 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N.A.

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : N.A.

DEFENCE R & D AS A V. OF TOTAL GOVERNEHENT APPROPRIATIONS : 1.6 X ( 1986 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : Deputy Prime Minister , Responsible for the
Budget and the Science Policy .

STRUCTURE of
responsibility of the Science
de
Politique
Services . However , a significant portion of
the " Science
is the direct responsibility of the different ministries .

S&T POLICY : The coordination of the whole structure is the
("Services de Programmation
Minister 's
to
policy budget "

Policy Office
belonging

Scientif ique ")

Prime

the

la

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :
1

. More concentration of funds on selected research topics :
and

intelligence ,

software

( Artificial

informatics
microelectronics ) ;
biotechnology and biosciences ;
aerospace ;
new materials ;
télécommunications;'
oceanography .

2 . Increased

support

for

fundamental

research

and

more

cooperation

between university and industry ;

to industry
in Europe

in order
: about

to increase its share ( already
in the overall
62 X

in 1985 )

3 . More incentives

one of the highest
funding of R & D ;
4 . Maximum encouragement

of participation in Community and international

programmes .

The

TRENDS :
GERD / GDP should
( about 2.3 X ) but
shows only marginal increases .

responsible
rise from
after a

government
about 1.5
budget .increase

the ratio
X to the same level as Netherlands
the overall funding

officials

in 1985

state

that

share

COMMENTS : The new federal structures of the Belgian State , may lead to a
the
different
linguistic
of
and national authorities . However , at international
communities , regions
level
for
national
coordination .

coordination

responsible

authority

research

totally

should

among

the

be

of

nov . 1988

68

DENNARK

GROSS DOHESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 76.4

Billion ECU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 959.3 Mio ECU ( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 1.26 X ( 1905 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 32,730 Mio ECU ( 1906 )

R&D BUDGET : 500.7 Mio ECU ( 1906 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :

1 . 55 X ( 1906 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 48.9 X ( 1905 )

DEFENCE HI D AS A K OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 0.4 X ( 1906 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 3.1 ( 1985 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The Ministry of Education and Research and
the Ministry of Industry .

S&T

is
the

guided

Each Ministry has responsibility for supporting
STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY
research related to its function . The Government 's internal co-ordination
by its National Research Committee under the
of
policy
chairmanship of
by its
Research
by the Ministry of Industry . Both
Industrial
ministries have advisory councils
Policy and
Planning
largest shares of the
the
national R&D are funded by the Ministry of Education and Research ( more
than 50 X ), the Ministry of Industry ( about 25 X ).

of
chaired

for Research

( the council

Technology ).

Education

Committee

Minister

Council

Policy

and

and

and

The

of

: S

& T

is a

top priority policy area in the mid -

NATIONAL PRIORITIES
1980 's in Denmark . Three topics have been declared :
- Information Technology ;
- Material research ;
- Basic Biotechnical R & D.
Most Danish companies are SMEs and special Government effort is necessary
to
technology and its
adoption .

dissemination

information

new

aid

the

on

of

TRENDS : Denmark ranks amongst the EC Member
spend between
1 X and 2 X of the GDP for R&D . Since 1980 an increase of about 8 X per
year has been registered . The Government 's
GERD of
about 2.3 X of GDP for the year 2000 .

plans provide

States which

for a

:

Danish

research

technology rely on wide international
COMMENTS
attributed to
cooperation . About 5 X of the national R&D resources are
participation
EC R&D
the
programmes . Participation in Nordic research cooperation is of importance
to Denmark .

international

cooperation .

Including

and

in

nov . 1988

FEDERAI . REPUDLIC OF CERMANY

CROSS DOMESTIC
oxchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 026.4 Uilliou ECU ( at current pricos and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE For RS.D

( GERD )

: 22,009.4 Mio ECU ( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 2.66 *

( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 238,935 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 10,049 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 4.20 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 60.9 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A ’/. OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 12.4 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 4.0 ( 1983 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :
The
Research
Ministry
Ministries of the Lander Governments .

Federal

for

and

Technology

( BMFT )

and

the

&

responsibility for

" subsidiary funding ".

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :
Lander Governments attach importance to the freedom
The Federal
and the
The Lander have
of research and the principles of
D in the universities ( about 13 X of
mainly the
for non -
the
1987 total R
The funding of the
university
( about
research centres is
supporting bodies ( DFG , MPG ,
shared
and the Lander Governments . The Government
believes that in a free-market economy the primary responsibility for R&D
is that of industry ( 61 X of the 1987 total R & D ). Further strengthening
of performance and private initiative will be assisted
by tax incentives
which will be provided within the 1990 tax reform .

Government
Federal
24
of
X
FhG ) and

is
1987
total ).
the national

responsible

between

Federal

D ) ;
D

R &

the

R

&

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :

prospects , and

of basic research , strengthening of research with
preventive research ( ecology ,

Increased promotion
long term
health , climate );
of
Promotion
technologies ;
Improvement of the basic conditions for innovation in SMEs .

of market oriented

expansion of

industrial

research

area

the

in

More specifically : the
technology ;
materials
technologies ( laser , thin-film ); regenerative energy technologies .

Airbus
biotechnology ;

completion
research ;

family ; information
physical
selected

the

of

TRENDS :
National R & D expenditure increased between 1973 and 1987 from 2.1
2.7
expenditure increased from 56 X in 1981 to 61 X
highest among the EC Hetnber States .

contribution
in 1987

to
and is

business

sector 's

X to
global R & D
far the

GDP .

The

of

X

COMMENTS :
International cooperation has a high priority in the S6T policy of the FR
Germany . About 8.2
expenditure was
Federal
of
committed to international organisations in 1987 .

Government

R&D

the

X

nov . 1988

70

GREECE

CROSS DOHHSTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 42.0

Uilliou ECU ( at carrent prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 140.9 Mio ECU ( 1905 )

CERD / GDP : 0.35 X ( 1985 )

| NATIONAL BUDGET : 14,763 Mio ECU ( 1986)

i

R&D BUDGET : 99.5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 0.67 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 26.3 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 2.7 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 0.8 ( 1983 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :
General Secretariat of Research and Technology , an autonomous body within
the Ministry of Industry , Energy and Technology .

ministry

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :
Each
Industry , Energy and Technology finances 43 X of the total
Expenditure
X.
Ministry
'coordinates the R &

the
D efforts

between the

responsible

Education

and ,

own

for

its

of

is

research . The Ministry of
D Public
R 6
G.S.R.T.
The
various ministries , Research
International

29.2

and

Universities

Institutes ,
Organizations .

sectoral

companies ,

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :

the international division

scientific

and

of

country in

institutional

infrastructure

improvement of the role of the
of labour ;
establishment
technological development ;
production of scientific and technological results of quality ;
exploitation
results
transfer ;
activation of
imported technology ;
making public opinion more aware importance
and social development .

assimilation

of research

applied and

research

and

for

of

of

technological research for assimilation of

for economic

technology

In the
new 1988-1992 National Plan , high priority is given to social and
human sciences , information technology , biotechnology , and development of
industrial research .

TRENDS :
GERD as
0.35 in 1985 . The aim is to reach 0.65 in 1992 .

a percentage

of GDP has increased steadily from 0.21 in 1981 to

COMMENTA :
Greek participation in the
over the last years .

EEC

programmes

has

increased substantially

nov . 1988

FRANCK

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 674.0 Hill Lou ECU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERO )

: 15,587.4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )

GERD / GDP : 2.31 X ( 1905 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 162,565 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 10,273.1 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 6.34 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 41.4 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R&D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 32.5 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 4.1

( 1984 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :
Ministry
responsible for S&T policy in France . Space policy is under
of Post , Telecommunications and Space .

Under
the
Technology

new
( ministere

Research

Government ,

and

of

delegue )

there

is a
who
is
the Ministry

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY : In parallel or in cooperation with the Ministry
of Research and Technology ,
also an
scientific and technical activities : the
role
important
of Defence ,
Ministry of National Education , of Industry ,
of Economy and
of PTT .
to regionalise research , the
considerable efforts
French S&T system is centralized .

other ministerial

departments have

Despite some

directing

in

: The

NATIONAL PRIORITIES
development of
employment of young researchers in order to solve the problem
structure
research . The priorities in fields of research are :

is the
Priority will

further promotion and
also be given to the
in the age
through

industrial research .

first priority

scientific

training

French

body ,

and

the

of

to

programmes

Development

Technological
aeronautics , télécommunications , electronuclear eguipments .
National Programmes
: Biotechnology , food industry , medical research ,
human and social sciences , production technology , electronics , natural
chemistry , research for development ,
resources ,
research on general planning of land-use and transport .

materials ,

nuclear

energy ,

space ,

new

new

:

TRENDS : During recent years , there has been an increase in R&D financing
as percentage
of GDP from 2.01 X in 1981 to 2.31 X in 1985 . Research has
been designated as a national priority for France .

research ,

COMMENTS : In order to encourage the private
own
indirect
research
enterprises and hiring of researchers by industry .

start their
enterprises to
has given several incentives ( direct and
within

infrastructure

government

creation

aids )

the

for

the

of

nov . 1988

Ï»PA I N

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 216.2 Hill ion KCU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 1,144.4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )

GERD / GDP : 0.53 X ( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 49.848 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 801.7 Mio ECU ( 1906 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 1.46 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 49.1 X ( 1983 )

DEFENCE R&D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 4.8 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 1.0 ( 1983 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The interministerial Committee for Science
composed of representatives from 9 ministries involved in
and Technology
research , is the official organism
coordination and
follow up of national S&T policy .

planning ,

for

the

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY : The National Plan defines the framework for the
S&T activities of the nine ministries involved in research , whose work is
coordinated by the interministerial committee . The Spanish Autonomies are
quite independent in deciding
S&T policy .
Efforts have been made to coordinate those efforts at national level .

implementing

their

own

and

NATIONAL PRIORITIES : Priority sectors are :

Information and production technologies .
National resources and agro-industrial technology .
Quality of life .
priorities

national

Plan

are ,

the

set

by

The
following :

among

others ,

the

-

innovation and technological

improvement of knowledge and progress in
development ;
conservation , upgrading and optimal exploitation of natural resources ;
development and strengthening of the competitive capacity of industry ,
trade , agriculture and fisheries ;
strengthening of national defence ;
adaptation
scientific development and the new objectives ;
improvement in quality of education ;
the
encouragement
culture in all forms ;
improvement of health , social security and the quality of life .

and dissemination of

development

creativity ,

brought

Spanish

society

changes

about

the

of

by

of

to

TRENDS : In Spain GERD as a percentage of GDP
1985 . The
1981 to
even further the national R&D efforts to
other advanced European countries .

from 0.4 in
Spanish Government is determined to increase
with the

levels comparable

has increased

0.53 in

COMHENTS : In 1987 , GERD is estimated to be 0.75 X of GDP .

nov . 1988

73

IREI.ANI)

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 24.1

Billion ECU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 192.4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )

GERD / GDP : 0.80 X ( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 14,411 Mio ECU (. 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 115.7 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 0.80 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 45.4 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 0.0 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 2.8 ( 1984 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :
Science
for
Ministry
Industry and Commerce .

and

Technology

operating

within

Department of

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :
In 1987
Science
rationalisation of
form EOLAS

Irish S&T
and

Technology

was considerably
was

of State for
of
a
S&T agencies undertaken . NBST and IIRS were merged to

reorganised . Minister

programme

appointed

general

and

has

identified

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :
Strategic Research Programme emphasises
and
Information Technology as priorities .
Policy aims to concentrate national S&T
indigenous firms . The
South East Region - one of weaker R&D regions - has been declared a pilot
region for S&T related economic development .

oriented research
Engineering , Advanced Materials and

Biotechnology ,

application -

effort on

TRENDS :
S&T has had small budget increase in 1987 despite widespread cuts in most
S&T increased in
other spending
real terms by 1.4 X per
Irish S&T
expenditure is civilian R&D .
S&T expenditure
has declined
S&T for Manufacturing Sector .

departments . Government
average
annum

in Agriculture and Energy and increased in

expenditure on
from

1981-1987 .

All

COMMENT S :
Major
S&T
participation and
instruments .

interests
S/T

are
strengthening
infrastructure with

indigenous
industry S&T
the help of EC structural

nov . 1988

ITAI.Y

CROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 473.0 Billion ECU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERP )

: 6,307.3 Mio ECU ( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 1.33 X ( 1905 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 275,537 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 4,408.5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :

1 . 60 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 44.6 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 8.5 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 2.7 ( 1986 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : Ministry for S&T Research

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :
for
" Ministry
Government funded research .

the

The

Ministry

University

and

S&T

for

S&T

will become
Research ", responsible for all

Research

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :
1

) Increase in overall

since 1980 .

funding

of

Government

and

private enterprises

for research on new technologies such

and

funds

increased

2 ) Emphasis
as :
- biotechnologies and fine chemicals ;
- information technologies ;
- neu materials ;
- nuclear fusion ;
- télécommunications ;
- optics and lasers ;
- advanced transport ;
- satellites and space crafts ;
- biomédical instruments .

3 ) Decrease in funds for nuclear R & D for the production
electricity .

of

for

neu

Ministry

IRENDS :
The
streamlining the
D structure
uhole Government
administration of Government research establishments .
Incentives ( mainly fiscal ) for private funded R & D.
The ratio GERD/GDP uas 0.74 X in 1980 ; by 1987 it uas about 1.40 X.
Increased European and international cooperation .

research should lead to
and simplify the

University

S&T

and

R &

-

ratio of GERD /GDP to
wish to
COMMENTS :
same level of Italy 's largest European partners ( France and UK ) in a 4 or
5 years .

Italian authorities

bring the

nov . 1988

75

LUXEMBOURG

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1985 )

: 4.7

Billion ECU

Cat current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: N. A.

GERD / GDP : N.A.

NATIONAL BUDGET : 2,005 Mio ECU ( 1987 )

R&D BUDGET' : N. A.

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : N. A.

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : N.A.

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : N.A.

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N.A.

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :

-

. -

Ministry for national education and youth .

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :

Interministerial Committee for coordination of Research and Technological
Development .

NATIONAL PRIORITIES :

Government structures and public research centres to carry

Setting up
out R & D activities with Government funds .
Transfer
establishments , to industrial innovation .

research ,

results

of

of

-

gathered

in

public

research

TRENDS :

A
new
law
( March
1987 )
of
( up to.$-or
number ,
7 )
already operational in 1988 .

COMMENTS :

will
Public

.initiate the establishment of a certain
centres are

Research

Centres ;

two

Luxembourg does not collect at present data on R & D expenditure but will
been carried
& D
do so probably in
out until
activities have
1989 . R
industrial concerns , this should change
in private
recently exclusively
public research centres
the government-funded
with the establishment of
mentioned above .

nov . 1988

76

PORTUGAL

G ROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1985 )

: 27.3

Billion ECU ( at current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )

: 111.7 tlio ECU ( 1905 )

CERD / GDP : 0.41 *

( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 8,801 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET : 91.5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :

1 . 0 * X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 30.8 X ( 1984 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : N. A.

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 0.8 ( 1984 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :
Ministry for Planning and Territorial Administration . JNICT is
planning , policy
preparation of R & D Budget .

coordination body

and overall

the major
with responsibility for

STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :

Since 1986 and the establishment of the Superior Council for
Technology there has been major changes and much new investment in S&T .

Science and

NATIONAL PRTORITIES :

mobility

Priorities of the Government programme ( April 1987 ) for R & D are applied
research in universities ,
research related to users , strengthening basic
promoting
mobilization
in
programmes between research and industry , as well as strengthening public
infrastructural
Hajor Sectoral Research Action
sector
programmes
material
are
sciences and , marine sciences .

robotics /microelectronics ,

biotechnology ,

capability .

developing

science ,

joint

and

S&T

TRENDS :

expenditure

R&D
steadily increase it to
multiplied by 4.5 . in the last four years .

doubled
X of

1986/ 87

reach 1

in

1985 's
GDP by

allocation
1990 . JNICT 's

with plans to
budget was

C0MMENTS :

Low level of International R&D Participation but set to increase steadily
with EEC membership and priority given by Government . A major priority is
to strengthen S&T infrastructure as well as education and learning of S/ T
researchers .

nov . 1988

THK NETIIERLANIJS

GROSS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT ( GDP )
( 1905 )

: 165.3 Billion ECU Cat current prices and

GROSS domestic EXPENDITURE FOR R&D ( CERD )

: 3,492.6 Mio ECU ( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 2.11 X in 1905

NATIONAL BUDGET : 70,599 Hio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET :

1

, 704.9 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 2.40 X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 50.2 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 2.8 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS / PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 3.7 ( 1983 )

RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The Ministry of Education and
the Ministry of Economic Affairs .

Science and

:

of

S&T

POLICY

Decision

Science and

making
& T

STRUCTURE
structured network of advisory bodies . S
Council for
Minister within which the
coordinating
Affairs as coordinating minister
oriented , aiming
via the broadening of the technology base of the industry ,
quality , the use , and the diffusion of technology .

a broadly
prepared by the
by the Prime
of
acts as
policy and the Minister of Economic
is market-
The policy
of the Dutch industry
improving the

Policy is
( RUT ), chaired

competitive strength

Minister
science

Technology Policy

for technology .

to improve

minister

Education

Science

based

for

and

on

is

NATIONAL
centres and major incentive schemes :

PRIORITIES

The

:

dissemination

of

knowledge via innovation

The Innovation Stimulation Scheme ( INSTIR ) provides
labour costs whether in-house or contracted R 6 D.
The Technological
R&D on new products ,
are technologically new and risky .
The SHE Business Research Programme ( OMK ) stimulates SMEs to carry out
advanced R&D projects .

Scheme ( TDC ) offers support for
condition that they
services on

Development Credit
processes , and

grants for R&D

Innovation-Oriented

Programmes

( IOPs )

include

Membrane

Technology ,

Technical

The
Biotechnology ,
Technology .

among
Ceramics ,

others
and

:
IC

TRENDS : National R&D expenditure increased between 1980
2.03 X
to global R&D expenditure from 50.2 X in 1985 to 55.3 X in 1988 .

and 1988 from
X of GDP . The business sector increased its contribution

to 2.40

COMMENTS : The " Internationalisation
major issue in the Dutch S&T policy .

of

Education

and

Research "

is a

nov . 1988

78

UN I THU KINGDOM

GRO SS DOMESTIC
exchange rates )

PRODUCT t GDP )
( 1905 )

: 595.0 Billion ECU ( at current prices and

CROS S doniestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( CHRP )

: 13,037.6 flio ECU ( 1905 )

GERD / GDP : 2.33 X ( 1985 )

NATIONAL BUDGET : 223,312 Nio ECU

R&D BUDGET : 6,786.8 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 3 . OA X ( 1986 )

PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 46 . 1 X ( 1985 )

DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 50.9 X ( 1986 )

NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N. A.

RESPONSIBLE
responsibility
have responsibility for own R & D.

reporting

MINISTRY

S&T

FOR

to

:

Office
Prime Minister but ministerial departments

Cabinet

overall

has

POLICY

STRUCTURE of S&T
central
Science
Assessments office
in R & D expenditure proposals .

structure
and

Technology

:

under

has
strengthened into
with the Advisory Council on
The S&T
assists Departments , Research Councils and University

S&T
Prime
( ACOST )

structure
Minister ,

expanded

advisory

body .

been

as

NATIONAL PRIORITIES : Three main priorities have to be considered
national level :
1
2 . increase social and economic return from S&T ;
3 . improve

. maintain and enhance quality in S&T ;

management ,

ensure

greater concentration and selectivity of

at the

S&T activities .

regards

research ,

As
sectoral
individual ministries .
Government is
Government with emphasis on contribution of
efficiency , competitiveness and innovative capacity .

conducting " searching

review" of

programmes

action

are

developed

by

R & D priorities across
D to

Government funded

R &

Criteria revised in 1987 for distribution of Science Budget .
1 . Internal Funds - Timeliness and Pervasiveness .
Applicability
2 . External

Exploitability .

and

-

Significance

for

Education .

3 . Financial - Benefits and Costs/Affordability .

small increases

TRENDS : Overall level funding for 1987-89 committed with cuts in defence
research and
for Research Council and University Grants
Committee . UK Government is determined to secure greater Industry funding
& D , and also to ensure that Industry takes more responsibility for
of R
R &
to collaborative
research .

Emphasis

project

support

shifted

from

has

D.

COMMENTS :
development , international as well
contributes .

Main concern is to ensure value for money in all research and
UK Government
as national ,

to which

nov . 1988

( ii )

EUROPEAN COOPERATION

42

be

back

Examples of collaborative research ventures in Europe
3.18 .
can
European
traced
over many years .
Organisation for Nuclear Research ) was established in 1953 ; ESRO
( the European Space Research Organisation ) and ELDO ( the European
Launcher Development Organisation ), which were later merged to
the European Space Agency ( ESA ) were set up in 196 2 , the same
year as the signature of the Anglo-French Concorde project ; 1970
saw the establishment of Airbus Industrie .

CERN

( the

of

At

the

the

level

European Community the

3.19 .
first
collaboration in coal and steel research began in 1955 , this to
be followed by cooperation on nuclear research under the Euratom
In the aftermath of the doubling of oil and
Treaty in 1958 .
energy prices in 1973 / 74 the Community 's research efforts were
extended
the
environment and raw materials .-- In 1971 the first cooperation
within the COST framework was begun , involving the Community and
other European countries ; COST remains an important framework for
cooperation on specific projects .

non-nuclear

fields ,

energy

into

1974

the

in

the

But

have

1980s

3.20 .
and
quantitative development in Community activity , characterised by
the introduction of more industry-oriented " second-generation "
R&D
Community
research , and Community level actions both upstream of research
( in the field of education and training ) and downstream support
for innovation .

qualitative

medium-term

programmes ,

witnessed

planning

resource

for

a

Underpinning this cooperation now is the political commitment of
the Community , enshrined in the Single European Act :

to strengthen the scientific
and technological basis of
European industry and to encourage it to become competitive
at the international level ;

encourage

to
industry and research centres and universities ;

cooperative

support

and

efforts

between

and to adopt a Framework Programme as a medium-term planning
tool .

By laying down the objectives , priorities and expected financial
requirements for the Community 's activities in the fields of RTD
and breaking it into lines of action , the Framework Programme
forms a guide for specific programme decisions .
Another of its
aims is to familiarise scientific institutions and companies with
the research opportunities offered by the Community in the medium
term .

80

3.21 .
The main elements in the programme for 1987-1991 are
given in the following table , which illustrates the emphasis
given
the
technologies ,
modernisation of Community industry , biotechnology , marine
Science & Technology , alongside the long-standing collaboration
in nuclear fusion and fission and the environment .

telecommunications ,

information

to

43

the

the

and

1984

with

providing

industrial

university

encouraging

The largest single programme is now ESPRIT , which was
3.22 .
launched
European
of
in
aims
information technology industry over the subseguent 10 years with
the basic technologies required to meet the competition of the
1990s ;
in
information technology , and contributing to the development of
internationally accepted standards .
For its first five years the
ESPRIT programme had a total budget of 1500 MECU , half of it
and half by the research partners
funded by the Community ,
themselves .
3.200 MECU , again shared equally between the Community and the
The first phase of the programme concentrated
research partners .
information
on pre-competitive research
processing systems , and application technologies such as computer
aided manufacturing systems .
The new phase includes , alongside
the application-orientation , some emphasis on more basic research
targetted on issues such as artificial intelligence .

In its second phase ESPRIT has a budget of

in micro-electronics ,

cooperation

3.23 .
The second largest group of industry-oriented activities
aims at the modernisation of European industry through the use of
Here
advanced technology and the development of new materials .
the . BRITE programme is the largest single element .
BRITE was
launched in 1985 as a four-year programme funded jointly by the
Community ( 185 MECU ) and research partners in universities or
Building on its experience with the BRITE programme
industry .
( under
and the related EURAM programme on advanced materials
which
the
projects
Commission has recently submitted proposals for a new combined
programme for
in
particular and which , it is estimated , could generate projects
costing 1.000 million ECU .
Most of the Community funding of 440
MECU will be on applied research , but up to 7% of the budget will
be made
fundamental work in areas where
industrial progress is hindered by weakness in basic sciences .

1989-92 , which is designed to attract SMEs

financed )

together

available

for more

being

some

are

300

A third element in the Framework Programme which has a
3.24 .
industrial orientation is RACE which is
specifically applied
designed to ensure that the different telecommunication systems
and services now being developed in Europe remain consistent .
The specific aim of the RACE programme is to enable the Community
to move towards
integrated broadband communications based on
integrated digital networks in a system able to handle a wide

81

Table 3.7 .

FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME OF COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IN HIE FIELD OF
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ( 1987-91 )

Breakdown of (he amount deemed necessary between (he various activities envisaged

1 . Qualily of life
1.1 . Health
1.2 . Radiation protection
1.3 . Environment

Towards a large market and an information and communications society

2.
2.1 . Information technologies
2.2 . Télécommunications
2.3 . New services of common interest (including transport)

3 . Modernization of industrial sectors
3.1 . Science and- technology for manufacturing industry
3.2. Science and technology of advanced materials
3:3 . Raw materials and recycling
3.4 . Technical standards , measurement methods and reference materials

Exploitation and optimum use of biological resources

4 .
4.1 . Biotechnoloey
4.2 . Agro-industrial technologies
4.3 . Competitiveness of agriculture and management of agricultural resources

Energy

5 .
5.1 . Fission : nuclear safety
5.2 . Controlled thermonuclear fusion
5.3 . Non-nuclear energies and rational use of energy

6.

Science and technology for development

Exploitation of ( he sea bed and use of marine resources

7 .
7.1 . Marine science and tcchnology
7.2 . Fisheries

(uiprovciiieut of Europcau S/T coopération

8 .
8.1 . Stimulation , enhancement and use of human resources
8.2 . Use of major installations
8.3 . Forecasting and assessment and other back-up measures (including statistics )
8.4 . Dissemination and utilization of S/T research results

million iX'U
373

SU
3 -)
261

1600
550
125

-09
220
-5
ISO

120
'05
55

--0
61 !
122

80

50
30

ISO
50
2 5
55

2 275

S45

2S0

1 173

SO

SO

2SS

Total

5 396

to

range of new and conventional telecommunication services from
telephones
and
cable
important
electronic mail .
contribution to the Community 's development strategy for the
telecommunications sector as a whole , which will be of great
importance to the functioning of the internal market .

The RTD component will make an

transmission

videophones ,

data

TV ,

44

Other sectors too now have a significant applications -
3.25 .
oriented component .
The Community 's biotechnology programme ( BAP
- Biotechnology Action Programme ), notably covers a number of
research fields relevant to the needs of industry and agriculture
and is complemented by a programme of projects specifically for
the application of biotechnology to agro-industry .

Alongside the part-funding of

3.26 .
in
these and other areas of the Framework Programme and the work of
the Community 's own Joint Research Centre ( which is itself now to
have a more industry-oriented vocation ) the Community is

contract

research

promoting

*
scientists
programme ( formerly called the STIMULATION programme )

the Member States

cooperation

exchanges

of
the

through

among

and

research
SCIENCE

encouraging student mobility and cooperation between
*
higher education institutes in Europe through its ERASMUS
programme

*
promoting strong and long-lasting partnerships between
enterprises and universities in training , notably in respect
of high technology ( COMETT )

promoting the effective dissemination of the results
their

*
from its
application through the VALUE programme ;

research activities and contributing

to

working towards the lowering of language barriers to
EUROTRA
circulation

information

through

the

of

*
the
programme ;

aims

create

encouraging
to

innovation through the SPRINT programme
*
which
for
innovation and technology transfer in general , as well as
other sectoral programmes such as STAR ( telecommunications )
and VALOREN
( energy technologies ) which are specifically
oriented towards the needs of the less-developed regions of
Europe ;

favourable

conditions

more

and
*
promoting
communication
the
information services market , through the IMPACT programme
and through sectoral programmes ( AIM , DRIVE , DELTA ) .

the
technologies

application
in

information
develop

of
order

new

to

83

45

have

3.27 .
The experience of the Framework Programme activities
both under the current Programme and under the first programme
( 1984-87 ) has been overwhelmingly positive , demonstrating a real
The enthusiasm generated by
thirst for cross-border cooperation .
the Community programmes in the industrial and higher - educational
in
worlds is indisputable .
the
been
particular ,
Commission and its Advisory Committees having to turn down for
support a large number of potentially good projects .
The same is
true of programmes such as ERASMUS , which has been oversubscribed
by a factor of at least three and COMETT ( which in 1987 received
applications for 120 MECU compared with available finance of 16
The clear evidence is that the provision of a framework
MECU ) .
collaboration
encouraging
the
and
scientific ' and technological
fields responds to a widely-felt
need , particularly at a time when pressures on national funding
have been growing .

The ESPRIT and BRITE programmes ,
massively

oversubscribed ,

cooperation

Europe

with

in

in

3.28 .
The experience of the EUREKA initiative also confirms
the growing interest in European collaboration as a means of
improving Europe 's technological base and making the most of the
opportunities offered by the Internal Market .

1985 ,

fields

announced in

Since EUREKA was
have
projects

213 cooperative
launched in
3.29 .
cross-border
of
the
been
information - technology , robotics , biotechnology , communications
eguipment and other high technology fields .
These include , most
notably , ^the High Definition Television Project , a major set of
projects in the area of flexibl'e automated assembly ( FAMOS ), as
well as projects in the transport and environmental research
field .
The total EUREKA project portfolio has currently an
estimated value of some 3.8 milliard ECU , which is eguivalent to
around 1 milliard ECU per year ( about half the level expected to
be generated by the Community programmes );
and already some 800
organisations - two-thirds of them industrial - are involved .
While some of these collaborative industrial projects , which are
intended to be more " downstream " than Community projects , might
well have gone ahead even in the absence of the EUREKA framework
itself ,
the
growing industrial and university interest in collaboration and
In the case of EUREKA , cooperation has the added
cooperation .
dimension
and
facilitating
institutes in Community Member States , on the one hand , and those
in the EFTA countries in particular , on the other - around half
the EUREKA projects involve participants from each grouping 26 .

cooperation

number of

companies

projects

confirms

between

forward

coming

the

of

More detailed information on the trends in EUREKA and
in the links between EUREKA and Community programmes
Communication
can

Commission 's

found

the

be

in

84

EUREKA is an important complement to the Community 's
3.30 .
improving the
own activities in support of the objective of
mastery of new technologies .
The Commission plays a full role
inside EUREKA on behalf of the Community in an effort to maximise
the synergy between the two groups of research activity .
It has
recently outlined ways in which cooperation between the Community
and EUREKA can be reinforced without prejudicing the operation of
the Community 's own R&D programmes themselves 27 .

46

( iii )

POLICY COORDINATION

3.31 .
The Community programmes ( currently about 1.000 million
ECU a year ) are small compared with the R&D budgets of Member
States ( over 35.000 MECU in 1986 ); and the total cost of projects
supported through the programmes is only equivalent to about 4%
of total estimated public and private spending on civil research
( about 50 milliard ECU per year ) .
Even if all the other European
collaborative actions are taken into account - EUREKA , COST , ESA ,
- the bulk of research continues to be financed
CERN , EMBL etc .
and carried out at national level , a large share of it through
the national budgets discussed earlier .
Given the pressures on
resources and
fragmentation and duplication of
effort it has been recognised by European governments that better
coordination
That
policies
recognition is reflected in Article 130H of the Single European
Act which promises better coordination .

required .

national

risks

now

the

of

of

is

to

date .

There are a number of factors which have constrained
3.32 .
R&D
coordination
These
capacities among Member States ;
the different balance between
civil and military R&D ; different patterns of involvement by the
higher
public
education ;
part
specific economic and social concerns ( eg . energy in Italy , the
environment in Germany ) .

private
different

priorities

reflecting

traditions

different

sectoral

sectors ;

different

include :

and

the

in

in

Broad policy coordination is at present limited to the exchange
of better mutual information about programmes and policies under
way and exchanges of views among scientific advisors and experts
while
of
in
specific coordination efforts are reflected in the concerted
actions in the fields of medical research and the environment

programmes ;

Committees

Community

Advisory

the

COM(88)291 final of 24 June 1988 , and in its report to
the Parliament of 18 July 1988 .

COM ( 88)291 final .

85

and , together with other European countries , within the framework
of COST .

47

for

framework

3.33 .
The pressures of the Internal Market will militate in
further policy coordination among Community Member
favour of
States through the need to develop common standards , the opening
up of public procurement , the reguirements of competition policy .
The
by
EUREKA will also push in the same direction : intergovernmental
coordinating committees already exist for some of the larger
projects and aim to provide a framework for dealing with the
which
problems
a
actions
will
necessary corollary to research cooperation .
But the degree of
coordination is likely to remain patchy unless the commitment
reflected
is
of
vigorously pursued .

intergovernmental

cooperation

Government

concerted

provided

European

Article

Single

130H

Act

the

in

be

of

The Commission attaches particular importance to the ongoing work
within CREST designed to facilitate an in-depth exchange of
information on
to help identify
duplications and overlaps .
As noted earlier , it intends to focus
particular attention on this question in forthcoming reports on
the state of science and technology in Europe .

national policies

and thus

86

48

A great deal has already been done , both at a national
and a transnational level , to tackle Europe 's problems .
The success of the Community 's RTD programmes , the
rapid development of EUREKA , other bilateral and multi ¬
lateral ventures inside Europe , have demonstrated that
there is a thirst for cooperation across national
frontiers and that it can be mounted successfully , des ¬
pite the barriers of cultural and linguistic
differences .

But policy coordination among the Member States of the
Community is still weak and particular efforts are
needed to reduce the potential for duplication and overlap
in national efforts .
particular problems in this respect .

Dual-use technologies pose

87

IV

RESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE

49

4.1 .

Three main challenges face the Community :

"
in the context of the completion of the Internal Market ;

to improve its international competitiveness , notably

*
quality of life ; and

to respond to the needs of society by improving the

to increase its capacity to pursue its own scientific
°
and technological options where necessary , by reducing its
dependence on others .

By improving competitiveness
These three goals are interlinked .
the Community will create the wealth which makes it easier to
tackle issues of social concern .
Technological independence , on
the other hand ,
is linked to longer-term competitiveness , with
fundamental research offering opportunities to increase the scope
for determining , rather than simply responding to economic change
in an international context .

The organisation of this chapter reflects these three
4.2 .
concerns by dealing , firstly , with the research requirements to
improve competitiveness ; secondly , with the areas where research
has a particularly important contribution to make in meeting
Europe 's
and thirdly , with the scientific and
technological base of fundamental research , which provides the
essential underpinning and the seedcorn for the longer-term .

social needs ;

will

make

which

between

overlaps

inevitably ,
these
There
are ,
The most obvious is in the case of the biological
categories .
sciences
social
contributions ( through their impact on industry and agriculture ,
on the one hand , and in the fields of health and environment , on
of
the
fundamental research is essential if major break-throughs are to
be achieved .
The categories chosen , however , reflect the areas
where the most significant contributions can be expected from
individual areas of research .

significant

questions

economic

progress

specific

other ),

where

among

and

and

and

on

4.3 .
Under each heading the chapter considers the market
situation , the research needs and action underway in Europe ( in
industry , at Member State level and , where appropriate , within
the framework of the European Community ) .
More details on each
area of research are given in the annexes , while the industrial
and services markets are analysed separately in depth in the
" Panorama of EC Industry " which is shortly to be published by the
Commission .

88

4.4 .
This is a first analysis of the main research needs ,
which the Commission intends to refine during the coming months .
But it already reflects a wealth of inputs and advice from inside
and outside the Community institutions ; the main contributions
have already been indicated in the Introduction to the report .
It was not possible in such a short report to be exhaustive .
The report concentrates on the areas where the needs are most
clear .

50

I

IMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS

4.5 .
There is a broad consensus internationally on the areas
of technology which are expected to be important for industry and
the services over the period to the end of the century :

Table 4.1 .

Emerging Technologies

Japan

USA

EC

Electronics

Electronics

Software Engineering
New Materials
Biotechnology
Biomaterials

Automation
Computing
Advanced Materials
Medical Technology
Thin Layer Technology

Information
Technology
New Materials
Biotechnology
Energy

Sources Ï

of

Status

An
Emerging
The
Economic / Technological Assessment to the year 2000 . US
Department of Commerce , June 1987
Trends and Themes in industrial technologies , MITI,1988
Panorama of EC Industry 1989 ( forthcoming publication
by the EC Commission ).

Technologies :

As

underlined

of
4.6 .
for
technologies are not independent of each other .
example , which are developed from opto-electronics , are used for
cutting and milling metals and plastics , composites and ceramics .
On the other hand silicon and , for the future , superconductors
components
improvement
are materials

groups
Lasers ,

electronic

on which

Chapter

new

the

in

in

I ,

89

depend , while superconductors may modify significantly the way
energy is transported and stored .
Some of interrelationships are
identified by the concentric circles in Table 4.2 .
Specific research : needs in Europe can , however , be identified in
five fields :

51

1 .
Europe
developments are occurring world-wide ;

Information Technology and Telecommunications ,
where

substantial

progress ,

made

but

has

where
rapid

2 .
the success of manufacturing industry ;

Industrial Materials Technologies , which are vital to

3 .
important competitive challenge ;

Aeronautics ,

where

Europe

faces

a

particularly

»

Biological sciences , which are the focus of attention
4 .
radical
world-wide
improvements
in agricultural and industrial production and
major commercial opportunities , in addition to their impact
on medicine and the environment ;

prospect

which

offer

the

and

of

Energy , where adeguate and secure supply at reasonable
5 .
cost
an
essential prereguisite to the functioning of the European
economy .

environmentally

acceptable

form

and

an

in

is

1 . INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

( Annex 1 )

The Market Situation

Europe 's weaknesses in this area , especially in the
4.7 .
information technology industry , attracted great concern at the
The European industry was characterised
beginning of the 1980s .
low market shares , low R&D and low
by a flagging IT market ,
IT
capital
products was negative , amounting to a deficit of 10.6 milliard US
dollars in 1984 .

the balance of

investments .

Moreover ,

trade in

Concerted action was taken from 1984 onwards by the European
companies to rectify the position .
These actions encouraged a
new dynamism in the European industry and helped mobilise human ,
financial and technological resources which were supported by
collaborative programmes such as ESPRIT .
The fruits of these
combined efforts are just starting to appear :

In a world-wide market growing at more than 15% yearly , the
six main European companies have been growing at a 25% p.a .

–

In the European market , the largest European companies have

90

Emerging technologies with wide penetration effect

/

Nc w in * t cr i 1 1 s !
New in • t criais \

Itigli - temperature siipercontluclive inaterinls

/Iti(>)'*1emper■Iure supcrcondiicli«c m«tcrini»

Non * linear o |j I i cn I electronic n.Urrials
Non - linc.r opt i cn I electronic m.leri.ls

/

/

Advanced composite materials with extended
Advinced composite miterlels with eatended
environmental ~clurahlllty
environmenl.il * dure hi Illy

\

\

\

\

^–" ---

New 1 1 toys , metal chemicsl compniimls

| New alloys, metal chemical compounds_j^

/ Technologies related to both new
Technologies related to both new
materials end electronics I
/
mntrrialf end clectronlct I
/
- – –i
/
[
Tcrhunlngy lo conirol preeise arrangement I
Tci'hnnlngy lo control preciie errengement
a I nnn .ml molecules
„f
/
ainms ami mnlccules
■
. – –
/
- 1
■
>
reaction process technology
/
Optical
( echnology
réaction proeesi
Optiral
/
- -
- -
I Kitrrmi! environment simulation tsehnology |
/
l''ilremi! environment simulation technology
'
■ –
'
I

-

-

_

_

"

■

■

'

1

'

.

\

/
. – --

Soflwsre / Sys lemsll zstlnn
Soft ware / Syatemall tell on
*--–■–- .
<lftt processing
Structurin, of
Structuring ot data processing
mechanism in the autonomic nerve
mechanism in the autonomic nerve
system
system
--
Soltwire «oorilinilion develupment
Software coordination development
teclmolngy
technology

-

–

Blomimetie materials

Technology releled lo both new
Technology reified lo both new
tn.l bio - technology
mfterii.ll
miterinlt end bio*t«chnnlogy \
–
Blomlmetic molerials
Biomechanical matériels
Biomechanical material *
Z
Dio'prncesf separation end purification
Bio-process separation and purification
technology
technology

\
\
\
–-- --–- \
\
\
!
\
\
1

\
i
I

T.

|

!

i

|

F.lectronies

r.lectrnnies
Supcrci.nduclive .le.ieei
.Snpereomluelive devices
^""nll'm flinClioneI device!
Onnnium funclionil devices
I'nwcr electronics devices
l' nwer elcr.lronics deviees
New npiirni
Nfw itpiiral

_
function devices
ftmciinn devices

^
\
\
\
\
\

|

X I Mumes lechnoio,/_|

lloinan technology

/

llinlechnology

_ – I

.

I

Technology relfteil
Technology related to both electronics
*nd bio*leehnology .
snd bio-technology \

to bolls electronics

-

Protein handling ( arrangement ) technology
Prolein hamlling ( irrangement ) technology
Memlirene utilisation technology
Membrane utilisation technology

Créé . ion ni highly « fllelent enzyme . ml
Creation nl highly ellidcnt enzyme ami
hlnmaleriels
Animel end plsnt cell engineering

Animal and plsnt cell engineering

New genelie engineering
New genelic engineering
; ~“
Advanced eppllcatinn technology lor
Advanced explication technology lor
organism re.etion systems
organism reaction systems

'

j
/
/
/
/
/

■

.

\
.

'v

J
<M

0>

-O

K

Development o( an analysis snd
in analysis snd
Development of
sssetsmenl system for biotechnology
assessment system lor biotechnology

/

/

ON

t

t–t
h-
K
£

•

00
00
O'

I–
od
00

c
o

u
to
a
ns
a.

to
v

•p
.c
3

to

a*
c
(0
a
<9

»•
UJ
<•>
OC
3
O
00

significantly increased
close to 50% from 33% in 1983 .

their market

share ,

bringing

52

it

In software and services market , the European companies are
holding
the
strong growth of the market demand .

taking advantage of

favourable position ,

a

European IT companies are now investing in R&D a proportion
of their sales that is very close to that of US companies .
Nevertheless
are
accelerating .

needs

field

R&D

the

the

for

in

IT

4.8 .
Although the European Information Processing industry
seems on the way to overcome some of its traditional weaknesses ,
major problems still remain .

These include :

The penetration of European Information Systems companies on
overseas markets is still minimal ( 15 to 25% of sales ).

On
The balance of trade in IT products has not improved .
the contrary in 1986 the trade 'deficit increased to 13.4
billion US dollars .

The Electronic Components industry has not progressed in
Europe at the same rate , making the Information Systems
industry and other user industries even more dependent on
foreign
components
( Table 4.3 .).

strategic

suppliers

^critical

and

of

The situation is similarly critical in certain types of
computer peripherals .
These represent an ever-increasing
share of the value of Information Systems .

A major weakness in Europe is the lack of trained personnel .

Table 4.3 .

Million ECU

EUR - 12
EUR - 12

Electronic components - Main Trends
Electronic components - Main Trends

1980 - 1987
1980 - 1987

Apparent
Consumption
Net Export
Earnings
Total Production

1980

6,083

+ 1,246

7,329

1985

13,125

+ 104

13,229

1986

13,117

+ 498

1987

n.a .

n.a .

13,615

14,060

Source :
Note :
more than 29 milliard ECU in 1986 , and Japan 23 milliard .

Panorama of EC Industry 1989
By comparison , the USA has a components market worth

92

The relative success in some areas

4.9 .
serves to highlight the remaining problems .
also
positions .

to
This means :

consolidate the newly acquired

required

European

IT
Continued action is
competitive

of

-

ensuring the economic climate and boundary conditions which
allow full exploitation of the potential demand .

strengthening
areas .

European technological capabilities in key

53

4.10 .
relatively
favourable situation of Europe , in industrial , technological and
commercial terms could be threatened by :

telecommunications

sector

the

the

In

continuing weaknesses

the
components ;
new technological and market challenges ( digitalisation of
networks , ISDN and broadband networks );

electronic

field of

the

in

the spiralling costs of R&D in telecommunications ;

the effects of rapid changes in the regulatory environment
world-wide .

Substantial
reinforce
telecommunications operators .

present

efforts

the

are

therefore
position

needed

to

secure

and

of

European

industry

to
and

Research needs : Information Technology

highly

requires

4.11 .
Further advances in the field of electronic components
will lead , for example , to an increase of the capacity of memory
chips beyond the present state of the art ( 1Mbit ).
Progress
64 Mbit chips make it necessary to
towards the objective of
design circuitry for feature sizes below the level of 0.5 micron .
This
production
sophisticated
techniques .
The new technological approach , combined with the
currently stronger industrial and technological position of the
should provide opportunities
European semiconductor companies ,
for Europe to come back into the race .
A significant cross -
border collaborative effort in Europe is proposed under the Joint
European Submicron Silicon project ( JESSI ), which aims to develop
the design and manufacturing techniques needed for Europe to
change its competitive position vis - & -vis the USA and Japan .
This project will need appropriate support from companies and
public authorities .

design

and

93

4.12 .
At the same time progress needs to be made in software
and advanced information processing , given the growing demand for
( rather
increased capabilities for computing ,
than data -) processing , and for enhanced user friendliness .

for knowledge -

54

Key issues in this context are : operating systems ; management
systems for data base ; parallel architectures which can provide
powerful
good
capabilities in this field ); RISC architectures , especially for
microprocessors .

capabilities

computing

( Europe

very

has

good

technical

traditionally

the
The
software area is being reinforced by the advances made through
some major cooperative projects developed in
Further
efforts are nevertheless required if Europe wants to stay in the
long term
race :
projects such as TRON , SIGMA , 5th Generation ...) are making major
efforts in this field .

( especially through ambitious

USA and Japan

position of

ESPRIT .

Europe

in

Peripherals will become increasingly important with the
4.13 .
development towards integrated systems .
Research work on flat
panel displays and optical storage technologies is progressing
fast ; but Europe 's situation is rather weak and requires early
attention .

At the

same time as

4.14 .
this applied research effort ,
however , the fast-developing IT industry is demonstrating a need
for more fundamental research in computer services
( to solve
in programming
problems of reliability ,
languages appropriate to the expanding hardware facilities ; in
autonomous
such as
machine-learning ;
mobile
the
engineering ,
analysis and better design of human - computer-work interactions .

safety and security ) ;

the design of

specifically

cognitive

in areas

robots ,

and

there

Finally ,

major
of
4.15 .
are
prenormative research , because
of the increasing importance of
standards ( and of their early definition of standards ) in the
context of evolution towards the integration of complex systems
( intelligent
designed
of
banking and financial services ;
multimedia
systems ;
transportation
systems ; home automation ...).

new applications
advanced robotics ;

bioinformatics ;

intelligent

a wide

needs

range

field

car

and

the

for

in

Research Needs :

Télécommunication Technologies

The key issues in telecommunications are essentially
4.16 .
related to the establishment of broadband networks , equipment and
services , which are expected to happen from the mid-1990s onwards
will
( the
use
ISDN
basically
technologies
standardisation work ).

narrow-band
already

available ,

requires

network ,

present

which

94

55

technological

Most
demand pull ,
communication systems :

by
linked to each major component of the broadband

developments

therefore

generated

are

a )
times more important than today .

broadband infrastructures will carry information flows 1000

This will require enhanced systems of network management using
the resources of advanced information processing and of data base
management systems .

The USA are presently ahead in these areas .

broadband

b )
three
technological stages allowing each time considerable gains of
speed ,
cost
effectiveness .

These three stages will use :

transmitted

equipment

according

received

develop

volume

will

and

and

to

of

of

VLSI electronic components for switching ; coding / decoding ;
network management .

design

of
The
advances to be made in the field of software .
is still behind US and Japan ;

components

these

use

and

require

strong
Here Europe

optoelectronic
quicker interfaces with fibreoptics transmission ;

components

allow

which

will

better

and

materials

( operational

communication
new

which
optical
implies :
component
manufacturing technologies ; new software tools in order to
flows
considerable
control
information
transmitted
( coherent multichannel
speed
techniques allowing multiplexing of optical channels on one
fibre by frequency allocation ).

manage
very

components ;

after

2000 )

high

new

and

for

of

at

c )

broadband services .

Their implementation requires substantial activity in :

engineering

processing ),

service
of
techniques ,
standardisation , software , expert systems , data libraries ,
image
operational
images and voice through
services able to combine data ,
merging of data processing and telecommunications .
The 3
main regions of the world seem to be at the same stage in
this field ;

establish

( covering

issues

order

in

to

appropriate exploitation of technologies through increased
activity test beds , language customisation of hardware and
software , permanent feedback with the users of new services ,
for
in order to provide
( by
business
specialised
combination of PCs , TVs , hifi ....).

advanced / intelligent terminals
use
use

domestic

and

for

95

Research Needs : Application Technologies

56

convergence

information
The
4.17 .
technologies ,
telecommunications and audio-visual services has
created conditions favourable to the intensive exploitation of
the basic technologies , adapting them to the specific needs and
constraints of different categories of users ( the business world ,
public administration , social services , individuals ) in order to
meet social and economic needs .

maturing

and

of

4.18 .
The fields of potential application are very numerous :
health , transport , agriculture , public administration , education
And the spread of technologies to be used and
and training .
integrated in this respect is broad :
personal computers , optical
discs , microprocessor cards , new medical and educational imaging
techniques , computer languages close to ordinary human language ,
expert systems , mobile telephones , integrated digital services ,
broad band networks , high definition television , direct satellite
transmission , etc ....

of
and

technologies
optimise
to

The problem is to combine and integrate as far as possible the
under
broad
range
development ;
in
terms , while avoiding the
technological ,
systems
risks caused by the present proliferation of independent
exclusively
which
national
requires
Avoidance
cooperative and concerted actions at a European level among all
the actors concerned .

conceived
perspectives .

economic and social

already
their

performance

particular ,

available

overall

risks

often

such

from

are

and

or

of

information

4.19 .
In Europe there is a particular need to make use of the
opportunities offered by information technology to facilitate the
flow of
is
and
particularly
distribution industries , which currently represent 59% of GDP and
It will be of increasing relevance
60% of employment in Europe .
in the context of the completion of the Internal Market .
The
current EUROTRA programme at Community level , which began in
1982 , has already produced a sound basis for the creation of a
European language industry .

But new efforts are needed to :

linguistic boundaries .

across
to

Community 's

important

service

This

the

( a )
work
and
industry ;

encourage industrial participation in the development
and

universities

knowledge

transfer

between

the
voice

results
and

artificial
( b )
exploit
expert
intelligence ,
The
systems developed under programmes such as ESPRIT .
transformation
into
research
industrial applications will lead to increased outlets and
language
demand
processing technology such as text processors , hyphenation ,

on
recognition

pre-competitive

of
pattern

" monolingual "

normally

research

ongoing

natural

for

and

of

96

grammar and spelling checkers , optical readers and the like ,
the
impetus
thus
information technology industry .

providing

further

growth

the

for

of

57

European Action in IT and Télécommunications

in

will

these

fields

Assuring the necessary and most effective efforts on
4.20 .
further encouragement and
R&D
Action is already under way in
coordination at European level .
And
some areas .
in
above ,
the
discussions are in progress between European manufacturers to
JESSI
framework
establish
project ); the Community will have a role to play as catalyst .

The second phase of ESPRIT is now in operation .

appropriate

technology ,

sub-micron

research

require

noted

field

( the

for

an

as

of

of

Within EUREKA , information technology projects represent a major
to
share
capitalise on the successful experience of European collaboration
in
to ensure the best
possible coordination between projects and programmes .

technology field

information

portfolio .

important

project

will

the

and

the

be

It

As

far as more basic research on

is concerned ,
4.21 .
Europe is in a different position from its competitors .
In the
US and particularly Japan , such research is largely the preserve
of industry ; while in Europe industry has been more short - or
This is an area where action at a European
medium-term oriented .
level can be of immense value in encouraging the necessary work
to be carried out in a cooperative framework and in helping to
commit industrial finance to the projects .

IT

2 . INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES

( Annex 2 )

The Market Situation

Industrial

4.22 .
design ,
engineering , manufacture and operation of products and processes .
They are inseparable from the materials which must be developed ,
processed and finished to meet the designer 's intentions .

technologies

support

the

4.23 .
materials is manufacturing industry ,
about
industrial work force of some 41 million people .

The primary customer for industrial technologies and
which currently provides
and 75% of the
The Community

30% of GNP in the European Community ,

97

balance of external trade in manufactured goods - + 15% in 1987 -
is positive .

58

Table 4.4 .

EC Trade Balance in Manufactured Goods

Milliard ECUs

Imports

Exports

Balance

1981 ( EC 10 )

1987 ( EC 12 )

171

252

Source :

EUR0STAT

236

289

+ 65

+ 37

is

the

most

the
industry

industry
in

Moreover , some of the traditional sectors of manufacturing have
the
invested heavily in new technology in the past few years :
textile
great
confidence
computer -
that
integrated manufacturing is likely to reinforce its position on
world markets
( the EC accounts for 55% of world production ).
Despite the improving position in many areas , however , Western
Europe suffers from structural weaknesses , namely an inadeguate
capacity to
the more
-particularly those where the economies of
developed markets
machinery ,
are
scale
instrument manufacturing , paper and printing .

growing demand

respond to

equipment ,

transport

the move

largest ,

example ,

telling

towards

with

such

some

as

in

of

means

of
and

manufacture .
flexibility

Successful manufacturers are seeking increasingly to
4.24 .
capture the top end of the market by new and improved products ,
usually with a higher technology content in the product itself or
increased
in
its
productivity
the
" mature " industries ( such as textiles , clothing , motor vehicles
and food as well as textiles ).
Improving the situation depends
heavily on the further diffusion and application of available
technologies by these industries .
It also depends , however , on
advances in the technologies themselves and in exploiting the
Progress in R&D is therefore
possibilities that they offer .
fundamental to long-term success .
Here Europe is hampered by the
low level of industrial RS.D compared with that of the US and
Japan (a point underlined in Chapter II and III ).

potential
particularly

for
great

The

in

is

98

Research Needs

4.25 .
are :

Particular areas that require renewed research efforts

59

and

quality

rel iability .

the development of technologies to improve product and
*
process
Ensuring quality and
reliability can typically cost 5-25% of company turnover ,
and for one Member State has been estimated to cost the
Significant improvements are
equivalent of
possible
engineering ,
R&D
sensors , power control engineering and through the use of
modelling in areas such as the filling of complex injection
moulds ,
of
in
sensors
composite
materials ;

atomisers ,
the

of GNP .
successful

particle
for

monitoring ,

positioning

on optical

formation

through

design

10%

or

of

techniques for shaping ,

joining and assembly , and for
°
surface treatment .
The prevention of corrosion , which is
estimated to cost 4% of GNP in industrialised countries ,
makes
real
progress
economic significance ;

in surface treatment potentially of

catalysts and membranes .
lead ,
catalysis

Progress in the understanding
’
cleaner
in
of
world
production
market for membranes ( currently estimated at 400MECU / year )
is
likely to grow significantly as new applications are
identified ;

specificity ;

particular ,

through

higher

could

while

the

to

is

This

powder technology .

large and high-value
*
market ( about 2 milliard ECU / year in USA , half as big in
While steel , semi-finished powder and
Europe and Japan ).
be valued at between 20-50
metallurgical components
ECU / kilo .
ECU / kilo ,
International competition is particularly strong , driven in
part
vacuum
technology , from the space programmes ;

ceramic powder parts

by the requirements

and spin-cffs ,

can cost

such as

2.000

can

a

other

high-value

matrix
*
materials ,
composites ( already being developed for ceramic - reinforced
light alloy pistons ) and anisotropic materials using various
strengthening
fibre
such
reinforcement ;

techniques

particles

metal

such

or

as

as

*

superconducting materials .

communication

information
of

and
superconducting

further
In
lead
to
development
as well
qualitative breakthroughs ( by minimising heating ),
as progress in technologies based on magnetism
( eg . fast
switching devices , nuclear magnetic resonance for medical
And if economic
diagnosis ,

controlled nuclear fusion ).

technology the

materials

could

99

60

devices carrying high current densities could be built , long
distance
magnetic
distribution
superfast trains would acguire a more practical dimension .

electricity

networks

and

Some very fundamental aspects of
superconductivity , however , are
not yet understood and the prospects for development of high
In Japan around
current density devices are still uncertain .
one-third
of the research effort is devoted to work on these
issues .

In Europe , where some of the seminal discoveries were first made ,
reactions to the explosion of interest in the field was rapid
( the EC Commission convened the first group of interested experts
in June 1987 ).
But in terms of resources made available the
European response was much weaker than in the USA and Japan .

to
In
order
resources
made
European action is needed .

available

match

the

financial ,

technological

by

competitors ,

and
systematic

human
joint

In addition to research on technologies and materials
4.26 .
themselves there is a growing need , in the context of the 199 2
market , to ensure that there is an adequate research base for the
and
development
of
in
materials ,
industrial
respect of lasers , membranes , new materials in general , fracture
construction materials and production technologies .
mechanics ,
This
and
telecommunications standards referred to earlier .

of
technologies

field
notably

preparatory

norms
and

standards

including

addition

common

work

the

the

on

in

to

in

IT

is

European Action

It

is

in

to

role

play

right

itself

should

industry

Community

important

providing

The very high

cost-sharing
rate

4.27 .
be
that
encouraged to invest more in the R&D that is required in the
National authorities clearly have an
areas outlined above .
framework
the
important
of
also
programmes
conditions .
significance .
the
to
of
( on average there are 5 times more good
Community programmes
conditions )
be
can
proposals
indicates that European industrialists increasingly recognise the
need for R&D and are ready to participate and contribute with
company funds to at least half the cost of Community-managed pre -
competitive R&D on industrial technologies and materials .
A new
programme of Community support for industrial technologies and
materials has recently been proposed to the Council , which aims
to provide a European dimension and to act as a catalyst to the
research discussed above .
a specific effort
within Europe is needed on superconducting materials .

funded under the present

As noted above ,

subscription

than

are

100

61

Providing

4.28 .
by
stimulating
industry is not , however , of itself sufficient to maximise the
Two other things are also required , which would
benefits of R&D .
benefit from a European dimension :

commitment

financial

and

action needs to be taken to improve the availability of
*
skilled research managers in industry .
It could be useful
to examine further what action in the field of training
might be appropriate at a European level , whether inside or
outside the Community framework ;

as

of

to

be

top

well

ought

industry

management

research
*
managers , must be more directly involved in R&D projects ,
which
corporate
The independent panel which recently evaluated
strategies .
programme
in
the
BRITE
own
projects
of
respect
programmes .
The positive results of such involvement have
already been witnessed in the case of the ESPRIT programme
and in the preparation of the Commission 's proposal in the
aeronautics field .

recommendation
Community 's

has
financed

integrated

such
under

closely

a
the

made

in

as

3 . AERONAUTICS

( Annex 3 )

The Market Situation

the

the

period

During

1980-86

4.29 .
aeronautics
industry captured 23% of the civil and 27% of the military world
market .
The world market is expected to expand substantially up
to the end of the century and increasing competition to capture
it must be expected , not only from the USA but also from Japan
and industrialising countries such as Korea and Brazil .
The US
industry remains in a particularly favourable position , however ,
because it enjoys a large home market and it benefits from the
spin-off from military R&D programmes .

European

The Challenge for Research

4.30 .
The aeronautical industry depends heavily on advanced
technology to ensure competitiveness , incorporating progress in
advanced
aeronautics ,
and
design
materials ,
implementation of new manufacturing methods .
The development of
these technologies requires a long-term strategic approach , while
their application necessitates a broad industrial base .

structure
as

complex
as

electronics ,

design

of
etc

well

and

the

the

101

MECU

SCENARIO OF FUTURE EUROPEAN AIRCRAFT
RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

1000_rl~–:-----
1000-.

AERODYNAMICS

100 %

H
Ù)
O"

«

AIRCRAFT CATEGORY
BREAKDOWN IN YEAR

2010

_-

STRUCTURES &
MATERIALS

/

AIRBORNE SYSTEMS
EOUIPMENT &
COMPUTATION

PROPULSION INTEGRATION
& ACOUSTICS

DESIGN &
MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY

OPERATlONAL SYSTEMS

I
05

20Ю

I – -1-1-1
85

1990

95

2000

COMMERCIAL

TRANSPORT

COMMUTER

GENERAL AVIATION

VSTOL

HIGH SPEED

TRANSPORT •

MILITARY

80

60

40

20

0

1988

• ASSUME 50 % OF SST . 25% OF HST

( Source

:

EUROMART Study )

800 _

600 _

1980

O
ro

European Action

62

a

This

would

level .

competitive

If Europe is to be able to meet the challenge in an
4.31 .
increasingly
broadly-based
environment
transnational collaborative effort in R&D is now reguired ( Table
The Commission has recently proposed a pilot programme at
4.5 .).
European
for
foundation
provide
and
cooperation between the European aeronautical industries ,
between them , universities , national research centres and SMEs .
It would also enable specific urgent research projects to be
The scope of the programme is discussed
tackled right away .
The main technology areas identified for
further in the annex .
mechanics ,
the
pilot
materials ,
and
computation ,
equipment , propulsion integration and design and manufacturing
Special attention will be paid to
technologies ( Table 4.5 .).
safety and environmental aspects , as well as common norms and
standards .

phase
are :
acoustics ,

and
airborne

aerodynamics

systems

flight

firm

a

4 . LIFE SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

( Annex 4 )

of

the

and

from

brain ,

medical

chemistry

improvements

agricultural

Developments in the life-sciences open up possibilities
4.32 .
that straddle the concerns of economic success and social need ;
and
ranging
industrial
in
to progress in
productivity that are environmentally " clean ";
improved
pharmaceuticals ,
for
just
understanding
medical science but for the design of computers ; to new knowledge
Their major economic
about the mechanism of evolution itself .
contribution
and
processes
shorten
increase efficiency in the pharmaceuticals industry ; to speed up
the development of new strains of plants ( it took 50 years from
1930-1980 to increase the yield of corn by 70% through a long
process of genetic selection ; the same improvement could now be
obtained in a few years or less ); and to develop and produce
products in new ways ( computers built with biological components
may be able to deliver vastly higher performances than current
technology allows ).

implications

production

science ;

to
not

could

with

be

to

the issues

for research discussed below are
For convenience ,
treated predominantly in the context of Europe 's economic needs ,
with medical research alone dealt with separately in the context
of the needs of European society .
But it should be remembered ,
for example , that genome analysis , which is discussed below , will
be of major significance in the context of medical diagnosis and
therapy as well as
while
certain aspects of medical research ( medical instrumentation ) are
of relevance in the context of competitiveness and technological
independence .

in bio-industries

and agriculture ;

103

The Market Prospects

63

of

rapid

growth

widespread

expectation

In both the USA and Japan biology and its applications
4.33 .
have been identified as fields of major potential significance to
industry over the period to the end of the century ; and there is
a
of
a
application technologies ( cf Chapter I ), although determination
of future market size and timing is particularly difficult .
A
cooperative analysis of 11 market forecasts to 2000 undertaken in
1984 showed a range of between 9 milliard dollars for the least
most
optimistic
the
optimistic^® .
that
meantime ,
is
and
pharmaceuticals ,
the
agriculture
greatest market opportunities .
One reason for the difficulty is
the pervasive nature of the potential application of biological
research ; another is the speed of change in this field , which has
been made possible by the development of instrumentation based on
advanced physics , chemistry , informatics and mathematics .

a
food-processing

uncertainties
there

over
The
although

for
changed
consensus

dollars
not
broad

world-wide

milliard

have

offer

and

the

100

in

Research Needs

has

many

Europe

pioneered

important
most
4.34 .
developments in the life sciences ,
from the discovery of the
" double helix " to monoclonal antibodies and receptor-targetted
physical
biological
pharmacology ;
three
crystallographic
spectroscopy
dimensional structure of nucleic acids and proteins including ,
quite
the
regulation of gene expression to genome structure and predictive
medicine .

application
study

associated

membranes ;

recently ,

those

with

from

from

the

the

the

to

of

of

of

In spite of its many achievements , however , Europe is inferior to
America in breadth and depth of coverage and in the capacity to
expand rapidly in new fields and to exploit the results
in
industry .

4.35 .
In several areas of biology , Europeans have found it
useful to complement existing collaboration with the rest of the
world ( and especially with the USA ) by improved collaboration
among themselves .
The European Molecular Biology Organisation
and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory , as well as the
Basel
significant
examples .

particularly

Immunology

Institute

are

of

Technology

High
Outlooks
Biotechnology , US Department of Commerce , International
Trade Administration , Washington DC 1984 .

Industries ,

Profit

and

104

4.36 .
Taking into account the ongoing and planned activities
of these organisations and suggestions made by the authorities of
some Member States and by university and industry researchers ,
4
areas of research merit particular attention in Europe :

64

-
-

-
-

basic plant biology
the molecular investigation of the genomes of complex
organisms
neuroscience , and
biotechnology
technology development .

agro-industrial

research

based

and

Basic plant biology

The

new

with

tools

progress

4.37 .
modern
associated
genetics and biotechnology now make possible a diversity of
potential applications for the improvement of crop sciences , for
environmentally safe land use and disease control methods .
But
it has become apparent world-wide that the bottleneck to progress
lies less in the absence of adequate application technologies ,
key
our
and more
understanding of
European biotechnology
structures and functions within plants .
has now reached a stage where the ability
to manipulate plant
genes , largely established by pioneering laboratories in several
Member States , has outstripped the knowledge of many underlying
biological functions and metabolic properties .

basic

large

gaps

in

in

in

to

for

5-10

years

value ,

example ,

identify ,

nutritional

the
- those associated with
texture .

In order to make significant advances in biotechnology ,
4.38 .
it is therefore essential to go back to the investigation of
plant physiology , using all the new tools developed for molecular
If major efforts are made , it may be possible
investigation .
" quality "
within
innocuity ,
molecules of many plants
flavour ,
be
can
and
identified , their synthesis controlled , the " quality " molecules
would
production ,
providing the basis for a better balance between high quality and
low quality crops .
At the same time it will be easier to
establish a better balance between " bio-natural " and chemical
practices in agriculture , enabling increased production to be
based' on biological supply of chemical fertilizers and pestides .
Finally ,
biology would enable
closer monitoring of the interactions of crop plants with other
species , which would permit better ecological monitoring of land
use .

better understanding of

agricultural

difference

basic

make

they

real

to

If

a

This work is of particular importance in a global context .
In
order to feed a world population , which could be as high as
10.000 million in 50-60 years time , without at the same time

105

increasing the greenhouse effect , new methods of food production
Efforts must be stepped up now to provide a
will be needed .
solution to the problems that will face Europe and the rest of
the world in the longer-term future .

65

A major effort in this field would be at the crossroads
4.39 .
between molecular biology ,
a
multidisciplinary approach requires elaborate integration of work
programmes which could be achieved at the desired level
of
excellence only through coordinated transnational action .

physiology and genetics .

Such

Genome Analysis

10

as

to

in

of

the

what

Each

cells

trillion

corresponds

the human body
4.40 .
The sum total of these
contains about 100.000 individual genes .
genome .
human
known
is
genes
Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing
process of medicine as knowledge of human anatomy has been for
The major diseases which affect
the present state of medicine .
and many diseases
human beings all have genetic components ;
Understanding
result
the
rapid
identification of these disorders and an accurate detection of
hereditary predispositions .
In the field of agriculture and
industry the molecular investigation_of important microbial plant
arid animal species is an essential complement to the work needed
on basic plant biology discussed above .

directly from one or more defective genes .
a

sequence

entire

genome

allow

would

more

the

.

.

The necessary research work is complex .

4.41 .
It consists of
several phases , involving respectively the detailed and physical
mapping of genomes , 'the development of automated techniques for
large-scale cloning and sequencing , and finally , the sequencing
itself .

importance

recognised
has
The
4.42 .
outside the Community .
In Japan a major effort is being made on
the automation of mapping and sequencing techniques ; while the
USA are setting aside $3.5bn for work on the human genome during
the next 10 years .

field

been

this

of

4.43 .
Europe has many of the skills and resources to make a
major contribution to the international efforts on complex genome
Already some actions are under way at a national level
analysis .
However , even the largest European
( France , UK , Germany , Italy ).
country cannot work on its own in this costly endeavour .
The
Community as such already has experience in the field of genome

106

( the

programme has

Community BAP

24
analysis
Other
laboratories in the sequencing of one yeast chromosome ).
discrete steps have been taken using existing programmes or new
proposals
organise
transnational research on small-scale sequencing projects ; and
Medicine
new
initiative .
Given the cost and complexity of genome analysis ,
further work in Europe requires transnational effort .

Programme ,

Framework

involved

Predictive

efforts

under

some

under

will

made

the

the

to

be

бб

Neurosciences

few

The

have
in
4.44 .
decades
past
In the past many disciplines
knowledge of the nervous system .
such
molecular
physics ,
biology studied the nervous system in isolation from each other .
But neuroscience today is an alliance of disciplines applied to
this most complex branch of the life sciences .

chemistry ,

explosion

seen ■ an

science ,

medical

and

as

Even

with

4.45 .
information
already accumulated on what the brain is made of , what it looks
like and how its elements behave , the really big questions about ,
for example , how man remembers , feels and carries out voluntary
movements , remain unanswered .

considerable

amount

the

of

psychiatry

increasingly interesting also

The applications of knowledge in this field go beyond
4.46 .
The
psychology ,
pharmacology ,
of
neurosciences
are
The brain has capacities for
information theory and technology .
plasticity ,
storage
information
learning and creative association which cannot be
adaptivity ,
matched
present .
computers
Mathematicians , physicists and biologists hope to build computer
models that go much further than today in mimicking some of the
skills of real brains .

processing ,

available

including

medicine .

terms

best

and

and

the

by

in

at

To that end , and to ensure a timely and original first
4.47 .
European
the
contribution
Commission launched the BRAIN initiative on adaptive intelligence
and neuro computing .

rapidly developing

field ,

this

to

This latter initiative needs to be followed by other action at a
European level to pool resources and complementary skills .

Industrial and agro-industrial applications

4.48 .
The European pharmaceutical industry has enjoyed rapid
growth in the 1980s , with production almost doubling between 1980
But it now faces a number of problems .
and 1987 and imports low .

107

67

100

the

cost

high

( around

include

These
of
developing and bringing to the market a new product or chemical
entity ( NCE ); the short period of exclusiveness granted under
existing patent protection legislation ( it takes usually over 10
years from the time of patent application until a marketing
; and increasing competition from the
authorisation is obtained )
European research is still highly
US and Japanese industries .
effective but the results achieved in Japan in particular ( 19
NCEs out of 56 introduced in 1987 ) demonstrate that a redoubling
of effort is required and more investment is essential .

million

ECU )

4.49 .
There is also a need for further efforts in the agro ¬
industrial field , where the Commission has already made proposals
for action at Community level . These are described more fully in
the annex .

Industry has

suggested', moreover ,

The funds estimated necessary for the programme proposed on agro ¬
industrial research ( ECLAIR ) are limited ( 80 MECU for 5 years ).
They allow a reasonable start , but - if successful - they are
likely to need expansion in the coming years to meet the expected
needs .
that the currently
proposed programme on improved food technology ( FLAIR - 25 MECU
over 5 years ) should be complemented by an action at European
at
level
nutrition is desirable given the importance of the nutritional
aspects
new
technologies for food production . This " new nutrition " is being
In Europe the
pursued in the USA and Japan in particular .
implications for transfrontier trade in food products , for the
CAP ,
be
considered .

possibilities

on nutrition .

standards

stimulate

offered

research

health

common

A new

would

need

need

look

and

the

and

the

for

by

of

to

to

5 .

ENERGY ( Annexes 5+6 )

The Market Requirements

4.50 .
An adequate supply of energy at reasonable cost in the
right place at the right time is fundamental to the proper
functioning
the
commerce
of
satisfaction of human needs
cooking and travel .
Technologies that supply energy , as well as those that ensure its
most efficient use are truly " enabling " technologies , without
which our economies and societies would rapidly break down .

transport and

for -heating ,

industry ,

and

to

4.51 .
The future energy needs of the European Community up to
the end of the century and alternative ways to satisfy them have
been extensively analysed by the services of the Commission with
the help of national experts and the modelling tools developed
The
under, j the Community 's non-nuclear energy R&D programme .

108

range of scenarios they present are a good starting point to
identify research needs .

68

Table 4.6 .

Scenarios for Community energy needs in 2000 a.d .

Primary energy demand
Solid Fuels
Oil
Gas
Nuclear
Hydro , Geothermal , Solar , etc .

Source :

Energy 2000 , CEC 1986 .

Mtoe

EUR - 10

2000 a.d .

1036 - 1218
309
539
256
235
22

229 -
430 -
196 -
150 -
21

1985
942
218
413
182
116
12

The range of figures reflects uncertainties about future economic
growth , the future price of oil , emission controls , the size of
nuclear power programmes in individual Member States and progress
in development and use of new and renewable energies .

All the scenarios point to a growing demand for electricity ,
which could rise to as much as 20% of the energy used by the
final consumer in 2000 , compared with around 15% today .
Beyond
2000 too the demand for electricity is expected to grow more
quickly than other fuels .

The broad conclusions from this analysis - supported by
4.52 .
national
and
majbr
studies
of
reflected in the Community 's agreed energy objectives to 1995 -
are in favour of diversification of European supply and increased
efficiency of energy use as means to ensure energy and economic
security .

companies ,

energy

those

and

The close relationship between energy production and use and the
environment add a further and compelling argument in favour of
diversification .
In order to minimise the negative environmental
effects of each energy source it is important to have access to
several solutions .

109

Research Needs

69

Many of the technologies are available now ; some will
4.53 .
in
result of major
longer-term as
only be available
research efforts .
Those efforts , which in some cases will not
bear fruits for 10-20 years or even longer , must not be weakened
or abandoned simply because the price of oil in the short-term
has dropped to less than half its value in the early 1980s .

the

a

In the past few years there has been some reduction in of
This
expenditure on energy as a whole inside and outside Europe .
applies particularly to research on new and renewable energies
breeder
and
based
fast
on
well
technologies .
Expenditure on nuclear fission research continues
to be the largest element in public expenditure on R&D as a whole
( Table 4.7 . ) .

fossil-fuel

reactors

as

as

in

for

R&D

The

and

from

energy

energy

support

reduction

4.54 .
reflects
progress accomplished since major programmes were launched in the
aftermath of the 1973-74 " oil crisis "; problems encountered in
bringing some projects to successful technological or commercial
development ; and shifts of priority in publicly-financed research
away
industrial
There remain areas where a significant level of
technologies .
effort
longer-term
be maintained because of
to
needs
potential for providing environmentally benign and independent
sources of energy supply and use in Europe .
This is particularly
the case of controlled nuclear fusion and for carefully targetted
actions in the field of non-nuclear energies .
As far as nuclear
fission energy is concerned the main needs lie more in the field
of public acceptability rather than in production technology
The issue of acceptability and safety is discussed
itself .
separately in part 2 of this chapter .

information

towards

their

and

Controlled nuclear fusion

should

Nuclear

fusion
acceptable ,

an
4.55 .
inexhaustible ,
environmentally
geographically
economic
The
source
aspects are impossible to define precisely at the present stage ,
but will need to be periodically monitored as the fusion and
long-term
The
continuous study as
environmental aspects will also deserve
fusion programmes approach the technological stage .

provide
practically

independent

ultimately

scenarios

energy .

energy

better

become

known .

of

Fusion

research

4.56 .
European
This long-term
collaborative venture under Community auspices .
project , embracing all the work carried out in the Member States ,
is designed to lead in due course to the joint construction of
prototype reactors with a view to their industrial production and

already

major

is

a

110

MARKET REQUIREMENTS FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT TIME SCALES

Up to 2000

Between 2000 and 2020

After 2020

“1
>
CD
1“
m

«r*

( DU

ildings , industry , transpo rt )

Rational Use of
energy

Energy conservation
combu

energy use technologies
in technologies

and
Stic
“ΤΠΓ

Electricity

Storage Conversion a nd 1

. ransportation

*  

Explorati on - Exploi ta t .

assisted extraction

  *

* 

***

Oil

Gas

Coal

Nuclear

Renew . Energies

Exploration

conversion into liquic
fuel e.g . alcohols et al

*  

   *·

improved
- exploitation and us
- fluidised bed combu

es
St .

- Coal gasification
- Combined cycles -

electricity generati on

MHD
gasification/ 1 iquefactior

2nd generation
nuclear reactors
with improved safety
features

Cost reduction :
Photovoltaic solar

Safety
waste disposal
decommissioning

Cost reduction :
Solar
Wind
Biomass
Hydra ul ic
Geothermal

**

*

  *

* *

*

Breeder and Fusion
reactors

Cost reduction

*    

* *

  *

it  

Energy - Env i ronment

Emission R <
( C02 )

S02 , NOx ,
C02 abatement

; duc tion , radioactive waste

C02

and

emission control

C02

•kit *

Potential market

in primary energy requirements : **' * > 30 % - **

10 to 30 % -

*

< 10 % .

 
     
    
70

Two third countries ( Sweden and Switzerland ) have
marketing .
A multi-annual programme for the period
joined the programme .
( 1.1.1988-31.3.1992 ) has recently been approved .
A new Programme
Decision should be taken in January 1991 , which will need to be
prepared by in depth analysis not only of the outlook for fusion
itself ,
energy and
environmental scenarios for the next century , both within the EC
and world-wide .
In particular , the global climate change study
( discussed later ) should indicate the acceptable limits to fossil
Analysis will also be needed of the prospects
fuel combustion .
Both results will help to
for nuclear fission waste disposal .
define the long-term role to be played by fusion .

could

play

role

but

the

the

in

of

it

4.57 .
Scientific wisdom , technological skill and managerial
efficiency have made of the EC fusion programme a recognised
success .
Scientific and technical achievements place Europe in
the forefront of world-wide magnetic fusion research :

JET , the flagship of the Community fusion programme , is the
world 's
largest experiment , which has made a large step
towards the demonstration of the scientific feasibility of
fusion ;
the European medium-size devices in operation contribute
also to the progress of fusion , and the construction and
commissioning of new devices are proceeding according to
schedule ;
European industry is building all these devices and has
advanced
with
already
development .

entrusted

long-term

been

some

bilateral

This leading position of the Community fusion programme makes
Europe an appealing partner for international collaboration both
within
( Canada ,
frameworks
in
and
In particular , under
multinational organisations ( OECD , IAEA ) .
IAEA
EURATOM-
together with the USA , the USSR and Japan - in the conceptual
design activities for an International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor ( ITER ) has recently been signed .

participation

agreement

auspices ,

Japan ,

USA )

on

by

an

basis ,

The EC decision to concentrate on magnetic rather than
4.58 .
on a world¬
inertial confinement has so far proved judicious :
be
not
wide
neglected ( Table 4.8 .).
Two-thirds of efforts , in the USA for
example , are devoted to magnetic confinement and one-third to
inertial confinement ( which has a direct connection with military
technology ) .

approach

inertial

however ,

should ,

the

Suggestions to develop the inertial confinement approach , either
Italy .
by lasers
Development of this approach would be at least as expensive as
the present magnetic confinement programme .

or by heavy particles ,

have been made in

112

COMM R&D

COMM .
( i n c l .

R&DD

J RC )

Comparison between public R S DD expenditures in 1987

($ 1987 )

( 7ί of the total )

EC

JAPAN

X

9

3

9

39

9

21

10

X

A

5

11

A A

5

28

3

US

%

8

2,5

10,5

33

7

18

21

%

3,3

1,4

2,3

7,8

9,7

73,0

2,5

100

100

100

100

Energy conservation

Hydrocarbons

Coa l

Nuclear Fission

Renewable energies

Advances nuclear + Fusion

Others

TOTAL

y.

8

7

12

20

1 1

Aí

1

100

European Fusion Programme Strategy

Mostly
Mostly
Scientific
. Scientific
■ Aims
■ Aims

i
i
!
!

Mostly
Mostly
Technical
Technical
Aims

:_ i

---

|
|
!

i

Economic
Economic
Feasibility
Feasibility

T-

- |

' - -–>■
JET -1->■
^
NCT
I
r~rj-^
Other -i-► HER
Tokamaks
i vrvcu i icirw j
^ |
j
i

Other

i-

j

|
_ I__ _L ---1

|

|

DEMO
DEMO

Technology
Technology

-

Alternative lines
Alternative lines

-:- .

--->

1980

1990

2000

2010 .

2020

THE THREE ABOVE-MENTIONED STEPS TOWARDS FUSION REACTORS
TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITIES ) ARE INTERDEPENDENT AND OVERLAP EACH OTHER .
AT THE TIME OF THE NEXT PROGRAMME REVISION ( 1 - 1 -1991 ) / THE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY DATA
BASE WILL PROBABLY BE SUFFICIENT TO ALLOW TO DECIDE ON THE STARTING DATE OF THE DETAILED
DESIGN OF THE NEXT STEP .

( DEMONSTRATION OF SCIENTIFIC /

–H
ùi
C7
r–
fP

OO

Table 4.8 .

continued

VARIOUS APPROACHES TO CONTROLLED FUSION RESEARCH

APPROACH

CONFIGURATION

LINE

MAGNETIC

CONFINEMENT

TOROIDAL

TOKAMAK

ALTERNATIVE LINES :

i ) Stellarator

ii ) Reversed Field Pinch

•

iii ) Others

OPEN

MIRROR

OTHERS

LASERS

LIGHT ION BEAMS

HEAVY ION BEAMS

INERTIAL

CONFINEMENT

OTHER

APPROACHES

Muon-catalyzed fusion and fusion with exotic fuels ,
are sometimes also considered as a remote possibility .

. At present ,

the Community funding for fusion R&D amounts to about
200 MioECU per year , corresponding to an overall yearly expenditure of
about 450 MioECU . An increase of the order of 100 MioECU / year will be
necessary during the detailed design of the Next Step ( 1992-1994 ). A
further increase will be required during the construction phase ; its
amounts will depend upon the frame in which the construction will take
place .

