dkoterwa/mlqa_filtered huggingface dataset:
Maffei 1 possesses a tiny blue nucleus at its center approximately 1.2 pc across. It contains about 29 solar masses of ionized hydrogen. This implies that it has undergone recent star formation. There are no signs of an active galactic nucleus (AGN) in the center of Maffei 1. The X-ray emission from the center is extended and likely comes from a number of stellar sources.

Question: where does X-ray emission come from?
Answer: a number of stellar sources
Brachytherapy contrasts with unsealed source radiotherapy, in which a therapeutic radionuclide (radioisotope) is injected into the body to chemically localize to the tissue requiring destruction. It also contrasts to EBRT, in which high-energy x-rays (or occasionally gamma-rays from a radioisotope like cobalt-60) are directed at the tumour from outside the body. Brachytherapy instead involves the precise placement of short-range radiation-sources (radioisotopes, Iodine-125 for instance) directly at the site of the cancerous tumour. These are enclosed in a protective capsule or wire, which allows the ionizing radiation to escape to treat and kill surrounding tissue but prevents the charge of radioisotope from moving or dissolving in body fluids. The capsule may be removed later, or (with some radioisotopes) it may be allowed to remain in place.A feature of brachytherapy is that the irradiation affects only a very localized area around the radiation sources. Exposure to radiation of healthy tissues farther away from the sources is therefore reduced. In addition, if the patient moves or if there is any movement of the tumour within the body during treatment, the radiation sources retain their correct position in relation to the tumour. These characteristics of brachytherapy provide advantages over EBRT – the tumour can be treated with very high doses of localised radiation whilst reducing the probability of unnecessary damage to surrounding healthy tissues.A course of brachytherapy can be completed in less time than other radiotherapy techniques. This can help reduce the chance for surviving cancer-cells to divide and grow in the intervals between each radiotherapy dose. Patients typically have to make fewer visits to the radiotherapy clinic compared with EBRT, and may receive the treatment as outpatients. This makes treatment accessible and convenient for many patients. These features of brachytherapy mean that most patients are able to tolerate the brachytherapy procedure very well.

Question: What does the source produce?
Answer: radiation
Brachytherapy dates back to 1901 (shortly after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896) when Pierre Curie suggested to Henri-Alexandre Danlos that a radioactive source could be inserted into a tumour.

Question: Who discovered radioactivity?
Answer: Henri Becquerel
Imaging techniques, such as x-ray, fluoroscopy and ultrasound are typically used to help guide the placement of the applicators to their correct positions and to further refine the treatment plan. CAT scans and MRI can also be used. Once the applicators are inserted, they are held in place against the skin using sutures or adhesive tape to prevent them from moving. Once the applicators are confirmed as being in the correct position, further imaging can be performed to guide detailed treatment planning.

Question: When modifying plans for treatments, what technologies are utilized in order to facilitate proper applicator placement?
Answer: x-ray, fluoroscopy and ultrasound
In a small number of people, brachytherapy may cause long-term side effects due to damage or disruption of adjacent tissues or organs. Long-term side effects are usually mild or moderate in nature. For example, urinary and digestive problems may persist as a result of brachytherapy for cervical or prostate cancer, and may require ongoing management.Brachytherapy for prostate cancer may cause erectile dysfunction in approximately 15-30% of patients. However, the risk of erectile dysfunction is related to age (older men are at a greater risk than younger men) and also the level of erectile function prior to receiving brachytherapy. In patients who do experience erectile dysfunction, the majority of cases can successfully be treated with drugs such as Viagra. Importantly, the risk of erectile dysfunction after brachytherapy is less than after radical prostatectomy.Brachytherapy for breast or skin cancer may cause scar tissue to form around the treatment area. In the case of breast brachytherapy, fat necrosis may occur as a result of fatty acids entering the breast tissues. This can cause the breast tissue to become swollen and tender. Fat necrosis is a benign condition and typically occurs 4–12 months after treatment and affects about 2% of patients.

Question: who has a higher chance of developing ED?
Answer: older men

Question: For how many people does brachytherapy cause long term affects?
Answer: a small number of people
Patients often ask if they need to have special safety precautions around family and friends after receiving brachytherapy. If temporary brachytherapy is used, no radioactive sources remain in the body after treatment. Therefore, there is no radiation risk to friends or family from being in close proximity with them.If permanent brachytherapy is used, low dose radioactive sources (seeds) are left in the body after treatment – the radiation levels are very low and decrease over time. In addition, the irradiation only affects tissues within a few millimeters of the radioactive sources (i.e. the tumour being treated). As a precaution, some people receiving permanent brachytherapy may be advised to not hold any small children or be too close to pregnant women for a short time after treatment. Radiation oncologists or nurses can provide specific instructions to patients and advise for how long they need to be careful.

