 The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders, serving in clan regiments. They were 70 per cent of the forces in the 1715 rebellion and over 90 per cent of those in 1745. Most were forced to join by their clan chiefs, landlords or feudal superiors and desertion was a major problem during campaigns. The Jacobites suffered from a lack of trained officers. A typical clan regiment was made up of a small minority of gentlemen (tacksmen) who would bear the clan name. The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment. Because they served in the front ranks, the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman. The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed. In the rising of 1745, at the Battle of Prestonpans, some only had swords, Lochaber axes, pitchforks and scythes, but arms tended to become more conventional as the campaigns progressed. Only officers and gentlemen were equipped with a broadsword, targe and pistol. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746, the Hanoverian commander the Duke of Cumberland reported that there were 2,320 firelocks recovered from the battlefield, but only 190 broadswords.