. Europe

is

concentrating

expenditure
( only
because of military implications ), and
devoted to inertial fusion ,
within that approach : 80 % expenditure are devoted to tokamaks and 20%
to alternative lines ( no research on open configurations ) .

on magnetic

fusion

2%

. For • comparison :

approach

the US fusion programme follows both
and

the magnetic
confinement
inertial
the
confinement approach ( one third ). Within the magnetic approach , open
configurations have recently been abandoned (a large mirror device has
in Europe -
and US magnetic research is
been moth-balled )
putting emphasis on tokamaks .

of expenditure )

thirds

like

( two

-

115

Non-nuclear energies and energy-saving technologies

71

on

Progress

non-nuclear

significantly
4.59 .
evolved since research activities throughout the Community were
The three successive Community
stepped up from the early 1970s .
programmes
Community 's
the
demonstration programmes , have made an important contribution to
this development in Europe and throughout the world .
The present state of research can be considered under four main
headings :

energies

together

energy

with

R&D ,

has

on

( i ) renewables

Solar power plants using photovoltaic cells have good long-term
prospects provided the costs for the cells and the associated
Another
array structures can be reduced to about 1 ECU / Watt .
important area is the development of passive solar technology to
reduce conventional energy requirements for heating and cooling
in buildings .

Wind energy research aimed essentially at cost reductions and
reliability of larger wind generators .
Long-term contributions
of up to 10% of total electricity demand in some regions are
conceivable .

research

Biomass
collection
and
gasification and liquefaction .

conversion

aimed

also

at

of

reducing

biomass

overall

through

costs

of
pyrolysis ,

Geothermal R&D focussed on " Hot dry rock " technology development
could provide heat and power almost anywhere in Europe where the
geological conditions are favourable once economic feasibility is
achieved .

( ii ) Rational energy use

is

work

concentrating

advanced
Development
batteries and fuel cells .
Heat pumps have the potential to
reduce energy use in domestic and industrial heating by 30-50% .
solid batteries are being developed for electrical
Advanced
vehicles .
Fuel cells are being given particular attention in the
field of energy production and storage .

pumps ,

heat

on

Energy savings research in industry is focussing on component
development and unit operations .
In combustion research for
stationary applications and in transport the main interest lies
in the twin concerns of energy saving and pollution abatement .

116

( iii ) Fossil fuels

72

One important field is the use and conversion of solid fuels ,
lignite , including the possible reduction of
i.e. coal , peat ,
environmental
conversion
in
processes .
Research on liquefaction , combined cycle electricity
generation with fluidised beds and coal gasification is being
carried out in some of the Member States and at Community level .
The use of coal / liquid mixtures is also being researched .

pollution

involved

coal

the

The bulk of hydrocarbons research is being carried out by the oil
At Community level the focus of
and gas companies themselves .
activity
reserves
exploitable
economic
to
Drilling techniques are
accessible to the European oil industry .
concerned ,
progressing as
especially in the deep and off shore drilling sectors .
The same
holds for production techniques including assisted recovery .

reliability are

increase

speed

and

far

the

as

is

( iv ) Energy Modelling

A fourth important research area embraces the analytical tools
essential to understanding energy systems and their interface
This is an area where the
with the economy and the environment .
value
research
institutes and universities in a Community framework has already
proved its worth ( cf . Energy 2000 study cited earlier ).

coordinated

activities

different

among

of

Future Options

4.60 .
Some of the technology options which were pursued in
the aftermath of the first " oil crisis " have now come to an end
from the point of view of research , because they have reached
their goals and led to practical exploitation ( one example is
passive
now relatively widely
developed in Europe , notably in Southern Europe ).

solar water heating

which

is

specific
have
Others
technological
economic
reasons , they do not offer the prospect of broad application .
One example of the former is solar tower power stations .

end
an
encountered

to
come
problems

because
because ,

either

of
for

or

On the other hand , new perspectives have emerged in the light of
the trends described earlier .
These are analysed more fully in
the Annex on non-nuclear energies and summarised in table 4.9 .
The
the
Commission 's recent proposal ( the JOULE programme ).

Community

reflected

targets

level

new

are

at

in

117

Table

4.9 .

Priorities for non-nuclear energy R&D

Ratlonal Energy Use ( RuE )

-

-

-

-

saving

technology

in buildings

( energy management

energy
pumps , solar energy applications )
combustion
experimental Verification with advanced non-intrusive diagnostics )
industrial processes
( heat recovery including development of heat
exchangers and heat pumps , unit operations , energy and process system
models )
fuel cells ( solide oxide , molten carbonate ) high Tc superconductors ,
energy storage .

combustion ,

simulation

( computer

control ,

heat

and

of

Renewables

-

-

-

-

-

solar

energy

wind energy ( large-scale wind installations , wind measurements and
modelling )
photovoltaic
technology )
hydraulic energy ( small hydro , study of potential of tidal and wave
energy )
biomass
( production and
thermal conversion , pilot projects )
geothermal energy ( hot dry rocks , brine handling and corrosion and
scaling of resources , study of deep geology )

biological and

energy crops ,

( crystalline

storage of

amorphous

silicon

and

Energy derived from fossil sources

-
-
-

-

-

oil exploration and recovery techniques
conversion of gas into liquid fuels
combined cycle electricity generation with fluidised beds and coal
gasification
coal liquefaction and in situ coal gasification
new solid fuel burners
Magneto-hydrodynamics

Modelling energy and environment

-
-
-

energy resources , energy supply and demand systems
energy / environment interactions
assessing impact of the Single European market on energy / economy

118

II IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR EUROPE 'S CITIZENS

73

4.61 .
contribution to make in three main areas :

European

science

and

technology

have

a

major

*

*

*

in producing a better environment

in improving health ; and

in enhancing safety .

In addition there are important social responsibilities which
must be addressed in the field of bioethics , which are considered
separately below .

1 . THE ENVIRONMENT

( Annex 7 )

is

There

increasing

4.62 .
the
Political leaders have responded to
threat to the environment .
such concern and have proposed specific national , regional and
international actions .
The relevance of the European dimension
has been formally recognised by the Single European Act , which
identifies the protection and the improvement of the environment
as a main objective of Community action .

awareness

public

about

4.63 .
Environmental
evolution and incompletely known .
vital basis on which policy responses can be evolved .

are
continuous
Research provides therefore a

problems

complex ,

in

Though many problems are common to industrialised countries , and
others are " global " in the literal sense of the word ( namely they
concern the whole globe and require world-wide collaboration ),
many problems are of a regional nature .
Moreover , the European
regulatory responsibilities which must rest on
Community has
know-how .
and
sound
Joint research at Community level is therefore needed to provide
this knowledge and know-how efficiently and economically ( through
complementarity and task sharing ), and also to provide it in a
form acceptable to all concerned .

scientific

knowledge

technical

reliable

Research Needs

An overview of the main issues for research is given in
4.64 .
Annex 7 .
The research problems to which need or would greatly
benefit from research at a transnational level in Europe are

119

summarised in Table 4.10 .

They form three interdependent sets :

74

understanding the basic phenomena
detection
changes
prevention .

interpretation

and

of

"

environmental

Understanding the basic phenomena

the

sea ),

Since

environment

complex
the
4.65 .
results
interaction of many complex sub-systems ,
these must each be
analysed ( the stratosphere , the atmosphere , soil , inland water ,
the
and their mutual interaction studied by a systems
approach ( large ecosystems , climate in its regional as well as
global aspects ).
In addition further efforts are needed to
understand the environment within buildings , an area on which the
Community 's JRC is carrying out pioneering work .

from

A scientific approach to a system of this complexity would have
been unthinkable a few decades ago .
However , progress in basic
mathematics , analytical techniques ( including remote sensing from
space ), together with the huge capacity to store and analyse
information
approach
computing
possible .

advanced

make

this

now

by

Detection and interpretation of environmental changes

A second

set concerns

the continuous detection and
4.66 .
interpretation of environmental changes and the assessment of
their consequences on human , animal and vegetable life as well as
on geological resources and the sea .
This is needed to provide
public assurance that undesirable trends will be detected and
also to provide data for the analysis outlined in 4.65 . above .

Environmental epidemiology is included in this activity .
The
European dimension in
advantages
statistical
the
obvious .
significance
development of suitable systems to identify and measure noxious
agents is also important .

toxicology and

Environmental

a
are

terms

of

of

Prevention

The

prevention ,
the
4.67 .
concerns
third
the abatement of existing
development of • rc-lean technologies ,
noxae and the elimination of toxic wastes .
Research on the
safety of industrial practice and compatibility of agricultural
Since
practice with the environment also belongs to this group .

including

set

120

able 4.10 .

Key Research Issues in the Environmental Field

A.

Understanding the basic phenomena

mechanisms of climate ;
atmospheric ( troposphere and stratosphere ) chemistry (" ozone
hole ") ;
physiology of organisms under environmental stress (pollutants ,
drought , etc ) ;
functioning , stability and vulnerability of ecosystems ,
including stress ecology , natural population dynamics ;
metabolism find effects of xenobiotic substances in man , aniirals
and plants ;
interactions between atmosphere , soil and water bodies ;
chemistry and biology of soil under the influence of pollution
and other stresses (eg . agricultural practise ) , vulnerability
to erosion ;
basic mechanisms of seismic and volcanic events ;
study of the effects of pollutants on materials ;
research into the prevention of accidents frcm hazardous
industrial activities .

B.

Detection and Interpretation of Environmental Changes

-

-

-

improvement of methods for the analysis of the components of
environmental matrices ;
earth observation by remote sensing techniques ;
elaboration of methods for storage and treatment of data on the
environment , also in support of modelling ;
collection , conpilation and assessment of data on environmental
quality ;
description and evaluation of damage symptoms on organisms ;
epidemiological studies in human populations exposed to
environmental pollution ;
studies on soil deterioration and erosion ;
recording of indicators for climatic changes .

C.

Prevention of Environmental Damages

development of sound technologies for pollution abatement and
waste recycling and disposal ;
development of alternative , less polluting technologies and
products (" clean technologies ") ;
methods for the ecologically sound management of ecosystems and
renewable resources ;
rehabilitations of disturbed or degraded ecosystems ;
development of safer technologies (chemical plants ) ;
investigation of the possibilities to predict , and to mitigate
the consequences of , disasters of man-made and natural origin ;
design of methods and materials for the protection and
restoration of the cultural heritage .

121

these activities are continuously evolving , so must the research
Studies on the prevention and mitigation of man-made and
itself .
natural hazards also belong under this heading .

75

Global Climate Change

4.68 .
to analyse is the so-called " greenhouse-effect " .

The greatest source of concern and the most difficult

Continued burning of coal and oil since the beginning of the
industrial era has resulted in increasing quantities of carbon
dioxide being added to the natural composition of the planet 's
atmosphere .
Although the oceans act as a large sink through
complex phenomena involving phytoplankton photosynthesis , large
quantities of carbon dioxide remain in the atmosphere , which is
this
now
pre ¬
in
enriched
industrial values .
Natural recycling of CO2 by green terrestrial
plants is also seriously impaired by deforestation .

respect

15-20%

with

gas

by

to

Carbon dioxide is not transparent to the infrared light radiated
back by the earth 's
incoming solar
as
radiation , which means that heat is trapped in the lower layers
of the atmosphere .
The planet is thus being heated in a similar
way to that of a greenhouse .

a result of

surface

consensus

an
Scientific
increase in the global mean surface temperature of 1.5 to 4.5’C
The atmospheric accumulation of other
over the next 50 years .
greenhouse
the
methane ,
as
such
chlorof luorocarbons also plays a role .

nitrous

heating

produce

gases ,

oxide

will

that

such

and

is

The climate change resulting from such heating would have serious
consequences for agriculture , and a significant rise in the level
of the seas is expected from the thermal expansion of the oceans
alone , apart from the melting of the ice caps .

the

heating ,

regional

droughts

4.69 .
The issue has global dimensions and is made enormously
complex by the uncertainties still affecting the measurement of
global
the
anticipated climatic changes ( precipitation patterns , frequency
the
of
extreme
an
uncertainties about
assessment of the rates of carbon dioxide production , of the role
of the oceans and biosphere as sinks and sources , of the rate of
deforestation ,
the
climate
of
modelling

other
events ,
future energy patterns .

the possible shifts
all

interactive components

of bioclimatic zones ,

It involves

seasonal

features

etc .),

the

the

and

and

and

of

of

122

systems
appreciation of the consequences of energy policy options .

( atmosphere ,

cryosphere ,

biosphere ),

oceans ,

76

an

and

4.70 .
Intensified research is needed to reduce as much as
possible , and as soon as possible , the remaining uncertainties ,
especially as regards the timing , the magnitude and the regional
the impacts which the change
distribution of climate change ;
would have mainly on agriculture and water resources , on the sea
level and
for the coasts and coastal-based
economic activities , on socio-economic structures in general ; and
on environmentally benign energy options capable of leading to
At the same time research is
reduced carbon dioxide emissions .
needed to ensure
preparedness in respect of changes which cannot
be prevented in time , so at least alleviate their consequences .

its consequences

Such

research

world-wide
requires
4.71 .
cooperation , not only because of the multi-disciplinary character
of the issue , but also in view of the need for a coordinated
approach to choices that might have to be made on future energy ,
to
policies
agriculture
counteract or alleviate the affects of the climate change .

industry

measures

European

able

and

and

and

on

European Action

At a European level the Community will need to mobilise
4.72 .
the
modes
various
understanding ,
the
environment , starting from its own " in house " research carried
out in the JRC (a guarantee of independent high level S / T know¬
how
action and
international collaboration .

for
improvement of

of
monitoring ,

protection and

research needs

shared-cost

Community ),

satisfy

action

whole

the

for

to

to

a

In the latter context a major contribution at the Community level
to the implementation of the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme ( Global Change ) deserves careful attention .

At the same time an adequate liaison needs to be assured with
other transnational environmental R&D actions in Europe ,
and
notably within EUREKA and with the space agencies ( in particular
with
space
instruments themselves and the requirements of the scientific
community ( see also point 4.106 . on Earth sciences ).

between

balance

proper

ensure

ESA )

the

to

a

2 . HEALTH RESEARCH

( Annex 8 )

Research Needs

4.73 .
starting point for consideration of research requirements :

Three main issues in the field of health provide the

77

( i )

the rising cost of health care and delivery systems .

Health costs in the Community amount to more than 200 milliard
They are rising
ECU per year , the equivalent of about 8% of GNP .
both
medical
equipment and opportunities for treatment , and because of the
growing incidence of certain diseases . This is related in part
to :

sophistication

increasing

because

the

of

of

( ii ) the " greying " of Europe 's population .

Europe faces the prospect of . an ageing population over the period
to the end of the century as a result of lower reproduction rates
on the one hand ,
in the
and higher life -
expectancy , on the other .
This will mean a quantitative increase
over the coming years in age-typical illnesses , with consequences
for the demand on medical services ;

1980s ,

1970s

and

( iii )
the need for major progress in the fight against
diseases such as cancer and AIDs , as well as those related
to the environment and life-style .

4.74 .
Public health research in the Community , which is about
half that of the USA , amounts to less than 2% of total health
If properly aimed , it can make a major contribution to
costs .
meeting all three of
Research on
the needs described above .
prevention , care-delivery systems and organisation is essential
to ensure the best value-for money in health delivery ( i ); while
the need for targetting research efforts on the specific problems
posed under ( ii ) and ( iii ) is widely recognised .

European Action

the
in
4.75 .
Research is proceeding on all these
Most national
Member States , but often in a fragmented manner .
research programmes in the field of medicine and health consist
of a large number of relatively small projects carried out by
scattered
often working
independently at universities , hospitals etc .
This is an area
national
where
frontiers has already been recognised and concerted action within
The principal
the Community framework has proved its worth .

coordinated action across

relatively small

research teams

fronts

value

more

and

the

of

124

78

characteristic of this concerted action is that Member States
for coordination at Community
themselves
while the Commission
level and execute the work themselves ;
coordinates the national research contributions .

select the projects

4.76 .
The future action lines in health research recommended
by the Advisory Committee for the Community 's Health Research
Programme are summarised in table 4.11 .
It will be seen that
they correspond very clearly to the needs described earlier .
They also include one other important aspect of R&D on health
research - the development of medical technology - which has an
economic as well as social dimension .

3 .

SAFETY

( Annex 9 )

a

is

fundamental social need ,

The safety of the environment in the home , at work and
4.77 .
the
in travel
control of costs in health .
The contribution of R&D to safety is
pervasive - from the use of new materials to the development of
robotics , from the improvement in vehicle and aircraft technology
to
to
identify potential dangers in the environment and in machinery
and equipment long before they occur .

linked also to

development

monitoring

techniques

sensing

and

the

of

Industrial and Road Safety

4.78 .
In the field of industrial technologies and materials
increasing attention will have to be given to the safety aspects
of design of consumer goods and also to the safety of the working
as foreshadowed in the Single European Act
environment itself ,
An important issue , where R&D has a role to play , is the
itself .
development of common safety standards in respect of the new
technologies
a
Lasers
significant example .

themselves .

industrial

use

for

are

4.79 .
The potential contribution of R&D to road safety in the
longer-term is particularly great , and major efforts are being
undertaken in Europe to develop both the " intelligent car " and
This is an area
the road infrastructure that it will require .
where collaborative transnational
important both
because of the scale of the research requirements and the need
for a harmonised approach .
The Community itself has launched a
significant programme ( DRIVE - Dedicated Road Infrastructure for
Vehicle Safety in Europe ) which is designed to help coordinate
efforts on the infrastructure ; while within EUREKA the PROMETHEUS
project and other related transport R&D projects are focussed on

efforts

are

125

FUTURE ACTION-LINES PLANNED IN

HEALTH RESEARCH

CANCER

Cancer research training scheme
Clinical treatment research
Epidemiological research
Early detection and diagnosis
Orug development
Experimental C fundamental ) research

A I 0 S

Oisease control and prevention
V i ro - i mmunolag 1 cal research
Clinical research

AGE-RELATED HEALTH PROBLEMS

Reproduct ion
Ageing and diseases
0 i sab i l i t i es

ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE-STYLE RELATEO HEALTH PROBLEMS

Breakdown in human adaptation
Nutrition
Consumption of illicit drugs
Infect ions

MEOICAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Diagnostic methods and monitoring
Treatment and rehab i l i t a t ion
Technical and clinical evaluation

HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH

Research on prevention
Research on care delivery systems
Research on health care organitation
Health technology assessment

the in-car research requirements .
major preoccupation .

Coordination of effort is a

79

Nuclear fission safety

A third area where continuing safety research is of the
4.80 .
utmost importance is nuclear
The dependence on nuclear
power for energy supplies varies significantly as between Member
But as the Chernobyl accident demonstrated forcefully ,
States .
the safety of nuclear power is a matter that concerns each and
every Member State .

fission .

The needs and outlook for research on nuclear safety
4.81 .
both outside and inside Europe are presented in annex 9 .
The USA
used to be in the forefront of research but the Americans have
now reduced
is continuing to make a
The results of Soviet work in the field are
significant effort .
not fully available , although some opening has occurred after
Chernobyl .
with some
has moved into the
countries playing a leading role ( France , Germany and the United
Kingdom ) .

their efforts .

forefront ,

Europe

Japan

4.82 .
In the field of radiation protection ( where Community
research programmes have either directly supported or coordinated
80% of the effort inside the Community ) continuing research is
needed on :

exposure

radioactivity
Human
dose ;
( measurement
transfer
the
environment , making full use of the information coming
from Chernobyl ).

to
radiation
interpretation

radionuclides

radiation

behaviour

and

and

and

of

in

of

Effects on the human body of exposure to radiation ;
assessment , prevention and treatment .

Management of risk of exposure to radiation .

of

political

Chernobyl ,

A major information effort is also required .

In the
4.83 .
aftermath
considerations
overrode scientific and technological arguments about radiation
and technologists are
levels and their effects .
responsible
partly
they
and
the
underestimated
education of the public ; while after the event they confused the
and disagreements
technical
public
jargon
in^ some
had negative consequences
about details .

by non-homogeneous
This has

Before
systematic

information

importance

Scientists

social

event

this .

and

the

for

of

127

countries on public confidence in the nuclear community .
This
confidence can and must be restored by greater openness and
willingness to communicate ,
terms understood by
fellow scientists , but also in terms accessible to a much wider
public
this
direction over the coming months and years .

not only in

Particular

progress .

be made

efforts

must

in

80

( notably

Continuing research work is
the phenomenology of

also needed on reactor
4.84 .
safety
low probability severe
accidents ; mitigation of the consequences of severe accidents ;
behaviour ;
structural
improved passive
fuel
cycle ; radioactive waste management and storage ; decontamination
and dismantling techniques for nuclear plants ; and control of
fissile materials .

safety mechanisms );

the safety of

components ;

behaviour

reactor

fuel

the

of

4 . BIOETHICS

in

the

notably

4.85 .
The progress in biology described earlier is so rapid
and the resulting applications so pervasive and substantial that
the utmost attention must be given to their impact on individuals
Ever since biotechnology began to open up major new
and society .
engineering ,
possibilities ,
biologists themselves have been conscious of this need .
More
than a decade ago they proposed and implemented a moratorium on
genetic engineering research until the conditions
for safety
were identified .
Since then , public opinion as well as public
authorities has become progressively aware of the problem and
bio-ethics has become a subject of constant attention and action ,
not only at the national but also at the international level ( for
the
example
of
Summit
industrialised countries ).
the Council of
Europe has created

a standing Committee for bioethics .

Conferences
of
In Europe itself ,

Bioethics

genetic

yearly

field

the

of

4.86 .
The Community 's obligations in the field of health and
safety , as well as the need ( for competition reasons ) to avoid
the emergence of widely divergent legislation in the Member
are
States
products
compelling reasons for a Community approach to this issue .
Such
an approach would contribute to public confidence in science in
the Community , without which the European Technology Community
cannot be soundly built .

biotechnological

applications

and

on

of

1988

first half

the EC
In the
Council , in complete agreement with the EC Commission , called for
Some progress has
the pursuit of bioethics at Community level .
been made .
It
is essential that ethical , societal and juridical considerations
accompany science and precede technological developments .

The momentum should be maintained and increased .

the German Presidency of

128

III FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH - THE ESSENTIAL UNDERPINNING

81

A solid capacity in fundamental research , both free and
4.87 .
targetted , provides the essential underpinning to the research in
specific fields described above .
As the provider of new ideas
and knowledge it offers opportunities for quantitative change and
new openings of both economic and social significance , widening
It is therefore
and deepening the scope of technology options .
of
independence and
for
to
vital
autonomy .

importance

Europe 's

quest

has

decreased ,

In the USA ,
and
research

while Federal support for non-military
4.88 .
applied
for
development
fundamental research has increased over the last 5 years ( cf .
chapter 2 ).
Japan is now fully aware of the need to strengthen
its basic research at home , and in an international framework
has , for example , launched the Human Frontier Science Programme
for joint development of fundamental research in neuro - and cell
biology by the Industrialised Summit Countries .
In the USA
scientific research proceeds on a very broad front , and gives
choices ,
opportunity to
in Japan
whereas
targetted basic research prevails .
The implications of this new
international emphasis on basic research are discussed further in
chapter 5.1 . below .

individual

" free ",

that

in

European

excellence

4.89 .
is
demonstrated by the attribution of Nobel Prizes and by the other
However , most
indicators of performance discussed in Chapter II .
European researchers would think that US occupies the first place
During the last decade , industry and
in their own field^9
universities have become increasingly aware of each other .
The
questions posed by the 'further evolution of this trend in Europe
are also discussed in chapter 5 .

fundamental

research

.

The Organisation of Basic Research

4.90 .
One permanent problem for basic research policy is
the distribution of resources between a small number of large and
expensive projects ( so-called " Big Sciences ") and more diffuse
and less expensive activities of small groups and individuals .

The question has been partially solved in Western Europe by
several multinational ventures for the common pursuit of Big
Sciences ( eg . CERN for high energy physics , ESO for astronomy ,

This emerges clearly from The Community of Science in
Europe , Mark N. Franklin , a study made on behalf of the
Science
CEC
with
Foundation
and
1986 )
STI
subsequently published by Gower ( ISBN 0566056321 ).

collaboration
( contract

November

European

042 ,

the

in

129

82

ESA for space , EMBL for biology , ILL for neutron sources , ESS for
synchroton radiation ^ ) .
some very large national
Moreover ,
facilities , such as the German centre in Hamburg are open to
bilateral collaboration .
These activities have been successful
and there is growing collaboration among them , which is a welcome
trend .
Big
future ,
Sciences may have to extended world-wide .
Controlled nuclear
fusion is a case in point , as discussed earlier .

collaboration

international

the

In

in

Simultaneously , several networking initiatives have been taken so
as to assure the benefits of complementarity and task sharing
European
among individual
Biology
Science
Organisation
Stimulation
programme ( now called the SCIENCE Programme ), together with the
Community 's sectoral R&D programmes , play important roles in this
context .

scientists and
the
( ESF ),
European Community 's
and

Foundation
( EMBO )

The
Molecular

small groups .

European

the

to

the

access

remains ,

however ,

question of

There
advanced
middle-size research devices and the development of expensive
scientific instrumentation .
Given the cost and sophistication of
many of the facilities in question it is not feasible to imagine
that they could all be available in every European country , let
Particular efforts are therefore
alone very major laboratory .
needed to provide a framework for cooperation among national
teams and to reduce the risk of fragmented research efforts .
In
1989 , in recognition of this problem , the Community will initiate
a pilot programme to support mutual access to large national
Suggestions have also been made within CREST to
installations .
launch a
joint European development of
scientific instrumentation .

feasibility study on

Development s in spécifie scientific disciplines

Within the broad area of fundamental research ,

4.91 .
some
developments in mathematics , physics , chemistry and the earth
sciences should be highlighted .
Fundamental biology , together
with basic biotechnology and its applications was dealt with
earlier in section I .

CERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research
EMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory
ESO

- European Organisation for Astronomical Research

in the Southern Hemisphere

ESA
ESF

- European Space Agency
- European Science Foundation .

130

I
I

Mathematics

83

In

the

theory

modern

mathematics .

non-linear
4.92 .
phenomena and related geometrical ideas deserve attention because
they are revolutionising the theory and application of dynamic
systems , with far-reaching implications for physics , chemistry ,
biology ,
probably ,
Most real world problems
sociology and the science of economics .
are complex and non-linear ; therefore they fall outside the scope
of traditional closed-form
The subtle and versatile
techniques of dynamic systems theory now make it possible to
model and to explore the evolution over time of both natural and
man-made systems .

meteorology ,

technology

analysis .

ecology ,

and ,

of

a

power

situation

now makes

4.93 .
The combination of theoretical advance and significant
those
computing
possible
systems which evolve towards a stable solution ; those that evolve
to
reach
alternative final states depending on small differences in the
initial conditions ; and those that develop into a state of steady
but perpetual chaos .
The search for an underlying order in the
ensemble of all chaotic trajectories in a chaotic system remains
a major challenge to modern mathematics .

to distinguish

oscillation ;

stable

those

that

it

of

can

4.94 .
Specific examples of the impact which the theory of non­
linear , complex phenomena has on other branches of science and
technology
the
development of the first optical version of a transistor , and
an all-optical computer ;
demonstration of
advanced modelling of climatic change ( of relevance to the Global
Change
the
functioning of the internal combustion engine .

feasibility of

improvements

initiative

discussed

earlier );

include

Annex

These

found

the

10 .

be

in

in

The theory of non-linear phenomena was pioneered in
And Europe continues to play a significant role

4.95 .
Europe .
Research projects in fields such as those mentioned in 4.94 .
above are amongst those accepted , after stiff competition , under
the EC Stimulation programme , reflecting the continuing interest
of European researchers in pushing out the frontiers .

Physics

In addition to encouraging further collaboration among
4.96 .
in high energy physics etc .,
existing multinational ventures
the exploitation of
greater attention needs
This must be done without side-tracking
technology spin-offs .
EC
The
the main
technological research programmes and to the industrial firms
participating in them could be usefully explored .

to be given to

projects .

closer

scope

links

with

for

131

84

4.97 .
As far as fundamental physics are concerned , particular
attention needs to be given to the study of condensed matter ,
because of both its implications for materials technology and its
need for large and medium scale investigation facilities ( such as
synchrotron radiation and neutron sources , high power lasers ,
The USA and Japan are well provided with
irradiation devices ).
( as
such devices .
suggested above ), could be open to increased transnational use .

In Europe , however , they are often unique and ,

A suggestion along these
1985 by the UK
Sciences and Engineering Research Council and could be pursued
through the EC programme of Access to Large Installations .

lines was made in

the

Among

4.98 .
particular
interest in terms of the expected technological impact , is high
temperature superconductivity ( the ability of electrical currents
to flow without resistance ), which was discussed in section 1
above in the context of industrial materials .

developments

scientific

of

because

Other areas of the physics of matter should also be
4.99 .
or
optical
mentioned ,
of
mechanical properties , such as " low-dimensional "
( i.e. very thin )
materials , artificially structured materials , material obtained
and performing under extreme conditions , liquid crystals , quasi
crystals .
Progress on these subjects has a high priority in the
USA .

electromagnetic ,

their

Developments in optics and lasers are also interesting :
4.100 .
in advanced optics , Western Europe is in a good position and has
pioneered
the Joint
European Optical Bistability Project within the EC Stimulation
Programme ) .

recent developments

instance ,

some

( for

however ,

some important national and
in spite of
In lasers ,
multinational
European
BRITE
inside
efforts are not on a par with those in the USA , where there has
been a significant spin-off from military R&D , and notably SDI .
The need for strengthened joint European action in this field
merits careful consideration .

developments

EUREKA ,

and

Chemistry

Chemistry

by
4.101 .
progress in computing , mathematics and physics instrumentation
and " pulled " by biology and by a pervasive market demand .

developing

rapidly ,

" pushed "

also

is

Here as in other technological areas , quality is becoming more
standpoint ,
important
From
in
computer

scientific
well

prediction

modelling

quantity .

progress

the
as

than

and

as

V5Z

identified ,

85
analytical tools^l are changing the way in which chemicals are
isolated ,
synthesized .
Progress in the theory of chemical reaction is leading to a whole
spectrum of new catalysts ( synthetic enzymes , catalytic surfaces ,
and photochemically
cluster catalysis ,
techniques ,
primed
including
improving
separation and purification .

homogeneous
same
selection

catalysis )
time

a
membranes

" intelligent "

number of

designed

computer

events .

and

are

the

by

At

chemistry-based

Europe occupies a very good position both on the market
4.102 .
basic
for
There are , however , some problems of public acceptance
science .
because of the issue of toxic waste .
Possibly related to the
latter , there is also some difficulty in recruiting a sufficient
number of high quality students ( cf . chapter 5 ).

products

chapter

( see

and

in

I )

Earth Sciences

4.103 .
the prediction of natural phenomena with major economic
social impacts
exploitation of land resources goes without saying .

The importance of progress in the earth sciences for
and
( eg . earthquakes ), as well as for the rational

in

oil

The

particular ,

themselves
4.104 .
companies ,
Deep drilling
engaged in significant basic and applied research .
and there are major
has been pioneered by the Soviet Union ;
Good European coordination is assured by the
efforts in the USA .
Project
European
supported by the EC ).
At a national level , the German government
recently decided to initiate a very ambitious programme to drill
a very deep ( 10 km ) hole through the crust of the earth .
This is
important because other deep drills ( notably those carried out in
the Soviet Union ) have suggested that conventional methods in
exploration of the earth crust may be affected by artifacts .

Geotraverse

Foundation

Science

( cf .

are

the

Oceanography , as part of the earth sciences ,

4.105 .
is being
actively pursued throughout the world .
The US is leading the
field ,
with a high level of participation of Japan and some
the
European countries .
coastal zone , the interface between the ocean and the atmosphere
be
( important

Some aspects such as

understanding global

the study of

climate

change )

will

for

Mass and optical spectroscopy
NMR : Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
ESCA : Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
XAFS : Xray Absorption Fine Structure
XANES : Xray Absorption Near Edge Structure
Neutron activation , neutron scattering , chromatography .

133

88

This is a matter for all European governments to reflect
5.4 .
This is
In many areas basic research is very expensive .
upon .
high energy physics or oceanography or
obvious for fields like
But many smaller-scale basic research investigations now
space .
also require high-cost sophisticated equipment .
Costly basic
research cries out for a joint or coordinated approach whether
through the sharing of expensive facilities or the formulation of
already
coordinated
happening to some extent in Europe , notably through CERN , EMBL ,
ESO ,
The
SCIENCE programme of the Community is also helping to demonstrate
the usefulness of joint approaches to speculative basic research .
And
programme
currently before the Council provision has been made for joint
projects on more targetted basic research topics than hitherto .

the basic research programme of

is
ESF ^ .

Resource-pooling

programmes .

BRITE-EURAM

ESA and

ESPRIT

under

work

new

and

the

in

II

The

this

that

trend

should

facing

believes

problems

be
5.5 .
Commission
reinforced during the coming years .
It considers basic research
to be an essential aspect of Community efforts , underpinning
research aimed at improving competitiveness and research on the
societal
supports
Europe .
industrial development longer-term alongside - but distinct from
Basic research also performs
- shorter-term product development .
" training " researchers in the paradigms ,
the vital function of
To neglect this human capital
methods and norms of research .
long-term prospect .
would
As
new
where
is
suggested
the
lay
now
fundamental
foundations
notably in the
fields of health and agriculture .

research
for more applied research later ,

compromise
IV ,
efforts

Europe 's
biology
are

seriously
in

research

Chapter

needed

Basic

field

one

to

Private industry should also be encouraged to invest more in
basic research for the
important
longer-term .
advances in fundamental research have been made by scientists
working within private sector companies ( one example is the work
on beta-blockers which recently led to the award of a Nobel Prize
to Sir James Black )

Historically ,

.

( ii )

The links between industry and the universities

5.6 .
to
government ,

The Japanese technological success is partly attributable
and
of

relationships
including

universities ,
of

industry
series
a

establishment

between

close

the

33

CERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research
EMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory
ESO

- European Organisation for Astronomical Research

in the Southern Hemisphere

- European Space Agency
- European Science Foundation .

ESA
ESF

134

89

of

MITI

years^S .

USA
but in the 1980s it

specifically cooperative ventures involving firms , universities
industry-university
and
the
In
laboratories -^.
has
cooperation dates back over many years ,
witnessed a qualitatively new development in the form of major
multimillion dollar contracts between companies and universities
enabling companies to be the first to have
access to the work
carried out on campus in a broad scientific domain and for a
industry-
period
university links vary considerably but the general trend has been
towards a reinforcement , with industry driven increasingly by the
need to tap scientific knowledge and universities by financial
One associated phenomenon has been the growth of
constraints .
" science parks " on both sides of the Atlantic ( eg . Durham in the
USA , Cambridge in the UK ) .
Community cost-sharing programmes
such as ESPRIT and BRITE have aimed to encourage the links by
deliberately providing a framework in which industry research
workers and those in universities can team up in specific R&D
projects .

traditions

Europe

the

of

in

( i )

( point

research

The trend towards close industry-university links in Europe
5.7 .
It is one more potential means of
should be further encouraged .
But there are two
maximising the use of scarce R&D resources .
The first is linked to the balance between basic and
caveats .
that
applied
increasing university dependence on industry may encourage more
short-term
and
more
problem-solving
more
and
fundamental research .
Secondly , there is a risk that exclusive
relationships between companies and universities or university
departments may lead
to restrictions on the availability of
This is already an important issue in the USA ,
research results .
Already the
and it
the
recent
OECD ,
implications for the longer-term^® .

is likely to grow in importance in Europe .

devoted
to
longer-term

resources
the

university

expressed

There is

concern

neglect

above ).

report

be
of

about

risk

has

to

to

in

a

a

Future
for
notably the JISEDAI
for
Research
Industries )
This is not to say ,
Advanced Technology ) programmes .
of course , that the Japanese experience can be directly
translated to Europe .

( Basic Technologies
( Exploratory

ERATO

and

Well-known examples are the ten -year -agreement between
HOECHST and the Massachusetts General Hospital for the
creation of a department of molecular biology ; and a
five -year - agreement
Washington
University in St . Louis for research on proteins and peptides .

MONSANTO

between

and

Science and Technology Outlook , 1988
OECD , Paris 1988 .

135

The Commission has shown the way to avoid the risks in Community
programmes through the nature of the contractual arrangements
made with participants , which provide a basis for both assuring
the dissemination of research results to interested parties while
safeguarding
groups
involved .
But this is an issue which will need to be considered
further in all research funding programmes of a national as well
as a transnational nature .

interests

research

specific

the

the

of

90

the

context

specifically

Two other more specific developments at a European level
5.8 .
between
deserve
of
in
also
attention
universities and industry .
The first is the creation by a number
of multinational companies of a European Institute of Technology
aimed
R&D
between
The second is
efforts and pre-competitive university research .
the
in
the
multidisciplinary collaborative research associations in Europe
known as
This
latter issue is currently under discussion by the Community 's
Management and Coordination Advisory Committee on Biotechnology
and by the Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee
( IRDAC ) .

European Laboratories without Walls

participation

industrial

industrial

creating

interest

growing

( ELWWs ).

links

links

at

in

Basic research must be given adequate support and
attention , if solid foundations for the future are
to be constructed .

Industry-university links should be further encouraged ,
but attention must be paid to the consequences for the
nature of university research work and the availability
of research results .

EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

( iii )

Broadening and deepening the technology culture

The conduct and management of research and the application
5.9 .
of the technologies that result from it all depend on the skills
The most successful societies in the post-war
of individuals .
period have been those that have sought actively to develop those

136

skills , to create a general climate of technical literacy and to
encourage
highly trained
large
emergence
the
of
In the future these skills will be
scientists and engineers .
ever more in demand .

numbers

of

91

of

in

and

the

literacy

for skilled manpower .

In Europe the traditions of

Japan has witnessed the most significant growth in
5.10 .
research
numbers
general
technical
scientists and engineers .
In the USA the numbers are high but
stagnant , and increasingly worries are expressed about the future
availability of the manpower needed to carry through the new
some
technological revolution .
countries are stronger ( Chapter II ) than others .
But there are
widespread mismatches between the output of traditional education
and the demand
There are particular
shortages of highly gualified scientific personnel in the smaller
and less developed countries of the Community ( see ( viii ) below ).
But
shortages of
science-based skills are already a source of some concern and
there are new worries about a " brain-drain " as US universities
and companies seek to entice the brightest and the best to meet
future
their
and
own
engineers .
The US drive will not be directed only at Europe : a
key issue in the USA now is whether and how to encourage the
large number of Asian students at US universities to stay on in
the USA .
But Europe will continue to be a major potential source
of supply of highly trained research scientists to the USA .

for highly qualified

larger countries

scientists

needs

even

some

the

the

in

of

is

in

for

one

the

national

improving

principally

attractions

The question of science education , training and skill
5.11 .
acquisition
governments .
Industry also has an important role to play and many industries
have already increased their own training efforts as a partial
But the value of complementary action at Community
solution .
level has already been demonstrated by the success of the COMETT
Alongside , the Community must now move
and ERASMUS programmes .
forward
European
framework to the most able national research workers by more
rapid progress in creating a genuine Researchers' Europe .
As the
scope of research needs widens and deepens it is less and less
however
possible
offer
countries ,
It becomes in consequence
centres of excellence in every field .
increasingly
take
able
important
advantage of the possibilities offered by the whole European
Community .
At present the mobility of researchers is hampered
not only by language problems , but also by practical problems
such as different social security systems , pension arrangements
and so on .
Progress in this area will be greatly facilitated by
the removal of barriers to the free movement of labour within the
Community in the framework of progress towards the Community 's
Internal Market .

researchers

individual

the wider

large ,

for

for

be

to

to

to

of

137

( iv )

The public acceptability of science and technology

92

and

A related issue is that of public acceptability of science
5.12 .
On the one hand ,
Public concern has two facets .
and technology .
people worry about the dangers and risks associated with new
technology ,
involuntary
accidents
(a repeat of the Chernobyl accident , the escape of
dangerous biological cultures , the possibility of major chemical
On the other , there is ethical concern about
spillages etc .).
the possibilities offered by scientific developments , for example
in the field of genetic engineering , which may be voluntarily
exploited .

particularly

possibility

the

of

Concern about new scientific developments is often based
5.13 .
This is particularly true at present in
on fears of the unknown .
the case of biotechnology .
Public opinion surveys in the USA and
in some European countries have revealed considerable confusion
They have also demonstrated that
about its benefits and risks .
the
as
technologies
of
of
biotechnology depends heavily on the level of general education
and on the depths of understanding of the issues surrounding a
particular scientific development or technology-^ .

acceptability

degree

such

new

be made ;

It is important for the proper functioning of our democracies and
for the advance of European society that popular understanding of
the issues should be improved .
Only in that way will sensible
choices
a sound regulatory environment established to
minimise the risks ; and an informed basis created for examination
of the ethical issues .
The role which information can play in
the
this
Netherlands where tough regulations on safety matters combined
with a high quality , extensive and systematic provision of public
information in schools and through the mass media has helped to
reduce concern about recombinant DNA techniques .

illustrated

visibly

respect

case

the

in

is

of

5.14 .
The Commission has a role to play on behalf of the whole
Community in improving public understanding about these important
issues by help in the design and development of consistent and
objective
large
expansion of satellite broadcasting could offer new opportunities
for Community-backed programmes on science and technology issues .

information

material .

prospect

The

of

a

Science

1987 , NSF
Engineering
See
Opinion
Biotechnology :
Washington ;
( un ) known ,
in Biotechnology in Holland ,
1985 / 5 ; Democracy and Biotechnology , Mark Cantley , in
Swiss Biotech , 5(1987 ).

and
" Public
( un ) loved ?"

Indicators ,

on

138

93

More attention must be paid in Europe to the development
of human resources , both to pursue scientific knowledge
and to apply its results .
made to provide an attractive environment inside
Europe for research workers in which the brightest and
the best have easy access to the centres of excellence
which are available in different countries .

A particular effort must be

At the same time a particular effort must be directed to
improve public understanding of science and technology
issues .

INDUSTRY AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR

( v )

Encouraging the private sector to invest more in R&D

A major challenge for Europe is to increase the share of
5.15 .
its economic resources that are devoted to investment in R&D ,
which for the bulk of European nations is well below that of the
USA and Japan ( Chapters II and III ).
Much of the efforts must be
made by industry itself , which has been the leading source of the
growth of funds in non-military R&D expenditure in the USA and
Japan .
It is in industry 's own interests to invest more in R&D
as the source of longer-term improvements in competitiveness and
But the growth in industry-funding of R&D is not
profitability .
Industry-funding of R&D must be focussed
uniform across Europe .
" downstream "
not
commercial
on
benefit .
Japanese and US industry is spending more and more
money on targetted basic research to create the conditions for
longer-term advance .

European industry must do the same .

short-term

projects

only

of

5.16 .
Factors of importance in encouraging investment in R&D and
innovation include the general economic climate , tax regimes , and
( for innovative investments ) the existence of developed venture
( the latter being of particular importance to
capital markets
of
nascent

companies ).

overall

Europe

small

rates

or

In

139

industrial investment vary widely ;
own
system of tax or other incentives to support industrial R&D ;
while venture capital markets ( which are developed in the United
Kingdom , and to a lesser extent in the Netherlands and Belgium )
are essentially national markets .

each country has

its

94

BRITE in particular )

The Community 's R&D programmes on industrial technologies
5.17 .
( ESPRIT ,
have already played a role in
helping to commit industry-funding of R&D through cost-sharing
mechanisms . A number of initiatives at European level have also
been taken
to encourage investment by small and medium-size
enterprises . The European Venture Capital Association ( ECVA ) was
the
created
In
with
the Venture Consort project aimed at
collaboration with ECVA
promoting
was
innovation
financing of
transnational
launched in 1985 . The Commission has also recently approved the
launching
the
for
establishment of " seed capital " funds and for a European network
of such funds .

Commission .

initiative

financial

of . the

support

support

1983

SMEs

for

in

an

of

in

barriers

The
technological
cooperation have already been analysed separately in a separate
Communication by the Commission , which contains an action plan 38 .

transnational

industrial

and

to

The Commission is also exploring with the financial Community
whether it would be appropriate to establish one or several
investment companies specialised in this kind of project . It is
also exploring with the insurance companies
the most appropriate
way to insure the risks involved and thus to remove one of the
main obstacles to investment in innovative projects . These two
Innovation
Insurance
initiatives
Facility39 )
commercial
and
the
ensure
application of the results of European R&D programmes .

and
industrial

( Eurotech
to
aim

Capital

In addition , the European Investment Bank has made available loan
finance to SMEs , with priority for innovative investment , using
its own resources and those of the New Community Instrument
( NCI ). Between 1985 and 1987 its loans for investment in high
The proposed NCI V
technology amounted to 1,094 million ECU .
two
of
includes
priority areas .

technology as

investments

high

one

the

in

The Commission is also working towards improvements in the flow
of information between potential financiers and the promoters of
projects who are seeking external finance , by establishing a
project data-base .

38
39

C0M ( 88)114 final , du 28.3.88
formerly EUROTECH INSUR

■ r
ê
\ -, u

95

in
to
for

industry
in
competition .

5.18 .
Alongside action to improve the flow of private funds to
industry the Commission has operated competition policy in such a
the need to increase the overall level of
way as to balance
avoiding
investment
been
distortions
has
established
between
enterprises in R&D and for state aid regimes for R&D projects .
As the Community moves further towards the completion of the
Internal Market , with a consequent increase in competition , on
the one hand , and concentration , on the other , the application of
competition policy to R&D and particularly to transfrontier R&D
arrangements will become an increasingly important issue .

against
A specific
joint

of
that
framework
agreements

handling

R&D

the

of

( vi )

The diffusion of technoloqy

and

As well

( upstream )

( downstream ) .

R&D itself
involving

lies at the centre of
education
technology transfer

a complex feedback
5.19 .
and
innovation
process
diffusion or
as
investing more in R&D , industry also has to know and understand
the new technologies coming on the market and to invest directly
An expert group of the OECD has recently noted that
in them .
" the economic advantages of new technologies derive from their
diffusion rather than from their refinement. New technology
in itself has hardly any economic advantages as long as it is not
The sluggish growth
effectively used and widely applied ...."^.
is one
in European demand for electronic goods
important
new
of
technologies .
It should also be said that the benefits of
research to develop those technologies are also enhanced the more
widely they are disseminated , even though this may not always be
in the immediate commercial interest of an industrial firm or
research consortium .

( chapter 1.2 )
of

adoption

example

slow

rate

the

of

Technology transfer is another area where the Japan is in
5.20 .
a stronger position than Europe .
In some European countries
( notably Denmark ) major efforts have been made in recent years to
encourage the spread of new technologies within industry and
commerce through information campaigns and specific financial
support systems
But the degree of
Moreover , the public policy efforts are based
attention varies .
national
essentially
borders .

for the private sector..

technologies

within

spread

the

on

of

Effective dissemination of the results from the Community 's own
improving
research

contributes

activities

goal

the

to

of

40

Science and Technology Policy Outlook , OECD 1988 .

141

96

of

Community

This is the purpose of the VALUE programme .

information .
But
the impact of measures in this field is directly related to the
why
volume
complementary actions such as those carried out under the SPRINT
programme to create more favourable conditions for innovation and
technology transfer will need to be reinforced in the future .
Outside experts have recently underlined the importance of a
vigorous effort in this direction and called for a strengthening
of the SPRINT activities'* * , and a new and larger programme has
now been proposed by the Commission .

activities .

research

This

is

particular

The importance of stimulating demand for new technologies cannot
A key issue is the availability of information
be overstressed .
about
returns .
their
Organised " watch " programmes have proved to be very efficient in
Consideration needs to be given in Europe to how to
Japan .
improve
( of
this
capital or consumer goods ) to think about how new technologies
could help satisfy his needs .

technologies

information

stimulate

expected

consumer

and

and

the

to

in
The
of
role
standardisation
also
important in the context of shaping the market for adoption of
technologies .

normalisation

technologies

Member
and

Governments

Community

and

the

of

is

Industry must be encouraged to invest more in R&D ,
and top management should be more closely involved
than is often the case .

A major effort is needed throughout industry and the
services to improve awareness and information about new
technologies so that the fruits of R&D can be widely
and quickly spread .

Evaluation of the first BRITE programme ( 1985-88 )
Research evaluation report n*25 , CEC 1988 .

142

POLICY COORDINATION AND COHESION WITHIN EUROPE

97

( vii )

Increasinq coordination amonq national policies

III

the

Chapter

importance

underlined

increased
5.21 .
coordination of national policies as a means of saving money
overall , increasing the returns to R&D investment , encouraging
the broadest use in the Community of " best practice " in research
management , and ultimately leading to greater complementarity in
national programmes .
This is why Article 130H of the Single
European Act expresses a political commitment on the part of the
Community 's Member States ,
to
their policies and programmes at
coordinate among themselves
national level .

in liaison with the Commission ,

of

on

These

future

national

decisions

cooperation .

The first step in better coordination must be to improve
5.22 .
mutual information and understanding about national policies .
Such information about what others are doing will in itself
to
contribute
or
The second is to identify fruitful areas for more
policies .
or
specific
Some may be appropriate for Community-wide
multilateral nature .
coordination .
for
developing cooperative activities ( such as specific bilateral or
national
joint
multilateral
participations
or
projects
supplementary programmes in a strictly Community framework as
provided for under Article 130L of the Single European Act ).
At
Community level the formula of " concerted action " at , which has
proved highly successful in the fields of health and environment
and which requires a minimal amount of Community public funding ,
should be more widely used .

agreements ,
major

agreements
such

programmes

on
CERN ,

bilateral

numerous

possible

formulas

There

EMBO ,

can

are

in

be

as

of

a

( viii ) Improving the cohesion of the Community

5.23 .
The technology gap between the less-favoured regions
( LFRs ) and the more economically advanced areas of the Community
is greater even than the economic gap ( Chapter III ).
In most
LFRs there is a lack of physical infrastructure for research and
development ; there is a chronic shortage of skilled scientific
personnel ;
innovation .
Improving the RTD base is essential to ensure adequate growth and
development in the LFRs .

companies

oriented

towards

less

are

143

98

of

The

better

national

between

5.24 .
research
coordination
activities will certainly have some spin-offs in regional terms .
And the Community 's VALUE programme will ensure the spread of
Community ,
research results throughout all the regions of the
helping to reinforce the knowledge base in the LFRs .
Moreover ,
the Community 's own research programmes have already promoted
colleagues
relations
elsewhere , encouraging the " trickling down " of best practice and
experience .
regional
competitiveness cannot be tackled primarily through Community
The main principle applying to
research programmes themselves .
the choice of research projects for Community support is that of
excellence in scientific terms , and the evaluation of projects
and
criteria .
Excellence is a goal which is appropriate for all regions to
strive towards .
But scientific excellence will not be achieved
everywhere without major improvement in the RTD fabric .

improvements

substantial

researchers

programmes

scientific

purely

their

based

LFRs

and

But

in

on

in

is

to

by

the

are

needs

Actions

offered

institutes

To achieve these improvements mechanisms other than
5.25 .
At a Community
research programmes themselves must be used .
opportunities
the
reform
level
new
3 structural funds , whose budget will be doubled by
Community 's
1993 .
infrastructure ;
focussed
be
stimulating innovative activities in industry ; helping companies
Community
and
for
programmes ;
The
Commission is already contemplating one specific action known as
This is not a research programme aimed at specific
STRIDE^.
research goals .
a blueprint for RTD development
prepared centrally .
In keeping with the philosophy applying to
the structural funds it is a framework for the development of
initiatives to improve the RTD base in LFRs in partnership with
the
other
Other
structural funds may be considered .

participation
and

in
evaluation .

to
technical

themselves .

assistance

through

actions

regions

prepare

Nor is

the

and

on

of

it

5.26 .
It would be illusory to believe that the problem of the
technology gap within the Community can be rapidly and easily
Infrastructural development ; training ; the creation of
bridged .
an innovative capacity ,
But action through
regional and social policy instruments will help to shorten the
time-scales involved .

all take time .

Science
Development in Europe .

and Technology for Regional

Innovation

and

144

99

Better coordination of national policies would help to
save money and improve the efficiency of resource use
throughout the Community .

At the same time a particular effort is required to
improve the RTD fabric in the less-favoured regions of the
Community .
provide a complete answer .
and social policy instruments is needed .

Research programmes in themselves cannot

A major action using regional

THE EXTERNAL ASPECTS

( ix )

Encouraging cooperation in RTD with third countries

Science and technology are increasingly international
5.27 .
At the level of the firm there has been a rapid
commodities .
growth in recent years of cooperative ventures in R&D , often of a
transnational nature .
Among universities and between them and
industry , relations of a transnational nature are already common .
There is a growing international market in research scientists .
And national policy-makers have recognised the value of access to
the scientific and technological resources of third countries as
a means of providing the new knowledge and expertise needed to
sustain growth and development in their own countries .
In the
scientific
case
exchanges and significant industrial R&D cooperation with the
USA .

particularly

intensive

Europe

there

are

of

5.28 .
with third countries and international organisations ,

By committing the Community to develop RTD cooperation
Article

145

The recent recommendations'* 3

130G of the Single European Act recognises the importance for
Europe 's own long-term future of properly coordinated action in
of the OECD Council
this field .
also urge Member States in their own mutual interests to promote
scientific
further
technological
internationalisation of RTD is therefore inevitable .
The issue
is how best to organise international cooperation in such a way
that
the
participants have something to gain .

" positive-sum "

exchanges .

which

game

and

The

can

all

be

it

in

a

100

of

three

Europe ,

notably

and
countries

For the European Community cooperative activities must be
5.29 .
focussed principally on
to whom
groups
different considerations apply , namely : other countries within
EFTA
the
Western
other
developing
Europe ,
industrialised
countries .
Outside these three groups separate reflections are
now needed on the basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union and
Eastern
now
developing across the European continent ; as well as on policies
of RTD cooperation with the NICs that take into account , on a
case -by- case basis ,
the position and prospects for individual
countries .

partners ,
the

relationships

countries ,

outside

Europe

light

and

new

our

the

the

in

of

"A

an

for

with

other

carte "

cooperation

important
la

European countries .

As far as the EFTA countries are concerned , cooperation
5.30 .
COST
has been running since the establishment of COST in 1971 .
specific
framework
remains
projects
The
Luxembourg agreement of 1984 between the Community , the Member
States and the EFTA countries to create a European Economic SPace
has led to an intensification of relations in the scientific
have now been
field .
concluded between the Community and 5 of the EFTA countries .
The
sixth ( with Iceland ) has recently been submitted to the Council
for approval .
These agreements provide for various forms of
Community
access
framework EUREKA provides a useful basis for cooperation between
companies and institutes from the EFTA countries ( and Turkey ) and
those from the Community Member States themselves .

Special bilateral cooperation agreements

programmes .

Community

Alongside

the

to

on

5.31 .
Cooperation within a strictly Community framework with
industrialised countries outside Europe is less well-developed .
a dense network of
At a commercial
linkages in R&D between companies has been established across the
Moreover , the tradition of transatlantic migration of
Atlantic .

noted above ,

level ,

as

Recommendations of the OECD Council about a general
framework
international
scientific and technological cooperation , 21 April 1988 .

principles

relating

to

of

146

101

European scientists goes back a long way .
But these developments
have occurred in the absence of a formal general framework for
cooperation with the USA .
It might now be appropriate to explore
the scope for such a general framework , given the wealth of US
resources
the
opportunities and issues raised by the recent developments in the
USA described in Chapter II .
It would also be timely to take
advantage of the new moves by Japan towards the international
science and technology community in order to examine seriously
the scope for mutually beneficial cooperative ventures which are
unlikely to exacerbate commercial strains .

experience

scientific

domain

and

the

and

in

For the developing countries the situation is different
5.32 .
Their problems are , in some respects , akin to those of
again .
RTD
the less-favoured regions of Europe , but their shortages of
infrastructure and skilled scientists and skilled manpower are
These limitations in terms of indigenous resources
more severe .
put a powerful brake on economic and social development .
In
addition many of them face specific problems in the fields of
agriculture ,
the environment which
medicine
require a particular research effort .

and health ,

and

has

Europe
these
research fields , partly as a consequence of colonial experience .
But the expertise is often fragmented among different national
institutes .

Efforts are needed to coordinate national actions .

and expertise

considerable

experience

in

of

the

already

necessary

coordination

at
is
Some
Community level .
Since 1983 the Community has been running with
the LDCs a programme of R&D directed at the problems of tropical
for
and
medicine
Development ").
a
flexible programme of scientific cooperation in Latin America ,
Asia and Mediterranean countries aimed at the integration of
international
research
into
scientific
research
of
capacities , and ,
latterly , exploring the scope for technology
transfer .

agriculture
Separately ,

countries
improvement

in
community ,

(" Science
since

Technology

indigenous

these
the

developed

underway

and
it

workers

1984

has

the

These programmes are an important contribution to the Community 's
- wider development policy objectives , and in the years to come RTD
must play an increasingly important role in this context .
Given
issues in the developing
the growing concern about environmental
countries ( soil erosion , industrial pollutants etc .) and the need
to 'optimise
the natural
the development and exploitation of
resource base and new and renewable energies , there is a growing
need for a particular new and coordinated research effort in
At the same time the wider consequences for the
these fields .
developing countries of
for example ,
materials and biotechnology will need to be considered further .

scientific advances

in ,

( x )

Avoidinq technoloaical protectionism

102

of

The

benefits

longer-term

an
5.33 .
international level can only be fully achieved if the transfer of
knowledge and technology is facilitated rather than constrained .
Historically the scientific world has been an open world in which
results of research are widely published and discussed and taken
up and elaborated by others .
of
research and the growing importance of science to trade flows has
increased the pressure to restrict the flow of information in
order to preserve competitive edge .

But the " industrialisation "

cooperation

RTD

at

is

This

5.34 .
a major issue for international cooperation ,
notably in the Community 's relations with other industrialised
countries , which has been addressed recently by the OECD in its
Council Recommendation of April 1988 44 .
The Commission believes
that Europe and the world economy as a whole would be the loser
from a more protectionist scientific and technological world .
LDCs would be even bigger losers .
The Community should therefore
work towards ensuring the diffusion of research results and away
from policies
The
the
necessary corollary is that progress should be made in ensuring
adequate
and
vigorously
industrial
endorses the OECD Council Recommendation on the need to work
towards this end .

protection
Commission

of
therefore

intellectual

information .

property .

restrict

flow of

the
The

regimes

that

for

Science and technology are international commodities , and
international cooperation must be a fundamental element in
European RTD policies . The Community must further cement
its relations with the EFTA countries ? explore new modes of
cooperation with the other industrial countries , notably
the USA and Japan ; and build on its successful cooperation
with LDCs .

One important issue affecting relations with third coun¬
tries is the question of technological protectionism and
potential restrictions on the flow of knowledge .
Community should work towards ensuring the diffusion of
research results by third countries and away from policies
to restraint the flow of information .

The

44

See footnote n*31 .

148

Annex 1

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
ISSUES

Introduction

I.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES

A. Technology issues in the context of the competitive position of IT. industry in Europe

1 .

Initial situation 1980 - 1984

2. Actions and progress 1984 - 1988

3.

4.

Remaining weak points

Changing priorities and new actions

B. The perspectives of emerging technologies in I.T. and the need for reinforced basic

research

1 .

2.

Background and rationale

Issues of strategic significance

II.TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES

A. Télécommunications technology

Initial situation

Changes occurred during the last years

New needs to address

New priorities for action

B. Application technology

1 .

Rationale for Community action

2. Application of information technology and telecommunications in health care

3. Application of information technology and telecommunications in education and

training

4. Application of information technology and telecommunications in transport

149

INFORMATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES ISSUES

Introduction

The global R&D effort devoted to information and telecommunications technologies in the
EEC for 1986 is evaluated at 14 billion ECUs, thus one half less than in the United States.

In Europe, almost all expenses are financed and carried out by industry, that devotes a
considerable proportion of its turn-over ( 10.5%) to it.

Public financing plays a notable but minor role (29% in Europe against 37% in the United
States).

The R&D effort in information and telecommunications technologies is characterised in
Europe by a triple deficiency:

a very marked scattering of efforts between 12 countries (ranging from 0.3% to 6% of
the GNP, thus a factor of 1 to 20 of the effort rate);

a high redundancy mainly for what concerns many national programmes and the critical
mass insufficiency that can result of this;

a rythm of actual growth that is slower than in the United States and Japan. Despite
the recent constant increase of the R&D effort in the small countries of the European
Community (Portugal, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands), the slow progress of public
and private budgets in the four countries realising 90% of the total (Federal Republic
of Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom) leads to a global annual increase of
expenditures (8.4%) that, in the European Community, is still under that realised in the
United States (+ 10.7%) and in Japan (+ 9.5%): thus, the gap seems to increase from
year to year.

The existence,
the Community’s transnational cooperative research
programmes (representing 3% of the total RDT expenditures in 1986) obviously cannot
alone have an effort proportionate to the importance of the stakes and problems.

since 1984, of

150

1

A.

1 .

Information Technology (IT) Issues in the Context of the Competitive Position
1
srrritmra^iTWturope ^)

"

■

n

Initial Situation 1980 - 1984

To gain of the present status and trends within the European IT industry we need
to review recent history. At the beginning of the 1980s the situation of the
European IT industry attracted great concern. The European industry was
characterized by a lagging IT market,
low market shares, low R&D and low
capital investments.

An analysis of performances of two groups of companies, including respectively
the largest US and the largest European Information Systems companies, shows
that from 1980 to 1984 < 1 ) :

-

-

the revenue growth rate of US companies was higher both on the worldwide
and the European market;

the profitability of US companies stayed constantly higher;

- both capital expenditure and R&D were much higher in US than in Europe

and still growing in US at a higher rate than in Europe ;

-

the projected growth of the leading US companies would have enhanced their
dominant position in the Information Systems market, by the end of the
decade .

Moreover, the balance of trade in IT products was negative, amounting to a
deficit of 10.6 billion US dollars in 1984 1

.

2.

Actions and Progress ( 1984-1988)

Concerted action was taken by the European companies to try and rectify the
position. These actions encouraged a new dynamism in the European IT
industry and helped mobilise human, financial and technological resources to try
and reverse the negative trends. There have been some acquisitions and
numerous cooperative projects between European companies during the last five
years. These have been partly inspired by entrepreneurial opportunities strongly
stressed and supported by collaborative programmes such as ESPRIT.

We are now beginning to see the fruits of the combined efforts.

In strictly quantitative terms, the situation in the Information Systems industry is
now quite different.

(*)

All sources of data are listed in the annex .
Information Technologies ( IT ) comprises : Information Systems including software and services .
Electronic Components , Industrial Automation Systems/Computer Integrated Manufacturing ( CIH ).

151

2

-

-

In the European market, where market shares have not been affected by
changes in exchange rates, the largest European companies have significantly
increased their market share, bringing it close to 50 %, from 33 % in 1983 43 *.

In the software and services market, representing more than half of the total
the European companies are holding a
Information Systems market,
favourable position taking advantage of the strong growth of the market
demand 44 *.

- European IT companies are now investing in R&D a proportion of their sales
very close to that of US companies. Nevertheless the speed of necessary
increase of R&D cost in the IT field has not yet slowed down45 *.

- The strongest

investment effort of European companies was in capital
expenditure, which reached in 1987 a level higher than that of US companies,
although still lower than the level of Japanese companies45 *.

3 .

Remaining Weak Points

Although the European Information Processing industry seems on the way to
overcome some of its traditional weaknesses, major problems still remain. These
include:

The Information Processing industry represents in Europe only 26 % of the
Electronic industry, against 33 % in Japan and 41 % in USA4
. The fastest
growing sector of the electronic industry (the Information Processing
sector) has not yet in Europe a position able to provide an healthy condition
to the whole electronic industry and in particular to the semiconductors
industry.

b) The penetration of European Information Systems companies on overseas
markets is still minimal
( 15 to 25 % of sales43 *), while the expanding
European market is increasingly attracting tough competitors: Japanese
manufacturers have not yet concentrated their efforts in Europe, but the
rate of their growth pushes Japanese companies to expand overseas sales.

c)

The balance of trade has not improved. On the contrary in 1986 the trade
deficit in IT products increased to 13.4 billion US dollars4**.

d) The Electronic Components industry has not progressed in Europe at the
same rate, making the Information Systems industry and other user
industries even more dependent on foreign suppliers of critical and strategic
some key
The dependency on foreign suppliers
components.
Microelectronics components is as follows:

for

- 65 % of the most commonly used memory chips are produced by
Japanese manufacturers. This share gets close to 90 % for the most
advanced type of memory46*. This situation has already pushed US
manufacturers (both of semiconductor and computers) to join forces to
establish new production capabilities in the USA;

152

3

- 89 % of the production of the most advanced microprocessor chips (32-
bit) is concentrated in three US companies. The same three companies
account
commonly used
for
microprocessors ( 16 bit)

55 % of production of
.

the most

a

strongly

competitive

In
the European
industrial
Microelectronics industry has the disadvantage of a low demand from the
consumer electronics
locomotive which led Japanese
the
semiconductor industry to the present leadership position. Moreover, the
Information Systems industry, the second driving force of Microelectronics,
is much smaller in Europe than in the US.

environment,

industry,

e)

The situation is similarly critical in certain types of computer peripherals.
These represent an ever-increasing part of
the value of Information
Systems.

- Japanese and South East Asia manufacturers produce 90 % of worldwide
production of tubes (CRTs) for display units, 95 % of flat panels based on
Liquid Crystal Technology (LCD’s) and are expected to get similar shares
in other emerging flat panel technologies1 7) .

- US and Japanese manufacturers represent 90 % of the world production
of printers and the European dependence is even higher for key parts:
the core elements for laser printers are a monopoly of three Japanese
companies( 7>.

f)

A further and critical weakness is the lack of trained personnel. Estimates
of the required number of trained personnel vary widely but it is clear that
insufficient are being produced . As an example one recent estimate for the
requirement of engineers trained in VLSI design was 5,000 per year in one
recent estimate for the requirement of engineers trained in VLSI design
was 5,000 per year in one Member State, namely Germany185 . At the
moment only about 3,000 per year are entering the workforce in the whole
of the Community.

153

4

4.

Changing Priorities and New Actions

The relative success in some areas of European IT serves to highlight
the
remaining problems. Continued action is required to tackle these as well as to
consolidate the newly acquired competitive positions. Further efforts are called
for by new challenges evolving (such as Japanese entry into European computer
market or the recent new US initiatives in Microelectronics). The fact moreover
that, in the light of the recent positive experience in collaboration, European
companies are now ready to progress further on the road of integration of joint
efforts and to subscribe in some selected areas to unprecedented commitment in
cooperative R&D and to the subsequent downstream production investments,
creates the need for a revision and an adaptation, and in some cases a substantial
shift, of the priorities to date and in order to ensure the longer term viability of
the Community strategy to strengthen and consolidate a competitive position
worldwide of European IT industry and services.

To this end it is in the first place necessary:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

to provide the economic climate and boundary conditions which allow full
exploitation of the potential demand. This because the overall success of
any R&D policy in the IT sector is closely related to the achievements in
other sectors of Community policy, in particular the internal market and
standardization;

to pursue further and strengthen on the one hand the current ESPRIT II
policy of development of a European capability to design and produce
application specific Microelectronics products (integrated circuits) capable
of fully exploiting
the potential of the most advanced semiconductor
technologies and, on the other hand, to complement this by promoting and
sustaining the creation in the Community of such leading edge technologies
(0.3 micron CMOS technology by 1996) so as to secure to European
electronics industry strategic independence of supply.

to secure, in particular, the ready availability of microprocessor technology
in Europe. This is why a new initiative is necessary, which aims to develop a
basis for a family of microprocessors with standardized architectures.
Control of the microprocessor architecture (including the instruction set)
will enable a hierarchy of standard interfaces to be designed and used for
software development throughout IT user industries;

to provide the production capability for key peripherals in Europe.

to re-inforce certain well-identified topics such as Computer Integrated
Manufacturing;

to prepare new actions promoting in specific areas of strategic concern
training measures, which would help to overcome crucial bottlenecks on a
Community scale.

154

ÿb'Ri: DWiwB»E)P«w«iiiiliaiWil«^H
А}?Ш#1етщр«^

ANNEX II

1

i

FUJITSU NEC HITACHI
TOSHIBA MATSUSHITA

SIEMENS OLIVETTI BULL
NIXDORF PHILIPS STC

DEC HP WANG APPLE

CAGR
% ■

35.3

26.4

20.4

TOTAL DP MARKET

17.3

IBM

BURROUGHS SP
CDC HONEYWEL

ERRY NCR

8.5

2.1

( NOIiVWYiVO )

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ANNEX 111

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ANNEX IV

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I

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\

5

B. THE PERSPECTIVE OF ERMERGTNO TECHNOT OGTRS TM I.T
~

NEED FOR REINFORCED BASIC RESEARCH

AND THE

1. Background and rationale

The second half of this century is replete with examples of research ideas which, although
conceived without even thought to applications, led to technological developments with
major industrial and social impact.

Entire theoretical subjects studied and developed by philosophers and mathematicians are
now providing essential tools for Information Technologies (IT) as well as all engineering
areas that rely on the capability for rapid and massive computing and automated logical
inference.

As a result there is a growing consensus that supporting basic fundamental research in IT is
a solid investment whose payback, even if it does not come in the form of short term
industrial applications, is rich.

In Europe, partly in contrast with the situation in the United States, IT related basic
research is mostly carried out at universities and research institutes as most industrial
laboratories are constrained to devote their efforts to the development of short to medium
term applications.

In addition, it is the basic research environment in these institutions that provides the
nursing ground for highly trained manpower, the demand for which is increasing much
faster than the capability to supply it.

2.

Issues of strategic significance for future informations technology development

They relate to: computer science, programming language, advanced robotics, machine
learning, cognitive engineering optical and molecular computing.

a) A well recognized and broad long-term research goal in Computer Science addresses
the predictable reliability, safety, security, integrity and correctness of complex, large-
scale distributed systems. To work towards this goal, research is needed on formal
specifications, testing and verification, fault tolerance, system architectures and on how
to relax on the simplified abstractions of the real world underlying current systems
It is intended that the ESPRIT basic research actions will enable a serious
design.
coordinated effort that will bring together European expertise in this area.

b) The design

a

and specification of

concurrent programming language,

the
implementation of a provably correct compiler for that language and the specification
and implementation of a provably correct operating system would provide the basis for
a hardware computer, all of whose components have been verified through formal
methods. To achieve this, expertise must be drawn together from areas ranging from
including proof verification
automated theorem proving to VLSI design methods,
systems, compiler and operating system design and concurrent programming
methodology. Available, but distributed throughout Europe, this expertise could be
brought together to challenge recent advances in this area that have taken place mostly
in the United States.

158

6

c) Many basic problems still have to be solved before a real autonomous mobile robot can
be created. Corresponding to the components of such a robot, work is needed in basic
research areas like planning of robot actions, autonomous navigation, design of world
models, multisensor fusion, knowledge representation languages, design of hierarchical
expert systems, distributed planning and machine learning.

d)

In machine learning new logical tools are being sought in the direction of combining
deductive approaches to learning with inductive ones into what is increasingly called
concept learning. This requires extensive work in inductive building of decision trees,
techniques into knowledge acquisition systems. Combining data base management and
knowledge based techniques is also an area expected to attract ever increasing
attention .

develops models

e) The emerging cognitive engineering approach to the design and analysis of complex
systems
real-life
environments, models possible systems and their limitations as well as the work domain
and its actors.
It is a top-down, problem driven approach requiring basic research on
the representation of complex work domains, cognitive control of work, error tolerance,
representation of intentions and values and cooperative, distributed decision making.

human-computer-work

interaction

of

in

f) Optical and molecular computing are areas where much fundamental research has to
be carried out if the promises of the so called 6th generation computing systems are to
be met. From the same viewpoint, recent superconductivity developments open the
way for work on interchip ( thick film ) and on-chip ( thin film ) interconnections, sensors,
shielding and new devices. An eventual deeper understanding of the phenomenon itself
could provide even hitherto unsuspected information technology advances.

7

Sources of Data

( 1 )

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Booz, Allen and Hamilton study on "Trends and Objectives of the IT Sector in
the Medium- and Long-Term" (Study carried out for the CEC in 1985).

EIC - Electronics International Coopération, "L'électronique dans le monde" -
1987

Datamation - The Analysis is based on the Information Systems revenue of the
Top 25 suppliers.

IDC - Eurocast - Software and services - 1988

Company reports - Companies in the group of the Top 25 for Information
Systems revenue have been considered.

Dataquest - 1988

Consultronique - Study on "Opportunities for European Suppliers of Computer
Peripheral Equipment" (Study carried out for the CEC in 1988)

Markt & Technik, June 1985

160

8

A. Télécommunications technologv

1 .

Initial situation

In comparison with the informatics sector, Europe has been sustaining a good position in
telecommunications. This is due to the good technological capabilities in this field and to
the close links established between telecommunications operators and industry, which
contributed to secure very substantial market shares to european companies.

The Community balance of trade in telecommunications has therefore always been positive
so far.

2. Changes occured during the last years

a) Since 1984

European telecommunications industry and operators are confronted with :

a changing regulatory environment world-wide, which will lead to increased competition
in the provision of equipment and services,

technological challenges with the evolution towards digitalization of networks, ISDN
and broadband networks and services (present european weakness in components is
also a major challenge in this context),

growing demand of keeping up the pace in terms of R and D effort and in investment,
which require increased market base and better use of economies of scale, especially in
public telephony.

The approach defined at Community level has allowed to establish consensus between
telecommunications operators and industry on common concepts of evolution of network,
including the establishment of a common strategic framework to develop concertation and
technology for IBC networks, services and terminals.

In this context, Europe must :

improve its overall capabilities in generic IT technologies ( esp . components, software)
which play an increasing role in telecommunications because of the convergence of
technologies. The rising trade deficit in telecommunications with Japan and the United
States against an overall commercial surplus is a clear evidence of this threat.

address the issues of systems research and engineering of integrated services.

b) Since the launching of RACE

Since telecommunications operators, industry and users of the Community and the EFTA
countries joined forces to address the development of an advanced telecommunications
systems in Europe in the framework of RACE important developments have taken place:

1 . The implementation of the RACE Definition Phase has proved the advantages and
necessity of collaborating on a european scale in defining and developing specifications
and common technological elements.

161

9

2.

Japan and the US/Canada have completed their broadband overlay network unlocking
the economic and competitive potential of advanced communications services.
Broadband links to the customer (45 Mbit DS3) experience in the US a growth rate of
100% per annum. The FCC expects broadband links to go into the US homes within
the next 3 years and an explosive growth of telecommunications services. Europe will
consequently have to speed up and intensify its efforts.

3. The global optical network is rapidly advancing from the US via the pacific and the
atlantic multiplying the transmission capacities linking different regions of the world
economy.

4. The internationalisation of economic and social activities feeds a trend towards
international service provision with strong economies of scale. For Europe this implies
the need for the sector actors (operators, industry, service providers) to address their
respective responsibilities in a consistent and agreed framework.

The interest and commitment by operators, telecommunications equipment industry and
telecommunications users to the objectives of RACE has correspondingly increased.

3 . New needs to address

In the light of the developments, the appreciation of the needs has evolved reflected in

a) an increased conviction that the market will demand advanced communications in the
mid-1990s implying that the target date for Europe -wide introduction of integrated
broadband services of 1995 may need to be moved forward to coincide with the 1992
objective of the completion of the internal market.

b) a growing interest to reinforce the work on HDTV with respect to its distribution inter
alia via cable networks to exploit the achievements of the EUREKA HDTV work;

c)
the recognition of the need to address the mid- to long-term implications for the
telecommunications system in all its parts of the rapidly growing demand for mobile
communications;

d)
the necessity to extend the collaboration of operators and industry with service
providers and users in application pilots to accelerate the emergence of economically viable
services optimally adapted to the needs of the user.

4. New priorities for action

The specific adjustments and re-inforcements to be carried out relate to:

IBC DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

It will be necessary to revise the common functional specifications prepared by the RACE
programme in the light of the verification and integration work carried out. Furthermore
the new Part II technological activities will generate on one hand output for Part I and on
the other hand the Part II activities will need guidance from Part I.

H2

10

IBC TECHNOLOGY

Long Term Technological Issues

In the light of technological
characteristics the following technological issues need increased attention :

trends and the evolutionof the appreciation of demand

*

optical switching:

technology and system integration

coherent multichannel technique, progress towards integration into customer access

*
connection and possibly integration with optical switching.

*

specification and implementation of a signalling system for broadband networks

consideration of special topologies for the customer access networks,

interfaces to
*
public networks, protocols, common functional specifications, interconnection of Customer
Premises Networks

broadband mobile technology, technology, integration into the terrestrial network and

*
implications on the terrestrial network

* High Definition Television (HDTV), coding for HDTV, structure of distribution
networks, distribution switching for HDTV signals

network management and impact of advanced information processing technologies on

*
network management .

PRE-NOMATIVE FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION

Intégration and Vérification

Further systematic efforts are necessary and could benefit
European scale :

from collaboration on a

*

*

*

*

integration of subsystems into systems where necessary to enable verification at system
level

verification of common functional specifications via integration of systems ( network
termination, customer access connection and local exchange ) into a network testbed to
enable verification at network level

verification of common functional specifications on the broadband user network
interface by integration of terminals and Customer Premises Networks (CPN )
into
network testbeds

evolution from demonstrators and verification testbeds to a broader trial network and
service testbed by exploiting the synergy among national testbeds.

Application Pilots

*

enhancement of application pilots in such a way that they can use the future broadband
facilities.

163

11

*

*

improvement of usability of application pilots.

pilot implémentations of service éléments.

B. Application technology

I. Rationale for Community action

When the framework programme was being prepared, it had been clearly perceived that in
the field of generic technologies and common infrastructures as it is led in the framework
of programmes such as ESPRIT and RACE, must necessarily be accompanied by a parallel
effort of development of applications that offer a considerable potential of creation of
activities, services and thus of new employment.

in due time,

The objective is to prepare,
the conditions favourable to the intensive
exploitation of large basic technologies that are being perfected, by adapting them to the
needs and specific constraints of the different categories of users (business, public
administrations, social services, individuals) and thus implement, at Community level, a
market of equipment and services that will bear the European industry, favour its
international competitiveness and allow a response to the social and economic needs.

On the basis of initial studies, the Commission had identified the following as bearing
application sectors:

education and training (mainly for professional training),

transport,

medical science and health.

The very large consultations to which the Commission has proceeded since 1987 with the
different groups of actors involved (dataprocessing and telecommunications industry,
publishing industry, transport, health equipment, etc., scientific sectors, pubLic authorities,
user groups, telecommunication networks operators, standardisation organisations) have
largely confirmed the socio-economic relevance of the sectors of priority application
identified beforehand.

The three specific programmes - DRIVE, AIM, DELTA issued from this phase of strategic
concertation - are concerned with the applications of information, telecommunications and
audio-visual technologies in the fields of general interests services, management and
security of road traffic, bio-medical dataprocessing and remote multimedia teaching.

These three fields present a certain number of common characteristics that justify a joint
action at Community level:

-

their economic and social importance is considerable in the Community and their costs
weigh heavily on the collectivity and in particular on public finance. This charge can
only be stabilised or reduced by a better cost/performance relation of the services
offered;

they very largely depend on the responsibility of the public authorities, who either
define the regulations or manage an essential part of the infrastructures that form the
basis of the services offered to the population;

164

12

in these sectors,

lastly,
Community.

the users’ needs are developing rapidly throughout

the

In the case of training, the European active population is faced with the necessity of
constandy adapting its level of knowledge and experience to the rapidly changing
techniques and professions. Now, the traditional structures of knowledge transmission lack
of adaptation to the necessities of the re-training and re-adaptation of knowledge.

In the field of transport, the number of bodily accidents on the road, the waste of energy
and atmospheric pollution that entail
the classic
techniques of traffic management have reachd the limits of their possibilities.

traffic problems demonstrate that

In the field of health, although the progress in medical sciences has been very rapid during
these past decades, a considerable effort remains to be accomplished to take the best
advantage of them by further adapting the capacity of diagnosis and treatment to the
specific needs of the patients and doctors.

Facing this lack of balance between the demand for services more adapted to the new
needs and the present supply that does not allow to take them into account in a satisfactory
way anymore,
technologies
represent a major opportunity for the future.

telecommunications and audio-visual

the new information,

The new technological supports that permit a multimedia and remote apprenticeship will
allow everyone to study at a chosen time, desired rythm and in a place that suits one most
( home, work, school). The concept of "teieteaching" has become a crucial factor of
progress.

The information technologies are now a determinant factor bringing together patient and
medical science. They allow the conception of a "telemedicine" that abolishes constraints
due to distance, of "integrated" hospitals in which all equipment will function as a network,
of health care adapted directly to the individual patient .

In the field of transport, they allow the conception of solutions adapted in a better way to
their disposal
the needs and the behaviour of
computerised tools and more flexible
information and communication
infrastructures.

the vehicle drivers, by putting at

and safer

The range of technologies to be used and integrated to this effect is very large: personal
computer, optical disk, microprocessor cards, new techniques of medical and educational
imagery, computer languages similar to natural language, expert systems, mobile telephony,
ISDN, broadband integrated network, HDTV, direct transmission by satellite, etc...

to combine and integrate to a maximum the large range of
The problem now is
technologies already available or in course of development, and thus optimise their gobal
performance on a technological, economic and social point of view and avoid, by
cooperative and concerted actions with all the actors concerned at the European level, the
risks caused by the present proliferation of independent systems that would all be
conceived in relation to a paticular, often exclusively national, point of view.

2. Application of information technology and telecommunications in health care

Member States spend a substantial proportion of their GNP on Health Care.
In spite of
determined efforts to limit further increase, costs are still escalating (cf. separate annex on
health research ).