Question: What is the good thing about brachytherapy?
Answer: no radioactive sources remain in the body after treatment
Remote afterloading systems provide protection from radiation exposure to healthcare professionals by securing the radiation source in a shielded safe. Once the applicators are correctly positioned in the patient, they are connected to an ‘afterloader’ machine (containing the radioactive sources) through a series of connecting guide tubes. The treatment plan is sent to the afterloader, which then controls the delivery of the sources along the guide tubes into the pre-specified positions within the applicator. This process is only engaged once staff are removed from the treatment room. The sources remain in place for a pre-specified length of time, again following the treatment plan, following which they are returned along the tubes to the afterloader.

Question: What is used to connect the applicators to the afterloader?
Answer: guide tubes
Temporary brachytherapy involves placement of radiation sources for a set duration (usually a number of minutes or hours) before being withdrawn. The specific treatment duration will depend on many different factors, including the required rate of dose delivery and the type, size and location of the cancer. In LDR and PDR brachytherapy, the source typically stays in place up to 24 hours before being removed, while in HDR brachytherapy this time is typically a few minutes.Permanent brachytherapy, also known as seed implantation, involves placing small LDR radioactive seeds or pellets (about the size of a grain of rice) in the tumour or treatment site and leaving them there permanently to gradually decay. Over a period of weeks or months, the level of radiation emitted by the sources will decline to almost zero. The inactive seeds then remain in the treatment site with no lasting effect. Permanent brachytherapy is most commonly used in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Question: What are the many elements specific treatment time relies on?
Answer: required rate of dose delivery and the type, size and location of the cancer
The images of the patient with the applicators in situ are imported into treatment planning software and the patient is brought into a dedicated shielded room for treatment. The treatment planning software enables multiple 2D images of the treatment site to be translated into a 3D ‘virtual patient’, within which the position of the applicators can be defined. The spatial relationships between the applicators, the treatment site and the surrounding healthy tissues within this ‘virtual patient’ are a copy of the relationships in the actual patient.

Question: what kind of images are able to be made into 3d images?
Answer: multiple 2D images
To accurately plan the brachytherapy procedure, a thorough clinical examination is performed to understand the characteristics of the tumour. In addition, a range of imaging modalities can be used to visualise the shape and size of the tumour and its relation to surrounding tissues and organs. These include x-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed axial tomography (CT or CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The data from many of these sources can be used to create a 3D visualisation of the tumour and the surrounding tissues.Using this information, a plan of the optimal distribution of the radiation sources can be developed. This includes consideration of how the source carriers (applicators), which are used to deliver the radiation to the treatment site, should be placed and positioned. Applicators are non-radioactive and are typically needles or plastic catheters. The specific type of applicator used will depend on the type of cancer being treated and the characteristics of the target tumour.This initial planning helps to ensure that ‘cold spots’ (too little irradiation) and ‘hot spots’ (too much irradiation) are avoided during treatment, as these can respectively result in treatment failure and side-effects.

Question: Which imaging modalities are used?
Answer: x-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed axial tomography (CT or CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Lipps was one of the most influential German university professors of his time, attracting many students from other countries. Lipps was very concerned with conceptions of art and the aesthetic, focusing much of his philosophy around such issues. Among his fervent admirers was Sigmund Freud. Lipps then being the main supporter of the idea of the Unconscious. He adopted Robert Vischer's notions of empathy or esthetic sympathy (Einfühlung, literally translated to "feeling-into"). This concept of aesthetic resonance finds parallels throughout aesthetic philosophy. Late in life, Lipps adopted some ideas from Edmund Husserl. Disliking his psychologism, some of his students joined with some of Husserl's to form a new branch of philosophy called phenomenology of essences. Among them there was Moritz Geiger who wrote one of the first phenomenological essays on the essence and meaning of empathy in which the influence of Lipps is relevant.

Question: Who did Lipps adopt ideas from later in life?
Answer: Edmund Husserl
Recently, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika has ordered several newspapers closures, imprisoned journalists such as Mohammad Benchicou, director of Le Matin and author of a critical biography of Bouteflika, and forced others reporters into exile, mostly in France.

Question: Who's responsible for the jailing of Mohammad Benchicou and other associate journalists?
Answer: President Abdelaziz Bouteflika
Reporters Without Borders's (RSF in French) index for freedom of press gives approximatively 40 for Algeria since five years (although the figure has increased, signifying a lesser freedom of press). Along with L'Humanité newspaper, RWF did denounce the imprisonment of Mohammad Benchicou, director of Le Matin, who was sentenced to two years of prison for denouncing corruption in Algeria. Benchicou was awarded in 2006 the PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award.