165

13

Specific application of information technology and new means of communication can
provide increased health care *

The reasons for this approach can be summarised as follows:

* The efficiency of health care may improve by linking all parties involved in diagnosing

or treating one patient or the same group of patients.

* The goal of equal access will be a realistic one when the centralized expertise is

disseminated to where the patient is.

* Managerial and financial aspects of health care will become transparent and

comparable if modern informatics is applied.

*

Industry will benefit from a more harmonious health care market
fragmented sector we know today.

than the very

Since introducing the AIM action in the Framework Programme, the rationale for it has
strengthened by

mounting interest of sector actors, in particular, national administrations of health care,
industry and research,

growing awareness that there is a good case for extending the cooperation beyond the
scale of the Exploratory Phase.

Areas to be strengthened are:

a)

b)

specific diagnostic technologies such as for example imaging needs studies both on
software and hardware specifications.

agreed terminology and medical records.
variety of data.

In medical health care there is a huge

c) A European strategy for a coherent IT & T structure in health care. The
structural implications, and opportunities, of the new technologies need to be
studied and acted on. Modem telecommunications can cut across existing
structures, and revolutionize this professionals, hospitals, home care etc. need not
continue.

Further efforts in Europe should address the following key subjects:

Agreed terminology and record handling,

Knowledge based medical systems and instrumentation.

-

Establishment of network databases and computing facilities to link generalized as well
as more specialized workstations e.g. in oncology, epidemiology and research.

Integration of knowledge based systems into health care.

166

14

Development of biosensors for monitoring and controlling various body functions (a
field where Europe may still take a lead). A positive outcome would be of great
importance for many categories of patients such as diabetics, patients with cardiac
diseases, neurological disorders etc.

Investigation of IT & T application to patients with sensory and motor handicaps, which
would help these disabled persons to lead a more normal life.

Besides, there will be a continued need for addressing the non-technological issues, such as:

Legal issues in connection with safe data handling

Legal issues with respect to protection of privacy

Training of personnel

Ethical problems and patient acceptability.

3 . Application of information technology and telecommunications in education and

training

European governments and undertakings have become increasingly aware of
the
competitive and social value of training and of a skilled, educated workforce. Recent and
foreseeable progress in information technology, telecommunications and broadcasting open
up new possibilities of reaching a wider audience cost-effectively.

IT & T technology is a suitable tool to address this need because :

1 . Education is essential for everyone, but there are finite teaching resources.

2 . Currently, up to 600 hours are needed to produce one hour of good educational

material . This can be reduced to cost effective levels.

3 .

It is one of the largest markets for good, integrated services that merge technology,
content and processes.

4 . By the year 2000, 18% of the population will be in education, training or retraining at

any time.

5 .

Industry is becoming acutely aware of the need to maintain its skills base.

It will be essential for Europe to use all appropriate means to create an informed and
educated workforce. This is the single most vital asset of an advanced service oriented
group of nations.

This was the basis for the adoption of the DELTA Exploratory Action, which was
confirmed by the experience gained since then in COMETT and DELTA.

Since the definition of the Framework Programme the case for collaboration at a European
scale has further strengthened :

1 .

In the USA, government expenditure on projects like DELTA are estimated at well
over 400 M US dollar per year.

167

15

2. An estimated USA market (1987) of 29 Billion US dollar attracts other competitor

nations.

3. These developments are now being aggressively exploited.

4. They are potentially very significant, in an industry starved of good global solutions to

become de-facto world standards.

5. Even small countries have used distance teaching using technology to overcome

regional, cultural and geographical barriers.

In this context the specific European situation should be taken into account:

1. Europe is behind in terms of pilot testing and experimentation,

2. Nevertheless, it has a high level of education and training development activity, albeit

fragmented,

3. There is a potentially potent source of high skill and expertise in learning technology,

that works well, but is often sub-critical.

4. There is a goodwill
administrative barriers.

for education not

to be unduely restrained by tariff or

5. The climate for innovators in this domain has never been better due to the volume of

successful results from European collaboration such as ESPRIT and RACE.

There is a growing consensus in Europe to develop :

solutions that allow for more cost-effective creation of high quality learning material,

experimentation, prototyping and harmonisation of all aspects of ITT&B-based
learning systems.

4. Application of information technology and telecommunications in transport

Road Traffic Administrations, Industry and Road Transport Users in the Community and
in EFTA countries, becoming aware of the increasing problems on the European road
network, have decided to join forces in the framework of the DRIVE programme to
address
using Information Technology,
Telecommunications and Broadcasting which could help to improve the use of the existing
network, in increasing their capacity and at the same time, reducing technical or human

development of

advanced

systems

the

errors .

The rapid adoption of DRIVE took place against the background of:

transport representing more than 6% of GNP;

more than 10% of family budget being devoted to transport;

-

car ownership in Europe representing 60% of the level in US, whilst congestion and
poor routing costs an estimated 150 billion ECUs per year, and road accidents kill
55,000 people and injure 1,7 million annually in Europe, with a financial cost of an
estimated 50 billion ECUs;

168

16

progress in information technology, telecommunications and broadcasting offering new
and effective solutions.

DRIVE has been prepared with the active participation of all public bodies concerned from
all Member States, with the motor industry and the 1T1&B industry. A full consultation
with more than 60 organisations, has taken place, representing all interests (Industry +
Users).

Since the DRIVE Programme has been taken up in the US and Japan in recognition of the
competitive impact of road transport informatics which are likely to result
in speedy
It seems very likely that imported solutions emerging from these initiatives will
progress.
not be optimal for the European situation;

European car manufacturers have committed themselves to the continuation of the
of European
framework
the
work
automobilemanufacturers);

(EUREKA Project

of Prometheus

in

interest in traffic and transport manangement has increased ;

3000 organisations, industries and Research Institutes from the Community and EFTA
countries have expressed interest in DRIVE ;

new important R&D of pre-competitive and pre-normative kind have been identified
by sector actors.

Future research needs include, notably:

a. Development of appropriate verification tools, which will facilitate the introduction of

new equipment on vehicles or to infrastructure.

b. Longer term technological solutions, which will substantially increase the capacity of

the road-transport network, improving safety at the same time.

c.

Investigation in depth of the proposed systems, particularly those relating to public
Transport, goods transport and vulnerable Road Users.

d . Concepts for the use of mobile communication as infrastructure for road transport

information and guidance services.

e. The necessity to extend the collaboration of operators, industry and users in application

pilots taking into account regional differences.

f. Development of proposals for integrated specifications for all major sub-systems

building inter alia on the results of ESPRIT and RACE.

More specifically, this means:

Development of a systems approach, which will consider
transport
environment in Europe and will include land use and general economic issues and
specific regional requirements.

the total

U9

17

-

Further development of transportation models to include elements of total transport
performance and the specifications of advanced systems offering longer
term
technological solution; as well as development of a technoeconomic tool for evaluating
the consequences of producing different components of Road Transport Informatics
(e.g. showing the way they are channeled through different economic sectors and
through different markets).
This would be of use to other R&D programmes
concerned with techno-economic evaluation.

Investigation and development of longer term technological solutions, particularly
relating to increasing capacity of traffic lanes; technologies for Public Transport and
Goods Transport Intermodal Information Systems; and advanced systems for rural
Road Transport.

Integration of Traffic management and Transport Management systems, with the
inclusion of all value added services.

The synergy of similar technological solutions for all transport modes, addressing the
issues of navigation, information, management.
In addition exploitation of merging
work of ESPRIT and RACE for maximisation of synergy with these actions.

In the road safety context :

advanced anti-collision devices in complex situations using longer term technological
solutions;

advanced man machine interfaces using longer term technological solutions;

advanced co-pilot systems including corresponding servo mechanisms;

improved sensors including in car biochip devices.

To prepae the way for implémentation:

- Development of test beds for Integrated Road Transport Management Systems,
including the interfaces with other modes for passenger and good transport;
development of test beds for Advanced Road Safety Systems for urban and interurban
Road Transport; and development of the verification procedures for
licencing
Advanced RTI Systems.

170

Annex 2

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS

MAIN ISSUES FOR INDUSTRIAL R&D AND MARKET PERFORMANCE

1 . 1

The Market

There is a

Manufacturing industry , as the primary customer for industrial
technologies and materials , is an established and essential part of the
Community 's economy and will remain so for the foreseeable future .
It
provides around 1050 billion ECU ( 1985 ) or 30% of GNP and accounts for 75%
of the industrial work force of sortie 41 million people .
strongly positive balance of trade in manufactured goods ( export/ import
This is underpinned by sectors which
ratio of 1,15 in 1987-Table 2.1 ) .
have devoted considerable resources to maintaining their competitive edge
and is particularly so in the manufacture of motor cars , chemicals , power
cables and instrumentation .
Nevertheless , same structural weaknesses
persist and in particular the capacity to respond to growing demand in
more developed markets .
The considerable changes that have taken place in
the relative size of world output across a range of manufacturing sectors
is shown in figure 2.1 .
Comparing the performance of selected sectors in
Europe , US and Japan ,
( see pages A1-A6 ) reveals large relative movements
in output growth and thus the considerable pressure on European
manufacturers in a dynamic market .

Table 2.1

EC Balance of Trade in Manufactured Goods

(billion ECU)

1981 (EC10 )

Exports
236

Imports

171

1987 (EC12 )

289

252

Export/ Import Ratio

1.38

1.15

Eurostat

171

1

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ft
£
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WORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH

EVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AMJ 80 - 85
EVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75 - BO AMJ 00 - 8S

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WORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH

EVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AT© 80-85

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172

WORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH

EVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AM) 80-85
EVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AM) 80-85

21% I " I

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For Source / Leyena see page A2

173

2 .

This is visible in terms of the improved performance

However, in recent years there has been a marked reaction by European
manufacturing industry to the pressures of ever widening and more
competitive markets .
within the leading companies in many sectors .
means providing a better service than canpetitors .
requirement relates to the ability to supply , when required , small batches
of high quality goods .
in the manufacturing strategy of most companies .
Demolition of the
barriers between the functions of marketing , design, purchasing or
manufacturing , and after sales , within and between companies , will
facilitate the identification of the technologies which are needed to
improve performance .

The necessary flexibility requires major changes

Maintaining market share

Increasingly , the

1.2 Technology in Company Strategy
Different approaches to Industrial R&D strategy , such as focussing on
product innovation or reducing manufacturing costs , must be applied
singularly or in combination to sectors with a fast growing demand ( such
as instruments and chemicals) or those whose demand is stagnant ( such as
The common element is that
clothing , textiles , motor vehicles and food) .
the performance of the European industries and those of the most developed
industrial countries will be less concentrated on maintaining or
increasing market share of the total market .
capture the top end of the market by new or improved products often with a
higher technology content in the product itself or in its means of
manufacture .

Instead they will seek to

The potential for increasing productivity and

The size of the so called 'top end' of the market will , to a large extent ,
depend on the technologies used and hew they extend the efficiency to the
customer 's needs .
flexibility is greater in mature industries , as is the incentive to employ
new technology .
products having a higher added value is the movement towards materials
having a greater 'expertise' content per unit weight , see figure 2.2 .
Already this 'denaturing' process is evident in established sectors , as
demonstrated by the following examples :
-

One indication of this trend towards the development of

in the motor car industry , responsible for about 10% of industrial
value added and employment , productivity increased by more than 30%
between 1980 and 1987 .
After making losses in the early 1980s the
industry became profitable in 1986 with profits estimated at 7
billion ECU for 1987 .

For this improvement against strong external

174

Relation between the quantity of materials in a product and the information content

Degree of sophistication

• Electronic materials

\

Composite#
materials

г

High-temperature
materials

Л

Materials mix and sophistication
of today’s automobile industry

Engineering#
plastics
lk plastics fe alloys

Bulk plastics <

#
•

Aluminium strength

V
©Steel, bulk applications

High-
Hie
low-alloy % Cement

Steel

-►
Quantity of material per unit of product

Figure 2.2

Source : ATAS Bulletin

175

3 .

pressure, a major contribution came frcm innovation in the
organisation of production, heavily supported by technology.
As a highly automated process industry , European power cable
To defend itself
manufacturers simply 39% of the world production .
against import substitution policies in developing countries R&D is
recognised as a means of maintaining technical leadership in areas
such as insulation and fine protection .
The clothing industry , employing over one million people , has
inproved its export/ import ratio frcm 0.45 to 0.68 since 1980 .
Overall imports into the Carmunity amounted to 9.6% of consumption in
1986 although for seme items the figure was as high as 76% .
Technology is recognised as offering a major opportunity although
there are some very difficult problems to solve .
The associated textile machinery sector manufactures 55% of world
productions and exports 70% of output .
Although recent ccrrmercial
trends are not encouraging there is optimism that the more integrated
manufacturing processes now required by users and which exploit
advanced technologies will reduce the relative importance of market
costs and so shift demand for textile production back to the
Carmunity .
as weaving achieve extended effectiveness through advanced technology
additions ( see figure 2.3 and page A7)

Current textile manufacturing process technologies such

4

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176

4 .

-

The machine tool industry has had a mixed performance with sore
companies being slew in moving to the technologies of numerically
controlled tools .
However some companies have been particularly
successful in maintaining their position in world markets through
technology leadership .
The glass and wood industries have annual outputs of 16 and 19
billion ECU respectively .
contracted in the early 1980s .
these sectors to benefit from their inherent environmental

Though very different in nature , both

Technology innovations are allowing

advantages .
Last but not least the chemical industry has an annual turnover of
same 230 billion ECU ( 1987 ) with an export/ import ratio of 1,27 .
With the opening of markets the sector has demonstrated its
technical strength in products and their production against growing
international competition .

Barriers to progress

1.3
As enterprises become more dependent on expensive machinery , improvements
are needed concerning the reliability and predictability of machine
behaviour .
consisting of few large and many medium sized and small enterprises , there
is a particular need to reduce the complexity and cost of new production
technologies and systems .

Recognising the characteristics of Corrmunity industry

Exploiting new technology in products is essential whether directly , as in
the use of new materials , or indirectly through inproved design ,
reliability , servicing or marketing .
generally been less successful than its competitors , particularly from the
Far East .
performance and methods of corponent manufacture and new materials .
Failure to exploit new materials to improve product performance ,
durability and reliability bars the Cannunity from competing in rapidly
expanding and traditional markets .

The Cannunity now lags behind in the engineering aspects -

Here the Cannonity industry has

The challenge of the single integrated market highlights the growing
requirement for uniform standards at a European level , which are the basis
for effective ccrmunication between interested parties within industry and
between industry and regulatory bodies .
European level programmes including BCR , BCSC Steel Research and COST
suggest that research involving partners from several Member States can be
a valuable step towards harmonisation of industrial practice.

Results already emerging from

1 !177

Pre-ccmpetitive R&D - applied research not leading directly to
ccmmercially exploitable results - is an essential enabling instrument for
competitiveness but may be too wide in application , of too long a tine
scale , or too risky to make it acceptable for funding by single companies ,
It is here that existing resources in Europe can be
particularly SMEs .
further exploited , building on the growing awareness of the benefits of
collaborative activity .
At the European level , R&D programmes have helped
to reinforce this encouraging trend in bringing together the complementary
expertise of those in industry and research organisations to specify ,
manage and implement the work required to underpin the competitiveness of
European manufacturers .

It is estimated that spending by

However , the available statistical

Within Europe most R&D relating to industrial technologies and materials
is believed to take place in industry .
information is generally too broad in coverage to provide an accurate
picture of the true situation .
governments on industrial production and technology is seme 3,7 billion
ECU .
In comparison , the Carmunity 's industrial research and development
programmes such as BRITE/EURAM, Raw Materials and Recycling , and the ECSC
Steel Research will commit only a relatively small percentage of this sum
each year .
Though within these programmes Community support will vary
between a high level of overall R&D funding in a lew research intensity
sector such as clothing to a low level in a mere research intensive sector
such as chemicals .
indicate the trends across Europe , US and Japan in overall R&D expenditure
in a number of seertors :

The figures on pages A8-A10 , though incomplete ,

In the case of chemicals , it is particularly noticeable that the
Japanese , starting from a much smaller base , are catching up with
Europe through a higher rate of growth in R&D expenditure .
The figures for motor vehicles suggest that after major efforts in
the seventies , world manufacturers may have slewed down the increase
in R&D expenditure , particularly in the case of US but also in Europe
relative to Japan .
The textile and clothing industry conducts very little R&D but it is
worrying to see that Europe appears to have been decreasing
expenditure relative to Japan and US .
In the area of rubber and plastics , Europe appears to be maintaining
its position against US and Japan .
The position in machinery R&D expenditure , although increasing , is a
cause for concern with Europe falling steadily behind both US and

–

Japan .

178

6 .

Although Europe clearly has a substantial activity , it tends to be behind
the US in absolute R&D expenditure and also falls belcw Japan in the rate
of growth particularly between 1980 and 1983 .
The figures confirm the
concern expressed elsewhere over the trends in total volume of research
expenditure .

2 .

THE CHALLENGE FRCM OUTSIDE EUROPE

However both have very

Outside Europe it is , for the time being , the US and Japan which dominate
the R&D scene in industrial technologies .
different incentives and infrastructures supporting their advancement .
One measure of success is the ability to retain or increase shares in
Looking at the relative importance of industries across a
world markets .
basket of 12 important manufacturing sectors between 1980 and 1985 , table
2.2 reveals that whereas 9 of the Japanese industries have held or
increased market share this was only the case for one European and 4
American sectors .

TABLE 2.2

Gains and Losses in Share of

World Markets 1980 to 1985

Sector
Electrical Engineering
Engineering for ail industries
Mechanical Engineering
Rubber Products

Europe
L
L
L
L

Textile

Fumiture

Machine Tools

Ship building
Optical Products
Scientific Instruments

Clothing
Chemical Industry

L

L

L

L
L
G

L
L

US

Japan

L

L

L

H

L

G

H

G

L

L

L

L

G

G

L

L

H

H

L

Г'

G

H

H

H

G - Gain ,

L = Loss ,

H - Held

After Arthur Anderson and Co . 1988

179

7 .

Many European manufacturing companies have studied the

For many years Japan has had the reputation for being a copier of western
technology .
Japanese approach at first hand and now believe they have the
There is
capabilities , if properly used , to mount a successful challenge .
a lot of ground to make up as Japanese products were new world leaders in
36 out of 40 technology intense product categories .

Japanese industry is structured in a way which avoids many of the problems
associated with technology transfer in the West .
Japanese industry does
the research itself with internal technology transfer by production and
research engineers working alongside one another during the development
phase .
While Government laboratories and universities play a relatively
minor part in industry 's R&D effort they do provide a pool of expertise
for use by MITI and other agencies in planning and running Government
sponsored industrial research programmes .

In 1981 MITI launched its project dealing with the revolutionary basic
technologies essential to the establishment of the new industries expected
The 'Research and Development
to flourish before the end of the century .
Project of Basic Technology for Future Industries' (JISEDAI ) covered new
materials , biotechnology and new electronics devices .

Various means were proposed including the

Last year a report prepared on behalf of MITI by academics and
industrialists recognised the need to strengthen Japan 's capabilities in
fundamental research .
establishment of centres of research as a basis for encouraging exchanges
of researchers between industry and universities .
Another measure was to
reinforce the JISEDAI programme , recognising that the areas of fundamental
research which were expected to be important for industry at the beginning
of the next century were : new materials ; electronics ; software ;
biotechnology ; and bicmaterials .

In the US a major factor in the advancement of manufacturing , design , and
materials technology has been the Department of Defense support for R&D .
In the Manufacturing Technology Programme alone there are approximately
500 projects active at any one time with an annual funding ( in 1986) of
In its 25 years this R&D prograrrme is
approximately 200 million dollars .
recognised as having benefited both civil and military users with , in same
instances , returns to the US amounting to billions of dollars .

180

8 .

The primary objective to support R&D capable of improving the economical ,
timely and reliable production of defence material , has meant that the
programme has became a national focus for developments in manufacturing
technology .
In contrast to the lew level of spin-off resulting from the
development of defence equipment , the support for improving manufacturing
performance among defence contractors has resulted in practices , products
and systems which have found wide application in improving manufacturing
effectiveness .

This is also

Nevertheless , as in Europe , there is concern in the US about the
barriers to the commercialisation of new technologies .
considered in the Main Report .
A major worry is the lack of integration
and communication among functions within companies and a ccmplacency and
Foreign
overdependence on the dorestic market for growth opportunities .
competitors , often but not always Japanese , were seen as having turned US
technological development into their commercial product successes .
There
is a feeling that the benefits of emerging technology are too easily lost
by weak laws and regulations , and ineffective enforcement for the
protection of intellectual property rights in the US or overseas .

As to the future , the Department of Commerce considers the emerging
technologies of particular importance to the end of the century to be :
Advanced Materials ; Electronics ; Autonation ; Biotechnology ; Computing ;
Medical Technology ; and Thin Layer Technology .
different from those of Japan given above , reflect the importance of the
production related technologies as almost all have a significant role to
play in the control , operation , or effectiveness of manufacturing
processes .
manufacturing related technologies from the Department of Defense supports
the effective development of products and processes .

However , in the shorter term the substantial funding for

These priorities , not very

3 .

THE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

In this section the generic industrial technologies underpinning the drive
towards industrial competitiveness - for which research effort should be
concentrated - are identified .
needed for the design and assurance of products and processes , for meeting
the manufacturing needs of groups or sectors of industry , for improved
manufacturing
with
application and recycling of new and advanced materials and materials

Included are the improved technologies

associated

processes ,

together

those

the
1 \

with

9 .

production .
established in conjunction with industrial experts .

These R&D priorities for European industry have been

3.1 Design and Assurance
The development of techniques to improve product and process quality, and
the reliability and maintainability of structures , and manufacturing
Their costs have been
systems have a major affect on performance .
estimated in one of the Member States to be seme 10% of OSIP and can
typically range frem 5-25% of company turnover and it is believed that a
reduction by 70% of their present level through better management and
control is possible .
imperfections and also costs of process and product assurance ,
task is to reduce the imperfection rate while reducing the assurance
costs .
for reliability and maintainability .

The trend to lew inventory manufacture underpins the requirements

As the costs of quality are related to the

a major

In many sectors there is concern over limitations of available process
control and the means by which the product specified is assured .
improved sensors are required to control processes and their importance
reflects increases in the scale and flexibility of systems .
engineering , if developed could satisfy needs in the areas of testing ,
detection and inspection .

Optical

New and

Power control engineering , for control of speed or position in electric
motors is at the base of advances in automation in all kinds of industry .
Though there were strengths in the past , European and US manufacturers are
new losing market share against Japan .
needed so that European manufacturers of process and production
machinery can have access to the most suitable technology .

Technological improvements are

3.2 Application of Manufacturing Technologies
Here the requirement is to develop manufacturing practices in the leading
sectors for others which have been slew to exploit the benefits in
business performance .
These will include a high proportion of SMEs , and
have limited research and development capabilities themselves and so be
Application
dependent on the expertise and experience of other sectors .
of modelling techniques is required to address problems in established
industries , such as the filling of complex injection moulds , particle
formation in atomisers , positioning of sensors in condition monitoring
systems ,
materials.

in machinery or the

noise generation

design of

composite

"! 82

10 .

A particular area where there are prospects to build on initial progress
is in those industries based on the processing and use of flexible
materials .
Their importance is well illustrated by the Ccnmunity 's
textile and leather related industries where sane 3.5 million people are
employed .
SMEs , many of which have limited technical capabilities .

In the clothing industry about 80% of production cares fran

Manufacturing Processes

3 . 3
Improved techniques for shaping , joining and assembly , surface treatment ,
chemical processes and particle technology are fundamental needs for
Advancement of these processes is essential for securing
industry .
manufacturing competitiveness .
With regard to surface treatments the
costs of corrosion prevention and effects amount to about 4% of GNP in
In almost all
industrial countries and similar figures apply to wear .
surface treatment systems , the aspects of quality assurance , condition
monitoring in service and control of the treatment process require further
development .

In the case of technologies for shaping , assembly and joining further
development is needed to exploit the full benefits of their incorporation
into computer integrated manufacturing systems .
requirements for new processes with improved performance including high
The availability of advanced materials
precision and faster operation .
both to be treated and also for use in the treatment process , challenge
conventional practice .

There are also

There is a particular challenge to produce

Important advances in chemical manufacture will only result if there is
collaboration between chemical manufacturers , users and suppliers of new
technology or expertise .
improved catalyst systems while the supply is mainly local , and Europe is
There is requirement to optimise the design of membrane
generally strong .
systems , such as to enhancing turbulence at the membrane surface and also
techniques to inhibit fouling . Europe has been slipping behind in membrane
The world market for membranes is about 400 mio ECU/ year and
innovation .
is likely to grew significantly in the future as new applications for
membranes are identified , such as gas filtration .

Research is need to overcame the inability to fully categorise particles ,
poor efficiency and size control within many conventional particle
processes ,
maintaining
distribution in the flow of powders and suspensions .

an
flew
Multi disciplinary 183

difficulties

even

the

and

and

in

expertise is required to tackle problems found in very different particle
systems .

Advanced powder materials technology is limiting the achievement of
potential benefits in areas such as aero and automotive engines , magnets ,
tool steels and electronic materials .
There is an opportunity to build on
European strength in sane process areas to secure a share in a strongly
competitive industry where the US leads production in powder and products
valued at about 2 billion ECU , with Europe and Japan at about 1 billion
ECU each .

Advanced Materials

3 . 4
While new materials are often considered to be a 'horizontal' subject
within a wide spectrum of industrial sectors , most major developments have
arisen within aerospace , nuclear energy and more recently electronics and
The trend in application for the last sector is
the automobile industry .
shewn in figure 2.4 .

The lack of adequate materials is a brake on developments such as magneto¬
hydrodynamics , fuel cells and high energy density performance materials .
Europe is well placed to provide the multi disciplinary approach necessary
for progress , but the US and Japan have been first to recognise a new
This is illustrated in table 2.3 for advanced
awareness of materials .

ceramics .

For metallic based materials advances in processing and alloying
technologies have considerably widened the design scope .
technological challenge is to establish a base of quality confidence in
the new materials and improve processing techniques of these and more
established materials so as to bring production costs to competitive
Anisotropic materials strengthened with particles or fibre
levels .
reinforcement are required .

But a major

Materials having significantly improved magnetic , optical , electrical ,
and superconducting properties are needed to realise advances in a wide
range of industries .
Magnetic materials , for example , are indispensable
Building on European strengths
in the electrical and computer industries .
in R&D , there is a requirement for developments which permit effective and
economical exploitation as , for example , polymer-bonded anisotropic
permanent magnets or massive segments of metallic glass for applications
permanent magnets or massive segments of metallic glass for applications

11 a .

Materials in the automobile

80O1–--

J

1
I

R
y

H
70° -
!
■g 600 -
£ 600
|
Ü3 500 -
H
fc 400-
a> 400
^ 300-0 illlllll
^
i
I
1
n 200' ^
^
8200m P M H H Pi H r
o 200
i -,
>
v;

'i
-\
7‘
j
0 iid–y–y–y–y–y–u–u–L±J
1992
'84

YEAR 1976 78

100 -*

%
'V-
7

&
''
4

1

^
>,

I

I

I

I

I

'90

'88

'86

'80

'82

>>
■>}

'*7

\ '

/Z

4'

/'

/ V

' /

, \

.

E7B Plastics and Composites

ESS HSLA

ES Aluminum

Note: Increasing automobile usage (actual and projected) of cerrsin materials, including hich-srrencth low-alloy steels,
States, despite overall trend toward downsizing.

in the lnuc>.

Fiçjurs 2.4

Source : ATAS BuLletin

185

11 b .

• International Comparison of R&D Efforts in Advanced Ceramics by

Application Area

Location

Application

United States

Japan

Western Europe

Electronic applications:
multilayer capacitors

10 to 15 MECU /yr

Gas sensors

No more than 1 to 2
MECU /yr

Structural applications:
heat engines

35 to 40 MECU/yr

Cutting tools

Probably no more than
l MECU/yr

R & D spending
unknown ; said to hold
10:1 lead over US in
number of patents and
engineers

R & D unknown ; said
to hold 3:1 lead over
US in number cf
technical papers and
10:1 lead in patenting

Greater than $50
million/yr

R &. D spending
unknown ; 20:1 lead
over US in patents for
period 1973 to 1982

Not estimated

Probablv similar to
US level

Less than US :
Germany and
Sweden are the
European leaders

Probable more
than US ; Germany
alone nearly even
with the US in
patents for period
1973 to 1982 .

Optical applications :
integrated optics

Approximately 10
MECU/yr

Slightly less than US
expenditures

About half of US
expenditures

Source . Black, Blum and Kalos

Table 2.3

186

12 .

which include electric motors , security systems , ore separation , medical
equipment and magnetic levitation for transport .

High temperature superconductor materials , in which Europe played an early
role , are expected to have a great inpact in the medium and longer term on
most of the high technology industry sectors , particularly in component
design for reduced energy consumption .
unsolved industrial breakthroughs will not be achieved without a
systematic investigation of the operating mechanism and engineering
problems .

As many basic problems remain

The large potential of engineering ceramics depends on solving problems in
properties and availability .
there are supply difficulties within Europe .
meet the users needs , there will have to be closer links with pxwder
producers .
glasses and amorphous materials , will be sane 12 billion ECU within a few
years . Currently European activity is lew carpared to US and Japan .

In speciality powders , such as whiskers ,
If this technology is to

The world market for engineering ceramics , including special

The world

Europe is a net importer of engineering
The US with 70% of the world production and Japan with 10% are

Developments are needed in Europe to respond to the trends of replacing
general purpose polymer materials by functional materials .
polymer market is of the order of 120 billion ECU , of which engineering
polymers , including polymer matrix composites , amount to 5 billion ECU and
are increasing in market share .
polymers .
increasing market share at the expense of Europe currently with 10-15% .
Currently the market for advanced materials is limited and mostly in
Growth will ccme frem new
the US because of the aerospace dependence .
approaches to design which allcw cheaper materials to be developed and
exploited , as in motor cars .
technologies are needed to respond to greater use of polymers in consumer
products .
The problems reflecting environmental consideration are
significant as there are seme 7000 types of polymer in circulation .

Developments in recycling and recovery

Improvements are also needed in more conventional materials in addition to
the technologies which reflect the use of new and advanced materials .
In
particular more effective extraction , process and recycling technologies
are required for critical materials to underpin their availability to
users .
Similarly improvements in the processing and application
technologies of steel are needed to secure the competitiveness of European
1 Q
producers in world markets .

13 .

4 .

THE TASK FOR EUROPE

A competitive , technology based manufacturing industry is an essential
element of the Community 's economy .
to establish an environment in which the industry can flourish .
technology related issues where action is needed are as follows :

The overall task at European level is

The

R&D and Ccmpany Strategy

However , not all companies are well structured to

4.1
It is for industry to identify its future technological needs and take the
necessary action .
undertake such a task .
This weakness was highlighted during the recent
evaluation of the BRITE programme as resulting from poor links between
company planning , marketing , manufacturing and R&D functions .
analysis of particular areas that require renewed research efforts for
European industry given in Chapter 3 has been developed together with
industry .
the level of the individual company .
trend for further co-operation at European level .

It will be further developed but should , already , be helpful at

It will also signal the overall

The

4.2

R&D and Technical Barriers

Standardisation activity at the European level contributes to the breaking
down of barriers to trade within the CcmniLinity .
areas with a rapidly advancing technology , there can be benefits for
establishing links between R&D and standards related activities , so
speeding up the effective exploitation of the R&D results .

Particularly in those

4.3 The Balance Between Fundamental and Applied Research
A concern is how fundamental research , usually in universities and
supported from public funds , should be balanced against research and
development having a greater industrial focus . A close look should be
taken at the balance between the fundamental and applied work to ensure
that the inventive skills of academic researchers are encouraged but yet
they have those links with industry which will ensure speedy progress
through the research , design, development and application chain .

Education and Training

4.4
R&D can only be as good as the resources available .
strongly influenced by its education and formation.
concerns expressed above should be reflected in the training of research

The human resource is
Several of the

managers .

188

14 .

At the management level the failure to convert research into profitable
A fresh
products and processes continues to be a concern within Europe .
look needs to be taken at the preparation and training for managing
innovation and the management of its implementation - not as an isolated
In
activity but in an environment that is aware of the market place .
responding to the challenge of the Japanese invasion of the European
market place many companies have reformed and re-organised and are now
much better structured to make real gains .

189

BIBLIOGRAPHY

IRDAC , Opinion upon R&D Funding , October 1986
IRDAC , R&D Needs in the Field of Mechatronics , October 1986
IRDAC , Opinion on the Framework Programme 1987-1991 , October 1986
IRDAC , Report and Recarmendations on Advanced Materials and Related
Processes R&D in Europe , January 1988
Performance of the European Manufacturing Industry , Arthur Andersen and
Co , February 1988
Research Action Programme - Materials - IV Advanced Materials , EURAM
Programme Description 1986-1989 , 1985
European Economy , CEC , N°35 , March 1988
European Economy , CEC , N°25 , September 1985
Proposal for a Council Decision adopting a specific Research and
Technological Development Programme of the EEC in the fields of Industrial
Technologies and Advanced Materials Applications (BRITE/EURAM)
( 1989-1992 ) , CEC , August 1988
Discussions with Experts during the preparation of BRITE/EURAM
Discussions with Standards Institutions in Member States
Report of the Evaluation Panel of the First Brite Programme
Research Evaluation - Report N°25 , CEC , September 1988
The Status of Emarging Technologies : An Econanic/Technological Assessment
to the year 2000 .
US Department of Ccrmerce , June 1987
Information provided by EC Permanent Délégation in Japan
Les Matériaux nouveaux , Dynamique , Economique et stratégique Européenne ,
Eccncmica/Paris , 1987
ATAS Bulletin , Issue 5 May 1988 , United Nations
Technological Needs of the European Textile Industry, KSA , February 1988
Black , Blum and Kalos : Referred to in 'Market Trends for Existing and
Forseeable Advanced Ceramic Products in the EEC 1 , CERAM Research ,

October 1987

-

190

А1

1985: Value-added in the EC, the United States and Japan by sector ( 1985, current prices)

Branch

EUR 12
billion ECU

Japan
billion ECU

USA
billion ECU

Manufactured products

Ores and metals
Non-metallic minerals and mineral products
Chemical products
Metal products (except machinery and transpon equipment )
Agricultural and industrial machinery
Office and data-processing machines, precision and optical
instruments
Electnca ! goods
Transpon equipment
Food, beverages , tobacco
Textiles and clothing, leather and footwear
Paper and pnnting products
Rubber and plastic goods
Other manufactured products

Building and construction

Sortit CommiUkon tcrvtcet tiectoral d«ta bank-VISA )

. S2S

SOS

1 024

35
41
76
73
79

25
82
92
129
66
57
32
38

180

24
24
44
68
40

20
79
49
56
40
14
21
26

128

30
40
103
84
88

80
92
145
108
53
113
38
51

24S

191

A2

TABLE OF LEGENDS

S3S3SSSlS3Z<>ISSZS>SISSS»SSI>IISSai3imiBtSS>:>SC3SSS

LEGENDS

SECTORS

I X3333S8333X33 : I 33X33IS»X3f3SXS3S3XSS3333333Z333333S3

!

CAT

CER

CES

CHE

CLO

COM

COO

EEN

ENG

FOR

F TU

FUR

HOU

MAC

HAG

HAH

HAN

HAR

HAY

HEN

HOT

OPT

PLA

RUB

SCI

SHI

TEX

TOY

TRA

UEL

UHI

.

Catalyst·
Ceramics ( engineering )
Ceramics ( sanitary ) ~
Chemical Industry
Clothing
Composites
Cooking Equipment
Electrical Engineering
Engineering and all . industries
Forgings and castings
Footwear

Furniture
Household Fittings
Hachine Tools
Magnetic Materials
Materials Handling Equipment
Man Hade Fibres
Metal articles
Machinery ( Printing/Packing/ Food)
Mechanical Engineering
Motor vehicle and parts
Optical Products
Plastic processing
Rubber Products
Scientific Instruments
Shipbuilding
Texti le

Toys
Transport
Uelding/ Joining Equipment
Uhite Goods

Source of materials on pages A3-A7 , A9-A11

and figure 2.1 :

and figure 2.1 Arthur Andersen U ûo .

192

A3

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY OUTPUT

EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1985
700 -----

eoo -
eoo -

500 -

4°0 -

--

300 4-

--* ^

__ ^39%___–-"
»

U. S. A.
U. S. A.

|
'
E.E.C. |

200 1

100 -
100 -

36*

--

--------Т___
I
!
i
j
o-,-!

13*

JAPAN

1975

1980

YEARS
YEARS

1985

TEXTILE OUTPUT

EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1985

80 i---

70 -

70 Ί

65 -
65 -

60 _

55 -

7K3*~ –■–-

__

^

--■*"

--

____«

EEC .

EEC .

ΪΓ

___ U S A.

U 3 . A.

2*

50 -<r"

^--

"

13*

*S -

40 "I

35 -J---

___JAPAN

JAPAN

30 -j-1-- ---1

1975

1980

YEARS

1985

193

A4

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING OUTPUT
_EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1976-1988

600 -

500 -

400 -

300 -

200 -
.

-__

5%

g

18*
18%

US . A

rr-
E.E.C.

--

30%
60%___

100 '
°-J-----,----
2,
1980
1975

18%

JAPAN

1985

YEARS

MACHINE TOOLS OUTPUT

EVOLUTION BY COLNTRY 1975 - 1985
15 Ί-1
14 -

13 -

12 -

11 -

1° -

8 -

!
6 T
4 -

83% ^^^

^^\-43%

-43%

E.E.C

70%__^___--

_ __– ___ JAPAN
JAPAN

88%

3 -,-""

262%

-45%

U. S. A

•0 -|-–-1-–-

1976

1860

YEARS

1685

194

A5

OPTICAL PRODUCTS OUTPUT
_ _EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1965
EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1965

70 -

00 -

50 -

40 -

30 -
30 -

20 - _I85__ ____

19*

U^ .
U. S A.

10 i

_
- --–--■

E.E C.
E.E C.

811

8%

17*

31 *

JAPAN
JAPAN

1975

-–-–■-–_
1
1fi~,
1985
18eo

YEARS

15 -i-

SHIPBUILDING OUTPUT

EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 19Ô5

13 -

13 ~_

- 11 *

10 -

9 -

8 -

7 H

0 -

5 -

4 -

3 -

2 -

1 -

USA ^

U. S. A

JAPAN

E.E.C.I
E.E.C.

0 -I-1-–---i
1975

1900

1966

YEAR3

195

A6

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS OUTPUT

80 -1- --––-1

EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1 865

70 -
70 -

60 -
80 -

50 -

40 -
40 -

30 -

20 -
20 -

---

__«-

31%
E.E.C.
”
I
E.E.C. I
7% _ ^___■

20%___<>

U.S.A.
U.S.A.

10 4--
----

I
0 -I-1-1
1975
1975

69%

1980

1985

14%

JAPAN
JAPAN

YEARS

196

A7

Technological

improvements

l . All textile manufacturing

Manual

processes

Computer
adjustment / control

2 .

Raw materials

Natural fibre

Synthetics
Artificials

Natural filaments
( silk )

Synthetics
continuous fila ¬

ments

3 . Yarn spinning , winding

Manual

Automatic piecing ,
creeling , doffing

4 . Woven fabric

Narrow

Wide width

5 .

Fabric dyeing

Batch

High

Continuous
processing

Low liquor ratio

Atmosferic

Pressure

6 . Carpet formation

Manual

Weaving
Tufting
Nonwoven

Source KSA

Examples of changes in the textile industry that have increased

some aspect of productivity

197

A8-

CHEMICALS OVERALL R&D

H---■■■■

EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1663
EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 • 1963

I

25

^- ^ U. 9 . A.
U.3.A.

-–

_._■_'

”

ïé%

E.E.C.

----- 25*

____

_

JAPAN
JAPAN

I
h

4 41--

14%

3 -

1 -

- 45%

0 -|-1-

1976

1660

YEARS

1SÔ3

MOTOR VEHICLES OVERALL R&D

7 --■------

EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1963
EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1863

fl -

6 ~

3 -

i
i
b

–---11%

- 11%

_ _ U. S. A.
U. S. A.

'

..

–

__ ___18% ___

E.E.C.
E.E.C.

o -I-1-

1876

1960

ΥΕΑΗ8

1963

198

A9

TEXTILE AND CLOTHING OVERALL R&D

EVOLUTION BY CCLMTHY 1876 - 1863

-32% E.E.C.
19%JAPAN

14%U.S.A.

1860

YEARS

41%

JAPAN

- 22%

E.E.C

1983

RUBBER AND PLASTICS OVERALL R&D

EVOUJTON BY COLKTRY 1875 - 1963

I

fe

Q

1

a
2

5 -

4 -

2 -

1 -

1875

6 -

5 -

4 -

3 -

2 -

37* EEC .
146* JAPAN
146 * JAPAN

1 -

__ 0 USA -

10%
15%

|– E.E.C.
j p JAPAN
JAPAN

.- *
-
1- ---
> 75
1875

1860

1983

YEARS

199

A10

MACHINERY TOTAL R&D

12 __EVOLUTION BY COLNTHY 1975 - 1868_
EVOLUTION BY COLNTHY 1975 - 1983

11 1
10 -

8 -

7 -

<
β -

5 -

f
I
£

18»
__-

-- -
U. 3 . A.
U. 3 . A.

_| _ _ _10%_E.E.C.
2 "____ _–H-sr"

E.E.C.

JAPAN

I

0 -I-1-
1976

1980

1983

YEAR3

2C0

MARKET SITUATION

ANNEX 3 : AERONAUTICS

industry is without doubt a very important
The aeronautical
The establishment of a
industrial sector in Europe
strong
a
contributing factor to a strong and powerful economy and to the
prosperity of the population .

( Fig .
industrial

1 ).
base

competitive

field

this

and

in

is

During the 1980-1986 period the European aeronautics industry has
This represents average
captured 25,9% of the world-market .
annual sales of about 9,900 - MECU 's . Forecasts for the 1987-2010
period reveal an appreciable further increase in the world market
leading to average annual sales of about 14,800 MECU 's ( Fig .

2 ).

category of medium range aircraft

A convincing example of the technological capability of European
aeronautics industry is the penetration of " Airbus Industrie " in
the
has
provoked a series of vigorous reactions from the USA where the
Administration has declared its support for a new national thrust
to reassert US leadership in world aeronautics .

( Fig .

This

3 ).

World scheduled passenger traffic is rapidly increasing ( Fig .

4 ).

Increased competition for the capture of the expanding market
5 ), not only
must be expected , notably for civil aircraft ( Fig .
on the part of
the Newly
Industrialised Countries ( Brazil , Korea ...).

the USA but also

from Japan and

( 0051 . JC )

201

FIG .

1 .

EC AERONAUTICS

THE EUROPEAN INDUSTRY , based on 1 905 statistical

data :

( excluding engine and equipment companies )

EMPLOYMENT :

TURNOVER :

200,000 persons

1 6,000 million ECU

ANNUAL RESEARCH- 6 DEVELOPMENT Expenditure :

2,400 million ECU

ANNUAL RESEARCH £ TECHNOLOGY Expenditure :

370 million ECU .

( Excluding the Product Development Content of RSD )

( Source

EUROMART Study )

to
O
ro

ALL-AIRCRAFT MARKET ANALYSIS . PAST AND FUTURE
Charts show average annual value ( at 1987 prices )
of aircraft deliveries over the periods indicated

25.9%

\ ALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD /
ALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD
/
MANUFACTURERS
\
/
MANUFACTURERS
74 1%
74.1%

\
V

/
/

PERIOD 1980-1986

Average annual value of total market = ECU 38.3bn
( ECU 268 bn over the whole period )

ALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD
ALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD
MANUFACTURERS
MANUFACTURERS
73 . 1%
73 . 1%

/
/
/

26 9%
26 9%

PERIOD 1987-2010

Average annual value of total market = ECU 55bn
( ECU 1323 bn ( at 1987 prices ) over the whole period )

( Source

: EUROMART Study )

FIG - 2-

203

PERCENTAGE OF
MARKET SHARE
( in value )
Δ

Qri

I_I

II
I

!
!
USA ( Boeing + Douglas + Lockheed )-!--1
USA ( Boeing + Douglas + Lockheed )
■ _ uon iDuemy x uuuyio » x LVWMICVU /

100–~1–I–I–I–I–I–I–I–[–I
Qn
il \\TÏ
*"+^*>1,
|

3Q_ J

70-i----1-fW -1

- –-– ––

BOEING

\|

BOEING

|
!
|

j
j

^

|

■ «-

!

t

.

- Sales Value – ECU 8100 million
Sales Value – ECU 8100 million

US

US
Manufacturer

Manufacturer

50

I-1-1– --- - - –Г^-Тв.^ ■

I
I
40---j-j

i
I

-I

k ■+- 33.5%
33.5%

Airbus
Industrie

I

20- – -1-L- -

_ S

0

1 A

1

AIRBUS
AIRBUS
\ INDUSTRIE X
INDUSTRIE

.X T Sales Value ~ ECU 1700 million
Sales Value ~ ECU 1700 million
|

--Nfc=H^- _^i
I-1

|_ 1- \ JZ-4> YEAR

--j ~~T

| OTHERS

■C> YEAR

OTHERS

1978

80

82

84

85

86

87

The market lor large civil jet transport aircraft ( more than 100 passengers )

over the past ten years ( 1987 prices )

Announced orders
Announced orders
as at end * 1987
as at end * 1987

( Source : EUROMART Study )

FIG . 3

ГО
■ 7)

PASSENGER TRAFFIC
( Including USSR )
Billions of passengers x km

,/

1500 -
1500 –

lOOO-]

500 –

I

./

/

M y i

_ /.
i
ü /
i y
y
1/
/ 1
–jp
y rr ;-y
jy 41^ !

<£>f DOUBLED
jyS IN10YEARS

IN 10 YEARS

DOUBLED

^

^

Ê

I

I

1

«
i

,

Fue< crisis

r- Fuel COUS -1

i

|

--o 53 (incl. 10% mail )
53 ( incl . 10% mail )

FREIGHT

FREIGHT
Billions of Tonnes x km
Billions of Tonnes x km

t

|

- 50

50

– 25

–-1–*

1–I–^-!-1–I-

87

YEARS
YEARS

1960
£
INTRODUCTION
S
INTRODUCTION
OF JET TRANSPORTS
I OF JET TRANSPORTS

1970
70

1977
1977
-O INTRODUCTION OF
INTRODUCTION OF
“ WIDE-BOOIEO " TRANSPORTS
" WIDE-BODIED " TRANSPORTS

1980
1980

Source : International Civil Aviation Organisation

World scheduled airlines traffic

FIG . A.

205

 
PRESENT AND FUTURE MARKET ANALYSIS

AIRCRAFT DELIVERED 1980-1986

FORECAST DELIVERIES 1987-2010

All Manufacturers

EEC Manufacturers only

All Manufacturers

EEC Manufacturers only

AIRCRAFT
CATEGORIES

Units

Value
(Bln ECU
1987 )

Units

Value

Value of
( Bln ECU Market
Share
(% )

1987 )

Units

Value
( Bln ECU
1987)

Units

Value

Value of
(Bln ECU Market
Share
(%)

1987 )

CIVIL
Commercial Transports
> 360 Seals
28 1-360
201-280
141-200

81-140
5 1 - 80
20-50
15-19

Supersonic

General Aviation

Business Jet
Private
Utility

Helicopters
Convertiplanos

228

211
438
734
764
2

794
967

2401
16000

n.a .

5210

19.03
13.20
21.56
17.43
1 3.02
0.02

3.46
1 . 80

15.10
2.00

n.a .

0

0
283

0

160
0

530
226

504

n.a .

n.a .

9.23

1980

0

0
14.77

0

2.00
0

2.07
0.50

4.42

n.a .

n.a .

2.69

0

0
68.5

0

15.4
0

59.8
27.8

29.3

n.a .

n.a .

29.1

–

–

–

–

–

1450
1650
1600

3250
2050
2000
2350
1900

148

109
84
79

34
16

1

1
5

0-200
550
650
1 50
750
1250

1

1050
750

0-20
36
34
30
12
10

5
2

0-14

33
40

38
35
63
45

40

0-120

0-25

0-50

0-10

0-40

8600
70000

1600

12000
600

60
10
5.4

22
9

2150
10500
800

4800
150

21.5
0-1.5
3.5

8.5
1.5

36
0-15
65

40

17

CIVIL SUB-TOTALS

1 15.85

26.45

22.8

592-617

164-196

28-32

( Source : EUROMART Study )

FIG .

5 .

( averaged from 11 main countries inside O.E.C.D. , period 19 / 0-80 )

' 'χ

[ AEROSPACE
COMPUTERS^
' ELECTRONICS
PRUCS
INSTRUMENTS”
ELECTRIC MACHINERY
CHEMICALS”
AUTOMOBILES

Other MANUF .

IND .
OIL REFINER I E S

: \ύ \ Π Π Γ*

► .

M..~I{ ulii-.r!;: •

HHH1 ;

.

.

.

I

i . >4 i h

i K w .

ΓΠΓίΤΠΤί }

LTuli-î i llj
lfei1tei[rr4r^
|
I Γ ί
-ji--I....U-,i–

• -i *•? r «

r^r

•

•

i

TIT-

:^xn ; nxr

üHlTrlî
±Е

■

i

H “:

EEiaiHJ

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTENSITY
= R & D EXPENDITUKE / PRODUCTION RATIO

AEROSPACE INDUSTRY IS THE LEADER , AMONG THE 11

" HIGH TBCH " INDUSTRIES

INSIDE THE O.E.C.D. COUNTRIES , FOR R & D INVESTMENTS

wh i c h m e a n s :

( * A HIGH DEGREE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

EXPORT
( -
IMPORT

( Source : EUROMART Study )

S •* A PREDOMINANCE OF PRODUCT INNOVATION

ro
o
<1

FIG . 6 .

-2-

The situation is more favourable for the USA aeronautics industry
because it enjoys a vast and uniform market and because of the
knowledge and the infrastructure provided by the execution of
important programmes financed by the Department of Defense and
NASA for the military and the space sectors .

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

air

Competitive
transport
in
demands
( design , manufacturing , validation ),
aircraft production costs
airline operational costs through improvements in performance and
fuel consumption , facilities to reduce delays at airport and in
operational
flight ,
requirements ( safety , environment , punctuality , comfort , etc .).

maintainability

improvement

continuous

aircraft

meeting

while

required

only be
technological
The
achieved by persistent and substantial efforts in research and
technology which implies the development of a long term strategy .

competence

level

can

of

The aerospace industry , more than any other , depends on advanced
technology to ensure competitiveness .
It is a leader in R / D
6 ) and in the application of new technologies
investments ( Fig .
to its products and also benefits other industries by spin-off at
the same time as it develops and applies its own technologies
especially in the fields of design and production .

It also exercises an important role as the industry which makes
use of the most advanced scientific research , acting as a centre
for the transfer and diffusion of these technologies to other

industrial sectors .

( 0051 . JC )

218

-3-

States

sector

the United

Because of the specific high technology characteristics of the
this
aerospace
sector to develop and apply advanced technologies which are then
adapted and utilised by other sectors engaged in development
Industrial
( Automotive Engineering ,
Control Systems , Testing and Production Methods ).
The value of
this spin-off is immeasurable and it makes a major contribution
to improving the country 's economy .

High-Temperature Furnaces ,

administration uses

such as

The technologies needed by the aeronautical industry require a
high level of competence for their realisation in a number of
diverse areas ,
the sophisticated analysis techniques
required for aerodynamics , the design of complex structures , the
the
use
evaluation
integration of electronic techniques into complex operational
new manufacturing
systems ,
methods .

implementation of

materials ,

advanced

methods

design

and

and

and

of

of

a

by

continuous ,

This level of indispensable technological competence can only be
attained
the domain of
intense
research and technology acquisition , and it requires a long-term
An example showing the timescales involved
strategic programme .
is
new
that
into a new
technology ,
the
product
product to recoup the investment made .

five
more to incorporate this

can
five years

by maybe ten years

exploitation of

develop a

followed

effort

years

take

six

in

of

to

to

it

is

it

necessary to establish a

a
Consequently ,
European level
loosing the
competitiveness of the European aeronautics industry , which could
lead to a progressive deterioration of its position in the world
market .

in order to avoid the danger of

strategy at

( 0051 . JC )

209

EUROPEAN ACTION

-4-

The acquisition of the complex technologies and the required
support equipments require a wide application base .

contribute

and
their

I.N.T.A.® )

involved
with

The national centres ( O.N.E.R.A. 1 , D.F.V.L.R. 2 , R.A.E. 3 , N.L.R. 4 ,
in the major aeronautical countries are
C.I.R.A.5 ,
aerospace
actively
in
techniques
complementing
fundamental
university laboratories , with their applied research , preparing
long and medium term projects and with their direct technical
assistance to industry , either by making the testing potential of
their centres available or by studying problems raised by actual
on
or
projects
operational equipment .

progress
research ,

difficulties

development

encountered

under

to

international

collaboration on aeronautical

Some
research is
implemented in organisations like GARTEUR and AGARD on the basis
of concerted action and on specific topics . But the acquisition
of the complex technologies and the required support equipments
requires a wider application base .
This can be organised in
Europe by collaboration at community level .

1 O.N.E.R.A.

2 D.F.V.L.R.

Office National d' Etudes
Aérospatiales ( France ).
Deutsche Forschungs - und Versuchsaustalt für
Luft - und Raumfahrt ( F.R.G. ).

et de Recherches

3 R.A.E.

4 N.L.R.

5 C.I.R.A.

6 I.N.T.A.

Royal Aerospace Establishment ( U.K. ).

Nationaal
( Netherlands ) .

Lucht-en

Ruimtevaartlaboratorium

Centro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali ( Italy ).

Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial
( Spain ) .

( 0051 . JC )

210

-5-

For the development of prototypes , EUREKA is involved in a number
of market-orientated projects ( EUROFAR , Amphibious Flying Boat ,
SAMOVAR , etc .).

will

In the longer term the improvement in the capabilities of the
European
progressive
necessarily
industry
In the meantime , there is a need
reorganisation of the industry .
to implement a programme , without delay ,
at Community level .
This programme will be based on a series of measures following
study supported by the Commission and
the
undertaken by nine major European aircraft companies .

conclusions

involve

of

a

a

These measures concern :

increased
activities ;

co-operation

in

research

and

technology

concentration on key technology areas identified in new
joint requirements ;

provision of additional funding resources to support this
increased effort .

The Commission plans , via these actions , the double objectives :

of enlarging the European technology base by involving the
by
the
largest
universities and national research centres ;

participation

programme ,

possible

in

reinforcing

of
the
aeronautical industry in world markets .

current

position

of

the

European

In the context of such a large and wide-ranging programme to
enable Europe to attain in the future the objectives defined in
the Commission strategic plan ,
a two year pilot programme is
being proposed .

( 0051 . JC )

211

-б-

The particular objectives of this pilot phase are :

-

a

provide

to
between
European aeronautical industries in research and technology
acquisition and to involve in the projects universities ,
national research centres and SME 's ;

co-operation

foundation

firm

for

to commence the research projects which have a degree of
urgency and are important for the future capabilities of the
European aeronautical industries ;

to compile , verify and complete the information base and
knowledge required for technological development ;

to gain experience in the organisation and functioning of a
programme of this type and to define the required long-term
actions .

The areas of key technology identified for the pilot phase are :

aerodynamics and flight mechanics
materials
acoustics
computation
airborne systems and equipment
all electric aircraft
propulsion integration
design and manufacturing technologies .

( 0051 . JC )

212

B I 0 L 0 G Y

ANNEX 4

Introduction

The significance of biotechnology

in

over

that ,

economy ,

Japan 's Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1988 forecast
the world market for " bio-related industries " as $ 514 billion . In a
paper in 1981 , a futures group within the European Commission ( 1 ) had
pointed
of
a modern developed
out
or 20 X of GNP , was biological in nature or
manufactured output ,
origin . Estimates of market potential for biotechnology have varied
over several orders of magnitude , depending on the writer 's choice of
a narrow or a broad definition ; but as was pointed out ,
" human beings
biological
are
understanding and related technological or manipulative abilities were
therefore
widespread
political attention , and a certain degree of public disquiet in at
least some cultures . The current OECD study on the " long-term economic
impacts of biotechnology " has not suggested dramatic near-term growth
of new markets ; but has acknowledged a different significance by a
subtle
of
biotechnology ". It is a pervasive technology .

biological "

commercial ,

" Economic

advances

impacts

Radical

attract

change

wider

title

bound

only

( 1 ).

and

but

not

100

of

40

in

to

%

X

:

Biotechnology is not a scientific discipline in its own right but ,
rather ,
a cross-roads of different sectors of knowledge - including
biochemistry , genetics , microbiology , physiology , morphogenesis among
many others - which contribute to the intelligent use of nature and
It is the technology of living matter , from which
natural processes .
many biotechniques have emerged to
the immediate benefit of health
care and hygiene , agriculture , the food industry , the environment , the
health and chemical industries . Biotechnology is about the purposeful
management
a
the
microorganism in a fermenter ,
to the maintenance of a small planet
with a population of 5 to 10 billion human beings .

systems ,

ranging

control

living

from

of

of

" the

In the following sections , details are presented of some of the most
dynamic areas of the " bio-revolution". The sequencing of the human
genome ,
the
a
imagination of scientists and laymen alike . Section ( A ) sets this in
the broader context of genome analysis of various complex organisms ,
since neither scientific enquiry nor practical applications can be
anthropocentrically constrained .

challenge which has

seized

man",

map

of

is

Man depends for his existence and his environment above all on plants
the
and their constituents . The penetration of the bio-revolution ,
" molecularisation " of plant science which is expanding the role of
biotechnology in agriculture , is described in Section ( B ).

The application of biotechnology to agriculture has attracted fears
that it will stimulate ecologically devastating monocultures ; but as
has
leading
environmental institutes ,

pointed

world 's

rightly

been

one

out

the

by

of

213

"A biotechnology attentive to natural history may provide some of
the pressures on genetic
most
the
resources
wild
species ".

powerful
and
( 2 )

reduce
value

conservation

to
the

enhance

tools

and

of

Section
(C )
and political
genetic
developments
resources , a task in which biotechnology is increasingly called upon
to assist .

the practical
diversity

describes
in

defending

mankind 's

some of

steps

the

of

the understanding of man himself .

The advances in biotechnology offer the prospect of progress not only
to the management of our environment , animal and vegetable , but above
all to
Of immediate social and
commercial relevance in defending man against disease has been the
( by
understanding
vaccination ) to produce antibodies . Since the development of cultured ,
immortal hybridoma cells for the production of monoclonal antibodies
is one of the great triumphs and most productive innovations of the
bio-revolution , it is appropriate to present ( Section D ) a review of
recent progress and challenges in immunology .

stimulus

system ,

immune

own

and

his

its

of

and

challenge ,

intellectual

The bio-revolution is
is transforming
a molecular revolution ,
research methods and the prospects for breakthroughs even in that most
brain
daunting
itself : section E outlines some current challenges in neurobiology .
This subject is of interest not only for clinical applications ( the
understanding of Alzheimer 's disease is of obvious importance for the
ageing societies of the developed world ), but for the development of
sophisticated parallel
"neural computing".
processing computers contemplate with awe - and with detailed interest
in its mechanics and methods - the speed , performance and compactness
of the human brain .

Developers of

understanding

the most

human

the

Following this presentation of some of th most significant domains ,
the final section of this annex gives an overview of the Community
initiatives in biotechnology .

The biotechnology race ?

of

the

governments

Given the ultimately enormous economic and social significance of
biotechnology ,
"non-interventionist "
even
persuasion have rushed to support biotechnology . U.S. federal support
is estimated by the OTA ( 3 )
to have amounted in 1986-1987 to $ 2.7
billion . Japan 's long-term technology forecasts ( 1987-2015 ) underpin a
strong
their
pharmaceutical and other bio-related industries towards international
competitiveness in the 1990s . Modest government expenditure figures on
R&D belie a competent , coherent and long-term -oriented strategy for
biotechnology .

biotechnology

emphasis

priority

bring

most

on

as

to

a

it has been unsurprising to

Thus
consultant reports ,
including those used by the US Congressional Office of Technology
Assessment , placing Europe in the bronze medal position behind the
entrepreneurial vitality of the USA ,
and the systematic thrust of
Japanese consensus policy .

see various

214

O

of
in

experience

However , the "Olympic games " include many diverse sports . Europe has
many " golds ",
and although its fragmentation and diversity are at
first seen as a weakness , the " old colonialists " of Europe have used
effective
their
centuries
to
be
around
internationalists
the
markets
entrepreneurial climate of the USA ,
small companies have to shout
loudly to attract venture capital , contract research customers , and
new investors willing to bid up the value of the company 's shares .
the
With les9 noise and
profitable
( in
chemicals , in pharmaceuticals , in agrochemicals and in food - are no
less effectively developing an international position .

a greater emphasis on in-house activity ,
Europe

internationally

most
world .

successful

the
their

giants

many

and

of

In

a

on

Ecus

perhaps

million ,

publicly

Europe is spending less on biotechnology research than the USA : a few
hundred
supported
billion
research . But no simple judgement can be made on the outcome of the
is thought to lead in the number and vitality of
" race". The U.S.
small entrepreneurial start-ups - some $
3 billion has been invested
in these during the period 1976-1986 ( 31 ; but many are acquired , or do
their contract research for Japanese and European multi-nationals .
Total
biotechnology
R&D
( including biotechnology activities of major companies ) is estimated
by
1.2 billion by
" dedicated biotechnology companies ", and some $ 800 million by major
corporations .

2.0 billion in

the OTA at

expenditure

private

current

some $

sector

1987 ,

some

in

perhaps

a

on

" biotechnology
the European Commission 's biotechnology concertation unit
as

in Western

somewhat

companies

broader

concept

numbers

Europe ,

some

448

of

identified

Based
company ",
has
follows :

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

OTHER EUROPEAN STATES ( EFTA )

EEC

388

Belgium

Denmark

France

Germany (w .)

Greece

Ireland

37

19

76

46

2

11

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal

Spain

UK

34

1

33

2

12

Austria

Finland

Norway

Sweden

115

Switzerland

2

6

7

28

17

Total EEC

388

Tot . West.Eur .

448

215

3 .

3 . Internationalism and Information

of

the

characteristic

its
One
internationalism . Whether for access to markets for maximum return , or
access to science and technology for maximum efficiency in research ,
development
be
conscious of competition and opportunity on a world scale .

biotechnology

biotechnology

Innovation ,

features

company

has

and

to

of

is

a

One response to this has been the proliferation of strategic alliances
equity purchases ,
between companies . These may be joint ventures ,
or research contracts .
licensing agreements , marketing agreements ,
Many of them are transnational , EC-US , US-Japanese , or EC -Japanese .
Their existence complicates any simple picture of comparative research
expenditures by region , since there is continuous information flow
through
inter-company
agreements , and by the frequent transfers of individuals in a dynamic
industry .

information

published

channels ,

via

the

of

The

that

largest

challenge

recognise

companies

their
of

depends upon

effective exploitation

Even
the
continued
rapidly
competitiveness
changing base of knowledge , most of it external to the company 's own
resources .
changing
this
interface has led
to growing emphasis on Information services and
Infrastructure , a field in which Europe is most seriously behind the
USA (4 ), and in which the advantages of the federally centralised
facilities ,
its
fast-growing National Biotechnology Information Center ), build upon
their computer-sophisticated home market ( 40,000 general practitioners
have personal computers in their surgeries ) the basis for potential
global dominance .

constantly

National

Medicine

managing

Library

e.g.

(and

the

of

of

a

Because of its information-intensive character , biotechnology has been
the basis for a growth industry in advice on patenting issues . There
are many controverses arising as the new intellectual breakthroughs in
understanding seek commercial return on the research investment by
expanding into the traditional application areas of the life sciences .

to

the already

Added
the regulation of
biotechnology , the patenting and information infrastructure illustrate
the many points at which international competition in biotechnology
depends upon public policy . For a review of these Issues , see ( 5 ).

consensus about

familiar

Sources

1 . Commission of the European Communities : FAST Occasional Papers ,
" Biotechnology : What will it change", March 1981

n° 1

:

2 . Wolf , Edward C. "Conserving Biological Diversity ", in "State of the

World , 1985 ", Worldwatch Institute . Washington , 1985

3 . U.S. Congressional Office of Technology Assessment : "U.S.

Investment in Biotechnology", 1988

4 . Franklin , J. "The role of Information Technology and Services in
the Future Competitiveness of Europe 's Bio-Industries , 1988

5 . Davies , D. ( ed . ) " Industrial Biotechnology in Europe : Issues for
Public Policy", based on CEPS ( Centre for European Policy Studies )
conference , November 1985 . Pub . Frances Pinter

216 «•

A

Molecular investigation of the genomes of complex organisms

The challenge

the

the

this

with

determine

environment ,

regulation of

The genome specifies all the rules which , through interaction via the
phenotype
the
reproduction of an organism . Up to now , the molecular structure and
the
largely
inaccessible . New techniques in DNA sequencing , as well as improve¬
ments in the handling of biological information , have now created an
to
are
unprecedented
decipher completely the genetic programme of any organism . The tool
kit is composed of techniques to separate chromosomes , cloning and
sequencing methods , ordered DNA libraries , genetic linkage maps , data
bases and computer software .

information

scientific

situation .

available

survival

remained

genetic

There

means

and

has

to

if

of

structure

DNA sequencing of whole genomes will require a vast amount of work ,
the
hopes
investigate
especially
higher
one
eukaryote genomes .
the utmost importance to
It seems therefore of
It is
organise and make proper choices for a productive strategy .
clear that , as such , the sequence of a genome of a single entity will
be of very high basic value ; it seems also clear that determination of
the sequence of several genomes will increase the potential interest
the
of sequence determination by
simplest level , sequencing will make available all signals that are
important for the core machinery , responsible for gene expression and
replication . A further important result will be that we shall have
access to information corresponding to the ecological niche of the
that
the
organisms
remains present after the core sequences have been subtracted , repre ¬
sents information specific to each type of organism . This will make
understandable the way by which typical instances of various organisms
cope with their environment .

a very high

information

considered .

sequence

Indeed ,

Indeed ,

factor .

DNA

at

The next domains which will be fertilised by knowledge of total genome
sequences is the study of the evolution of species . This will result
both from comparisons of sequences of a given organism , and comparison
of homologous sequences in different organisms .
A major consequence
will be that we shall have pathways relating known structures ( at the
three dimensional level ) to unknown structures . This , most probably ,
will bring a major support to the general problem of prediction of
protein tertiary structure , knowing only their primary structure .

5 .

217

Finally , when we shall be in a position to start sequencing genomes of
multicellular eukaryotes , we shall start obtaining specific informa¬
tion on genes involved in cell differentiation . In general it can be
hoped that knowledge of the genes will help understand a variety of
biological phenomena in a way more directly accessible than the usual
converse way ( i.e. going from the biological phenomenon to the gene ).

are

seriously

contemplating

its proposal for

the possibility of
The United
States
sequencing the human genome ,
and Japan is making an endeavour to
invite international cooperation for this ambitious task to be placed
a Human Frontier Science
under the umbrella of
Programme . The primary interest of sequencing the human genome goes
human
with
diseases
the
molecular structure of the disorders could lead to vast new markets in
diagnostics and therapeutic agents
Beyond its
scientific significance , a project of this dimension would obviously
result
of
and
spin-off
instrumentation of wide biotechnological use .

at
and knowledge of

the wide-ranging medical

applications
control ,

( cf . Health annex ).

technological

development

genetic

indeed

stake .

under

Many

are

the

in

Progress throughout the world

The United States are already engaged in some steps of
the human
genome enterprise . Total federal funding to genome projects amounted
to 32-34 Mio $ in 1987 . Projected spending of NIH in 1989 is estimated
at 28 Mio $ , and DOE proposes 18 Mio $ for the same year to carry out
technological and instrumentation connected research . The NSF would
also provide some support through grant programmes . However ,
it is
generally accepted that a budget of 200 Mio $ /year would be necessary
to provide the comprehensive support
The
dimension of the task , and some lack of coordination between the many
interested organisations , both public and private , may create diffi¬
culties before the human genome sequencing project can deliberately
take off . In the meanwhile , several smaller genomes are subject to
in other
pilot sequencing work ,
developed countries .

the United States as well as

that would be required .

in

The Japanese position appears particularly strong from the technologi¬
cal angle . The automation of sequencing techniques is an area in which
much work is being done , funded both by industry and by the govern¬
ment . Robots have been developed , based on US approaches . The Univer¬
sity of Tokyo is very strong and many of the industry people involved
in the development of automated sequencing /mapping equipment are their
former students . Much more so than its European counterpart , Japanese
industry is making efforts to commercialise the results of research
and development in this field .

»

.

1

»

6 .

218

Developments in Europe

that Europe cannot accept a minor role .

Several Member States as well as the Commission of the EC have already
invested much thinking , and sometimes money , in defining the partner¬
It is a
ship Europe could offer in this major international effort .
the
fact
required skills and resources , and has acquired much experience in
coordinating work across State boundaries . Its reputation that it is
bound to coordinate policies and actions in all areas of Community
competence turns out to be its real force . The task of sequencing the
genome of a complex organism is one which will require much division
of labour and network integration .

It has many of

is

and

and

to sequence regions of

in the process of working out

the
France has allocated already 1.4 Mio $
to develop
human chromosomes of particular medical importance ,
data processing systems . The UK Medical Research Council set up a
coordination committee ,
its
strategy to be approved at government level . The German DFG has been
allocating 500.000 $ / year for the last three years for research on the
human genome . Cloning , data handling and instrumentation are the 3
main fields on which discussions were organised in a recent national
A 50.000 kbase
meeting ,
chromosomal
been
has
with
selected by Italy for complete sequencing , in collaboration with the
Salk Institute .
the Italian government will be about
10 Mio $ . A EUREKA programme was also approved which covers some of
the technological aspects of sequencing work , with a British and a
French company involved .

to be convened again on a regular basis .

retardation

associated

The cost

mental

region

to

project

to
together

However ,
even the largest European country cannot rely on its own
forces to compete with the US and Japan where the initiative received
earlier attention . It is still remarkable that the Comnunity has the
privilege of being first in 1988 to organise on a transnational basis
This
a coordinated
objective brings
Community
programme as many as 35 laboratories during a period of 2 years . The
a
target , proportionate to the modesty of
reasonable choice before the international scientific community will
embark on the human genome . The latter - 1000 times the scale of a
bacterial DNA - is so large that one has to perform several intermedi ¬
ate studies in order to permit scaling up . This means that eukaryotes
with small genomes such as yeast , be it only for this reason and not
for their own interest , should be considered first .

sequence one chromosome of
framework of
in

the funds available ,

yeast .

the

BAP

the

is

Other discrete steps have been taken , using existing programmes or new
to organise trans ¬
proposals under the second Framework Programme ,
national research on small-scale sequencing projects : Drosophila is
considered under the Stimulation action , and the human genome will be
for
the
subject
initiative of Predictive Medicine .

Community

research

under

first

time

the

the

of

7 .

219

From needs to priorities

involve a
The different projects that have been briefly outlined
significant amount of work : as example the smallest project ( 1000 kb )
requires at least 25 man x year of work , and the project of sequencing
a bacterial genome would require five times that figure . Choices are
needed for the Community to tailor its effort at an international
level .

- The participation of the Community in the human genome project is
both a strategic necessity and a chance offered to scientists and
this participation still has to be defined in terms of
industry ;
ethical
scientific
taking
guidelines ;
shape
a Human
the framework of
Frontier Science Programme .

contributions ,
the coordination of

the Japanese initiative

the European response

consequences

commercial

and

for

is

in

- The completion of the total sequencing of the yeast genome , of which
only one chromosome is under analysis ; this is the unique strength
of the Comminity that it was first to embark on a completely co ¬
accumulating
ordinated
the human
information and creating skills largely applicable to
genome
this modest
advantage .

Community must

eukaryote ,

keep with

later on ;

project

using

lower

this

the

it

- The

participation
other

of
the
genomes

addressing
(JB . subtilis , Arabidopsis thaliana ) .

of

Comminity

in

international

high

commercial

projects
significance

- The organisation of an industrial involvement in this whole endeav¬
our ,
taking care of technological spin-offs in the software and
instrumentation areas , as well as of legal , ethical and commercial
consequences of exploiting the accumulated biological information .

support

of molecular
- Concomitant
biology ,
to
secure that the structural information massively disclosed be also
interpreted and exploited in Europe through an adequate research
infrastructure .

to basic science in the
chemistry

physiology ,

enzymology ,

areas
and

protein

cell

References :

National projects in biotechnology
Susumu Yamamoto , on the occasion of Bio' FAIR TOKYO 1986

Quatrième enquête de la STA sur les technologies japonaises dans les
30 ans à venir ( 1987-2015 )
Traduction en provenance de la délégation de la Commission , M. Bourène

: partie " Sicence de la Vie ".

8 .

OTA report
Mapping our genes . The genome projects : how big ; how fast ?
OTA-BA- 373 ( Washington , DC :
1988 )

U.S. Government Printing Office , April

Sequencing the yeast genome . A detailed assessment .
Report
XII / F/ 280 , 250 pages .

DG XII -F- 2,

Commission ,

the

Ed.

to

A.

Goffeau ,

May

1988 ,

Workshop on prospects for biology in Europe and on the Human Frontier
Science Programme , Brussels , 2 May 1988 .
Proceedings edited by XII- G- 3, 19 July 1988 .

B

Molecular foundations of plant biotechnology

The roots of our green planet

studied

are mostly

and
Plants
economic importance ; yet , in spite of elegant investigations in e.g.
photosynthesis ,
they have not received the right attention on many
aspects , such as totipotency or metabolisms , with direct bearings on
agriculture and industry .

agricultural

function of

their

in

Totipotency is a unique property of plants .
In contrast with other
living beings , they can develop into normal embryos and regenerated
organisms ultimately , without necessarily passing through fecondation .
these unusual
The
processes is
the understanding of
reproductive mechanisms in agriculture and forestry .

signals
an essential research step

identification of molecular

control

to
for

and

are

also

with

complex

endowed

original

Plants
bio-synthetic
pathways , which often find no equivalent in any other living organism .
The products of
these biosyntheses have attracted the interest of
chemists for centuries and have opened up a wide diversity of markets
for health and chemical industries . Their structures and biosynthetic
routes are however poorly known ( if known at all ) in some of the 9.000
plant species partially studied so far . But 300.000 plant species with
potential interest still are keeping most of their metabolic secrets
beyond scientific grasp .

Limited efforts have recently been engaged to fill some of these gaps
through research at molecular level . However , they have been always
subcritical and in no proportion to the overwhelming importance of
plants to regulate the biosphere and to support most of human activ¬
for a
ities . There are thousands of animal genes isolated so far ,
hundred plant genes only ; and the excess of blood proteins compared to
the number of whole plant proteins that could be studied still is by
wood ,
two orders of magnitude .
Nevertheless ,
feed ,
essential
from plant
drugs ,
features , which are exploited merely on empirical bases .
is un¬
It
thinkable that the significance of any of these functions , and pro ¬
ducts thereof , may fade away in a foreseeable future .

food ,
solar energy capture all are derived

fibres ,

9 .

221

The situation worldwide is however rapidly changing , and a new deal in
plant sciences is about to be established . The dramatic leap has come
from the implementation of new research tools such as cell culture and
muta¬
regeneration methods ,
genesis , molecular probes for genes and gene expression ,
The
rapid arrival on the market side of unconventional products with a
specific
high
resistances ) raised much industrial interest , resulting in substantial
restructuration of the agriculture-based industry . What is occurring
in the United States and in Japan is particularly significant .

T-DNA transfer

site-directed

( engineered

symbiotic

systems ,

profile

agents ,

seeds

with

etc .

The world scene

American teams have been very fast at applying the whole panoply of
to build up leading expertise in
molecular tools mentioned above ,
plant gene expression and plant development . They recorded many world
firsts over the last 3 years , such as creating the first tobacco with
an engineered resistance to mosaic virus ,
the first tomato with an
engineered resistance to the homworm , the first transgenic sunflowers
and oil seed rapes ,
the first chloroplast genetically transformed ,
etc . This race towards meaningful research achievements has been made
possible also because many industrial companies participated directly
in the effort . Besides the expected seed and agro-chemical firms that
were first in the business , several pharmaceutical and oil companies
among the major ones started to have significant " green" commitments ,
starting from the purchase of
local seed companies to secure the
access to genes . They have also contracted research to universities ,
although to a lesser extent than in the pharmaceutical field .

such as

research commitments have been flourishing ,

One of these big companies is even known for having established in
Europe more contracts with universities in the EC than was possible
through the BEP Community programme during the same period . Other
forms of
the
purchase of small R&D service companies , the reinforcement of in-house
research capacities or the participation in consortia . Established in
1986 , the Midwest Plant Biotechnology Consortium in particular brings
together the expertise of 14 universities and the driving forces of 31
industrial companies
( including from pharmaceutical and electronic
sectors ) for target-oriented research in the field of agricultural
biotechnology . The research environment is particularly favourable in
the US because of market prospects (5 billions $ for seeds , and the
projection to 100 billions $ in 1995 for all biotechnology products in
agriculture ), and after favourable provisions had been made in 1985 by
the US Patent and Trademark Office for granting patent protection to
plant varieties , including those resulting from genetic engineering .
The only pitfall before modified agricultural species are brought to
the field and new bio-rational practices implemented in agriculture
stays with the question of conjectural risks . Pressure groups have
caused prejudice to the prosecution of experimental work , and federal
agencies have not yet been able to control the situation . This diffi¬
culty , which was particularly amplified in the US where public debates

10 .

222

the political life ,

the somewhat confused regulatory status ,

have always been part of
could give Europe a
competitive advantage if only the Community was able rapidly to define
common regulations for the introduction of modified organisms . How¬
ever , irrespective of
the
USDA makes now provisions for a substantial support to basic plant
research . Although it accounts for only 6% of the Federal budget ,
ranking third after N1H and NSF in biotechnology spendings , USDA has
Its new
constantly increased its biotechnology budget
Plant Science Centres
to
up
1987 )
encourage the best in basic plant research . These will address the
areas of plant engineering , rhizosphere dynamics , carbohydrates and
ecological processes in priority . Cooperation and multidisciplinarity
are the major ingredients of the new recipe , which provides evidence
for the real obstacle which American plant biotechnology is facing :
at physiological and molecular
the
levels , of the make-up of agricultural species .

since
have been set

a basic understanding ,

( 10 million $

lack of

1982 .

in

Japanese plant biotechnology is not
less spectacular ,
could give the impression of being more limited in scope .

although

it

A major strong point in Japanese plant science has always been the
study of secondary metabolites . Apart from describing the structure ,
biosynthesis and physiological functions of these compounds , a large
effort has been put in increasing their production . This was attempted
through plant breeding and through plant cell culture .
In Japan so
many groups were and are still involved in this approach that they
have obtained an unique technological skill , non existing in any other
secundary
of
country .
metabolite production will become possible through genetic engineer¬
ing ,
their capacity for plant cell fermentation will in the near
future give Japan a leadership in the production of these compounds ,
which can be of the highest importance to the fine chemical industry
and the pharmaceutical industry .

improvement

plant

lines

cell

that

Now

for

Due to the strategic importance of agriculture , Japan also has a long
lasting interest in developing crop improvement facilities . At present
the major effort is geared towards rice , wheat , barley and soybean .
The future trend will be to include rapeseed . Their present major
successes are in adapting the gene transfer techniques to new plant
species . With these techniques , they have been particularly successful
is the only
in engineering different rice cultivars . At present it
country where in some institutes and companies one can find green ¬
houses full of engineered rice plants .

is

in

the

also

research

carried out

laboratories

Outstanding
of
the major
different big industries . Each year the best students of
universities are contracted by the leading industry . All have started
in-house plant biotechnology research , some have even purchased seed
companies in Japan and abroad . Likewise other parts of the developed
world , this move is seen not only on the side of the traditional food
but also by the major chemical
industry or agricultural companies ,
companies ,
and even
fibre
cement and electric industry . Most are active in research and produc ¬
tion of several major crops ( rice , wheat , beans , even corn ) vegetables
( tomatoes , potatoes , cabbage ) but also fruits ( citrus , melon , straw ¬
berries , grapes ), medicinal plants and ornamentals .

paper companies ,

oil companies

and

the

223

In summary ,
scientists and
technicians than the whole of the EEC countries , Japan is well pre ¬
pared for a major biotechnology effort .

with a much larger number of

skilled

Their weakness stems from the fact that developed skills are not much
used for asking fundamental questions in plant molecular biology . And
yet , the fruitful applications of gene transfer techniques depend on
e.g. cell regeneration through organogenesis or embryogenesis . Success
in
in molecular biology
techniques and also on a proper understanding of plant physiology to
characterise the required gene product . Quite some fundamental know¬
ledge is still needed to optimise the current effort .

on high standards

isolation relies

gene

The role of Europe

Europe has up

in plant biotechnology , owing to

fast moving world ,
leading posltioit

to now been able to
Even in
a
maintain a
the
activity of pioneering groups and to the promotion effect of national
and Community programmes .
can
the US . The first monocots
compare very favourably with those of
(onion , daffodil , asparagus and rye) were genetically transformed in
Belgium , Germany and the Netherlands ; the first receptor of a plant
first nitrogen-fixing heterologous
hormone cloned
the
Rhizobium in association with an engineered legume in Denmark ;
first regulatory gene of a storage protein cloned in Italy from maize ,
etc .

European achievements

in Germany ;

a result ,

the

As

or

for

The

even

plant

created

numerous

research .

frequently

EEC Member States have been very fast at using this momentum , as they
and
reinforced
centres
the
forefront of the area , but it must make sure the benefits will stay
with it . Losing competitiveness in this phase of rapid expansion would
result in a loss of opportunities to exploit imagination . In addition ,
it is of particular advantage that this European impetus can be tuned
and amplified by capitalising on the experience from the Community
programme for biotechnology R&D ( BAP :
1985-89 ). BAP was very well
received and provided a reliable test for the interest and promises
which lie with the scientific and industrial communities in this area .

laboratories
at
itself

Community

placed

The pattern and development of industrial Interest parallels very well
that observed in the US and Japan , crossing all traditional branches
of industry . After a period of hesitation in the early eighties , when
small R&D companies were flourishing in the States , there are now many
indicators
by
established European firms :

far-looking

industrial

activity

intense

and

an

of

- recruiting university staff , particularly massively the last five

years ;

- setting up new in-house biotechnology laboratories ,

in almost all

branches of bio-industry ;

- restructuring quite intensively the market ;
- joining new representative bodies ( EBCG , GTBiP ) ;
- cooperating in research ( BAP , EUREKA , Clubs , etc .);
- supporting basic research
private foundations , etc .);

( European Institute of Technology EIT ,

- buying American seed and R&D service companies .

224

About 25 companies of various
sizes and professional affiliations
joined a new club , the Green Industry Biotechnology Platform (GIB1P ),
to Interface with the public , consumers and regulatory bodies , and to
develop
intellectual
property . Their expectations are for a major European effort in plant
biotechnology and for harmonised regulations allowing research results
continents
applied
to
systematically .

preferably not

common ideas

research and

fields of

on other

Europe

and

the

be

in

in

Community needs and opportunities

The foreseeable applications which could promote the welfare and the
competitiveness of the Community would fall under three policy objec ¬
tives :

-
-
-

agricultural competitiveness ,
envlronmental care , and
consumer safety .

and

protection ,

preferably

environmental

competitiveness

compatible when based

Community agriculture is faced with the urgent need to increase its
competitiveness while keeping in harmony with the environment . Both
objectives ,
be
either antagonistic as they might have been occasionally in the past ,
or
technological
options . The reconciliation of these equally important issues stays
with the right balance of
to chemical practices in
" bio-rational"
agriculture . That is to say with the design of alternative methods in
plant nutrition and crop protection that would base productivity on
genuine biological processes under genetic control , rather than on
external supply of chemical fertilizers or pesticides exclusively .
This " bio-rationality" is becoming more conceivable with the advance
of modern biotechnology and the demonstration that early applications ,
such as microbial fertilizers or in-built genetic resistances , are
already becoming feasible .

upon judicious

can

texture ,

the molecules of quality ,

flavour , nutritional value ,

Through the pervasiveness of molecular approaches , more attention can
those associated with
also be given to
lnnocuity ,
of many plant
products . If one could identify them , control their synthesis and tune
their functional activity ,
the molecules of quality would make the
real difference between a surplus and a deficit crop : e.g. between a
surplus barley of low feeding value and a deficit barley more adapted
to animal diet ; between a surplus wheat of poor baking quality and a
high gluten wheat as demanded by the miller 's trade , ... . Quality and
precise characteristics will increasingly become the discriminating
factors of plant products on the market side , and biotechnology is
giving a new opportunity to focus on molecular determinants of these
parameters .

etc .

13 .

225

Last but not least , the Interactions of crop plants with other native
species of the agricultural environment can be monitored and , hence ,
predicted as they never could before . This should permit real ecologi¬
cal management of land uses ,
in both the short term and long term
interests of Community citizens .

the

What

promote

relevant

particular

is
not only multinational ( as

In order to apply the results of modern biology to these Community
policy objectives , the Commission has formulated new programmes aiming
to
a
developments .
collaborative effort ,
in any Community
programme ), and multi-disciplinary , as is usual in biotechnology , but
between
in
agriculture ,
the ECLAIR
programme ( European Collaborative Linkage of Agriculture and Industry
through Research : 80 MECU , 1988-1992 ). The biological advances can be
used to enable agriculture to develop products (of plant , animal or
other origin ), better adapted to market needs ( food and , increasingly ,
thus opening up new growth opportunities for European
non-food )
;
agriculture ,
to
promoting competitiveness and respecting
maintain and enhance the environment .

closer
on
industry and science .

partnership ,
Such is

in
the aim of

the need

required

based

R&D ,

is

A related programme , FLAIR ( Food-Linked Agro-Industrial Research ,
25
MECU , 1989-1993 ), similarly applies the fruits of modern biology , but
with
food
production system and the consumer . The keywords are quality , safety ,
nutrition , and the application of the new technologies to these ends .

particular

interface

emphasis

betwwen

the

the

on

a

These programmes of feasibility research and development , looking at
possible exploitations of biotechnology breakthroughs at the interface
of agriculture , industry and the environment , have evolved in close
connection with the Community programmes of biotechnology R&D ( BAP :
1985-89 , then BRIDGE : 1990-94 ). The programme BAP , in particular , is
placed at the fore-front of research and will find in ECLAIR , FLAIR or
the programme for coordination of agricultural research , the logical
receivers of the type of enabling techniques or instrumental knowledge
that
programmes
the
constitute the testing ground where bottlenecks are identified and can
very appropriately feed back scientific ideas into the more basic
ones .

application-oriented

Conversely ,

created .

is

the point will be made that none of

At this stage ,
the existing
programmes of the research-development- application line will for ever
perform as they did throughout the eighties , without caring for the
necessary forward thinking into the principles of life which underly
biological sciences .

None of these objectives of Community significance can be reached just
by extrapolating the ongoing research effort . Scientific and technical
obstacles
the
biological end of bio-technology .

technological

shifted

from

have

now

the

end

to

In the same way as biotechnology R&D activity and agro-industrial
research mutually enhance each other ,
there need to be a stronger
commitment into basic areas where knowledge is expected to become
place
limiting
eventually .

biotechnology

expansion

further

take

for

of

to

14 .

226

This is a job for Europe

the emerged side of

Genetic and molecular techniques have attracted attention , they have
become particularly precise and powerful ,
can be
applied only to
the Iceberg which represents
living matter . The hidden principles regulating plant functions and
metabolisms now need to be elucidated , before useful work can proceed
at a scale of macro-economic significance . Know-how has outstripped
knowledge , so that technology will be limited in scope until techno¬
logy has served the purpose of producing the necessary understanding
of agricultural objects ; what could also be called " new plant physio¬
logy".

still

they

but

Five major areas are proposed for joint research in Europe :

-

-

-

-

flower
processes

induction ,

gamete

development

and

sexual

recognition

control of plant cell development and morphogenesis

information at plant-microbe interfaces

genetic and metabolic controls of quality traits

- molecular investigation of the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana
gene probes
large
frag­
mutagenesis ,

as model for all plant genomes and reservoir of
cloning of
(chromosome isolation and sequencing ,
ments
transposon
systems ,
complementation
homologous recombination ).

and

gene-function

genome organisation ,

Each of these areas has specific bearing on activities in seed or
process industry . Underlying these focal points of interest , common
the basic cell machinery will have to be
biological processes of
addressed in priority : signal perception/ transmission , regulation of
development ,
The
horizon of the researcher in plant molecular biology is opening up
into a revised vision of plant cell physiology , e.g. how genetic units
either
are
set
genetic
adjacent
programmes
the
expression of so many plant features for agriculture and industry . An
adequacy of physiological / biochemical knowledge with the extended
array of new analytical / genetic techniques at molecular level is what
multiple
pressingly
and
convergence
wide-ranging cooperation schemes .
the developed skills
must be used for asking the fundamental questions of plant physiology ,
before meaningful applications can be further devised .

with
interactions
and how the regulated
functions

through
the environment ;
metabolic

into
cells or
lead

relationships .

At present ,

molecular

support

skills

motion

calls

which

new

the

for

of

to

Significantly enough , this is an analysis which closely meets American
and Japanese science evaluations . Europe must neither be bypassed by
strong
the expanding knowledge base of others who
actions in this area , nor be overruled in strategic discussions on
genetic
genetic
section
resources ). It must hold a strong negotiating position when defining
the new international distribution of research tasks , or the needs to
rationalise networks of biological resources ,
the latter with the
participation of Lome Treaty countries in particular .

conducting

resources

Diversity

also

(cf .

are

of

C

:

15 . 227

References :

The Human Frontier Programme : Japanese research in plant sciences .
A preliminary report to the Commission ( 1988 ).
M. van Montagu

Biotechnology in Japan .
A report prepared by a UK visiting group for the SERL , April 1986 .

L' USDA s' accroche au wagon de la génétique végétale .
Biofutur , Janvier 1987 , page 11 .

US agricultural research
Nature , vol . 324 ,

13 November 1986 , page 103 .

New US Plant Science programme
AGROW , n° 51 , 13 November 1987 , page 11 .

Biotechnologies et agriculture aux Etats-Unis
révolution verte .
Ambassade de France à Washington , Services de l' Expansion économique
et Mission scientifique , mai 1986 . Paru dans " Problèmes économiques ",
n° 1976 , 28 mai 1986 , pp. 3-10 .

vers une nouvelle

:

’Workshop on prospects for biology in Europe and on the Human Frontier
Science Programme , Brussels ,
2 May 1988 .
Proceedings edited by XII-G- 3, 19 July 1988 .

Boutry , M. and Magnien , E. 1987 . The use of RFLPs for basic research
and plant breeding . Report to the Commission , Directorate-General for
Science , Research and Development , DG XII -F- 2, Brussels .

Dickinson , H.G. and Magnien , E. 1987 . Manipulation of core processes
in plant breeding . Report to the Commission , Directorate-General for
Science , Research and Development , DG XII-F- 2, Brussels .

S.C. ,

Vries ,

of
and
de
differentiation and morphogenesis in plants . Report to the Commission ,
Directorate-General for Science , Research and Development , DG XII -F- 2,
Brussels .

Magnien ,

Control

Olesen ,

1988 .

P.

E.

C

Diversity of genetic resources

Plant resources

The production of biotechnological innovation will be limited by the
ability of scientists to capitalise on genetic variability . The access
to genetic resources and to gene banks will become the major factor of
a continuing progress . Thirld World countries will therefore take
advantage of their strategic position in the tropical areas as being
the hosts of most living species on the earth . They sit on a reservoir
of genetic variability that attracts considerable interest . To take
just an example , a major seed company recently provided the USDA with
1.5 million §
to inventorise and collect 20,000 genotypes and wild
species of maize in South America .

i «. 228

in

as

the

made

fear

North

fact ,

accessible

could
and

Programme

a matter of

( UNEP ) warns

genetic material

they would
from

for the benefit of
that

The position of developing countries sometimes appears contradictory :
they would like to maintain a free international
on the one hand ,
their own
exchange of plant genetic resources
agriculture ;
the best
the breeding work of
result
adapted
laboratories
them under
be
restrictive conditions . The executive director of the United Nations
patenting of
Environment
biotechnology
the
by
( including
developed countries could further disadvantage developing countries ".
But ,
it
the
on
genetic
desirable to
always
resources
supported
the
preservation
resources .
Industrialised countries have however raised opposition against what
they would consider over-regulation in the field , which is already
under the competence of
for Plant Genetic
Resources ( TBPGR ).

other
control and possibly regulate the export of
conference has
agreement
genetic

international
plant

the International Board

their
adoption

applications

control and

exploitation

territories .

developing

countries

modified

from
the

consider

plants )

would

world

hand ,

" the

for

and

The

FAO

an

of

of

to

The scientific community now enters the political debate by raising
the threat of a rapid erosion of plant genetic resources : within 10
years ,
The
proposal to set up a world gene bank gets substantiated , but does not
receive an American approval because of the existence of a national
collection in the US .

species will unavoidably disappear .

thousands of

plant

The
International
established since
Agricultural
promotion of international networks of genetic resource centres .

for
( TBPGR ),
the Consultative Group on International
the
as

by
Centres ,

objective

Resources

Research

pursued

Genetic

Plant

Board

1974

has

an

to

for

the

can

IBPGR

cane ,

sugar

( rice ,

praised

exceptions

significant

intends
and

this organization

activities
be

Collection , conservation , documentation , evaluation and use of plant
cover
germplasm are
worldwide .
impressive
achievements .
Its relationships with FAO have however proven to be
contentious and , technically , much is left to be desired . With very
the
few
acquisition , maintenance and evaluation of major world crops is simply
not organized and the breeders collections , next to being private , are
indeed under risk that they get disrupted or lost . The evaluation of
sustain breeding
the
activities ,
an
require
international agreement on an integrated catalogue with meaningful
descriptors
characteristics ,
sites ,
collection
:
stress / resistance behaviour ,
agronomic traits , using more and more
molecular probes and chemical signatures in conjunction with botanical
descriptions
should
obviously be computerized .

its utilization ,

germplasm and

information

ecological

necessary

possible .

properly .

alfalfa

potato ,

becomes

carried

system

would

...),

This

This

out

not

as

to

is

17 .

229

in

gemplasm

Particularly relevant will be the description of genes and of their
sequences , expected to become available at an accelerated rate . Gene
banks should be designed in a way to facilitate the search for desired
genes
providing
opportunities
offsite-maintained
plants , particularly through in vitro culture , biochemical blueprints
and , may be more futuristic ,
the preservation of isolated genetic
information in the form of DNA or RNA . The applications of rDNA
technology to gerraplasm evaluation and management have hardly began ,
but are likely to become of increasing importance .

collections .
the

functionality of

Biotechnology

increase

is

to

standardization
of

In Europe , awareness of species diversity is growing and is giving
raise to discrete initiatives . A European Standard List of Animal and
Plant species has been set up by the Council of Europe . The production
the
and
development
first
priority . But taxonomic work goes on declining further in academic
institutions and it is becoming an urgent task to revitalize this key
discipline of the life sciences by having it revisited , in particular ,
with the contribution of molecular biology .

checklists
is

diversity
database

species
diversity

networks

species

the

and

of

Animal resources

to

of

many

the USA ,

valuable

In contrast
the
the breeding situation in Japan and
selection of races of domestic animals in Europe has developed into an
to the
outstanding tradition for hundreds of years .
development
useful
productions under different environmental conditions . However , due to
an immediate competitivity requirement , there is a clear tendency for
these races to disappear , replaced by a small number of uniform ones ,
highly selected for massive productivity in an artificial environment
and depending on supplied feed . In order to preserve this exceptional
genetic capital now in danger , it would be worth improving the methods
of genetic preservation of embryos and collections of them .

This has

led
many

animals

adapted

to

Ecological monitoring

in our

current

classify

knowledge .

The ignorance of the true taxonomic structure of natural microflora is
a critical deficiency
The majority of
bacteria present in a given ecosystem are not readily cultured in
vitro and are experimentally silent . Hence the inability to identify
those
and
microorganisms .
in
particular ecosystems cannot be analyzed properly , although it is now
expected that molecular microbial ecology should allow , in conjunction
with sophisticated instrumentation for data capture and automation of
microbial
of
ecosystems .

satisfactorily
dynamic

identification ,

microorganisms

substantial

functioning

interaction

proportion

insight

into

new

The

the

of

of

a

7

1

18 .

230

DNA probes and monoclonal antibodies must be developed for many more
microorganisms , and especially for those composing biotechno logically
Analytical instruments with higher resolving
important ecosystems .
power ( gas chromatography , mass-spectrometry ...) need to be further
improved to work on very large numbers of isolates . The data must be
evaluated and organized into adequate information base .

is

needed

urgently

What
of
multidisciplinary groups capable of exploiting new technologies and
molecular methods
of
microbial ecology in target ecosystems , especially those susceptible
of being subject to new agricultural practices or introduction of
foreign species . The priorities would be :

organization

integrated

applying

studies

Europe

them

the

and

in

of

to

is

- instrumentation
identification ;

for

high

resolution

automated

microbial

- banks of spécifie probes ;

- monitoring , at molecular level , of gene flows in microcosms ;

- standardization of model microcosms ;

- microbial interactions in ecosystems moved away from equilibrium ;

- relation of microbial processes to the overall flux of energy and

matter ;

- ecosystem modelling with predictive capacity

in

the

event

of

a

perturbation .

BTBLIOGRAPHY

. La guerre des semences , J. Grall et B. Roger Levy ( Fayard , 1985 )

. Biotechnology News , vol . 5 n° 25 (9 October 1985 )

. Department of Education and Science , and Research Council , meeting
background

20 September

1988 ,

with Commission 's representatives ,
paper

. Prof. K.N. Timmis , GBF Braunschweig , personal communication ( 1988 )

. Actes de la Conférence Européenne : Diversité Biologique - Un défi
pour la Science , l' Economie et la Société . Dublin , 4-6 mars 1987

Commission des
particular
confronting the exploitation of genetic diversity , p. 26-41 )

DG XII-FAST ,

Européennes ,

Communautés

reference

Problems

P. R.

Day

and

1988

(with
opportunities

to

:

. Technologies to maintain biological diversity , Office of Teclmology
Assessment , OTA- F- 330, Government Printing Office , Washington , DC ,
March 1987

19 . 231

D

Immunology

to

the

the

one

bear

been

today

scale

basis

witness

thousand

journals

Over
of
scientific and biomedical activities conducted under the heading of
'’Immunology ". In presenting a brief resume of the current situation in
this complex and fast-advancing biological discipline , three aspects
should be highlighted . Firstly , as a fundamental science , immunology
has provided basic research with many challenging problems . A central
issue has
the
the
mechanism by which an organism has the ability to produce millions of
different antibody molecules , with a relatively low number of genes .
Secondly ,
(especially
prophylaxis ) with , for example , a predominant role in defence against
bacterial , viral and parasitic attacks . Thirdly , immunology provides
exquisitely specific analytical tools , finding practical applications
in many fields and , especially ,
since the discovery of monoclonal
antibodies . These have made it possible very cheaply to detect and to
quantify viruses , bacteria , parasites and the presence of specific
molecules such as hormones , toxins or pollutants .

is highly implicated

in medicine

antibodies ,

immunology

diversity

for

of

Since 1980 ,

During the recent years , immunology has brought a huge contribution to
science .
immunological research has been rewarded with
three Nobel Prizes out of eight attributed in physiology and medicine
(F ); and G.D. Snell ( EU ) -
J. Dausset ,
( 1980 :
1984 : N. Jeme (DK );
G. Kohler ( FRG ) and C. Milstein (UK ) - 1987 :
S. Tonegawa (J ). This demonstrates the exceptional vitality and impact
of immunology on medicine and science .

B. Benacerraf (EU );

Immunology is a widely dispersed discipline . It is based on teams of
collaborating
or
institutes of relatively modest size ( 10 to 100 people ), and having
high competence in biochemistry , molecular biology and medicine .

researchers ,

departments

university

grouped

in

Certainly , the best immunological research is conducted in the United
States , which has the largest number of research groups . The quality
of their work is greatly assisted by the excellence of the research
infrastructure , as exemplified by the collection of cultured cells at
the ATCC (American Type Culture Collection ), or the Jackson collection
of mice which have no equivalent elsewhere in the world . There are
excellent teams in the U.S. in every sector of immunology .

(B

The development of immunology in Japan is relatively recent . However ,
they possess many teams of high quality such as
that of T. Tada
(working on T suppressor lymphocytes and lymphokines ) in Tokyo , T.
Kishimoto
(molecular
in
genetics of
Osaka . Immunology has progressed extraordinarily quickly in Japan , and
it is difficult to predict its development in the near future , owing
to the potential which lies with a young generation immunologists ,
mostly trained however in the United States .

the immunoglobulin synthesis and T cell receptor )

stimulatory

factors )

Honjo

cell

and

T.

20 .

232

The

basic

present

in both

situation

Europe is an old and traditional region with excellent capabilities in
clinical or
immunology .
applied immunology is rather good , with highly qualified teams : but
the most competitive studies , requiring large contributions of genetic
engineering , are located in the States or in Japan (T cell receptors ,
interleukins ...). Non-Community countries , such as Sweden , Finland or
Switzerland , have excellent immunology research . A major contribution
to immunology has been the establishment in Switzerland of the " Basel
Institute for Immunology ". This institute is entirely devoted to basic
immunology and is totally supported by the private pharmaceutical firm
Hoffmann - La Roche .

and

efforts

European

Unfortunately ,
often been
and
developed and exploited in the United States before being employed in
Europe : monoclonal antibodies are one of the most striking examples .
The Nobel-prize-winning discovery was made in Cambridge , England ; but
US commercial firms ( Hybritech , Becton Dickinson , Ortho-Diagnostics )
have taken the largest part of the market ( for example , monoclonal
antibodies for human lymphocyte typing ) .

have very

results

of

and

immunology

The Commission of the European Communities has already recognised the
importance
this
discipline in programmes such as the " Biotechnology Action Programme",
" Stimulation", " Medical Research" and " Tropical Medicine ". This effort
is considerable and can contribute to the progress of immunology and
its application . Nevertheless , this effort is dispersed and aims at so
many goals that it cannot be considered as a significant contribution
to immunology .

involving

research

supports

Many major problems in applied immunology remain unsolved : such as a
better evaluation of the potential of the human immune system ; better
control of immunosuppression in order to improve the success of heart ,
specific
liver ,
toxins ,
antibodies against many aggressive agents (virus , bacteria ,
chemical
autoimmune
diseases , etc .

improvement

production

treatment

grafts ;

organ

other

human

drugs

...);

the

the

or

of

of

in

Very

progress

promising

immunities .

currently facing immunology ,

to
improve the
A basic challenge
is
get strong and
presentation of antigens to organisms in order to
( for
longlasting
example in understanding the AIDS virus ) and
( the
major diseases in the world are parasitic ) have been achieved , leading
to a better understanding of these infectious agents . However , to be
transformed
new
engineered substances must meet the requirements of the immune system
in order to be effectively recognized . Those requirements are still
poorly understood . A collaborative effort in Europe on such a subject
could be
the major
problems of human ( and veterinary ) medicine as well as a considerable
help to pharmaceutical firms developing vaccines .

in virology
in parasitology

a valuable contribution to

the improvement of

efficient ,

vaccines ,

cheap

safe

into

and

the

21 . 235

E . NEUROBIOLOGY

of

the

study of

disciplines

human brain and nervous

a
The
and
multiplicity
Information science to zoology, psychology and medicine. All of
these areas contribute to the understanding of
the nervous system
from a cellular, molecular and biochemical point of view as well
as going same way to elucidate the higher brain functions such as
problem solving language and memory.

system Includes
chemistry

physics,

from

the

cells

since

centre

It was

recognised as

(neuronsj. Neuroscientists

Intense Interest
How the brain functions has been the subject of
Intelligence,
for
ever
the brain began In
thought and sentiment. The scientific study of
the last certuary when certain brain functions
the early part of
were plnponted and the nervous tissue found to be
composed of
Individual
however
working on the study of many of the more complex processes of the
brain such as memory, how sensory Information Is Interpreted and
the work
the processes
being
the
neurological
understanding
a
become
disorders. The brain's
major subject for research with scientists hoping to emulate some
of
In
computers whose structure Is based on that of the brain.

Involved In voluntary movement. Some of
application
certain
power his

have
treatment

of
computer

'neurocomputers'

capabilities

Incredible

out will

possible

building

carried

direct

still

and

the

are

its

of

to

Neuroblologlcal Research

In

the complexity of

and
particular ,

Intercellular
scientists

research
The diverse topics being undertaken In neuroblological
the subject. Considerable
are an Indication of
In recent years In the fields of
breakthroughs have been made
nervous
molecular
cellular
in
system.
been
Identifying and Isolating the specific molecules
responsible for
the transmission of an impulse from one neuron to another and the
Involved In the modulation
complex processes
the
In minute
nerve
are
quantities In the neurons , using recombinant DNA techniques ,
they
can be generated In sufficient quantities to be studied In detail
Information Is necessary
using protein sequencing methods. This
to provide
to the
a
nervous system.

response. While neurotransmitters

or control of
produced

full understanding of

the chemical basis

successful

analysis

have

the

of

22 .

234

the

the

and

has

nervous

several

benefltted
study
the

from
of
enabling
'in-vlvo'. The bringing together of molecular

Interdisciplinary
Reuroblology
system both'in-
successes
vltro'
biology
and genetic engineering has permitted the study of nerve cells In
culture where
their
for
techniques have
growth and function have been Identified. These
Identify
also brought
complex interconnections. Cell culture
each other
how myelinating cells
Is currently being used In the study of
allow
( those
Insulate
which
such
Impulses to be conducted), may be transplanted to victims of
diseases as multiple sclerosis where myelinatlon has broken dowon
In this way, repair may be possible.

the mechanisms by which neurons

and form their

environmental

specialised

conditions

to light

required

neurons

cells

and

tools

recent

allow the anatomical

the brain In-vlvo using scanners has

Images of
( ti.M.R.)
exceptionally

technique which, by detecting the changes

these techniques
researchers are working on

computer which reconstructs multiple
technique of Huclear Magnetic Resonance
available ,
providing
the magnetic properties of

been
The observation of
possible since the early 1970‘s. Conventional X-rays are coupled
the brain.
to a
one of
The
is
the most
high
the brain
quality Images based on
tissue. While
the
of magneto¬
brain,
encephalography a
In
the neurons will help to Identify diseases
electrical activity of
Invasive diagnostic
such as epilepsy whose
tools. There have also recently been developments
in the use of
Injected Into the bloodstream which are
radio-labelled substances
technique
traced by a detector coupled to a data-processor. This
In
but
provides
addition ,
A whole
radiotracers now exist which help In the Identification
series of
of
envisaged
It
these examinations surgeons will
that by combining the results of
be
of
carry
able
precision.

scanner
the complex blood-brain barrier.

Information
Information on

the maximum amount

haemohorrages ,

surgery with

evade other

development

thromboses ,

comparable

blockages ,

study of

causes

that

ect.

the

out

of

to

Is

to

a

the

have

1940's

parallels

Since
functioning of
to emulate the brain have proved largely unsuccessful .
years
Investment
developing
federal
Important financial commitments.

the
been
the human brain and computing machines . Attempts
In recent
enthusiasm and
In the United States and Japan In the possibility of
In particular ,
In the United States ,
neurocomputers.
and private companies are making
agencies , universities

explosion of

there has

been an

however ,

between

drawn

23 .

235

-

the

that

that

through

envisaged

understanding

neurocomputers would

of
neurocomputer

hoping
the brain they can • build a

the
Scientists
are
functioning of
a
computer which Is structured like the brain and which like the
brain can learn for Itself without programming. The way In which
the brain processes Information is extrodln&rily efficient and it
is
to
conventional machines. The brain differs from ordinary computers
in several
carry out
reasoning. While
slmultalneous
computers have been trained to play chess at world
to
law and
rediscover
Information
to answer questions
they
fed
considered
a
Intelligent. The
not based solely on
function of
logic as
computer, as problems of certain complexity only
Is a
experience based on learning can find a solution.

the unstated Implications of
from being

Important physical principles,

Important ways
processing,

long way
the brain is

be vastly superior

such as Ohm's

including Its

ability to

learning

active

level,

them,

and

are

on

to

Iuit.iatly.es In the United States and Japan

figures

the
In the United States, Interest can be measured by looking at
attendance
in
neurocomputing;
1985 only 50 participants attended a meeting at Santa Barbara. By
1987
San
Diego.
'Start-up‘
companies are operating in the field , In the United States.

international
that

conference
fifteen

people
Is

conferences

of major

estimated

2000
It

attended

an
that

more

on

at

Bell

AT&T's
laboratories
'neurons' based as the nerve cells of
can simulate the learning of which the slug Is capable.

succeeded

have

silicon
building
the garden slug. The model

in

Another American company has developed a device which imitates
the retlrn of the eye while another has invented a device to read
handwriting and feed the Information to a computer.

Japan has
Frontiers' In which neurocomputing will play a major role.

launched a major

Initiative in science entitled ‘Human

of

the

important discoveries

research
European laboratories are very active In neuroblological
here.
been made
and many
in European expertise. A
American companies are showing interest
large
American
an
made
been
Pharmaceutical Company In the University of Oxford's pharmacology
department where research Is being carried out on the treatment
of brain diseases.
the company will
In return for Its Investment,
get the Intellectual property rights to the work which It funds.

Investment

recently

have

has

by

24 .

236

Communlty Inltlatles lu NeurûblQlQgy

(In

the

research

particular

subject
In
Its
BRAIN ( Basic Reseach Adaptive

The Commission of
neuroblologlcal
cellular communication) under
of
Interest
extension
Introduced
the
Neurocomputing),
recommendations of
Science and Technology (CODEST) which advises
the
new trends
support
collaboration
promote the design of machines
Eight project are currently being supported by BRAIN. These are :

the European Communities has been supporting
Inter¬
the Science Plan since 1984. As an
Commission
and
Initiative
the
1987,
the Committee from the Development of European
the Commission on
to
initiative
of
Is
and
between member
to
states
function.
that emulate the brain's

Intelligence
following

In Science. The

research

purpose

study

the

the

of

In

the development of connectlonlst models
- a mathematical way of
capacity

for neurocomputing
simulating the brain's calculating

the design of a neurocomputer with learning abilities

the
study
processing

of

the

use

of

neural

networks

for

data

the determination of
a computer
to start
braln

the level of complexity necessary for
to function In a slmular way to the

study

the
relationship between
eyes and of the head

of

the

neural

networks

determining

the brain and the movement of

the
the

the
récognition of designs and graphs

dynamic

study

of

connectlonlst models

for

the

Investigation of

the
visually guided arm movements with a view to applying this

sensorimotor

strategies

involved

In

the knowledge to robotics and computer vision

the study of
cortex of primates In controlling a reaching movement.

the basic operations Involved In the cerebral

-

-

-

-

-

-

being

Other
Initiatives
Include a project
In the diagnosis of muscular
Is being supported under
Programme for Research and Development
and Involves five teams In the United Kingdom and Denmark.

Community
to develop a computer programme which will help
and nervous diseases. This project
the ESPRIT programme (European Strategic
In Information Technology)

supported

European

the

by

25 .

237

system is capable of

taking Information from medical
This expert
and
equipment measuring the electrical characteristics of nerves
as
as well
muscles
suggesting tests
extend the
range of diseases diagnosed to about five hundred and to further
develop the follow-up provided by the software.

likely list of diseases
is

treatments.

providing

planned

and

and

It

to

a

is

reflect

field
science,

a multidisciplinary

psychology, materials

science. The projects

includeds
Neurocomputing
and
neurobiology.
BRAIN
computer
initiative
a
comprehensive base for Europe's participation in the development
of
take
a
the first evaluation of BRAIN at Oxford University
pa Ac
where the second stage of
the programme will also be discussed.
Through such initiatives the European Community plans to Increase
its support of neurobiology.

neurocomputer.
in

In September ‘‘"some

which
informatics

being
diversity

supported
and.

scientist will

the
provide

this

will

80

by

26 .

238

F

Biotechnology

R&DinEuroge

to

an inadequate

The relative weakness of Europe in certain areas of biotechnology is not
due
often very highly
developed , but to the fragmentation and isolation of national research and
training efforts and to the absence , at national and transnational levels ,
of adequate concertation and contextual support for research , development
and exploitation .

potential ,

research

which

is

now

placed
and

biotechnology
increased

It is with the aim of overcoming these deficiencies that all Member States
national
have
a
priorities ,
national
accordingly
institutions . Policy awareness has become such that support is also been
organised under different departments ,
several professional
branches . The same occurred at the initiative of major European companies ,
although it can be shown that these frequently invested as much research
funds overseas as within the Community .

and across

their
to

position

support

their

high

in

at

to

the

able

funding ,

European

Federation

integration ,

transnational

the needs of

national and Community programmes have been

Next
to
provide a forum for research leaders to coordinate work at a large scale ,
avoiding gaps and emphasising priorities .
The scientific community now
realises that biotechnology R&D must be carefully conducted , leaving room
for speculative research but addressing in priority
the
society . Biotechnology operators have themselves developed a higher degree
of
of
through
Biotechnology ( EFB ) and through the establishment , on the industrial side ,
of the European Biotechnology Coordination Group ( EBCG ), the constitution
for the Commission of the E.C. of a biotechnology working group attached to
the Industrial R&D Advisory Committee of the CEC ( IRDAC ), and the creation
cf Green Industry Biotechnology Platform ( GTBiP ). Other major international
research initiatives took shape more or less simultaneously : particularly
relevant to biotechnology R&D are EUREKA and the Human Frontier Science
Programme , respectively at the applied and the basic ends of biotechnology
In existence for
and with which the Community established formal links .
already three years , Eureka now comprises more than 200 projects involving
about 800 companies and research centres from 19 European countries .
Of
( as per July 1987 ) are falling under the biotechnology area .
these ,
Eureka
Biotechnology
projects can be strategically aligned , industry-led projects being put in a
position of taking up for development purposes scientific results which
rapidly build up the framework of basic programmes . The Commission of the
actions
European
specifically
European
biotechnology . Cue of these actions alms at the establishment of a Commu ¬
nity network for training and research and has been executed , since 1982 ,
in the framework of two successive Community programmes , the Biomolecular
Engineering Programme ( BEP ) from April 1982 to March 1986 , and the ongoing
Biotechnology Action Programme ( BAP ), for the period 1985-1989 .

priority
of

competitiveness

implementing

improving

Community

Community

designed

actions

typical

several

itself

where

field

13 %

and

the

for

is

is

a

The pioneer programme : BEP

to

to

and

were

efforts

through

biology

contracts

objectives

contribute ,

transnational

agro-food
training

cellular
and
With a budget of
cost-shared
the
in

BEP was Che first Community initiative in the field of biotechnology .
Its
in
to the removal of bottlenecks which inhibit the
research and training ,
to
application of molecular
and
supported
the
industries .
with
91
public
of
private
and
genetic engineering ,
a gene
industries ,
cloning in Streptococcus bacteria exploited
the characterisation and isolation of more than 20 plant genes of high
importance
species
belonging to the monocots , resulted from the programme ;
53 cooperation
agreements were established between laboratories in different Member States
which involve the exchange of equipment and staff and the execution of
joint experiments . Permanent transnational working parties have been set up
for each research sector in the programme {*).

103
laboratories
several significant contributions ,

for agriculture or genetic

contracts
the
such as

transformation in plant

15 Mio ECU ,
research

agriculture

the cheese

Community .

area

BEP

In

by

The current programme ; BAP

Objectives for research and_training

programme ,
The
term
long
and
industry
European
following aspects :

inherently
objectives
and

pre-competitive ,
for

essential

is
the

European

agriculture .

oriented

strategic
deals

It

towards medium
of
strength
two
the

with

- the

establishment

for
research in Europe ( sub-programme on contextual measures ).

infrastructure

supportive

of

a

biotechnology

- the

elimination ,

which

necks
of
( sub-programme for basic biotechnology ).

materials

prevent

and

the

through
the

research
and
exploitation
methods

through
by
originating

training ,
and
modern

of
bottle¬
agriculture
biology

industry
from

Âreas ccvared

Research and training

Contextual measures

- Bio- informatics :

the

information
ter-assisted design , etc .)

technology

interface
( data

»

between

capture ,

biotechnology
banks ,

data

and
compu¬

- Collections

of

biotic materials

(upgrading

and

integration of

existing collections , enhancement of techniques )

(*) For an evaluation and a detailed review of

the scientific results
obtained in the framework of BEP , see the final report of the programme
( Biomolecular
1172 pages ,
Engineering
E. Magnien Ed ,, Martinus Nijhoff , 1986 ).

Community ,

European

the

in

740

Basic biotechnology

- Enzyme

engineering :

bioreactors

of

2nd

generation ,

stability

of enzymes , protein design

- Genetic

industries ,
husbandry

engineering :
to

plants

applied
and

to
soil

micro-organisms

micro-organisms ,

important
to

for
animal

- Technology
continuous
logies for animal cells )

of
cultures ,

cells

cultured

in

regeneration of

vitro
plant

( micro-organisms
cells ,

in
new methodo ¬

- In vitro tests to screen new molecules created by industry for

their biological activity and possible toxicity

- Methods

of

assessing

possible

risks

associated

with

modern

biotechnology .

Concertation of national and Community policies

- A

range

of

information ,

to

tasks
technology are both relevant and
sion and in relation to the outside world .

ensure

that

liaison ,
Community

evaluation
policies

initiation
bio­
consistent within the Commis ¬

and
affecting

Imglementation of research and training_activiti.es (*)

1 .

2 .

3 .

Long-duration
senior
country to another .

research

training

contracts

available

to

both

scientists

involving

travel

from

one

junior

and
Community

Multiannual
shared-cost
public sector or private research bodies .

marginal-

or

research

contracts

with

Regular
on-site visits .

meetings ,

dissemination

of

information

and

results ,

and

Dimensions

The programme ,
Portugal ,
extended
budget of 75 Mio ECU and foresees , for research and training :

recently

Spain

and

to

has

a

total

300 - 350 training contracts
some 380 research contracts .

(*) :

year

every

for information see the publications , available upon request ,
issued
matters
research ,
reviews
main achievements ,
for proposals , statistics on cooperation ...)

the
( results
catalogue
on

services
programme
meetings ,

Commission
of

of
response

the
the
of

proceedings

statistics

related

on
all
contractual
contracts ,
call

to

by

of

of

to

241

Resgonse to the call for research grogosals_and transnational! ty of
the programme .

The selection
proposals
and
partners .

criteria

included

expressions

of

the
interest

transnationality
originating

the

of
from

research
industrial

of

A
total
national .
were
proposals could be accepted for funding .

1550
Budgetary

constraints

proposals

were

received
such

Particigation of industries

of

which

80%

that

only

were
of

387

trans¬
these

December 1988 ,

The research presently conducted in the framework of
of
executed
tories which have agreed to join their efforts and
Fifteen per cent of
partner .

these transnational groups

90 transnational

by

is

BAP ,
at the date
groups
labora¬
of
to work together .
include one industrial

The proportion of projects implemented
BAP which
are supported by an expression of interest from one or several indus ¬
trial firms amounts
for
all ,
specific projects in the programme have been transmitted by industrial
firms to the services of the Commission .

150 expressions of

the framework of

interest

83% .

In

to

in

of

and

which

meetings

Commission

information

(" sectoral",

contractors
the

services
BEP and BAP and

there is now a regular demand from industries to attend
In addition ,
"horizontal",
types
various
the
regular
" spontaneous ")
to have access to all
intervals in the framework of
abstracts ,
of
data
pro¬
these
from
annual
pro¬
the
sector of
grammes .
plants
soil
of
and
gramme
microorganisms , " European laboratories without walls "
(ELWW) are presently
being constituted which bring together the laboratories participating to
Community research and
this
research and the exploitation of its results (*).

(proceedings
of
As particularly well

of
contracts ...)
illustrated

in
engineering

arising
the
of

specifically

catalogue

industries

interested

meetings ,

organise

reports ,

dealing

genetic

books

with

the

the

at

by

and
part

materials
important
integrated
and

(*) Methods ,
and
an
totally
constituted
erably
opean
research",
Trends in Biotechnology ,

joint
launched

increase within BRIDGE .
Without
Laboratories

R. van der Meer ,

For
Walls :
E. Magnien
5 : 318-321 , 1987 .

results
the
of
effort .
BAP
in

circulate
research work is
Approximately
and

focused

30 ELWWs

each
implemented
have

ELWW
as
a
been
consid ¬
" Eur¬
precompetitive
in

should

see

this
further

number
information

and

D. de Nettancourt

freely within

30 .

242

The future programme : BRIDGE

programme

of
the
Development
the succession of

The Commission services are now proposing orientations on the nature and
for
( BRIDGE
objectives
and
Innovation ,
in
in
BAP , These orientations have been defined on
1990 ,
through recommen¬
past achievements
the
dations
European
panel
Parliament , industrial organisations and the CGC Biotechnology .

BEP
BAP
and
Independent

-
Europe )

and
Experts ,

Biotechnology

basis of

Research

received

Growth

which

take ,

will

in
of

from

the

a

BRIDGE is to be subdivided , as was BAP , into two actions :

Action I
per cent of
Action II .

for Research and Training , Action II

the total budget will be devoted to Action T

for Concertation . Ninety
to

and

10%

Action I

to

in

of

be

gaps

from

main

will

tasks

basic

develop

Action I

knowledge ,

cooperative

The
basic
research and training through research adapted to the long term needs
for the removal of bottlenecks result ¬
of the Community . This implies ,
ing
existing
reinforcement
the
ELWWs and their extension to new areas considered of high
networks of
Alternatively ,
significance
pro ¬
bottlenecks
removing
jects
necessary ,
will
originating
substantial
A very
in particu¬
effort is foreseen in the area of normative research and ,
lar , with regard to the assessment of risks possibly associated to the
release
and
training programme outlined in tables 1 and 2 is to be subdivided into four
sectors :

Community .
when

microorganisms .

implemented ,

constraints .

genetically

engineered

structural

targeted

research

be
from

larger

scale

The

for

the

for

or

of

of

- information infrastructures
- enabling technologies
- cellular biology
- normative research

The programme , as outlined , takes into account but still very insuffi¬
ciently , the recommendations made in the present report for Community
activities on the " molecular foundations of plant biotechnology " and
on the "molecular investigations of the genomes of complex organisms ".

Action II

Action II (Concertation ) will cover a range of monitoring , information
and collaborative activities to provide and facilitate the effective
application of biotechnology to the social and economic objectives of
the Community and of the Member States ( table 2 ).

31 .
243

Related R&D activities

ECLAIR ( 80 Mio ECU for the period 1989-1993 )
(European Collaborative Linkage of Agriculture and Industry
ECLAIR
through Research ) will be
the
European Communities for biotechnology-based agro-industrial research
and technological development . Through such research development work ,
it will contribute ,
to enhancing
Europe 's competitiveness in the economic activities - industrial and
agricultural - based on the life sciences and biotechnology .

first multiannual programme of

in the medium and longer terms ,

the

FLAIR ( 25 Mio ECU from 1989 to inid-1993 )
FLAIR ( Food-Linked Agro-Industrial Research ) is a programme proposal
concentrating exclusively on the food sector and , particularly , on the
processing-distribution-consumer end of the food chain . The long term
objective of FLAIR is to contribute to the competitiveness of Europe 's
food industries , and to improved consumer protection and confidence ,
by strengthening the links between them through research and develop ¬
ment . The Commission proposes to achieve this objective by launching a
programme of concerted actions and cost-shared actions . The projects
seek to promote the close collaboration between research and indus¬
trial groups , by their participation in research and technological
development on food quality , hygiene , safety , toxicology , nutritional
and wholesomeness values .

Table 1

: Biotechnology research and training activities proposed
for implementation in the framework of BRIDGE ( 1990-94 )

Information structure

. culture collections ;
. processing and analyses of bio ( techno ) logical data ;

Enabling technologies

. protein design /molecular modelling ;
. bio transformation ;
. gene mapping » genome sequencing , novel cloning methods ;

Cellular biology

. physiology and molecular genetics of industrial microorganisms ;
. basic biology of plants and associated organisms ;
. biotechnology of animal cells ;

Normative research

. safety assessments associated with the release of genetically

engineered organisms ;

. in vitro evaluation of the toxicity and pharmacological activity

of molecules .

32 .

244

Table 2

: Biotechnology concertation activities proposed for
implementation in the framework of BRIDGE ( 1990-94 )

- Coordination of Commission activities ;

- Concertation of activities of Member States ;

- Provision of information on the advantages ,

safety
of
general public ;

biotechnology

to

politicians ,

limitations
and

scientists

and
the

- Formation and growth of small and medium-sized biotechnology

firms .

33 .

245

RD&D Non Nuclear Energy

Motivation

Progress to date of the European RD&D action

Indications for the future

RD&D Orientations

Conclusion for the future

ANNEX 5

3

8

10

13

246

Motivation

2 .

The need for Europe to face energy challenges has been reconfirmed
numerous times by the European Council over the past years . The energy
strategy of the Community emphasizes coherence of far-reaching planned
actions in the energy field , as well as the necessity of an increased
( energy-saving , development of
effort to reduce the dependance on oil
alternative
to
of
facilitate the adaptation of the European industry to the energy market .
Since 1974 , these objectives constitute the most important Community
options in the domain of R&D .

diversification

demand )

supply

fuels ,

and

and

the

year

2000 ,

these

options

pursuit

:
environmental

independance ,
protection , competitivity ,

Until
a
of
reinforcement and above all a larger scope of R&D activities according
to the main aims
term
supply ,
At European
level
the framework programme consists of 3 major themes on energy
research : nuclear fission , controlled thermonuclear fusion , non-nuclear
the demonstration
energy and
programmes for energy savings and coal
and the support programme for
technological development in the field of hydrocarbons have allowed to
make important progress in these fields .

use of energy . Moreover ,

security regarding

the rational

safety .

ensure

should

long

the

achievements

However ,
Numerous
economic
continuation
is
conditions temporarily favour access
RD&D will
determine the long term future of energy and if no actions are taken
today , serious problems may result in the more or less distant future .

in
essential
to energy .

have
research

field .
though

each
even

In fact ,

Energy

noted

been

of

Three major factors should influence the choice of the energy RD&D
options :

*

*

*

the forecasts of energy demands in Europe and in the rest of the
world .
the evolution of energy resources
exhaustion .
protection of the environment .

and comprehension of their

These factors pose many responsibilities and R&D must establish the
means for society to face them . At the dawn of the XXIst century , when
already one can perceive a limit to the availability of certain forms of
energy and the consequence of environmental damage at global level , it
is vital to merge all research efforts by means of optimal management of
the energy policy .

The establishment of the great internal market can only reinforce this
conviction : the harmonisation of norms and laws and the necessity of
maintaining competitiveness often find their answer in technological
research .

247

3 .

Progress to date of the European RD&D action

The Commission has not allowed itself to be influenced by the temporary
fluctuation of energy prices when defining its policy in the field of
non-nuclear energy R&D . At the european level neither its R&D programme
launched in 1975 nor its demonstration programme , initiated three years
later , have suffered any harmful blows .

as

do .

show

do
Even

Community

not
though

of
national

the
budgets

commitments
some

yearly
The
financial
last
oscilliations
four-year budget was reduced upon request of certain Member States , it
still continues in the range of previous budgets , with unaltered and
even enriched objectives and has remained at a creditable level , in any
case above the minimal critical level . Generally speaking and despite a
slow decrease
one may
observe that the relative shares for the three main poles between 1980
and 1988 have remained stable : energy savings ( 28 % ), coal ( 34 % ) and
hydrocarbons ( about 10 % ), renewable energies ( 28 % ) . Nevertheless ,
a
more detailed survey of these aggregates may indicate substantial shifts
between programmes .

spending on non-nuclear research ,

public

the

in

More precisely : What are the strong and weak points of the Community 's
and the membre states programmes in the field of non-nuclear energy ?

Community action , composed of three major fields : energy saving , fossil
fuels and renewables , has backed the research of the member states . The
( a;b ) illustrate respectively the budget of the EC member
tables 4.9
states and the Community in 1987 .

A lot has
that the

For 15 years Europe has worked in the field of energy conservation
thanks to the vigorous R,D&D policy at national as well as at Community
been said and written around the statement which
level .
implies
the only factor
cost has
responsible for effecting a reduction of the consumption , and that is
true for a large part . But , the influence of the cost itself has also
generated research efforts which appear to be durable . The cumulative
impact of 15 years of efforts has procured great benefits thanks to the
fundamental
changes which have occured in the production
machinery and also in the psychological approach of the individual and
collective actors .

structural

the main ,

if not

been

The Community objectives have been achieved and even surpassed .
Following a decrease of about 20 % between 1973 and 1980 ( preceded by an
increase of 63 % between 1960 and 1973 ) the European consumption of
primary energy stabilized , and only fluctuated between 1000 and 1100
Mtep .

the sectors of R.D&D have shared this successful

Space
All
heating which represents about 40 % of European consumption is the first
domain - at least in the new building sector - to make rapid progress .
The insulation and ventilation techniques and also the recovery of heat
have led to a substantial increase in savings , currently up to 50 % and
more . The passive solar contributions have shown the strength of the
European R,D&D and the attempts to retrofit old buildings have been
fruitful . Active solar contributions have been limited to water heating
The economic
and

developed in southern Europe .

are relatively well

result .

248

conditions and certain technical constraints are the reasons that active
solar could not play its role as originally foreseen . The same holds
true for heat pumps . They might come into play in a decade 's time . The
unsolved technical difficulties and the lack of economic competitivity
have limited its application to the tertiary and industrial
sectors
where scale effects and " intelligent " putting into operation have given
them a chance .

4 .

in

to

the

use

respect

rational

of energy

With
R&D
endeavours have been more diversified due to the numerous energy saving
possibilities one might find and also due to the considerable potential
to quantitatively reduce energy consumption ( European industrial consump¬
tion accounts for 35 1 of the total consumption ). New processes and
industrial products appear year upon year rendering older products obso ¬
lete . This renovation , as well as the modernisation of the industrial
equipment have unobtrusively introduced new techniques with a reduction
in energy consumption and pollution ( the latter is also a consequence of
indirect R&D effects ).

industry ,

the

Numerous factors have contributed to a reduction of the consumption in
industry ,
is worthwhile to emphasize the remarkable results
obtained in a dozen years in Europe and elsewhere on the thermal level ,
as for example a better comprehension of combustion phenomena or heat
transfer .

and

it

Among the recent advances which have benefitted european technology
one should underline the importance of the improvements in measurement ,
They have benefitted
control and regulation of energetic processes .
enormously
collection
the
methods , data gathering and processing .

popularization

electronics ,

from

new

of

Let us also refer to the development of heat distribution systems and
co-generation which have undergone a satisfactory expansion in Europe .

At present , Europe may be proud of an industry which knows how to apply
the most advanced techniques , regarding energy efficiency , even though
due to the historical ties in certain traditional branches penetration
of new ideas has been somewhat slow in comparison to younger industrial
competitors .

Amongst other research to improve the energy efficiency and the endea ¬
vours spent on primary energy ,
it is necessary to highlight the R&D
efforts devoted to the main secondary energy vector , i.e. electricity .
From a classical electro-technical viewpoint , one should not forget the
remarkable success of turbo-alternators , the unit power of which has
doubled every ten years , and also the modern methods of grid control ,
revolutionized by the use of computers .
But the most advanced and ori ¬
ginal research concerns the field of fuels cells , electro-chemical stor¬
age and cryo- electricity .
These sectors have been explored for years ,
but fundamental and subsequent applied research has given them a new
youth and an interest that will always be with us .

Fossil fuels ( solid , liquid and gaseous ), the most spread out and used
of all , used will remain the major resource for a very long period of
time . Whatever may be the economically interesting stock , fossil fuels
today are of increasing concern as far as the scientists , environmen ¬
talists and even the public and politicians are concerned .

249

5 .

Besides the toxicity of the pollution caused by their combustion ( S0? ,
NOx , dust ) which can be controlled if one wants to pay for it , the fear
of warming up the planet by a greenhouse effect due to CCL seems to be
Because we are
more and more justified , at least in the long run .
to
" condemned ",
make
the more the
abundant use of these fuels , we should appreciate all
efforts that are made for their clean
of their
consumption ,
by means of savings and efficiency at the consumption
level , by an improved efficiency and a better yield at every stage of
exploitation , preparation , purification , transformation up to the end
use . The Community R&D has been in charge to respond to those concerns .

generations ,

reduction

without

several

doubt

for

and

use

and

Hydrocarbon research must increase the economically exploitable reser¬
ves . Hence , exploration techniques have made big progress , allowing to
increase significantly the rate of success of drillings . The drilling
techniques reach a greater efficiency - drill ingspeed as well increased
reliability - especially in the deep sea and offshore drillings .

In this field , very promising techniques as horizontal drilling appear¬
ed . The development of offshore production techniques , in particular in
deep sea , has achieved well performing submarin techniques using autom¬
ation and robotics , whereas support of floating production units and new
concepts of platforms were developed .

An extension of basic knowledge has accompanied technological research ,
notably in the geological field concerning the mechanism of formation
and migration of hydrocarbons . More generally speaking , physico-chemical
conversion problems have taken up an important share of the hydrocarbon
R&D action .

Endeavours of RD&D in the field of solid fuels are fully justified by
the coal potential and by the more immediate concern to protect the
environment against the effects of very abundant impurities in solid
fuels . The combustion and conversion techniques remain at the centre of
research planning and are studied actively in Europe ( in particular in
These activities are rather
the FRG but also in the UK and the NL ).
diversified and the obtained results are of varied importance .
If in
spite of its efforts Europe seems to be late in comparison with the USA
and Japan regarding combustion techniques with coal-liquid mixtures , it
should be realized that fluidized bed combustion is an area where Europe
has a good research tradition .

Prototypes exist in almost all Member States and some installations of
important size are in operation .

Other investigations have accompanied those just mentioned , as for exam¬
ple liquefaction and gasification of coal , production of methanol deriv ¬
ed from coal and combustion of lean gases .

The variety of RD&D areas is very vast and Europe occupies a more than
creditable place . Generally speaking , one might say that all the invest¬
igated processes operate well , or at least correctly , when applied to
coal of good quality .
The problems arise when dealing with poor fuels ,
which are abundant but more heterogeneous , less reactive , polluttant ,
dirty and dusty .

250

6 .

a vast area of renewable energies has seen intensive re¬
Since 1974 ,
search activities in the whole world and more particularly in Europe .
It consists of a wide variety of sources : solar , wind , small hydro-
power , biomass plus urban waste , geothermal , marine energy .

R.D & D. in all these
During the last 15 years , Europe has carried out
fields .
Even if not the first , measured by the variable financial and
manpower input by different countries , Europe possesses in all these
fields a high degree of theoretical and practical knowledge . As soon as
the economic circumstances allow or a technical breakthrough takes place
Europe is highly likely to occupy almost immediately a favourable posi ¬
tion .
One should not forget that the majority of the renewables are
non-pollutant , and hence public opinion is favourable . In certain cases ,
the energetic aspect gives way to the protection of the environment , as
for instance in bacteriological treatment of animal and vegetable waste
and the incineration of household waste , which renders these processes
generally attractive , even if the energetic profit itself is not always
significant .

Given the broad domain of scientific disciplines and technologies used
in the field of renewable energies , one can only present here a concise
overview of some outstanding achievements which are characteristic for
some 15 years of European research and development .

Photovoltaic conversion techniques have enjoyed , in Europe as well as in
the USA and Japan , a frank technical success , most certainly constrained
by an economically less favourable context . The european industry , even
if it only ranks in 3rd place with somewhat more than 10% of the global
production , disposes of the most advanced techniques and has already
attained a substantial turnover , especially with regard to export . The
efforts of RD & D which have been skilfully coordinated by the Commis ¬
sion ( incl . JRC ) include pilot installations and demonstrations concern ¬
ing tests and certifications in order to obtain world wide recognition
of European norms and quality standards .

The european countries have abandonned the idea of electricity produc¬
tion by concentration of solar energy by means of a field of heliostats .
The technically difficult concept facing climatological
hazards and
unfavourable economic factors , explains this failure , although a number
of interesting data has been obtained for other research areas .

Wind energy has been strongly developed in northern Europe and several
european countries have demonstrated the quasi-competitivity of this
form of electricity production coupled to the grid . Concerning small
units , up to 2-300 KW , an industrial production exists where european
manufacturers are perfectly competitive .

The utilisation of energy from biomass is in itself a broad and multi ¬
disciplinary area and the RD&D prior to this usage has several branches
: harvest and transformation to energy of waste , which is strongly stimu ¬
lated by european RD&D ;
specific cultures of energy production ; har¬
vest , transport and preparation of solid biomass including the develop ¬
ment of boilers on biomass fuel ;
combustion and gasification of bio¬
mass ; treatment of effluents and liquid waste .

251

7 .

in addition Europe disposes of a
The potential of biomass is large ;
considerable expertise in agriculture . These two elements have ensured
that R & D , in the field of biomass , should attract numerous applica ¬
tions of which the first results are already encouraging .

and increasingly used throughout the world ,

With respect to geothermal energy , Europe has also excellent R D & D and
Although high enthalphy geothermal energy is
exploitation experience .
fully under control
low
enthalphy energy on the contrary is difficult to exploit , due to the
absence of a continuous warm source close to the location of utiliza ¬
tion . More fundamental research concerns very deep drilling in hot dry
rocks , injecting water and recuperating steam at high pressure .
These
Finally , geothermal
projects are in progress in Europe , USA and Japan .
information is readily
is an area where technological and economical
transferred due to the association of public bodies , large energy pro¬
ducers and important consumers .
The Commission has , by its coordination
and financing of numerous programmes , strongly contributed to this situa ¬
tion .

Concerning energy , environmental and economic modelling , Europe has a
number of centres of excellence cooperating in the Commission 's pro ¬
gramme .

This is a field where the european studies are well recognized . They
concern both tools for analysing supply and demand of energy and those
for investigating the interface between energy , economy and environment .
These well known studies , and in particular " Energy 2000 " and the " Costs
of Non-Europe " have seen the light of the day , due to the tools for
analysis and modelling and have allowed decision-makers to clarify a
number of political choices in the area of energy and economy .

252

8 .

Indications for the future

Of all the instruments at the disposal of the Community for managing its
energy policy , R&D is one of the essential elements determining the
energy future in the long run .
The time horizons 2010-2020 and beyond
Hence , today 's research
are of great interest to R&D endeavours today .
is geared towards the hopes for resources that may be available in 25 or
30 years .

It is difficult to organize an energy research programme on a prospec ¬
tive basis undistorted
by temporary events . One may observe that during
the past six years , the dominant views on the future of energy changed
considerably , and so have the principal objectives of the energy policy
and the RD&D priorities . These rapid evolution of long term views illus ¬
trate the difficulty of designing an RD&D strategy , which by its very
nature aims at the long term .

Despite the difficulties of appreciation , RD&D has to ensure that three
key questions are answered . Will the energy available in 2020 meet the
needs of our economy ? Will this energy be available at a reasonable and
stable price ? Shall this energy be clean ?

The outlook of the European Community on energy is such that an average
growth rate of the needs in terms of primary energy of about 1.1 % per
year from now on up to the year 2010 is foreseen . It will reach a level
of annual consumption of around 1.5 Milliard toe , against 1 Milliard toe
in 1985 . The world energy consumption might reach 14.000 Mtoe , against
( 2025 , 2030 ),
7.500 in 1985 . With regard to forecasts on a longer term ,
many publications
by different
presented
authors .
Even if one records a ratio of 3 between the highest and
lowest predictions , one may nonetheless conclude from these studies that

subject

have

been

the

on

*

*

the energy demand will in general maintain a slight increase in the
industrialized countries , slowed down by the progressive saturation
of the pare of domestic equipment , the steady reducing speed of the
activities
of
techniques ;
the technological
continue sufficiently flexibly
with respect to the energy prices in order to follow the evolution
of energy demand .

development will

industry

constant

progress

heavy

and

the

the

of

The development of technologies , using fuels other than oil , in order to
reduce their costs and
to pass the threshold to gain access to an
unlimited resource ( e.g. fusion ) constitutes an important motivation for
energy research .

In the long run , these perspectives will collide with two obstacles :
the availability of energy resources and the shorter-dated environmental
constraint .

If one examines global energy resources of all kinds , one discovers an
abundance of energy that could meet the requirements of mankind for the
next few centuries .
But one must realise , on the one hand , that energy
is unevenly dispersed in geographic terms and on the other hand , that it
exists in forms not readily adaptable to consumption either due to the
high extraction and transformation costs or due to serious ecological
problems , which may arise .

253

9 .

To be more precise , the classical forms of energy ( oil , gas , uranium ,
coal ) should allow us to reach the beginning of the 21st century without
physical shortage nor any particular effort in prospection ( one should
not exclude tensions on the market resulting from psychological or poli ¬
tical actions ).
If a large prospection effort in oil , gas and uranium
were maintained , the reserves discovered could maintain a production
By that date , the
level sufficient to secure the needs up to 2025-2030 .
physical limits will have been reached .
However , coal is very abundant
and will remain available for centuries .

The production and utilisation of energy have their ecological conse¬
quences at every step in the fuel cycle . Public opinion was affected at
the end of the sixties by the energetic impact on environment . Different
problems appeared , notably the thermal
pollution of water by power
plants , the destruction of soil and surfaces by the exploitation of open
pit mining , air pollution , acid rain , the reliability of nuclear reac¬
tors , waste treatment and storage of radioactive waste .

Two problems are at present of major concern to the public . Primarily
the acid rain caused by the utilisation of fossil fuels ( S02 and NOx
emission ) and secondly the radioactivity related to the operation of
nuclear reactors and storage of nuclear waste .
A third point regarding
the greenhouse effect caused by C02 , is starting to draw the attention
of the public via the media ( as a consequence of the Toronto conference
June 1988 ). The increased consumption of fossil fuels will only rein¬
force the need for pollutants emission constraints ,
a problem to be
solved by R&D .

254

10 .

RD&D orientations

What should european research do in view of these perspectives and con ¬
straints ? What can be expected from the technology ?

From what has been said three time horizons can be distinguished and for
each the problem of security of supply is of a different nature :

-

-

-

Up to 2000 , the greatest threat lies in a sudden supply interruption
or a steep price-increase of crude oil as a result of tensions of a
geopolitical character . The techniques employed for the use or the
production of conventional fuels other than crude oil are not suffi ¬
ciently developed .
• The strategy to be adopted in order to avoid
tensions on the oil prices should be based on two themes : demand
reduction and increase of supply capacities .
In this respect it is
necessary to :

*

*

Develop techniques which reduce the liquid fuel demand , both by
the use of equipment with more efficient liquid fuel consum¬
ption in cases where liquid fuel
is specific and cannot be
replaced ( ex . transport ) and by means of equipment which is
adaptable for the use of other forms of energy where substitu ¬
tion is possible ( multi-fuel boilers ).

Develop techniques which allow the increase in oil production ,
in particular by prospection and exploitation of new fields and
by reactivating drained oil fields .

For the period 2000-2020 , one might hope that production technologies
for fuel , competitive to oil and produced from coal and gas will be
operational . The generation of electricity will still rely on hydro ,
coal and nuclear .

On a longer term , beyond 2020 , it will be required to find solutions
for the replacement of fossil fuels and uranium ( LWR ) for which the
fields will be practically exhausted .
In this period the only avail ¬
able conventional source of energy will be coal .

The mentioned elements have been broadly utilized as a basis for
reflexion by numerous countries and by the Commission in order to
establish their RD&D programme , to develop energy technologies able
to satisfy the energy supply at short , medium and long term and to
secure a smooth transition into the XXI century .

It may be useful to structure RD&D programmes according to this main
sense of direction into the following five categories according to an
IEA classification :

*

Technologies able to extend the availability of the energy
carriers of our present supply system at short and medium
terms ;

*

Technologies more efficient in energy consumption ;

255

Technologies exploring renewabie energies ;

Technologies with a high production potential
but
high
which
economic risk ;

presently

contain

still

a

11 .

in the future ,
and
technical

Technologies with the same assets as the above categories , for
which the R&D has a horizontal character .

*

*

*

The first category concerns in the first place those technologies improv ¬
ing exploration and exploitation of liquid and gaseous fuels , and solid
fuels . Regarding the offshore exploitations , the conception and design
for the achievement of submarine production at high sea require import ¬
ant progress . The same holds for techniques to protect health and envi ¬
ronment and to increase safety .

Research on solid fuels should concentrate on rendering these resources
less pollutant , more efficient { which will imply emissions' reduction )
It is urgent to do so because the quality of the
and easier to use .
main part of the world 's resources is low and particularly detrimental
to the environment .
It appears that the combustion in fluidized bed and
gasification are interesting to develop on the short term , as they red ¬
On the longer term ,
uce the pollution inherent to coal conversion .
liquefaction , gasification in situ and combined cycles with magneto¬
hydrodynamic ( MHD ) energy conversion are promising .

to the research on fossil

Parallel
technologies for CC^ abatement at the source has to be examined .
Research on conventional nuclear and fast breeders should also increase
the availability of energy in Europe on the short and medium terms .

fuel , the possibility to develop

Considerations regarding nuclear safety can be found in annexe 9 .

The main but not exclusive objective of technologies that use energy in
a more efficient manner is the reduction of fuel demand and of invest ¬
ment needs for large power plants .
These technologies may also reduce
the impact on the environment and in particular reduce the tension bet¬
ween energy supply and demand .

The necessary research items are :

*

*

*

introduction of energy efficient vehicles in the transport sector ,
development of engines with improved efficiency and lighter mater ¬
ials . Electric cars are also a possibility ; therefore it is neces ¬
sary to develop low weight batteries of high energetic density
with multiple loading and unloading facilities .

in the industrial sector : introduction in industry of efficient
processes with reduced energy needs in high energy consuming sec ¬
tors such as the iron , steel , aluminium and other basic material
industry
industries .
should include measurements , control , regulations , recycling of
lost energy , recycling of products of high energy intensity etc .

energy management

general ,

global

in

In

with the residential and tertiary sectors reduction of the energy
demand is possible by refurnishing existing buildings and construc¬
The techni-
tion of new buildings with high energetic efficiency .

256

12 .

are already well-known :

ques
passive
systems ,
solar architecture ,
district heating and heatpumps . Regulation of control and measure ¬
ment techniques based on micro-electronics can strongly contribute
to the demand reduction . An increase of energy efficiency in house ¬
hold appliances should be clearly monitored .

insulation ,
heating

" intelligent "

cooling and

for example

The contribution of renewable energies to the global energy supply ( with
the exception of hydropower and biomass combustion ) will remain small in
It is well known that these energies can have a regio ¬
the near future .
nal importance and could be adapted and utilized in the developing coun ¬
tries reducing their demand for oil products and hence contributing to a
relaxation of world tension regarding the demand for oil .

Even if some of them
These energies represent a very high potential .
have already reached a commercial maturity ( passive solar heating , geo ¬
thermal , wind energy , biomass and small
scale photovoltaics ) , further
improvement and extension of their area of application is essential .
Large scale solar photovoltaic must for that matter be considered on
long term from a cost reduction viewpoint .
R & D in this field must be
continued in order to improve the efficiency and to ensure a long life
time and low degree of maintenance of the installations .
In general
development of energy storage systems , improvement of knowledge regard ¬
ing the availability of resources , comprehension of energy needs which
can be met by renewable energies , examination of technological aspects
and of
components for regional application
and the assembling of information on the potential of renewable energies
remain subjects for further development .

production of small scale

The final objective of technologies of high potential , containing high
technical and economic development risks is to substitute gas and oil
sources , the reserves of which will unavoidably become exhausted . They
concern mainly ,
be dealt within
annexe 6 .

subject will

reactors .

fusion

This

Horizontal research concerns the four preceding fields of activity and
includes in particular basic technologies , reduction of the impact on
the environment , transport and storage of electricity and the develop ¬
ment of energy systems using hydrogen .

Research and development in systems analysis and modelling is fundamen ¬
tal and by its very nature horizontal .

The research orientations which have been discussed are of interest for
the future of energy in Europe , but also in the world . A good number of
them have already been embarked upon in the United-States and in Japan
and in particular those which concern the short and medium term energy
future . The European Community has , by consequence ,
a double motivation
to promote the research orientation already discussed and the next pluri -
annual energy R&D programme illustrates this preoccupation .

257

13 .

Conclusions for the future

The construction of a future for energy in Europe will be dominated by
two factors : technological innovations and the protection of the envi ¬
ronment .

The environmental dimension is steadily growing in importance due to the
conciousness of the population . It is inconceivable to continue an impor¬
tant nuclear programme if one is not convinced of the safety of its
installations . It is equally inconceivable to launch a large coal utili ¬
zation programme without consideration of the effect that acid rain and
greenhouse effects have on the ecosystem .

With respect to the energy problems on short and medium term it is abso¬
lutely necessary to continue research 1n energy saving because it is one
of the best ways to increase the security of supply and to diminish the
energetic impact on the environment and to ensure cleaner and more effi ¬
cient combustion of fuel , in particular that of coal .

In function of the medium term problems , the main problem to be solved
is the extension of liquid fuels available in Europe as well as the
development of liquid or gaseous fuels derived from coal , gas or biomass
in order to substitute oil . The efforts undertaken at the European level
and in particular by the Commission are proportionally superior to those
of the IAE , although signals from the US and Japan seem to indicate that
research in this field has become more intense .

The long term horizon for energy implies that a definite effort should
be undertaken in Europe in the field of nuclear reactors which should
lead to a substantial cost reduction of fast breeder reactors and a
design of intrinsically safe reactors and acceptable by the population .

The effort in the field of renewables should be maintained because in
the long run renewables could contribute significantly to energy supply
when prices and costs of other forms may have increased significantly
and when the environmental constraints may become more difficult to
overcome . The main emphasis of this research should be laid on to reduc¬
tion of exploitation costs .

Regarding fusion , there is still a very , very long way to go . When the
technical
technique
has
demonstration
should prove economically feasible .

accomplished ,

phase

been

the

One should not forget that energy R&D will not be carried out in isola¬
tion but in parallel with other research , with possible cross fertili ¬
sation , allowing the creation of new concepts by new combinations of
technologies . All technologies may indirectly have spin-off on energy
demand and contribute to new technologies for energy production .

For example , research on materials ( e.g. supraconductors ) can have a
significant effect on the transportation and storage of energy .
The
subject of radioprotection in the " life quality " programme of the EC may
provide impacts on the conception and acceptance of nuclear power by
public opinion .

258

H.

Thank to mankind 's inventivity
and technological innovation , solutions
to energetic problems should always be found , but they have come at the
right moment so that the change-over from oil to other forms of energy
may be smooth .

One should not , due to pressure of temporary events or action groups ,
abandon a research subject without an in-depth analysis of the advan ¬
tages and inconveniences of the techniques concerned . The Commission
must maintain and intensify its action considering the needs of energy
RD&D in collaboration with its Member States , even if the oil price were
at $10 per barril .

259

1A .

Thank to mankind 's inventivity
and technological innovation , solutions
to energetic problems should always be found , but they have come at the
right moment so that the change-over from oil to other forms of energy
may be smooth .

One should not , due to pressure of temporary events or action groups ,
abandon a research subject without an in-depth analysis of the advan¬
tages and inconveniences of the techniques concerned . The Commission
must maintain and intensify its action considering the needs of energy
RD&D in collaboration with its Member States , even if the oil price were
at $10 per barril .

260

CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION

ANNEX 6

t

the

from

energy

of
promise

a
of
which
also

diversity
show
acceptable

of energy has its own economic , health and environmental

'
development
-
sources
but
feasible

widely accessible
of being not only
economic ,
and proliferation points of view - is therefore

1 . Fusion as a potential energy source
Every source
costs , and risks .
The need for the
long-term
technologically
safety , environmental
being perceived more and more accurately .
Because controlled thermonuclear fusion has the
the energy
one of
been grappling with R&D on a
field . Fusion
generation ,
inherent safety ,
accessible fuels . As the
will
the
very
fusion reactor will be dominated by capital investment .
consumed
fuel
primary
the
electricity in a fusion plant is about 35
into tritium
240 tonnes of oil or 360 tonnes of hard coal in a

potential of becoming
for , industrialized countries have
in this
long-term potential to open a new way of power
environment , having
the
moderate
practically inexhaustible and readily
and utilizing
fusion reactors
of future
fuel consumption
electricity generating costs of a commercial
For instance ,
to generate 1 Million kWh of
lithium converted
grams of
deuterium , as compared to , for example
fossil-fired plant .

has the
a

sources sought

long-term

priority

grams of

making

amount

and 10

impact

basis

and

low

of

on

be

it

of

fusion

indicate

preliminary
source ;
an
of
is
by fusion

however , too early to make definite statements on fusion as an
It is .
of the
economically competitive energy
order of
that
cost
magnitude . A substantial contribution
world energy
supply cannot be expected before well into the next century . The long ¬
its
term
development , whatever can be the short-term fluctuations of oil price .
Fusion could bring an essential contribution
reduction of the
economic , ecological and political vulnerability of Europe in the next

acceptable
to the

vigorously

justifies

potential

continue

studies

to the

fusion

of

to

century .

2 . European Actions
In view of fusion’s potential advantages for Europe
duration
Community
national efforts

size and
implementation ,
R&D
their individual
countries
into a single European programme which would support

eventual
integrate

of
the
member

for
decided

required

and the

its

to

261

2

and

coordinate

the

activities

of

all the specialized laboratories

then ,

these

experts .

laboratories

fusion programme

for the
addition ,

have been
located in Member States . Since
by contracts of association which provide for
bound to
the Community
The Commission has
and financing .
Euratom participation in personnel
the programme and is assisted by a
full executive
responsibility for
( CCFP ), composed of
consultative committee
been
undertaking
joint
In
national
established for the JET project ; a JET Council
has the responsibility
for the management of this undertaking whose chief executive and legal
collective nature
representative is the director of the
remarkable spirit are
programme
of
the
testified to
Council of
decisions
by
Community fusion programme as "a long ¬
Ministers . These
out in the
term cooperative
It is
Member States

several
describe the
project embracing

project . The
and
its
of

field of controlled thermonuclear fusion .

work carried

Community 's

Community

all the

fusion

in the

has

the

a

a view

designed to lead in due course to the joint construction
reactors with
to their
Such a venture is sufficiently
with full
have joined
( Sweden , Switzerland ).
The main reasons for conducting research and development
of fusion on a Community basis are :

of prototype
industrial production and marketing ".
non-member
states to
European fusion effort

for
duties the

in the field

rights and

attractive

of

the

of the

effort

human and

hardly be

( extending

time-scale

into the next

financial resources required , which
carried out on

the scale
suggests that such a development could
national basis ;
the
long
century ) needed to arrive at the construction of the reactor ;
the existence of a collective need , common to all Member States ;
the realization of a European market
domains of h igh - technolog ies ;
in
success ,
market for the European reactor ;
to provide a potential partner of comparable size to the
world
collaboration in the field of fusion ;
the
position
Switzerland are fully associated .

whose leading
which Sweden and

3 other
international

opening-up of a wide Community

the
of
acknowledged

Programme
to
and

quality
is

industries in

for European

programmes ,

worldwide ,

fostering

European

thereby

Fusion

fusion

event

the

the

of

Fusion is therefore in line with
R&D programmes .

the criteria

pertinent to Community

262

3

3 . Objectives and content of the programme

the

and

this

stages :

toroidal

approach

interfere

into three

independent

The path towards fusion reactors for energy production can be divided ,
demonstration of scientific
albeit arbitrarily ,
technological feasibility , and eventually of economic
feasibility , of
feasibility . These steps are not
in many
Community fusion programme has been able to concentrate
respects . The
on the most promising line ,
confinement , and
magnetic
maintain the necessary breadth . Presently ,
within
to
and their
medium-size tokamaks
with JET ( Joint European
still primarily in the scientific stage .
foreign equivalents ,
in
The Next
is
which
should fully confirm the
conceived
scientific
the
first
a
technological feasibility in a second stage .
strategy
Within
reactor ), the main objectives for the
31 March 1992 ) recently adopted by the Council of Ministers are :

tokamaks , NET , DEMOnstration
January 1988 to

Torus
as
of

present
feasibility

European
at

now
device

programme ( 1st

( NET ),
a

Torus ), the

pre-design

we are

fusion

phase ,

other

stage

( JET

this

and

and

the

in

of

the

the

full

field

physics

the physics

NET ;
implies

and technology basis necessary for the
to establish
and plasma
in
detailed design of
exploitation of JET and of
this
engineering
several medium-sized
or in
construction , and in the field of technology the strengthening of
the current fusion technology programme ;
to embark on the
programme period
( but not before

end of the
necessary data base exists at that time
January 1st ,

detailed design
if the
the

specialized

before the

existence

revision

tokamaks

foreseen

of NET

next

for

in

(

of

the

reactor

explore

potential

alternative lines

adopted
NET ,
in
the Joint

1991 ) ;
some
to
( mainly Stellarator and Reversed Field Pinch ).
only
concerns
above-mentioned
physics
and
Programme
laboratories ).

The
and the
JET
General
plasma
and
engineering conducted
The fusion
activities of
Research Centre , which from a scientific and
technical point of view are fully integrated within the overall fusion
another Council decision . In
programme ,
resources
current money , the amount of
for the
available
JRC , Sweden and
( exclusive of
period (4
Switzerland ) is estimated at 735 MioECU , of which :

by
Community
mentioned above

programme
Technology ,
associated

are,' however ,

1 / 4 years )

governed

the

263

4

- ~ 406 MioECU are for

the general

Community

the
varying
priority character of these activities )
329 MioECU are for JET ( 80% financing by the Community ).

between

25%

programme ( rate
and

of financing by
100% according to the

of

735

amount

MioECU

corresponds

To such an
nearly
Communities ,
national administrations and other sectors at national level ,
the
overall
Switzerland ) for 4

of the
MioECU to be incurred by the
so that
of JRC , Sweden and

1 / 4 years will amount to about 1,800 MioECU .

expenditure

( exclusive

incurred

budget

fusion

1,100

the

for

by

4 . Present situation in Europe

Scientific and technical achievements place Europe in the forefront of
it
research ,
world-wide
been
as
magnetic
the International Atomic
organized by
acknowledged at the Conference
Energy Agency ( IAEA ) at Nice this year ( 12 to 19 October , 1988 ).

recently

fusion

has

of

its

the

the

fusion programme ,

basic performance

Community
achieved

is the
flagship
JET ,
initial objectives
world 's largest experiment . It
for the
time and in budget , and the
phase on
implementation of the extension to full performance is well under
step towards the demonstration of the
way .
It
scientific
the
halfway
fusion .
scheduled experimental programme , JET has not only reached plasma
( ion and electron ) temperatures
million degrees ( and ,
above 100
temperatures up to 150 million degrees , i.e. ten times
even , ion
achieved the
sun )
hotter than in the centre

feasibility

has made

a large

stage

also

but

the

of

of

At

of

the

same

time .

Nevertheless ,

density and the necessary confinement time for a
the highest
( density x temperature x confinement time at the
fourth of
to one
( total fusion power equal to
to have
the
second . The record
than one
more than twice
Amperes is

required plasma
reactor , but not at
" fusion product "
same time ) was obtained on JET and corresponds
the necessary
additional heating
achieved confinement
plasma heating current of
7 million
that of any other fusion experiment .
The European medium-size tokamaks contribute in a powerful way to
the progress of fusion and to the success of JET by experimenting
exploring new heating methods
with different

value for " breakeven"
is
times greater

configurations and

machine

power ).

only

JET

264

- 5 -

and by developing new diagnostics . As
" magnetic divertor "
has
( D )
confinement .

operation on
discovery

led

the

to

an example ,

. the so-called
tokamak at Garching
" H-mode "
favourable

the ASDEX
of

the

of

and

new

into

1988

- has

Other

should

devices

( Culham ,

operation .

seconds ) in

construction

also leading

Cadarache ( F )

commissioning

in research on Stellarators and Reversed

Europe is
Field Pinches ( alternative configurations to the tokamak ).
proceeds
The
according to schedule . The largest superconducting tokamak in the
world - TORE-SUPRA at
started operation in
reach its full performance ( 1.7 million
and
April
Amperes and plasma pulse of 30
two-year 's time . The
( modular ) advanced Stellarator WENDELSTEIN-VI I-AS at Garching ( D )
machines : ASDEX-UPCRADE
has just come
I ).
( Garching , D ), RFX and FTU ( Padova and Frascati respectively ,
COMPASS
the
in
TCV
construction phase .
( to
give an
European
industry
example , more than 98% in cost of JET
been placed
within Europe ) and has already been entrusted with some long-term
advanced development . Its involvement
a qualitative
and quantitative
is taken on the start of
the engineering design of NET .
NET
pre-design
the
is
specifications
been
coherent set of parameters
further

performance
The
selected , resulting in a
used for
being
technology
the

phase .
tentatively
which
for

devices
contracts has

presently
of

is
guidance

optimization

should make

a decision

( Lausanne ,

jump when

built

these

main

have

and

and

all

are

has

CH )

UK )

in

programme .
of
The orderly implementation
important achievement
of the
work is oriented towards NET ,
activities .

Efforts

are

the

programme

technology

is an
recent years . The main part of the
longer term
but
of
fields
concentrated

also
the

there

are

in

superconducting
tritium ,
materials , safety and environment .

magnets ,

blanket ,

remote

handling ,

Outside magnetic
the field of laser-fusion , and
review .

fusion , a

" keep in touch” activity is maintained in
kept under

muon-catalysed

fusion

is

The Community
JET Joint Undertaking 0978 ) and of the NET-team ( 1983 ), has

approach , which has made possible the setting up of the
led also

265

6

to the implementation of an intensive collaboration between the fusion
laboratories . Most of the Associations do work for another Association

to

able

a common

Community

Programme

of them
and

work for
agreements .
a true
laboratories ,

and all
contracts
efficiently built
and
small
directed towards
ensure the true Community character
mobility
professionals ( out of a total of about 1,200
via " mobility
work outside
contracts ", to
periods up to 1 year . JET represents an
since
national organizations ,
their staff after termination of secondment to JET .

JET and for NET through different types of
has
Fusion
The
scientific and technical community of large
readily
and
welcome
goal . Among the many dispositions taken to
Programme , staff
Fusion
than 200
more
professionals ) are sent ,
their home laboratory for
in this domain ,
by personnel from the
to re-integrate

extreme case
is
committed

run
themselves

of
mention

mission-oriented

newcomers ,

deserves

project

special

the
:

which

year

each

this

a

5 . International collaboration

This leading
an
appealing
bilateral
multinational
international
specific points ,

frames

position of
partner

for
( Canada ,
organisations
collaboration

Japan ,

international

the Community fusion programme makes Europe
in
within
past
in
the object of agreements on
more substantial

collaboration
States )

( OECD ,
was
at

present

United

mostly

IAEA ).

wider

While

both

and

and

the

it

takes

aspects :

Bilateral

Framework

Agreements .

The situation is the following

with :

Canada : Memorandum of Understanding signed in March 1986 .
USA : Agreement of Cooperation signed in December 1986
Japan : the text
technical level
approving the
1988 , so that the signature is expected for the end of 1988 .