Question: What is the Algerian index for freedom of the press from Reporters without Boarders?
Answer: approximatively 40
The working conditions of journalists in Algeria have evolved since the 1962 independence. After 1990, the Code of Press was suppressed, allowing for greater freedom of press. However, with the civil war in the 1990s, more than 70 journalists were assassinated by Islamists. Sixty journalists were killed between 1993 and 1998 in Algeria.

Question: how many news people were killed by Islamists?
Answer: more than 70 journalists
3D images are calculated from a set of projections acquired during a rotation of the C-Arm around the patient. The volume reconstruction is performed on a separate workstation. The C-Arm and the workstation are connected a communicate continuously. For example, when the user virtually rotates the volume on the workstation to view the anatomy from a certain perspective, the parameter of this view can be transmitted to the angio system, which then drives the C-arm to exactly the same perspective for fluoroscopy. In the same way, if the C-arm angulation is changed, this angulation can be transmitted to the workstation which updates the volume to the same perspective as the fluoroscopic view. The software algorithm that stands behind this process is called registration and can also be done with other DICOM images, such as CT or MRT data acquired preoperatively.

Question: What is the algorithm the helps the process of transmitting to the angio system?
Answer: registration
A hybrid operating room is a surgical theatre that is equipped with advanced medical imaging devices such as fixed C-Arms, CT scanners or MRI scanners. These imaging devices enable minimally-invasive surgery. Minimally-invasive surgery is intended to be less traumatic for the patient and minimize incisions on the patient and perform surgery procedure through one or several small cuts.

Question: what room has lots of imaging equipment in a hospital?
Answer: hybrid operating room
After surgery to evaluate the outcomeAn MRT system usually requires a lot of space both in the room and around the patient. It is not possible to perform surgery in a regular MRT room. Thus for step 2, there are two solutions of how to use an MR interoperatively, one is a moveable MRT scanner that can be brought in only when imaging is needed, the other is to transport the patient to an MR scanner in an adjacent room during surgery.

Question: What evaluates the outcome after surgery?
Answer: An MRT system
Also, the shift towards endovascular treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms pushed the spread of angiographic systems in vascular OR environments. Particularly for complex endografts, a hybrid operating theater should be a basic requirement. Also, it is well-suited for emergency treatment.Some surgeons do not only verify the placement of complex endografts intraoperatively, they also use their angiography system and the applications it offers for planning the procedure. As anatomy changes between a preoperative CT and intraoperative fluoroscopy because of patient positioning and the insertion of stiff material, a much more precise planning is possible if the surgeon performs an intraoperative rotational angiography, takes an automatic segmentation of the aorta, places markers for the renal arteries and other landmarks in 3D and then overlays the contours on 2D fluoroscopy. This guidance is updated with any change in C-Arm angulation/position or table position.

Question: where has treatment been headed when it comes to abdominal aortic aneurysms?
Answer: endovascular treatment
As in other minimally invasive surgery the first laparoscopic surgeons were smiled at and the surgical community did not believe in this new technology. Today it is the gold standard for most surgeries. Starting with a simple appendectomy, partial kidney resections and partial liver resections, etc. The laparoscopic approach is expanding. The image quality, the possibility of imaging the patient in the surgical position and the guidance of the instruments facilitate this approach.(Efficacy of DynaCT for surgical navigation during complex laparoscopic surgery: an initial experience. Partial resection of the kidney, leaving as much healthy tissue, meaning kidney function to the patient has been described some time ago (Nephron sparing surgery for renal tumors: indications, techniques and outcomes.). The challenges the surgeons face is the loss of natural 3D vision and tactile sensing. Through small ports he/she has to rely on the images provided by the endoscope and is unable to feel the tissue. In a hybrid operating room the anatomy can be updated and imaged in real time. 3D images can be fused and/or overlaid on live fluoroscopy or the endoscope. (Real-time image guidance in laparoscopic liver surgery: first clinical experience with a guidance system based on intraoperative CT imaging.) Crucial anatomy like vessels or a tumor can be avoided and complications reduced. Further investigations are under trial at the moment. (Surgical navigation in urology. European perspective)

Question: What type of vision surgeons lack when operating via endoscope?
Answer: 3D vision
Beam Hardening: X-ray radiation consists of hard and soft particles, i.e. particles with a lot of energy and particles with little energy. Unnecessary exposure is mostly caused by soft particles, as they are to weak to pass through the body and interact with it. Hard particles, by contrast, pass through the patient. A filter in front of the x-ray tube can catch the soft particles, thus hardening the beam. This decreases dose without impacting image quality.Frame rate: High frame rates (i.e. images acquired per second) are needed to visualize fast motion without stroboscopic effects. However, the higher the frame rate, the higher the radiation dose. Therefore, the frame rate should be chosen according to the clinical need and be as low as reasonably possible. For example, in pediatric cardiology, frame rates of 60 pulses per second are required compared to 0.5 p/s for slowly moving objects. A reduction to half pulse rate reduces dose by about half. The reduction from 30 p/s to 7.5 p/s results in a dose saving of 75%.When using pulsed fluoroscopy, radiation dose is only applied in prespecified intervals of time, thus less dose is used to produce the same image sequence. For the time in between, the last image stored is displayed.Another tool for decreasing dose is collimation. It may be that from the field of view provided by the detector, only a small part is interesting for the intervention. The x-ray tube can be shielded at the parts that are not necessary to be visible by a collimator, thus only sending dose to the detector for the body parts in question. Modern C-Arms enable to navigate on acquired images without constant fluoroscopy.