Agreement has
procedure aiming

upon at the
at a Council decision
started in September

of the
and the

Conclusion of

the Agreement

been agreed

Implementing Agreements in the framework of the IEA ( OECD )

*

o
o

Tokamaks :

TEXTOR ( signed in 1977 ):
ASDEX and ASDEX-UPGRADE ( signed in 1985 ): 10 years duration

15 years duration

Z6 6

7

LARGE TOKAMAKS

THE THREE
1986 ):
Alternative lines :

5 years duration

( JET , TFTR

and JF-60 ), signed in

to be

and possibly

5 years duration

STELLARATORS ( signed in 1985 ):
REVERSED FIELD PINCHES : in preparation
concluded at beginning 1989
Technology :
LARGE
:
COIL
concluded and final report in preparation
FUSION MATERIALS
duration of Annex II of 10 years . Annex III in preparation
SAFETY AND
and possibly to be concluded at beginning of 1989 .

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF FUSION : in preparation

Annex I discontinued ,

experiment

( signed in

( signed

joint

1981 )

1977 )

TASK

in

:

o

#

o
o

*
o

o

o

Quadripartite

cooperation

on

an

International

Thermonuclear

Experimental Reactor ( ITER ) under IAEA auspices

of

by

at a

Agreement

in February

participation

Union of
America , has

Soviet Socialist
been signed

The
the European Atomic Energy
Community in the ITER Conceptual Design Activities , together with
Republics , and the United
Japan , the
States of
1988 . The four
programmes of the world ( EC , Japan , USA , USSR ) have
large fusion
decided to coordinate their efforts aiming
specific goal :
1990 through a collaborative effort of four parties
producing by
contributions a conceptual
having equal status and
design
research
ITER ,
made possible because
activities . Such a collaboration
have
the
these
strategies
activity ,
reactor .
demonstration
will
international solution
continue
a
until
as
Step , forms
offering convincing guarantees is found for the Next
collaboration . Indeed , not only the
this
the
focal
design
work
joint
technical
activities has been chosen to be the same as the site of the NET -

programmes
fusion
planned

similar
The
NET
possible

coordinating
has been

towards
which

point
site

making equal

conceptual

supportive

four

ITER

and

for

for

on

of

an

team ( Garching , D ) ,
preliminarily at
similar to those of NET .

but
the end

the

also
of the

reference

definition phase

parameters chosen
for ITER are

world-wide

this

The importance of
explicitly
ITER
was
and
Washington
General Secretary Gorbachev .

Moscow

mentioned
summits

in
between

is

collaboration

such that
the joint Statements of the
and
p

President

Reagan

•

8

a

of

the

the

the approval by the Council of-the conclusion
Finally , following
Understanding between
of
Memorandum
Commission
by
EURATOM and the Government of Canada on the involvement of Canada
Design
to
EURATOM
in
contribution
Memorandum was signed on October 3rd . 1988 . The
Activities , this
quadripartite collaboration on
that any
ITER by any other country should be implemented
collaboration to
through one of the four partners .

Conceptual

statutory

ITER

ITER

the

so

is

6 . Situation in the world

large

other

the EC

programmes

exists , besides

As already mentioned there
three
demonstration of scientific , technological
with some
phases .
also
confinement .

fusion programme ,
having similar strategies : sequential
and commercial feasibility
the necessary overlapping between the three
each programme is
magnetic

As far as staff and funding are concerned ,

differences on

comparable

programme

field

the

the

EC

of

to

in

the

approach ,
( the US

tokamak
line is
equivalent of JET ), and

confinement approach
of overall expenditure ) and the inertial confinement

US programme : It follows both the magnetic
( two thirds
approach ( one third ) .
Within the magnetic confinement
intensively followed
with TFTR
D III D mainly .
the US
have
Scientific progress and limitation in
narrow its previously very broad
magnetices fusion
supporting its research
spectrum of
has sharply
work
on
A
decreased
Compact Ignition Tokamak ( CIT )
is in the design phase : this high
field tokamak should allow to study experimentally the physics of
a burning plasma .
inertial
The
US
world :
its
particular

the largest in the
in
many links with military programmes

development
its
of

is
difficult

programme
is

toroidal
on

future
because

configurations .

configurations

activities . It

programme to

alternative

is actively

confinement

magnetic

predict ,

efforts

funding

mirror

but

led

its

to

( SDI ) .

268

9

in

the

JT-60

under

initiative

particular

Japanese programme
Although Japan is a late-comer , fusion research has received high
priority in Japan
of the
Energy Commission . The Japanese effort is now at
Japanese Atomic
a level comparable to the one of the EC and of the US .
the large
The magnetic confinement effort is well illustrated by
of 2 MA could non -
a
which
tokamak
order to
inductively be driven . JT
60
improve
The stellarator line ( Heliotron-E is
the largest stellarator in the world ) and other alternative lines
are also investigated .
A comprehensive inertial confinement programme of high quality is
It is
Institute of
underway in a specialized
totally unclassified .

current
modifications

Osaka University .

plasma
needs

performances .

its

in

in

is

of

well

characterized

Soviet programme
The Soviet Programme has produced brilliant results ( Tokamak is a
a large
it
Soviet concept !); at present
modest
number
physicists ,
trained
technological realizations ( no device of the size of
JET ), and a
wide spectrum of activities . Here also , the tokamak line receives
magnetic field
the largest attention . A new
( TSP )
it is
of
operation
into
tokamak T 15 ,
designed for tritium operation .
similar
is
the
to
nearing completion .

by
relatively

with
beginning

A superconducting

tokamak
the
at

in operation ,

TORE-SUPRA

European

already

1988 ;

high

came

7 . Near-term issues of fusion

the

occupy

forefront

most impressive

magnetic fusion
of
Tokamaks will continue to
results so far in fusion research have
research . The
( ion temperature
been obtained in these devices : the " fusion product "
density times confinement time ), which is the best figure of
times ion
almost four orders
merit on the way to the reactor , has
years and is now only a factor 4 away
of magnitude during the past 20
of magnitude from
more than
from breakeven ,
ignition , which is our longed for milestone marking the achievement of
the proof of the scientific feasibility
The principal key
gross machine parameters
to such

and slightly

increased by

progress has

increase in

of fusion .

one order

been the

and the relative simplicity of the tokamak concept . The last untouched 269

10

a

in

so

by

own

the

far ,

many

their

large

depend

measure

problem

( tritium )

conceptual

lithium and

technological

heating ,
years from

alpha-particle
about 3

become
should
now , when TFTR ,

revealed
the world
have
also
safety
and
will
but

associated with Deuterium-Tritium fusion
in a
fuel
breed
surrounding the reacting plasma , have
reactors designs
over more than a decade .
fusion community
that
evidenced
potential
the
achieving
of fusion will not materialize
advantages
designs
to this end , in which the use of low-activation
also how
and

physics
accessible to experimentation in
JET and TSP will enter their phase of tritium operation .
problems
The
reactors , which will have to
blanket containing
been
gradually
produced within
These
studies
environmental
automatically
specifically tailored
materials could play an
economic
engineering performances which are not yet assured .
Although some mysteries still remain , the conclusion of the scientific
phase of
sight , and it is therefore timely to plan
for the Next Step device on the road towards a prototype reactor .
Next Step machines are at present in the pre-design phase
both within
the
large
European
Community )
ITER , whose
definition phase
is conceived as a tokamak
device which , to quote from its Terms of Reference ,
provide the
data
necessary for the design and
is estimated
construction of a demonstration fusion power
that three decades of R&D will be required before such a demonstration
reactor can become operational .

programmes
the
has just

quadripartite
come to

have
attaining

important
will

competitiveness

role .
depend

fusion
in
or

in
ITER .

technology

plant ". It

They
on

fusion is

example ,

NET
:

physics

venture

an end ,

now in

plasma

shown

"will

base

( for

and

the

on

in

the need

not only

With the Next Step , there exists
to develop , test
and demonstrate technologies applicable to future fusion reactors , but
will be
also to define safety
only during the construction and exploitation of the Next Step that we
certainty the
will reach a sufficient basis
overall potential of, fusion as an energy source .

these reactors .

standards for

evaluate

And it

with

some

to

As in the case of any major decision on high technology , a decision to
embark on the detailed
have a strong
political
shall be substantiated on three
different grounds :

design of
This

Step , will

component .

decision

the Next

270

11

A

sound

scientific

and

technical

basis

is

needed : work in

progress on both the scientific and the technological sides makes
us reasonably confident about this point .

as

should

present

economic

possible ,

convincing

Community
far

safety ,
The
scientific
environmental and , as
arguments in
favour of fusion . So already now , long before the characteristics
it is essential ,
of a practical reactor are known in some detail ,
even
and
systematic
a
to
challenging ,
continuous assessment of fusion 's potential to achieve attractive
economic
combinations
used to
characteristics . International collaboration

and
should

environmental ,

undertake

safety

very

of

if

be

extent

maximum

make
to
its
helpful .
could be particularly
taken in this direction in the framework of the IEA .

progress in these fields where it
are being

Indeed ,

steps

first

plans

should

be
full

the major fusion
on
developed
Concrete
of
wide international
advantage
programmes could take
lead to a single device or
which could
cooperation , cooperation
Step
Indeed
activities .
of
to
planning
joint
more and more a necessity
will become
international cooperation
if we want to make the most efficient use of the resources of the

how
a

Next

the

world fusion community . These include , as a particularly precious
element , a highly qualified staff ,
be a
dedication
success of the Next Step , but whose
necessary condition
full utilization requires that the
undertaken as
soon as technically feasible .

for the

whose

will

Step

Next

be

be

that

even

should

present

stressed

cooperation ,

working
provide , at

It
extrapolated to an unprecedented
"domestic” programmes .
The four
are
at
Activities to
be available for all Parties to
programme or
Some of the ITER Parties have also national
the same
design of
difficult to make any prediction on
Step(s ) will

if
International
substitute for strong
level , cannot
large fusion programmes of the world
in
Design
of 1990 , a design which will then
own national
their
either
as part of a larger international cooperative programme .
embark at about
plans to
a similar Next Step . It is
the Next
in which
eventually be built , but all options should be kept open

together
the end

the framework

the detailed

Conceptual

time on

ITER

use ,

the

in

12

in order
the Next Step(s ) early in the nineties .

to lay the ground for a decision to start the realization of

8 . Financial Implications for Europe

its

R&D

remain

foreseen

important

Community

excellent

programmes

important
and
the

its
interest
of
one

objectives ,
record , its
its absolute Community character , fusion
of the
most

By virtue of
technological
should
Community .
the recently adopted fusion
funding
The
( including JRC fusion
programme amounts to about 200 MioECU
to an overall yearly expenditure for Fusion
activities ) corresponding
in the
in Europe of about 450 Mio Ecu .
European fusion laboratories will have the tendency to decrease in the
long term , the technology will increase so that one could
foresee the
a roughly constant level of funding for research outside ( but
need of
supporting of ) the Next Step proper .

physics activities

While the

per year

within

at

300

i.e.

will

about

design

estimates for

some 3,000
figure ,

the construction
MioECU . The detailed design
MioECU . Such
least three years so that almost 100
proper during the

The present and very preliminary cost
of the
Next Step
amounts to
would cost about 10% of
this
last
detailed
MioECU per year will be necessary for the Next Step
design phase , to be initiated possibly in 1991 / 92 .
would
subsequent
In
progressively
( with gradual
expansion ) in the use of the human , technical and financial resources .
construction of the Next Step is concerned , this phase
As far
could start around
The necessary
1995
increase of Community funding will depend on :

out ,
continuity

JET
momentum

years ,
up

insuring

phased

as the

years .

would

about

take

last

NET

and

six

and

be

Next Step

whether such
or at world level ( ITER ). The
four parties
in spite of all difficulties , a
factor 3 .

instead of

construction of

will be built on a Community basis ( NET )
Step by
one alone would represent for each one ,
about a
in

reduction

the Next

cost

of

which framework
will be
Undertaking , as for JET ,
other scheme ?).

established at Community level (a Joint
or some
with
- ,

Community

funding ,

80%

13

be

( to

strategy
the
Within
for the assessment of
revision
programme foreseen on
appropriate
taking into
activities ( due to be completed at the end of 1990 ).

the Community fusion programme , a milestone
be the next
implications will
of
the
evaluation )
would be
it
that
detailed design of NET ,
Conceptual designed

of
these financial
by
January
to
when
results

independent
At
the

preceded
1

1991 .
start
of

to
account

decide

time

ITER

the

the

an

273

ANNEX 7

ENVIRONMENT

A.

INTRODUCTION

*

and

awareness

communications

1 .
The environment , Its protection , and the quality of life
for Man , are subjects of high public '‘and policy Interest . Pressures
for Improved environment protection , continue unabated . They are
fueled by Incidents such as the pollution of the Rhine , the ozone
hole , algal bloom In the North Sea and the death of seals ; by
Improved
and by
recreation and
greater public
leisure activities .
The Community 's policies inevitably reflect
these pressures . Environment protection is a Community issue In Its
own right . It is also Included , under the European Single Act , as
an Important element In other Community and wider policies for
industry , agriculture , fisheries and aid to developing countries .
Such policies must increasingly seek to predict and prevent natural
and man-made problems of the environment . We cannot continue to be
reactive to the problems of the day ; we must probe the future .

relentless press
reinforced by growing

coverage ;

*

Thus , environmental research , Is directly linked to a well
It has to respond to specific problems
imposes

2 .
defined Community policy .
derived
certain prerequisites in the content of the programme .

from the Environmental Action Programme ;

this

The term " environmental research" in this context does not

Include problems linked to nuclear energy and radioactive
pollution ( cf . annex 9 ).

274

2

3 .
Unlike
other
advancing
in order to increase Europe 's competitivity world
technologies
wide , environmental research has to identify the constraints to

programmes

which

aimed

are

at

technological developments , imposed by the need to maintain or even

Improve the quality of life in Europe and to protect our resources .
It should help to overcome the conflict of interest between economy

and ecology . The benefits from environmental research can therefore

not be measured in direct economic terms .

4 .
Under the pressure of environmental legislation , technologies
for the abatement of environmental pollution , without any doubt ,
considerable
have

substantial market .

conquered

This

of

is

a

economic significance . The basis of such technologies is , however ,
not
the
in
from
a problem of
promotion
production

substantially
cycle .

which
very much

different
Their

that
is

applies

adaptation and demonstration and to a lesser extent of fundamental

research .

In

certain

areas ,

however ,

in

particular

in

the

development of new , low-emission production technologies , Community

environmental

research

has

an

Important

role .

Through

the

definition of

norms

and

standards

the

Community will have

a

considerable Impact on Industry , and an association of industry to

research activities in this field seems advisable .

5 .

Many environmental problems have a global dimension , such as

global change or stratospheric ozone depletion .
In such areas ,
European research cannot be separated from the world-wide effort
which expresses itself in programmes such as IGBP ( International
the
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) .

In these areas the role of

Community programme is to assist in providing coordinated European
input to the global efforts , thus strengthening the position of

Europe in a world-wide context .

B.

RESEARCH TRENDS AND NEEDS

6 .

The complexity of environmental problems makes a breakdown to

specific research areas very difficult ; the traditional separation
has been abandoned in
of problems by media ( air , water ,
favour of a holistic view . To a certain extent , research problems

soil )

may , however , be categorized under three Interdependent sets :

275

- 3 -

-
-
-

understanding the basic phenomena
detection and interpretation of environmental changes
prevention of the degradation of the environment .

The most Important environmental issues are addressed in the
following , with an indication , as far as possible , of the research
requirements identified .

7 .
dependent upon climate
Climate controls
and
agriculture
transport

Climate and Climate Change - the Greenhouse Effect . We are
survival .
supplies ,
and
cope with

and
the basic
forestry ,

its variability
parameters

our
our water

Societies have

Infrastructure .

requirements ,

and water

evolved

energy

for

of

to

their characteristic climates and associated extremes . But climate

is variable not only in terms of longer term oscillations
( eg
glaciations). Individual events and long term trends can have major
Impacts upon the environment and on socio-economic structures .

8 .
There is a scientific consensus that a significant climate
change will occur during the next century as a result of human
activities . Greenhouse gases such as CO^ and their climatic effects
may be the biggest single issue or threat facing man and
the
As with all climate
environment as we enter the 21st Century .
issues , we will need to understand the processes involved and to
develop the means to predict change and its consequences . This
ocean
Includes
circulation and air/ sea fluxes , and effects of CO^, warming upon
the melting of the ice caps together with the consequences for
Europe and for developing countries .

cloud-radiation

investigation

interactions ,

of

It is important to note that there is no complete explanation
9 .
of natural and man-made fluctuations in climate , and that there are

no reliable methods for their prediction especially at regional and

local levels . Also , some interactions between

276

- 4 -

climate change and environmental pollution are obvious , but others
are more subtle . There are , for example , strong suspicions of the

interactions between atmospheric pollutants , climate extremes and

climate change in the phenomena of forest decline .

10 .

Sea-Level

Rise

could

be

one

of

the

most

striking

level

consequences of climate change . Over the past 100 years , global
mean sea
the
greenhouse effect could lead to a sea-level rise of 50-100 cm by
Basin ,
the year 2025 .
Atlantic Seaboard and Mediterranean would be vulnerable to such a

the North Sea

Future warming

The coastal

lowlands

risen

10-15

from

has

cm .

of

These include many of our most

rise .
fertile agricultural and
densely populated areas as well as deltas , estuaries , sand dunes
and wetlands of recreation , amenity and conservation Interest . This
applies equally to developing countries and especially to those
already under threat by frequent and extreme climatic events . They

would all be subject to erosion , inundation , salination and storm
surges which would overcome sea defences designed to meet lower

mean and extreme sea levels .

1 1 .

Climatic

Change

Impacts

on

Land ,

Water

and

Other

Resources . This is a much more complex area because of the possible
regional
climate
variations and changes affect our basic resources ? What are the

variations

climate

change .

how

can

But

in

means of predicting climate extremes such as droughts ,

floods ,

severe frosts , snow storms ,

tides and wave surges ?

It

is these

events that cause such heavy tolls of life and property .

How can we forespell the Impact of changes in temperature

and rainfall and variations in extreme events upon agriculture ,

forestry
measures can be envisaged ?

and water

resources ,

and

which

remedial

or

adaptive

277

5

12 .
action

Natural Hazards . Many natural hazards aggravated by the
thus
Issues

described

above

with

link

man ,

the

of

underlining the horizontal and vertical dimensions of environmental

and climatological research . The interactions between these sectors
are critical in terms of mutually reinforcing protection policies .

Processes

flash
in
flooding and wildfires have to be better understood to protect man ,
livestock , crops and forests from local catastrophies .

salinisation ,

involved

erosion ,

13 .
Seismic Hazards are also of concern especially in those
areas in tectonicly active areas . No European country is entirely
free of risk . Man- induced hazards are also of concern in the older

industrialised countries with abandoned deep mine workings .
Our
aims are to understand and measure strong motion phenomena , and to
and
develop

information ,

monitoring ,

seismic

hazard

data

and

warning systems .

14 .
Stratospheric Ozone . The appearance of holes above the
polar regions alerted us to the depletion of the Earth 's protective
and other chemicals .
ozone layer by chlorof luorocarbons
Whilst initial actions have been taken to control CFC emissions ,

( CFC 's )

are

there
that
posing
serious global threats to man and the environment from increased UV

depletion continues ,

indications

strong

irradiation .

At
could

the
have

same

time ,
feedbacks

ozone

depletion and / or redistribution of
of
The

possibility

climate .

on

reinforcement of climate changes induced by the greenhouse effect

cannot be ignored , over and above any possible effects of increased
UV irradiation . Causes , processes and rates of change involved , and
their possible consequences need to be better understood .

278

- 6 -

15 .
Air Pollution , and Its Effects on Terrestrial and Aquatic
Ecosystems . Increasing emphasis Is being placed upon problems of
photooxldant pollution ; and on more complex issues such as
the
interactive effects of mixtures of pollutant and other stresses
upon trees and forests In relation to forest decline , of pollution
and of defining pollution
systems ,
and

land use upon aquatic

climates

Including

the

actual

fluxes

and

critical

loads

to

sensitive parts of ecosystems .

16 .

Assessment of Chemicals . There is a lack of standard

of

developments
cellular

procedures which reduce the use of vertebrate animals , and take
the
in
mutagenicity ,
advantage
carcinogenicity ,
and
activity
toxicity ,
structural activity relationships of new and existing chemicals .
Procedures for assessing both abiotic degradation , and the pathways
and ecological effects of chemicals , must also be developed .

assessment

metabolic

of

Environment and Human Health . A target orientated and
17 .
preventive approach to the protection of the groups most at risk
throughout the Community includes , inter alia , the development of
population monitoring methods and systems to identify such groups ,
and to detect and measure preclinlcal effects ( eg nephrotoxicity ,
neurotoxicity , biological markers ). These can be applied to studies
of both indoor air quality and general environmental quality , and

their effects on man . The most challenging and urgent priority ,
developing
however ,

the notorious problems of

overcome

to

is

Community-wide
co-operation with WHO and other international agencies .

epidemiological

approaches

to

surveillance

in

18 .

Toxic Waste Disposal .

Intractable wastes

continue

to

create problems of disposal . Often , advances come by changes in
manufacturing
reduce
in
of
major
established
environmental standards . Yet they sometimes create new problems .
Modest advances will continue to be made but spectacular progress

processes
-

products
the
in

new
force

improvement

problems

which

and

a

279

7

is unlikely without the development of new , clean technologies . The
potential
computer
in
assisted optimisation processes , although current evidence suggests
the latter need to be tailored to specific disposal processes and

exceptions may

applications

the

lie

of

wastes .

19 .
Soils and Groundwaters . There is profound concern in
Europe about the state of our soils , their conservation and their
optimal management as a sustainable resource . Initiatives in the
Community must be based on sound scientific guidelines . We need to
understand the reactions of soils to management practices which
accelerate
excessive
desertification ,
fertilisation ; to waste disposal ; and to many forms of pollution
( eg acidification) ,
together with their mediating effects upon
surface and groundwater quality . The significance of soil-derived
particulates
and
in river ,
marine pollution , is becoming increasingly apparent .

associated

chemicals

estuarine

erosion ,

etc .;

and

to

and

potentially

20 .
Freshwater Quality . The primary need is to develop the
techniques and methodologies to sample rapidly , a wide range of
the
complex
organo-metalllc and non-volatile groups . These include pesticides ,
in
and
such
understanding
chemicals . Increasing attention must be paid to the riverine Inputs
of these chemicals to , and their behaviour and Impacts in estuarine

products .
transformations ,

breakdown
the

Progress
fates

also
effects

needed
of

chemicals ,

hazardous

notably

is
and

their

in

and Inshore marine systems .

events

Quality of
the

the Marine Environment .
main

21 .
As examplified by
and
recent
eutrophication
contamination of the rather closed regional seas surrounding the
European
the
Mediterranean . An understanding is needed of the sources , fates and

continent ,

Baltic

North

issue

Sea ,

the

and

the

the

is

stresses of contaminants from rivers and other sources , of nutrient

dynamics and of algal blooms .

280

8

22 .
Conservation of Species and Habitats . European ecosystems
support a wide range of habitats and associated species , albeit
often man-made in the past . Few are truly natural but they are the
remnants of semi-natural ecosystems - the refuges and staging posts
of endangered flora and fauna , and the last islands of natural
genetic diversity . Research must aim to define the critical loads
which such systems can support , and to develop methods for their
sustained management and restoration .

Basic Research on Processes and Ecosystems . Progress on
23 .
applied issues
is frequently dependent upon advances in basic
knowledge . For example , understanding the processes Involved in
forest decline requires us to work on the basic physiology of trees
to determine how they react to various stresses . Findings at the
sub-cellular , cellular and whole organism level must be Interpreted

in terms of Impacts upon populations and ecosystems . This , in turn ,
requires us to understand the behaviour and population dynamics of
species , predator : prey relations , and the structure and functioning
of
Important
underpinning to applied research on forest decline , acidification ,
and the impacts of climate change .

ecosystems .

ecosystem

research

forest

Thus ,

is

Europe 's

cultural heritage

Cultural Heritage .

24 .
our
legacy from the past , and our testament to the future . The academic
and social values of this heritage are enormous , and they often
play a crucial role in the economies of member countries . We must ,
therefore , provide the scientific basis of protecting a vast range
of Irreplaceable objects made with different materials and exposed
to a wide range of climatic and environmental stresses .

is

25 .

Major

technological hazards .

To

a

large

extent ,

man

Interacts with his environment . Natural hazards such as erosion ,
often exacerbated by man 's
landslides
activities . However , one has only to mention Seveso , Chernobyl ,

seismic

shocks

and

are

281

9

installations

Flixborough or Bhopal ,

to realise that major
Frenchman 's Flat ,
technological
hazards .
imply
Statistically , most dangers to the public and the environment arise
transport of bulk flammable
and
from the manufacture ,
and /or
early
toxic
and
dispersion of
and risk analysis
taking into account the human factor require further research .

chemicals .
chemical releases ,

the
combustion ,

Therefore ,

phenology

potential

storage

major

of

However ,

production are bringing
they

26 .
Biotechnology and the " Sunrise" Industries . Traditional
heavy industries continue to loose importance . The effects of new
technologies upon the environment are by and large , beneficial .
economic
New technologies
the
for
benefits .
greatest
environment .
public
deliberately or
concern
in
genetic
accidentally
material are scarcely understood . The need for adequate safeguards
based on science , 16 paramount . Other new technologies also pose
uncertain
of
threats
toxic and complex
environmental impact and the
effluents , albeit in small qualities .

raise
has
The
engineered

Biotechnology
context .

attracted
consequences

enormous
questions

production of

important

the
of

chemicals

releasing

organisms

complex

their

this

even

use

by

or

of

C.

ACTIONS IN EUROPE

27 .

The Community and its member countries rightly target

in

and

upon

Impact

societies

environments ,

their resources upon the environmental Issues which concern their
citizens
and
their
économies . These Issues may be of local concern or régional or
much
global
commonality
and
technologies for their investigation and amelioration . Europe is
thus not
the global
community in terms of environmental problems , their study and their
resolution . Appropriate co-operation between the Community and

is
there
methodologies

even with
natures ,

is an Integral part of

an island but it

concern
the

scale .
in

But
their

local
in

and

282

10

non-member European states ( eg EFTA) , Economic Summit countries ,
and
developing
both
non-Governmental

range
of
organisations ,

the
and
International

Governmental

countries

full

thus

is

inevitable and essential . A similar co-operation can be envisaged

in the future with East European countries .

Community research has to take ,

28 .
fully into
account what is done by Industry , national research programmes , and
within other transnational frameworks , in order to ensure optimum

of course ,

benefits from its resources .

in
29 .
environmental matters , but makes now , under the pressure of tougher

defensive

Industry

recently

rather

until

was

closely

research

legislation and public opinion , considerable efforts , also in R&D .
in
Industrial
to
is
production processes ;
the economic pressure to reduce energy and
raw material consumption and to avoid unnecessary wastes leads to
new production processes which normally imply benefits for the
environment . Environment-related R&D in industry can therefore not

advancement

linked

the

be considered on its own right ; substantial resources , however , are

allocated to the Improvement of down-stream abatement processes .

30 .

All Member States have more or

less

substantial R&D

programmes on the environment , which in part are , of course , aimed
at problems of regional character and to monitoring environmental
quality .
national
programmes of a very basic nature which should be progressively
Integrated into a European context .
(" concerted
actions") have been developed in the past for this purpose and they

Flexible means

components of

There are ,

important

however ,

turned out to be efficient .

31 .
Except for some EUREKA projects and a few cooperative
projects implemented in particular by ESF , no major cooperative
the
mechanisms of
full
environmental
Integration of the relevant sections of the Community programme .

exist .
Implemented

European
field

All COST projects

through

scale

under

are

and

in

283

11

Environment research has been part of the Community research
through
the

32 .
programmes
contract research and coordination within the COST framework .

programme

within

since

1972 ,

JRC

and

In the context of the framework programme , a major review of
33 .
the aims and the means of Implementation took place , leading to a
review of the JRC activities as well as to a proposal for two
programmes through contract research :

( Science and Technology for Environmental Protection)

- STEP
- EPOCH ( European Programme on Climatology and Natural Hazards )

submitted to the Council in November 1988 . These are complemented
by a new programme on Marine Science and Technology (MAST ) .

important

34 .
The new Community programmes STEP , EPOCH and MAST treat most
to be
of
the
pursued with vigor . While it is important generally to develop the
means for flexible and responsive actions to emerging issues , the
following research requirements were given particular emphasis in

issues mentioned

environmental

above ,

these programmes .

The

( GER) .

Global

Environmental

35 .
Research
coincidental
developments mentioned earlier which are resulting in rethinking of
our approaches to global environmental issues get due attention .
The NSF Earth Systems Science Report is breathtaking in scope . The
Community' 8
same
direction .
contain
important elements of GER which must be welded into a co-ordinated
and multidisciplinary European efforts , an effort that encompass
aid and
elements of other Community programmes in agriculture ,
industry .
Europe
should play a major role in the 1GBP .

But certain elements have immediate priority .

sensing
and

study
STEP ,

of
EPOCH ,

Programme

pointed

remote

MAST

R&D

the

JRC

the

in

284

12

( i )

Climate and climate change and its consequences are now seen

as probably the biggest challenge to mankind over the next
few decades . The European Inputs to international research

on Global Climate Models and the development of scenarios
appropriate to Europe and its regions , and to developing
countries ; and on priority problems such as sea-level rise

throw

undoubtedly

will
requiring
Community research action . Additional European Inputs will
be necessary to investigate climate change Implications for
to developing
European

and world

trading ,

specific

issues

aid

and

for

up

countries .

( ii )

ozone

Stratospheric
The
European move to co-ordinate EC / EFTA research should be
treated by a special task force .

depletion and

consequences .

its

( iii )

Wider Implications . The rapid evolution of GER is going to

It

will

of earth resources ,
significant
require

require co-ordinated European initiatives in remote sensing
(with ESA and others )
processes and
from
phenomena .
biologists working on blogeochemlcal processes such as the
carbon cycle , at global level . The task is massive but must
not be shirked . We must also consider responsive policies
and actions to climate change in terms of energy production
groundwater
fences ,
sea
options ,
protection ( eg against saline intrusion), etc .

improved

inputs

flood

and

These developments at global level impinge upon many other
36 .
for
European
example ,
The
proposed Conmunlty Initiative in Biology has a critical role to
play in respect of blogeochemlcal processes .

technologies ,
options .

work
in deciding

programmes .
could

on
future

Current

energy

assist

clean

285

13

37 .

Regional and local environmental issues . These issues which

concern the regional or local environment and human health are not
less important than research dealing with the global environment .
growing concern and require more
following
The
Community action .

issues

are

of

( i)

reversible

Development of highly sensitive and rapid
Human health .
methods for identifying and estimating internal dose and
of
of
early
environmental
in
in groups
suitable
epidemiological
environmental
interconnection

to
risk ;
through
with

surveillance
health

range
a
progress

stressors

statistics

exposure

effects

at

of

data .

( ii)

Air Pollution and its effects . Research on such Issues as

forest decline , early specific indicators for forest decline ,
air / land use /water quality interactions ,
tree physiology ,
European
to
and

Improvements

conserve

means

the

in

monuments .

( iii )

political concern about
Public and
Soils and Groundwaters .
the state of our soils and groundwater is growing throughout
Europe .
to the study of problems of
contamination and , in Mediterranean countries , to those of

Priority must be given

erosion and desertification . More emphasis should be given

to the off site consequences of contamination and erosion
for the quality of surface and groundwaters .

( iv )

Marine research . Ways must be found of further co-ordinating
European actions and facilities in this field in flexible
but
with
programmes ,
competent international bodies .

co-operation

effective

cost

in

The Community has important roles to play in co-ordinating
research which contributes to the North Sea Task Force and

to similar activities in the Mediterranean .

286

14

( v )

Ecosystems

Research .

The

need

for

baseline

ecological

monitoring and research was stressed earlier . The need to

understand the structure and functioning of

terrestrial ,

aquatic

and

marine

ecosystems

and

their

constituent

organisms

Is

assuming

Increasing

Importance

In

so

many

contexts - agriculture and environment , marine pollution -
to name a few . There Is a particular need to study and
understand relict and threatened European ecosystems such as

wetlands ,
saltmarshes and lagoons and upland bogs .

montalne

systems ,

clean

deep

lakes ,

coastal

INFRASTRUCTURE AND FACILITY REQUIREMENTS

38 .
The above environmental Issues raise the basic question of
whether or not Europe has the infrastructure and facilities to
achieve Its ambitions in research at regional and global levels . In
many cases we have
research
vessels ) but they are deployed on a range of issues from local to
global , and may be restricted In capacity or funding , or by age and
design . A fundamental part of our research programmes must be to

facilities

national

level

( eg

at

review Infrastructure and facilities to improve their co-ordination

and cost effective deployment ,
and to plan for future needs in
support of likely research priorities . The following are important

items for consideration and assessment in Europe .

( 1 )

Research Vehicles .
compatibility and the development of research vessels must be
planned at European level . The case for a European ocean

longer

design

term ,

and

the

the

In

drilling vessel to operate in support of , or In succession
is already being examined . Work on
to the US ODP ship ,

manned and autonomous submersibles for use in research must

be prosecuted . Also , aircraft for stratospheric research ;
Europe must develop a co-operative facility . Industry has an
Important role to play in these areas .

287

15

( ii)

seismic hazards ,

Information services

ecological reference monitoring ).

Data Networks and Bases . Global research will require much
more European effort devoted to developing scientific data
and
pollution
( eg
European policies
data ,
for these need to be developed , along with policies for
research computing , not least for supercomputers capable of
and
storing
modelling environmental processes on a global scale . The
experiences
and
oceanographers ,
climatologists in Europe , will be vital here .

meteorologists

quantities

analysing

massive

data ,

and

the

of

of

E.

SUMMARY

39 .

The main issues for future environment and related research

are

programmes

were reviewed , and , at the hand of a few examples , the position and
role of the Community and of Europe in a larger sense in this
context was indicated . The importance and priorities of Community
research
and
combatting current and future environmental problems . Also their
contributions to the well-being of society , to employment and the
economy , and to European trade are becoming increasingly evident
while
Europe
contributing in major ways to global sustainable development , and
assistance to developing countries .

detecting

confirmed

prospects

research

offer

terms

areas

real

new

in

of

of

of

AO .
identified .

A wide range of environmental issues requiring research was
But there are certain issues which require special

attention .

( i)

Co-ordinated European contributions to global environmental
climate
research including stratospheric ozone depletion ,

and

climate

change ,

desertification ,

and

resource

management .

288

16

Basic ecological monitoring and research on ecosystems end
environmental processes - essential underpinning to a wide
range of applied problems .

Co-ordinated European research on the marine environment and
its problems , especially in our regional seas but linked to
global programmes .

Supporting socio-economic research on environmental problems
and options for their solution .

Development
technologies for research and environmental improvement .

co-operation

industry

with

in

of

new

( li )

( ill)

( lv )

(v )

Important Infrastructure Issues which must be tackled and
41 .
solved to provide essential support to European research were also

ldentif ied .

( vi )

(vli )

Development
procedures especially at EC / EFTA level .

appropriate

and

of

flexible

co-ordination

Development of rigorous research assessment , planning ,
Implementation ,
efficient
for

and evaluation procedures including those
and
conversion

results

policy

into

of

practical actions .

(vlii ) Assessment , planning and provision of essential research

facilities and services such as research vessels , aircraft ,

computers , data bases , Information networks , and advisory

and information services .

i

( ix )

Special investment in remote sensing and geographical
information systems to support global environmental research
and to exploit its results .

289

17

( x)

Improved co-ordination with , and positive European inputs to
bodies ,
international

non-governmental

governmental

and

working in the above fields .

These

actions must be

42 .
adequate resources ,
especially skilled manpower , efficient communications and equipment
in the relevant organisations of the Commission , Europe and its

supported by

Member Countries .

( is )

290

- 1 -

ANNEX 8

HEALTH RESEARCH

1 . INTRODUCTION

In spite of the enormous progress trade in fundamental biology , several
groups of diseases threaten human health ; in the less-developed countries
malnutrition and parasitic diseases ( e.g. malaria , schistososniasis ,
filariasis , trypanosomiasis and leisltmaniasis ) dominate the scene , while
the newly developed viral disease AIDS spreads with appalling rapidity . A
real problem here is the need to support expensive R&D action for a market
which , though driven by pressing needs , is dramatically deficient in
financial resources . Various agencies , both public ( e.g. \ torxd Health
Organization ) and private , are active in this field , yet , in spite of sofi*e
recent advances in the treatment of parasitic diseases , those needs are
far from being satisfied .

( more than 200,000 million ECU yearly in the EC ). In

In the industrialized world bacterial diseases are largely controlled
tlirough antibiotics and hygiene , and many viral diseases are greatly
reduced or inched eliminated ( e.g. smallpox ) through effective vaccination
campaigns . However , many health problems still require fundamental and
applied research , namely some viral diseases ( e.g. AIDS , and diseases
caused by slow viruses ), degenerative and iimvane diseases , genetic
diseases , traumatology and poisoning , as well as problems of procreation
and ageing . In these parts of the worla , the cost of health is high and
still increasing ,
Western European countries the health market has a very special feature ,
namely that the funds used to satisfy it are largely public ( about 60% cf
the EC health expenditure ) as compared with only 40% in the USA . At the
same time , however , public investment in medical and pharmaceutical
research in the EC is only about half that of the USA . The European health
industry is generally competitive ; however , the relatively modest support
which fundamental health sciences receive from European governments
induces seme large European firms to transfer their research laboratories
to the USA . A key issue for the future is the interaction of health
policies with the large high-technology market of health industries ,
exploiting , whenever possible , the economy of scale provided by the large
internal market . In human health ,
"half-way " solutions ( e.g. the treatment
of tuberculosis around the turn of this century - by lengthy isolation m
sanatoria - or of poliomyelitis in the 19?Cs ) are often expensive while
" all the way" solutions ( e.g. antibiotics in the treatment of tuberculosis
or vaccines against poliomyelities ) are often cheaper in the longer term .
Research has an irreplaceable role in the pursuit of " ail the way "
solutions , and Europe should deve lop a proper strategy
for their
continued achievement on an appropriate scale .

291

2 . MAIN ISSUES FOR R & D

- 2 -

Health has been defined by the World Health Organization as "A state of
complete physical , mental and social well-being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity" ( 1 ) . That reflects a very positive and wide-
ranging outlook on this subject - which is by definition one that vitally
affects every single citizen , whether living in Europe , U.S.A. , Japan or
the rest of the world.
This universality of the importance of the subject
is progressively being recognized by countries at governmental as well as
at individual level , and there is a general tendency for richer nations to
spend a higher proportion of their gross domestic product ( GDP ) on health .

In September 1988 the Office of Health Economics in London published a
'Briefing' on "Health Services in Europe : 1988 ", and this provides a most
valuable and up-to-date commentary on the increasingly important and
increasingly costly question of the provision of health care in Member
States .

Table 1 reveals the levels of public and private health expenditure as
a percentage of GDP ,

( 1984 ):

Total

Private

Public

Sweden
France
Netherlands
West Germany
Ireland
Switzerland
Italy
Denmark
Belgium
Great Britain
Spain

9.4
9.1
8.6
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.2
6.3
6.2
5.9
5.8

0,8
2.6
1.8
1.7
1.1

8.6
6.5
6.8
6.4
6.9

-

-

1.1
1.0
0.5
0.6
1.5

6.1
5.3
5.7
5.3
4.3

Source : OECD ( 1987 ) 'Financing and Delivering Health Care' , Paris

The author , George Teeling Snith , ccmnents :
"The table shows both the public expenditure on health and total
expenditure as a percentage of each country 's gross domestic
( GDP ) .
description of the various countries' health schemes .
example , shews the substantial margin between public finance and total
expenditure which is largely covered by private 'top-up' insurance .
Sweden , on the other hand , which is another high spender , covers

The figures are largely what would be expected from the

France , for

product

Constitution of the World Health Organization : Basic Documents ,
15th edition , 1961 .

292

- 3 -

The amount covered by private

almost all its costs from public funds .
expenditure in Sweden represents 0.8 per cent of GDP , as against 2.6
Britain , also , covers almost all of its health
per cent in France .
expenditures from public funds : private expenditure accounts for only
0.6 per cent of GDP .
By contrast , again , the Netherlands leaves 1.8
per cent of GDP to be covered by private expenditure , reflecting the
In
large proportion of the population covered by private insurance .
West Germany private expenditure amounts to 1.7 per cent , suggesting a
relatively high expenditure for the 9 per cent of population privately
insured .
for the public to spend directly on health care in addition to public
expenditure .
Overall , Spain and Great Britain are the lowest spenders , and France
and Sweden the highest .
there is a general tendency for richer nations to spend a higher
proportion of GDP on health " .

In general , the continental schemes allow greater freedom

As has often been pointed out in the past ,

His conclusions are extremely pertinent to any consideration of health
services provision in the next decade and beyond :

" It is clear from these brief descriptions of the national health
schemes in different European countries that there is a considerable
variation in their approaches to the problem .
vary : the ownership and organisation of the facilities varies ; the way
doctors and others are employed and paid differs ; and the extent to
which individuals must pay part of the costs themselves also
varies ....
believes that it has an entirely satisfactory solution to the question
of how best to cover the health needs of its population at an
acceptable price ....

There is , however , one common similarity .

Methods of funding

No country

More fundamentally , in 1992 the European market is intended to be
unified , and it might be expected that sate degree of uniformity in
It is clear that it
the provision of health care should follow . ...
will be extremely difficult to introduce any integrated system of
health insurance or European health service for the European Community
as a whole .
without any clear indication of which variant is superior . The
priority must be for cautious experiment , and rigorous evaluation ,
rather than radical change .

Even within individual countries there are variations ,

Above all , what is lacking in such an evaluation is any measure of the
outcomes of different systems of health care . The unique contribution
of the European Commission after 1992 could be to organise and sponsor
the evaluative studies which have so far largely been absent .
Any more drastic form of European Community interference , in the
present state of ignorance , would be unwise .
in recent years been developing the tools with which to make the
necessary evaluations .
scale .
larger international studies should not now be undertaken .

So far they have been used only on a limited
However , there is no reason why , with appropriate resources ,

Health economists have

One concept under discussion at present is to limit the free
provision of health care to the relatively less affluent and to
those suffering from some form of medical catastrophe - whether
it is a costly acute medical crisis or a long-term chronic

293

- 4 -

The nearest approach to this policy in Europe so far

disease .
appears to be the Dutch model .
A study scare years ago
suggested that the health status of the Netherlands was
conparable to that in Britain and France . ( 2 )
countries had widely differing types of cover , but both
provided comprehensive health care for the whole population
But according to the
through their national schemes .
information received from the Netherlands during the
preparation of this ' Briefing ' , the Dutch do not consider their
present position satisfactory . They are considering more
extensive cover . Clearly , therefore , other countries - and
Europe as a whole - need to be cautious in pursuing the concept
of limited cover only for the less affluent and for the
catastrophically sick .

These latter

On the other hand , there is almost universal concern at the rising
cost of comprehensive free health care .
be struck .
reports from the various countries collected for this study still
suggest general public satisfaction with their health care , even
though the providers and the organisers realise its shortcomings ....

But once again the keynote must be evaluation . The brief

Perhaps scare balance needs to

If changes are to be made , and in particular if a greater degree of
uniformity across Europe is to be achieved, the changes must increase
an already relatively high level of public satisfaction rather than
reduce it .
1992 approaches . . . . "

This , above all , must be the message for the Eurocrats as

As well as these economic and organizational factors another major
aspect must increasingly be taken into account - the ageing of the
population , often called the "Greying of Europe ".
been explored in an Occasional Paper written in March 1988 by Mr. M.
Freisinger for the European Commission 1 s own Division of "Forecasting
and Assessment in the field of Science and Technology". Under the
title of "The Over-Fifties ", Mr. Freisinger has summarized the
position as follows :

This key issue has

"The interest in the demographic processes today results mostly from
the apprehension that these changes could affect the efficiency ,
stability and equity ( 3 ) of societies which are in an internationally
competitive environment .

1 ) Some Selected Demographic Trends :

Stagnation and Decline

1 Explosion 1 , Ageing Populations ,

Maynard A and Ludbrook A ( 1981 ) ‘Thirty years of Fruitless
Endeavour? 1 In : Van der Gaag J and Perlman M ( Editors ), Proceedings
of the World Congress of Health Economics , North Holland .

See Chapter : 'Seme Theoretical Propositions and Concepts' in Padoa-
Schioppa , T. , et al ; 'Efficiency , Stability and Equity - A Strategy
for the Evolution of the Economic Systems of the European
Community' , Oxford , 1987 , p. 17 .

294

- 5 -

Until the year 2050 , it is estimated that the global population
will double to 10 billion . As a consequence of the changing
fertility trends , the future demographic increase will be lower
than at the tine of the so-called 'population explosion 1 .
Given
the assumption of an increasing average life expectation , there
will be a further cause for the relative shift in the ageing
population on a global level .

This ageing process is significant in industrialised countries .
Compared with the USA and Japan , Europe has an exceptional
position . Until the year 2000 , the population of the European
Communities , the United States and Japan will still increase ( 2000 :
EUR 12 - 330 million , USA - 268 million , Japan - 120 million
compared to 1984 : EUR 12 - 321 million , USA - 236 million , Japan -
120 million ) but after the year 2000 the demographic development of
the total population will be marked by stagnation , and in the case
of Europe ( EUR 12 ) by a partial decrease .

Between 1900 and 1950 the proportion of elderly ( more than 65 years
In the period 1975 to
old ) in Europe had increased by about 50% .
2075 this proportion of the population will increase in the more
enveloped countries by about 72% ,

( from 10.5% to 18.1% ).

In the age group of eighty years and over the estimated rate of
growth in the more developed countries is 153% ,
4.3% ).
As a consequence of this trend , the average life
expectation in this period would increase from 33.6 to 39.6 years .

( from 1.7% to

Within the European CotrmunitY , the total population figures until
the year 2000 will Decrease in Belgium and the Federal Republic of
Germany .
Luxembourg and the Netherlands .

The same will apply after the year 2000 in Denmark ,

Because of the net reproduction rates of the 1980s , the population
figures in Greece , Portugal and Spain will be more stable .
countries in the European Ccrmunity - including Ireland - now
reveal decreasing reproduction rates between 1970 and 1980 .

All

The large number of births of the so-called 'Baby Boomer
Generation 1 will represent in the first half of the twenty-first
century the growing proportion of the elderly .

The proportion of Over-Fifties in Europe until the year 2000 will
only increase from 31% to 33%.
group of about 10.4 million people , bringing it to a total of 110
In the Federal Republic of Germany , Belgium and Denmark ,
million .
the population share of the Over-Fifties until the year 2020 will
increase to 49% , 41% and 42% respectively .

This means a growth in this age

With regard to the increase in the Over-Fifties age group from
1985-2000 France , the Netherlands , the Federal Republic of Germany ,
Portugal and Spain will be above the average European growth rate
( 10.4%) in the European Community .
Until the year 2010 , this
growth rate will be 48% in the Netherlands , and 31% in France .

295

- 6 -

The number of very old people ( more than 70 years of age ) in the
European Community will decrease at a negligible rate until 1990
( 1985 - 33.1 million to 1990 - 32.7 million ).
this number will increase again to 37.4 million .

Around the year 2000

The number of women in the elderly age group will increase
considerably compared to the number of men .
distribution of both sexes will be very significant , especially in
North America , Europe and the Soviet Union .

This unsymmetrical

From a regional point of view the demographic ageing process in the
European Community is presented very differently .
in industrial centres and overcrowed regions it would seem that the
ageing process of the regional populations will be above
average'1 ....

In particular ,

" In the field of health , the demographical changes create a
quantitative increase of age-typical illnesses .
At the same time ,
the estimated number of persons in family networks which would be
With regard to the
able to give care to the elderly will decrease .
experience that nowadays only 5 - 10% of the older people requiring
care live in special institutions and the assumption that the
number of single households - especially within the older
population - will undergo a large increase , the question is posed:
what are the possible and probable other forms of organisations and
conditions for organising the everyday life and care of older and
very old persons ? Many elements in this sphere will depend on
changing life-styles and mental attitudes .

The growing demand cn services for the elderly leads in the health
sector to the necessity for a reorganisation in part ( education ,
internal care , structure in hospitals ) and beyond it to an
increasing relevance in medical , medico-technological and
pharmaceutical performance in prophylactics , early perceptions and
therapy of age-specific illnesses ."

Against the above background information it can be seen how
crucially important health provision is ; this underlines the need
for a continuing expansion of research into all aspects of the
subject , so that individuals can justifiably expect to benefit from
advances in knowledge denied to their forebears .
in particular
possible a greater degree of progress in health research than has
ever been possible previously - these efforts must be strongly
encouraged and steadily enlarged.

those of molecular biology , have started to make

New techniques ,

3 . INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

Perhaps uniquely , and probably reflecting its universality of
personal relevance and importance , health is a research field where
international cooperation is not only readily forthcoming but is
actively sought on a steadily increasing scale .
The tradition of
widespread dissemination of research results by publication is a
long-established one in health matters and so , fortunately , health
is not a "competitive " subject vis-a-vis the U.S.A. and Japan as is

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the case in so many other areas such as information technology or
Many research workers do not consider their
telecommunications .
careers to be sufficiently rounded without having spent some tine
in the U.S.A. , so much so that the acquisition of a " BTA" is widely
thought essential for professional advancement to top research
posts -the acronym stands for " Been to America " .
international experience-gathering is one of the most benefical and
self-evidently valuable aspects of modem career progression in
health research , and all Member States must continue to play their
part in this .

This degree of

4 . WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE IN EUROPE

To look ahead to the developments needed in Europe , both in the
next few years and beyond , necessitates a careful and thoughtful
look at the nature of health research itself and the goals which
should be sought . Dr D.F. Horrobin , Director of the Efamol Research
Institute in Kentville , Nova Scotia , Canada ( 4 ), has expressed this
point well :

" One of the simplest and best definitions of science is John
Ziman 's ( 5 ) term 'reliable knowledge' . Medicine is a science with a
purpose , the improvement of patient care . When reliable knowledge
has been used to improve patient care , the record shows that
scientific medicine has been a resounding success . But recently we
have failed to keep firmly in view the true aim of medicine .
Medicine has acquired the attitudes of pure science where things
are done with no clear practical end in terms of benefit to the
patient . It is the damaging proliferation of technologies which
have no proven value in terms of cure , care or comfort which has
led to soaring costs without any patient perception of
substantially greater clinical success . Unless we rigorously keep
in mind the idea that the standards we now apply to new drugs
should be applied also to every form of innovation in medical care ,
we face the spectre of arbitrary and unreasoning political and
economic intervention in the medical care system ."

Dr M. King , University of Leeds , United Kingdom ( ® ) has enlarged on
this concept , stressing the patient 's point of view and rightly
drawing attention to the international aspects of the subject :

"Make the community master

The best interests of the individual sick patient in bed have always
been the ultimate objective of the best medical care . The ultimate
authority , economy , and convenience of patients collectively , rather

Oxford Textbook of Medicine , Oxford University Press , Oxford ; 1987 ,
p. 2.3 .

Ziman , J. 'Reliable Knowledge' . Cambridge University Press ,
Cambridge .

Oxford Textbook of Medicine , p. 3.1 .

2S7

- 8 -

than that of ourselves , their physicians , have been given less
attention . Hence the increasing dissatisfaction of many corrmunities ,
both rich and poor , with the services they get , and the importance
of making these services acutely sensitive to communal need .
Communities must , wherever possible , be given a bigger say , and
indeed the ultimate responsibility for the services they get .
Listening for this still small voice , obeying it , and encouraging it
to speak up , decide , and take charge , must in future beccxne an
integral part of medicine . It is
of the section which follows .

also one of the major inspirations

Health for all by the year 2000
Comprehensive primary health care (PBC )

What can we do to prevent disease , disability , and untimely death in
two-thirds of the world 's people , especially those locked into
absolute poverty? The most hopeful solution is comprehensive primary
health care , and this was defined at the international conference
held by WHO and UNICEF at Alma Ata in Soviet Asia in 1978 . The
Declaration of Alma Ata which followed this meeting has as its aim :

The attainment by all people of the world by the year 2000 , of a
level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and
economically productive life . Primary health care includes , at
least , education concerning the prevailing health problems and
the methods of preventing and controlling thou , the promotion of
an adequate food supply and proper nutrition together with a
sufficient supply of safe water and basic sanitation . It also
includes maternal and child health , family planning , and
immunization against the major infectious diseases , as well as
the prevention and control of locally endemic diseases , the
appropriate treatment of the common diseases and injuries , and
the provision of essential drugs ."

A worthwile research organization in health - such as will help to
achieve the above aims - demands nowadays an increasingly wide range
of skills , and this need in Europe is certainly in line with the
needs as seen from outside this continent . Professor P. Wasi from
Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand 0 ) has made a particularly
relevant comment concerning this breadth of need and closeness of
cooperation :

"Vast areas of research are needed to support PHC including health
policies research , information research and development , health
services and health manpower research , health economy research ,
management and evaluation research and technical research needed to
support health services . While biomedical research may concern
individual scientists or research units , health services research is
an integrated approach which may involve on the one hand the policy
makers and programme administrators and on the other the people and
the community . This new type of research needs a new mechanism for
research promotion and management . Medical Research Councils , while
good for biomedical research promotion and management , may not be

Oxford Textbook of Medicine , p. 3.7 .

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- 9 -

equipped to deal with health services research . A co-ordinating
mechanism involving the Ministry of Public Health , the Universities ,
and the Medical Research Councils is desirable ."

It is precisely that balance between "Governmental " health
activities and those of "Medical Research Councils " which is so well
struck and maintained in the cormittee structure for the
Conmission 1 s own Medical and Health Research progrannie ( vide infra ),
and which is so necessary if research discoveries are to be
implemented at an early date by policy-makers on the Governmental
side - it is a very efficient mechanism supported by all MS.

The subjects which particularly need to be concentrated upon in the
caning years include AIDS and Cancer , as well as diseases which
particularly affect an ageing population , as will increasingly cotre
to be the case in Europe . There has been an excellent recent survey
of the scene by Sir Walter Bodmer in his Presidential Address to the
British Association for the Advancement of Science in September
1988 , and some short extracts indicate the v/ay ahead :

"The new biological revolution is having its impact in most areas of
biological and medical research . Had AIDS been discovered as a
disease even just 15 years earlier , it would not then have been
possible to identify the causative agent as a virus , through that to
devise tests to identify those that have been exposed to the virus ,
and then begin to design effective strategies for the development of
vaccines against the virus and for treating the disease . All of
these possibilities are taking place within an incredibly short
time , following the initial description of AIDS only a few years
ago . AIDS may now , and for some years in the future , be a serious
epidemic but were it not for the genetic revolution , the disease
could have been a total catastrophe .

Cancer is not a single disease but a wide variety of diseases which
can affect any organ or tissue of the body . Nearly one third of the
population will at some time be affected by cancer , and about one
fifth will die from it . Though many advances have been made in
cancer treatment , and simply stopping cigarette smoking could
prevent 30 % of all the cancers , effective prevention and treatment
especially of the relatively common cancers such as those affecting
the bcwel , the breast , the stomach and the lungs , is still a
challenge for future research . In these cancers only treatment at
early stages is usually truly effective . A better understanding of
cancer at a fundamental level is undoubtedly the best and ,
ultimately , the only effective way to advance substantially its
prevention and treatment . This , again , is where the new biology is
leading to major advances .

The techniques of genetic engineering and working with cells that
can be manipulated in the laboratory are beginning to reveal those
errors which are critical for the development of cancer . Through
this we are beginning to learn how the fine processes which control
the normal growth of cells are deranged in a cancer and so , how
these changes may either be detected sufficiently early for
treatment to be effective or may form the basis for more specific
and effective forms of treatment . When , at some time in the future ,

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- 10 -

cancer is a disease which can be prevented and treated as
effectively as tuberculosis and most other infectious diseases can
now , the credit for this will largely be due to the new revolution
in biology . A similar story could be told for the study of heart
disease , or of mental disease which is accompanied by the great
challenge of understanding the detailed functioning of the human
brain .

Advances in physics and in chemistry have been as essential for the
study of biology as they have , for example , for the development of
computers . X-rays and radioactivity , and the instruments which use
and measure than, have been particularly important in biomedical
research .
X-rays are not only used to diagnose and treat cancer and other
diseases , but also to probe the structure of complex molecules .
Structure largely determines function , and so it is only through
establishing the three-dimensional structure or shape of proteins
that we can hope , eventually , to understand the way they work . Then
the protein engineer can design modifications , or chemicals to
enhance or block a protein 's function , and so provide new
' designer ' drugs for effective disease treatment . The higher the
power of the X-ray source , the larger and more carplex the
structures that can be solved . In these areas the biologists and
physicists now work hand in hand, helped by the power of modem
computers .
Radioactivity is used at each step in the analysis of the genetic
language . Thus radioactive tracers , and the films and instruments
which measure radioactive decay , are essential tools for the genetic
engineer .
X-rays , because they can penetrate bodily tissues , have been the
classical basis for imaging the body from the outside in order to
diagnose abnormalities indicative of disease .
' CAT ' scanners , which
are dependent on the application of sophisticated computer analysis ,
have enormously refined the X-ray picture . Recently , even more
remarkable advances in imaging have come from new physical
techniques , based on 'nuclear magnetic resonance' or MRI , for
magnetic resonance imaging as it is now called. Using MRI , pictures
of the brain appear to come to life and , may for example , reveal the
smallest tumours . Radioactive tracers , which when injected into a
patient can home in CHI a particular organ or tumour and then be
viewed fran the outside like X-rays , provide another new approach to
the diagnosis of diseases . Using yet another new type of scanner , a
small amount of radioactive fluid injected into the blood stream can
yield pictures of the blood flow in the brain , which can identify
regions involved in the control of speech and reasoning .
There seems to be no limit to the ingenuity of the physicists and
the electronic engineers in providing new approaches and instruments
for the measurement and ctetection of biological functions in living
organisms . The power of computers is as important for the control of
these instruments and the analysis of the data they produce , as it
is for the banker , the airline company , the aeroplane or the
physicist with his huge machines for studying the fundamental
properties of matter .

Science , including technology and engineering , now pervades
virtually all aspects of our daily lives and is the essential basis

300

- 11 -

for our future health and prosperity . Our industry depends on it ,
and therefore so does the whole basis of our economy . There is
hardly any public policy issue that does not in some way , involve
scientific questions . The advances I have described in the
biological and physical sciences , and their prospects , show that the
scientific revolution now has a greater potential than ever before
for imneasurable improvement of our wealth and welfare . The
challenge is to achieve this potential .
The Nobel Prize in Economics for 1987 was awarded to Solow for his
demonstration that technology is the main determinant of economic
growth . Since today 's basic science is largely the foundation for
tomorcw 's technology , Solcw 's conclusions clearly imply a good
economic return for an investment in scientific research .
Technology in its broadest sense is the application of science or
knowledge to practical ends , most often in an industrial context .
Though scientific understanding is not a pre-requisite by any means
for the success of a technology , technological progress nowadays
increasingly depends on scientific advances . Major new technologies ,
such as genetic engineering , often depend , as I have described , on
the combination of a series of scientific advances in technique and
understanding , brought together to create a new technology . Once
that major step has been taken , many further gradual changes ,
improvements and additions to the technology , in due course
enormously improve its efficiency . This improvement is a form of
evolutionary process , whereby pivotal changes are followed by
gradual evolution , and only the fittest , namely those which are most
productive economically , survive in the long run ."

One most topical development , and one which is certain to prove most
productive economically is that of Predictive liadicine :

Predictive Medicine : Human Genere Analysis

The DC has recognized the great and still increasing .importance of
genome research , and details of current and planned activities are
given in Annex 4 ,
genomes . Research involving the human genome will take place under
the heading of "Predictive Medicine ", as indicated above .

" Biology " , notably those involving yeast and plant

It has become clear that having access to a " human gene dictionary "
will prove as fundamental to biology and medicine as a working
knowledge of anatomy or chemistry . But to date , nolxxly even knows
exactly how many genes we have . The best estimate leaves a very wide
margin : from 50,000 to 100,000 human genes .

Each gene is a unique fragment of DMA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ), the
long , thread-like substance that contains the instructions for the
survival and propagation of every living organism , from , a blade of
grass to an elephant . In the nucleus of each human cell , these genes
are strung along the 23 pairs of chromosomes . Finding the location
of individual genes on a chromosome and analyzing these genes down
to their chemical components ( nucleotides ) is only
now becoming
possible on a large scale , thanks to new techniques derived from
reccmb inant DNA technology .

3C1

- 12 -

Knowing the position of these genes and then zeroing in on them are
major steps towards finding new methods of preventing or treating
the 4,000 inherited diseases recognized so far that are caused by
single-gene defects .

Beyond these rarer conditions , gene mapping will give doctors a new
understanding of such widespread ills as hypertension , heart
disease , certain cancers and diabetes , which are caused by the joint
action of several genes . It will explain who is particularly
vulnerable to these disorders and how to prevent their onset , or at
least reduce their symptoms .

Most significantly , research on these aberrant genes will enable
scientists to analyze normal life processes with extraordinary
precision . Gene mapping and analysis will be key tools of biology in
the 21st century . They will enable scientists to decipher how human
beings function at their molecular level - how the information
stored in DNA becomes translated into the myriad messages and
complex feedback systems that tell the billions of cells in our
bodies how to keep us alive and healthy .

Since about one third of human genes are turned on in the brain , for
instance , gene mapping will give researchers powerful new ways to
investigate how the brain functions . And as researchers identify the
genes responsible for growth and development , they will find clues
to the enduring mystery of how a fertilized egg evolves into a
unique , mature human being .

Two kinds of gene maps are now being created. One , the genetic
linkage map , shows the distance between various genes and markers as
calculated from the frequency with which they are inherited
together . Genes that lie close together on a chromosome generally
stay together during meiosis - the formation of egg and sperm cells
- when some segnents of the chromosomes recombine . Geneticists have
calculated that if a gene and a marker on the same chromosome are
separated only 1 percent of the time , the distance between them is
approximately 1 million base-pairs of DNA .
of complementary nucleotides that form the DNA double helix ).

( Base-pairs are the pairs

By contrast , physical maps show the actual distances between
landmarks on the chromosomes , regardless of inheritance . These
distances are measured in base-pairs of DNA , and the ultimate
physical map would be the precise sequence of base-pairs in a given
stretch of DNA .

So far , only small portions of the human gene dictionary are
available . But even these have , for example , unravelled the basis
for the corrmonest form of muscular dystrophy , and solved at a
biochemical level the age-old riddle of the control of colour
blindness , which is a comparatively common defect amongst European
men .

The Predictive Medicine Programme will contain the following
strands :

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- 13 -

-

-

-

improvement of the resolution of the human genetic map , i.e.
creation of a map of the human genome , consisting of DNA markers ,
which would enable researchers to locate genes easily and
quickly ;

the setting up of ordered clone libraries , i.e. of collections or
ordered
present in the entire genome , selected chromosomes or chromosomal
fragments ;

sets of DNA fragments which fully represent the DNA

the improvement of advanced genetic technologies and , through a
training programme , the spreading of these advanced technologies
throughout the Member States .

In the course of the programme , new genes will be localized , cloned
and sequenced - many of these will be disease reiaced . In addition ,
substantial improvements will be made in the following advanced
genetic technologies :

-

-

-

-

New reagents , such as restriction enzymes ,

Methodology for cloning large DNA fragments and for the
transfection of chromosomes ,

Gene vectors adapted to human cells in vitro ,

Methods for the detection of a particular gene in a cell ,

- New computer software for the storage , collation and analysis of

DNA sequence data .

Medical and Health Research

The Commission itself has had a research programme in the medical
and health field since 1978 , and its steady enlargement has been a
very significant one . The current Medical and Health Research
( MiTR4 ), and the growth of
Programme ( 1987-1991 ) is the fourth one ,
the programme clearly reflects both the increasing knowledge of it
in Member States and the increasing interest of research workers in
taking part in transnational collaboration through "Concerted
Actions " without the award of direct research support from the EC :

Programme

Duration

No of Concerted
Actions

National teams
participating

First
Second
Third
Fourth

1978-1981
1980-1983
1982-1986
1987-1991

3
7
34
72

100
230
1,400
2,500 +

303

- 14 -

The main reasons for conducting MHR4 by means of the concerted
action method arise from the following two facts :

. most national research programmes in the field of medecine and
health consist of a large number of relatively small projects ,
predominantly orientated to disease-related targets and carried
out by many scattered and relatively small research teams , often
working independently at universities , hospitals , etc .

. there is not yet a cannon health policy and , therefore , the

existing national research policies /strategies differ widely as
between the national organizations competent in medical and
health research .
Accordingly there are also differences in the structure of these
organizations as well as variations in their ways of working , of
categorizing research work at national level , and of ctefining
priorities .

The principal characteristics of such a coordination programme are
that the Member States themselves :
. select the research projects for coordination at Community level
and hence participate wholly or partly in the programme according
to their interests and available facilities ;

. execute the actual R & D work in their participating institutes
and totally finance it from national resources according to the
rules and procedures applicable to their national programmes ; and

. consequently determine the scale of the coordinating activities

and ensure the overall programme management .

The Commission is responsible for the coordination at Community
level of the national research contributions to the prograimie and
the finances needed for that purpose , which are modest ( about 3-4
% of the global costs of the research contributions from the Member
States ) but of high return value due to their great catalytic
effect .
In the EC it is estimated that the yearly global
expenditure on health care is at least 200,000 million ECU ; of this
sum around 1,500 million ECU is spent on medical and health
research .

The MI3R4 programme aims at promoting :

. Community actions in jointly defined research areas considered

critically relevant to the solution of major health problems , and

. Coordination of national research policies / strategies through
programme implementation by , or in close association with , the
competent research organizations of the Member States .

The main objectives of this European collaboration are to :

- optimize the capacity and economic efficiency of health care
efforts , and thus to combat their steadily mounting costs , by
initiating or implementing concerted projects in defined areas
considered as critically relevant to the solution of major health
problems and their effects on occupational health ;

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- 15 -

- increase the efficiency of relevant R&D efforts in the Member
States through the mobilization of the available research
potential of national programmes and through their gradual co¬
ordination at Community level ; and

- improve scientific and technical knowledge in the R&D areas

selected for their importance by all the Member States , and to
promote its efficient transfer into practical application , taking
particular account of potential industrial and economic
development in the areas concerned .

Specific research and coordination EG programmes are advised upon
by Management and Coordination Advisory Committees ( CGCs ), and the
MHR4 programme has CGC No 9 which is itself entitled "Medical and
Health Research ". It is made up of senior medical , scientific and
administrative Member State representatives who work at policy¬
making levels in their own countries , and they are therefore well
qualified , together with their own nomin£ited national experts , to
consider future health research needs for the DC . They accordingly
set up earlier in 1988 special Programme Working Parties ( made up
of experts in the subject fields within the six MHR4 research
Targets ) to review the content of the fourth programme and to help
to establish as a basis for discussion the subjects to be included
in the fifth programme ,
( already being planned for 1992-1996 ). The
deliberations of all the expert Working Parties were considered by
the parent CGC in June 1988 , and a consolidated document agreed
entitled " Research Gaps and/or Research Opportunities ".
expresses in the form of research needs the current state of the
art in Medical and Health Research in the opinion of the most
senior EC committee in this field , and accordingly it warrants
inclusion in full in this Annex . Tne order follows that of the six
research Targets formally agreed upon prior to the approval of the
MHR4 programme in 1587 , and those Targets provide between them a
full coverage of Medical and Health research :

This

1 . )

TARGET 1.1

CANCER RESEARCH

Area 1.1.1

Cancer research training scheme

In order to promote training in cancer research in Europe , a fellowship
programme is considered to be an extremely important and effective means of
support ; this is the single most immediately constructive measure which can
be taken , and the first 22 fellowships were awarded in June 1988 .

Workshops to provide for further education of European oncologists will also
be most valuable .

Area 1.1.2

Clinical treatment research

Support for clinical treatment research has so far been channelled mainly
through the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer
( EQRTC ), but it could also be directed towards other groups if sufficiently
premising projects are submitted in the future .

Area 1.1.3

Epidemiological research

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- 16 -

Main areas for research on cancer epidemiology in the EC could best be
determined on the basis of tliree criteria : the global importance of a
particular problem which could be tackled by European scientists ; the
existence of favourable conditions in the EC as a whole or in part for the
study of specific cancers or of exposure to particular carcinogenic
substances ; and the existence of EC-specific cancer-related public health
problems .

Area 1.1.4

Early detection and diagnosis

Development , or further development , of methods regarding :

Colorectal cancer
Prostatic cancer
Malignant melanoma
Early diagnosis of cancer using monoclonal antibodies
Radioimmunoasssays of various markers
DNA analysis with probes
Chromosome analyses .

-

Regarding breast cancer and cervical cancer , major questions remain open :

Specific methodological aspects
Social aspects , e.g. compliance
Evaluation of screening and early diagnosis programmes
Exchange of information between various screening groups .

Area 1.1.5

Drug development

Clinical testing of high-technology biological products , especially of
those products which cannot be tested in experimental animal tumour
systems .
Examples are interferons , cytokines , interleukins , growth
factors , etc .
Preclinical studies in human tumour xenografts in nude mice
Tumour targeting , using synthetic microspheres , liposomes and
monoclonal antibodies linked to chemotherapeutic agents , cell-toxins
or radio-active isotopes
Development of the methodology for large-scale chemo-intervention
studies ,
In vitro studies on human tumour cells for preclinical screening .

( with retinoides for instance )

Area 1.1 . 6

Experimental ( fundamental ) research

Oncogenes , growth factors and their receptors , cytokines
Anti-oncogenes and repressor-substances
Gene régulation
Hereditary cancers
Genomic changes in cancer cells
DNA-repair
Cell adhesion and de-adhesion
Plasma membrane composition and cell surface molécules
Proteases , sécrétion and régulation
Angiogenesis factors
Viral integration in the genome
Soluble mediators .

306

17 -

2 ) .

TARGET 1.2

AIDS RESEARCH

This Target is so recent that what follows is , exceptionally , a list of work
planned or already in progress in 1988 - the research gaps and/ or
opportunities thus mainly fall between the various headings below .

Area 1.2.1

AIDS Disease Control and Prevention

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

Monitoring of trends of HIV infections in specific population groups
Statistical analysis and mathematical modelling of HIV infections
Heterosexual transmission - prospective follow-up
Prospective study of children born to HIV-positive mothers
Assessment of preventive strategies
HIV infections among intravenous drag abusers .

Area 1.2.2

Viro- immunological Research

2.1
2.2

2.3
2 . 4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

Production and assessment of purified research reagents
Testing and quantitation of HIV infections ,
and nucleic acids )
Pathophysiology and immunology of HIV-related diseases
Inmunogenetics of AIDS
Design , synthesis and evciluation of new antiviral compounds
HIV variability at genomic , antigenic and biological level
Vaccine davelooinent
Development of animal models ,

( excluding chimpanzees ) .

( antigens , antibodies

Area 1.2.3

Clinical Research

3.1
3.2
3.3

Clinical trials on opport unis tic infections
Oral problems related to HIV infections
Clinical studies and trials of HIV infections .

3 . )

TARGCT 1.3

AGE-RE!ATi-D HI AJ.TH PROHfJjgS

Area 1.3.2 is considered to be particularly relevant to present and fut’ire
needs , as has already been mentioned earlier . Although diseases occurring at
all ages need research studies , and the Mull programme provides for chis , an
emphasis will be placed on those diseases of particular relevance to the
increasing proportion of older people in Member State populate ons .

Area 1.3.1

Reproduction

-

Environmental and genetic influences en reproduction and development
Male reproductive functions with specific reference to infertility .

Area 1.3.2

Ageing and Disease

Identification of the biological , psychosocial , cultural ,
environmental and economic determinants of healthy ageing , e.g. cross-

307

- 18 -

national longitudinal studies to describe the age-related transition
from health and autonomy through handicap to dependence
Identification of risk factors for an older person 's loss of autonomy ,
and minimization of that risk through preventive measures and more
effective services , e.g. community intervention studies on elderly
populations
Production of meaningful data which can be compared internationally
Multidimensional assessment of functional disability .

Multidisciplinary activities will be particularly encouraged.

Area 1.3.3

Disabilities

Prevention of disability
Prospects for the treatment of disability where the present state of
knowledge permits
Strategies for medical and social care .

4 . )

TM85ET 1.4

BWHOaMEm1 AND LLEFE-ST£LE RELATED HEALTH PRQBLB4S

Area 1.4.1

Breakdown in human adaptation

Health risks assessment
Early pathological markers of environmental exposure (mechanisms of
homeostatic breakdown )
Research into environmental and life-style factors relating to :
. Cardiovascular diseases
. Neurobehavioural and neurotoxicity problems
. Biological monitoring of individual exposure
. Iimvonotoxicity
.

" Sick building syndrome ".

Area 1.4.2

Nutrition

Methodological issues of the nutrition-health relationship
Research into objective biological markers of those dietary patterns
which could be related to specific diseases
Evaluation of the effects of different national prevention prograitmes
at EC level
Research into the effects of certain food products , of chemical
additives and of contaminants including human milk .

-

-

Area 1.4.3

Consumption of illicit drugs

( Illicit drugs , tobacco , alcohol and prescribed drugs )

-

-

Comparable databases
Monitoring of school-age populations
Drug abuse and the iitmune System
Detection of the effects of newly-synthesized drugs of abuse
Evaluation both of existing treatment prograitmes such as methadone
prograitmes and of social rehabilitation or self-help prograitmes
Abuse liability , i.e. the factors affecting the maintenance of
compulsive drug-seeking behaviour

308

Changes in life-style due to European mobility and drug consumption
Evaluation of the impact of completion of the EC Internal Market , tax
harmonization , and national drug control policies .

Area 1.4.4

Infections

-

-

-

-

Hospital infections
Hypersensitivity and allergy
Chronic respiratory distress and asthma
Enteric infections ( immune response ; use of municipal sludge in
agricultural applications ;
Users of illicit drugs
Congenital toxoplasmosis
Infectious mononucleosis
Légionnaires 1 disease
Lyme disease
Tumour patients .

"Montezuma 1 s revenge ")

5 . )

TARGET II . 1

MfcDICAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Area II . 1.1

Diagnostic Methods and Monitoring

Biomédical signal acquisition
Imaging techniques .

Area II . 1.2

Treatment and Rehabilitation

-

Simplified and low-cost technology
Ambulatory monitoring technology .

Area II . 1.3

Tec'nnical and Clinical Evaluation

Lithotripsy
Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
New biomaterials and implants
Appropriate techniques for the relief of urinary incontinence
Appropriate techniques for the relief of speech impairment .

6 . )

TARGET II . 2

HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH

Area I I. 2.1

Research on prevention

Diseases of the locomotor system such as arthritis and low back pain .

Area II . 2 . 2

Research on care delivery systems

Appropriate care for terminally ili people
Impact of " non-orthodox " medicine ( e.g. homoeopathy , acupuncture ,
chiropractice ) on health care expenditure .

Area I I. 2 . 3

Research on health care organization

3Ü9

- 20 -

-

Community expectations and consumer participation in health care
organi zation
Health care in disaster situations
Health interview surveys as part of health information systems
Quality assurance in health care .

Area II . 2 . 4

Health technology assessment

Health scenarios in respect of technological envelopments and health
economy
Economic appraisal linked with clinical outcome , both in condition-
specific and in general health status .

InplsDentation

The continued expansion of the MHR programme along the lines mentioned above
will implement the wishes of the Member States with regard to health research ,
and the success of this programme is clearly shown by the steadily increasing
numbers of European terms wishing to work on a transnational basis .
countries participating in 'COST *
Scientific and Technical Research ) are eligible to take part in the programme
or in any combination of its six research Targets ; in addition to the EC Member
States , five other COST members are already participating , namely Austria ,
Finland , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland - all of these have chosen to work in
between three and five of the six Targets .
Informal liaison arrangements also
exist with the National Institutes of Health in the USA and with the Canadian
national health research authorities .

( European Cooperation in the field of

All member

o o o o o

310

1

ANNEX 9

Nuclear Fission energy - Safety

Introduction

of

of the

time , a

built in

have been

construction

policies . The

power stations

Community , because of their different degrees of
The Countries
economical
have applied
development
energy dependance and levels
disparities found during the 70 's have
different energy
However a
great number
lately increased after the Chernobyl accident .
Europe . Initially they
of nuclear
reactors at
were of the gas-graphite type , followed by the light water
the development of liquid metal fast
the beginning
70' s while
of the
powerful nuclear industry
breeders was continued . At the same
in the most committed countries ( France , United Kingdom ,
was developed
of the
W. Germany ) both in the
upstream and
downstream fuel cycle . The power stations which have been
commissioned , namely the light water reactors have reached a remarkable
degree of maturity , both in their design and their exploitation .
While
programmes financed
this maturity has been confirmed the
by
aspects of the
on
protection of man and
specific development
against
the production of nuclear energy compared to oil and
aspects . Although
coal is less polluting for man and the environment , this
evolution was
risk by wrongly controlled use of
potential
logical
nuclear energy and in case of an accident . The TMI accident in
the USA
trend . The impact of TMI on public opinion has
confirmed this
in 1979
the
revived
the
most
in
toward nuclear risks . This preoccupation involves
Ecologists’ movement
nuclear power stations , fuel cycle facilities , problems of
storage and
the elimination of radioactive wastes .

funds
environments

community
the

national R&D

countries

focussed

European

stations

because

worries

public

safety

power

and

the

and

the

of

of

of

of

a

was

the

this

present

Community

development

achieved
Regarding

The Community 's activities in this field derive from the Euratora Treaty
that recognized the development of a strong European
nuclear industry .
with respect to health of the
This
be
to
public and of involved workers .
number of
certain
arrangements were foreseen in chapter III of the Treaty .
Programmes in the nuclear energy
At
radioprotection ; the
safety
fission field are mainly related
and the actinides ,
nuclear fuel
exceptions are
and the
reactors
of
part of which is
safeguards and fissile materials management that supports
programme on
of
the
activities
international
Research on radioprotection has been a major Community
nuclear energy .
action since the enforcement of the
on the
Euratom Treaty .
safety of reactors , on the management and storage of radioactive wastes
where Community
and on the decommissioning of nuclear
action is
the world context and
very important ,
also in the Community perspective .

Research
to
on the
development

the programme
to
related

power stations ,

examined in

controlling

utilisation

Research

peaceful

will be

fast

and

311

2

A. Reactor and Safety

1 . Principal objectives

the

the

based

reduction

stations ,
of

measures
to

preventive
applied

The measures
on

power
prevention
the
if

design , the
concerns the
is
and
it
and
accidents

construction and the
The safety of reactors
achieved by acting on two
operation
of
the
the
levels :
were not able to avoid the
consequences
objectives are
at
accident .
The
research
largely
as the
influenced
orientation of these programmes
is concerned by the TMI accident . Before TMI
safety of
acquired
of maturity .
this type of power station had
a better understanding and improvement
Prevention was
directed toward
components and systems
of the quality and reliability of materials , of
of design . The limitation of
rather
than
accident consequences
design basis
of
accidents , that is those events which could be dealt with by the safety
systems working as assumed in the design of power stations .

improvement
was

programmes .
as

the
restricted

arrive
the
been

water reactors

results

degree

these

level

high

area

has

far

the

of

at

of

to

a

in

of

the

and

risk

towards

studies

a number

Since TMI

of studies

prevention

development of

of operators
safety

After TMI , emphasis shifted
accidents by
systematic utilisation of experience and , because of the important role
played by the operator in the
on human
this accident ,
are devoted to human reliability .
factors . Quite
There is an attempt to simulate
and to include
the role
them
studies , where the
probabilistic
principal aim is to verify that all possible scenarios of incidents and
been taken into account in the design and the operating
accidents have
accidents has
rules .
of severe accidents beyond the design basis
shifted towards
margins
in order to evaluate the
and to
has not changed
optimise accident
form but
this orientation of safety which is presented in
increased the necessity to take into account more and more
has greatly
severe accidents whose probability of occurrence is very low .
For the
problem of safety is considered differently
fast breeder
reactors the
and the research programmes are intended
the phenomenology
accident and the behaviour of materials , components and systems
of the
with the aim of improving the design and conception of future plants .

safety
Chernobyl accident

the
the study

management . The

consequences

a schematic

to analyse

limitation

existing

extent

of

of

of

One can say that now research
on
operational
justified
conditions , and for reactors now
cons truct ion leve 1 .

the

at

the
level ,
being

safety
in

developed

of
normal
at

proven
and
the

reactors is
accidental
design and

2 . The safety of reactors outside Europe

the

60' s

the beginning

of
At
the
the construction
of light
programme on
this programme
was slowed
development of fast reactors was retarded
in 1979
American light water reactors was based

a very important
plants . In 1976 ,
down by the Carter administration while the
practically stopped
and construction of
on multi-disciplinary research

launched
water power
and was
The development

TMI accident .

after the

USA

312

3

those

of this

accident

available

large part

programmes . A
research dealt with safety , notably
all the work used by the NRC to establish the
detailed regulations for
the construction
and operation of these reactors . The results of these
programmes have been largely
countries importing
to
reactors from
USA , in the frame of licensing and bilateral agreements .
the
1979
In
research
TMI
programmes on
safety in the USA and other countries . Without doubt the
TMI accident has led to a
of American
systematic internationalisation
programmes
participation of European and
Japanese
the
these programmes in American laboratories . At the time of
execution of
the TMI accident the American budget for the research of water reactors
bigger than European budget . When new programmes following TMI
was 50%
budget was
had been completed this
can notice
level and governmental organisation a trend to
the industrial
both on
R&D research on inherently safe reactors .

financial
involvement

with
partners

decreased and

reorientation

direct
the

partners

provoked

now one

these

and

the

of

of

in

a

a

a

as

the

means

budget

to
European
programmes have

R&D
for
budget
of
lately been

The Japanese have at present
reactors
similar
reactors . Japanese
countries
information on research programmes of USSR but it
accelerated
construction
water ) and RBMK ( graphite
fast breeders
are based
Chernobyl accident caused by a RMBK reactor has
main
is
countries . Since the Chernobyl accident there
Soviets for
on nuclear safety .

water
and fast
for
1970
for light water
disclosed to European
for international cooperation . There is little
is clear
that their
the VVR type ( light
development work on
on a very big research programme . However the
the USSR’s
the Western
overture from the
in the field of research namely

international cooperation

of
nuclear
light water )

shown that
in
as

of
and their

preoccupation

plants

level

is an

same

not

the

at

the

Besides
above
safety for
important research
heavy water moderated and light water cooled .

mentioned
programmes on

three

countries

Canada

has developed
the CANDU type reactors ,

3 . The safety of reactors in Europe -
international context - successes and failures

what is Europe 's position in the

of European

The development
due to a major effort at the research level . One
one
water reactors and on the other hand the R&D of fast breeder reactors .

nuclear programmes has only been possible
on the
research and applied research on light

must consider

generic

safety

hand

the

In the first area
more or less the size of their nuclear power programmes .

of competence

of member

the level

states reflects

and

German ,

British

are
multi ¬
The
French ,
safety . The
disciplinary and cover many problems
British programme has been directed lately towards specific problems of
water reactors but it has profited from the experience acquired
at the
the 60’s on SGHWRs . The Italian programme is smaller than those
end of
of Germany , France
activities in
Belgium , Netherlands and Spain are of a more specific nature .

programmes
with

Italian
in

connection

research

Kingdom .

United

The

and

313

4

as

and

very

Europeans

relied
agreements

countries
cooperation

European
through
permitting

Originally
American
heavily
programmes
of
the
confirm American results and to
information
acquire knowledge and a level of competitive competence . Specific areas
components , structure of primary circuits ,
such
the
phenomena were
accidents
study of design basis
have progressively
W.
in
Programmes
favoured .
increased and now benefit
of information with
from a
the USA . In 1978 prior to the TMI accident , the USA boasted a budget on
research of safety reactors that was
of the all
the Members States of the Community combined .

thermo-hydraulic
France
and
steady exchange

on
exchange

and
Germany

50% higher

than that

strength

of

to

of

TMI

1979

shifted

emphasis

accident

of occurrence .

research
The
European
to their
programmes towards severe accidents , until then neglected due
low probability
much work was
spent on the evaluation of source terms in various levels of accidents .
Thermohydraulic accidents
the
methods of probabilistic safety analysis and
risks were
human factor as a
developed
inclusion
became the
contributing element of significant
subject of many investigations .

loss of coolant accidents ;
evaluation of
of

attention and

global risks

focussed on

improved .

value to

Special

The

and

the

of

By 1985 as these programmes reached completion , there was a tendency to
the allocation of funds to safety research programmes
the USA
The Chernobyl accident
as well
however put a stop to this tendency by renewing the
necessity to study
the phenomenology and severe accident management more systematically .

the Community .

countries of

in both

as the

on the safety of reactors progressed along
research programme
The JRC
expended by
States and
the Member
parallel lines . In 1987 the amount
the JRC
reactors was more than twice that of
water
the USA ( 238 MECU to 113 MECU of USA ). The JRC programme alone accounts
for 15% of the combined European effort .

safety of

on the

been

reactors ,

is better

water
on an

especially

Their design

reactors
an
have
industrial and technical
European power plants that accumulate more
existence free of
boast an
operation can
regulation safety are on a
safety and
that of control
where a certain complacency

Proven
light
undisputed success in Europe , not only
but also on a safety level .
reactor-years of
than 1000
severe accidents .
par with American plants and their operational safety ,
and operation
contributed to TMI .
The concentration of operating
number of
companies , the standardisation of equipment and vigilance at all stages
have allowed Europe to attain a higher level of reliability and safety .
programmes are now competitive with
As
European
even envisaging
is
latter
those in the USA to the
participating
"PHEBUS-f ission
programme
a
products” . In the past it was mainly European partners who participated
in USA programmes .

research
point
French

the
Community

responsibility to

a limited

than in

the USA

result ,

where

in

a

In the area of fast reactors . R&D activities are very closely connected
the
and are coordinated
Five consortium
Club
and Belgium ) and the scientific and technical
( France , RFA ,
results are at the level of the extensive resources utilized .
The JRC
research in the area of fuels ,
participates significantly

in
UK , Italy

in European

frame

the

of

of

314

5

As

accidents .

the modelling

and analytical and experimental
activities in
of large
as
core
far
the fast breeder is concerned European
of the
between
success in joint development
SUPERPHENIX prototype plant and its failure would certainly question in
political influence
the future this type of
an accident in
caused by
the Chernobyl
to do
198 ? of the auxiliary system of
the station , risks to delay or even jeopardise the
with the
safety of
commercial advent of
EFR reactor
this
( European Fast
was launched by a group of utilities of
Reactor ) which
the countries of the Club of Five ( EFR'JG ) .

SUPERPHENIX , which

conjunction with

had nothing

questioning

accident in

reactor :

reactor

France ,

Italy

fact

RFA

and

and

the

the

in

4 .

What remains to be done in Europe ? Which are the gaps to
what are the new opportunities to seize ?

fill and

the

However ,

of light

Chernobyl

launched 10

taking into

the programmes

water reactors

will finish
terms .

the safety
A great number of

Research on
has to be pursued in
Europe .
years ago have
finished or
soon , especially the work on thermohydraulics
and source
reactivated the
account the possibility of severe accidents ,
necessity of
and leads to the analyses of the phenomology of less probable accidents
increasing number of accidental scenarios . The phenomena for
within an
more thoroughly falls
be conducted
which some
research will
not exhaustive : cooling of
list is
following areas
into the
corium inside and outside
of interaction
phenomena
the production of aerosols ,
between corium
phenomena
the
hydrogen
the
in
containment , a leaktightness , possibility of venting and filtration and
evaluation of corresponding releases .

and concrete
connection

vessel ,
resulting in

have to
but the
the

behaviour

accident

with

the

of

in

of these
management

The results
accidents
handling should be worked out . The study of
operators in
also be pursued .

investigations should
procedure ,

disturbed situations

and

to include

be used

to define severe
methods of sophisticated remote
modeling of
in probabilistic should

behaviour and

it

is

on

the

out

have

been

exists

studies

carried

involved

necessary

structure

the importance

for economical
In recent years some
reasons on the possibility of extending the life of the plants to 35-40
years instead of the 25-30 years initially foreseen . Some research work
already
of primary circuits especially the
steel of the vessels . Also other materials , components and systems will
to study the combined effect of
be
where
ageing in hazardous environments
etc ...). In
of these research topics which need some more
spite of
investigations , the high degree of performance
of the
present installations is the consequence of the solution of most of the
problems in the corresponding research programmes .
is likely that
the level of safety research activities will decrease progressively .
Therefore one
competent researchers and research facilities with
efficiently the
pertaining to the operation of the
reliability and
safety . This
and promptly in case of an accident s tuation .

a team of
to maintain
to utilise
the aim
to say all knowledge
to improve
be able to cope effectively

( radiation , temperature ,

experience accumulated ,

should understand

and reliability

the necessity

be utilised

team should

plants can

that is

It

315

6

that of

research

light water

Fast breeder reactors safety
opposed to
the political choice of the member states regarding the future
type
of
delayed as to
knowledge will
competence .

conducted , as
being
reactors , and the work will depend on
of this
hypothesis that a decision is so
of acquired
salvage
only by maintaining a minimum activity and

In
correspond
be obtained

moratorium

possible

reactor .

still

the

the

to

is

a

the new

reactors of

( spectral-shift

has arisen
As far as new opportunities to be taken , increased interest
: optimisation of fuel
with the
utilisation
improved
of
designs
reactors ),
inherently safe reactors ( power limited to 100 MWe ). The development of
these reactors will require studies and research on safety . It is noted
that
for small inherently safe reactors by
smaller countries and by those where the Chernobyl accident has made an
impact .

generation i.e.
new

interest

shown

been

has

the

one

energy

regards

strategy

As
can see that the production of
nuclear energy is a necessity in the short term for a certain number of
and in the long term for most of them . This form of
European countries
energy in normal conditions of operation
polluting than other
is less
fossil origin . Requirements in connection with the
forms of
energy of
protection of the population
the environment
preservation of
are the necessary counterparts for the development of human activities ,
the Commission ,
industrial
in
the potential risks of nuclear energy utilisation from
confronted with
bad control or in
given broad
had in
priority to actions in the area of safety .

an accident ,

activities .

particular

the 70 's

and the

case of

This

why

is

present

concerning

At
strategy , some member states have made
some irreversible choices , others under the pressure of public opinion ,
particularly after the Chernobyl accident , are hesitating or are on the
verge of renouncing the use of nuclear energy .

energy

European
The Commission must play its
public
service in
reinforcing
in
activities
its
the area of reactor
safety in order to ensure that the countries of the
Community who have
the possible guaranties with
chosen
regard to the health of the population and the environment and to bring
to these
the guaranty of a thorough
their neighbours
independent evaluation .

as
a
initiatives

populations and

role
and

nuclear

energy

taken

have

all

Commission’s

The
the
Community who are as yet non-nuclear to reach a decision not influenced
by pressure groups and subjective psychological arguments but
based on
objective technical arguments .

countries

actions

should

help

also

the

of

on

research

as the action to be initiated or perceived to be pursued at the
As far
In the past
Community level one can make the following considerations .
Community
safety covered generally speaking the
reactor
area where member states carried out national programmes . The Community
contribution was complementary to this programme and benefited from the
support
research
did
of
the future taking into account the general trend of
infrastructure . In
internationalisation of safety research
decreasing of
a
it will assist most probably in a better
these activities ,
funding of

countries

certain

which

large

have

not

and

a

316

7

optimisation
Accordingly , Community
the JRC has the appropriate means to do so .

existing
research can

human

the

play a

of

resources

facilities .
significant role and with

and

As an example one can choose two categories of action
advantages be treated at Community level :

which could with

- problems

where

the

phenomenology

transcends frontiers : the source

term is a typical programme in this connection

- general safety problems not
material

and

specific
problems ,

to

certain
aging ,

types

probabilistic

methodology

human

factors ,

phenomenology

of plants :
risk
severe

of

mechanical
assessment
accidents .

on

to

out

PRA

carried

used to

activity

such as Round Robins ( for example the PISC programme )
Common exercises
or source
or benchmark exercises ( such as those
carry out such actions . One should foresee an
terms ) should be
extension of this type of
comparison of
exercises
methodologies followed in different countries , comparison of the system
of codes employed , modelling , safety margins
aim being the
safety in various
demonstration
countries of the Community and an incentive in member states
to choose
tools ( modelling code packages ) validated and proven
common analytical
In accident management and the reduction of radiation doses of
by all .
play an
handling
workers
the
for
of
important
a
role .
nuclear
hazardous
Telemanipulation
of much
to
environments ( TELEMAN )
needed knowledge .

will
Commission
disordered
development

remote
proposition
in

The
programme
will

techniques
the

etc ... The
of

equivalent

contribute

progress

and
the

margins

the

the

of

of

of

of

second

generation

development

The
inherently safe characteristics and a range of advanced
temperature
will
demand
big
accompanied
Commission should support the action carried out in
participate in related studies .

those with
reactors ( high
the years to come and will
to
be
safety . The
this direction and

commence
constructors .
research

reactors ),
efforts
by

Efforts
the

reactors ,

studies

namely

area

need

from

will

and

of

in

in

317

8

B. Nuclear fuel cycle , Radioactive waste management and
Decommissioning of nuclear installations

1 . General

The nuclear fuel cycle includes the total of activities which is
necessary for the supply of fuel for nuclear power plants (" front-end"
of the cycle) and for the treatment and possibly recycle of spent fuel
-■ Extraction and treatment of
("back-end" of the cycle )
uranium ore - Conversion into appropriate form for enrichment -
Enrichment ( increase in U-235 contents ) - Manufacture of fuel elements
for reactors ; Back-end : - Reprocessing of spent fuel (possibly ) -
Semanufacture of fuel elements (possibly) – Management and disposal of
the produced waste (and of the spent fuel if not reprocessed )

: Front-end :

Some of these activities raise from classical industrial sectors , e.g.
mining industry ; others are special industrial activities often of
high technology character such as enrichment and reprocessing ; finally
the management and the disposal of radioactive waste produced by the
nuclear power plants and the associated fuel cycle facilities ,
to
which should be added the decommissioning of nuclear Installations
shut down , are activities linked with environmental safety and protec¬
tion and don't contribute (at least directly) to the development of
nuclear energy .
All these industrial activities are characterized by
the presence of radioactivity and by the necessity to respect the
strict rules of radioprotection .

Mastering of the front-end of fuel cycle emancipates from the depen¬
dence on supply of enriched uranium Mastering of the back-end , charac¬
terized by the mastering of the reprocessing process , gives access to
plutonium , governs the supply of fuel for fast reactors and permits ,
on longer term , a quasi-total Independence in nuclear energy matters .
Such mastering however has appeared to be out of reach for the majo¬
rity of the Countries , because of the high technology and the impor¬
tant Investments necessary and finally because of the links existing
between the applied technologies and the production of fissile mate¬
rial for military use which give rise to various constraints ( secret ,
international treaties like NPT ).

In summary , the nuclear fuel cycle Includes a number of activities
often of a high technology character and of strategical and commercial
Importance .

2 . Situation outside the Community

the

the

then ,

early

seventies .

Outside the Community , the USA not only mastered but had the world
monopoly for the production of enriched uranium from after the war
until
Government
Since
followed a policy of disengagement , leaving to the private industry
the possibility to finance on its own both the R&D and the new fuel
Given this situation and the one on the domestic
cycle facilities .
nuclear market , there was no reply from the private industry ;
the
has been stopped
facilities
civil reprocessing
dismantled ;
old
survived
industry
installations which were successively shut down as they were low
profitable in using the old gaseous diffusion technology ; the indus¬
trialization of the ultracentrifuge process has been stopped ; the R&D
programme is focussed on the laser enrichment process which could put

industry
enrichment

and
thanks

Federal

the

the

the

to

318

9

Today Europe is
new life into this US industrial sector by mid ’SO .
exporting enriched uranium to the USA .
One can however state that ,
thanks to the military programmes , the USA keep the knowledge to a
level which enables a possible revival by the end of the century .
The
management of radioactive waste is not much developed in spite of the
large budget provided by the electricity producers .
All progress is
in fact blocked by the complex political-social-juridical machinery of
a federal state which is faced to the problem of storing in one or
several states the waste produced on the whole territory .

The USSR masters the total fuel cycle and is in particular an impor¬
tant exporter of
reprocessing activities on an
Industrial scale are practised as well with a view to supply the
russian fast reactors and for military use ; little detail is known
about these facilities .

enriched uranium ;

Japan continues with persistence its effort to master the total of
fuel cycle phases ; success was already achieved on reprocessing thanks
to a close cooperation with France which provided the technology and
know-how ; at present spent fuel is being reprocessed in the Tokai-Mura
prototype plant or in the United Kingdom and/ or France ; a large plant
with a capacity of 800 t /y is under construction at Rokkasho Mura and
Japan considers it necessary
is scheduled to be operational by 1995 .
to develop the utilization of plutonium as nuclear fuel in order to
guarantee its nuclear independence (Japan has no uranium ore mines ) .
Japan remains still dependent upon USA and France for supply of
a prototype with a capacity of 200 tons
enriched uranium ; however ,
the
of
SWU / year
followed
ultra-centrifuge
the
should
Japanese supply ; for the long term the advanced enrichment technique
A long and important effort is made on the
by laser is being studied .
management and disposal of radioactive waste ; vitrification of high
level waste should start from 1990 onwards and disposal in geological
formations in the beginning of next century .

a
technology ,

using
guarantee

SWU/year ,
term

tons
6hort

1500
on

plant

by

of

its military programmes ;

China masters also to a certain degree the fuel cycle , mainly as a
consequence
by
gaseous diffusion , is operational since 1965 and a pilot facility for
the reprocessing of LWR fuel should go into service in 1996 .
The
management of radioactive waste is the subject of a recent effort and
a long term programme has been launched for the study of disposal of
waste in deep geological formations .

enrichment

plant ,

an

India , Pakistan , South Africa , Brazil , Argentina , etc . do not master
on an industrial scale the entire fuel cycle , but have prototype or
pilot installations for enrichment or reprocessing .
Their development
is curbed by international measures concerning exchange of technology
with proliferation risk .

3 . Situation in Europe - What has to be done ?

The Community is the part of the world where the fuel cycle has been
mastered at the most in all its phases ,
and developed both on an
industrial scale and in a commercial sense .

Large uranium enrichment facilities are operational since at least one
decade ; they apply the gaseous diffusion technique ( Eurodif company ,
plant in France ) or the ultra centrifuge process ( Urenco company , with
plants in the Netherlands , the Federal Republic of Germany and the

10

they supply Europe and export on the world market
United Kingdom) ;
this in competition with the USSR and USA .
The enrichment by laser
which process should replace by the end of the century the too expen¬
is subject to important research
sive gaseous diffusion technique ,
It concerns here a sector of high
programmes , especially in France .
scientific qualify and of very advanced technology , of which mastering
on an industrial scale could contribute to the energy independence of
the Community in the first part of the next century .
Taking into
account the difficulties , the cost and the stake , a cooperation within
the Community could be most desirable .

The reprocessing of spent fuel is likewise applied on an industrial
scale at different levels in France ,
the United Kingdom and the
The plant at La Hague in France is the
Federal Republic of Germany .
largest in the world and would within
a few years be accompanied by
the Thorp plant at Sellafleld in the United Kingdom and by the
Wackersdorf plant in Germany , the latter with a lower capacity .
A
certain concertatlon exists between these three big ones on repro¬
cessing via the United Reprocessors company .
Finally the industrial
development of the fuel cycle stages involving uranium - plutonium for
light water reactors is under way in these same three countries which ,
only together with Japan , seem to achieve its complete mastering in
the near future .

The importance of investments to consent to these different installa¬
tions , in order to obtain a profitable capacity , excludes practically
Nevertheless , other Member States
initiatives from smaller countries .
of the Community , in particular Belgium , are closely associated with
the countries mentioned above on various fuel cycle phases ( e.g. fuel
fabrication) .

The management of radioactive waste is in particular developed and
supported at R&D level in most of the countries of the Community
(For example , the two existing commercial
having a nuclear programme .
vitrification processes are
The
disposal in deep geological formations is likewise being studied with
large financial means .

from french and german origin).

Research in the area of radioactive waste has been and is currently
supported at Community level by a shared cost programme 1985-1989 ,
with a budget of 62 million ECU which is already the third five year
programme on this subject , and a directly research programme 1984-1987
executed by the Joint Research Centre at Ispra .

and

treatment

in its first part , studies on
The shared cost programme Includes ,
on system
actions
development
research and
waste management
studies ,
waste ,
radioactive
conditioning
and
qualification of engineered barriers , the development of repositories ,
the safety of geological disposal and the elaboration of management
A second part concerns the construction and /or exploitation
policies .
of
the
:
underground facility in the clay at Mol , Belgium ,
(HADES project ) the
Belgian nuclear research centre SCK/CEN cooperates with french and
british companies in the framework of activities supported by the
Community programme and the tests in the Asse salt mine in Germany
continue with participation from the Netherlands , France and Spain .

underground

activities

facilities

joint

open

in

to

of

The programme of the Joint Research Centre at Ispra covers three big
items : management of radioactive waste and fuel cycle , safety of

12 0

11

waste disposal
In geological
disposal into ocean sediments .

formations

and feasibility of waste

in

in

and

this

area

and ,

more

more

been

future ,

dismantled

Europe were

Moreover , in all countries having nuclear power programmes there exist
nuclear installations being shut down of which only a small number
large
the
have
Research
installations will arrive at their end of normal lifetime .
in
activities
the
beginning .
A more systematic and coherent action has been undertaken
at communitary level and a shared cost community programme 1984-1988 ,
with a budget of 12.1 millions of ECU , has been put in place , which
aims at a joint development of the management of installations shut
down and the waste arising at dismantling .
This programme covers
mainly ,
in its first part , research and development actions on the
dismantling
long
techniques , treatment of specific waste , containers of large dimen¬
sions and system studies ,
trial of new
in
techniques under real conditions in the framework of decommissioning
operations at large scale .

its second part ,

decontamination ,

structures ,

integrity

dispersed

rather

term

and ,

of

at

Politico-strategical , military end commercial aspects have generally
Impeded or discouraged possibly Initiatives at community level on most
of the nuclear fuel cycle phases of which some are moreover safe¬
guarded by secrets .
This explains also the present concentration of
community R&D on activities having a public service or safety charac¬
ter (Community R&D programmes on management and storage of radioactive
waste , the decommissioning of nuclear installations ).

In the future , the main action should remain on safety and the envi¬
ronment , that is to say the storage of waste and the dismantling of
installations .
To a much lower degree than the industrial toxic waste
these are the two main daily nuclear problems in the
is true ,
it
beginning of the next century .

waste

reprocessing waste ,

With regard to nuclear waste* the new programme 1988-1991 of the Joint
Research Centre Includes studies on the treatment and solidification
of
of
geological disposal .
A new five year 1990-1994 shared cost programme
on management and disposal of radioactive waste is under preparation .
The main lines of the present programme will be maintained by intro¬
ducing some modifications , for example , in Increasing the activities
on natural analogues and in enlarging the supporting activities to the
projects on construction and / or exploitation of underground facili¬
ties .

characterization

safety

and

the

In the field of decommissioning of nuclear installations ,
the new
shared cost programme 1989-1993 , approved by the Commission on the
19th of July 1988 with a budget of 31.5 million ECU , conserves also
the main lines of the previous programme .
However , to the research
and development actions , an action on qualification and adaptation of
semi-autonomous telecommanded handling systems has been added .
The
part regarding practical testing of new techniques should be carried
out in the framework of decommissioning operations performed at large
scale in the Member States .

321

12

As regards the basic research supporting the fuel cycle activities^
research on actinides constitutes an element of importance .
This research implies high cost , high risk , licensing problems and
unusual safety precautions , which exclude universities and conventio¬
nal national research institutions from entering into the field .
It
thus constitutes an excellent examples for the beneficial effect of
Community efforts providing facilities which otherwise could not have
been available .
Actinide
European
almost
Institute for Transuranium Elements , is dealing with the investigation
of properties ,
technological
and
application of the heaviest elements in the Periodic Table , elements
all of which are radioactive and some fissile .

possibilities

exclusively

Research ,

handling

executed

risks

the

of

at

All the activities related to fuel cycle have to be carried out in
such a way as to guarantee the peaceful use of the nuclear materials
concerned and the work on safeguards and fissile materials management
responds to a Community obligation to implement nuclear safeguards in
the framework of the Euratom Treaty , the Non Proliferation Treaty and
nuclear material supply agreements with third countries .
The JRC
through its research and development programme , acquires the basic
scientific knowledge and gets acquainted with new technologies needed
to provide , later on , an effective support to safeguards inspectorates
of the Commission (DG XVII ) and of IAEA .
Fissile materials management
by plant operators , which has an impact on the implementation of
safeguards , will influence the orientations of
the JRC 's specific
programme .
Efficient cooperation , including task sharing , with ESARDA
and with
( European Safeguards Research and Development Association)
the US Department of Energy , has been established to minimize duplica¬
tion efforts in R&D activities .
In the safeguards area , the research will be oriented towards :
. The study of the safeguards and fissile material management techni¬
ques and the demonstration of the way they can be integrated in the
inspection and plant operation activity .

. The performance assessment Instruments and devices under realistic

field conditions .

Due to the strong demand for training of Euratom and IAEA inspectors
in
this
the use of measurement
training activity is foreseen .

increase of

substantial

systems ,

322

13

C. Radiation Protection .

ORIGINAL ENGLISH

1 ) Aims of Radiation Protection .

Radiation Protection aims to protect man and his environment from
the possible harmful action of ionizing radiation . Man is exposed to
the following sources of radiation of which natural exposure followed
by medical diagnostics are the most important one :

- natural sources ( cosmic radiation ,

" external " radiation from natural
radionuclides
from
natural radionuclides in the body including inhaled radon and its
daughter nuclides ),

environment ,

" internal "

radiation

in man 's

- exposure in the context of radiological medical diagnostics ,
- exposure

activities

industrial

nuclear

from

such

as

production .

power

In line with the expanding use of ionizing radiation in nuclear
industries and medicine and the increased concern of the public about
it is imperative that man and his environment be
radiation risks ,
adequately protected .
The persons of concern in this respect are
workers in nuclear industries who receive their exposure mainly in an
occupational context and the general public which is exposed primarily
to natural sources and medical diagnostic irradiation .
Radiation
protection research is needed to provide the scientific background for
the
and
regulations in radiation protection . Such research must also help the
relevant authorities to reach rational decisions on the development of
technologies involving exposure to radiation and on crisis management
in case of an accident . Radiation protection research in general and
the CEC Radiation Protection Programme in particular thus have a
central role in all policies related to nuclear development .

establishment

standards

updating

safety

basic

and

of

Consequently , research in radiation protection aims to define more

accurately :

- the various sources of natural , medical and industrial exposure , how
these sources reach man via environmental and other pathways and how
they contribute to human exposure ,

- the biological effects of radiation , particularly from low doses ,
the most prevalent type of exposure , as well as the consequences of
accidental exposure to high doses and how these can be prevented or
treated ,

- the problems related to the management of radiation protection of
workers in nuclear industries as well as the possible consequences
such
of
installations ,

neighborhood

population

exposure

the

the

to

in

of

- the potential radiological consequences of radiation accidents ,

their management and the development of countermeasures ,

- the realistic

radiation
industrialized
and
implemented in an optimal way .

exposure ,

assessment of the risks from the different types of
the
be

risks
protection

how they

radiation

society ,

compare

in
can

other

how

to

323

2.Kistorv and Present Status of Radiation Protection :

made

Radiation protection research and regulatory activities started soon
after the discovery of X-rays and artificial radioactivity . Interest
in radiation protection research expanded rapidly during the fifties
and sixties in response to the development of nuclear energy and the
fear of nuclear warfare . It has declined somewhat in recent years , but
interest in radiation protection has been renewed as a consequence of
the
in many
respects , a pacesetter for protection against other harmful agents in
man 's environment . The understanding of radiation exposure , effects and
risks
protection
has
closely the
philosophy ,
expanding scientific knowledge , providing a stimulus and methods for
protection from other harmful agents .

Chernobyl accident . Radiation protection has

radiation
followed

and practices

considerable

regulations

progress ,

and
have

Nevertheless , as a result of this progress , the remaining gaps and
uncertainties have become more apparent , and other problems have arisen
in relation to the development of new technologies involving radiation
exposure and the management of radiation accidents . Public acceptance
of such technologies will depend on an understanding of what radiation
is , how it acts , what hazards it presents under operational conditions
and after accidents and how the benefits of radiation application are
perceived . Substantial social and economic considerations are obviously
involved in the development of technologies involving exposure to
radiation .

been ,

The scientific information used to develop radiation protection
philosophy , concepts and practices comes from many various sources and
requires the integration of information from several disciplines .
Research in the Community is of a high scientific and technical level
and , largely as a result of the Commission' s programme , has achieved
a large degree of coordination and integration . It is crucial , however ,
that adequate research effort be continued so that the expertise now
available in the Community , needed for the every-day protection of man
and essential for crisis management in times of an emergency be
maintained in the future .

in

research

radiation

Community

protection

in the order of one third ,

contributes
a
to the worldwide
considerable share ,
activities in this area , and the interchange of information ,
the
discussion on common research priorities and even joint experiments
among Community institutes and those in other countries are very
intensive . This interchange has recently received a boost through newly
concluded memoranda of understandings by the CEC with the USA and
Canada . It is characteristics for radiation protection that certain
international organizations play an important role in the scientific
assessment of risks and in recommendations for regulations , for example
the International Commission on Radiological Protection ( ICRP ), the
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measures ( ICRU ), the
United Nations Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( UNSCEAR ).
Programme
Community scientists
CEC
participate actively and decisively in
these
of
organizations .

Protection
activities

Radiation
the

and

the

3 ) The Role of the Commission in Radiation Protection
The EURATOM Treaty has given the Commission an important task in both
regulatory and research activities in radiation protection in the

324

15

Community and has linked these two activities together . Indeed , since
its conception the Radiation Protection Programme of the Commission of
the European Communities has become an integral and important part of
European research efforts in radiation protection sponsoring directly
more than 30 % of all the relevant research in the Community and
coordinating about 80 % of this work . This coordination and cooperation
of research have allowed Member States to concentrate on those topics
which they considered of priority with respect to energy production ,
health and environmental protection , and underlying basic research
while relying on their partners in the Community and the coordination
by the Commission 's Programme for information on other subjects or for
the use of special installations . This complementary structure with
intensive cooperation and very little duplication of effort has been
one of the most successful aspects of the Commission 's Radiation
Protection Programme resulting not only in a remarkable interdependence
of European radiation protection research but also in substantial
savings to Member States .

4 ) Future Needs in Radiation Protection :

Protection of human health , i.e. , of workers and the general public ,
and of the environment are goals which will continue to be important
for the future . The Radiation Protection Programme thus remains an
essential element in the Commission 's policies to protect human health
and
radiation
protection research in Member States as well as the Commission 's
Radiation Protection Programme should continue at the present level of
funding thereby maintaining the scientific ,
economic and politic
advantages gained by the Community approach .

Consequently ,

to develop

sources

energy .

safe

of

phase

critical

It should be emphasized , that radiation protection has now entered
a
competent
particularly
scientists has declined substantially and will continue to do so unless
support for training and research can be provided . At a time when
technologies involving radiation in general and nuclear power in
of
particular meet
Community expertise in this field could have economic and social
consequences
a
which
considerable extent .

increasing resistance by the public ,

development

European

because

number

could

harm

loss

the

the

of

to

a

The Commission 's services have prepared a document of the Community
Research Needs in the Field of Radiation Protection for the Period
1930-1994 .

These needs concentrate on

A ) Human exposure to radiation and radioactivity .

- Measurement of radiation dose and its interpretation .
- Transfer and behavior of radionuclides in the environment .

B ) Consequences

of

radiation

exposure

to man ;

prevention and treatment .
- Stochastic effects of radiation .
- Non-stochastic effects of radiation .
- Radiation effects on the developing organism .

their

assessment ,

C ) Risks and management of radiation exposure .
- Assessment of human exposure and risks .
- Optimization and management of radiation protection .

325

- 1 -

BASIC RESEARCH ANNEX 10

of science and technology .

The speed of scientific development in the later 20th century
dictates that scientists must grapple with processes of change
both at the macro and micro scale .
So a comprehension of dynamic
non linear and complex phenomena is fundamental to progress in
In many cases the
all spheres
greatest benefits from science have been derived from what was
originally Judged to be 'useless' scientific enquiry .
Despite
the ever decreasing gap between fundamental investigations and
economically significant applications the view is still current
among science policy makers and Industrial leaders that science
(at least publicly funded science) has to be practioed not for
the pursuit of new knowledge but for the sake of technological
and industrial applications with direct economic benefits .
By
its very nature basic research moves into unknown territory and
few can judge in advance what might be the future consequences or
applications of the new knowledge to be acquired .
It was Faraday
who most neatly compared asking about the usefulness of new
scientific discoveries with asking what a newly bom baby was
To take a crude example , if past scientific research
good for .
had been limited to ml salon-oriented and socially relevant topics
we might now have better candles and oil
lamps than our
forefathers but nothing making use of electricity .

is

for

however .

hundreds

Although

no room

There
Basic
complacency
Research has led to breakthroughs on many fronts and is both
fuelling transformations in society and helping it to adapt to
these changes it is subject to fashion and inertia at oertain
Thus there are topics which for years polarise the
points .
efforts
way ,
scientists .
of
technologists and industrialists find themselves trapped in the
inertia and rigidity of a ^system where attitudes still block free
between disciplines and between
interchange between countries ,
the academic and industrial sectors .
So there is a tendency to
pursue marginal improvements in fields which are already well
It must
developed rather than more topical or promising themes .
that many politicians , often more interested in short
be
term
substantial
innovations .

are also

oriented

results

little

same

the

too

In

to

of

In this context Europe , with its wealth of humanistic , scientific
and technological culture , with its pluralism and diversity of
its
traditions ,
patrimony of knowledge , experience , history , professionalism and
n-rha-n centres (as Professor Colombo , Chairman of ENEA , wrote ten
years ago) is ideally placed , indeed better placed than any other

its methods of organization and production ,

326

- 2 -

to maintain a fresh dynamic and unfettered approach to
zona ,
And we must do so if we are to keep abreast of
Basio Research .
social
that
Europe 's citizens have of its scientists and of its politicians ,
and overcome the continuing imbalances in the world economy so
that an countries can develop their full potential .

transformations ,

expectations

live

the

up

to

For the purposes of this report
the rapidly expanding and
combining fields of science have been grouped into four main
areas :

1 )- Physics

2 ) - Mathematics

3 )- Chemistry

4 ) - Earth Sciences

This is by no means to ignore the importance of life sciences
which are dealt with in other annexes to this document .

- 3 -

1 ) PHYSICS

From the subnucloar world, of elsnentary particle to the whole of
physics examines phenomena across a range whose
the cosmos ,
breadth and diversity is truly breathtaking .
Although it is
concerned with fundamental questions about the origins of the
universe and the structure of matter , its impact extends far
beyond the satisfaction of man's desire to understand nature .

has

every

science ,

in physics

touched almost

Physics bears a special relationship with most of the sciences .
Progress
by
contributing -theoretical concepts and experimental techniques and
its applications have changed cur daily lives .
Inventions such
as the transistor and the laser have generated entire industries
- microelectronics and optical technology for instance - with
revolutionary consequences that will continue to transform our
society .
At the same time remarkable developments such as X-rays
and the most recent nuclear magnetio-resonanoe imaging have
Whether it is the magnifloent
improved the human condition .
complexity of proteins and nucleic acids or the grandeur of the
universe , physics provides the principles and models to carry out
the necessary studies .
Recent discoveries in physics axe among the greatest achievements
tunneling
of
microscopy have made possible new classes of experiments .
Fusion
research continues to progress towards the goal of new energy
sources ;
Particle accelerators and telescopes are being used in
order to give the answer to the nature of energy and matter and
their transformations .
All these developments confirm the old
axiom that physics is fundamental to all the natural sciences , a
field where the sum of the parts accounts for more than the
total .

Synchrotron

radiation

sources

time .

and

our

Europe 's position in physics is a reflection of the position
common to «.n the natural sciences .
Here as elsewhere Europe has
a long scientific tradition , promising scientiflo potential and
results which are first rate , especially in basic research ;
at
the same time , however , there are chronic weaknesses such as a
continuing seepage of talent into better resourced environments
outside
infrastucture ,
barriers between traditional areas and between physics and other
disciplines , between the different sectors (whether academic or
industrial) and of oourse between the various national scientifio
communities .
By no means the least of the weaknesses in European
physics is the widespread difficulty that is experienced in
turning

knowledge into successful industrial applications .

inadequate

outdated

Europe ,

and

an

328

- 4 -

the

more

perhaps

physics

elsewhere ,

experimental
than
In
At
facilities needed are increasingly sophisticated and costly .
obsolescent
the same time existing equipment grows more rapidly
as technological breakthroughs are made .
There remain barriers
of mutual suspicion at least between basio and applications-
oriented research although it is increasingly difficult and
unreal istlo to separate the two .
In many fields physics is
moving closer to other disciplines and this is reflected by a
growing awareness of the need for a matching imiltidisciplinarity
of approach and the development of altogether new fields at the
interfaces .

Lastly and again in common with other areas of science one of
Europe 's biggest weaknesses is the fragmentation of physics into
restricted national scientific circles and the wasted strength
and potential this represents compared with our competitors .

together

Physicists have always sought to uncover the ultimate structure
elementary particles from which the infinite
of matter , the
variety around us is built , and to formulate the laws that bind
these
atoms ,
constituents
molecules , stars and galaxies .
Progress in the last few years has led to the belief that the
answers to these questions are close at hand . The subnuclear
world of 'elementary particles' , which was onoe
likened to a
zoo , has became a gratifyingly orderly place : we now possess a
standard model of the universe as being made of
quarks and leptons , bound together by foroe-carrying particles .

up nuclei ,

building

theory
Qiantum chroraodynamics seems to be proving the
Weak and electromagnetic forces
of the strong nuclear force .
have been unified in a single gauge-field theory .
And the
current objective 1s to develop a Grand Unification scheme which
will embrace the three fundamental forces , gravity , the unified
electromagnetic-weak and the strong nuclear force , that control
the behaviour of all bulk matter aid. of biological , chemical and
nuclear phenomena .

correct

made ,

both at

the most

recent
where many of
The contribution of Europe ,
outstanding ,
the
discoveries
been
has
were
theoretical and experimental level .
Much of the success is due
to CERN , the European centre for High Energy Particle Physics .
Designed initially to respond to the ever growing costs of
experimental facilities for Subnuclear
Physics , it has become
the meeting place of the European scientific community working in
the melting pot for new ideas and a centre of
the field ,
excellence ,
the
where major advances
-meson ' s rare decay mode which bad escaped
discovery of a
detection in previous U.S.A. experiments , was followed some years
later by the discovery of neutral currents and more recently by
the discovery of the W & Z particles , which established the
theoretical predictions for a unified electromagnetic and weak

have been achieved

:

329

- 5 -

art ,

These

results

triumphs

technique

represent

impressive

experimental

of
force .
theoretical
accelerator
reasoning .
In fact , GERN 's engineering skills as well as the
accumulated know-how and the numerous spin-offs such as the
superconducting magnets technology are additional sources of
is
The world 's biggest particle accelerator ,
success .
currently under construction , an undertaking whose forbidding
CERN ha-q inri<=*yi
costs at national level dictated a joint effort .
served
joint
si mi i AT-
many
example
initiatives , either in the sams field such as HERA in Hamburg or
in other fields such as Space (ESA) and Nuclear Fusion (JET).

an encouraging

LEP ,

for

and

as

Recent progress in particle physics has generated stimulating
ideas in cosmology which is also concerned with the nature of
Grand Unified theories are
forces and constituents of matter .
tested through their cosmological implications and questions on
the origin and the evolution of the universe might find the right
answer in scenarios inspired by elementary particle physics .

Astrophysics is not the only discipline to have benefited from
The same is true for
its interaction with particle physics .
statistical mechanics and condensed matter physics .
Further , the
needs of particle physics for advanced computational methods have
led to
the development and implementation of new computer
architectures .

of

the

handful

discoveries

Within
have
scientific
revolutionized society is the discovery of semiconductors , upon
which the computer and communication technologies were based .
A
stream of new materials with remarkable qualities is already
flowing from laboratories : glass that bends without breaking ,
plastics as tough as steel , metals that stretch .
Plastics and composite materials , transistors and semiconductor
chips are but a few of the practical oonsequeaoes of research in

that

more

research .

fundamental

this has the greatest impact on
our daily lives through the technological developments to which
it gave and gives rise .
The field 's claim is in fact that it
holds the reoord for converting basio science into sophisticated
industrial technology on a time scale of 5 to 10 years .
It is
equally true that technological achievements provide a feed-back
for
the
interplay between science and technology is unique and therefore
a field where joint community effort is required in order to face
Community activities
the challenge from both the U.S. and Japan.
should in particular encourage initiatives that will help break
down the barriers between basic and applied research .
Moreover ,
the experimental infrastructure required becomes quite rapidly
obsolete and the new equipment even more expensive .
Community
».im at a better exploitation of the existing
efforts phrmiri
facilities
whether
ghmild
«rri
existing , as in the oase of ILL at Grenoble , or not .

collaboration ,

is a field ,

reinforce

where

the

It

3

- 6 -

In fact , in recent years the emphaais has shifted towards non-
classical systems : from organic conductors and liquid crystals
to superconductors and superfluids , from amorphous ani metastahle
materials to the highly speculative quasi-cxrystals , spectacular
results have been produced .

Much of the early oollabor&tive research in these fields financed
by the Community has been supported by the Stimulation Action .

the ability of electrical currents to flow
Euperoavriuotlvity .
is a phenomenon of
without resistance in pertain conductors ,
remarkable and essential
great
applications
an
explosive growth in the technical and industrial spin-offs : from
medical diagnostics imaging to the world 's biggest particle
accelerator , from fast-switching devioes to fusion research .

intricacy ,
in

that has
most
the

led to
ambitious

technologies ,

with

It is estimated that by the year 2000 , the worldwide economic
impact of superconductivity will be tens of hid lions of ECOS
which may explain why reoent discoveries in novel superconducting
materials have created such an excitement in the world scientific
community .
The high potential for still wider applications makes
superconductivity an attractive and challenging area for further
research and development . This is indeed a field where joint
European action 1s urgently needed , a reality which has already
been
the
Commission .

departments

scientific

faced by

relevant

the

of

a

for

tool

with

reality

striking

physical

understanding

to be a theoretical

Gnoe held
3-
dimensional real systems ,
one-and two-dimensional models have
become
technological
applications .
We now have quasi-ane-dirrensional magnetio systems
These
and quasi-two-dimensional systems of layered compounds .
modern low-dlmensl oral material s have properties which include a
non-classical behaviour of the electronic conductivity and apart
technological interest they have themselves been the
from their
fractionally
fundamental discoveries
of
source
quantised
quantum-well
heterostructures and superlattices , that is deliberately designed
cpiasi-two-dimensional
a
revolutionary nature for the future of more sophisticated lasers ,
detectors , higher-speed transistors and advanced optoelectronic
devioes .

HeteroJunctions ,

achievements

structures ,

such as

effect .

Hall

are

the

of

structured

two-dimensional

a-rt.1 f1 o1 all y
and

One of the most remarkable advances in the last decade was the
including
of
creation
superlattioes
These
materials possess properties that can differ considerably from
those
these
properties can be tuned in desirable ways . In particular the
method of ion implantation has made it possible to create
materials with new properties that oan not be produced by more
classical means .

constituents

materl als .

electron

in the

gases .

state

their

bulk

and

of

- 7 -

Research, within the past decade has shown also that as materials
axe subjected to more extreme physical conditions , they display
new or special properties .
On the other hand , the development of
new experimental tools , such, as the intense synchrotron radiation
source and vacuum tunneling microscopy ,
capable of a high
resolution probe , have Shifted the emphasis in condensed-matter
physics to systems more interesting than the classical ones from
a scientifio and technological joint of view ,
To
as
theoretical
renormalization group methods and the imaginative use of the
computer have been used to embrace ever-more complex phenomena :
iiirperfect aid disordered systems , strongly perturbed rather than
are now

complement

these ,

tools ,

such

new

of

at

and

ever

lower

matter

condensed

at the forefront of scientists ' attention .
higher
Studies
temperatures , at higher magnetic and electric fields , at higher
and lower pressures and at much higher purities will continue to
provide us with materials and properties ever more surprising and
interesting from a technological point of view .
It is a field where progress has and will depend on highly
such as Molecular Beam
sophisticated and modem equipment ,
The high
Epitaxy (MBE) machines and vacuum tunneling microscopy .
cost
European
many
laboratories , and a Stimulation activity of scientifio exchanges
could give access
for more European
soientists .

forbidding

apparatus

equipment

existing

such

for

is

of

to

The variety of

Having started from the study of liquid crystals based on small
organio molecules , more effort is currently being devoted to
those formed by polymers , colloidal, suspensions and biological
structures .
the large
number of unusual macroscopic phenomena found uniquely in the
liquid-crystal phase is In fact the reason why a great deal of
research
present .
Their non-linear response to rather simple external forces and
the subsequent complex structural charges have provided a rich
testing ground for theoretical ideas in the fields of non-linear
phenomena , molecular ordering and phase transitions .

exhibiting

substances

undertaken

being

at

is

an even more recent discovery ,

are materials
Ona-gj -c-ry^-hal a .
which may prove to possess major industrial interest .
The study
of their physical properties and their atomic arrangement has
just started , following the fabrication of large samples in the
laboratory .

332

- 6 -

Its uses Include atmosphere analysis ,
printing ,
as

The most dramatio device created am used in optics , as well as
in almost every branch of science , medicine and industry , is the
laser surgery ,
laser .
laser
and
electrord.cs
optical
manufacturing
into
the
today 's
possible
properties
ultralong-distance optical-fibre communications systems .
Semioonduotor
billion
bits
magneto-optlo
speciality applications .

lasers can nowadays
of
per
information
and

exceeding a
electro-optic ,
found
already

laser
well
materials ,

chemistry ,
basic
which

home
research
made
has

signals
and
have

acouto-optio

send
second

devices

as

of

Community Stimulation support to the European Joint
optical
Bistability (EdOB) project made it possible to produce not just
the first optical version of a transistor in the world , but also
proved the
Optical
bistability has also became a new arena for tire study of non¬
linear systems , turbulence and chaotic motion .

of an all-optical

feasibility

computer .

complex

dynamics .

The field of nnnl 1 nmr dynamics . Instabilities and, chaos is in
fact undergoing a period of rapid extension .
A new mathematical
language and way of thinking about nonlinear dynamics has been
developed by mathematicians and , more recently , by physicists .
Computer techniques have been essential for experimental studies
of
also
is
It is a field of
performing crucial research in fiuid mechanics .
possible
a highly
applications
and
biology .
It is a field where the Stimulation Action con play an
important role by encouraging and strengthening mult^disciplinary
activities ,
and multisectoral
results and future trends will be neniioned in the chapter on
Mathematics .

interdisciplinary

superconducting

wi th
devices ,

astrophysics

engineering

widespread

community

research .

Details

current

nature

The

to

of

of

tiie

basic

fields

sciences ,

principles

Although the physics of the nucleus itself is among the least
understood
and
techniques of nuclear physics have been used for years in a large
number of applications : from solid-state physics to molecular
genetics , from food technology to forensic medicine , from mineral
to
prospecting to career therapy , with nuclear fusion promising
Nuclear medicine has by now been firmly
be a new energy souroe .
established as a standard port
pratlce .
of modem medical
Specifically tailored radioisotopes and accelerator beams are
used for both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and X-ray
radiology and nuclear magnetic recoiexce tomography are two of
the most valued techniques for diagnosing disorders of the brain
and blood circulation as well as malignancy .
Medical instrumentation is in fact one of the many areas where
the contribution of physics has been outstanding and where
Community support will produce results that will directly improve
the human oondltion .

333

- e -

2) MA33ŒMÂTICS

the

The

Some

long

have

advent

Unlike

Science ,

results .

Physical

standing

problems

progress

Sciences ,

like all

In the history of Modem Mathssstics one does not speak of
'Revolutions' .
in
Mathematics does not necessarily require you. to prove yourself
wrong as scon as possible' (ELP . Feynman).
A proven mathematical
result stands for ever .
Nevertheless we can distinguish periods
of intense activity during which, new trends appear resulting in
deep and lasting changes in methodology , goals and perspectives .
Is currently
sciences
other
Mathematical
undergoing such a period of transition .
This is manifest, in a
First , we are witnessing rapid progress in
variety of ways .
soientifio
been
New fields are opening
solved , new ones are being formulated .
up in the frontiers of knowledge (topology , geometry etc ...).
Entire branches , which, have been developed separately , are coining
into contact .
has
of
revolutionized whole subjects from abstract mathematical logic
and number theory to the most applied areas of numerical analysis
But what may be more important is the change in
and modelling .
methods
different
barriers
perspectives .
branches are gradually disappearing .
The old distinction between
pure and applied mathematics is becoming lees and less visible .
Mathematics and mathematicians are earning out from their ivory
towers and.
their inspiration in contact with other
sciences .
In this respect they go back to the tradition of the
old Masters such as Poincard , Hilbert or Cartan whose fundamental
contributions in pore mathematics were often made in response to
In the same way we see
outstanding problems in other sciences .
today
non-
fields
coinmutatlve geometry which are finding direct applications to the
classification of defects in crystals or the theory of elementary
particles .
Even more important is the fact that some of these
mathematical theories are being developed precisely to answer
questions raised in the context of problems in physics .
The
theory of infinite dimensional Lie algebras is being developed
jointly by mathematicians and physicists .

computers

topology ,

abstract

K-theory

such as

between

finding

speed

high

and

The

or

In the limited space available we cannot review the whole of this
exciting and rapidly changing field . We choose to mention only a
single example not because it is intrinsically more important but
simply because it illustrates very clearly the interdisciplinary
The example chosen is
character of modern mathematical research .
the
phenomena
non-linear
the
mathematical
and
the
revolutionising
ideas
geometrical
applications of dynamical systems .

theory
that

and
theory

of
are

Most real, -world problems confronting the analyst being neither
the domain of
1 1 -nAa-p nor even nearly linear
fall
traditional closed-form analysis .
At ^ present time we are
witnessing a spectacular blossoming of non-linear dynamics made
strides in
possible on the
Poincar6 ' s topological approach and on the other by the wide

one hard, by great

theoretical

outside

334

- 10 -

availability of powerful digital and analogue computers .
This
has been stimulated end sustained by important am exciting new
applications that have multi piled throughout the biological ,
ecological , social aid economic sciences , far beyond the still
vibrant tradional fields of mechanics , physics and chanistry .

Indeed ,
system needs
versatile
invoked .

'wherever the time evolution of a natural or man-made
subtle and
theory are being

to he modelled and explored ,

of dynamical

techniques

systems

the

in

its

this

major

thrust

advanced

significant

theoretical ,

element
most

nicely
A
epitomises
and
experimental features is the discovery and delineation of chaotic
motions In remarkably simple deterministic medals from a galaxy
of disciplines ranging from population dynamics and meteorology
to lasers and particle accelerators .
The recent discovery of
quite large regimes of chaos in the long-famildar , sinusoidally
driven Duffing aid van tier Fol oscillators emphasizes just how
much
ordinary
by
differential equations .

which
c:arputiaual

classical

analysis

missed

was

tlie

of

With the advent of high speed computers , it might have seemed
But quite
that dynamical systems theory would simply fade away .
the reverse is true and it is indeed one of the fastest growing
fields of interdisciplinary mathematics .
The reason is that on
the one hand the problems it raises and tlie challenges it sets to
pure mathematics are truly fascinating and on the other its broad
yet precise geometrical ideas are vitally needed to guide the
analyst through the
bewildering variety of complex behavior that
he is likely to eroounter .

Tims evolutions must normally be modeled by nrn-lin>ear equations
for which closed form analytical solutions are unobtainable .
Tney axe however
readily integrated numerically by routine
computer algorithms so that the response from given starting
But the starting conditions of
conditions is easily established .
a real
system are rever known precisely and may be totally
unknown : wnat initial conditions should be assumed for a complex
model of the atmosphere or mi oilrig at sea in a developing'
So since tie motions of a non-linear system can depend
storm ?
crucially an these conditions ,
to
emerge .
How can we hope to explore the responses from all
possible starts ?

a formidable

task begins

this

theory in the

a system and how

Clearly we need seme overview of what- can happen In the evolution
of
starting
is
Here we have our first major guidance from dynamical
conditions .
systems
Typical ,
of an
dissipative dynamioal systems exhibit a start-up transient , after
which the action settles down towards some form of long-term
recurrent
to
converge towards sldhlfi attracting solutions .
Toe simplest is e stationary equilibri-rc point at which all

IniTaenoed.

attractor ■

behaviour ,

adjacent

concept

holloas

starts

from

tend

the

by

335

- 11 -

stvdied
motion has ceased .
whatever
experimentally
by
starting values of position end velocity ,
'this returns to its
vertical hanging state , damped by air resistance and other forms
of energy dissipation .

The archetypal example of this ,
Fran
Newton ,

pendulum .

the

is

abstract

Introducing more technical language , we say that in the two-
dimensional
are
phase-Rp^rsA
displacement and velocity all possible motions appear as non-
crossing spirals converging asymptotically towards the resting
state at the origin .
phase portrait of all
This focus in the
possible motions is called a point attractor .

co-ordinates

whose

into

driven

resonance by an electromagnet

Secondly we have the periodic attractor .
If a thin steel strip
an
is
alternating current , the strip will normally settle into a steady
After a small knock ,
vibration at the frequency of the forcing .
fundamental
slowly
transients
stable
the
bigger
a
given
be
oscillation
disturbance an entirely new state my be observed .
Different
starts of a given system my thus lead to alternative final
states with multiple attractors coexisting in a state of
competition .

re-established .

carrying

decay

will

will

and

But

whose

chaos .

recently

perpetual

attractor ,

-unexpected
A third ,
discovered ,
strange
featux-es have generated an explosion of interest , is the
or
chaotic attractor that captures the solution of a perfectly
deterministic and well defined equation into a state of steady
but
history
possesses an aspect of true randomness , a comprehensive phase-
space investigation reveals an underlying order in the ensemble
of all trajectories whose elucidation is a major topic of
It is the final
research amongst mathematicians and physicists .
settling
large
a
dissipative system to attractors of low dimension that validates
our presentation of general concepts via specific equations of
low dimension .

multidimensional

although

single

phase

space

time

But

the

in

of

a

Multiplicities cf all three
attractors can coexist in the phase
portrait of a given, system so that in simulations and experiments
a bewilderi-tig variety" of final time histories may be generated by
different starts .
Clearly analysts and experimentalists should
be vitally aware that such apparently random non-periodic outputs
may be the correct answer and should not be attributed to bad
technique
has
the
urdoubtedly happened in the past .

wastepaper

assigned

basket

and

as

to

This description of
fanciful or" rare .
ii-a■;,dixg. „
simple non-linear systests (eg Doffing 's equation).

Multiplicities of competing steady states ,
are constantly being discovered even for very

multiple attractors is not in the least

even

How
coefficients

the

of

most
any

exact
modal

of
are

the
never

physical
known

sciences ,
with

the
absolute

336

- 12 -

precision .
So having previously discussed the physical stability
of final states of a given system , we must explore the standiity
Would ve get roughly the same
of the modelling process itself .
answers if our equations had been slightly different .
This
question is formalized in tie couoept of the striictursl stability
of a phase portrait .

Many systems are in a slowly evolving environment so their
coefficients and parameters urdex 40 gradual change .
Then , if the
evolving system is in a steady state of equilibrium , periodio
oscillation or chaos , the prediction of any sudden change is of
of behaviour will occur
crucial importance .
when the phase portrait urdergoes a qualitative charge
of
topological form at a point of s . note! al Inst ability .
catastrophic
is
An
bifurcations at which, there is fi.r5.te rapid jump to a new steady
subtle bifurcation in whituh the criange in response
state and
manifests
itself in the smooth growth, of a new local attractor
after the bifurcation point .

between those

distinction

important

Such.

As we mentioned already tils fascinating theory grew out of a
cooperative effort among mathematicians a.d scientists from all
disciplines .
It has already revolutionized our understanding of
long standing problems suen as the problem of turbulence which
have resisted all previous attempts at quanti.tat±ve analysis .
It
has been a long time since we last witnessed such, a fruitful
collaboration .
Ve are still actively
involved in it and we are looking oonil.dentiy forward to even
greater discoveries .

Nor is it yet; at an ei .

- 13 -

3 ) GHEMISTflY

The Chemical industry has been one of the most important factors
in the economic development aM social change that has taken
This is an
place in Western Europe over the last thirty years .
intrinsically innovative sector characterised by the manufacture
of new products and materials which integrate with and replace
natural ones , calling for different processes and technologies
from those known hitherto .

in

it .

involved

complexity

For example ,

This growth

As indicated in many recent reports on the subject , notably that
which surveyed opportunities in the Chemical sciences under the
chairmanship of Professor George Pimentel of the University of
California , this is a time of major opportunity for advances on a
number of fronts .
These advances arise from continuing progress
in our understanding cf the plienomena of Chemical change and the
molecular
in
understanding is ref3 ected in the ever more rapid rate of
At the same time techniques used in
discovery of new ccorpoiurds .
Chemistry ere expanding and more and more importance is being
attached to the use of new instrumental techniques , which, hold
out the premise of an excellent ratio of results to expenditure
the chemist is now using extremely
on machinery ,
sophisticated and more and more costly instruments and diagnostic
aids
electron
microscope , the tunnel-effect microscope , NMR neutron diffraction
and synchrotron light .
Many laboratories can afford no more than
the same time a great deal of
a few of these instruments . At
work on the frontiers of the discipline and on the interface
between it and disciplines such as physics or biochemistry is
heavily dependent on modelling and computing facilities .
It
would seem that at a European level there is a need for existing
instrument resources to be pooled and made available to chemists
in Member States which might not yet be in a position to provide
techniques
of
access
to
themselves .
of
time ,
developments in instrumentation certain existing facilities could
make good use of assistance with the expense of necessary
upgrading activities .

spectroscopic instruments ,

range
same

instruments

whole
the

rapidity

lasers ,

the
At

given

and

the

the

:

forefront of
Exciting dicoveries in a number of areas at the
chemistry can be anticipated .
For example in chemical kinetics
(to use a term coined in the Pimentel report ), the effect of
photon absorption by an atom or molecule can be studied . The
best-known example which has captured the attention and motivated
the work of numerous chemists and biologists is photosynthesis .
Even though the hopes placed in the use of solar radiation to
dissociate the water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen on the
pattern of living mechanisms have not yet been crowned with
success , the research, done has nevertheless led to the discovery

338

- 14 -

new

These

active

processes

aminoacids .

of an Impressive series of stages in photosynthesis and has laid
the foundation for extremely fruitful applications , for example
hydrogen production by dissociating alcohol or the production of
optically
in which
molecules interact in intense photon fields are made possible by
which can probe chanical
the powerful lasers now available ,
reactions on a time soale that is short compared to the lifetime
of any transient substances that can be said to possess a
molecular identity .
Another field highlighted in ' Opportuniti.es
in Chemistry' is theoretical chemistry (application of quantum
one of the fields in which Europe
mechanics to chemistry ) ,
dominates . It should be emphasized that its leadership has been
made possible by measures such as the estahl 1 shment of major
computer
and
to
numerous
which have
computer programmes ,
opportunities
encouraged widespread cooperation at European level .

accessible
exchanging

centres
of

laboratories

to

transform

One of the areas of quantum chemistry now undergoing major
development involves the calculation and liaracterization of
intermediate structures and transition structures in organic
reaction models . The possibility of calculating analytically the
energy gradients and second derivatives of wave functions has
started
chemical
methods
reactions . It Is possible to study the various reaction paths and
to
the
calculations are carried out on models of simple chemical systems
and are used as a reference for a family of similar systems .
Qualitative models of the topology and energy properties of
potential surfaces have been developed so that it is now possible
to interpolate between the available experimental data , given
that oily a limitod number of models can be analysed numerical 1 y
in detail .

the most probable .

select

study

those

used

Most

that

are

the

to

of

is

are

field

enzymatic

another
advancesin
and

undergoing major
heterogeneous .
catalysis

transformation .
Cato-lysis
electrochemical ,
Fundamental
As
being
photochemical
economically converting
chemistry is essentially the art of
abundant substances into useful products , the study of chemical
processes and the
can be
improved and speeded up Inevitably accounts for much of the
research
and
catalysts , i.e. substances that can speed up chemical reactions
without themselves being consumed In the reactions , has always
played an Important role from both trie scientific and the
economic aspects . It is even more useful to be able selectively
to modify the role of various intermediate reaction so as to
promote a given

final product at the expense of others .

under which reactions

In particular

conditions

catalysis

effort .

study

made .

the

of

Research into catalysis is today enjoying a new lease of life as
a result of the new ins trur.rcr.ts available and the analytical aid
digital techniques that have recently been developed . Relatively
simple models have been developed to represent the electron
properties of simple molecules (carbon monoxide , hydrogen) during
theoretical
crucial

catalytioal

reactions ;

stages

these

of

339

- 15 -

be

can

then

results
ones ,
compared
With these models it has been passible to collect essential data
on the elementary stages of catalysis . An understanding of these
models will eventually facilitate the design and development of
new oatalysts for industry .

experimental

with

should be pointed

It
of
that
favourable conditions has emerged and should lead to interesting
results .
extremely
Numerous new techniques and a range of
efficient instruments are now available to researchers .

recently a combination

out

Surface chemistry and, the study of metallic clusters have also
undergone significant developments in recent years
that
catalysis research, has now ceased to be "black magic ", as it was
sometimes dubbed in the past , and become an exact science .

so

In

this

'most dramatic

The American analysis highlighted the role of chemistry in
systematic strategies for the discovery and design of novel
materials
frontier
materials .
of
science' several techniques are being developed .
One of them is
Intercalation chemi stry . Some solids consist of layers or fibres .
Under certain conditions foreign substances , ions or molecules ,
can be accommodated between these layers or fibres .
Originally ,
intercalation chemistry was developed in the field of lamellar
Now the concept has spread to all phenomena where guest
solids .
ions or molecules are reversibly inserted into a solid .
There
are numerous intercalation compounds in nature • some of the
most
micas ,
attractive applications of intercalation compounds are to be
found in the area of materials .

bones and our

teeth are

examples .

The

our

Several examples can be given .
By intercalating lithium or
sodium ions in lamellar dichalcogsnides (derived compounds of
sulphur , tellurium or selenium), the conductivity of the system
is greatly improved .
The advantage of such systems is that
energy per unit mass is four to five times higher than that of
conventional lead, accumulators .

Manufacturers have also shown interest in the applications of
intercalation compounds of graphite
graphite compounds are
often good conductors (In some cases nearly as good as copper )
which would give exceptional energies per unit mass ( ten times
that of lead accumulators ).

:

As progress in chemistry accelerates the traditional border
organic and inorganic chemistry is disappearing and the
between
use of modern instrumentation is leading to techniques which
quicken the discovery aid testing of new reaction pathways aid
strategies involving
synthesis . Some of the most spectacular
results have been obtained with zeolites (silicates in which
Other applications have been found in
sites are wide tunnels ).
Over
light displays ,
and above their

in particular with tungsten axdde XO3 .

340

- 16 -

HI...y applications ,
new and extremely premising synthesis routes
hue been developed , based in. particular on topctactic reactions
( . ^actions after which, some of the rain structural elements
present in the initial compound are found in the final compound).
...n this way a new titanium oocULe lias been developed and is today
a
used
as
been
compound
successfully prepared .

Vanadium
previously ,

disulphide
has

support .
known

catalyst
was

a
that

also

VS2 ,

not

. allowing on from the synthesis of materials and making use of
coeir ability to deal with molecular complexity chemists are
h elping to investigate a ad cl arlfy the molecular origins of
X lologlcal processes ^

C'oemists are today faced with increasingly complex problems of
synthesis .
They need to produce mere and more sophisticated
joleculas but ofuen the conventional organic synthesis methods
There are in nature
ore no longer adequate for this work .
into
E .ibs tanoes
molecules
transforming
having
tiousands
molecules
hundreds
are
of
atoms .
carried out with outstanding efficiency and accuracy .
Chemists
rave therefore started to study the abilities of enzymes and are
•trying to profit from the lessons to be learned from nature .

of
different
thousands

macrcmolecules

transformations

capable

simple

of
of

These

Xu any organism the coistituerts of living natter are synthesized
by means of chauical reactions catalyzed by specific effective
substances , the enzymes .
Tie extraordinary speed and enormous
selectivity of the reactions induce! by enzymes are due to their
conformation in space - the reagent is trapped in a cavity of the
i ozvme .
without
copying their complete chemical structure is one of the ambitious
aims of synthesis chemists .

action of

chemical

imitate

enzymes

the

To

lie roost promising approach , although also the most complex , is
io synthesize a molecule of a different chemical nature from an
enzyme tut behaving in the same way , so as to catalyze a sp*3Cif±c
product that is useful to the chemist . The aim is to manufacture
catalysts based on enzymes that are just as efficient but differ
fundamentally from the usual catalysts by their organisation in
space .
The artificial enzyme must be capable of recognizing its
substrate and transforming it into one product only , even if
several are theoretically possible . Tne artificial enzyme must
>. uve a genuine catalytic activity - it must not be consumed in
zee reaction , must be capable of producting the reaction on a
large number of substrate molecules one after the other and
finally must release the product into tlie environment .

Vrilst the benefits of achieving this will be very great it is
czear
that major progress can be made only by encouraging
luterdiscd.pllnary research collaboration , between biological and
caemical research teams .

- 17 -

4) ЕАКШ mmICEa

As the preservation of crur environment through intelligent and
sensible use of the earth 's resources assumes ever greater
the earth sciences are gaining fresh eoonomio and
importance ,
political significance . At the same time , this scientific sector
is undergoing radical change as it moves on from the disciplines
experimentation and modelling .
of
of
Moreover , because its very subject 1s the whole earth ,
this
research is essentially of an international nature .

observation

those

to

With this shift from making observations of static and successive
situations to the reconstruction and explanation of the mechanism
of evolution , the earth sciences as they are conceived today call
for a global approach supported by numerous accurate analyses .
The research relates to both structures and materials on ell
scales from the atomic structure of crystals to the texture of
rocks and even the dynamics of plate tectonics .

Several types of activities can play a federating and stimulating
role for the European scientific camraunity .
The direct and
indirect study of the deep structure of the lithosphere is one
example : today more is known about the surface of the moon , Mars
or Venus than the sub-soil of the earth .

the very constituents of the earth ,

still present
Crystals ,
numerous problems , if not as regards their structure at least in
their genesis .
flawless
The demand in high technology
crystals has led to considerable advances in the knowledge of
crystalline
phase
both
transitions
theoretical and experimental research . This is a field in which
the transfer of basic research results to applications could be
particularly fast and beneficial .

growth inodes .
still

imperfections
and

However ,
for
call

interface

problems

and

for

Space observations provide the key to the study of the Earth as
an integrated system .
From these observations by satellites and
space platforms a large volume of detailed data can be collected .
This data can be utilised in numerical and conceptual modelling
which together with the traditional earth-science disciplines can
help to obtain a scientific understanding of the earth as a
whole .
One of the most obvious benefits of this increase in
urderstarring ha.q been the improvement in the accuracy of weather
prediction which resulted from the numerical simulation of the
atmosphere with high-speed computers .

- 18 -

llie Atmosphère

The effect of human activity cn the atmosphere has caused marked
Since the industrial revolution alone ,
charges ±Q reoent years .
tire air through the
the amount of Carbon dioxide released into
burning of fossil fuels has increased by almost 25% ard this is
Carbon dioxide
anticipated to double within the next 100 years .
insulates the earth preventing heat radiation .
As a result , the
temperature of the earth has been rising at an unprecedented rate
such that there have been noticahle changes in precipitation
patterns .
been
Increasing in concentration at an even greater rate than Carbon
dioxide and it is estimated that their effects can be even more
pronounced than 002 .

“greenhouse "

so-called

Other

gases

have

fossil

Apart from causing changes to the atmosphere through the burning
of
of
also
vegetation resulting in a further increase in atmosphere Carbon
dioxide levels and a depletion of Oxygen sources .

destroyed

nan has

tracts

fuels ,

large

The changes in the atmosphere as a result of the activities of
nan are difficult to assess but they are clearly of great
these
importance .
changes globally and to identify catusal relationships between
them .

necessary to measure end document

It

is

The ocean sciences are a relatively new and highly promising area
of research, and development . Scientific activity has ,
in a very
moved from the descriptive to the explanatory or even
few years ,
the predictive stage .
It touches on a sphere of essential
knowledge which our vanishing resources and the need to protect
our environment have put in the spotlight .

Since it is , at one and the same time an enormous reserve of raw
materials and foodstuffs , a gigantic dustbin , a primary factor in
climatic balance
an
world
environment
the
the
fruitfulness of numerous branches of the life sciences , the ocean
is a hugely rewarding field of study .

and
the
understanding

ecology ,
which

lastly ,
to

and ,
can

add

of

Oceanography is an inter and multidisciplinary of a field in
which there is hardly any real demarcation between basic research
and more applied research activities . Cross-fertilization between
disciplines is essential here .

343

- 19 -

It is also a science in which the scale of the problems is such
that they naturally call for international cooperation and in
which the size of the technical resources needed leads (and
should more often lead) to the joint establishment , between
various partners in different countries , of one shared research
tool .
very
are
difficult
cooperation is
required between the Community and the developing nations who
possess vast tracts of sea .

study
organize and

large-scale
finance .

Programmes
to

phenomena

Lastly ,

to

As far as sectors of scientific activity are concerned (physical ,
chemical or biological oceanography) , there is at present a need
to focus more on large-scale phenomena (in time or space), tut
choosing the appropriate scale in tine or space poses many
problems because studies of the various dimensions are closely
interdependent .

Coastal zones

Stretching as they do right to the edge of the continental shelf ,
these zones axe the locus of strong interactions between the
continent and the ooeans and for this reason they are doubly
interesting . On the one hand the key to an understanding of the
overall workings of the ooeanio system is a basic knowledge of
ooean . continent interface phenomena ;
which can be studied in
these zones . On the other hand they are an area of the sea where
intense biological activity (in the form of wastes ) is most
marked .

Bearing in mind the direct socio-economic implications of a
chemical and biological
greater knowledge of
phenomena
into
zones ,
continent/ocean interactions and into coastal ecosociology is of
paramount
reinforoed
calls
importance .
interdisciplinary work .

the physical ,
these

taking place

research

new

for

It

in

or

On the basis of work undertaken in this way by a number of
disciplines it is possible to move towards the development of
conceptual and forecasting models which will lead to a better
understanding and by the same token a more thorough mastery of
the workings of coastal ecosystems .

will

basically

Research
an
require
infrastructure of marine stations and experimental installations .
The Community has great potential in this respect , a quality
which currently constitutes a considerable asset .

avail ability

the

of

344

- 20 -

Secondly the vitality of scientific; aid. technical progress in
this field, is very much a function of the rt3s>Turoes (particularly
human resources ) which are available , aid tne extent to which
integrated approaches within a muItMtsodplinary system are
possible . At this level certain weaknesses must be admitted ,
arising In part from the lack of rescniroes dedicated to certain
sectors
of work
a
fragmentation
(particularly so far as the universities are concerned).
But if the Conmmity ean :

certain

also

from

and

up

build
research
specialized centres ;

the
centres

milriiilroJ pllnary
the

aid

cooperation

character

of
between

promote cooperation between marine stations ard
university
widely
which
separated geographical ly .

centres ,

often

are

The effectiveness of European R & D in this field could be
greatly enhanced .

The Great Deeps

or

to

The deep ooean is a gigantic ecosystem , a deeper knowledge of
which is a vital prerequisite for making use of or exploiting the
material which lies hidden there . Whether , for example , to ensure
that waste products dumped into the abyss by man are safe and
innocuous ,
polymetallic
nodules , it is first necessary to learn more about the meiofauna ,
the
relief and the phenomena ( e.g. hydrothermal ) which exist at
these depths . Ibis knowledge will only be gained via interlinked
geochemistry ,
R y D work in a number of sectors
maritime
chemistry ,
geophysics ,
engineering ,
and
. )
.
etc .
frequently onerous observation aid analysis techniques .

( geology ,
bacteriology ,

biology ,
tne

availability

cental nlng

complex

exploit

areas

and

the

of

In the overall world R S’ D ranking in this field ,
Europe 's
scientific community occupies an entirely honorable position ,
with some particularly strong points ( in geology , geophysics ,
sedimentology aid research techniques , for instance ). However , it
is clear that where the Community has the advantage , its lead is
true so far as methods of
precarious .
exploring and analysing the great deeps are concerned .
Hie
Community was the first to have multibeam acoustic sounders ,
which were a revolutionary tool .

This is particularly

Today this method is being aver taken and new technologies are
including lateral sonars which are able to
coming forward ,
analyse a greater volume of acoustic information from much larger
areas of ooean floor . These new technologies are emerging outside
the Community , which might give attention therefore to the joint
development of large " instruments "
( such as ships ) aid major
projects .

345

- 21 -

storage ,

The ooean is one of the vital components of the climatic system
and as far as the atmosphere is oonoemed ,
it fulfils three
transport and interchange of
:
essential functions
energy . These are not independent functions in the ooean since
they are bound by the law of energy conservation ; they are not
independent of interchanges with the atmosphere either since the
ocean is a system which is coupled to it . At the interface ,
energy is exchanged in various forms (heat , mass ani movement)
and on various scales . All this therefore makes up a group of
complex physical phenomena , which are further complicated by the
differences
the
atmosphere .

reaction

between

ooean

time

ani

the

in

Knowledge of " ooean and atmosphere " phenomena is closely linked
to and interdependent with climatology know-how ,
of which it
forms a subset . Depending on progress in the science of earth-
atmosphere exchange phenomena , a natural complement to this
science , and understanding of these phenomena is essential in
order to be able to predict climatio variability over a longer
period than is possible at the moment . In this way tools more
at present could be made
rigorous than those which, exist
available
balances
economio
various
of
the
(particularly in agriculture) or to warn of the irreversible
imbalances which human activity can bring about (the danger of
too great a quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , for
example).

planning

for

complete

understanding

To this end it will be necessary first to have available a fund
of basic knowledge which is still lacking in order to arrive at a
physical
of
more
phenomena related to the ooean/ atmosphere link . To develop this
knowledge will mean first of all continuous systematio and wide-
scale observation of the ooean , with aooess to considerable
grid
rescruroes
squaring ,
and ,
lastly , a capacity to analyse and assimilate the data which has
been gathered .

(satellite
automatic measurements via groups

tomographic
of buoys )

remote measurement ,

ooean dynamics

or

The very size of the problem and of the field in question has
brought about the implementation of huge international projects
in which the European scientific community has played a large
part . In this way major discoveries have been made (about energy
transfers for example ) which axe a promising basis for future
developments .
beyond
The
the
the
problems
Nevertheless it
Community 's geographical limits and interests .
is very much in the Community 's interest to strengthen still
further the scientific and technical potential it possesses in
this sphere .

involved

field

well

and

go

346

- 22 -

Certain specific objectives should therefore be pursued :

the improvement of mathematical models to simulate
intraooeanio flows ,

-

a

contribution

the encouragement of cooperation between teams of
different disciplines (physical
oceanography and
chemical dynamics by way of example) in order to
make
of
to
conceptual tools facilitating the explanation of
such basio phenomena as the nitrogen or carbon
cycle at ooean/atmosphere level ;
building up the human resources
for
research work in this field by giving aid for
training and the recruitment of new researchers for
existing teams .

development

available

the

Biological aspects of earth sciences

Biological processes exert an important influence on the global
Thi=> earth's ecosystems are highly vulnerable to changes
system .
in the external environment .
The diversity that is to be found
has developed over billions of years and evolution can be
aocuratedly documented through the study of sedimentary rocks ,
ooean sediments and ioe-oores .
The changes which have occurred
in the climatio conditions Kay also be monitored in this way and
their influence on the biota estimated .
This knowledge is of
vital importance to the understanding of recent changes .

Tho distribution of life on earth is largely determined by the
physical climate system which in turns depends on the variation
on solar heating with latitude .
The physical climate processes
which Include circulation patterns , precipitation , evaporation ,
vegetation etc axe currently being elucidated using satellite
techniques .

The cycling of the principal chemical constituents of the earth
(Carbon , Nitrogen , Sulphur and Oxygen) are all dependent at some
stage on biological processes .
This cycling ties in with the
production of “greenhouse “ gases and determines the extent of the
While satellite observations are a
pollution of the atmosphere .
it must be
useful tool for studying hiogeochemioal cycling ,
supplemented by in-situ sampling .

The distribution of rainfall , snow , evaporation and runoff on the
Changes in
earth governs the extent and productivity of biomass .
land use can affect the global climate through hydrological
alterations .

347

- 23 -

Current areas of investigation of the solid earth irvyiiv^ the
study of continental deformation and evolution , the structure and
convective patters in the mantle and the dynawv-nvy;Ka-ni gm of the
New tools such as Very T^ng Baseline
earth's core itself .
Interferometry (VLBI) and satellite laser ranging are being used
By gaining an insight into
to measure continental separation.
plate deformation,
earthquakes may be predicted with greater
Satellites are now able to provide date for mrrfpig of
accuracy .
plate
mantle
establish
circulation and tectonic activity .

connections

motions

between

and

The source of earth 's magnetic field arises from the core , the
By studying
detailed structure of which is not yet well known.
the earths' magnetic field the core 's structure may be elucidated
and geological history calibrated .

The evolution of the earth is closely interlinked with the
evolution of life upon it and by continuing to study geology a
better comprehension of the evolution of the Earth may be
achieved .

THE EXPLOITATION OF SPACE

Space can be tackled from a number of different angles
:
knowledge , getting there , using it as a field of human activity .
At a national and/or multinational level (the ESA for example),
all of these aspects are now being tackled and are the subject of
considerable work .

Nevertheless ,
bearing in mind the Community 's scientific and
technical objectives and the needs as well as the existing
potential
scientific
competitiveness , a Community activity would seem to be both
necessary and opportune in one particular sector : the use of
space as a study medium .

Europe 's

field

terms

this

in

in

of

For space Is , as a laboratory , something special . Whilst it is
possible to create hypergravity situations
on earth it is not
possible to create prolonged conditions of weightlessness . And
already micrograyity seems to be useful , sometimes even vital ,
for the study of many phenomena .

348

- TA -

Two subjects are of particular concern in this respect :

(a)

(b)

Space biology and. medicine , which seems certain to
be at the origin of major practical spin-offs (so
far as biology and basic physiology are concerned ,
through the knowledge that will be gained about the
cosmio rays and gravity on living
effects
of
organisms ).
Dp to new the knowledge gained by (and
for ) space flights has made it possible to develop
atraumatio systems of measuring circulation the
echotamographio study of organs , the use of which
can now be anticipated in hospital medicine .

of

new

study

processes

of
( electrical ,

under
physioo-chemioal
The
conditions of micro gravity and the discovery and
special
development
properties
or
mechanical ). Apart for these problems , which, are
linked to the development of raw materials in
classic
also
important in this sector to improve our knowledge
of the role of microgravity in materials science .

“ terrestrial "

magnetic ,

conditions ,

materials

optical

with

it

is

For whilst gravity cannot have an influence
ideal
structure of a solid it certainly can on fluids . Furthemore as
solid materials are often prepared via a fluid phase ( steam ,
melting pot or solution) gravity might be expected to have an
effect on the properties of the growth environment and hence the
actual structure of a solid , that is to say its properties .

on the

Bearing in mind the knowledge which is already available here ,
together with its interest (both scientific and practical ) and
the promising prospects which these two sectors hold out , they
seem to be excellent bets for the future and really ought to
This would mean
benefit
supporting
the
work
theoretical foundation now to hand , and it would also mean that
there would have to be adequate resources
(both human and
financial ) as well as the " tools " for weightlessness studies
(towers , aircraft , rockets , satellites , orbiting space stations ).

from an increased R & D effort .

complement

research

basic

to

as

so

and the U.S.S.R.

Only the U.S.A.
themselves posses all the
necessary facilities for this type of R 8f D. It would seem that
these two countries devote considerable resources to the field .
In the Community only a few countries (acting on their own , via
bilateral cooperation or collectively within the ESA) play any
part in the exploration of this new area of scientific and
technological investigation , and they only devote fairly modest
resources to it , for a number of reasons .

349

1

AUJtEX 11

SPACE

its

417

and

( COM
a

88
Coherent

communication
Space :

" The
In
Community
Commission
reviews Europe 's position in space , its strengths and weaknesses ;
and activities
it shows that , increasingly ,
and vice-versa ; it
have a
for the Community
concludes that there is a need and opportunity
a role which
to play
must
the national
be
agencies .

active role
of
one
the

final )
Approach ",

in space ,
and
ESA

of July 1988 ,

the evolving

space field

complementary

bearing on

a broader

Community

and more

policies

the

to

As things stand , the overall verdict on Europe 's space activities
which , by
seems to be altogether positive : space
for
establishing
cooperation ,
some
the Ariane launcher , Spacelab ,
spectacular
Meteosat , the Giotto
European Communication
satellite system .

cooperation
such
mission ,

ESA ,
that
successes ,

area in
the

rapidly

Europe

outset

the
and

is an

opted

from

has

and

led

the

as

to

in

the

out

1975

European
Created
of
the European
cooperative structures ( ESRO and ELDO ), the task of
is to develop and promote , for exclusively peaceful
Space Agency
purposes , cooperation among European states in space research and
applications , with a view to their
technology
being used for
operational space
applications systems .

scientific

purposes

merger

their

space

first

and

and

the

for

of

of

their

first

Europe

giving

technology

objectives

generation

deciding in

applications

technological

programmes developed by the ESA amply
The
and
attained
in particular through the Ariane launcher
industrial capability ,
and
the
and
meteorology ). By
in 1987 to launch a new
generation of programmes ( the heavy launcher ARIANE V , the Hermes
the international Space
spaceplane ,
firmly
Europe
Station
established its presence and its ambitions in the field of space .
The new ESA long-term plan not
the continuity of
the scientific
research programmes and the continued development
of applications technology , but also represents a leap forward in
both qualitative and quantitative terms .

participation
Columbus

( telecommunications

only maintains

programme )

The Hague

through

and

the

the

in

However ,
alongside
testify , Europe 's space effort
weaknesses . Uhile
development of
matching

systems ,
encourage

space
to

a great

effort

the

strenghts
also

deal of

which

these
a

to
suffers

successes
number of
effort has been pu-t into the
for a
a
potential
the

still
of

need

from

there
exploitation

is

350

offered by these techniques .

2

its

the

Communication ,

can
In
the realisation of Europe 's ambitions in space and
contribute to
future development
proposes six action lines that will guide the
of
field of space . These action lines
in
concern R&D and also other aspects of space relating to Community
policies or competences ( industrial , commercial , legal , etc .).