Question: What provides a field of view?
Answer: the detector
In general, two different light sources are needed in an operating room: the surgical (operating) lights used for open procedures and the ambient lighting for interventional procedures. Particular attention should be paid to the possibility to dim the lights. This is frequently needed during fluoroscopy or endoscopy. For the surgical lights it is most important that they cover the complete area across the operating room table. Moreover, they must not interfere with head heights and collision paths of other equipment. The most frequent mounting position of OR-lights is centrally above the OR table. If a different position is chosen, the lights usually are swivelled in from an area outside the OR table. Because one central axis per light head is necessary, this may lead to at least two central axes and mounting points in order to ensure sufficient illumination of the surgical field. The movement range of the angiography system determines the positioning of the OR lights. Central axes must be outside of moving path and swivel range. This is especially important as devices have defined room height requirements that must be met. In this case, head clearance height for the OR-light may be an issue. This makes lights a critical item in the planning and design process. Other aspects in the planning process of OR lights include avoidance of glare and reflections. Modern OR lights may have additional features, like build in camera and video capabilities. For the illumination of the wound area, a double-arm OR-light system is required. Sometimes even a third light may be required, in cases where more than one surgical activity takes place at the same time, e.g. vein stripping of the legs.

Question: What is the most common place to mount operating room lights?
Answer: centrally above the OR table

Question: What is important about the position of OR-lights?
Answer: they must not interfere with head heights and collision paths of other equipment
Installing a hybrid OR is a challenge to standard hospital room sizes, as not only the imaging system requires some additional space, but there are also more people in the room as in a normal OR. A team of 8 to 20 people including anasthesiologists, surgeons, nurses, technicians, perfusionists, support staff from device companies etc. can work in such an OR. Depending on the imaging system chosen, a room size of 70 square meters including a control room but excluding a technical room and the preparation areas is recommended. Additional preparations of the room necessary are 2-3mm lead shielding and potentially enforcement of the floor or ceiling to hold the additional weight of the imaging system (approximately 650–1800 kg).

Question: How many people usually work in the OR?
Answer: 8 to 20 people

Question: What was recommended of the team?
Answer: a room size of 70 square meters including a control room but excluding a technical room and the preparation areas
Not only the usage of a hybrid operating room is "hybrid", but also its role within the hospital system. As it holds an imaging modality, the radiology department could take the lead responsibility for the room for expertise in handling, technical, maintenance, and connectivity reasons. From a patient workflow perspective, the room could be run by their surgical department and should rather be situated next to other surgical facilities, to ensure proper patient care and fast transportation.

Question: What are the responsibilities  radiology could shoulder?
Answer: handling, technical, maintenance, and connectivity reasons
Rotational angiography is a technique to acquire CT-like 3D images intraoperatively with a fixed C-Arm. To do that, the C-Arm is rotated around the patient, acquiring a series of projections that will be reconstructed to a 3D data set.

Question: Rotational angiography uses what kind of arm?
Answer: C-Arm
The most common imaging modality to be used in hybrid ORs is a C-Arm. Expert consensus rates the performance of mobile C-arms in hybrid ORs as insufficient, because the limited power of the tube impacts image quality, the field of view is smaller for image-intensifier systems than for flat-panel detector systems and the cooling system of mobile C-Arms can lead to overheating after just a few hours, which can be too short for lengthy surgical procedures or for multiple procedures in a row, that would be needed to recover the investment in such a room.Fixed C-Arms do not have these limitations, but require more space in the room. These systems can be mounted either on the floor, the ceiling, or both if a biplane system is chosen. The latter is the system of choice if pediatric cardiologists, electrophysiologists or neurointerventionalists are major users of the room. It is not recommended to implement a biplane system if not clearly required by these clinical disciplines, as ceiling-mounted components may raise hygienic issues: In fact, some hospitals do not allow operating parts directly above the surgical field, because dust may fall in the wound and cause infection. Since any ceiling-mounted system includes moving parts above the surgical field and impairs the laminar airflow, such systems are not the right option for hospitals enforcing highest hygienic standards. (see also and, both German only)

Question: What location can C-arms be mounted to?
Answer: the floor, the ceiling, or both