Commission

activities

defines

this

how

its

it

For what
areas
technological development
research effort of the space agencies .

concerns R
which

Community

the Commission has identified several
and
( RTD ) could complement and support the

research

strategy

& D ,

for

the

in

. Improvement

1
programmes and those of the space agencies .

synergy between

of the

the Community technology

and

the new

ESA programmes

( Ariane V , Hermes and
Implementation of
acquisition
of new
Columbus in particular ) will
knowledge
a number of generic
fields also relevant to other industrial sectors : information and
materials ,
communications
safety of
aerodynamics , man-machine interface ,
complex
medical
sciences and technologies , etc .

reliability
energy

and
sources ,

technological

technologies ,

expertise

robotics ,

control ,

systems ,

advanced

quality

the
in

call

for

and

programmes

A comparative analysis of
ESA
the
programme shows many points of
Community programmes
medical and health
energy ,
aeronautical
( Teleman )

research ,

several

sector

JRC

and

on

.

convergence .

the technological
requirements of the
objectives of the Community 's research
number of
A
large
Esprit , Brite , Euram , RACE ,
protection , non-nuclear
the
hostile environments

and
robotics

programmes

radiation

new
in

in

programmes

are concerned :

of information

Regular exchanges
with the ESA
are therefore indispensable both at the planning level and in the
research programmes so as to avoid duplication
implementation of
the technologies
and facilitate use by
developed under Community programmes .

and coordination

industry

space

the

of

The space programmes also generate new knowledge and technologies
that could be used by non-space industries .

space

The
opportunities could
Community
the
innovation .

agencies'

efforts

technological
benefit from the experience and support from
transfer and

technology

promote

exploit

to

to

activities

351

3

Space
2 .
research .

technologies

and

facilities : tools at the service of

2 . 1

Study_of_our
human activities .

planet :

climate .

environment

and

impact of

observation

Earth
information for
study
of
environment .

the

satellites
the development
of
impact

human

a

major

are
of climate

of
source
models and the ;
activities on climate and !

remote

The development of new
gradual establishment
make it
planet
global
effect and depletion of
acquisition
management of our environment and of human activities .

and the ]
world space observation network ;
study of the !
particular greenhouse !
to the :
efficient !

possible to
its

the systematic

leading
more

layer )
the

techniques

knowledge

plan for

sensing

change

ozone

vital

of a

and

the

( in

of

to

to

major issues

Since this is a problem that
has international implications
and raises
Europe must organize ,
itself so as
role in !
international
areas
( in
particular
Mission to
rapidly define its objectives and
Planet
priorities and set up the necessary mechanisms and resources
enabling it
on a more even footing with the
to participate
United States and the USSR .

for society ,
active
relevant
Global

consistent
these
and

programmes
It

play
programmes

the
Earth ).

Change

must

and

an

to

define

Consultations with the parties
to
coordinate efforts at
there
requirements of the scientific community .

being pursued
and
ensure that
and
balance between space missions and the

modalities
level

concerned are

appropriate

stimulate

European

proper

the

to

to

is

a

2 . 2

Microgravitv : encouraging preparations for
orbital infrastructure

the

use

of the

on

which

United States

and Japan , Europe is spending large
an orbital
the
experiments , in particular ,

Like the
amounts , mainly within the ESA ,
infrastructure
will
opportunities
in the fields of advanced materials and biotechnology .
The ESA activities are focused essentially on the financing ;
a major additional effort is therefore needed to prepare for
the use of this experimental potential .
Under existing research programmes the Commission intends to
will bring
encourage

up
increase

collaborative

microgravity

projects

setting

greatly

that

few

for

a

352

4

At

user

groups

various

together
subjects .
the
consultations with
order to determine more
and
a
wider and
activities of the ESA and the Member States .

promising
will
its
parties concerned in
priority objectives
Community programme , on a
would complement the

for
more ambitious

precisely
possible

same
the ESA

particularly

scale , that

procedures

and other

continue

time

the

on

it

Research

3 .
systems

and

development

to

promote applications of space

3 . 1

Earth observation

sensing

The Community is already active in this field with the JRC 's
remote
and
development on methods and techniques for the interpretation
pilot projects to demonstrate applications
of
useful
policies
( agriculture , aid to development , environment ) and training .

implementation

data ,
the

Community

programme

research

covers :

which

space

to

of

The Commission intends to broaden and expand its efforts not
but also to
of its
only for the requirements
contribute to ensuring the optimal exploitation of the space
sensing techniques in general .

own policies

Additional
particular :

actions

considered

necessary

include

in

- to

stimulate

through

shared-cost

cooperation and
techniques
for
data with particular
users .

coordination
processing

attention

in

projects , European
methods and
and interpreting satellite
of the

needs

R & D

the

on

to

- to promote

,

in

the establishment of
( in particular
the use of data produced by new types of sensors .

the space agencies ,
experimental facilities
airborne sensors ) needed to prepare for

cooperation with
European

3.2

Télécommunications

R&D

the

activities

Through its
promote
development
systems , whether under the
technologies
for
telecommunications
( distance
concerning the adaptation of
Uorld Market .

learning

network ),

a

the

of
RACE

Commission
applications
programme

pan-European

the

applications )

integrated
Delta
specific

new
or

ground equipment

will
of

help to
satellite
( development of
broadband
programme
projects
to the Third

353

SCIENCE

&

TECHNOLOGY_POLICIES

AND

TRENDS

IN

THE

HEHBER

STATES

ANNEX 12

354

8 & T

IN

BELGIUH

Nov . 1988

1 . General policv objectives .

At the beginning of 1986 the Minister for Science Policy declared
compared with
that spending level of Belgium for
the G.D.P.
uas insufficient and Belgium had to catch up uith its
neighbours and mainly uith its closest neighbour : Netherlands .

R&D activities

is

on

the

the

has

time

more

changed

situation

means
investments

Since that
emphasis
industry to increase its
than increasing
in choosing
should become more selective
investment
national
support
fundamental research uill be the subject
A number
have been
of measures
structure of the public financed
statute for government researchers .

and the
to encourage
activities rather
the public budget for research . Public financing
research programmes to
However ,
programmes .
of increased attention .
devised to streamline the whole
a new
R&D

incentives

including

someuhat

drafting

public

and

R&D

in

Another
participation in European research programmes .

science

policy

topic

of

is

increased

Belgian

2 . Priorities .

In the period from 1983 to 1986 , the
priority
for
industrial and scientific potential :

projects

areas

designed

following were

regarded as
to " mobilize " Belgium 's

- data processing ;
- aero-space ( E.S.A. activities and new airliners );
- neu materials ;
- microelectronics ( mainly

introduction

of

microelectronics in

SHE )

;

- télécommunications ;
- oceanography ( pollution control ).

In these
attention was paid to possible ways of
integrating national initiatives within the framework of a common
European approach .

fields , special

In the
programmes and these relate , among others , to :

period since 1986 , more emphasis was put in " stimulation "

- artificial intelligence ;
-

1 if e sc iences .

R&D activities in space sector have also increased .

355

The following
in Government funded research .

table gives

some hints of

the shift in priorities

2

Br.fiaKdatfa-.af–ex.0vl3lanal R&D budgets bv objectives In 1 986 and 1 987 ( % ).

Ob J ectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 98 7

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy
Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

2 . 5
0.6
2 . 4
2 . 1

10.1
7.2
16.2
0.7
7.3
22 . 8
20.5
6 . 1

98 . 5

1 . 5

3 . 1
0 . 7
2 . 2
3 . 0

9 . 5
7 . 6
12.8
0.5
9.8
22.3
23 . 6
3 . 8

98 . 9

1 . 1

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

3 . implémentation .

the

Government
R&D
with

3.1 . Legal framework and institutional mechenlgJLS^-
Ministries ,
For
Interministerial
concerned
budget proposals which
Committee for
annual " programme " through the Minister for
are presented
Science
is
eventually taken by the Ministerial Committee for Science Policy .

Science Policy
in an

funded
activities .

" programme "

with their

decision

different

research ,

Policy .

supply

final

this

The

the

on

for Science

The Minister
Policy ( also Deputy Prime Minister and
Minister for the Budget ) plays
within the
with
government
technological
to whole
However ,
development .
" science budget " because a significant part of this budget is the
Ministerial Departments
direct responsibility of
concerned .

coordinating
scientific
does

to
coordination

different

extend

regard

role

not

and

the

a

for

It must
structures
the
responsibilities in
among the regions , the
authority .
international R&D activities rests with the national authority .

be noted that a recent law ( August 1988 ) sets up federal
the
of science policy is shared
to national
and
and

the formulation
linguistic

responsibility

Nevertheless ,

communities

Community

Belgian

State

part

for

and

of

a

356

3.2 . Strategy and research bodies .

3

five

The
current
policy :

following

strategy

for

" action
the

lines "

implementation

are another element in the
science
Belgian

of

1 . Increased support for fundamental research ;
2 . Increased cooperation between universities and industry ;
3 . Promotion of

greater private sector investment in R&D through

State " incentives ";

4 . Large scale coordination of

public

authority

involvement in

science policy ;

5 . Maximum

encouragement

of

participation

in

international

projects .

Among the most important bodies implementing RD activities , other
than University research institutes are the following :

- F.N.R.S.

National

Funds

for Scientific Research ( fundamental

research )
;
- I.R.S.I.A.

the
Research in Industry and in Agriculture ( applied research );

encouragement

Institute

for

of

scientific

- C.E.N. Centre for Nuclear radioelements .
- I.R.E. Institute for radioelements .

4 . National Resources .

PersonneL ( 1

)

Exact
years . It is estimated that :

figures

R&D

for

personnel

are not available for recent

Total
32,000 units ( 1983 )

personnel

R&D

( full

time

équivalent

f.t.e .)

:

about

About 10,000 units ( 1985 ) are scientists or engineers employed by
industry .

New administrative measures are being prepared to give scientists
opportunities to move from university to private industry without
jeopardising their career .

4 ,. 2 , FinppCljil pnegn ?

( 2 1

Government financing of R&D in 1987 : 673.2
budget )

Hio ECU ( provisional

( 1

)

Source : SPPS ( 1988 ).

( 2 )

Source : OSCE ( 1988 )

357

as %

Defence R&D
( 1 987 )
Gross domestic Expenditure
( est .)

( 1985 )

of total R&D Government appropriations :

for

R&D

CGERD )

:

1,542.6

Mio ECU

4

1.1 V.

5 . international coopération .

Senior
officials
participation in present and
field of RTD is a priority element in Belgian research policy .

that
state
cooperation in the

future European

research

charge

S&T

of

in

of

by

the

European

commitment

So ,
implemented
participates
necessitate the allocations of appropriate resources
level .
Belgium
organizations ( CERN , EMBO , ESA , Airbus 330-340 ).

Belgium 's
Communities
projects ,

potential
to
or

represented

EUREKA

almost

all

of

as

27

in

in

is

programmes
to
EUREKA
( Belgium
01.07.1988 ) will
at national

international research

358

1 . General policv objectives .

S & T

IN

DENHARK .

Nov . 1988

Technology has

Science and
Denmark .
mid-1980s in
increased in
the 1980-86
100 ), one of the highest trends in the
have
2.28 X of GDP by the year 2000 .

period by

Research

national

Public

been a

global

a

Research

top priority
&

area since the
Development spending
X per year ( 1980 =
aim is to
& Development Expenditure of

Community . The

about 8

In 1985 total R&D expenditure ( GERD ) amounted to
the GDP .
This placed
States uith a medium degree of
same level
Ireland , Spain , Portugal and Greece .

about 1.26 X of
of the EC Member
( at the
for example ) but in a better position than

R&D spending

the category

per capita

Denmark in

as Italy ,

R&D is performed
education sector
reference to R&D expenditure
like
execution
towards the business sector .

in
( 24 X )

indicates ,

the

business

sector

( 55

% ),

and in

public institutes

1985

figures ).

the

trend

in

The

trend
R&D funding ,

( 21 X )

the higher
( uith
in R&D
a shift

The policy objective uith respect to research at universities and
of higher education is to maintain freedom of
other institutions
research and a large measure of
same time
autonomy , but
desired in the research and teaching world . To great
changes are
extend , this demand for
budget planning
and in terms of appropriations .

reflected in

change is

at the

2 . Priorities ..

The Government
relevant technical
emphasis
promising short or long terms economic prospects .

intends to increase the collaboration between the
to put more
developments areas uith

concentrated

abroad , and

bodies at

home and

inputs

into

on

The newer initiatives include :

- Encouragement of collaboration between

- Implementation of co-ordinated development

expertise

of
government co-financing

in

Danish trade

vital to
inter-ministerial
initiatives
development and diffusion .

support

effort

in

long-term

technological

enterprises and centres
with
development

of co-operative industrial projects ;

programmes in areas
and industry which call for a concerted
comprehensive
government
research and technological

and
basic

of

Emphasis will be put on :

- Improvement
planning ;
- Increased

coordination
effort aimed at urban activities ;

and

priority

of

researcher

training

and

strategic

research

setting

in the overall

359

- Statements on agricultural and fisheries policies emphasize the
which primary production industries are

increasing
dependent on development efforts in the processing industry .

degree

to

2

oriented

The technology -
in the
manufacturing
for 20 % of the country 's
given to
GDP . In the field of high technology , priority has been
the following topics : Information Technology , Materials Research
and Basic Biotechnological R&D .

is
accounts

concentrated

sector

mainly

which

R&D

The break down of the public R&D funding by groups
indicates the priorities of the Government .

of objectives

Breakdown of Provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 1986 » nH 198 7

< % )

Obj ectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

1 . 3
2.4
1 . 5
3 . 3

6 . 7
7.0
20 . 6
4.3
3 . 1
29.5
19.7
0 . 1

99 . 5

0 . 5

1
. 5
2 . 3
1 . 3
4 . a

4 . 4
8 . 5
16.2
3 . 6
2 . 6
32.1
22.3

-

99 . 6

0 . 4

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

3^ Implémentât ion

and

The

Research .

Research in
of
Education
responsible for
In fact each ministry has responsibility
related
coordination
Research . The
responsible for the coordination
the EC
field of S / T .

Denmark is mainly the responsibility of the Ministry
is
technological development in trade and industry .
for supporting research
The
and
within this Ministry is also
Danish participation to
of the
Research and Demonstration Programmes , and to OECD in the

( agriculture ,
Ministry
the

Research Directorate

etc ).
Education

functions

Ministry

Industry

assured

energy ,

its
is

by

of

to

of

360

3

is

funding

The trend in R&D
EC Member
States , to more industrial financed R&D . At present , the business
the
sector funds about
This places
States where the business sector’s
Denmark
national
contribution
Development
spending
Germany and in the
the
in
is
Netherlands the share of this sector was higher in 1985 .

of
Member
global
Only

those
to
the
highest .

shifting ,

country 's

Research

among

GERD .

roost

of

FR

as

in

49

X

&

In Denmark there are no giant manufacturing enterprises which can
most European countries . The
provide a
as in
of small and
by enterprises
manufacturing Industry is dominated
medium
80
about
manufacturers have a workforce of more than 500 .

" technical drive "

international

standards .

Only

size

by

national

The
new
develop
industries through a service network , development
co - f inane ing .

industrial
technologies

research
to

objective

diffuse

and

of

these

policy

is to
rather small
programmes and

The Developing Fund and g ove rnment P roduct D eve lopm e n t Gran ts are
the
of
two
technological
to the co-financing of
enterprise development activities .

administer

promotion

devoted

jointly

schemes

policy

which

part

the

In 1986 , the commitments
Mio
DKr
respectively .
approximatively half
industry .

40
The

( about

MECU )
sum

through these

to 314
21 MECU )
represent
the total R&D costs of the Danish trade and

schemes amounted

schemes

and
of

( about

two

the

DKr

Mio

171

innovation . According

Tax Incentives are additional
R&D and
of research can be deducted from taxable income .
from
December
expenditures in the
RACE , ESPRIT and EUREKA .

promote industrial
to a tax law from july 1981 costs
new tax law
tax deduction for
in BRITE ,

provides
framework

instruments to

participation

for
of

a
the

1987

125

X

A

4 . N ati ona l B <? agy.r£s_s-«_

4.1 . Human Resources ( 1

)

total

The
( full time equivalent ),
43 X , technicians and others 57 X.

workers

broken

R&D

of

in Denmark in 1985 was about 20,000
: researchers

follows

down

as

The industrial
sector and the Government institutions about 25 X each .

sector employed

about 50 X , the higher education

The number
( 1985 )

.

of researchers

per 1000

labour force

equals to 3.1

( 1

)

Source : Danish research administration and OECD .

361

4

A. 2 . Financial Resources .

The Danish R&D funding in 1985 showed the following break down :

Business sector
:
Government funds :
:
Other fund

3,759 Mio DKr
3 , 567 Mio DKr
366 Mio DKr

469 Mio ECU
445 Mio ECU
45 Mio ECU

49 X
46 X
5 X

Total

7,692 Mio DKr

959 Mio ECU

1 00 X

Source : Danish Research Administration .

The national
ECU ) in 1986 . This corresponded to
budget
budget
national
national
appropriated 0.4 X of the
( 1 986 )

R&D budget amounted to 4,036 Mio DKr ( about 509 Mio
national R&D
a ratio
Government
of
defence R&D

1.55 X.
budget

of the

The
to

R&D

the

( 1 ) .

to

financial

The
public sector in 1985 came mainly from the
and Research
Ministry of Energy (7 X )

contribution

the Ministry

towards

( 54 X ),

( 2 ).

the R&D Expenditure in the
Ministry of Education
of Agriculture (8 X ) and the

For R&D promotion in Danish
of Industry
1 / 4 of the public R&D expenditure . Estimates in
provided roughly
the 1987 Finance Act indicate 1,050 Mio DKr ( nearly 135 MECU ) for
this purpose ( 3 )

Ministry

industry

the

.

5 ._International Coopération .

of

and

research

regardless

co-operation

technology
source ,

relies on the accessibility of
Danish
wide
dependent
and
results ,
and
International
Mio DKr
laboratories irrespective of nationality . About 5 X ( 225
MECU ) of the national Research & Development resources are
or 32
international co-operation
in
attributed to
including the
& Development programmes . Furthermore
the participation in the Nordic research co-operation is of great
interest to the country .

are
researchers ,

the
EC Research

participation

institutes

among

on

EUREKA

The
The
highly
Government 's Action Plan earmarks 110 Mio DKr ( about 14 MECU ) for
participation in the period 1986-1990 . Denmark participates in 27
of the 213 EUREKA project ( situation as of 01.07.1988 ).

welcomed

Denmark .

scheme

was

by

( 1 )

Source : OECD .

( 2 )

Source : Danish research administration .

( 3 )

Source : OECD .

362

S & T

POLICY IN FRANCE

Nov . 1988

1 . Objectives .

The Government 's Research Policy can be summarized as follows
- priority to industrial research ;
- to maintain
research ;

increase , in volume , the means for basic

and even

:

- to encourage or develop

collaboration between

fundamental and

applied research ;

- to encourage the involvement of the entire industrial sector in

the national research effort ;

- to provide a reasonable support to

the " grands

programmes " of

technical development ;

- to promote the development of european co-operation .

During recent
as percentage of GDP from 2.01 in 1981 to 2.31 X in
target
designated as a national priority .

years , there has been an increase in R&D financing
1985 and the
by 1990 . In France research has been

reach

to

is

%

3

2 . Priorities .

The on-going programmes give a clear indication of the prevailing
priority choices .
Programmes are of two main types :

- technological development_Programmes ( PDT )

to achieve large technological
aeronautics , telecommunications , electronuclear equipments ;

goals in

with the objective
nuclear energy , space

- national programmes

which regroup

and Technology Funds ( FRT ) and aim to promote
basic technologies through many industrial branches .

the actions of the Research
the diffusing of

are subdivided in thirty-three

which

national

programmes ,

The
priority research actions , are the following :
- Biotechnology
- Alimentation
- Medical research
- Human and social sciences
- Technology and production
- Electronics
- Research on land use & Transports
- Natural resources
- New materials
- New chemistry
- Research for development .

363

2

Breakdown of _pefl.V-l.sl on a 1 R&D budgets bv objectives in 1 986 and 1 987 c/.i

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

1 . 5
3 . 2
0.5
3 . 8

7 . 1
3 . 6
12.1
2 . 9
5.8
11.8
15.1
1 . 6

69 . 0

31.0

1
. 4
3 . 2
0 . A
3 . 6

6 . 7
3 . 6
10.6
2 . 7
5.9
12.0
14.7
1
.

1

65.9

34.1

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

3 . Implémentation ■

3.1 . Leg al Framework an d Institutional Mechanisms

the

year ,

Each
great details
Technological Development "
de Loi de Finance ).

in a

R&D

national

report entitled

policy in France is described in
of Research and
the annual Budget ( Projet

" The State

annexed to

Since June 1988 ,
a new Ministry for Research and Technology ( MRT )
has been created who is responsible for the S&T policy . The Space
policy is under
Telecommunications and
of
Ministries have also an important rol e in animating
Space . Other
scientific and technical activities .
assumed by
establishment of the Civil
MRT
Budget for R&D ( BCRD ) .

Coordination is

procedure

Ministry

through

Post ,

the

the

the

of

3.2 . Decentralization

Among the
mention the following :

several actions

to promote

decentralization , one can

- The

" Contrats

de
linking

agreements
regions , have
to the periphery . The central state
mover .

joint
the
been devised to bring the decision making closer
the prime

Etats-RSgions " .
research

well
institutes

remains however

Plan
national

as
with

as

- The

of

number

regional
centres ( CRITTs ) has been
concern
regional industrial structure of small and medium-sized firms .

technology transfen
activities mainly
essential to the development of the

innovation
increased .

and
Their

which

areas

are

to

Some of the main actors for a concerted regional policy are
- Regional Delegates

and Techn ology_( D RB.T ) with a
role
of the
regions concerning the national policy ; to co-ordinate research
and technological
development activities at regional level ; to
organize the technology transfer ; to encourage the diffusion of
scientific and technical culture and information ;

for Research
information

awareness

promote

provide

and

:

564

- The representation of research organisms in the regions .

3

principal
The
representatives in
dialogue between the different research partners .

organisms
in

research
the

have
order

been
to

regions

endowed

with
facilitate the

3.3 Industrial Research

of

terms

research

financing

Industrial research
in France as compared to public research has
not yet reached a level similar to its main competitors , not only
in
by the companies , but also in
terms of the share they are taking in research execution . This is
due to the fact that in France the public research centres have a
long tradition of being the main research actors and as such they
continue to weigh heavily in the overall national R&D structure .
In 1986 ,
opposed to 57 X by the administrations and 58 X of the
performed
enterprises
administrations . The largest share of the
expenditures on
R&D came
technology groups .

the enterprises as
was
the
increase in industrial
from big national enterprises and high

financed by

GERD
by

GERD was

opposed

of the

43 X

the

by

as

to

42

X

results

ANVAR has the mission to help companies to take more benefit from
development programmes , and will
the
of
companies ( for which
more and more favour small and
it devoted
of its credits in 1987 ) as well as the creation
of new enterprises .

technological

medium size

80 X

collaboration between

Loans on favorable terms provided mainly by the ANVAR should help
set up applied and goal oriented Research programmes with the aim
to develop
bodies involved :
public research establishments , industry or firms in the services
sector , technical centres and research companies under contract .
Such programmes should make it possible to allocate
to sectors
being felt .

public funds
the need for strong research stimulation is

the various

in which

3.3.1 . Direct Support to Industrial Research

Direct support goes through
by the
thematic
" Fonds de la Recherche et de la Technologie - FRT " mainly devoted
to
" diffusing
basic
technology " .

technology ,

programmes

so-called

" generic "

funded

the

or

There has been a significant increase in direct aid to industrial
research granted in the form of subsidies or repayable aids which
for
give
the
innovation projects or research presented by industrialists .

establishments

public

State

tend

its

or

to

Indirect Support

of enterprises

The tax credit in favour of research consists
income tax
volume , from one year to the
ceiling of 5 millions F.
In 1988 , this ceiling of 5 millions francs will be raised to
enterprises
cases
10 million
research programme in collaboration with a university ,
centre , or another enterprise .

reduction in
X of the increase in
effort , with a

present a
a research

representing 50

their R&D

next , in

francs

where

of a

the

in

365

ANVAR has proposed for Small Medium Enterprises ( SME )
aid in hiring high level researchers . For each
150,000 F
the SME
moment of recruitment and the rest one year after hiring .

a financial
researcher hired ,
( 22,000 ECU ), half of it at the

will receive

4

3 . 4 . Research Training
The French government has devised the following mechanisms
- Research grants

the
responsible for Research and higher Education
by

directly

financed

training

financed

directly

- Aids

by

:

previous ministry

public

research

for
organisms

- Industrial agreements for training by research ( CIFRE )
- Centres for the technology training of engineers by research

4 . National Resources

4.1 . Human Resources ( 1 )
In 1985 , there were 273.014 people ( full time equivalent ) working
in Research , from which 102.336 researchers .

Product

Domestic

4.2 . Financial Resources ( 2 )
Gross
prices and exchange rates ( 1985 )
Gross Doraestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD ) : 15,587.4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )
GERD / GDP : 2.31 X (1 985 )
:
R&D Budget
R&D Budget / National Budget

( 3 )
6.34 X ( 1986 )

674.8 Billion ECU ( at current

10273.1 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

( GDP )

:

:

low

In 1986 , 43 X of GERD was financed by enterprises . This figure is
and Japan and that is the
to
considered
reason why the strengthening of industrial research figures among
the top priorities of the French government .
In
32.5 X of the total R&D government appropriations .

financing for research in Defence represents

compared

1986 ,

R&D

the

FRG

as

5 ._International Coopération^

great

the programmes

France participates in all
framework Programme .
A
importance
operation in R&D . Under
initiatives have so far been launched :
the
Growth
NETWORKS ( Council of Europe , Paris 1984 ) and EUREKA ( July 1985 ).
France participates in 105 EUREKA projects ( as of 01.07.1988 ).

attached to the International co ¬
three international

of Technology ,
the EUROPEAN

International

Co-operation

( Versailles

included in

Employment

the E.C.

impulse ,

domain

French

1982 ),

( TGE )

also

and

the

in

is

a

European

Among
following can be mentioned
SYNCHROTRON
equipments ;

RADIATION
.

cooperation

.

.

in

which
: C.O.S.T. ;

France participates , the
THE EUROPEAN
CERN ; ESA ,
heavy
other
and

FACILITY

( E.S.R.F. )

( 1

)

Source : Projet de Loi de Finances pour 1988 .

( 2 )

Source : OCDE

( 3 )

Source : OSCE

366

S & T

IH

THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY .

1 . Gen er al policy objectives .

Nov . 1988

research

Science ,
and
of the German economy 's
the S
by the following closely interrelated precepts :
- adherence

technological development are a mainstay
The orientation of
innovative capacity .
policy in the Federal Republic of Germany is directed

research "

and

principle

" freedom

& T

the

of

of

to

promotion of individual initiative ;

- accordance
Government
industry and acknowledges " entrepreneurial self-reliance ";

" subsidiary funding "; the
R&D in
vis - S - vis

the
with
therefore

principle
acts

restraint

with

of

- a

positive

attitude

to

technological

progress and economie

growth .

in 1985 .

The country 's gross domestic Expenditure on R&D ( GERD ) was 2.66 %
1987 indicate a GERD of 2.8 % of
of GDP
GDP .
the comparable indicators
on the world market USA and JAPAN
of Germany 's
and ranks it in first place amongst its partners in the EC .

These figures are very

main competitors

Estimates for

close to

^–Prloritisa ...

In accordance with
Government will focus on the following fields :

guidelines

and

the

objectives

the Federal

Increased promotion
Federal and
by the
agreements .

of basic research through joint financing
according to existing
Lander governments

Expansion
health , climate research ).

" preventive "

of

research ( particularly : ecology ,

Promotion of
the area of market-oriented technologies particularly :

subsidiary funding

research and

of industry in

- information technologies and materials research ;
- the completion of the Airbus family ;
on
- biotechnology

emphasis

genetic

with

engineering ,

molecular biology and regenerative raw materials ;

- selected

physical

technologies

( laser ,

thin-film

technology )

;

- regenerative energy technologies .

basic
Improvement
innovations in small and medium-sized companies .

conditions

for

the

of

introduction

of

Strengthening of areas of
( nuclear fusion , polar research , apace research ).

research

with

long-term prospects

Expansion and intensification of international cooperation .

Research
responsible
implication of technology .

and

discussion

about

the

impact and

36 7

The percentage
objectives indicates the priorities
Government .

break down of the public R&D funding in groups of
attributed by the

which are

2

Breakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives In 1986 and 1987 ( 7.)

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

2 . 1
1 .9
3 . 3
3 . 0

10.5
2.0
14.3
2 . 3
4.5
31.8
11.8
0.1

87.6

12.4

1 . 9
1 . 9
3.3
3.2

8.7
2 . 0
15.3
2 . 3
A . 9
31 . 5
12.3
0.2

87.5

12.5

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

3 . Implémentation .

The responsibility
German S / T policy is partly with the
Lander Governments , which are
responsible
the universities
Federal Government mainly with the
with the
R&D , and
and their
Federal Ministry for Research and Technology ( BMFT ) which directs
the non-university R&D .

for the

for

down the

its policy the Government is
In laying
supported by independent institutions
German Research
Society ( DFG ) , and the Max Planck Society ( MPG ) . The link between
science and industry is provided by the Fraunhofer Society ( FhG ).

guidelines for

like

the

of

R&D

tasks
and

expenditure ,

Research , development and innovation , which today
part
as
necessary
government
cannot
competition
appropriate efforts
government 's
environment
performance and growth .

form the major
fundamental and
between
of
the
international
industry
financing . The
be
have to be made by the firms themselves , the
an
policy
to
private

are
firms .
that
overcome

in
government

the
innovation

creating
conducive

disadvantages

considered

agreement

task
that

having

R&D
for

of
is

There

by

is

Particular importance however is attached to the role of the SMEs
which , in
the Government 's view , are an important factor for the
performance and competitiveness of German industry .

The promotion
reductions
is
content
of
development
industry over the last years gives the following pictures :

by indirect–measures and tas.
but the definition of the
The
to

in industry
on
is
appropriations

of R&D
based
R&D
these

themselves .
concessions

incentives ,
left

firms
tax

the
of

and

the

to

368

Year

1 983

1 984

1 985

1 986

1 987 *

Global Government Mio DM
contributions

Mio ECU

852
375

982
439

1,185
532

1,258
591

1,139
550

Source : Bundesbericht Forschung 1988

( BUFO )

*

: estimates

3

of

promotion

The
product groups focused mainly
techniques ,
development of this spending ,
f inane ino . are as follows :

microperiphery

R&D

in

specific

areas

of technology or of
on microelectronics , manufacturing
The
indirect specific

biotechnology .

and
called

the

so

components

Year

1 983

1 984

1 985

1 986

1 987 *

Global Government Mio DM
spending

Mio ECU

1 51
66

1 61
72

1 33
60

1 35
63

1 1 7
57

Source : BUFO 1988

*

: estimâtes

4 . National Resources .

4.1 . Human Resources ( 1

)

of researchers

The number
in 1983 . The total of R&D
Germany in
as follows : researchers 36 X , technicians 30 X , others 34 X.

per 1000 labour force equalled to 4.8
Republic of
398,328 ( full time equivalent ), broken down

1985 was

workers

Federal

the

in

The industrial sector employs by far the largest part of
personnel ( about
technicians . An increase of
registered between 1983 and 1985 in this sector .

the R&D
X are researchers and 31.4 X
personnel was

which 34
10.3

2 / 3 ) of

R&D

the

of

X

other sectors

In the
the R&D
this figure was slightly decreasing between 1983 and 1985 .

form the greatest part of
are researchers but

the researchers

the universities

staff . In

42.7 X

4.2 . Financial Resources ( 2 )

R&D budget

The national
ECU ) in 1986 . This corresponded to
budget
to
appropriated 12.4
( 1 986 )

national

X of

the

budget

the national

amounted to

.

21,375 Mio

a ratio

of the

of

4.2

% .

R&D budget

DM ( 10,049 Mio
national R&D
Government
to defence R&D

The

( 1 )

Source : BUFO .

( 2 )

Source : OECD ( provisional data ).

369

4

country 's

The
recent years , mainly the industry 's part
expenditure in
over the last years .

increased substantially in
total R&D
tables belou indicate the development

expenditure

1987 ). The

of the

( 61 X

has

R&D

R&D expenditure share by financing sectors .

Federal Government
As X of total R&D spending
Länder Governments
As X of total R&D spending
Industry
As X of total R&D spending
Private non-profit inst .
As X of total R&D spending
Total domestic financed R&D
As X of total R&D spending

From abroad funded R&D
As X of total R&D spending

Source : BUFO 1988

1981

1 983

1 985

1 986

1 987

26.3

25.9

24.6

24.0

24 . 3

16.2

14.7

13.7

13.5

13.4

56 . 1

57.9

60.3

61 . 1

61 .0

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.3

99 . 1

98.9

98 . 9

98.9

98.9

0.9

1 . 1

1 . 1

1 . 1

1 . 1

ministries , the

Over 90 X of the Federal research appropriations
four Federal
Technology ( BMFT ),
Federal
Ministry
Ministry of Education and Science ( BMBU ) . The BMFT
55 X of the funds in 1987 .

Federal Ministry
Ministry of
Affairs

the Federal
Economic

are provided by
for Research and
Defence ( BMVg ), the
and the Federal
supplied some

( BMUi )

of

5 ._International Coopération .

The Federal Republic of Germany , with its heavily export-oriented
economy , has a great interest in international cooperation .

1987

funds

In
the
organizations amounted
to about
R&D appropriations . According to
government
( about 630 million ECU ) in 1987 .

industry

which

will

and

went

or

abroad

international
to
8 % of the Federal Government 's
expenditure from
estimates the
to some DM 1,700 million

amount

The Government
technology
industrial and
promoting R&D as another means of uniting Europe .

attaches
It
technological

importance
safeguarding

capabilities

great
sees

policy .

by

to

EC
Europe’s

research and
economic ,
coordinating and

is

as

seen

economic

activities

a cooperation beyond national boundaries in
EUREKA
appropriate
pursued
which
coordination . The German industry particularly wants standards to
be harmonized at an early stage and in parallel with research and
development .
are
The German
participating in
EUREKA
participation
was estimated to 1,150 Mio DM
( about 575 Mio ECU )

firms
213
the
projects

( as of June 1988 ).

institutes

of
these

projects .

research

German

and

can

66

be

to

by

370

3 & T_POLICY

IN

GREECE .

Nov . 1988

The main objectives set by the 1988-92 National plan for research
and technology are :

of

the

necessary

infrastructure

with increasing
the creation of human research and managerial

Creation of
importance to
potential .
Formulation
agriculture , industry ,
be made to promote the development of high technology .
Diffusion of S & T information ( creation of networks ).
Promotion
cooperation .
Encouragement of innovation .

in
energy , etc . Particular efforts will

international

specialised

programmes

technology

sectoral

transfer

and

of

GERD as a percentage of GDP has increased steadily from 0.21 X in
1981 to 0.35 X in 1985 . The aim is to reach 0.65 X in 1992 .

2 . Priorities .

High priority has been given to :

Industrial research Development Programme ;
Social and human sciences ;
Information technology ;
Biotechnology ;
Energy ;
Agriculture .

Breakdown of provisional_R&D budgets bv objectives in 1986 and 1 9 8 7

( X )

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-uee planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

5 . 5
0 . 4
3 . 4
9 . 3

2 . 6
24.9
8 . 7
6 . 4
0 . 6
26 . 9
6 . 1
2 . 2

97 . 1

2 . 9

1
7 .
0 . 3
2 . 1
7 . 4

3 . 6
26 . 0
11.2
7 . 3
0 . 4
25.3
6 . 7
0 . 3

97.7

2 . 3

Total financing
L
Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

100.0

100.0

371

3 . Implémentation .

3.1 .–Legal Framework and i nstitutional mechanisms .

2

lau

( 1514 / 85 )

The
of
on
Technological Research " has been promulgated and
a
the
organization of the R & T
economic development .

Scientific
and
aims at setting
new policy with concrete objectives and
to Greece 's socio ¬

activities related

" Development

foundations

for

the

is

and

The General Secretariat for Research and Technology ( G.S.R.T. ) is
Energy and
an autonomous body within
the Ministry
the
Technology
implementation
and
five-year
Technological Development , the elaboration of new programmes , the
development ,
promotion
and
Technology potential , the importing
development of
and exporting of know-how ,
and coordination
of R&D activities between the various actors .

of Industry ,
drawing
for

technological
Research and

responsible
the

research evaluation

and
Research

activation

the
plan

for

the

up

of

of

There are , however , other ministries that organise and fund their
own R&D activities over which the G.S. R.T
so far , any
jurisdiction . To improve consistency and to promote coordination ,
all the competent ministries have participated in the preparation
of the new Plan ( 1988-1992 ).

has not ,

3.2 . Research Centres and Universities .

efforts

the larger possible
Intense
participation of Greece in programmes issued within the framework
of bilateral agreements .

attain

made

will

be

to

to

order

In
made to draw a greater advantage from the
etc . and
equipments by the research units and universities .

the technical infrastructure , efforts are
EEC programmes , FEDER ,
efficient use of the existing research

to make

improve

a more

exception of

Uith the
to choose the
Universities who
topic of their research , public financing of research centres and
institutes will depend on their
grants from
third parties
( specially from the EEC ), to work closely with the
production sector , to contribute in the technological development
of a greater national or
of the
social interest and to
in the
domain of research .

execute programmes
promote the

country 's reputation

country , to

are free

ability

obtain

to

Efforts are made to institutionalize concrete research incentives
their own initiative
to researchers and technicians ,
external
will
centre
research
the
from services ,
subsidies from financing organizations
or selling of products .

or
or income

institution

which with

bring

to

In order
Cofinanclng Programme has been devised according
Education Institutions

Research closer to the production sector , the
to which Higher
Technical Colleges ), or

( Universities or

to bring

372

research centres
can submit proposals for financial subsidies of
some research projects provided that they have previously managed
30 X financing of the total cost of the project from a
to obtain
production unit or a social body .

3.3 . Industry^

3

Until
Greek
recently
technological research
out in
State research
productive branches of the economy .

have

firms
in
activities , and the research work carried
off from the
institutions have

involved

been cut

little

been

The following
research in the industry :

measures have

been adopted

in order to encourage

it

law

Research

subsidy of

Programme ,

Industrial

Development

it is
40-50 X of the research work carried

In the
foreseen a
out by an enterprise .
1262 / 87 ,
In the
establishment
or
enterprises .
There is a possibility
research expenses from
of deducting
the taxable sum and amortization of research equipment costs
within three years ( Law 1731 / 1987 ).
Financing
Organization for
R & T.

prototypes
of
handicraft ( EOMMEX )

Greek
and the G.S.

for the
the
in

laboratories

expansion

foreseen

creation

SHE and

subsidy

the

the

by

of

is

a

3.4 . Technology Transfer .

A new law 1733 / 22.09.1987 on " Transfer
and
Technological
aims to assist the
and
the establishment
rights which
this law .

of Technology , Inventions
been recently passed which
Innovations "
technology transfer
into Greece ,
firms with
development . The law provides for
technological
an
industrial property
in charge of monitoring the application of

of
will be

organization

endogenous

for

has

selected industrial

In order to solve effectively the problems of technology transfer
sectors and the linkage of research
in some
with production , some
have been
created
to the existing SME in those
for
sectors .

assistance

companies

technical

sectorial

technical

3.5 ._Patents and " Know-how ".

of

and

role

patents

the
results

To promote
research
national legislation covering this
the
mentioned
1733 / 1987
European Patent Convention . In
Patent Organization ,
for the development of the corresponding Greek Organism ( OBI ).

of the
the
the enactment of
above and the ratification of the
the European
with
collaboration
has been formulated

year programme

exploitation

sector with

innovation ,

modernised

Greece

a five

the

the

law

in

373

3.6 . Innovation .

the Greek

Organization of Small and Medium Enterprises
In 1982 ,
and Handicraft ( EOMMEX ) started a programme for the
promotion of
innovation in the SHE in Greece . In this way a Central Innovation
and Technological Development Directorate ( DIKTA ) was
created as
well as 5 local offices of innovation in five different cities of
Greece .

4 . National resources .

4,1 . Human Resources ( 1 )

reverse

Number of researchers per 1000 labour force : 0.8 ( 1983 ).
To
determined
conditions in
scientists who work abroad .

is
the creation of the proper working
the eminent Greek

with
attract back

acute
proceed
order to

" brain-drain "

problem

some of

Greece

the

to

of

4 . 2 ^Financial Resources ( 2 )

( at

( GDP )

Product

Domestic
: 42.8 Billion ECU ( 1985 )

Gross
rates )
Gross Domestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD )
GERD / GDP : 0.35 X ( 1985 )
Percentage of GERD financed by industry : 26.3 X ( 1985 )
R&D Budget : 99.5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )
R&D Budget / National Budget : 0.67 X ( 1986 )
Defence R&D as a
( 1 986 )

total Government

i of

( 3 )

.

current prices and exchange

: 148.9 Mio ECU ( 1985 )

appropriations :

2.7 X

5 . International Coopération .

of Greece

The participation
increased substantially over the period 1984-1987 ,
Community
ECU .
Millions
cooperation on
R &
from the Western and Eastern bloc .

in the Community R&D programmes has
and the total
of 38.6
for
T exist between Greece and several countries

sum
agreements

for
Bilateral

multilateral

funding

reached

period

this

and

the

example ,

For
between Greece
dwellings utilising
constructed in the Athens area .

and Germany ,

within

seven

the

framework

a unique

different

a

of

bilateral agreement
solar energy village ( 435
has been

systems )

energy

Among the
collaboration ,
scientists
60
Greece participates in 8 EUREKA projects ( as of 01.07.1988 ).

framework of bilateral
of
joint application programmes .

activities devised
X

within the
will

number )
X

( in
other

exchange

concern

and

the

40

( 1 )

Source : OECD .

( 2 )

Source : OECD

( 3 )

Source : OSCE

374

S & T

IH

IBELAND

Nov . 1988

1

General .. Policv ,

Irish

first time .

Science
A Minister for Science and

During
1987
reorganised .
for the
The Ministry
located within the Department of Industry and Commerce .
Within a wide general programme of
activity ,
Ireland 's
institutions were amalgamated .

Technology

of Science

public

major

and

was

considerably
Technology was appointed
and Technology is

rationalization of Government
scientific and technological

T

focus

towards

accompanied this

Government has
S &
firms in science and technology .
At a time of
Minister for
additional to earlier
played a major part in the programme set out ( 1 ).

widespread cuts
Government expenditure the
Science and Technology allocated £ 2.5 m ( 3.2 MECU )
Indigenous development

a shift of
a greater effort by indigenous

reorganization with

provision .

fostering

budget

in all

" This programme :
- will support

the placement

of the

best and brightest science

and engineering graduates in industry ;

- will develop centres of excellence and applied research

in our

higher education institutes ;

and

extend

- will establish a national programme of technological innovation
to
schemes
existing
administered by the National Board for Science and Technology ;
- Institute for Industrial Research and Standards to acquire much
needed test equipment so as to give Irish industry the range of
services needed in today 's circumstances ."

research

enhance

grant

2 . Pr iorities .

Strategic

S&T
orientated
Engineering , Advanced Materials and Information Technology as
priorities .

application-
Biotechnology ,

emphasizes

identified

Programme

Research

research

has

and

aims consistent with concentrating natural S&T

Additional Policy
effort on indigenous firms are :
i )
ii )

increasing the innovation rate in Irish enterprises ;
of industry
tackling the structural barriers
better technological capacity and performance .

which inhibit

iii ) developing a modern information and intelligence network .
iv )

accelerating the
technologies .
creating greater awareness of the importance
technology and an improved climate for entrepreneurship .

adoption and application of new industrial

of science and

New Science and Technology Development Programme "
Dr
Minister
Dublin , 11th June 1987 .

Science

Carthy ,

for

Me

S.

and Technology ,

375

v )

( 1

)

2

vi )

funded S

programmes

& T
services in support of the innovation drive by
and

mobilising and optimising public and publicly
agencies and
coordinated
ensuring
between agencies by :
supporting mobility of personnel ;
making efficient use of scarce national facilities ;
gaining maximum benefit from international cooperation ;
focussing
priorities ;
ensuring
successful outcome
capability of the teams .

of
assumed by good management and technical

of technology assessed as

selectively

programmes

prospects

quality

actions

viable

within

areas

with

on

of

vii ) partic ipating wherever possible in collaborative R&D .

The South East Region , one of the weaker regions in S&T , has been
declared a pilot region for S&T related economic development .

Table 1

Breakdown of provisional RAD budgets bv objectives In 19B6 and 19B7 ( X )

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and Improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-orlented research
Other research

0.7
3.9
0.8
4.9

1 . 2
27.3
26.1
8.0
1 . 1
23.9
2 . 1

0.6
4.2
1 . 0
3 . 9

1 . 1
24 . 2
27.2
10.0
2.3
23.0
2.5

-

Total financing of civil RAD

Defence

Total financing

100.0

100.0

-

-

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of RAD In Community countries .

3 . Implémentation .

In the
1988 , the primary policy
changed .

wide ranging changes conducted in 1987 and implemented in
management agencies were

and resources

Board

The
National
primary S&T policy
Institute
primary S&T application agency - have been amalgated
new body EOLAS .

for
advising

and
Research

co-ordination

Technology

Industrial

Science

and

and

for

agency

( NBST )

- the
and the
- the
to form the

Standards ( IIRS )

Foras

Taluntais

An
primary agency for agricultural research and
agricultural
training
amalgamated to form the
Food Development Agency .

development

TEAGASC -

new body

Agricultural Institute - the
the primary
ACOT -
agency
been
The Agriculture and

( AFT )

have

and

the

-

376

3

of

functions

The
have been either taken into the Dept of
TEAGASC
Medical Social Research Board
subsumed into the neu Health Research Board .

Research Institute ( AFF )-
given to
functions previously carried out by the
Research Council were

Environment or

environmental

and Medical

EOLAS .

The

the

or

fee

S&T

earning
All
returns . Dependence on fee
greater efficiency
in the
danger , however , that non-fee earning developmental
curtailed at the expense of fee-earning activities .

have been forced to seek higher
income
resulted in
undoubtedly
provision of S&T services . There is a
work will be

services

has

reduction

Overall
resulted
particularly those which are not fee earning .

in
curtailment

exchequer

funding

certain

the

of

in

of S&T activities has
activities ,

S&T

4 . National Resources .

4 . 1

. Personnel < 1 >

reductions

main
S&T
public
Considerable
institutes have also been sought
Ireland 's general
drive to reduce public expenditure in its attempt to overcome the
economic difficulties arising form its foreign debt .
The number
2.8 X.

Labour force is

of researchers

staff
as

in Ireland

at
part

per 1000

the
of

in

2 . Financial Resources .

had a

real terms

small budget

increased in

spending departments .

increase in 1987 despite widespread
S&T has
Government Expenditure
cuts in most other
on S&T
. 4 X per annum average from
1981-87 . Current expenditure on S&T increased by 3 X per annum in
real
as X of GDP has
remained around 0.8 X of GDP . All of Ireland 's R&D expenditure is
Civilian R&D .
S&T
increased in S&T for the Manufacturing Sector .
Table 2 provides pattern of expenditure .

Expenditure

Agriculture

Expenditure

Energy and

declined

1985-87 .

However

terms

by 1

has

and

R&D

in

Table 2

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1982-1986 IRE MILLION

Voted Current Monies

Voted Capital Monies

Non-Exchequer Monies

1982

(IRC m )

213.2

342

24.4

1983

(IRCm)

221.5

38.5

49.4

1984

( IRC m |

237.7

34.4

62.9

1985

(IRC ml

258.9

34 7

70.4

1986 *

(IRC ml

( MECU )

278.4

363

46.6

73.3

61

96

Total

271.8

309 4

33S.0

364 0

3983

520

• Budgened expenditure

Source NBST

( 1 )

Source : NBST Annual report .

377

expenditure ,

Current
costs ,
provides a better guide to overall activity levels . Total current
between 1985 and
X in
expenditure increased
1 986 .

represents

real terms

mainly

labour

by 3.1

which

4

in

real

Government

of
this
between

component
terms

however ,
has ,
and 1986 , with current
This decrease
funding had been matched by a real increase in non -

The
decreased
expenditure decreasing by 2 X and capital by
in exchequer
exchequer income of 68 X between 1981 and 1986 .
expenditure by
Indigenous firms contribute one
firms in Ireland on R&D . In 1982 of 5,652 owned firms only 74 had
formal R&D departments , only 231 conducted any R&D .

expenditure
1981

third

total

1 X.

of

There was
reduction
Agricultural R&D
17.7 X since 1 981 .

a drop
in

in funding

for R&D

due almost

Government

expenditure

support
has

the

for
decreased

entirely to a
Agriculture Sector .
terms by

real

in

Government support
steadily however
over the
support manufacturing is now the
activities .

for R&D in the Manufacturing sector has grown
growth of 99 X
X. R&D to
State R&D

1986 . GERD / GDP

- recording

is 0.8
of

since 1981

period to

five year

element

largest

a real

higher

education
for

The
Government
education block-grant
Education
Higher
research - support schemes .

funds

sector
R&D ,

from the

Authority ,

was
indirectly

the other major recipient of
general
Education and the
specific
through

Department of
directly

through

the

and

a

small

As
international S&T participation of
participation .
participates , it is very successful relative to population size .

regards
and seeks
Ireland

crucial importance

peripherally

programmes

Community

economy ,

located ,

Ireland

which

In

in

It regards the main benefits as enhancement of the scientific and
technological competence by offering it :
to
i )

orientation

outward

means

and

the
develop
participation in the wider world of science ;
opportunities for sharing
programmes and facilities ;
to

scientific

specific

means

costs

the

of

an

iii ) the

specific research

and

information
intelligence ;
opportunities for acquiring technology through licensing and
other methods of transfer .

technological

gather

and

and

technical
commercial

ii )

iv )

access
to

Ireland participates as of July 1988 in 6 EUREKA projects .

378

S

&

T

IN

ITALY

Nov . 1988

1 . General Policv Objectives .

Scientific research
priority for the Italian Government and business enterprises .

and technological

development are a current

The
ratio
Domestic Product
in 1988 .

Gross_domestic_Expenditure_£U_ _( GEPD ) / Gross
from 0.74 X in 1980 to 1.40

( G.D.P. ) increased

The overall objective is to increase the GERD for the next 4 or 5
years in a such way as to reach the ratio GERD / GDP value of about
countries such as
2.4 X
France and U.K.

other Community

comparable to

that of

research

personnel .

For
second country
highest annual increase rate for researchers ( about 5.9 */. )
A particular effort will be made in training and recruiting young
scientists for which a serious shortage
in the near
future .

1985 Italy was the
show the

1969
geographical

is foreseen

between

area )

OECD

the

and

( of

to

.

Italian researchers are also eager to develop more than before as
much international cooperation as possible .

The
scientists
countries .

percentage

of

scientific

papers

with

foreign

co-authors

published

Italian
is the highest of all OECD

by

2 . Priorities-

Specific priorities are set in the field of advanced technologies
in order
an edge to Italian industry in the competition
for supplying the internal and foreign markets .

to give

A major emphasis will be put on the following sectors :

( micro -

data
;

processing

biotechnologies and fine chemicals ;
electronic
electronics )
new materials ( semi-conductors , ceramics , etc .)
thermonuclear fusion ;
broadband télécommunications ;
optics and lasers ;
advanced transport ;
satellites and space crafts ;
biomédical instrumentation ;
educational training technique .

and

molecular

;

379

of

field

research

One
reduced in importance , viz ,
nuclear fission because the majority , in a national referendum in
position towards the continuation of
a negative
1987 , expressed
electricity production with
of nuclear
the
present
reactors . However ,
continuing at a reduced scale on
an " intrinsically safe " fission reactor .

research is

generation

be

to

is

2

The
between 1986 and 1987 in government funded research .

highlights

following

table

shift

the

in

the priorities

Breakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 19B6 and 1 987 m

Ob j ectlves

Provisional budgets
1 986

1987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

1 . 1
0.9
1 . 0
4 . 4

17.4
3.7
19.1
1 . 1
6.9
28 . 6
7.0
0 . 4

91.6

8 .4

1 . 4
0.8
0.9
4 . 5

11.1
3 . 5
19.1
1 . 2
9.3
31.9
6.6
1 . 9

92 . 2

7 . 8

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D In Community countries .

3 . Implémentation

Several ministries ,
for carrying out R&D activities . At present the
research
public financed R&D .
presented to
Ministry
technological research .

research bodies and industry are responsible
Minister for S&T
coordination power for the
and now
the Parliament , will set up a
and

A
the other

law ,
branch of

responsible

University

scientific

approved

certain

Senate

amount

has

the

for

and

the

by

of

a

for University

The Minister
research will have his own
budget and should be in a position to coordinate the whole public
financed R&D
guidelines for the private
funded research via fiscal and other incentives to industry .

activities and

to draw

and S&T

The most Important
which
has
Italian economy , is the C.I.P.E. ( Intermlnisterial
Economic
permanent member of C.I.P.E.

body
ministerial level ,
in all matter concerning the
Committee for
Minister , above quoted , will be a

decision-making
competence

Planning ).

overall

new

The

at

an

380

3

the

Among
Institutes , responsible for
can be quoted :

largest

bodies ,

carrying out

other

University
research , the following

than

( National

C.N.R. ( National Research Council )
Nuclear
I.N.F.N.
responsible for research in high energy physics ;
A.S.I. ( Italian Space Agency ) established in June 1988 ;
I.S.S. ( Central Institute for Public Health )
R&D of
E.N.E.A. ( National Organization for
Energy sources )

Institute

for

;

.

;
Nuclear and new

Physics )

projects
reference

The
targeted
research with
adoption
integrated
Universities ,
local administrative bodies .

scientific
C.N.R. ,

of

multi-disciplinary

to

well-defined

(" progetti f inal izzati " ) promote applied
involving the
and having recourse to
the
and other central , regional and

skills
industry

different

methods

levels ,

topics

e.g.

at

In addition to the attainment of specific economic relevant goals
the targeted projects are concerned with the
in the
medium - /long - term examination
problems affecting
of
production and social development .

short term ,

particular

as industrial R&D is concerned ,

it must be noted that the
As far
general picture
of the statistical
indicators of industrial research reveals the tendency of Italian
average
to
to
industry
technological content .

the examination

produced by

priority

products

having

give

an

share

The
these last years been
share as a performer of R&D was about 57 X in 1985 .

in the formation of the GERD has
but industry 's
X of

R&D
about 50

the total ,

industrial

of

4 . National Resources

é * l.i . Pe rso n nel ( 1 )

Total R&D personnel ( full time équivalent f.t.e .)

: 117,887 units

( 1985 )

Total R&D Scientists and Engineers , Researchers

( f.t.e .)

: 63,759

units ( 1985 )

Number of researchers for 1000 labour force : 2.7

( 1 )

Source : O.C.D.E. , Paris : Main S&T Indicators 1988 .

381

4

of

The higher education system of Italian universities delivers only
one qualification in natural sciences and engineering while three
and
degree
qualifications
university
types
doctorate ) are required
most Western
in
being
for
countries .
In order
the
planned
researchers in the next five years .

shortage of researchers forecast for
young

( diploma ,
with

with the
is

to cope
years

recruit

coming

50,000

line

to

it

4 . 2 . Financial Means ( 1

)

Government financing of R&D in 1987 : 4,754.5 Mio

ECU

( provisional budget )

Defence R&D as X of Total R&D Government Budget : 7.8 X ( 1987 )

Gross domestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD)in 1985 : 6,307.3 Mio ECU

GERD / GDP : 1.33 X ( 1985 )

5 . International Coopération

officials

Senior
participation
cooperation at
for maintaining Italian science
more advanced countries .

that
international
both European and non-European level is essential
orbit of
and technology

research

projects

research

charge

in the

based

think

S&T

on

of

in

in

Moreover , there
programme to international cooperation on a broad scale
a
international programmes and national projects .

attempt to open Italy 's science
but also
and adjustments between Community or

interaction

only an

is not

desire

for

participation

Therefore the Italian scientific world has expressed its interest
first and second Community framework
for
programmes mainly in
as ESPRIT ,
Community
RACE , Fusion , BRITE and EURAM .

the
large

actions

such

in

Italy is
participates
organizations .

present in

59 EUREKA

to

EMBO

and

projects ( as
other

international

of 01.07.1988 ) and
research

Italy is
of the European
Space Agency ( ESA ) and about one half the Italian funds for space
research are allocated to the ESA projects .

member of

an active

well as

CERN as

( 1

)

Source : OSCE

382

1 . General Policv Objectives .

S & T

IN

LUXEMBOURG

Nov . 1988

Up to 1987 all the R&D activities in the Grand-Duchy were carried
by the
out by private enterprises .
to set up a certain
Parliament
to
gave
number of Public Research
will be
Moreover a certain amount of public
financed
by
money is set aside for
to train
researchers .

A law approved in

Centres ( PRC ).

scholarships

These centres

March 1987

Government

designed

special

public

funds .

power

the

the

establishment

Uith
PRC the Government wishes to foster
industrial innovation through the transfer of research results to
Government in the
private enterprise .
whole process of technological
remain only and
exclusively
role , with business enterprises
managing entirely the function of innovating their products .

Nevertheless the

innovation shall

encouraging

role of

as

an

of

2 . Priorities .

The broad guidelines
financed research
and Innovation " of the
consulted for advice .

of
are set

the

science

the publicly
out by a special Commission " Research
Guilds are
professional

policy

for

and

Parliament

important priorities
One of
specialised researchers in all fields .

the most

is the training of highly

Cooperation with foreign scientists is also considered of primary
fields of coverage of the PRCs now
importance given
operational .

the limited

Particular attention
gathered
innovation .

public

in

is

devoted

to

the

transfer

research

establishments ,

to

of results ,
industrial

Spécifie priorities are the following :

- data processing and bureautics ( software );
- raicro-electronics ;
- biotechnology for the protection

of the

the environment ;

human health

and for

- new materials ( mainly for steel and chemical products , ceramics

and composite materials ).

Î^Implem entât ion .

and Technological
The Interministerial
is
Development , whose
responsible for coordination and
Government financed
research and training scholarships . Moreover , this Committee acts
for scientific
as an advisory body for the
and applied research ( the Minister for Education and Youth ).

for
appointed by
funding of

Committee
members are

Minister responsible

the Government ,

Research

383

At present
PRCs are
four more are planned and they will be
in the next four or five years .

only three

operational but

2
other three or
progressively established

Industry
totally
research activities which are mainly
sectors :

present ,

is ,

at

responsible for funding its
about ten
carried

out

in

- steel , rubber and metal products ;
- metallic building structures ;
- chemistry , thermoplastics and pcwder metallurgy ;
- electric house appliances .

More than
one half
cooperation with foreign firms .

of the

industrial research

is performed in

The new Government structure for fostering
industrial innovation
set up measures and incentives to industry for investments in R&D
activities and in :

- feasibility studies in SHE ;
- prototypes ;
- pilot plants ;
- services processes ;

4 , National resources .

data

Statistical
activities
statisticians , however
set up , shall be in position to do so in the very near future .

research
systematically collected by Luxembourg
ministerial structures , recently

( expenditure

personnel )

the new

yet

not

and

are

on

5_._International ce operation .

authorities

National
their interest for Community
this is
the PRCs of Luxembourg is also offered to foreign scientists .

scientists have indicated
cooperation and
demonstrated by the fact that the possibility to work in

international

Luxembourg

and

and

Luxembourg cannot be present in all the research
choice of
the need
participation .

so the
international projects is imposed by
by international

participating in
complement
to

national

effort

fields

the

Luxembourg 's participation in international programmes is limited
to two
to three EUREKA
Community programmes , ESPRIT , and BRITE and to COST .

projects

( CERISE ,

IQ133 ),

COSINE

and

384

S & I

IN

THE

NETHERLANDS .

Nov . 1988

1 . General Policv Objectives .

The formulation of the Dutch science policy for the next 10 to 15
years will be determined by the following three issues :

- Aspiration of a scientific basis in the 1990 's

for the benefit

of its key societal functions .

- Achievement of

an important role in research in the process of

internationalization .

- Endeavour for

a well

balanced development_and application of

science and technology at economic , social and cultural needs .

R&D

total

expenditure

The
recent years and will
1988 . This
ranks the
Member States . The Netherlands will spend
4,600 MECU )
with reference to 1987 .
the FR of Germany contribute more than 2 X of the GDP for R&D .

increased remarkably in the
amount to
country 's GDP in
of the
Netherlands under the high R&D spending EC
Gld ( about
increase of 3,7 X
U.K. and

Netherlands , France ,

This corresponds

10,682 Mio

Only the

in 1988 .

( GERD )

2.4 X

to an

2 ^ Priori t les ,.

share

largest

The
( about
expansion
technological
SMEs , is a key target of the Dutch technology policy .

performed by the private sector
general
base in industry mainly in the

corporations ).

multinational

The

R&D

the

the

2 / 3

by

of

of

is

Concerning the Government financed R&D five main issues have been
set out in the 1988 plan :
- fundamental and strategic research ;
- replacement of and investment in research equipment ;
- international orientation and cooperation ;
- promotion of and innovation in specific research fields ;
- throughput
society .

system and the

know-how

research

within

the

of

Beside the general priorities ,
number of specific subjects or medium term trends :
- Major developments in biology with emphasis on : biotechnology ,
environmental problems ( cross -

Science Budget

the 1988

notes a

marine and
ecological research
boundaries ), energy , healthcare .

of

the

- In

fields

fundamental and strategic research : high -
energy physics , neuro - inf orroat ic , geophysics , microelectronics ,
Information Technology , optical techniques and superconductors .
science and humanities the gaps between
to be

- In medical / behavioural

professional

research

practice

have

and

fundamental
closed .

- The assessment

diffusion to these new technologies
to avoid unforeseen consequence for society is a major concern .

and public

385

The percentage
objectives indicates the priorities which are
Government .

break down of the public R&D funding in groups of
attributed by the

2

Breakdown–fif provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1 986 and 1987 m

Ob j ec t ives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

0 . 6
4 . 2
3 . 0
2 . 2

4 . 6
4 . 4
14.8
3 . 5
2 . 9
43 . 1
9 . 8
4.3

97.4

2 . 6

0.6
4 . 6
3 . 1
2 . 5

4 . 0
4 . 3
17.6
2 . 4
2 . 8
40.7
10.3
4.3

97.2

2.8

100.0

100.0

Sourc e

: EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

3 . Implémentation ,

The Government 's responsibility for S / T is borne by :

- The Ministry

as regards fundamental
and long term research . This Ministry administers a large share
of the Government financed R&D ( about 54 % in 1988 ).

of Education

and Science

- The Ministry of Economic Affairs deals with innovation-oriented
in 1 988 ).

R&D and the different stimulation schemes ( about 24

- Other Ministries are responsible for the

support of particular

research related to their functions .

making is

based on a broadly structured network of
The decision
advisory bodies .
Council for
is
Science and Technology , chaired by the Prime Minister . The Policy
is partly market-oriented , aiming to improve competitive strength
of the Dutch industry .

prepared

Policy

S / T

the

by

The
follows :

structure

for

R&D

funding

and

promotion is organised as

a ) Government-financed

fundamental
submitted to the principles of task-related funding .

strategic

and

research

is

Block grants apply for free research at the universities and
Organizations for
the research promoted by
Applied Scientific Research ( TNO );

the Netherlands

15 )

386

3

Specific grants
programmes ;
Customer
designed
exceptional cases .

provide for the performance of well defined

projects

or

conditional

funding

are

b ) Policy-oriented research

( at specific research institutes ) is

contracted out by various ministries .

c ) Innovation-oriented R&D schemes to stimulate the effort of the
industry are promoted by the Ministry of Economic Affairs .
The
are :

programmes in this context

important

schemes

most

and

-

-

-

The INNOVATION
programme ) focusses
volume amounted
labour cost , its financial
( nearly 150 MECU ) for the 1984-1989 period .

five year
It provides support to the R&D
Mio Gld

STIMULATION

on SMEs .

( INSTIR )

SCHEME

to 360

(a

TECHNOLOGICAL

The
bearing loans at 5 % interest .

DEVELOPMENT

SCHEME

( TOK )

offers risk -

The SHE Business Research Programme ( OMK Project ) stimulates
firms to
carry out advanced research by granting about half
of the project costs .

The STIMULATION of BUSINESS-ORIENTED RESEARCH by COLLECTIVES
offered 10 Mio Gld ( about 4.3 Mio ECU )
in 1987 ( for research
and feasibility studies ).

BUSINESS-ORIENTED

The
( PBTS )
specific
Technology , Biotechnology and Medical Technology .

STIMULATION
such

TECHNOLOGY

focuses

areas

on

as

PROGRAMME
IT , Material

d ) The Government as purchaser and first buyer plays an important

role in the Dutch innovation stimulation policy .

4 . National Resources .

4.1 . Human Resources ( 1

)

The number
The total of R&D workers in the Netherlands in 1985
above 61,000 ( full-time equivalent ).

of researchers per 1000 labour force was 3.7 in 1983 .
was slightly

The
mainly in the electrical and the chemical sectors .

industrial

employs

sector

about

half of the R&D manpower

The
Dutch
workers in
the universities and technical universities .

R&D
R&D
1 985 . The overwhelming part ( 54 *4 ) carried out R&D at

Organizations

Performing

employed

27,550

( 1 )

Source : OECD .

387

4.2 . Financial Resources C 1 )

4

R&D budget

The national
Mio ECU ) in 1986 . This corresponded
R&D
appropriated 2.6 X of the
( 1 988 )

national

national

budget

the

amounted to

to

budget

.

to a

ratio of

4,093 Mio Gld ( about 1,700
the national
2.4 ’4 . The Government
defence R&D

budget

to

of

R&D

The trend
more
contribution
50.2 X to 55.3 X ( estimate ).
The total R&D expenditure by source of funds is given below :

in R&D funding shifted , as in most EC Member States to
it
This
GERD between 1985 and 1988 from

industrial
to

R&D .
country 's

financed
the

increased

sector

Public sector (% of total )
of which

Universities
Other public

Private sector ( % of total )
Others IX of total )

1 985

1986

1 987

1 988 *

43 . 5

41 . 6

40 . 6

40 . 1

18.4
25 . 1

51 . 1
5 . 4

17.1
24 . 5

53 . 5
4.9

16.8
23 . 8

54 . 7
4 . 7

15.4
24.7

55 . 3
4 . ó

Total

Mio Gld
Mio ECU
as X of GDP

9,119
3,632
2.18

9 , 909 1 0 , 297 10,682
4 , 577
4,412
4,127
2.39
2.31
2 . 40

Source :

Uetenschapsbudget
Sc ience

*

: estimâtes

1989 ,

Ministry

of

Education

and

Industry and Government are convinced that the high costs and the
rapid succession of innovation cycles in new technologies require
an
international
adequate
Education and
cooperation .
Science published a comprehensive report dealing exclusively with
" the Internationalization of Education and Research ".

consequently
the

a
Ministry

broad
of

context

market

this

and

In

Government

The
lines
programmes
industry
and
cooperation beyond national border .

with
oriented

appreciates

programmes

action

the

its

shape

and

the

of

EC

the

Framework
the strong emphasis on
the

welcomes

industry

The Dutch
550 MECU or 14,4 X
costs . The
involved in 52 of the 213 projects ( as of 01.07.1988 ).

participation in EUREKA is very important amounting to
country is

total project

of the

( 1 )

Source : OECD .

388

S & T

IN

PORTUGAL

Nov . 1988

1 . General Policy Objectives ,

In the
R&D development were announced as follows :

programme ( APRIL

XI Government

1987 ) the main goals for

and

maximum

utilization

The
resources of every type ;
Promotion of innovation ;
National
knowledge ;
Promotion of public expenditure
expenditure , in
developed countries ; creation
science and technology .

contribution

to

the

valorization

of

all national

enlargement

of

scientific

private
order to bring Portuguese level towards other
heading for
new

as well

on R&D ,

budget

as

of

a

2 , Priorities ,

methodology

The
applied
institutionalize a " budget for science and
expenditure in this sector .
A long
other aims
also included in the Government programme .

which must

achieve

list of

to

these

goals

be to
technology " to define

will

be taken into account is

They concentrate on :

the

the

linkage

between

quality

research

increase greater

research activity

Measures to stimulate and
by Portuguese firms and especially within firms ;
Increase
education domain and firms ;
Improve
of
opportunities for researchers ;
Stimulate and support the S&T régional demand ;
Strengthen S&T information services and improve the technology
transfer process ;
Encourage
participation
programmes , particularly EEC programmes .
Seek research
( Portuguese speaking ).

programme opportunities

with African countries

international

Portuguese

facilities

personnel

career

S&T

and

the

the

in

in

Breakdown of provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1986 and 1907 < % >

Objectives

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-orlented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R&D

Defence

Total financing

Provisional budgets
1986

1 987

10.2
8 . 9
3 . 0
0 . 2

5.0
14.4
7 . 3
0 . 2

9 0
10.5
3 . 4
0 . 2

4 . 7
14.2
6 . 2
. 3
1

-

-

35.5
. 8
1
13.5

30 . 5
0 . 5
19.5

100.0

100.0

-

-

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

389

3 . Implémentation .

2

there has been considerable change and new investment
Since 1986
of the
in Portuguese Science and Technology .
Superior
in
conjunction with JNICT ( Junta Nacional de Investigacao Cientifica
contributes to the planning , global co-ordination
e Tecnologica )
and
research
of
balancing
policy .

The establishment

technology

Technology

sectoral

science ,

working

Science

Council

and

and

for

is under

of the Ministry for Planning
JNICT , which
and Territorial Administrations plays a unique role in Portuguese
S & T Policy since it simultaneously represents the " supply " side
as well as the " demand " side of S & T
promotes the
best interests of all , internationally and nationally .

and steadily

the auspice

Action Programmes .

R&D

from fundamental
in industrial application
effort to stimulate Portuguese scientific groups . The
of the
medium-term
its strategic position in the national

programmes ,
values

development

selected

going

the

by

are

integrated

These
research to increase research
through an
aim of these programmes is
S&T
development .
JNICT started by
fields :

launching

field ,

" action

programmes "

for horizontal

Biotechnologies ;
Microelectronics , Informatics , Robotics ;
Material Sciences and Technologies ;
Marine Sciences and Technologies .

These actions programmes are privileged instruments of scientific
policy , which enable through the co-ordination of human , material
and financial efforts

the following actions to be undertaken

:

human

resources

of
Training
probations , training -;
reinforcement of R&D strategy
for productive
established , involving firms and universities ;
technological
to
significance within the Portuguese industrial body .

approach

fields ,

new

sectors already

as yet with limited

in three areas - scholarships ,

( National

Laboratory

and
LNETI
Technology )
between
research units , universities and firms and promotes the technical
base for development of high technology units . It devotes much of
its research ( 60 X ) to industrial technologies .

institution

Engineering

connecting

Industrial

research

the

for

is

390

4 . National Resources .

4,1 . Personnel

3

2

Table
National Research Laboratories and
in Industrial and Agriculture Research .

summarizes

the

allocation of personnel numbers of the
illustrates the concentration

Table 2

S&E Staff of the National Research Laboratories .

Laboratories

Field of activity

S&E Staff

I N I A
INIP
LNIV
LNETI

LNEC
I NMG
IICT

IH

TOTAL

Agricultural Field
Fishing
Veterinary Sciences
Industrial and Energy
technologies
Civil Engineering
Meteorology
Tropical
Sc iences
Hydrography

296
1 50
1 03

493
300
1 1 2

1 50
71

1.675

Source : JNICT 1987 .

4.2 . Financial Resources .

( Table 3 )

R&D Expenditure
to steadily increase it to reach 1
has been increased 4.5 fold during the last four years .

doubled 1985 's allocation with plans
% of GDP by 1990 . JNICT budget

in 1986 / 87

Table 3

R&D Expenditure
( end of period values )

Years

Pubi ic
institutions

Total

Against
previous
Year %

7.
GDP

M Esc

MECU

M Esc

MECU

1 986
1 987
1 988 ( * )
1 990 ( * )

13.470,4
1 8 . 554 , 3
22.108,2
43.136,0

96 , 2
115,9
130,15
227,0

20.440,7
28 . 440 , 7
35.370,7
65.456,8

146,0
175,9
202 , 1
344,5

-

37,7
19,2

-

0.47
0 . 57
0.61
. 00
1

(*) Estimâtes .
Source : JNICT .

391

5 . International Coopération .

4

a

small

rapidly

developing

economy , the need for external
ability to provide

In
technology far outweighs its current national
it and far outweighs its export of technology .
H&D is increasing rapidly since
International
its
than
Portugal
participation in Community programme from 1986 to 1987 as well as
securing EUREKA participation ( 13
of 01.07.1988 ).
established with U.K. ,
Bilateral S&T
Spain , Germany ,
Scientists and
interchange
technologists with Brazil in the last 3 years .

in
Portugal

agreements have

participation

projects ,

also been

doubled

joined

France

more

and

EEC

and

as

an

of

392

1 , Objectives .

3 & T

POLICY

IN

SPAIN

Nov . 1988

national

The
( 1988-1991 )
technological development focuses
objectives of general interest :
of
- improvement

knowledge

plan

and

technological development ;

for
essentially

scientific
on

research
and
the following

progress

in

innovation

and

- conservation , upgrading

and

optimal

exploitation

of natural

resources ;

- economic

growth ,

promotion

of

employment and improvement of

working conditions ;

- development and strengthening of

the

competitive

capacity of

industry , trade , agriculture and fisheries ;

- development

of

public

services

and

more particularly those

concerning housing , communications and transport ;

- improvement of health , social security and the quality of life ;
- strengthening of national defence ;
- protection and conservation of

and historic

artistic

Spain’s

heritage ;

- encouragement of

creativity , the development and dissemination

of culture in all forms ;

- improvement in the quality of education ;
- adaptation of Spanish society to the

scientific development and the new technologies .

changes brought

about by

GERD as

In Spain
1981 to
R&D
increase
comparable with the other advanced European countries .

of GDP has increased from 0.4 in
is determined to
levels

Spanish Government

a percentage

national

1985 . The

further ,

efforts

0.53 in

even

the

to

2 . Priorities .

The first national plan defined three main priority areas
- information and production technologies ,
- natural resources , agricultural and food technologies ,
- quality of life .
The importance that has been attached
demonstrated by the following table :

to these

:

areas is clearly

Breakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives In 19B6 and 1 967_Lii

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and Improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utlll2atlon of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non-orlented research
Other research

Total financing of civil RtD

Defence

Total financing

5.3
3 . A
0 . A
A . 0

12.3
A . 9
17.1
0.9
A . 8

18.1
20 . 6
2 . A

9 A . 2

5.8

7
7
0 . 2
2 0
8 . 6

3 . 1
6 . 7
21.5
0 . 9
8 . 8
19.8
8 . 5
3 . 3

91.1

8 . 9

100.0

100.0

Source : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D In Community countries .

70 -;
O   sJ

3 . Policies and Implémentation .

2

of

on

set

the

has

law

laws

for R&D

3 _Legal_framework and institutional mechanisms .
been recently promulgated to modernize and
A
and technological innovation .
unify the legal framework
The
development and general coordination of
13 / 86
scientific and technical research , amongst other things , provides
for :
i ) the establishment
and
harmonizing the
medium term ;
i i ) harmonizat ion and redefinition
various public research centres ( OPIS ).

for scientific research
instrumental in
effort in the

development
country 's science

and technology

national plan

technological

of the

status

legal

which

of a

will

the

of

be

The Interministerial Science and Technology Commission CCICYT ) is
policy and
responsible for the whole of the government 's science
ministries
is
nine
responsible for R&D activities
for Science
and Education ) ;

( chairman : Minister

representatives

made

from

the

up

of

involved

institutions

Other
permanente ), the general council
co-ordination
government ,
consisting from
the
joint
monitoring
general secretariat for the national plan .

are a standing committee ( Comision
and technology for
central
and Technology
public and private sector ,
for
and the

of
implementation

representatives from

Autonomous
Council

committee
the

Assembly
national

National
the

( Cortes )
plan

for science

Communities

Advisory

Science

between

for

the

the

and

of

also

have

general

Spanish

central
and

gives
promotion

constitution
for

government
co-ordination

the
The
responsibility
of
scientific and technological research . However , the 17 Autonomous
responsibilities for scientific research
Communities
own bodies
and technological development and
for
R&D
management
planning ,
institutes have
activities . The various ministries
already transferred
to the Autonomous Communities management and
implementation responsibilities for several research units , while
maintaining
However ,
according to existing
relations are
international
the exclusive responsibility of central government .

up their
implementation

planning
legislation ,

have set
and

co-ordination .

centralized

and research

the

and

of

3.2 . Education and training .

The recently
flexible legal
encouraging
the
temporary
research scientists
or private bodies to receive supplementary remuneration .

adopted law on university reform has created a more
in universities ,
contracts with private companies and
It allows
of
scientists .
on contracts concluded with public

particular
recruitment

activities

framework

research

who work

R&D

for

in

Various programmes
managed not
Communities ,
Autonomous
also
departments and by private foundations .

the Ministry

training

only by

for

the

the

by

of

scientific

of Education
by

various

staff are
and Science but
ministerial

394

3.3 . R&D in undertakinqs .

This sector
slightly over half the R&D carried out in Spain .

( public and private undertakings ) is responsible for

i ) Public undertakinqs

3

de

Industria

In public undertakings roost research is done in
Nacional
holding company although
directives laid down by the government .
sectors with the greatest intensity in R&D are , first
The two
the defence and aeronautics industry with efforts often taking
place
international co-operation framework and second
the motor industry .

the Instituto
which is an independent public
economic policy

( INI )
it

subject

an

to

in

is

ii ) Private undertakings

by

0,7

their

R&D
%

expenditure
of

companies represented
In 1987 ,
about
it was very unevenly
turnover ,
distributed not only between different sectors but also within
each sector .
Tax
incentives
deduction of 10% of
amount .

companies consist of a
the taxable

R&D
total

investment

private

private

from

but

for

R&D

in

The technological
" concerted
development projects
different forms

plans "

:

development programmes
mainly

for companies known as
technological
at the pre-competitive stage . They take two

intended

for

are

1

. Research is carried

out

by

the

company

project or
case the aid consists of an interest-free loan
50% of the total cost of the research .

in co-operation

with other

that
companies

proposed the
in that
covering up to

;

2 . Research is

carried out

in co-operation with public research
centres , in which case funding may cover up to 50% of the part
for
responsible and 100% of the part
carried out by the public research body . The total funding may
not exceed 80% of the total cost .

company

which

the

is

has joined

Since Spain
for manufacturers to
innovation in
centres and with the
much as 70% of the total .

association with

benefit of

the Community ,

invest

jointly

it is becoming less rare
and technological
universities and public research
be as

state funding

which may

R&D

in

nnovation .

The Centre
body for the implementation
innovation
agreements , has taken on
the Autonomous Communities .

policy

and ,

for Industrial Technological Development ( CDTI ),

and
through

development

of

a

number
of technological

of

the role

is a
the industrial
co-operation
adviser for

395

In addition to several functions that it performs , it constitutes
also a sort of public
operations on
wishing to undertake
favorable
extremely
innovation activities .

specialized
to

in
companies

bank
terms ,

loan

4

3.5 . Technology transfer .
The ratio of technology
about
1986 ,
represents 0.34 of the GDP , almost half Spain 's

imports to

technology

24.4%

and

in

technology exports

transfer

was only
expenditure
R&D expenditure .

enacted

technology

regulation

1987 , has liberalized the purchase of
A
technical
provision
foreign
assistance for
and abrogated earlier legislation .
An administrative procedure of verification prior to transactions
has been set up for statistical purposes .

the
and
Spanish firms

foreign

of

in

4 . National Resources .

4.1 . Human Resources ( 1

)

In 1983 , the number of researchers per 1000 labour force was 1.0 .
In 1987 there were 19.000 researchers ( full time equivalent ).

4.2 . Financial Resources ( 2 )

:

( at

( GDP )

0.53 % ( 1985 )

Domestic
Product
Gross
rates )
: 216.2 Billions ECU ( 1985 )
Gross Doroestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD )
GERD / GDP
R&D Budget
R&D Budget / National Budget
Strengthening of national defence is one
set by
appropriations
appropriations in 1987 .

801.7 Mio ECU ( 1986 )

( 3 )

%

:

:

1.46 % ( 1986 )

main objectives
the national plan and this is the reason that defence R&D
Government

represent

of the

total

the

5.8

of

current prices and exchange

: 1,444.4 ECU ( 1985 )

5 ._International coopération .

has

concentrated

Spain
mainly on Europe ( both
countries ,
EFTA
within
installations )
Latin American countries .

large
and

some

the

on

its

bilaterally ,
and

international
mainly

co-operation effort
the Community
with
COMECON countries and mul t i 1 a t eral ly
and
the developing countries , especially the

organizations

research

European

EEC , in the
Spain participates in all the R&D programmes of the
Airbus programme , EUREKA programme
European Space
( Spain participates in 55 EUREKA projects , as of 01.07.88 ), CERN ,
EMBL , ESRF , ILL .

Agency ( ESA ),

( 1

)

Source : PLANI CYT

( 2 )

Source : OECD

( 3 )

Source : OSCE

396

S & T

IN

UNITED KINGDOM

Nov . 1988

1 * General Policv Objectives .

enhancing

The three main themes running through the UK Government 's support
of civil science and technology are the importance of maintaining
technology activities ;
and
science
increasing the economic and social returns
( including quality of
life ) from science and technology ; and better management , greater
technology
concentration
activities .
strengthened its
central structure .

science
of
considerably

selectivity

Government

quality

The

and

and

has

and

in

P riorities?,

will be

Uhilst there is an annual review of Government R&D Funding and in
a more centralised R&D focus in the public
future there
expenditure survey ,
Government R&D
overall
Department determines its individual R&D programmes
budget . Each
policy
in the light of
and priorities . The
objectives
Department
and Science has overall responsibility
for R&D in the higher education sector and Research Councils .

own
Education

there

U.K.

its

of

no

is

In addition , the Government has begun
priorities across
Government , defence
view to increasing the contribution of
the
United Kingdom .

competitiveness

efficiency ,

a searching

review of R&D
as civil , with a
R&D to
and innovative capacity of the

as well
Government funded

Uhilst the " searching review of R&D priorities " is still underway
it is possible to discern a number of broad policy assumptions as
suggested by the UK 's Chief Scientific Adviser . He drew attention
to four broad assumptions :

"-

support

Government

better industrial and commercial exploitation of science ;
focussing
technology transfer ;
adopting a more international approach to R&D ;
contracting out
for its
intramural spending on
role . "

which Government requires
own purposes and further concentrating Government 's
intelligent customer

for industrial innovation on

fulfilling

more of

the R&D

an

and placed
of UK science .

most importance on achieving much better exploitation

397

Table 1

BJ£flkdown..Qf Provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 1 986 and 1 987 ( 7.)

Objectives

Provisional budgets
1 986

1 987

2

Exploration and exploitation of the earth
Infrastructures and general land-use planning
Control of environmental pollution
Protection and improvement of human health
Production , distribution and rational

utilization of energy

Agricultural productivity and technology
Industrial productivity and technology
Social structures and relationships
Exploration and exploitation of space
Research financed from general university funds
Non - oriented research
Other research

Total financing of civil R4D

Defence

Total financing

. 7
1
1
. 4
0 . 7
3 . 7

4 . 6
4 . 6
6 . 7
1 . 3
. 8
1
14.9
6 . 8
0 . 2

48.4

51 . 6

. 7
1
. 6
1
. 5
1
3 . 3

3 . 6
4 . 3
9 . 9
1
. 2
2 . 6
15.3
3 . 3
0 . 5

48.8

51 . 2

100.0

100.0

Source,

: EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries .

The changes in
mainly due to the increases allocated to industry and space .

technological

objectives

taken

as

a

whole is

For
development of general research .

industry ,

increase

the

reflects

almost

exclusively

the

tend

appropriations

Space
multinational coopération programmes .
In contrast , funding for energy research shows a substantial fall
which mainly
in particular nuclear
fission research .
Finally , the reduction of more than 50 X in non-oriented research
appropriations affects almost all disciplines .

affect nuclear

research and

commitments

reflect

under

to

3 . Implémentation .

Government into central
S & T structure has been strengthened by
structure within the Cabinet Office under the Prime Minister with
ACOST as expanded advisory
Scientific Advisor
& T Assessment Office assists
reports to
Prime Minister .
University Grants Committees
Departments , Research
( UGC )

in evaluating R&D expenditure proposals .

Councils and

The S

Chief

body .

The

U.K. Government
is determined to secure greater industry funding
of R&D and also to ensure that industry takes more responsibility
for R&D . 46.1 X of Gross Expenditure on R&D in 1985 was funded by
industry .

Virtually all " near-market " research
commercial
subject
responsibility of industry .

judgement

of

initiatives , should

and

therefore

be the
should be the

398

and

medium

research

there is

research .

long-term

Government

la
responsibility ; however
research as a long term investment option .
Basic
Government .
Government
strategic research , often in collaboration with
its
The
Arts Committee Report 1986-87 , committed itself
enhance the strength and quality of the science base ".

responsibility
of
major role in funding
groups of firms .
response to the Education , Science and
" to maintain and

more
a tendancy even here to regard

entirely
also

Government ,

accepts

almost

the
a

has

The

in

is

3

Criteria used
in 1987

are 1 . Internal Factors

distribution of the science budget revised
Timeliness &

Excellence

of

-

on the

Pervasiveness .
2 . External Factors

- Exploitabil ity , applicability

and significance for education and training .

3 . Financial Factors - Benefits and Costs .

Concentration
equipment
SERC 's research grants goes to 16 universities .

to
of modern research . Two-thirds of

occurring

location

expense

subject

width

and

due

and

of

is

Emphasis has shifted
collaborative research .
non-project support such as technology transfer schemes .

Greater attention

support to
is also being paid to

individual

project

away

from

4 . National Resources .

4 1 1 , Human Resources in 3&T ,

( 2,090

engineers engaged

of scientists and

million population
U.

The number
development per
for the U.K.
J apan )
.
the U.K. tend to be quite small . One
Universities in
3.000 students . Approximately
third of University have less than
70 X
students . Only 8 universities , which
includes the very large ( London , Oxford and Cambridge ), have more
than 7.000 students .

in research and
in 1986 is given ( 1 ) as 1540
and 4,440 -
USA ,

than 5.000

general in

have less

Germany ,

3,110

-

-

Total members
but this declined has now been halted .

employed in R&D declined by 10 X from 1981 to 1985

4.2 . General funding of R&D ■

Total Government expenditure on R&D
table 2
and 3 X of total Government expenditure .

out in
was 6,745 MECU which represents 1.3 % of GDP in the U.K.

1985 / 86

set

as

in

Funding of R&D has provoked considerable
universities
term
substantial reservations about Government policy funding .

the U.K. The
research projects have expressed

debate in

longer

and

( 1 )

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook .

399

4

some

While
of
position taking in advance of
been a
growing undercurrent
" inadequate funding of S&T ".

reservations
the

the

and criticism must be seen as
there has
review
Government
is felt to be

over what

of unease

Table 2

Government Exoenditure on R&D .

Outturn

Estimâtes

1 984 / 85

1 985 / 86

1 986 / 87

1 987 / 88

Councils

Total Civil Departments
Total Research
University Grants
Counci 1
Total Civil
Total Defence
Total all Government ( net )

1,610
860

1 , 068 . 2
3,537
3,688
7,225

1 , 466
788

998
3,252
3 , 494
6 , 745

1,381
801

999
3,185
3,331
6,518

1,369
869

1
, 040
3,279
3,410
6 , 689

Source : U.K. Annual Review 1987 .

5 . International coopération .

a

is

and

long

clear

recognised

internationally

There
for the U.K. to
collaborate
The
benefits
of
be
risks
participant
considerable ;
associated with advanced technologies are more widely spread ; new
markets are
European R&D can
more easily
scale needed to compete with the US and
Japan .

easier to
achieve the

on
reduced ;

technological

establish ; or

collaboration

international

open and

matters .

costs

need

per

are

the

R&D

can

on

The U.K. Government supports international collaboration
However , since
must be certain that collaborative projects make the
scarce and valuable resources .

in R&D .
costs the Government
best use of

collaboration can

also add

new

The
international
Departments of resources .

central

collaboration ,

structure

will
including

address

the

priorities

for
allocation between

of collaborating

A growing number of U.K. firms see their future in Europe , partly
stimulated by initiatives like
EUREKA , and recognise
with other European partners if
the importance
they are to remain competitive , open up market
opportunities and
example by continuing
survive -
commitment
Governments
shared
elsewhere . In EUREKA , the U.K. are particularly keen to encourage
U.K. led projects . As of July 1988 , of EUREKA list
projects , the
U.K. participate in 73 projects .

perceptions which ,
are
EUREKA ,

judging for

ESPRIT and

firms

and

by

to

400

REGIONAL_TRENDS_LN _ SCXENCJL _&_ TECHNOLOGY

ANNEX 13

401

Commission of the European Communities

STRXBE

SCIENCE km TECHNOLOGY FOR REGIONAL

INNOVATION AM6 DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE

Report to the Community Programmes Division , D6 XVI
of the Commission of the European Communities

by

THE NATIONAL BOARD FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DUBLIN

FINAL REPORT

NOVEMBER 1987

Document

402

L

EXECUTIVE

SUMMARY

THIS STUDY WAS UNDERTAKEN ON

BEHALF OF THE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN

COMMUNITIES .

PREPARATORY

TO

THE

INTRODUCTION

OF A

NEW

COMMUNITY

SCIENCE

INITIATIVE OF
DEVELOPMENT
( LFR’S ) OF THE COMMUNITY .

IN

AND

TECHNOLOGY
EUROPE ( STRIDE ). AIMED AT THE LESS

FOR

REGIONAL

INNOVATION AND
REGIONS

FAVOURED

THE

OBJECTIVES

OF

THE

STUDY

WERE

TO

DETERMINE

THE

RELATIVE

TECHNOLOGICAL CAPACITY

OF

THE REGIONS OF THE

COMMUNITY -

AND .

IN

PARTICULAR . THE TECHNOLOGICAL

DEFICIT

OF ITS LESS FAVOURED REGIONS ;

AND .

ALSO .

TO EVALUATE INTERNATIONAL BEST PRACTICES

FOR

GENERATING

EFFECTIVE REGIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL CAPACITIES .

IN ADDITION . THE

STUDY

ANALYSED

THE

IMPACTS

OF EXISTING COMMUNITY

SCIENCE

AND

TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMMES ON ITS LFR ' S , AND

SPECIFIES

THE

COMPLEMENTARITY

BETWEEN

THESE

PROGRAMMES

AND

THE

PROPOSED STRIDE

INITIATIVE .

ROLE

FUELLING
THE
ECONOMIC CROWTH AND MODERNISATION IS NOT DISPUTED . EVEN IF THE PROCESS

OF RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ( RTD )

IN

BY

WHICH

THIS

TAKES PLACE IS COMPLEX .

AND

PRECISE

QUANTIFICATION

REMAINS ELUSIVE .

THE STUDIES OF BC.H SCIENTISTS AND

ECONOMISTS ALL POINT TO THE SIMPLE

REALITY THAT STRONG ECONOMIES ARE BASED ON RESEARCH AND

TECHNOLOGY .

RTD

-

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT - DESCRIBES A

COMPLEX

OF

ACTIVITIES R HEATED TO THE GENERATION . ACQUISITION . TRANSFER AND USE OF

TECHNOLOGY .

IT

INCLUDES

RESEARCH .

DEVELOPMENT .

DEMONSTRATION ,

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND TECHNICAL

INNOVATION .

IT COVERS THE SPECTR'JM

OF KNOWLEDGE GENERATION . TRANSFER AND APPLICATION .

RiJD

INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES ARE INNOVATIVE . PRODUCE MORE

NEW

PRODUCTS .

HAVE RICHER LEVE1S CT

PRODUCTIVITY . EXPAND THEIR EMPLOYMENT BASE MORE

RAPIDLY

AND ULTIMATELY ARE MORE COMPETITIVE THAN TRADITIONAL AND

LOW

TECHNOLOGY BUSINESSES .

403

ii

FOR THESE REASONS THE STRONG NATIONS IN EUROPE AND THE WORLD . CONTINUE
TO INVEST HEAVILY IN RTD .

BASED

ACCEPTED
STRONG LOCAL ECONOMIES .

IN MORE GENERAL TERMS . IT IS
ARE
REGIONAL ECONOMY . NO LESS THAN THE NATIONAL
NEEDS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF TECHNICAL CHANGE AND INNOVATION .

THAT STRONG NATIONAL ECONOMIES
THE
OR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY .

IT IS ALSO

AGREED

THAT

ON

OF

THIS

PROCESS

DYNAMICS

ACQUISITION BEHAVIOUR OF LOCAL ENTERPRISES , THEIR

THE
THE
SOURCES
TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY WILL REFLECT THE UNIQUE
OF SUPPLY AND MODES OF ACCESS
RTD
OF
BUT , IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUALITY
THIS ENVIRONMENT FOR LOCAL ENTERPRISES . EITHER IN LOCAL RTD GENERATING

OF* THE REGION .

ENVIRONMENT

WILL VARY

REGIONS .

BETWEEN

TO

CAPACITY . OR IN THE TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND ASSIMILATION

CAPABILITIES

OF THE REGION WILL . CETERIS

PARIBUS , HELP THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF

LOCAL

ENTERPRISE

AND

HENCE IMPROVE REGIONAL AND

NATIONAL

ECONOMIC

PERFORMANCE .

THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A REGION

IS . THEREFORE .

A REFLECTION OF

WHETHER

ITS

ENTERPRISES

ARE

TECHNOLOGICALLY

INNOVATIVE

AND

DYNAMICALLY GROWING , OR TECHNOLOGICALLY BACKWARD AND DECLINING .

HOWEVER .
MEANS THAT A CONFLUENCE OF MANY RTD FACTORS IS REQUIRED .

NATURE OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

COMPLEX

THE

OF
REGIONS
ISOLATED RTD

ELEMENTS

. WILL ,

IN

GENERAL ,

NOT

BE

SUFFICIENT .

THIS

IS

THE

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE .

OF

ROLE

TECHNOLOGY IN THE DEVELOPMENT

THE
INCREASINGLY RECOGNISED IN RECENT
CONSEQUENCE .
RAISING THE RTD POTENTIAL OF

BECOME
THIS REPORT SHOWS THAT AS A
AT
REGIONS IN COUNTRIES SUCH AS THE USA AND

INITIATIVES

THERE _HAS __ BEEN AN EXPLOSION OF

REGIONS

AT_MED

YEARS .

HAS

OF

JAPAN .

IN THE U.S.
128 . THE RESEARCH TRIANGLE OF NORTH CAROLINA AND SILICON VALLEY .
^0 STATES NOW HAVE LOCALLY DRIVEN RTD PROGRAMMES .

MANY STATES TRY TO REPLICATE LOCALLY THE RESULTS OF ROUTE
OVER

UNIQUELY

JAPANESE

A
DECENTRALISE TECHNOLOGY AND TO
BASED LOCAL ECONOMIES OUTSIDE THE MAIN CITIES OF TOKYO AND OSAKA .

TO
IS
TECHNOPOLIS -
STRONG SELF-STANDING TECHNOLOGY

-
BUILD

EXPERIMENT

DESIGNED

iii

IT

IS

NOT

AIMED

SIMPLY AT ATTRACTING INDUSTRY TO

REGIONS .

IT

IS

DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE THE MAXIMUM DEVELOPMENT

OF EACH REGION 'S EXISTING

RESOURCES AND SPECIALISATIONS .

THERE ARE NOW 18

RECOGNISED

TECHNOPOLIS

REGIONS IN JAPAN . EACH WITH

IT 'S OWN INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY BASED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME .

IN CONTRAST . EUROPE LAGS BEHIND .

THERE

ARE SOME EXCEPTIONS . HOWEVER .

FRANCE . FOR EXAMPLE . HAS

A LONG

ESTABLISHED POLICY OF REGIONALISATION

OF RTD . IN ADDITION . THERE IS A

NOTICEABLE TREND TOWARDS SPECIFIC REGIONAL RTD INITIATIVES EMERGING OF

LATE WITHIN CERTAIN MEMBER STATES

NOTABLY

ITALY .

AT BARI IN PUGLIA .

GREECE . AT HERAKLION IN CRETE , DENMARK AT HIRTSHALS IN NORTH

JYLLAND .

SPAIN AT CADIZ IN ANDALUCIA AND IN

THE

SOUTH EAST REGION OF IRELAND .

OTHERS ARE DESCRIBED IN THE REPORT .

BUT THESE EXCEPTIONS APART . THE NATIONAL

GOVERNMENTS OF MEMBER STATES

HAVE

NOT TO ANY SIGNIFICANT EXTENT RECOGNISED THE NEED

FOR A

STRONG

REGIONAL DIMENSION IN NATIONAL

SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY POLICIES .

AND

WHILE

MUCH

OF

THE NATIONAL RTD

INFRASTRUCTURE

MAY

BE

REGIONALLY

LOCATED . IT 'S ORIENTATION IS BY AND LARGE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL .

THE

REPORT . THEREFORE . MAKES THE CASE FOR A NEW APPROACH

TO

SCIENCE

POLICY - WHAT MIGHT BE TERMED

'MICRO SCIENCE POLICY’ - WHICH WOULD BE

FIRMLY FOCUSSED ON THE REGION AS THE UNIT OF ACTION .

SUCH MICRO SCIENCE POLICY WOULD BE

DIRECTED

TOWARDS THE MORE ORGANIC

DETERMINANTS

OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT , SUCH AS HUMAN AND

INTELLECTUAL

RESOURCES . SKILLS .

RESEARCH .

TECHNOLOGICAL

CAPACITY AND INNOVATION .

AND WOULD SEEK TO ESTABLISH A SELF-GENERATING DYNAMIC IN A REGION .

THIS

TYPE

OF

UPGRADING OF REGIONAL POLICY HAS BECOME

AN

IMPORTANT

POLICY DEBATE IN RECENT TIMES AND .

IN

PART . REFLECTS A CONCERN ABOUT

THE

ABILITY OF INDUSTRIAL POLICY TO ASSIST DEVELOPMENT OF

PERIPHERAL

AND DISADVANTAGED REGIONS

IF

IT

CONTINUES

TO

FOCUS

ON INDUSTRIAL

LOCATION STRATEGIES .

4“ COHESION

WITHIN

THE

COMMUNITY .

TECHNOLOGICAL

ADVANCE

CAN

MAKE

A MAJOR

CONTRIBUTION

TO

BRINGING

ABOUT

GREATER

ECONOMIC

CONVERGENCE

AND

COHESION BETWEEN MEMBER STATES AND REGIONS .

405

iv

-

BUT , THE BULK OF THE COMMUNITY 'S RTD RESOURCES ARE CONCENTRATED IN THE
CENTRAL OR CORE REGIONS AND IN THE LARGER AND STRONGER MEMBER STATES .

AND

PERIPHERAL

THE
INVESTMENT IN RTD . HAVE
INSTITUTIONAL RESOURCES
INNOVATE .
THE
WHILE
TECHNOLOGY
FUNDAMENTALLY THEY
CULTURE .

CORE

LESS

RTD

LOWER

LEVEL

HAVE A

FAVOURED REGIONS

WEAKER
AND ARE SLOW TO ADOPT NEW TECHNOLOGY AND
THE

OF
INFRASTRUCTURE AND OTHER RELATED
TO
INTRODUCTION
OF NEW
MORE
ADOPTERS .
ENTREPRENEURIAL

DOMINATE
REGIONS ARE THE

LATE
AND

TECHNICAL

VIGOROUS

IN

A

REGIONS
PERIPHERAL
LACK

THIS STUDY DEVELOPS A NUMBER OF NEW INDICES WHICH REVEAL THE EXTENT OF
WITHIN THE COMMUNITY . AND
THE TECHNOLOGICAL DISPARITIES
AND
ACHIEVING
SERIOUS
WHICH

WHICH
OBSTACLE

EXIST
TO

COHESION

ARE

NOW

A

INTEGRATION .

THESE DISPARITIES EXIST

BOTH

BETWEEN

MEMBER STATES AND

BETWEEN THE

REGIONS OF MEMBER STATES .

ALL THE FACTORS WHICH DRIVE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT .

ALMOST
THE CORE REGIONS
AND MARKETS . INFORMATION AND SERVICES AND MANY OTHERS .

FAVOUR
INFRASTRUCTURE . ACCESS TO SKILLS

COMMUNICATIONS .

-

THIS

IS

A CUMULATIVE PROCESS .

AN AGCLOMERATIVE DYNAMIC TAKES

OVER

ONCE A CRITICAL MASS IS REACHED .

THE STRONG GET EVEN STRONGER .

THIS NATURAL TENDENCY OF RTD TOWARDS AGGLOMERATION REINFORCES EXISTING

DISPARITIES AND MAKES THE PERSISTENT LOW LEVEL EQUILIBRIUM OF THE LESS
FAVOURED REGIONS ( LFR’S ) MORE ENDEMIC AND DIFFICULT TO BREAK .

DISTORTIONS AND DISPARITIES IN THE COMMUNITY 'S

RTD CAPABILITIES

ARE

THUS BECOMING DEEPROOTED .

THIS IS

CREATING BARRIERS TO LESS FAVOURED

REGIONS

ENTERING

AND SHARING THE DOMAIN OF MODERN

TECHNOLOGY

BASED

TRADE AND COMMERCE IN THE COMMUNITY .

DISPARITIES WILL WIDEN AS TECHNOLOGY

ADVANCES . AND THESE COULD BECOME

A PERSISTENT AND PERMANENT FEATURE OF FUTURE ECONOMIC PROGRESS IN
COMMUNITY , SLOWING DOWN THE OVERALL RATE OF ADVANCE .

THE

THE DRIVE TOWARDS A TECHNOLOGICAL
MAY THEREFORE LEAVE MANY
STANDING STILL . IN THE LONG TERM . THE PROGRESS OF ALL WILL BE RETARDED
UNLESS POSITIVE ACTION IS TAKEN TO INFLUENCE THE NATURAL AGCLOMERATIVE
AND CLUSTERING TENDENCIES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT .

COMMUNITY

406

V

ЕЕИЗИN0t0GV^6APS ^

THIS

REPORT

QUANTIFIES , FOR THE FIRST TIME AT REGIONAL

LEVEL ,

THE

SIZE AND EXTENT OF THE TECHNOLOGY

GAPS WHICH HAVE EMERGED BETWEEN THE

PERIPHERAL/ LESS

FAVOURED RECIONS AND THE MORE DEVELOPED PARTS OF

THE

COMMUNITY .

THE EVIDENCE WHICH HAS BEEN

ASSEMBLED POINTS INDISPUTABLY TO THE NEED

FOR

NEW

COMMUNITY POLICIES FOR THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

THE

PERIPHERAL AND LESS FAVOURED REGIONS .

LESS FAVOURED MEMBER STATES REPRESENT
THE COMMUNITY . WHILE THEY REPRESENT 40% OF ITS POPULATION .

ONLY 10* OF THE RJJD ACTIVITY IN
THEY TEND

TOWARDS TECHNOLOGICAL

DEPENDENCY ,

HAVE

WEAK RTD INFRASTRUCTURES AND

HAVE A POOR RTD UTILISATION CAPACITY IN THEIR INDUSTRIES .

THE

DANGERS OF A 'TWO-SPEED' COMMUNITY ARE

EVIDENT .

DIFFERENTIATED

INITIATIVES FOR THE

LFR 'S

ARE

JUSTIFIED .

BUT .

CAREFULLY BALANCED

COMMUNITY

PROGRAMMES WILL BE REQUIRED IN ORDER TO AVOID A PERSISTENCE

OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL

GAP

BETWEEN

LESS

FAVOURED

AND

MORE FAVOURED

MEMBER STATES .

THE

AVAILABLE

EVIDENCE

SHOWS

THAT

THE

MOST

TECHNOLOGICALLY

DISADVANTAGED REGIONS

ARE

PORTUGAL .

GREECE . SPAIN . IRELAND

AND THE

REGIONS OF SOUTHERN ITALY .

MANY

REGIONS HAVE ALMOST

ZERO RTD CAPACITY .

THEIR TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL

CAN BE A FACTOR OF 100 TIMES

LOWER

THAN

THAT OF MORE DEVELOPED CORE

REGIONS

( SEE

MAPS

SHOWING

THE

REGIONAL

DISTRIBUTION

OF

GROSS

EXPENDITURE ON RID AS A PERCENTAGE OF GDP . AND BUSINESS EXPENDITURE ON

RLD AS A PERCENTAGE OF GROSS VALUE ADDED ).

THE

SCALE OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL CAP IS ESTIMATED AT 7 BILLION ECU

PER

ANNUM .

THIS INDICATES THE LEVEL OF ADDITIONAL ANNUAL INVESTMENT WHICH

LESS

FAVOURED

MEMBER STATES WOULD REQUIRE IN RID

TO

REACH

AVERAGE

COMMUNITY LEVELS .

A CAP OF THIS MAGNITUDE SUGGESTS THAT SOLUTIONS WILL BE LONG-TERM .

FM

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF GERD / GDP

EUK 12 »* 100
235 . 4
MK»

223 6

161.8

IH 223.6
1161.8100 0
33J
|||

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TEÀR , UOSTLY 1983

&

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.

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00

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF BERD / GVA

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-

EUR 12 -
na 303.3

100

233.9

100.0

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66.7

шш^т^птт-т^тт
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msmmmmmawm

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IN ALL CASES

THE

TECHNOLOGY

GAP

IS

CONSIDERABLY

WIDER

THAN

THE

ECONOMIC

GAP .

FOR GREECE . FOR EXAMPLE . THE TECHNOLOGY GAP IS

ALMOST

TEN TIMES THE ECONOMIC
FORMALLY RECOGNISED IN COMMUNITY POLICIES .
BUT NOT THE CAUSE .

CAP .

YET .

IT

IS

THE ECONOMIC GAP WHICH IS
TREATED .

THE SYMPTOMS ARE

THIS REPORT

PRESENTS

THE

CASE

FOR

FORMAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

OF THE

EXISTENCE

OF TECHNOLOGICAL DISPARITIES AND FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT

OF

NEW COMMUNITY RTD POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES TO ADDRESS THEM .

A CONTRAST OF THE ECONOMIC AND
SPAIN . PORTUGAL AND GREECE . AS A GROUP . IS SHOWN OVERLEAF .

TECHNOLOGICAL

GAPS OF ITALY . IRELAND .

|SËXiSl^NC^OMMÜNH¥<S^PROGIW«mES^

CURRENT COMMUNITY SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES ARE

BASED

ON EXCELLENCE . AND ARE AIMED AT COMMUNITY-WIDE PROBLEMS .

THEY

ARE NOT DIRECTED TOWARDS

STIMULATING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OR REDUCING

REGIONAL DISPARITIES .

MONIES ALLOCATED FOR COMMUNITY RTD ARE ONLY A SMALL PROPORTION OF
THE
TOTAL RTD EFFORT IN MEMBER STATES . REPRESENTING LITTLE MORE THAN 1% OF

I

NATIONAL RLD SPENDING .

THE

POTENTIAL

BENEFITS

FOR LFR 'S FROM COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES MUST

BE

CONSIDERED IN THIS CONTEXT .

NONETHELESS

COMMUNITY

RTD

PROGRAMMES OFFER

MANY

OPPORTUNITIES

TO

LFR 'S .

IN PARTICULAR THEY

OFFER

ACCESS

TO A CONSIDERABLE VOLUME OF

RESEARCH

AND

ARE

A

VALUABLE SOURCE OF CONTACTS WITH EXPERTISE

AND

INFORMATION IN OTHER REGIONS .
ASSOCIATED
BENEFITS

WITH

ALSO . THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ATTITUDINAL
AS

PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY RTD MAY

BE

IMPORTANT TO LFR 'S AS THE MORE

OBVIOUS

AND DIRECT FINANCIAL CAIN AND

PREFERENTIAL ACCESS TO RESULTS .

IN THE
PARTICIPATION IN LINKAGES
SPRINT .
FRAMEWORK
FOR EXAMPLE . IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR PERIPHERAL REGIONS ( SEE FIG

PROGRAMME AND INDEED IN OTHER PROGRAMMES SUCH

INVOLVEMENT

NETWORKS

THROUGH

AND

AS

2 FOLLOWING ).

MAP 5 FOLLOWING ILLUSTRATES
OVER 7.000 COMMUNITY RTD CONTRACTS .

THE

REGIONAL

DISTRIBUTION PER CAPITA OF

Technological and Economic Gaps of Italy ,
Technological and Economic Gaps of Italy ,
Ireland , Spain , Portugal and Greece - in
Ireland , Spain , Portugal and Greece - in
Aggregate .
Aggregate .

100 r --

50

•

S

o

.

CDP /CAP .
CDP /CAP .

GERD/ CAP
GERD/ CAP

FIG 2 .

~

(^|

/

jr

SA

BRITE

BRITE

MULTI

WULTI

PARTNER

PARTNER

CONTRACTS

CONTRACTU

ANATOLI KI STEREA KAI NISI A
ANATOLI KI STEREA KAI NISI A

LRE LAND
LB£Lm

XfSl*
IA

V- /

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412

4

9 Ш

5 . NUMBER OF CONTRACTS . PER CAPITA (All Data Sources )

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BY

PARTICIPATION
TO
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY . BUT HAS BEEN WEAK IN THE CORE TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAMMES AND HAS INVOLVED INDUSTRY ONLY TO A LIMITED EXTENT .

LFR 'S HAS BEEN STRONGEST IN PROGRAMMES

RELATED

ENHANCE THE

STRIDE COULD
BENEFITS
CAPACITY TO PARTICIPATE IN COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES AND BY DEVELOPING
CAPABILITY
RESEARCH . PARTICULARLY BY SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZED ENTERPRISE ( SME 'S ).

STRENGTHENING THE
THE
COMMUNITY

UTILISE THE

RESULTS

ACCESS

LFR’S

AND

THE

OF

TO

TO

BY

SPECIFICALLY . PARTICIPATION COULD BE ENHANCED . FOR EXAMPLE , BY : -

•

•

•

REGIONAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON FORTHCOMING

A
RTD
PROGRAMMES AND ON POTENTIAL TRANSBORDER PARTNERS AND SOURCES OF
EXPERTISE

COMMUNITY

REGIONAL

FOCUS
A
FORMULATION OF PROJECT PROPOSALS

CENTRE

OR

CAPABLE

OF

ASSISTING

IN

THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXCELLENCE AND CRITICAL MASS NECESSARY TO BE

REGARDED AS A POTENTIAL PARTNER IN COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES

«

FOCAL

POINTS OR CENTRES CAPABLE OF ASSISTING THE MORE EFFECTIVE

DISSEMINATION OF

INFORMATION

ON

THE

RESULTS OF COMMUNITY RTD

PROGRAMMES

•

•

•

•

CENTRES .

INCLUDING

WITHIN COMPANIES , CAPABLE OF

DEMONSTRATING

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPED BY COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES

DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES ALONG THE

LINES OF THE EXISTING ENERGY

DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES BUT FOCUSSING ON NOVEL APPLICATIONS
TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED BY OTHER

OF
COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES AND OF

PARTICULAR RELEVANCE OF LFR 'S

FACILITIES :

IS
TEST FACILITY
OR
COMMUNITY
TO THE POSSIBILITY OF
ENVISAGED . CONSIDERATION COULD
SITING
THE
COMPATIBLE
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF THE LFR AND WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE

NEW RTD
GIVEN
IN AN LFR . ASSUMING THIS IS

WHEN

THIS

WITH

BE

A

MORE ADVANCED REGIONS

OF

REGIONAL TECHNOLOGY CENTRES FACILITATING

NETWORKS
BETWEEN LFR 'S . ENCOURAGING
ACTIVITIES
TRANSFER
AND
LINKS WITH EXISTING E.C.
SPRINT . AND THE NEW SME ACTION PROGRAMME .

LINKAGES
OF EXPERIENCE , COOPERATIVE
EXCHANGE
OF COMMUNITY RTD .
OF
PROGRAMMES IN THIS AREA . PARTICULARLY

ESTABLISHMENT

414

STRIDE

SUPPORT

FOR RTD INFRASTRUCTURE

WOULD PROVIDE A

PARTICULARLY

EFFECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY ACTION .

ENHANCED UTILISATION OF RESULTS COULD BE ASSISTED BY

a

•

•

DEVELOPMENT OF DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES

IMPROVED INTER AND INTRA REGIONAL LINKAGES AND

NETWORKS

STRENGTHENING OF REGIONAL RTD CAPABILITY

THE

POSSIBILITY

OF INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES SERVING A

NUMBER

OF

LFR’S SHOULD BE CONSIDERED .

FACILITIES WHICH

ENABLED RTD COOPEPJYTION

ON

PROBLEMS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST TO A NUMBER OF LFR’S WOULD ALSO BE

OF VALUE .

OVERALL .

A

SIGNIFICANT ADVANCE IN THE CLOSER LINKING

OF

STRUCTURAL

POLICIES WITH SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

POLICIES

WITHIN THE COMMISSION

COULD

BE

MADE

BY

HELPING

TO

IMPROVE THE

BASIC

TECHNOLOGICAL

INFRASTRUCTURE OF THESE REGIONS .

THIS OUGHT TO BE A PRIMARY OBJECTIVE

OF THE NEW REGULATION .

•-REGIONAL *? RTD TWECHANISMSW

THIS REPORT PROPOSES NEW STRUCTURAL MEASURES SPECIFICALLY TARGETTED AT

IMPROVING

THE TECHNOLOGICAL

INFRASTRUCTURES

AND

NETWORKS

OF THE

DISADVANTAGED AND LESS FAVOURED REGIONS .

THESE

COMPRISE

A RANGE OF RTD MEASURES IN 6

BROAD

CATEGORIES .

AS

FOLLOWS : -

•

RESEARCH AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ;

a

•

HIGHER EDUCATION INDUSTRY LINKAGES ;

TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ;

•

APPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ;

•

•

ENTREPRENEURS !! IP ASS I STANCE ;

RTD PROMOTION .AND TECHNICAL AWARENESS .

SEE TABLE 7.1 FOLLOWING .

41

TABLE 7-1

MAIN

CATEGORIES

OF

RTD

MECHANISMS

A

RESEARCH AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

edge'
of

'Leading
generation
application ,
close proximity to a
for
support

schemes

and

facilities

primarily

concerned
from

knowledge ,

distinct
mostly , though not always , located on

its

as

class
first
basic or fundamental

University .

research

with

the
immediate
or
in
Non-physical
be
would

included .

3

HIGHER EDUCATION - INDUSTRY LINKAGES

Mechanisms and programmes
and
level Colleges and industry .

promoting

closer interaction and partnerships between

primary aim of encouraging
3rd

with

the

C

TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

and training , provision
education
Facilities for technological
and
upgrading of specialist skills for scientists and engineers
and preferential encouragement for industry to employ scientists
and engineers .

0

APPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Mechanisms and programmes to assist or promote the transfer
applications
and
applied
applications .

of
technology .
developmental ,

orientation
emphasis
the

and
is essentially
practical
on

The
with

E

ENTREPRENEURSHIP ASSISTANCE

A wide range of
business
small
and
business
entrepreneurs
organising and paying for other services .

mechanisms
exist
bring new ideas to the market .
services

commercial
who

have the technology but have

help the entrepreneur or
provide
These
to start up
in

difficulty

training

and

to

F

RTD PROMOTION AND TECHNICAL AWARENESS

Programmes and mechanisms
appreciation
industry
technology .

with
generally

the
to

to
aim of
modernise

improve

technical

encouraging
and

upgrade

manufacturers

awareness and
and
their level of

416

WITHIN THESE 6 CATEGORIES A TOTAL OF 56 INDIVIDUAL RTD MECHANISMS WERE
CONSOLIDATING THESE MECHANISMS INTO A CORE CROUP PRODUCED
IDENTIFIED .

THE FOLLOWING 10 ’PHYSICAL * AND 10 'NON PHYSICAL’ MECHANISMS .

PHYSICAL RTD MECHANISMS

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

CENTRES OF EXCELLENCE

SCIENCE PARKS

UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY RESEARCH CENTRES

CAMPUS COMF AN I ES

INDUSTRIAL LIAISON OFFICES

APPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY CENTRES

BRANCH PLANT PROGRAMMES

TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTRES

INNOVATION CENTRES

RESEARCH EQUIPMENT SCHEMES

NON PHYSICAL RTD MECHANISMS

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH SCHEMES

SKILLS PLACEMENT

CONTINUING TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

MOBILITY AND EXCHANGE PROGRAMMES

DEMONSTRATION

RTD EXTENSION AND CONSULTANCY

ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING

TECHNICAL AWARENESS PROGRAMMES

NETWORKS

SUB-CONTRACTING AND SUB-SUPPLY

SELECTING THE MOST

APPROPRIATE

INSTRUMENTS

OR

MODALITIES - THE RTD

MECHANISMS
MATCH
IMPORTANT . IF MONIES ARE TO BE WELL SPENT .

DIFFERENT

TO

-

REGIONAL

CAPABILITIES

IS

VERY

SELECTION

THIS
CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES .
CONSIDERABLE AUTONOMY IS ALLOWED TO THE REGIONS THEMSELVES .

ASSESSMENT

PROCESS

PRECISE

LOCAL
IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT

BASED

THIS

ON A

MUST

BE

OF

IN

417

REPORT DEMONSTRATES A WIDE VARIATION IN REGIONS'

THIS
THE CAPABILITY TO ABSORB
CAPABILITY CAN BE BUILT WILL VARY BETWEEN REGIONS .

THEREFORE ,

CAPACITY .
RTD
AND THE SPEED AT WHICH THIS

RTD

TO FIND THEIR OWN PATHS TO PROGRESS -

REGIONS
HAVE
RTD
REGIONALE' - BUILDING ON
ASSESSMENT OF WHAT IS POSSIBLE . RATHER THAN WHAT MIGHT BE DESIRABLE .

'VOCATION
AND WITH A REALISTIC

STRENGTHS .

THEIR

THEIR

BUT THIS LOCAL AUTONOMY WILL BE BEST EXERCISED WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF
GENERAL GUIDELINES WHICH CAN BE PROPOSED IN ORDER TO ASSIST REGIONS IN
MATCHING MECHANISMS TO REGIONAL NEEDS AND TO REGIONAL TYPES .

FOR

EXAMPLE . THE KEY FACTORS OR CONSIDERATIONS WHICH SHOULD BE TAKEN

INTO ACCOUNT IN SELECTING MECHANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED IN THE REPORT .

BASICALLY . THESE FALL INTO TWO CROUPS : -

«

FACTORS KNOWN TO INFLUENCE THE PERFORMANCE AND EFFECTIVENESS

OF

THE MECHANISM ITSELF .

E.G.

ITS

SENSITIVITY

TO DISTANCE FROM

CLIENTS . AND

•

FEATURES OF THE LOCAL

RTD

LANDSCAPE WHICH

WILL INFLUENCE THE

REGIONS

ABILITY TO INSTALL AND EFFECTIVELY OPERATE

PARTICULAR

MECHANISMS . E.G. .
SKILLS .

THE

STRUCTURE

THE

COMPOSITION AND
LOCAL

OF

INDUSTRY .

AVAILABILITY OF LOCAL
PARTICULARLY THE

PRESENCE OF SME 'S .

THE

PROBLEMS

FACING SME’S IN THE TECHNOLOGY ARENA

ARE

PARTICULARLY

IN

ACUTE . AND VERY IMPORTANT IN
CONTEXT
ROLE
THE ECONOMIES OF THE LFR’S .
HAVE LOW SKILLS . POOR APPRECIATION OF
TO ACCESS EXTERNAL SOURCES OF TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE .
RTD CAPACITY IN SME 'S

OF THIS STUDY . BECAUSE OF THEIR
INTERNALLY . THEY WILL
TO
TECHNOLOGY AND LIMITED CAPACITY
BUILDING IN-HOUSE
ON A CAREFULLY

CRUCIAL

PROCEED

MUST

TEND

BUT

IS

PLANNED AND STRUCTURED BASIS .

ARE

COMMISSION
PROGRAMMES
STRIDE .
THE BIC PROGRAMME OF DGXVI ITSELF .
PARTICULARLY THE SPRINT PROGRAMME ,
LINKAGES
ESTABLISHING
SME
AND
BETWEEN ALL THESE INITIATIVES WILL BE IMPORTANT .

ACTION PLAN .

APPROPRIATE

COMPLEMENT

EMERGING

WHICH

THE

NEW

CAN

IN
APPROACH

SELECTING RTD MECHANISMS REGIONS ARE ADVISED TO ADOPT A

THERE

IS

NO

SINGLE

RTD

MECHANISM

WHICH

PORTFOLIO
WILL MEET ALL

REQUIREMENTS .

( 27 )

418

PORTFOLIOS OF

RTD

MECHANISMS

APPROPRIATE

TO

PARTICULAR

REGIONAL

SITUATIONS ARE SUGGESTED IN THE REPORT .

FOR EXAMPLE . FOR REGIONS :

•

•

•

WITH A CONCENTRATION OF SMALL CRAFT FIRMS . OR SME’S :

WITH A CONCENTRATION OF LOW TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY ;

WISHING TO STIMULATE A HIGH RATE OF NEW FIRM

FORMATION .

THE

DATA

PRODUCED IN THE REPORT SHOWS THAT NOT ALL REGIONS HAVE

THE

CAPACITY TO MAKE

FULL

USE

OF

THE

WHOLE

RANGE

OF

AVAILABLE

RTD

MECHANISMS .

SELECTIVITY WILL BE REQUIRED .

FOR

EXAMPLE ,

REGIONS WITH A VERY LOW EXISTING RTD CAPACITY

WILL

BE

LIKELY TO BENEFIT

MORE

FROM

PROGRAMMES

BASED

LARGELY ON TECHNICAL

EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES THAN FROM ADVANCED RTD CENTRES .

BUT , APART FROM A FEW EXCEPTIONAL

CASES .

IN

GENERAL TERMS . THE LESS

FAVOURED

REGIONS .

WHICH

ARE

THE

KEY

TARGET

CROUP

FOR

THE

NEW

REGULATION . MUST HAVE ACCESS TO THE FULL RANGE OF RTD MECHANISMS .

PARTICIPATION BY REGIONS

AND

MEMBER

STATES

IN

STRIDE SHOULD BE IN

ACCORDANCE

WITH A WELL PLANNED AND PROGRAMMED APPROACH .

THIS

SHOULD

BEGIN WITH THE PREPARATION

OF

COMPREHENSIVE

REGIONAL

PLANS FOR THE

DEVELOPMENT

OF

APPROPRIATE REGIONAL RTD CAPACITY .

IN THE REPORT .

A

PROCEDURE FOR THE INTEGRATED

PROFILING OF REGIONS IS PRESENTED .

THE

PROFILES OF MIDI PYRENEES AND PUGLIA WHICH FOLLOW . ARE EXAMPLES .

THIS QUANTITATIVE PROFILING

PROCEDURE

SHOULD BE COMPLEMENTED WITH AN

INCISIVE QUALITATIVE

ACCOUNT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT RTD STRENGTHS

AND

WEAKNESSES OF THE REGION .

IN

THIS .

THERE IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR LOCAL

KNOWLEDGE .

THE

INVOLVEMENT AND COMMITMENT OF LOCAL ACTORS

WILL

BE

CRUCIAL .

THE IMPORTANCE

OF

THIS

LOCAL

PLANNING

LIES

BOTH IN THE

PRODUCT AND THE PROCESS .

THE

REPORT

EMPHASISES

HOWEVER

THAT

THE

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

SINGLE

ELEMENTS

OF

RTD

INFRASTRUCTURE WILL NOT OF

ITSELF

BE

SUFFICIENT .

INTERACTION

AND

COMMUNICATION

BETWEEN

THE

VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THE

LOCAL RTD INFRASTRUCTURE MUST BE PROMOTED .

419

f

STATISTICS
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Infres Indtx

B.Ê.Grods .

-P*
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y

•

- y '---

I

________>

POPULATION :
POPULATION :
AREA :
AREA :

3,9 U
3,9 U
19,000 KU~
19,000 KU.
<138 KM).
( 138 KM)-.

N0N PMTSICAL RTD MECHAN1SUS
NON PWTSICAL RTD MECHANISUS

. .

NATIONAL

Ir.n.r.rTI

I

STATISTICS

MIDI PYRÉNÉES [ F ]

? '. ?
: hcnç »
I pis . aer.z : Iv

Acr

t.-nsl .

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Sir .

t.-npl .

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rsi GVA / E.-v.f .
IACT. CV~ / L.-r.pi .

№

;|1

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S *.r CVA / L.x.p ;.

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[ТгГ: :.1 --,;л J

S>ntn .

i.'ioíi

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Crea . Out p

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POPULATION ;
POPULATION ;

4.3 M
4.3 U

AREA :

45,300 KM *.

NON PHYSICAL STD MECHANISMS
NON PHYSICAL STD MECHANISMS

REGIONAL

C2D70E1

hi – 7<»cn L:r.?l·

MM

ГСЕЯО /СОР

[ ЗЕЯС /СУЛ

4^
ro

EEC AVERAGE

y

MAY

EVEN COMPENSATE FOR LACK OF PHYSICAL
INTERACTION

REGIONS
INTENSIFICATION OF LOCAL
WHY
THIS
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL RTD
LINKING LOCAL ELEMENTS CLOSELY TOGETHER .

SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE IS

BY
WITHIN THE EXISTING STRUCTURES .
THE
IN
A NETWORK APPROACH IS CRUCIAL .

INFRASTRUCTURE

STRUCTURES .

ESSENTIAL

PLANNING

IS

A

A

DECREE

REGIONAL DYNAMIC IS NOT EASY TO ACHIEVE .

SUCH
EVIDENT
THAT IT IS NOT SIMPLY THE PRESENCE OF UNITS OF RTD INFRASTRUCTURE . BUT
THE
DETERMINING
OF
A KEY FOCUS FOR STRIDE THEREFORE . MUST BE
FACTOR IN LOCAL INNOVATION .
TO STIMULATE LOCAL NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS . AS WELL AS
INSISTENCE
LOCAL RTD PLANNING BY THE
ON THE ADOPTION OF A
REGIONS .

INTERACTION BETWEEN THEM . WHICH

APPROACH

SYSTEMS

BUT IT

THE

IS

TO

IS

GUIDELINES FOR THIS LOCAL PLANNING PROCESS CAN BE SUGGESTED : -

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

ASSESS

THE

RTD

RESOURCES

AVAILABLE TO

THE

REGION

REALISTICALLY ;

HAVE A VISION OF THE REGION’S FUTURE

AND

IMPLEMENT

IT WITH

OPERATIONAL

STRATEGIES

WHICH

BUILD ON

EXISTING

STRENGTHS

-

RATHER THAN ON ASPIRATIONS OF WHAT MIGHT BE ;

ORGANIC

GROWTH

AND

DEVELOPMENT

FROM

AN

EXISTING

BASE IS

PREFERABLE TO STARTING FROM A ‘GREEN FIELD’ SITUATION ;

FIND WAYS OF

ACCESSING

EXCELLENCE .

PARTICULARLY

IF IT EXISTS

OUTSIDE THE

REGION .

BUILD SYSTEMATICALLY AND DON’T

LEAPFROG .

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IS INCREMENTAL AND COMPLEX :

THE

KNOW
UNDERSTAND THE LOCAL

CONTOURS OF THE REGION 'S RTD LANDSCAPE -
COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

AND

IN

DETAIL .
MECHANISMS -

BOTH FORMAL AND INFORMAL ;

THESE

MATCH
MECHANISMS - SELECTED AND DESIGNED LOCALLY ;

PORTFOLIOS

CONTOURS

WITH

OF

APPROPRIATE

RTD

AVOID A 'SINGLE SHOT’ APPROACH -

NO ONE RTD MECHANISM WILL SUIT

ALL SITUATIONS ;

PARTICULAR

PAY
THE
PERFORMANCE OF THE MECHANISMS SELECTED : STUDY THE PERFORMANCE OF
SIMILAR MECHANISMS IN OTHER REGIONS ;

ATTENTION TO KEY FACTORS

INFLUENCE

WHICH

422

DO N'T INSTALL ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY MECHANISMS IN A LOW TECHNOLOGY

LOCATION .

STRATEGIES

WHICH

DO

THIS

CARRY

A HIGH RISK OF

FAILURE ;

DEVELOP

THE REGIONAL RTD INFRASTRUCTURE AS AN

INTERLOCKING AND

INTERACTIVE SYSTEM ;

EMPHASISE

AND

STIMULATE

FUNCTIONAL

INTERACTION WITHIN

THE

REGIONAL

RTD

SYSTEM

THROUGH

LOCAL

NETWORKS

AND

LINKAGES ;

ESTABLISH BRIDGES TO RTD INFRASTRUCTURES OUTSIDE THE REGION ;

WORK

TOWARDS ESTABLISHING A CRITICAL MASS - A 'SEUIL

CRITIQUE’

IN SELECTED AREAS ; BE SELECTIVE .

SO AS NOT TO SPREAD

RESOURCES

TOO THINLY ;

ESTABLISH FLEXIBLE

NON-BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEMS ;

LOOK FOR RESULTS .

NOT FOR PROCEDURES ;

SECURE

INVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL BUSINESS AND COMMERCIAL

INTERESTS .

IF POSSIBLE , ENCOURAGE

PRIVATE

SECTOR

INTERESTS

TO DRIVE THE

STRATEGY ;

ENCOURAGE

LOCAL INITIATIVE AND LEADERSHIP . IT IS THEIR

REGION .

THEIR JOBS ,

THEIR

CHILDREN .

THEIR

RESPONSIBILITY

AND

THEIR

FUTURE - WHO ELSE WOULD BE MORE COMMITTED TO GETTING IT RIGHT ?

STIMULATE ALLIANCES OF KEY PLAYERS .

IDENTIFY LOCAL CHAMPIONS ;

ENCOURAGE

LOCAL COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES . FRIENDLY COMPETITION

WILL IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF PROPOSALS ;

PURSUE INDIVIDUALISTIC PATHS TO

PROGRESS .

KNOW YOUR 'VOCATION

REGIONALE' ;

EMPHASISE

HOW THINGS ARE DONE - NOT WHAT IS DONE .

ULTIMATELY ,

THE FORM IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE SUBSTANCE ;

ACT LOCALLY - BUT THINK GLOBALLY ".

ÿ?OBJECTIVES FOR STRIDE

'A
ANY ATTEMPT AT AN
PARTICULAR REGIONAL TYPES IS PROBLEMATIC .

PRIORI'

SPECIFICATION

OF

RTD

MECHANISMS FOR

CAN

BE SAID THAT SOME

IT
NONETHELESS ,
IDENTIFIED FOR STRIDE FOR ALL
LOCAL SITUATION .
THEIR
THE
BASIC PURPOSE
RESOURCES
STRIDE SHOULD PRIMARILY AIM TO :-

BE
PRINCIPLES
COMMON
IRRESPECTIVE OF THE DETAIL OF
THE
MOBILISE REGIONAL RTD
IN ORDER TO STIMULATE SELF GENERATING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT .

THUS , IT IS POSSIBLE TO ARTICULATE
IS
NEW

REGULATION

REGIONS ,

THAT

CAN

TO

OF

•

•

•

•

RETAIN AND ATTRACT SKILLED MANPOWER ;

PROVIDE A

LOCAL

CAPACITY

FOR

TECHNOLOGY

TRANSFER

AND

APPLICATION ;

STIMULATE

AND ASSIST NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED

START-UPS

LOCALLY ;

AND

IMPROVE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL RTD LINKAGES .

THESE ARE THE ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF A TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY FOR ALMOST

ANY LFR ; SKILLS RETENTION , TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER . LOCAL TECHNOLOGY BASED

START-UPS .AND LINKAGES .

BENEFITS OF STRIDE-

THE BENEFITS TO

BE

ACHIEVED

BY

THE

NEW

PROGRAMME WOULD

INCLUDE

PRINCIPALLY :-

•

•

•

IMPROVED CAPACITY IN REGIONS TO EXPLOIT . AND TO SHARE IN THE

AN
BENEFITS OF TECHNICAL PROGRESS ;

AN IMPROVEMENT IN COMMUNITY COHESION AND INTEGRATION ; AND

A MEASUHEABLE REDUCTION . IN THE LONGER TERM . IN THE ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL DISPARITIES BETWEEN REGIONS .

424

X IMPACT. OP STBIDB -

LATER

EVALUATION ,

FOR
AND
QUANTIFIABLE OBJECTIVES AT THE OUTSET . THE IMPACT OF THE NEW PROGRAMME
SHOULD BE ASSESSED ON THE BASIS OF :-

ARTICULATE

IMPORTANT

CLEAR

TO

IT

IS

.

•

•

A MEASURABLE IMPROVEMENT
OF BOTH INFRASTRUCTURE AND SKILLS ;

IN THE STOCK OF REGIONAL RTD RESOURCES

A MEASURABLE NARROWING OF THE TECHNOLOGY GAPS

A MEASURABLE INCREASE IN

THE PARTICIPATION

OF ASSISTED REGIONS

IN COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES .

ELIGIBLE REGIONS '

THE

EVIDENCE ASSEMBLED IN THIS REPORT PROVIDES

CLEAR

JUSTIFICATION

FOR A DIFFERENTIATED

COMMUNITY

RTD

INITIATIVE FOR THE LESS FAVOURED

REGIONS .

BECAUSE

OF

THE VARIATION IN TECHNOLOGICAL .

ECONOMIC

AND

SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN

THESE

REGIONS .

THE

STRIDE

INITIATIVE MUST BE

FLEXIBLE TO ACCOMMODATE VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF LESS FAVOURED REGIONS .

TO

BE

ELIGIBLE

FOR

ASSISTANCE IT

IS

PROPOSED

THAT A

REGION

BE

SIGNIFICANTLY DISADVANTAGED BOTH ECONOMICALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY .

THIS TWO-CRITERIA 'AND-GATEj) PROCEDURE IS ILLUSTRATED OVERLEAF.

'SIGNIFICANTLY DISADVANTAGED’ IS

DEFINED BY THE AUTHORS AS BEING MORE

THAN 25X BELOW THE RELEVANT COMMUNITY AVERAGE .

IN ADDITION . ALTHOUGH CERTAIN REGIONS MAY NOT SATISFY THESE CONDITIONS

PRECISELY . THEY ARE NONETHELESS

DISADVANTAGED

FOR A COMPLEX OF OTHER

REASONS .

TWO

CROUPS

IN PARTICULAR . ARE

CONSIDERED -

INDUSTRIALLY

DECLINING REGIONS AND

LAGGING

REGIONS

IN

THE

MORE ADVANCED MEMBER

STATES .

425

A

150 -
150 -

A

Criteria
' Bëlow^75%' of Average
; EEGÎnèome'perCapIfa

n ^

C Cr\

Below. ,75 , on ; the Synthetic
•V.v ^sM Index t
i
1
^>Д\1пс1еХ ,

4k r\ CwntKûl

.
.

'
'

* Deslgnàtèd "Industrlally
* Ое$1дпа1ес1 "1пс1и$1г1а!1у
;; ?:;.;|7С>есПп1пд\^ -
*Z ; &' ï Dec|lnlng\ > -
'
, ' ' -.X ^ ^
7>/^ ОГ
,, Designated "Lagging
:Л0е$юпа1ес1 '1адд1пд

^

*"

j

- Below 75% of Average
Below ; 75% of Average
EEC RTD Index
EEC RTD Index

| GAP

-

**

Λ

' / /

'/// Regions //\ GAP

r- %: Eligible YA
X
2 //////////λ
§ ШШЯ
Y//
£ Y////////A.
-Tsô

* / /|

1
\ IlOO

1Ï50
Relaxable Threshold
Relaxable Threshold

Income Index “r
Income Index

Ю
ON

IN SUMMARY THEREFORE IT IS PROPOSED TO DISTINGUISH THREE CATEGORIES OF

REGIONS FOR ASSISTANCE : -

.

CATEGORY 1 - LOW INCOME . LOW RTD

A CORE GROUP OF REGIONS WHICH
CAPITA
BELOW 75J OF AVERAGE EEC RTD LEVELS .

INCOME

ARE

LEVELS OR BELOW 75% ON THE SYNTHETIC

BELOW 75X OF AVERAGE EEC PER
AND

INDEX

•

CATEGORY 2 - INDUSTRIALLY DECLINING . LOW RTD

REGIONS

OF INDUSTRIAL DECLINE WHICH HAVE BELOW 75 * OF

AVERAGE

EEC RTD LEVELS .

THESE ARE THE REGIONS OF MEMBER STATES BASED ON

THE

COAL .

STEEL . SHIPBUILDING AND OTHER DECLINING

INDUSTRIES .

THEIR PRECISE DESIGNATION IS A MATTER FOR DGXVI .

•

CATEGORY T

-

LAGGING . LOW RTD

SELECTED REGIONS

OF

MORE

DEVELOPED

MEMBER

STATES

WHICH ARE

RELATIVELY

DISADVANTAGED

- SOMETIMES REFERRED TO

AS

'LAGGING

REGIONS’ , WHICH HAVE BELOW 75 * OF AVERAGE EEC RTD LEVELS .

THEIR

PRECISE

DESIGNATION IS AGAIN A MATTER FOR DGXVI IN CONSULTATION

WITH THE RELEVANT MEMBER STATES .

THE

PRIMARY GROUP OF REGIONS . THOSE OF CATEGORY 1 . WHICH COMPRISE THE

TARGET GROUP FOR THE NEW

REGULATION

WOULD , ON THE BASIS OF THE ABOVE

CRITERIA .

ENCOMPASS ALL REGIONS CURRENTLY THE SUBJECT OF THE COHESION

DEBATE .

THEIR

PRECISE

DESIGNATION

IS

HOWEVER

A

MATTER FOR THE

COMMISSION USING THE ABOVE-MENTIONED CRITERIA .

APPROPRIATE

WHILE THE

PRECISE

IDENTIFICATION

OF

APPROPRIATE

MECHANISMS

FOR A

REGION

MUST BE BASED ON A DETAILED EXAMINATION OF EACH

REGION 'S

RTD

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES . IT

IS

NONETHELESS

POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFT . A

PRIORI ,

BROAD

GROUPS

OF RTD MECHANISMS . APPROPRIATE

TO

THE

THREE

CATEGORIES OF REGIONS

LISTED

ABOVE .

THIS . THEREFORE . INTRODUCES

A

THIRD FORM OF ELIGIBILITY CRITERION NAMELY . 'APPROPRIATENESS' .

IT IS PROPOSED THAT CATEGORY

1

REGIONS

SHOULD

QUALIFY FOR THE FULL

RANGE OF RTD MECHANISMS AS SHOWN IN TABLE 1 .

WITHIN

THE CATEGORY 1 CROUP . SOME REGIONS WHICH HAVE AN EXTREMELY LOW

LEVEL OF RTD AND HAVE

THEREFORE

NOT

GOT

A

THRESHOLD CAPACITY WILL

REQUIRE

A MORE

SELECTIVE TREATMENT .

THESE

WILL

REQUIRE

SPECIAL

EMPHASIS

INITIALLY

ON

CREATING

THE

BASIC

PRECONDITIONS FOR

PARTICIPATION

IN

THE FULL SPECTRUM OF STRIDE MECHANISMS .

PRIORITY

ATTENTION MAY HAVE TO
EXTENSION

GIVEN
AND ADVISORY SERIVCES , AND TECHNICAL

HANDS-ON

TO

BE

TECHNICAL

AWARENESS

ASSISTANCE .
PROGRAMMES

FOR THESE REGIONS .

THE MECHANISMS AVAILABLE TO

CATEGORY

2 TYPE REGIONS - THE REGIONS OF

INDUSTRIAL

DECLINE

- ARE SHOWN IN TABLE 2 .

THE MAIN RTD PROBLEM

IN

SUCH REGIONS MIGHT BE EXPECTED TO BE

THE CONVERSION AND MODERNISATION

OF AN OLD OR AGEING RTD INFRASTRUCTURE .

STRONG TRADITIONS OF INDUSTRY

AND SKILLS WILL EXIST BUT THESE

WILL

NEED

TO BE UPDATED .

A PRIMARY

TARGET WOULD BE THE STIMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL AND PRIVATE SECTOR

RLD

AS WELL AS SUPPORTING NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED FIRM FORMATION .

FINALLY . CATEGORY 3 REGIONS - THE LAGGING REGIONS OF THE MORE ADVANCED
OR
MEMBER STATES . MAY EITHER HAVE RTD CAPACITY WHICH IS UNDERUTILISED
REGIONS OF THEIR OWN
HAVE

INFRASTRUCTURE

ACCESS

OTHER

RTD

TO

IN

COUNTRY .

A REDUCED SET OF RTD MECHANISMS IS PROPOSED .

CONCENTRATING

MAINLY ON
TYPE
PARTNERSHIPS AND CONSULTANCY .

STIMULATION

MEASURES
SUCH
TABLE 3 PROVIDES DETAILS .

AS

NETWORKS , LINKAGES .

GAPS WILL WIDEN IN THE COMMUNITY UNLESS ACTION

TECHNOLOGY
NOW .
WHICH ARE AT A LOW LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT WILL

TAKEN
MEMBER STATES AND REGIONS
EXPERIENCE

WHILE THE STRONG WILL GROW

STRONGER .

IS

GREAT DIFFICULTIES IN CATCHING UP .

STRESSES BETWEEN THE CENTRE

AND

PERIPHERY

WILL

INCREASE IF THE TWO

SPEED

TECHNOLOGICAL EUROPE . WHICH IS NOW RAPIDLY

EMERGING .

BECOMES

ESTABLISHED .

TECHNOLOGICAL STRENGTH
AS TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES
WILL CONTINUE IN THE CENTRES WHICH ARE ALREADY STRONG .
THE TECHNOLOGY
CLAPS COULD BECOME A PERMANENT AND PERSISTENT FEATURE . SLOWING DOWN THE

AGGLOMERATION

THE

OF

OVERALL LEVEL OF ADVANCE .

TABUS l

APPROPRIATE ROD mjumsie FCR CAraxrar l REGIcrta

RESEARCH ABO ADVANCED THtHfOCOGT
Specialist fVffMn'tl Cetttrea
Advanced Technology Centre®
Centre® of Excellence
Dent arch Equipment

HIGHER ECUCAXICN - DCUSTHT UMCM33
Rreearch Paria
Scieooe and TVschnology Parks
Tterhlng Ctirpenles
Reoearch Equipment Schemes
Cooperative Research Centres
Cooperative Research Ventures and Consortia
Canaaia Ccorxuiles
Industrial Liaison Oil ices
Transfer Points
Sponsored Chairs
Cooperative Sorkshcps/Synposia
industrial Fellovehip®

KID MANPOWER AMD SJOLL3 CEVELOmUfT
Skills Placement Progr .mines *
Spécial Bip loymeot Incentives*
Training/ re t rain i ng for Scientists and Engineers
Contlnuing Education and Tralnlng
RID Qirriculm Inproveneot
Dcrftanffe Proçnrrnea
Hoblllty Prosa imeJ

APPLIED RESEARCH AfO TEEHKXDGT TRANSFER
Branch Plant Prograrimes
Linkage and Sub Supply
Deuous ua tl on
Net nui klng
Applied Research and Technology Centres
Technology Applications and Design Centres
Extension and Advisory Services *
Technical Information and Assistance Centres *
Technical Consultancy Services *

EUrKEPUiNEURSHIP SUPPORT
Innovation Centres
Incubatloo Centres
Business and Technology Centres
Inventions Services
Patents and Licenslng Services
Product Searching
Technology Acquisition Ser-vtoes
Srsll Business Courses
Bitrepreneurship Tralnlng
Product Development Courses
Enterprise Fbnsrs /Rorkshops

RTD PTtXjnCN AfO GENERAL AWARENESS
RTD Dchibltlorva
Technology Extra
Referrxl Centrea *
One Stop Shoprj *
Information latermedlarlea
Technical
TXsk Fbrcea
Scaletterà and Tech/ilcal 9ulletlna
RTD Generxl Farcirò t lon / A rargnc * »
Pesearch Associations
•ortcsrcm
Scientific and Technical Attaches

Information and Awxreoesa PrcgT'^rmes

appropriate for the least

favoured subset of Category l Regions .

TABLE 2 :

APPROPRIATE RTD MECHANISMS FOR CATEGORY 2 REGIONS

•

•

FOR CONVERSION . ADAPTATION AND MODERNISATION OF THE

ASSISTANCE
EXISTING RTD INFRASTRUCTURE
ASSISTANCE FOR STIMULATION OF BERD , PARTICULARLY

RESEARCH EQUIPMENT FOR INDUSTRY

CONTRACT RESEARCH

TECHNICAL CONSULTANCY

SKILLS PLACEMENT

RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS

HIGHER EDUCATION-INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIPS
TEACHING COMPANIES

TRANSFER POINTS

•

ASSISTANCE FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED STARTUPS . PARTICULARLY

INCUBATO RS

INNOVATION CENTRES

CAMPUS COMPANIES

•

ASSISTANCE FOR UPDATING SKILLS . PARTICULARLY

TRAINING AND RETRAINING FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS

CONTINUING TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

MOBILITY AND EXCHANGE PROGRAMMES

TABLE 3 :

PRIORITY

APPROPRIATE RTD MECHANISMS FOR CATEGORY 3 REGIONS_
NETWORKS AND
TO

ESTABLISHMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT

OF

COMMUNICATIONS .

IMPROVE LINKAGES TO NATIONAL AND

INTERNATIONAL

RTD ACTIVITY .

EXCLUSIVELY

STIMULATION

TYPE

MEASURES .

PARTICULARLY

SUPPORT

FCR : -

•

•

•

•

«

•

•

•

•

RESEARCH NETWORKS

RESEARCHER MOBILITY SCHEMES

TRANSFER POINTS

INDUSTRIAL LIAISON OFFICES

UNIVERSITY - INDUSTRY COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

TECHNICAL CONSULTANCY SERVICE FOR SME 'S

RESEARCH EQUIPMENT SUPPORT SCHEMES

INDUSTRIAL FELLOWSHIPS

TECHNICAL WORKSHOPS AND SYMPOSIA

430

POLICIES WHICH ADDRESS THE BASIC FABRIC . FOUNDATION AND

FRAMEWORK FOR

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE LESS

WELL OFF REGIONS NEED TO BE PUT

A

AS

PLACE

IN
• QUALITATIVE LEAP' TOWARDS THE
FORWARD FOR SOME BUT WILL LEAVE MANY STANDING STILL .

THIS
COMMUNITY'

• TECHNOLOGY

URGENCY .

MATTER

UNLESS

OF

DONE .

THE
IS
MAY BE A STEP
IN THE LONG TERM

THE PROGRESS OF ALL WILL BE RETARDED .

NBST / DUBLIN/ AUCUST 1987

ANNEX 14

COMPARATIVE

TRENDS_IN_THE_ USA .

JAPAN

AND

EUROPE

432

Brussels , 22 February 1988

COMPARISON OF COMMUNITY MEMBER STATES S / T POLICIES

COPOL 88

THE EUROPEAN S / T " SPACE" IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT
RESOURCES AND CONDITIONS FOR COMMUNITY COMPETITIVENESS

Extracts from the Working Paper prepared by P. BARTOLI
Contract n° PSS*0008 / F

S&T POTENTIAL OF E.E.C. COUNTRIES

OVERALL STATISTICAL COMPARISONS AND CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL PARCELLING

potentials

S&T
especially

major
Comparing
partners ,
to
the United States and Japan ,
look at general statistical agregates . The studies prepared for the former
COPOL meeting of CREST have extensively touched these aspects ,
and so , in
the first section , we shall merely actualize the main results .

Member States with those

implies primarily

their

of

of

second section ,

Then , in order to make this first analysis more accurate , we shall try , in
quantitative
the
comparison
political
parcelling on its S&T efficiency compared with those of the US and Japan .

to improve the conclusions drawn
by taking into account the consequences or European

from

434

SECTION I

:

THE R&D POTENTIAL OF THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY MEMBERS COMPARED
TO THAT OF ITS MAJOR PARTNERS , THE US AND JAPAN

their

expenses ,
and

We shall review ,
of
R&D
eighties
different countries .
R&D
in
effectiveness of Lhese efforts ,
report .

of
the priority given to R&D among economic activities in

in this section , the main basic data concerning the bulk,
the
the
Finally we shall examine the involvement of industry
the
is
as we shall see in the second part of the

rate of growLh within the

condition

national

efforts

partly ,

which ,

first

half

for

a

I - VOLUME

- In

1986

the

cumulative

countries
and the
of research workers rose from 350 000 to 500 000 ( EPT ) over this

of
twice the amount recorded in 1979 ,

expenditures

member

R&D

the

approached 70 billion Ecus ,
number
period*.

- With 120 billion dollars devoted to R&D** i.e. 119 billion Ecus (1 Ecu =
1.010 dollar according to purchasing power parities : ppp ), the American
expenditure is approximately 3 /4 higher . Japan 's is in the neighbourhood
of 9 200 billion yen ,
41 billion ( ppp 1 Ecu = 223.2 yen ) which is
1 / 3 lower .

i.e.

repective growth rates of R&D activities in the different

countries ,
The
analysed along with monetary variations , leads us to believe that for 1987
the relative gap should remain with the US and decrease with Japan .

the 1981-1986 period evolutions have been in favour of

In
het gap has widened noticeably with the US and has narrowed with Japan .

our

partners :

necessary

a first evaluation of the general effort of the Member States .

This comparison of overall R&D expenses of the countries involved leads us
is
to
to
often
features
civilian
In
of military R&D and tis varying importance in the different countries .
this case the accuracy of statistical material is lower ,
use
so we shall
only ratios and not absolute figures ( graph II ).

R&D expenses in order to take into account the special

complete this by a second comparison

It
restricted

to

1986 ,

the one of EUR 12 ,

the civilian R&D expenses in the US was no more than a

In
above
this
between
comparison of overall R&D expenses ,
Since 1981 the gap with the US remained unchanged ,
narrowed .

quarter
In
partners
the
narrower
especially between the US and EUR 12 .
and the gap with Japan

and the Japanese expense was a third lower .
in
is

comparison

than

gap

the

whose

analyses ,

realistic
Both
evaluation of R&D potentials , show that R&D expense in EUR 12 is obviously
But
below
the
the
tendencies
appears
beLter when considering growth rates .

level of the US ,
points

out a lower dynamism in the

but exceeds widely that of

be combined

Community .

results

Japan .

must

This

give

to

a

*
**

Figures estimated from data already available in certain countries .
OECD figures .

435

GERD for EUR- 12, U. S. A. ft JAPAN : 1901-86

118.81

Convers i on of US $ ft V on h&s boon

carried otffc accord lng the P. P. P. ■
to avo Id the errat ic f luctua-
tions of these currenclee

5 cSJ?c>
5co3SSg§8^ ceç cl5
5 îo 2 co 2 &; 5 ex S oo 2 55 2 co £ 00 ?
< ÇoR<»2çç5 7?;=:ÇÇoS3 = ?2o52J

Sppppppp
??|!!!ll|!|I|s|

120 . 00-r

100 . 00+

00 . 00+

B ioECU

00 . 00 +

67.57

^O§S
O SJ§
O ^ 3 ^3ï
» o ££ 3g= O 3J O SJ ô 8- 3 g--, O ^
||^Sÿjgop^6J||^

5c S ©5 2 co S oc 2 o? 9, ?5 S oô 2 36

x255£l§2cc2§c j852§S2§c
^ 2CO2!K2CC2CO9CC2OO.Ç£
x 2 00 s co 2 -oc s te ? ce 2 o: • 4
^ o^oiWoSSoSAOÎ^cîSSfe
^ ogjosWoJgoSAogScgScS
i»igi§æsg|i8gig
IsSlSifgsgiisçÿJ
iïlllsillllii?!
igg!Sispæ8p|ig

78 . 20

lift 11

■ JAPAN

H EUR- 12
EUR - 12

IS U. S. A.

U. S. A

41.28

I
I

12с82ооЯссШз

i « 2: - s * -35 9:

Iffifî II l'iisiiimm
11 ■! -s 1 1 I|i llilisiiilil?
| g. |- -| :f§ J.Jg p' $
li ÉI.--I ï - IffeiBIIÉIliiJl

"6 &,

.55

ïAÀbàfef

88

40 . 00+

■fïf :ïtf i ipi 1 l?ill
rss. « .S % s §iw?çilî?i8i9^i$2§ia

20 . 00

0 . 00-

4^
04
CTN

.

z 21
g ZX,

impfftfi#aiiiiiiiiB
|ç'S?l?I|SP?iî'i|ll||
" ^ =<j
9o
'
ÿï%%P51 c i:?■ a gIios
S.'ÿ 1V S':1 1 i
., II?11illlljljI'SlllI
*- ïS ' J
iiiiSiiiiiiiiiïiii

S <51 ■££'■ •$£'S;c^».C/fe£2Rÿ>r,CL%£,~+:gAÔgS£S

^ â'f

3>S,£K-rt32'

-M

81

Voar

Olv/ ll GERD for EUR-12 , U. S. A. 8. JAPAN :
1981-1986

140 -p

12Θ 4-

IBB +

8B +

É>B

EUR - 12 = 1 OO

C IBB )

( 56 )

40

L-

j r .

v.jj

?:даГ^5*-Л?Г,Д)
‘ .. V , Ч , Ч.

'Ъ''»-' ^/.' ^ и-'

2B +

C 125 )

C < 125 )

JAPAN

EUR - 12

U. S. A.

( 66 )

C IBB )

;• ;•;• ;•;! >;• >;! ;î;i ;î?i >;l *•*. >♦; >•; >
2; >î; JJJJ ÎJÎ;2}Î; !•!; i;î* !;î; >î; !;2; >;• 2»
;5;j ;•
Îj5;2ÿ*î;;*î;jj 2;ï* Ijî;
î; 2;î|

Й-Й--

г;€'Ш

>;* >

:<•

^ü5?:ïsS:.^î:5

Year

AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH OF GERD
1981-1985 (fixed prices )

0 . 0

0 . a

*

‘ 'f
|'1;|
ïI'IIMl'lêl
I

|jj|||||||

Iffi itfni

0.6

□ TOTAL

1

S Civil
Civil

j -

i

|Я1Ъ1!1!

fi S-ÉS'S'gi.feï
| lilIi|:Ül

jm 2pem*?»st£ « «f

O

t

. o J

h O

% per year

!
|
li.
|

'

9-r

a-h

7 +

6 +

s +

■4 +

3 +

2 +

1 +

0

04
CD

Japan

USA

Country

EUH- 12

II - GROWTH RATES

1981

and 1985 R&D expenditures increased by an average of 3.6

BeLween
%
per annum in volume within in EEC , at a rate which was substantially lower
than
Japanese
progression : 8.8 % , more than twice as fast as in the EEC .

% which

iLself

below

well

6.6

the

the

of

US

is

:

When applied to civil research ,
the comparison of progression rates gives
results which are considerably different , because the progression of civil
appropriations was almost non-existent in the US . The result is that total
expenditures ( public and industrial ) for R&D increase approximately
civil
at the same rate as in the US and in Europe , but Japanese growth is always
twice as strong :

EEC
USA
Japan

4 Z
4 Z
8,8 %

III - INTENSITY OF THE R&D EFFORT

Another
of
ratio
GERD/ GDP ,
the
the
technical development among all other economic activities .

expenditure of R&D to the
given

of the research effort in a country is

indicator
the
which

gross
to

priority

evaluate

gross

given
domestic

scientific

by
the
product
and

Of the European
In 1985 this ratio reached 208 Z in the US and in Japan*.
neighbouring
countries ,
2.7
in
and
Z
France , at 2 Z in the Netherlands ( neighbouring the EEC average ) and 1.3 %
or less for the other member countries .

while it was in the range of 2.3 Z in the United

the FRG approached this level with a ratio

Kingdom

only

once

If
classification is considerably modified .

again we restricL our analysis to civil

research ,

the

country

Japanese effort in civil R&D with a ratio neighbouring 2.7 %
be far superior to those of the US and the EEC member countries
And again the FRG is the only

in the range of 1.8 % and 2 Z.

whose

civil

effort is equal to that of Japan

( between

appears
which
member
and

1.5

The
to
are
nation
2.6% ).

  Japan : non-adjusted OECD figures .

GERD performed by enterprises In % of total

|

ï-
h

$M
i‘Si

|

|

£ g}

_[_L.jjLyftl^-|-

|

j1^11«^.|-j|»

-|-1-[

!j

HE

P

IRL

£

DK

NL

I

F

UK

B

D

JFN

use

Country

80 -r

70 +

80

50 +

o 40 ■+■

0

O

IV - CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY TO R & D POTENTIAL

VI-l / Execution of R&D work

the

United States ,

in
In
industry , and this level was maintained throughout the 1980 's . This strong
by
contribution
on the part of private enterprises is explained
the
to
them .

that a large portion of military research is

more than 70 Z of R&D exependitures are

notably
subcontracted

made

fact

of 68 Z in 1985 .

In Japan , the corresponding ratio ( DIRDE / DIRD ) is also high ;
it was in the
neigborhood
But unlike the United States ,
are
here we
dealing
almost exclusively with civil research and the industrial portion
in
has registered a strong increase since the beginning of the 80 1 s
1981 ) due to the dynamism of industrial financing and the weak progression
of R&D appropriations .

( 61 Z

present
Among
characteristics : Belgium ( 69 Z in 83 ) and the FRG ( 72 Z in 1985 ).

countries

nations ,

member

alone

two

the

similar

IV-2 / Financing of R&D work

by

growing rapidly since the beginning of the 80 1 s

far from the highest ( more than 70 Z in 1985 ) and moreover it
1981 ).
play a very minor role in businesses' financing

It is in Japan that the contribution by businesses to the financing of R&D
has
is
In
been
fact ,
of
R&D work . They therefore enjoy total financial independence in the conduct
of their R&D programmes , which is not the case in the United States and in
certain member countries .

appropriations

( 62 Z in

the

European

Among
financial
EEC
approaches that of the United States which is 48 Z.

contribution on the part of industry of 61 Z.
rate which characterizes them

only the FRG

countries ,

states ,

member

approaches

the

with

Japan

a
As for the other
or
falls

below

441

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion ,
well below those of the Unites States , while the Japan is catching up .

the funds devoted to R&D activities for the EECc are still

between 1981 and 1985 ,

what is more serious is the fact that R&D investments show even

And
dynamism :
great in Japan and one half higher in the United States .
granted
ratio ,
and 2.8 % ) and the gap is on the increase .

less
the growLh of expenditures was twice as
As for the place
to R&D in the economic activity as a whole ,
the
it is very much lower than that of our partners (2 % against 2.7 %

and measured by

Lastly , the distribution of Lhe R&D effort between industry and the public
countries ,
sector shows that industry 's contribution is lower in European
which puts them at a disadvantage in relation to the new conditions of S&T
developement
of
particular the importance of
in
research and the spreading of technology .

valorization

and

the

comparisons ,

quantitative

rather
These
dulling for the EEC , moreover neglect a serious handicap which affects Lhe
R&D potential of the entire EEC : the EEC does not constitute a homogeneous
are
whole .
We shall
extremely unlike one another and present insufficient synergies .
look at the consequences of that situation in the next section .

out into twelve components some

which in the last analysis

parcelled

which

are

of

It

is

442

SECTION II : CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL PARCELLING

European

preceding section ,

S&T space as a coherent whole .

which dealt with the comparison of the

by the Economic Community and their partners ,

parcelling introduces partitions and often leads

means
In
the
considered
implemented
case :
the
the
diverging
political
it is presently an illusion to consider that
choices . And for this reason ,
is
European
its
the
equal to the sum of
potential
S&T
members . To be realistic ,
it would be fitting to attribute to the latter a
coefficient representing the loss of effectiveness which affects
reducing
the European mosaic compared to a homogeneous national space .

we
But this is noL

potential

of

to

of all ,

This reference to the parcelling of the Economic Community is not new . But
reasons .
it has taken on particular acuteness in the realm of S&T for two
the differences between member nations are much more acute
First
in
the
Secondly ,
world , recent developments in scientific policy have foscused on the means
of
valorizing
the results of this work on the economic level .

better organizing the synergy of S&T efforts and of better

S&T matters than in other domains .

because throughout

These
fluidity
to
poorly
parcelling ,
limitations
actions .

different
the
in

actions
S&T system on which they are operating and

necessarily imply

cohesion

and

a

lack of fluidity in exchanges among men

due

which they interpret as obstacles to the circulating of
to

and the absence of

company

synergy

action ,

in

an

to

adapt

increased
very
political
men ,
public

Obstacles to the circulating of men

This is a major handicap ,
of the circulating of knowledge ,
sense ,
a
exchanges
within
political parcelling .

broader

of
the

because S&T progress is first of all the result
the confrontation of experiences and , in
speaking ,
by

men .
scientific

More
fabric

undermined

generally

contacts between

European

are

are

differences of language ,

obstacles ,
which concern lengthy travel on the part
been mentioned on many occasions and are well known .
culture ,

scientists ,
The
all ,
have
a
there
psychological effort to adapt which is sometimes difficult for some .
Then
there are differences between the administrative and social systems of the
member nations , which are behind numerous material problems encountered by
research
in
seeing to it that the equipment necessary for carrying out experiments can
circulate from one country to another .

of
First of
which imply

workers and their families .

there are difficulties

mentality ,

Lastly ,

Limits on action by companies

Although
political
through
unique

the
parcelling

free circulation of goods is ensured by
another

creates

compartmentalization

the

the

play of the standards of taxation and

public
European market of 1992 should remove this obsLacle ,

Rome
of
markets .
but for

Treaty ,
markets
The
the

this

situation

moment
their
restricts
them ,
excludes
becoming
higher
semiconductors for example .

action
capacity
to invesL in S&T .development ,
because the minimum effective investment
and

higher in certain realms

the freedom

reduces

of

of

advanced

of
and
thresholds

businesses ,
sometimes
are
technology :

habit of a certain protection against foreign
created introverted behavior
the

competition
the
Moreover ,
large
in
a
national
within
to
tendency
portion
the
of
cooperate ,
notably in S & T matters , as testified by the weak development
of technological joint ventures , compared to what we observe in the United
States or in Japan .

borders
industrial fabric ,

reducing

thereby

has

the

firms

get
Only
technologies
bypassing
these obstacles . But they then are sometimes more tempted by direct access
to the world market than by a limited action within the European space .

which have learned to act beyond borders and to

they are in the world ,

are capable

wherever

go

of

The absence of synergy in public action

implementation

do the structures of research systems .

is true that recently we have witnessed a certain harmonizing

It
policies .
as
the
different .
support
national perimeter and do not have the repercussions of measures taken
the American Administration or the Japanese Government .

S&T
Nonetheless , the traditions of gdvernmental action differ , just
in
offen
and
the
by

of incentives and the instruments utilized are

orientations are
public authorities are

The result is a staggering

Incentives
to
limited

divergent .
thus

Sometimes
by

even
the

provided

of

very

often

political

parcelling

implies the

often the case with respecL to military equipment ,

in realms where the public powers are the main customer .

Moreover ,
S&T
activities
This
in
is
which cooperation is still an exception . But the absence of cooperation is
also
a
field in which up until recently , competition between nations , tempered by
The amounts at stake in
serveral only too rare exceptions ,
this respect are huge , and the duplication of activities appears as a real
problem .

noted in certain civil domains ,

was the rule .

duplication

for example

transport ,

railway

field

of

a

Thus political parcelling reduces the effectiveness of S&T activity in the
space and lead to a shadowing of the quantitative comparisons of
European
the
a
preceding
We shall see in the second portion that another factor
homegeneous whole .
is
:
to be taken into consideration in comparisons with the US and Japan
we are speaking of the very rapid progress achieved by these two countries
toward greater effectiveness of their S&T apparatus .

looks upon Europe

section

though

which

were

as

it

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